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THE NEVV
INTERNATIONAL
EN~CYCL()PZEDIA
_ EDITORS
DANIEL OOIT GILMAN, LL. D.
PRESIDENT OF JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY (1876-1901)
PRESIDENT OECARNEGIE INSTITUTION
HARRY THURSTON PECK, PH. D., L. H. D.
PROFESSOR IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
FRANK MOORE COLBY, M. A.
LATE PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS
IN NEW YORK UNIVERSITY
VOLUME XVI
NEW YORK
D0DD, MEAD AND GOMPAN
1904 -



Copyright, 1904
BY D0DD, MEAD AND COMPANY

All rzg/zzfs reserved

HILL AND LEONARD, NEW YORK CITY, U. s. A.
J‘ -1 3— 2-7 _
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XVI.
COLORED PLATES
FACING PAGE
SPECTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
SPECTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
SONG BIRDS, AMERICAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
FROGS AND TOADS, AMERICAN . . . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
TOTEM POLES, SOUTHERN ALASKA . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . 824
GAME FISHES, AMERICAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
MAPS
SOUTH CAROLINA . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . , . . . . . 4
SOUTH DAKOTA . . . . . . . . . . , . . .' . . . . . . . . 10
SPAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
STARS-—CELESTIAL CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
SWEDEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
SWITZERLAND . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
TASMANIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
TEMPERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES, AVERAGE IN J A-NUARY . . , . ,' . 570
TEMPERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES, AVERAGE IN JULY . . . . . . . 570
TENNESSEE . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
TEXAS .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
TRANSPORTATION-—COMMERCIAL MAP OF THE \/VORLD , , , _ , , , _ . 874
TRANSVAAL COLONY . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878
TURKEY IN EUROPE . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012
TURKEY IN ASIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
ENGRAVIN GS
SPARROWS, FAMILIAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SPEARFISII AND SWORDFISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
SPIRAEA, ETC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . 90
SPONGE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . .. . 100
SPRUCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
SQUIRRELS . .2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
STAFFA-—FINGAL’S CAVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-
STEAM ENGINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
STEAM NAVIGATION—-A TRANSATLANTIC LINER . . . . . . . . . , . - 168
STEAM NAVIGATION--ENGINES OF “KAISER WILHELM II.” . . . . . .2 . 170
STEAM NAVIGATION—-ENGINES OF UNITED STATES CRUISER . . . . . . . 172
STICKLEBACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 208
STRASSBURG-—THE CATHEDRAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
STURGEONS, PADDLE-FISH, AND BOWFIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
iv
FACING PAGE
SUGKERS ., Q . . 296
SWADLOWS, FAMILIAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
SWIFTS AND THEIR NESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
TAJ MAHAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
TAMARACK AND LARCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
TANSY, ETC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
TAPIRS AND HIPPOPOTAMUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
TEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
TELESCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
TENIERS, DAVID (“The Rustic YVedding”) . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
TENNYSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
THORWALDSEN (“ Christ”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
TITIAN (“The Tribute Money”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
TORPEDO BOATS, SUBMARINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
TREE FERN AND TRAVELER’S TREE _ ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . , _ 886
TR1L0BITEs, REPRESENTATIVE . . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . 920
TROGON, HOOPOE, ETC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . 932
TROUT AND GRAYLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
TR0Y0N (“Oxen Going to Work”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
TULIP TREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
TURNER, J. M. W. (“The Grand Canal, Venice”) . . . . . . . . . . 1024
TYPECASTING AND TYPESETTING MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
Q N’ 9“ ‘AK N>Nl' 9|
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KEY TO PRONUNGIATION.
ale, fate. Also see é, below.
senate, chaotic. Also see 5, below.
glare, care.
am, at.
arm, father.
ant, and final a in America, armada,
etc. In rapid speech this vowel read-
ily becomes more or less obscured and
like the neutral vowel or a short
u ( 1'1) .
final, regal, where it is of a neutral or
obscure quality.
all, fall.
eve.
elate, evade. _
end, pet. The characters (E, (2, and [L
are used for (2 in German, as in Gart-
ner, Griife, Hiihnel, to the values of
which they are the nearest English
vowel sounds. The sound of Swedish
ii is also indicated by é.
fern, her, and as /11 in sir. Also for 6,
0c, in German, as in Giithe, Goethe,
Ortel, Oertel, and for cu and oeu in
French, as in Neufchzitel, Grevecoeur;
to which it is the nearest English
vowel sound.
agency, judgment, where it is of a neu-
tral or obscure quality.
ice, quiet.
quiescent.
ill, fit.
old, sober.
obey, sobriety.
orb, nor.
odd, forest, not.
atom, carol, where it has a neutral or
obscure quality.
oil, boil, and for en in German, as in
Feuerbach.
food, fool, and as u in rude, rule.
house, mouse.
use, mule.
unite.
cut, but. ,
full, put, or as oo in foot. book. Also
for ii in German, as in Miinchen,
Miiller, and u in French, as in
Buchez, Budé; to which it is the
nearest English vowel sound.
urn, burn.
yet, yield.
the Spanish Habana, Cordoba, where it
is like a 1) made with the lips alone,
instead of with the teeth and lips.
chair, cheese.
1) as in the Spanish Almodovar, pulgada, where
it is nearly like th in English then,
this.
go, get.
“ the German Landtag, and ch in Feuer-
bach, buch; where it is a guttural
sound made with the back part of the
tongue raised toward the soft palate,
as in the sound made in clearing the
throat.
the Spanish Jijona, g in the Span-
ish gila ; where it is a fricative some-
what resembling the sound of h in
English hue or y in yet, but stronger.
wh in which.
ch in the German ich, Albrecht, and g
in the German Arensberg, Mecklen-
burg; where it is a fricative sound
made between the tongue and the
hard palate toward which the tongue
is raised. It resembles the sound
of h in hue, or y in yet; or the sound
made by beginning to pronounce a lo,
but not completing the stoppage of
the breath. The character K is also
used to indicate the rough aspirates
or fricatives of some of the Oriental
languages, as of kh in the word Khan.
sinker, longer.
sing, long.
the French bon, Bourbon, and an in the
French Etampes; where it is equiva-
lent to a nasalizing of the preceding
vowel. This effect is approximately
produced by attempting to pronounce
‘onion’ without touching the tip of
the tongue to the roof of the mouth.
The corresponding nasal of Portu-
guese is also indicated by N, as in the
case of S50 Antao.
sh “ “ shine, shut.
th “ “ thrust, thin.
TH “ ‘ then, this.
zh as z in azure, and s in pleasure.
An apostrophe [’] is sometimes used to denote
a glide or neutral connecting vowel, as in ta'b’l
(table) , kziz"m (chasm) .
Otherwise than as noted above, the letters used
in the respellings for pronunciation are to receive
their ordinary English sounds.
When the pronunciation is sufficiently shown
by indicating the accented syllables, this is done
without respelling; as in the case of very common
English words, and words which are so spelled as
to insure their correct pronunciation if they are
correctly accented. See the article on PRONUN-
CIATION.
‘‘ ‘C
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G
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in
K‘ C‘
O\
THE
NEW‘
INTERNATIONAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OUTH AUSTRALIA. A State of the
Commonwealth of Australia occupy-
ing the central part of the continent,
and bounded on the north by the
Timor and Arafura Seas, on the east
by Queensland, New South Wales, and
Victoria, on the south by the Indian Ocean
(Great Australian Bight), and on the west by
Western Australia (Map: Australia, F 5). It
crosses the continent from the north to the south
coast in a band for the most part 550 to 700
miles wide, with a length of 1850 miles. Its area
is 903,690 square miles. It is the second in size
among the Australian States, and nearly one-
third as large as the United States, excluding
Alaska. It is divided into South Australia
proper and the Northern Territory, the latter
having an area of 523,620 square miles.
PHYSICAL FEATURES. The State has no
sharply differentiated geographical divisions. It
is, as a whole, a vast plain of no great elevation,
in some places lying even at or below sea-level.
A mountain range but slightly exceeding 3000
feet in its highest summits runs north from Cape
Jervis, near Adelaide, and minor ranges or iso-
lated hills are found in the interior and north-
ern portions, becoming quite rugged, though not
high, in the extreme north. The State has
practically no drainage system. The Murray
enters the southeastern corner, but from its
mouth in Encounter Bay to the western boundary
not a single river reaches the ocean. In the in-
terior there are a number of river-courses which
are dry for a great part of the year, and even
in the wet season are lost in marshes or salt
lakes. The extreme northern portion, however,
is comparatively well watered. In the great de-
pression north of Spencer Gulf there are a num-
ber of large lakes, several of them being 100
miles in length. They are brackish and shallow,
being reduced during the dry season to marshes
or mud-flats, covered with salt crusts.
CLIMATE, SOIL, AND FLORA. Considering the
fact that the State has a range of nearly 27 de-
grees of latitude, its climate is remarkably uni-
form. It is in general very hot and dry; the
temperature even on the south coast may remain
at 110° or 115° for several days at a time. The
annual rainfall in the southeast, at Adelaide, is
about 24. inches, but may in some years fall to 15
inches. In the interior it is always very scanty,
but on the north coast it is more abundant, some-
times reaching 60 to 70 inches. Rain is generally
confined to the winter, which is mild and pleas-
ant. There are considerable areas of good agri-
cultural and pastural land in the south. The in-
terior, however, consists largely of treeless plains
in some parts absolutely barren, stony or sandy,
or covered with a dry scrub, but here and there
producing good pasture grass during the wet
season. Large areas are covered with spiny grass
wholly unfit for pasture. Trees are found only
in the neighborhood of the mountains or larger
river courses, but the hilly region east of the
southern range is well timbered. The flora is
not as rich as that of the eastern States. The
main timber trees are Eucalyptus and Acacia,
with some pines, while the Pandanus and palms
are found in the north.
GEOLOGY. The greater part of the surface is
covered with recent formations, Cretaceous in
the east, but in the main Tertiary. There are,
however, numerous outcrops and some extensive
areas of ancient rocks. Thus the mountain region
from Spencer Gulf northward consists mainly of
Silurian strata. Granite crops out in numerous
places in the mountains of the interior. and the
extreme northern portion, between the Roper and
Victoria Rivers, is a complex of granites and
metamorphic and Paleozoic rocks, with numerous
intrusions of trap and recent volcanic rocks. The
Paleozoic limestones are very rich in copper, and
argentiferous lead, bismuth, and gold are also
found. Iron is known to exist in large quantities.
but it cannot be worked, as there are no coal
beds.
MINING. Copper is the chief mineral mined,
the average annual output of which was a little
less than 100,000 hundredweight between 1894
and 1900, the value in the latter year being
£371,920.
AGRICULTURE. South Australia ranks second
among the Commonwealth States in respect to
acreage under cultivation. It amounted in 1900-
01 to 3,279,406 acres. Of this, 1,913,247 acreS
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
were devoted to wheat, this crop constituting the
chief source of wealth. In the same year there
were 15,352 acres of barley, 27,988 acres of oats,
341,330 acres of hay, 35,323 of green fodder, 6628
of potatoes, and 31,841 of minor crops, including
fruits. Vine cultivation is a prosperous industry,
the area having increased from 12,314 acres in
1891 to 20,158 in 1901, the wine production in the
latter year amounting to 1,388,847 gallons. The
small rainfall confines farming mainly to the
southeastern part of the State. The disposal of
the public land by perpetual lease has become
common. The State has adopted the policy of re-
purchasing large estates and leasing them to
farmers. Some progress has been made in irriga-
tion, the water supply being drawn from both
rivers and artesian wells. The number of sheep
has declined from about 7,000,000 in 1890 to
5,283,247 in 1901. The number of cattle in-
creased during that period, being 472,428 in
1901. In the latter year there were 179,352
horses.
MANUFAOTURES. In 1901 there were 17,513
people employed in 1047 factories. The manu-
facturing industry is confined mainly to pro-
duction for local consumption, or of food prod-
ucts, especially flour, for export.
COMMERCE. Almost from the beginning rail-
roads were constructed and operated by the Gov-
ernment, and in 1901 all but 14 miles of the 1916
total mileage were in the hands of the State.
The greater part of this was in the southeastern
part of the State, only 166 miles being in the
Northern Territory. The Government realizes
a profit of about 3 per cent. upon its railways.
The imports and exports are of about equal
value and have each amounted for more than
a decade to about eight million pounds sterling
in annual value. Adelaide, the chief port, ranks
third among the Australian ports. Less than
half the exports are of domestic produce. The
most valuable export is wool, after which rank
wheat and flour, and minerals. The other
Australian colonies and the United Kingdom
handle nearly all the trade. There are consid-
erable imports from the United States.
GOVERNMENT. The Governor of the State is
appointed by the British Government. The Ex-
ecutive Council is composed of six members. The
Legislature consists of a Legislative Council of
18 elected members and a House of Assembly of
42 elected members. The State has extended the
right of suffrage to women. The northern half
of the State is called the Northern Territory, and
its government is administered by a commissioner
delegated by the State. Adelaide (q.v.) is the
capital.
FINANCE. There is a progressive land and in-
come tax. The tax levy is increased upon land
held by absentees. The State also collects death
duties and stamp duties. The total revenue in
1902 was £2,667,560, and the expenditure £2,650,-
876. The customs revenue for the fiscal year
1901-02 was £605,000. The public debt in 1902
amounted to £27,272,545, the bulk of which is rep-
resented by assets of productive public utilities.
STATE ACTIVITIES. The Government has been
very progressive in undertaking enterprises that
are generally left to private initiative. The tele-
graph and telephone lines, including the transcon-
tinental line from Adelaide to Port Darwin. also
the postal system and water works, are owned and
operated by the Government. The State has tried
to foster industries by the establishment of prod-
uce depots, and by performing the function of
agent in order to facilitate the marketing of
produce; and also by the establishment of
cyanide works and smelters to facilitate mining.
A State bank supplies capital to farmers on easy
terms. Laws have been passed to secure the com-
pulsory settlement of industrial disputes.
POPULATION. The population increased from
14,600 in 1840 to 319,145 in 1890 and 362,604 in
1901. The greater part of the population is lo-
cated in the southeastern part of the State.
Only 4096 persons were reported in the last cen-
sus for the Northern Territory. Nearly the
whole population is of British origin. In 1901
Adelaide and its suburbs had a population of
about 162,200, and Port Pirie had 7983.
RELIGION. In 1901 the membership of the
principal churches was as follows: Church of
England, 106,987; Roman Catholic, 52,193;
Methodist, 90,125; Lutheran, 26,140; Baptist,
21,764; Presbyterian, 18,357; and Congregation-
alist, 13,338.
EDUCATION. Primary education is free, and is
compulsory between the ages of 7 and 13. Re-
ligious instruction may be given, but not during
ordinary school hours. In 1901 there were 69,115
scholars enrolled at the State schools. The pub-
lic school teachers are paid from the general rev-
enue. There is a secondary school for girls at
Adelaide, and fees are charged. All other sec-
ondary schools are private or denominational. In
1901 there were 11,310 scholars enrolled at pri-
vate schools. The University of Adelaide and a
number of technical schools are aided by the
State.
HISTORY. The explorations of Flinders in
1802 and of Sturt in 1830 first called attention to
South Australia. Its real settlement is due to an
association formed to put into practical opera-
tion the colonization theories of Edward G. Wake-
field (q.v.) ; but its early application for a char-
ter, in 1831, was rejected, and it was not until
1835 that permission was given for the formation
measuring 190 miles in a straight line fronting
should attach to the home Government. A year
later settlers landed and founded the town of
Adelaide. South Australia became a crown col-
ony in 1841. The early basis for the prosperity
of South Australia was agricultural, though
in 1841 galena deposits were discovered, followed
in 1842 by the discovery of copper. The popula-
tion of 19,000 in 1844 became 92,500 ten years
later, while the exports increased from £100,000
to £1,300,000 during the same period. The Tor-
rens land system was adopted in 1858. A
separate colonial constitution dates from 1856,
the year of the opening of the first railway
from Adelaide to its port. The explorations of
Eyre in 1840 opened up the cattle region of
the interior, and those of Stewart in 1859-62
the way to the Indian Ocean and to the annexa-
tion, in 1863, of the Northern Territory. The
telegraph line. opened in 1872, followed sub-
stantially the line of Stewart’s explorations and
gave Australia cable communication with the
rest of the world. The connection between South
Australia and the Northern Territory, that of a
temperate with a tropic region separated by hun-
dreds of miles of desert, has not been wholly to
the advantage of either.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hodder, The History of South
Australia (London, 1893) ; Woods, The Province
of South Australia (Adelaide, 1894); Gouger,
The Founding of South Australia, ed. by Hodder
(London, 1898); H. Y. L. Brown, A Record of
the Mines of South Australia (Adelaide, 1899) ;
Gill, -Bibliography of South Australia (ib.,
1888).
SOUTH BEND. The county-seat of Saint
Joseph County, Ind., 86 miles east by south of
Chicago, 111.; on the Saint Joseph River, and on
the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Chi-
cago and Grand Trunk, the Indiana, Illinois and
Iowa, the Terre Haute and Indiana, and other
railroads (Map: Indiana, C 1). Notre Dame,
two miles north of the city, is the seat of the Uni-
versity of Notre Dame (q.V.), a Roman Catholic
institution opened in 1842, and of Saint Mary’s
Academy. Saint Joseph’s Academy is within the
city limits. Noteworthy are the court house,
city hall, Oliver Hotel, Epwerp Hospital, Saint
Joseph’s Hospital, and the Northern Indiana
Medical and Surgical Institute. South Bend is
the centre of a rich farming section, and is an
important industrial city. In the census year
1900 its various industries had an invested cap-
ital of $18,156,638 and an output valued at $14,-
236,331. The Studebaker Wagon Works and the
Oliver Plow Works are among the most noted
concerns of their kind in the world. There are
lumber and flouring mills, foundries and machine
shops, wood-turning plants, and manufactories
of shirts, sewing machines, agricultural imple-
ments, toys, patent medicines, woolens, and paper
and wood pulp. The government is vested in a
mayor chosen every two years and a unicameral
council, and in administrative oflicials nearly
all of whom are appointed by the mayor. The
city spends annually for maintenance and opera-
tion about $306,000. The water works, which
represent an expenditure of $457,974, are owned
by the municipality. Population, in 1890, 21,-
819; in 1900, 35,999.
The site of South Bend was occupied by the
Miami and Potawatami Indians and was a
favorite resting place for French traders and ex-
plorers. In 1824 Alexis Coquillard established a
trading post here; in 1831 a town was laid out,
which in 1835 was incorporated; and in 1865
South Bend was chartered as a city.
SOUTH BETH’LEHEM. A borough in
Northampton County, Pa., 56 miles north by
west of Philadelphia; on the Lehigh River, oppo-
site Bethlehem, and on the Lehigh Valley and
the Philadelphia and Reading railroads (Map:
Pennsylvania, F 3). Lehigh University (q.v.),
a non-sectarian institution opened in 1866. occu-
pies a site overlooking the borough. Noteworthy
are the Bishop Thorp Seminary for Girls and
Saint Luke’s Hospital. South Bethlehem is
known for its iron and steel manufactures. The
total capital invested in the various industries
in the census year 1900 was $8,7l3.l85, and the
value of their output was $l0,964.9l1. There
are the large establishment of the Bethlehem
Iron Company, and brass works, zinc works, and
manufactories of silk, knit goods. brick, etc.
Population, in 1890, 10,302; in 1900, 13,241.
SOUTH’BRIDGE. A town, including two
villages. in Worcester County, Mass., 20 miles
south by west of Worcester; on the Quinebaug
River, and on the New York, New Haven and
Hartford Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, C 3).
It has manufactories of spectacles and eyeglasses,
shuttles and shuttle~irons, knives, and cotton
and woolen goods. The government is adminis-
tered by town meetings. Population, in 1890,
7665; in 1900, 10,025. Originally a part of
Charlton and popularly called ‘Honest Town,’
Southbridge became a parish in 1801 and was
incorporated as a town, under its present name,
in 1816. Consult Davis, A Historical Sketch of
Sturbridge and Southbridge (Brookfield, 1856).
SOUTH CAR/OLI’NA (popularly called the
‘Palmetto State’). A South Atlantic State of
the United States. It lies between latitudes
32° 4’ and 35° 19’ N., and between longitudes
78° 28’ and 83° 18’ W., and is bounded on the
north by North Carolina, on the southeast by the
Atlantic Ocean, and on the southwest by
Georgia. It is triangular in shape, with a base
measuring 190 miles in a straight line fronting
the ocean, and an apex 240 miles inland. Its
area is 30,570 square miles, of which 30,170
square miles, or 19,308,800 acres, are land sur-
face. It ranks thirty-sixth in size among the
States.
TOPOGRAPIIY. South Carolina is divided about
equally between the coastal and Piedmont plains,
the line of division running nearly parallel with
the coast and presenting an abrupt transition
between the distinctive features of the two re-
gions. The coast presents first a continuous
firm, sandy beach from the northern boundary
to Winyah Bay. South of that point it becomes
more and more broken by inlets and estuaries,
and is fringed with sandy islands (the Sea
Islands), inclosing irregular lagoons lined with
salt marshes. The coastal plain, extending 100
miles inland, is low, being everywhere less than
500 feet above the sea, and consists in general of
a light sandy soil. Large areas are swampy, and
pine forests predominate. Along its western
margin runs a particularly sandy belt known as
the Sand Hills or Pine Barrens. consisting of
loose sand dunes partly covered with pine forests.
To the west of this belt the land rises abruptly
to the upland or Piedmont Plain, which rises
gradually from an altitude of 500 feet at its
eastern margin to 1000 feet in the extreme
northwest. Here the Blue Ridge, whose crest
forms the northwestern boundary, rises abruptly
2000 feet higher, Mount Pinnacle, the highest
point in the State, being 3436 feet.
HYDROGBAPHY. Several large rivers traverse
the State from northwest to southeast, all the
larger ones rising in the mountains of North
Carolina. They are the Great Pedee, which, with
the Little Pedee and the Lynches, flows into
Winyah Bay in the north; the Santee, formed
by the Wateree and the Congaree, traversing the
centre; and the Savannah, marking the entire
boundary between South Carolina and Georgia.
The rivers cross the upland or Piedmont Plain
as rapid and turbid streams; they generally have
falls or rapids as they descend from the hard
upland rock over the ‘fall line’ into the alluvial
coastal plain. In the latter they become clear
and sluggish, frequently overflowing wide areas.
The larger rivers are navigable for steamers to
the ‘fall line,’ and at the line they furnish con-
siderable water-power.
CLIMATE. The climate is mild, resembling
SOUTH CAROLINA.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
that of Southern Europe. It is especially health-
ful in the uplands and pine barrens, but un-
healthful in the low swamp regions. The mean
annual temperature for the State is 61°; the
mean for January is 446°, and for July 795°.
The maximum is about 106°, and a temperature
of 1° was observed in the northwestern high-
lands in 1900. Snow in measurable amounts
generally does not fall on more than two or three
days in a year, except in the mountains, where
there is a considerable snowfall. The average
annual rainfall is 47 inches, fairly evenly dis-
tributed both as to localities and seasons, though
there is a maximum in summer and a minimum
in autumn. Hurricanes visit the coast occasion-
ally, and sometimes do considerable damage. In
1886 the State suffered from a severe earthquake
which caused great destruction at Charleston.
FLORA. The coast islands present a distinct
semi-tropical aspect, the palmetto, live oak, and
magnolia being here the characteristic plants.
.In the coastal plain the long-leaf pine is the
predominating species in the great forests, cov-
ering the sandy regions, while the cypress grows
in the swamp lands. In the upper pine belt, ex-
cept in the sand hills, oaks and hickories begin
to appear, and these, together with elms, maples,
chestnuts, and other deciduous trees common to
the Northern States, predominate in the upland.
The persimmon, locust, and plane tree grow in
this State. Wild grapes are abundant, as well
as strawberries and fruit shrubs and trees com-
mon to the Eastern States.
For FAUNA, see paragraph under UNITED
STATES.
GEOLOGY AND MINING. South Carolina is
nearly equally divided between the most ancient
and the most recent of geological systems, the
division corresponding to the topographical divi-
sion into the Piedmont and coastal plains. The
western half or Piedmont Plain belongs to the
great Archaean belt, which flanks the eastern
slope of the Appalachians. Granite predominates
here, with gneiss and mica-slate in the higher
regions. The eastern half belongs to the coastal
plain formation, consisting of unindurated Ter-
tiary and recent sands and clays. The granite
industry is the most important of the mining in-
dustries, the output having increased rapidly
from $37,820 in 1897 to $996,084 in 1901, the
production in the latter year having been ex-
ceeded in only four States. Limestones are
also quarried, but the mineral next in im-
portance is rock phosphate, used as an artificial
fertilizer, in the production of which the State
ranked first until 1894, when larger beds were
exploited in Florida. The product in 1893 was
502,564 long tons, valued at $2,157,014; in 1901
it had decreased to 321,181 tons, with a value of
$961,840. Clay products rank next in value.
Gold and silver are mined in small quantities,
and the iron ores, though existing in considerable
quantities, are but little worked.
FISHERIES. In 1897 there were 2139 persons
engaged in the fisheries, of whom 1865 were em-
ployed on inshore or boat fisheries. The figures
for the yield for that year were $210,456. The
most valuable species are oysters, whiting, shad,
and sea-bass.
AGRICULTURE. In 1900, 72.4 per cent. of the
land area was included in farms, and of this 41.3
per cent. (5,7 75,741 acres) was improved—a
large increase over all earlier years. The average
size of farms in 1900 (90 acres) was only one-
sixth as large as the average size in 1850. In
1900, 36.7 per cent. of the farms were let for
cash rent, and 24.3 per cent. share rent. Consid-
erably over half of the farms are operated by ne-
groes, and only 18.2 per cent. of these properties
are owned by them. In probably no State is the
cotton crop so predominant as in South Carolina.
In area it annually exceeds every other crop and
1s several times as important as any other crop
with respect to value. The acreage in 1900 was
larger than for any other census year, as was also
the number of bales produced (881,422) , the crop
being nearly three times as great as in 1850.
Of the total area of cotton, 23,902 acres were in
the sea-island variety.
Corn, the second crop in importance, made
large gains in the decade 1890-1900. During that
period there was also a revival in wheat culture
and a decrease in the cultivation of oats, but
neither crop is of great importance. Rice is the
only other cereal worthy of mention. It has been
grown in South Carolina since 1700, and the
State took first rank in its cultivation until
1861. The increasing destructiveness of the
freshets since the deforestation of the mountain
slopes has greatly hampered the growth of the
industry. However, in the decade 1890-1900 it
almost regained the ground which it had lost in
the preceding ten years. The State is now ex-
ceeded by Louisiana alone in rice production.
The acreage in hay increased 264.3 per cent. in
the decade 1890-1900. Considerable attention is
given to the raising of peas, and tobacco and
sweet potatoes are products of some importance.
The area devoted to tobacco in 1900 was 65 times
as great as in 1890. The following table shows
the acreage of the leading crops:

- CROPS 1900 1890
Cotton ......................................... .. 2,074,081 1,987,469
Corn ............................................ .. 1,772,057 1,345,990
Oats ............................................ . . 222,544 308,056
Wheat ......................................... .. 174,245 115,510
Rice ............................................. .. 77,657 42,238
Dry pease .................................... .. 143,070 ....... Hay and forage ........................... .. 106,124 29,132
Sweet potatoes ............................ .. 48,831 46,086
Tobacco ...................................... .. 25,993 394


STOCK-RAISING. In 1890-1900 there was a
large increase in the number of all kinds of
domestic animals except sheep. There is a smaller
number of all varieties of live stock (except
mules) than in 1850—less than half as many
cattle and less than one-fifth as many sheep.
The following table shows the number of domestic
animals on farms:



ANIMALS 1900 1890
Dairy cows .................................. .. 126,684 107,184
Other cattle 216,214 161,109
Horses... ..... .. 78,419 59,888
Mules and asses ........................... .. 117,616 86,306
Sheep.. 52,436 79,421
Swine ........................................... .. 618,995 494,696
MANUFACTUBES. Prior to 1880 the manufac-
turing industry had been quite insignificant. Its
growth has since been rapid. The total value of
products increased 90.7 per cent. from 1880 to
1890, and 84 per cent. in the following decade,
being estimated in 1900 at $58,748,731. The
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AREA AND POPULATION OF SOUTH CAROLINA
BY COUNTIES.


_ Population.
Ma Area 1n
County. Indg; County Seat. square
‘ miles. 189O_ 1900.
Abbeville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B 2 Abbeville . . . . . . . . . . . .. 682 46,854 33,400
Aiken . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 Aiken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,096 31,822 39,032
Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 2 Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . .. 756 43,696 55,728
Bamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C 3 Bamberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 . . .. . 17,296
Barnwel . . . , . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 Barnwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 870 44,613 35,504
Beaufort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 Beaufort . . . . . . . . . .. 943 34,119 35,495
Berkeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 Monks Corner...... . 1,316 55,428 30,454
Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Charleston . . . . . . . . . .. 687 59,903 88,006
Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 2 Gafiney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361 . . . . .. 21,359
Chester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (3 2 Chester . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 592 26,660 28,616
Chesterfield . . . . . . . .. . D 2 Chesterfield . . . . . . . . . .. 823 18,468 20,401
Clarendon . . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 Manning . . . . . . . . . . .. 710 23,233 28,184
Colleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 Walterboro . . . . . . .. 1,351 40,293 33,452
Darlington. . . . . . . . . . . .. D 2 Darlington . . . . . . . . . .. 649 29,134 32,388
Dorehester. . . .. . . . . . . .. I) 3 St. George . . . . . . . . . .. 564 . 16,294
Edgefield . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 2 Edgefield . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 715 49,259 25,478
Fairfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 2 Winnsboro . . . . . . . . . . . .. 776 28,599 29,425
Florence . . . . . . . . . . . .. . E 2 Florence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 630 25,027 28,474
Georgetown . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Georgetown. . .. . 827 20,857 22,846
Greenville.. . .. B 2 Greenville . . . . . . . . . . .. 7- ',310 53,490
Greenwood . . . . . . . . . B 2 Greenwood . . . . . . . . . . .. 495 .. 28,343
Hampton . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 Hampton . V . . . . . . . . . .. 936 20,544 23,738
Horry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. E 3 Conway . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 1,075 19,256 23,364
Kershaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I) 2 Camden . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 705 22,361 24,696
Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 2 Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . .. _ 501 20,761 24,311
Laurens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 2 Laurens .. . . . . . . .. 684 31,610 37,382
Lexington . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 Lexington . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 885 22,181 27,264
Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 2 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 993 29,976 35,181
Marlboro . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 2 Benuettsville. . . V . , . . . . 509 23,500 27,639
Newberry . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 2 Newberry . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 594 26,434 30,182
Oconee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 2 Walhalla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 18,687 23,634
Orangebnrg . . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 Orangeburg . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,345 49,393 59,663
Piekens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 2 Pickens . . . . . . 531 ,389 19,375
Riehland . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 2 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 605 36,821 45,589
Saluda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C_ 3 Salnda . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 438 . . . . . . 18,966
Sparta-nburg . . . . . .. .. . B 2 Spartanburg. . . . . . . . .. 762 55,385 65,560
Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 860 43,605 51,237
Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 2 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 495 25,363 25,501
Williamsburg . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Kingstree . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 991 27,777 31,685
ork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 2 Yorkville.. 669 ,831 41,684





NOTE.—— Lee County (D 2), with Bishopville as county seat, has been established,
since the census was taken in 1900, from parts of Sumter, Darlington, and Kershaw
counties.
SOUTH CAROLINA. 5
SOUTH CAROLINA.
wage-earners engaged in manufactures in the lat-
ter year numbered 48,135 (3.6 per cent. of the
total population), of whom 8,560 were children
under 16 years of age. The State’s abundant
supply of raw materials, its excellent water-
power, facilities for transportation, and low cost
of living, are greatly to the advantage of the
manufacturing industry. The recent development
is confined largely to manufactures of cotton.
Absolute increase in value of cotton products be-
tween 1890 and 1900 exceeded that in any other
State, and gave South Carolina first rank among
the Southern States and second in the Union. In
1900 the amount of cotton used by the local mills
was considerably over half the total yield of the
State. The manufacture of cottonseed oil and
cake also made a marked gain in the decade
1890-1900. The State’s supply of phosphate rock
and cottonseed meal has given rise to the manu-
facture of fertilizers, and Charleston is the sec-
ond largest manufacturing centre of this product
in the country. Flour-milling scarcely meets the
local demand.
The following table shows the figures for the
leading industries:
2289 in 1890, and 2919 in 1900. The railroads
are mostly owned or controlled by three large
systems-——the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line,
and the Atlantic Coast Line. A considerable for-
eign trade, principally exports, passes through the
port of Charleston, which ranks tenth among the
Atlantic coast ports.
BANKS. The State Bank of South Carolina
had an exceptionally successful career. It was
established in 1812 to remedy the financial dis-
turbances caused by the impending war with
England. It was entirely under State control,
and its president and directors were chosen by
the Legislature. The capital was furnished by
the State and the bank was the repository for all
State funds. All State expenditures were paid
through the medium of the bank. It was free to
do a regular banking business, but its debts could
not exceed twice the capital exclusive of deposits.
Branch banks were established at Columbia, Cam-
den, and Georgetown. The work of the bank is
best illustrated by the official report of 1848,
which showed that it had received and paid
out State moneys to the amount of $28,000,000
without any loss. In 1852 its charter was re-




Average Value of prod-
Number of . .
INDUSTRIES Year establish- nxglgtlir 1(1§ltSst' Olrlilclvggilllig
ments earners and repairing
Total for selected industries in the State .............................. .. { Increase, 1890 to 1900 ............................................................................ .. 471 23,501 $26,114,842
Per cent. of increase... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40.3 151.0 119.1
Per cent. 01 total of all industries in the sm-tr» { 1338 13-? 2%: 2%‘;
1900 80 30,201 29,723,919
Cotton goods .............................................................................. 1890 34 8,071 , 9,800,798
. . . 1900 22 1 772 4,882,506
Fertilizers ................................................................................... .. { 1890 20 1:102 4,417,658
Flouring and grist mill products ............................................... .. { 1333 225 3335-132
Lumber and timber products ..................................................... .. Lumber, planing mill products .................................................. .. 1’$i(1"’g§g
Oil, cottonseed. and cake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3’;:l;g3'$$g
Rice, cleaning and polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. { 1% . . 1900 1
Turpentme and rosin .................................................................. ..{ 1890 23%

FORESTS. It is estimated that the woodland
covers 20,500 square miles, or 68 per cent. of the
State’s area. In the Piedmont region the hard
woods predominate. South of this region lies an
extensive belt of yellow pine. Cypress covers
the low coast lands. Lumbering made little
progress prior to the decade 1890-1900. The in-
crease for that period is shown in the above
table. The greater part of the timber cut is of
the yellow-pine variety. The value of planing-
mill products is increasing, but the manufacture
of turpentine and rosin is decreasing in conse-
quence of the exhaustion of the timber from
which the product is obtained.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The coast
waters and navigable rivers offer excellent advan-
tages for water transportation. The Savannah
River is navigable fpr 158 miles; the Santee, for
its entire length; the Pedee, for 120 miles; the
Congaree, nearly to the city of Columbia; and
the Wateree, to Camden. Railroad mileage has
increased from 973 miles in 1860 to 1427 in 1880,
newed and it continued to do a most satisfactory
business until 1870, when it was put in liquida-
tion. The following table gives the State banking
statistics as reported as to principal items in
1902:




banks ings banks
Number ................................ .. 18 46
Capital ................................. .. $2,048,000 $2,269,000
Surplus ................................. .. 691,000 451,000
Cash, etc ............................... .. 510,000 708,000
Loans .................................... .. 8,346,000 9,400,000
Deposits ................................ .. 5,810,000 9,828,000
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution now in force
was ratified in convention December 4, 1895.
Voters must have resided in the State two years,
in the county one year, in the polling precinct
four months, and must have paid all taxes col-
lectible during the previous year. A residence
SOUTH CAROLINA.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
of only six months in the State, however, is re-
quired of ministers and of teachers in the public
schools. Every elector must enroll once in ten
years, but enrollment may be secured in any year
for those not previously registered. It was re-
quired of those registering prior to January 1,
1898, that they should be able to read any section
of the State Constitution or understand and ex-
plain it when read to them. Those applying for
registration after that date must be able to read
and write any section of the State Constitution or
to show that they own and have paid all taxes
collectible duringthe previous year on property
in the State assessed at $300 or more. The cap-
ital is Columbia.
LEGISLATURE. There are 124 Representatives
elected upon the basis of population from county
districts every two years. Each county elects a
Senator, who serves four years. Elections are
held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in
November of even years. Revenue bills must
originate in the Lower House. Sessions of the
Legislature are held annually.
EXECUTIVE. A Governor, Lieutenant-Governor,
Secretary, Comptroller-General, Attorney-Genen
al, Treasurer, Adjutant and Inspector-General,
and Superintendent of Education are elected for
terms of two years each. The Lieutenant-Governor
and president pro tem. of the Senate are in the
line of succession to the Governorship i11 case of
vacancy. The Governor is given the usual par-
doning power and the authority to call extra ses-
sions of the Legislature. The Governor’s veto of
a bill or of any item of an appropriation bill may
be overridden by a two-thirds vote of each House.
An act of the Legislature becomes a law if not re-
turned within three days.
JUDICIAL. The Supreme Court consists of the
Chief Justice and three associate justices, who are
all elected by the General Assembly for terms
of eight years. The State is divided into judicial
circuits and for each a judge is elected by the
General Assembly to serve for four years. There
are two circuit courts, namely, a Court of Com-
mon Pleas and a Court of General Session. There
is a Court of Probate at Charleston.
FINANCES. The debt of South Carolina at the
outbreak of the Civil 1-Var amounted to but $3,-
814,862 and the State was on a firm financial
basis. In 1867 the debt had increased to about
$5,500,000. This debt was increased until in 1870
it reached $6,314,000. At this time there were
also outstanding against the State bonds to the
amount of $20,827,608 and a railroad debt of
$6,787,608. The financial condition of this period
is also shown by the fact that in 1872-73 appro-
priations aggregating $2,418,872 had been made,
while the receipts from all sources were but
$1,719,728. An act authorizing an annual tax
sufficiently large to pay the interest on the State
debt failed to have the desired effect. In 1880,
however, it was enacted that holders of con-
solidated bonds, stock, or interest-bearing cou-
pons which were due and unpaid before July 1,
1878, might exchange them for new bonds with
interest at 6 per cent. and in every respect equal
to the value of the bonds, stock, or interest
coupons surrendered. This proved to be an
efiicient remedy, and the credit of the State was
restored. In 1880 the public debt was $7,175,454
and in 1902 it had been reduced to $6,514,674.
In the latter year the total receipts were $3,976,-
659 and the expenditures $3,783,605, which,
together with the money on hand at the
beginning of the year, left a total cash balance
of $430,797.
STATE DISPENSARY. The State abolished the
old saloon system for the sale of liquors and sub-
stituted in its place a State dispensary system.
At the dispensaries sealed packages of liquor
containing not less than one-half pint are sold,
but cannot be opened at the dispensary. Profits
accruing are divided between the State, county,
and municipality. In 1902 the dispensaries sold
liquors (exclusive of fresh beer) to the amount
of $2,406,213, and purchased liquors to the
amount of $1,664,870. The total net earnings
were $566,898. Of this amount $443,198 was
divided equally between towns and counties, and
$142,755 was paid into the school fund.
MILITIA. In 1900 there were 236,767 men of
militia age. The militia in 1901 numbered 3029.
POPULATION. The population increased from
249,073 in 1790 to 502,741 in 1820; 668,507 in
1850; 703,708 in 1860; 705,606 in 1870; 995,577
in 1880; 1,151,149 in 1890; and 1,340,316 in 1900.
In the last year the State ranked twenty-fourth
in population. There were 44.4 persons to the
square mile. Only one other State in the Union
had a smaller foreign-born population, this ele-
ment numbering only 5528 in 1900. South Caro-
lina ranks fourth in negro population, it having
been increased from 688,934 i11 1890 to 782,321 in
1900. The number of towns exceeding 4000 in-
habitants increased from 4 in 1890 to 16 in 1900,
constituting in the latter year 11.7 per cent. of
the total population. In 1900 the largest cities
were as follows: Charleston, 55,807; Columbia,
21,108; Greenville, 11,860; and Spartanburg,
11,395. South Carolina sends 7 members to the
National House of Representatives.
RELIGION. The Methodist Church is the larg-
est, followed closely by the Baptist. These two
represent the bulk of the church membership
of the State.
EDUCATION. South Carolina has a negro popu-
lation greatly i11 excess of the white, and has con-
sequently had to deal with most serious problems
in the matter of providing adequate educational
facilities. The considerable success attained is
shown by the decrease in illiteracy. In 1900,
35.9 per cent. of the total population above ten
years of age could not read, as against 55.4 per
cent. in 1880. The percentage of illiteracy among
the native whites is only 13.6, as compared with
52.8 for the colored population; but the colored
illiteracy has been reduced from 78.5 per cent. in
1880. The length of the school term is short,
but is becoming longer. In 1901 the average term
for the white schools was 21.17 weeks, for the
negro schools 14.12 weeks. No compulsory at-
tendance law has been passed. The State Gov-
ernor appoints the State Board of Education.
This board appoints the county boards, and the
latter in turn appoint the trustees in the small
districts. Educational progress is seriously
handicapped by a lack of financial support and
the resulting inadequacy of teachers’ wages. In
1901 white teachers received an average annual
wage of $188.91 and the negro teachers $80.30.
The new Constitution increasecl the State school
tax from two to three mills, and in the school
year 1900-01 the receipts from this source
amounted to $520,294. In 1900-01 the expendi-
_ SOUTH CAROLINA.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
ture for white schools was $726,825 and for
negro schools $211,287. Any school district may
levy special taxes for schools, but only a small
n'umber have availed themselves of this privilege.
In 1900 there were 281,891 pupils enrolled and
201,295 iI1 average attendance. ‘There were 2422
male and 3142 female teachers. Normal school
education for females is provided by the State at
the Winthrop Normal and Industrial College at
Rock Hill. The State provides higher education
for both sexes at the South Carolina College
(q.v.), located at Columbia. There are also a
number of small denominational and coeducation-
al colleges. Of the nine colleges and seminaries
for females Converse College, a non-sectarian in-
stitution at Spartanburg, is the largest. The
State has an agricultural college at Clemson
College, at which also courses in civil, electrical,
mechanical, and textile engineering are given.
CHARITABLE AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS. The
State hospital for the insane, the orphan asylum,
the institution for the deaf and the blind, and
the State penitentiary are at Columbia. The
State maintains farms for convict labor.
HISTORY. In 1562 Jean Ribault (q.v.), acting
for Admiral Coligny, attempted to form a colony
of French Huguenots at Port Royal. The colony,
however, was abandoned the next year, and other
attempts were made farther south. Charles I.
granted in 1630 to Sir Robert Heath all the
territory between 31° and 36° extending from
sea to sea. No settlement was made, and in
1663 Charles II. granted the same to eight Lords
Proprietors, favorites at Court. In 1665 the
limits were extended to 29° and 36° 30’. Full
proprietary rights were given, but the Proprietors
were to legislate “by and with the advice, assent,
and approbation of the freemen.” Permission
to grant religious freedom was given, and subin-
feudation was allowed. The terms to settlers
were at first liberal, but in 1669 the attempt
was made to put into effect the ‘Fundamental
Constitution’ drawn by John Locke. (See NORTH
CAROLINA.) An expedition consisting of 200
persons under William Sayle settled upon the
Ashley River in 1670. A ‘parliament’ consisting
of the five deputies of the Proprietors and twen-
ty members elected by the freeholders was estab-
lished in 1671. In 1680 the settlement was re-
moved to the present site of Charleston. Immigra-
tion was rapid, and by 1700 the colony contained
5500 inhabitants.
The colony was turbulent from the beginning.
It refused to adopt the Fundamental Constitu-
tions, quarreled over the quit-rents, and in 1693
secured the right of initiative in legislation. In
May, 17 04, the Proprietors ordered the enforce-
ment of the Test Act requiring conformity to
the Church of England, but an appeal to the
Whig House of Lords led to the annulment of the
Test Act in the colony in 1706, though the Church
was still established. The colony was divided
into North and South Carolina in 1710. The
Yemassee Indians, instigated by the Spanish at
Saint Augustine, attacked the settlements in
1715, and the Proprietors refused to grant aid.
When appeal was made to the Crown it was
shown that no aid could be given unless the
government was vested in the King. Numerous
other grievances led to the assembling of a con-
vention which assumed the powers of government,
.and James Moore (q.v.)_ was chosen to act as
Governor until the King’s pleasure was known.
The Royal Governor, Sir Francis Nicholson, ar-
rived in 1721 and in 1729 the Crown purchased
the proprietary rights. From this time the as-
sembly never relinquished a single right it gained,
and before the Revolution claimed all the rights
and privileges of the British Parliament. The first
printing press Was set up in 1730, and the South
Carolina Gazette was established two years later.
The colony joined Oglethorpe’s unsuccessful ex-
pedition against the Spaniards in 1740, and was
occupied with Indian troubles in 1755, 1760, and
1765. The Cherokees ceded their lands in 1755,
and the Scotch-Irish began to fill them up. The
colony was prompt in its resistance to the Stamp
Act, and troops were quartered in‘ Charleston.
It agreed to the non-importation agreement in‘ '
1769-70, and sent money and supplies to Boston
in 1774. Delegates were sent to the Continental
Congress in 1774 and the Provincial Congress
met January 11, 1775. At the second session in
June, 1775, troops were voted, and Lord VVilliam
Campbell tried in vain to restore royal authority.
In March, 1776, sovereignty was claimed and a
government was established.‘ Fort Moultrie
(q.v.) was unsuccessfully attacked by the British
June 28th. Several battles (among them Cam-
den, King’s Mountain, Cowpens, and Eutaw
Springs) were fought during the Revolution
within the State. Famous leaders-of irregular
bands of patriots were Sumter and Marion.
Charleston was captured by the British in 1780,
and held until 1782. The State adopted the
Federal Constitution May 23, 1788, Columbia
was made the capital in 1790, and a new constitu-
tion was adopted which gave the Legislature
practically all power. The differences between
the sections began to be apparent. The eastern
part of the State had the wealth and was strong-
ly Federalist. The western part had the popu-
lation and was strongly Anti-Federalist. In
1808 a compromise was effected which lasted
until 1868. By its terms the Lower House of the
Legislature was to consist of 124 members, 62
to represent population and 62 wealth. Each
district was given as many Representatives as it
had sixty-seconds of population and wealth.
With the adoption of this compromise State
politics practically ceased.
The State early became dissatisfied with the
tariff policy of the general Government, and as
early as 1828 the ‘South Carolina Exposition’
was adopted by the Legislature. On the passage
of the Clay Tariff Bill in 1832, a convention was
called which declared, November 24th, that no
duties should be collected after February 1, 1833.
President Jackson was resolved to enforce the
law, but an actual conflict was averted by a
compromise. (See CALHOUN, JOHN C.; NUI.LI-
FICATION.) On the election of President Lin-
coln in 1860, a convention was called on Decem-
ber 20th, which unanimously passed an ordinance
of secession. The attack on Fort Sumter in
April, 1861, precipitated the Civil War. (See
CIVIL VVAR.) The State furnished 60,000 sol-
diers to the Confederate armies, though her vot-
ing population was only about 47,000. Charles-
ton withstood the Federal attacks until Febru-
ary, 1865, when the Confederates were finally
compelled to evacuate it. South Carolina suf-
fered from Sherman’s march northward. A
provisional Governor was appointed at the close
sourrr CAROLINA.
' SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE.
8
of the war and a new constitution adopted. On
the refusal of the State to ratify the Fourteenth
Amendment, a military government was estab-
lished. In 1868 another constitution allowing
negro sufi'rage was adopted and the State was
re-admitted June 25th. The next years were a
carnival of oificial crime and corruption. Illit-
erate negroes and carpetbaggers filled the high-
est offices and the debt increased from $5,407,306
in 1868 to $20,333,901 in 1873. The campaign
of 1876 was of unekampled bitterness. Intimi-
dation and bloodshed were called into play.
Both sides claimed the victory, and there were
for a time rival State governments. When
President Hayes withdrew the Federal troops
from the State the Republican claimant, Govern-
or Chamberlain, gave up the contest and Wade
Hampton (q.v.) was recognized as Governor.
Several of the State ofiicers were tried on charges
of malfeasance and sentenced to varying terms
of imprisonment. Since this time, by various
methods, the negro majority in the State has
been kept powerless in all elections. A, severe
earthquake, of which Charleston seemed to be
the centre, destroyed property valued at $5,000,-
000, August 31, 1886. In 1893 a great storm on
the coast caused the loss of more than 1000 lives.
The growth and development of the Farmers’
Alliance led to the capture of the Democratic
Party in 1890, when B. R. Tillman was elected
Governor after a campaign of bitterness second
only to that of 1876. In 1901-02 the South Caro-
lina Interstate and West Indian Exposition was
held at Charleston. In national elections the
State has been always Democratic, except‘ in
1792, when the Federalists secured the electors,
and during the Reconstruction period, 1868-7 6,
when the vote was given for the Republican can-
didates. See ELECTORAL COMMISSION.
GovERNoRs or Sourn CAROLINA

UNDER THE PROPRIETORS
Sir John Yeamans, Lieutenant-General and Gov.....1665
William Sayle .......................................................... ..1669-70
Joseph West (acting) ............................................... ..1670-72
Sir John Yeamans ................................................... ..1672-74
Joseph West ............................................................ ..1674-82
Joseph Morton ........................................................ ..1682-84
Richard Kyrle ................ ...................................... ..1684
Robert Quarry (acting) .......................................... ..1684-85
Joseph West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1685
Joseph Morton ........................................................ ..1685-86
James Colleton .............. .. . .....-......1686-90
Seth Sothell (Southwell) .......................................... ..1690-91
Philip Ludwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1691-93
Thomas Smith ......................................................... ..1693-94
Joseph Blake (acting) .............................................. ..1694
John Archdale ....................................... ............... ..1694.96
Joseph Blake ........................................................ ..1696-1700
James Moore (acting) ............................................. ..1700-02
Sir Nathaniel Johnson ............................................. ..l702-08
Edward Tynte .................................................. .... ..1708-09
Robert Gibbes (acting) ............................................. ..1709-12
Edward Craven ........................................................ ..1712-16
Robert Daniel (acting) ............................................ ..1716-17
Robert Johnson ....................................................... ..1717-19
James Moore (chosen by convention) ...................... ..1719-21
UNDER THE CROWN
Sir Francis Nicholson .............................................. ..1721-25
Arthur Middleton (acting) ...................................... ..1725-30
Robert Johnson ....................................................... ..1730-35
Thomas Broughton (Lieutenant-Governor) ............. ..1735-37
William Bull (acting and Lieutenant-Governor) ....... ..1737-43
James Glen ............................................................... ..]743-56
William Henry Littleton ......................................... ..1'l56-60
William Bull, 2d, (Lieutenant-Governor) .................. ..1760-61
Thomas Boone ....................................................... ..1761-64
William Bull, 2d, (Lieutenant-Governor) ................. .1764-66
Lord Charles Greville Montagu ................................ ..1766-68
William Bull, 2d, (Lieutenant-Governor) ................. ..1768
Lord Charles Greville Montagu ................................ ..1768-69
William Bull, 2d, (Lieutenant-Governor) .................. ..1769~71
Lord Charles Greville Montag-11.... ...1771-73
William Bull, 2d, (Lieutenant-Governor; ................ ..1773-75
Lord William Campbell ........................................... ..1775
STATE
John Rutledge ............. .;President ....................... . .....1776-78
Rawlins Lowndes ......... .. “ ' ........................... ..1778—79
John Rutledge ............. ..Governor ........................... ..1'7'I9~83
John Mathews ......................................................... ..1782-85
Benjamin Guerard ................................................... ..1783-87
William Moultrie .................................................... ..1785-89
Thomas Pinckney.....Democrat-Republican ............ ..1787~82
Charles Pinckney ..... .. “ “ ............ ..1789-94
Arnoldus Vanderhorst ............................................. ..1792-96
William Moultrie ..................................................... ..1794~98
Charles Pinckney ..... ..Democrat-Republican ............ ..1796-90
Edward Rutledge .......... ..Federalist ...................... ..l798-1802
John Drayton .......... ..Democrat-Republican ............ ..l800-02
James B. Richardson. " “ ............ ..1802-04
Paul Hamilton ........ .. ‘ “ ............ ..1804-06
Charles Pinckney ..... .. “ “ ............ ..1806-08
John Drayton .......... .. “ " ............ ..1808-10
Henry Middleton ..... .. “ " ............ ..1810-12
Joseph Alston .......... .. “ “ ............ ..1812-14
David R. Williams..... “ “ ............ ..1814-16
Andrew Pickens ....... .. " “ ............ ..l816-18
. John Geddes ............ .. “ “ ............ ..1818-20
Thomas Bennett ...... .. “ “ ............ ..1820-22
John L. Wilson ....... .. “ " ............ ..18:-22-24
Richard I. Manning. “ “ ............ ..1824-26
John Taylor ............ .. “ “ ............ ..1826~28
Stephen D. Miller .......... ..Democrat ......................... ..1828-30
James Hamilton ........... .. “ ........................ ..1830-32
Robert Y. Hayne .......... .. “ ......................... ..1832-34
George McDui‘fie ............ .. “ ......................... .1834-36
Pierce M. Butler ............ .. “ ......................... ..1836-38
Patrick Noble ............... .. “ ......................... ..1838-40
B. K. Hennegan (acting) .......................................... ..1840
John P. Richardson ...... ..Democrat ........................ ..1840-42
James H. Hammond .... .. “ ......................... ..1842-44
William Aiken ............... .. “ ......................... ..1844-46
David Johnson .............. .. “ ......................... ..1846-48
W. B. Seabrook ............. .. “ ........................ ..1848-50
John H. Means ............. .. " ......................... ..1850-52
John L. Manning .......... .. “ ......................... ..1852-54
James H. Adams .......... .. “ ......................... .1854-56
Robert F. W. Allston .... .. “ ......................... .1856-58
William H. Gist ............. .. “ ......................... ..1858-60
Francis W. Pickens ....... .. “ ......................... ..1860-62
M. L. Bonham ............... .. “ ......................... ..1862-64
A. G. Magrath .............. .. “ ......................... ..1864-65
Benjamin F. Perry ...... ..Provisional ........................ ..1865
James L. Orr..... ............ ..Democrat ......................... ..1865-68
Robert K. Scott ........... ..Republican ........................ ..1868-72
Franklin J. Moses, Jr..... “ ........................ ..1872-74
Daniel H. Chamberlain... “ ........................ ..1874-77
Wade Hampton ...... ..,.....Democrat ......................... ..1877-79
W. D. Simpson (acting).. “ ......................... ..1879-80
T. D. Jeter (acting) ....... .. “ ......................... ..1880
Johnson Hagood .......... .. “ ......................... ..1880-82
Hugh S. Thompson ...... .. " ......................... ..1882-86
John C. Sheppard (acting) ....................................... ..1886
John P. Richardson ...... ..Democrat ......................... .1886-90
Benjamin R. Tillman .... .. " ......................... ..1890-94
John Gary Evans .......... .. “ ........................ .1894-97
William H. Ellerbe ....... .. “ ......................... ..1897-99
M. B. McSweeney .......... .. “ ...................... ..1899-1903
Duncan C. Heyward ...... .. “ ......................... .1903 —
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hemphill, “Climate, Soil, and
Agricultural Capabilities of South Carolina and
Georgia,” in U. S. Department of Agriculture
Special Report 4'? (Washington, 1882); Ham-
mond, South Carolina, Resources, Population, In-
stitutions, and Industries (Charleston, 1883);
Whitney, “Bibliography of the Colonial History
of South Carolina,” in American Historical Asso-
ciation Annual Report for 1894 (Washington,
1895) ; Smith, South Carolina as a Royal Prov-
ince (New York, 1903); McCrady, History of
South Ga/rolina Under Proprietary Gooermnent,
1670-1719 (New York, 1897); id., Under Roy-
al Goeernment, 1719-76 (ib., 1899) , id., In the
Revolution, 1775-80 (ib., 1901); Ramsay, His-
tory of South Carolina (2d ed., Newberry, S. C.,
1858) ; Houston, O‘ritical Study of Nullification
in South Carolina (New York, 1896); Pike,
The Prostra-te State (ib., 1874).
SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE. A non-
sectarian, coeducational college in Columbia, S.
C., charteredin 1801 and opened in 1805.
SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
was closed in 1863 and was reopened in 1866
as the University of South Carolina. In 187 8 the
university was divided into two branches; one the
South Carolina College, the other Claflin College,
for negroes, at Orangeburg. Its charter was
again amended in 1887 and 1890, and in 1894
women were admitted to all courses. It has a
system of accredited schools, the certificate of
which admits students without examination. The
college has a department of law. In 1902 the
students numbered 215, with a faculty of 18.
The library contained 33,783 volume‘s. Its in-
come was $35,454.
SOUTH CAROLINA INTER-STATE AND
WEST INDIAN EXPOSITION. An exposi-
tion held in Charleston, South Carolina, from
December 1, 1901, to June 2, 1902. The site
chosen covered an area of about 250 acres. The
principal buildings were: Administration, Agn-
culture, Art, Auditorium, Commerce, Cotton Pal-
ace, Fisheries, Machinery, Mines and Forestry,
Negro, Transportation, and Women’s. The larger
buildings were constructed in the Spanish Renais-
sance style of architecture, and were finished in
staff, coated with a dull white tint that gave the
name of Ivory City to the grounds. There were
also State buildings erected by Illinois, Mary-
land, Missouri, New York, and Pennsylvania, city
buildings representing Cincinnati and Philadel-
phia, and special structures devoted to the ex-
hibits of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Guatemala. The
grounds were adorned with statuary, among them
six original historical groups, situated, in the
Court of Palaces, and including “The Aztec,” by
Louis A. Gudebrod; “The Negro,” by Charles A.
Lopez; and “The Huguenot,” by Miss Elsie Ward.
The total attendance was 674,086; the cost of
the exposition was $1,250,000, while the receipts
were $313,000.
SOUTH’COTT, JOANNA (1750-1814). A re-
ligious visionary, born at Gittisham, in Devon-
shire, England, of humble parentage. In youth
she was a domestic servant, chiefly in Exeter. In
1792 she declared herself to be the woman driven
into the wilderness, the subject of the prophecy
in Rev. xii., and began to claim the gift of
prophecy. She gave forth predictions in prose
and verse, and, although very illiterate, wrote nu-
merous letters and pamphlets. When over sixty
years of age she imagined that she was destined
to give birth miraculously to a second Shiloh or
prince of peace. Her writings include The Strange
Effects of Faith (1801), with continuatmns (1802-
20); books of Prophecies and Visions (1803);
Letters (1804); The True Explanation of the
Bible (1804-10) ; the Book of Wonders (1813-14).
Consult her Memoirs (London, 1814).
SOUTH I)AKO’TA. Popularly called the
‘Coyote State.’ A north central State of the
United States, lying on either side of the middle
Missouri, between latitudes 42° 28' and 45° 57'
north and between longitudes 96° 26' and 104°
3' west.
Dakota, on the east by Minnesota and Iowa, on
the south by Nebraska, and on the west by
Wyoming and Montana. With the exception of
an irregular salient angle in the southeast be-
tween the Missouri and Big Sioux Rivers, and a
retintering angle in the northeast formed by
Lakes Bigstone and Traverse, the boundaries of .
the State are straight lines running along merid-
It is bounded on the north by North
ians and parallels, and forming a rectangle 200
miles wide and 380 miles long. The area is
77,650 square miles, of which 76,850 square miles,
or 49,184,000 acres, are land surface. South
Dakota ranks twelfth in size among the States.
TOPOGRAPHY. The State lies within the region
of the Great Plains, and, broadly considered, con-
sists of a rolling upland plain sloping gradually
from an altitude of 3500 feet in the west to about
1400 feet in the southeast. The entire State lies
above 1000 feet, with the exception of a very
narrow belt along the shores of Lakes Bigstone
and Traverse in the extreme northeastern corner.
The eastern half is smooth, with the broad,
gently sloping valley of the James River travers-
ing it from north to south. In the western half
denudation by running water has been very active
compared with atmospheric erosion, so that
numerous buttes and ridges remain to show the
former level of the plateau. In the southwestern
part the effect of denudation is especially shown
in the remarkable region known as the Bad
Lands. They consist of a labyrinth of deep
ravines, steep hills, and precipitous bluffs of
white clay carved out by rapid erosion, and are in
parts almost destitute of vegetation. The most
prominent diversifying feature of the State, how-
ever, is the elliptical, dome-like uplift of the Black
Hills, rising near the western boundary between
the two forks of the Cheyenne River, and cover-
ing about 5000 square miles. The highest point
is Harney Peak, with an altitude of 7216 feet.
Hrnnoenarrrx. The Missouri River traverses
the State in a winding course from the middle of
the northern boundary to the southeastern corner,
forming for some distance a part of the southern
boundary. Its valley is comparatively narrow,
and rises in terraces (which are more abrupt on
the eastern bank) to the general level of the
plain, which lies 200 to 300 feet above the stream.
The western tributaries, chief of which are the
Grand, Moreau, Big Cheyenne, and White Rivers,
flow nearly due east in similar narrow terraced
valleys. On the other hand, the two eastern
tributaries, the James and the Big Sioux, flow
southward parallel with the main stream, and
their valleys are broad and gently sloping. In
the eastern half of the State there are numerous
glacial lakes, none of which, however, are of
great size except the above mentioned Lakes Big-
stone and Traverse on the northeastern boundary.
CLIMATE, Sou, AND Vnenmrron. South Da-
kota, occupying almost the very centre of the
continent, has, of course, a continental climate
with great extremes of temperature. The mean
annual temperature is 44.3° F. The mean for
January is 15° and for July 72.2°, while the ab-
solute extremes may rise to more than 115°
above or fall to more than 40° below zero. But
the heat of summer and the cold of winter are
much more endurable than the more moderate
temperatures of the Eastern States, owing to the
dryness of the atmosphere, which renders the
climate bracing and pleasant. The winter is
often tempered by the dry and warm chinooks,
but occasionally, though fortunately not often,
the State is visited by blizzards-—severe north-
ern gales laden with fine floating snow. The
snowfall is less than that of New York or
New England. The average annual rainfall
for the State is 20 inches, being 30 to 40
inches in the eastern third, 20 to 30 inches in
SOUTH DAKOTA.
sown DAKOTA.
10
the centre, and 15 to 20 inches in the west, where
it is insuflicient for agriculture. The other parts
of the State also suffer occasionally from drought.
The soil in the greater art of the State is of
excellent quality, and W ien sufiiciently watered
is rendered highly productive. In the east there
is a subsoil of glacial till covered with a dark
alluvial loam rich in nitrogen and again cov-
ered with many inches of black vegetable mold.
A large part of the west has also a fine alluvial
soil, but large areas here are stony and barren.
The bottomlands of the Missouri and the terraced
floors of its valley are very fertile. The State is
as a whole a treeless prairie country. Forests
are found only in the Black Hills above an alti-
tude of 4000 feet, where there is a good growth
of pine. Here and there along the river valleys
there are more or less extensive groves of cotton-
wood, ash, elm, and maple.
GEOLOGY. Although the geological structure
of the State is nearly homogeneous over the
greater part of its area, there is nevertheless
found represented every age from the Archaean to
the Pleistocene except.the Devonian. There are
two Archaean nuclei, one in the east and one in
the west. The former is a broad tongue of
Sioux quartzite belonging to the Huronian sys-
tem and extending westward to the James River
from the neighborhood of Sioux Falls. To the
north near Bigstone Lake is a smaller area of
Laurentian granite. In the centre of the Black
Hills is exposed the core of schists, slates, and
granite. This is surrounded by narrow bands
forming the denuded sections of the upturned
Paleozoic, strata, successively Potsdam sandstone
of the Cambrian, Silurian limestone, and a broader
band of Carboniferous limestone. Around this
appear the sand and limestones, clays and marls
of the Jura-Trias, and the whole is enveloped in
the Cretaceous strata which cover four-fifths of
the area of the State. The principal members are
the Colorado marls, clays, and limestones cover- '
ing nearly the whole of the eastern half, the
Laramie formation occupying the northwestern
quarter, and the Dakota sandstone underlying the
valley of the James. The southwestern quarter
of the State is covered with Miocene clays and
conglomerates. Igneous rocks in the form of
dikes of diabase and porphyry occur in both the
eastern and western Archaean areas. The Pleis-
tocene age is represented by the immense sheet
of glacial drift covering the eastern half of the
State to a line nearly coinciding with the Mis-
souri River, and veiling the older formations.
West of this line the Pleistocene deposits con-
sist of aqueous drift.
MINING. The mineral wealth of the State ap-
pears chiefly in the Archaean area of the Black
Hills, where there are more or less extensive de-
posits of copper, gold, silver, argentiferous lead,
iron ores, manganese, nickel, tin, mica, and some
graphite. The Triassic clays contain beds of
gypsum, and beds of lignite as well as reservoirs
of natural gas have recently been found. The
Archaean and Paleozoic areas also yield a great
variety of building and ornamental stone such
as the red quartzite or jasper in the east. The
Dakota sandstone of the James Valley is espe-
cially noticeable as a water-bearing stratum sup-
plying powerful artesian wells. The mining ac-
tivities consist mainly of quartz gold mining car-
ried on in the southwest corner of the State. Diffi-
culties in securing water have operated against
the development of gold-mining, but elaborate
and expensive schemes have been undertakento
secure adequate water supplies, and the output
of gold is becoming larger. The value of the
product increased from $4,006,400 in 1893 to
$6,479,500 in 1901. The granite production in
1901 was valued at $99,941. Limestone and
sandstone are also quarried. Portland cement
was produced in 1900 to the value of $76,000,
and clay products in the following year repre-
sented a value of $59,365.
AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is almost wholly
confined to the eastern half of the State. Facili-
ties for irrigation are not extensive. In 1899,
43,676 acres were irrigated, principally from the
tributaries of the Cheyenne River. In 1900, the
total farm area was 19,070,616 acres, or 38.8 per
cent. of the State’s land area. Of the farm land
59.2 per cent. was improved, and about two-fifths
of this amount was brought under improvement
in the decade 1890-1900. South Dakota is one
of the few States i11 which the size of farms is
increasing, the average size in 1890 being 227.2
acres, and in 1900, 362.4 acres. In 1900, 3.4 per
cent. of the farms were rented on the cash sys-
tem, and 18.4 per cent. on shares. South Dakota
is in the great wheat belt, and the cultivation of
this crop has rapidly advanced until the State
ranks among the first wheat States in the Union.
The acreage in corn is also rapidly increasing, but
the production of this crop is largely confined to
the southeastern section. Cats are grown through-
out the farming region, as is also barley, the lat-
ter crop being three times as great in 1900 as in
1890. The State stands third in the area devoted
to flax. The acreage in hay and forage increased
47.1 per cent. in the decade 1890-1900. Potatoes
are the principal vegetable grown. The follow-
ing table embraces the leading crops:


cnors 1900 1890
Wheat ......................................... .. 3,984,659 2,259,846
Corn ............................................ .. 1,196,381 753,309
Oats ............................................ .. 691,167 580,289
B arley ......................................... .. 299,510 97,370
Rye .............................................. .. 39.253 9,229
Flaxseed ...................................... .. 302,010 354,951
Hay and forage ........................... .. 2,287,875 1,554,913
Potatoes ..................................... .. 33,567 35,440

STOCK-RAISING. The State has excellent graz-
ing facilities. The number of cattle in 1900 was
more than twice as great as in 1890, and there
was a large increase in the number of horses,
sheep, and swine, as shown in the following
table:



ANIMALS 1900 1890
Dairy eewe .................................. .. 270,634 210,240
Other cattle ................................. .. 1,276,166 477,679
Horses ......................................... .. 480,768 250, 305
Mules and asses ........................... .. , 7,671
Sheep ........................................... .. 507,338 238,448
Swine ........................................... .. 823,120 590,465
MANUFAOTURES. Manufactures are limited
mainly to neighborhood industries. In 1900,
$7,578,895 was invested as capital and 3121 per-
sons were engaged as wage-earners in the manu-
factures of the State.
TRANSPORTATION. The railroads are confined
to the region east of the Missouri River and to
the mining region in the southwest corner, there
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AREA AND POPULATION OI-'I SOUTH DAKOTA BY COUNTIES.




AIM i Population.
- ' . 11
County. County Seat. squm-6
m11@s- 1890. 1900.
*Armstrong . . . . . . . . . .. D 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,460 . . . . . . . . . .
Aurora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 6 Plankinton . . . . . . . . . . . .. 724 5,045 4,011
Beadle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Huron . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,27 9,586 8.081
Bonhomme . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 7 Tyndall... .. 569 9,057 10,379
*Boreman . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,231 . . . . . . . . ..
Brookings . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 5 Brookings . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 817 10,132 12,561
Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Aberdeen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,745 16,855 15,286
Brule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 6 Chamberlain . . . . . . . . . . .. 808 6,737 5,401
Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Gannvalley . . . . . . . . . . . .. 483 993 1,790
Butte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 'B 5 Bellefourche . . . . . . . . . .. 7,834 1,037 2,907
Cam bell . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 "Mound City . . . . . . . . . . .. 765 3,510 4,527
Char es Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . G 6 Wheeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,123 4,178 8,498
Choteau . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Now belongs toButte Co. .. . .. 8 .. . ..
Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H 5 Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 973 6,728 6,942
Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 7 Vermilion . . . . . . .. .. . . .. 408 7,509 9,316
Codington . . . . . . . . . . . . . H 4 Watertown . . . . . . . . . . . .. 786 7,037 8,77
Custer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 6 Custer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,612 4,891 2,728
Davison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 6 Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 486 5,449 7,483
Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H 4 Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,077 9,168 12,254
Dene] _ , , , . _ _ . . . . . , . , . , . J 5 Clearlakc . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 621 4,574 6,656
*Dewey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,219
Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 6 Armour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 445 4,600 5,012
Edmunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 4 Ipswich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,176 4,399 4,916
Ewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Now belongsto Butte Co. .. . .. 16 .. . . .
Fall River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B 6 Hot Springs . . . . . . . . . .. 1,757 4,478 3,541
Faulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Faulkton . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,010 4,062 3,547
Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 4 Millbank . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 694 6,814 9,103
Gregory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 6 Fairfax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,004 295 2,211
Hamlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. II 5 Castlewood . . . . . . . . . . .. 543 4,625 5.945
Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,418 6,546 4,525
Hanson . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . .. H 6 Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 4,267’ 4,947
Hughes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Pierre . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 765 5.044 3,684
Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . .. H 6 Olivct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 817 10.469 11,897
Hyde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Highmore . . . . . . . . . . . .. 875 1,860 1,492
*Jackson...... . . . . .. D6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
J eranld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Wessington Springs... 548 3,605 2,798
Kingsbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . H 5 Desmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 834 8,562 9866
Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ .. H 5 .\Iadison . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 549 7,508 9,137
Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 5 Deadwood . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 814 11,673 17,897
Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 6 Canton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79 9,143 12,161
*Lugenbeel . . . . . . . . . .. D 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,066 .
Lyman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 6 Cacoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,456 2! 2,632
McCook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 6 Salem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 575 0.448 8.682
McPherson......... F 4 Leola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,146 5.940 6,327
Marshall. . . . . . .. .. . . . H 4 Britton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 880 4,544 5,942
Meade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 5 Stnrg1s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,003 4,640 4,907
*Meyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,407
Miner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll 6 Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 569 5,165 5,864
Minnehaha . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 6 Sioux Falls . . . . . . . . . . . .. 802 21,879 23,926
Moody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J 6 Flandreau . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 517 5,941 8,326
Pennington . . . . . . . . . .. B 5 Rapid City. . . 2,596 6,540 5.610
Potter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Gettysburg . . . . . . . . . . . .. 900 2,913 2,988
*Pratt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.‘
Presho.... .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181
*Pratt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. 3-1
Roberts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 4 Sisseton Agency . . . . . . .. 1, 2 1,997 124216
Sanborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Woolisockct . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 4,610 4,494
Schnasse . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,563
*Shannon . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 6 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,066
Spink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 5 l:tedficld . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.518 10,581 9,487
Stanley ............... .. E 5 Fort Pierre ........... .. 1.028 1,349
*Sterling . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 5 . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. 96 -- - --
Suléy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Onida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,052 1,715
Tod . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . "
*Tripp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,48
Turner 11 6 Parkel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62-" 10,256 13,175
Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 7 Elkpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 447 9.130 11.103
Walworth . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Bangor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 745 2.153 3.839
*Washabaugh . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . _ . . . . . .. 1.228
*VVashington . . . . .. . C 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,540 40
Yankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. II 7 Yankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 10,444 12,649
Ziebach.... . C5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 510 Cheyenne River Indian
reservation . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . .. .. 2,35”
Pine Ridge Indian reser- _
vation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,827
Rosebud Indian reserva-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,201
Standing Rock Indian _
reservation . . . . . . . . . . . D 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,655







AREA AND POPULATION OF NORTH DAKOTA BY COUNTIES.


*Counties as yet not fully organized; parts of Indian reservations.
_ Population.
_ Area in
County. Mall County Seat. square
lndelr miles.
1890. 1900.
Barnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Valley City . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,506 7,045 13,159
Benson. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 1 Minnewaukon . . . . . . . . . . 1,380 2,460 8,320
Billings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B 3 Medora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,150 170 975
Bottineau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 1 Bottineau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,137 2,893 7,532
Bowman...... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Buford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 803 . . . . .
Burleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- E 3 Bismarck . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,680 4,247 6,081
Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 2 Fargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.752 19,613 28,625
Cavalier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 1 Langdon . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,512 6,471 12,580
Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74
Dickey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Ellendale . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,146 5,57 6,061
Dunn... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
Eddy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 2 New Rockford . . . . . . . . .. 648 1,377 3,330
Emmons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Williamsport . . . . . . .. . 1,550 1,971 4,349
Flannery . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72 .. . ..
Foster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 2 Carrington . . . . . . . . . . . .. 641 1,210 3,770
Garfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Grand Forks . . . . . . . . . . 11 1 Grand Forks . . . . . . . . . . . 1,432 18,357 24,459
Grlggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 2 Cooperstown . . . . . . . . . . . 730 2,817 4,744
Hettinger . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 81
Kidder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Steele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,398 1,211 1,754
Lan1oure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 La1noure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,148 3,187 6,048
Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 3 Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 597 1,625
Mcllenry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 1 Towner . . . . . . . . . .. . . 1,468 1,584 5,253
McIntosh . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Ashley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 3,248 4,818
McKenzie . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 .. . . .
McLean. . ., . . . . . . . . . . .. D 2 Washbuzn . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,348 860 4,791
Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 2 Mannhaven . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,930 428 1,778
Morton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D 3 Mandan . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-. 4,740 4,728 8,069
Mountraillc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 122 .. . . .
Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 2 Lakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 4,293 7,316
Oliver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1) 2 Sanger. . . . . . . . . .. . 727 464 990
Pembina .. . . .. . .. H 1 Pembina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,134 14,334 17,869
Pierce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 1 Rugby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,008 905 4,765
B.amsey...... .. . .. F 1 Devils Lake . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,200 4,418 9,198
Ransom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 3 Lisbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 864 5,393 6,919
Renville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Richland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll 3 Wahpeton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,445 10,7- 17,387
Roletto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 1 la . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 943 2,427 7,995
Sargent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 3 Forman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 864 5,076 6,039
Sheridan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C 3 Dickinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,002 2,304 7,621
Steele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 2 Sherbrooko . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 3,777 5,888
Stevens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Stutsman . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 2 Jamestown . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,296 5,266 9,143
Towner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 1 Cando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,048 1,450 6,491
Trail] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll 2 Hillsboro . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 872 10,217 13,107
W’allace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grafton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 .. . . .
VValsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,308 16,587 20.2;
\Vard . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . C 1 Minot . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,690 1,681 7,961
W'ells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1*“ 2 Fessendcn . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,296 1,212 8,310
XVilliams . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 1 VVilliston . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,512 109 1,530
Standing Rock Indian
reservation . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,208
Unorganized tcrritory.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 511 . . . ..






SOUTH DAKOTA.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
11
being no line crossing the State from east to
west. Railway construction was greatest in the
decade 1880-1890. The mileage in the latter year
was 2610, which figure had increased in 1900 to
2961 miles. The Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint
Paul, the Great Northern, and the Chicago and
Northwestern have the greatest mileage.
BANKING. In 1872 the first national bank
was organized in Yankton. In the following
twenty years banks multiplied, and in 1889, when
division came and the Territory was organized
as a State, South Dakota had 33 national and
over one hundred private banks, which figures in-
cluded also the banks organized under the general
incorporation law. This rapid organization of
small banks was due to the high rate of interest
on mortgages, often amounting to 14 per cent.
and 15 per cent. The bad crops of 1889-91 re-
duced the value of real estate, made foreclosure
of many mortgages necessary, and caused the
failure of many banks. The necessity of some
regulation of the banking business became evi-
dent, and in 1891 the first banking law of the
State was passed, making the shareholders re-
sponsible for an amount equal to their stock
in addition to their actual investment, allowing
dividends on net profits only, etc. Between 1890
and 1900 the national banks diminished both in
number and in the volume of transactions, and the
State banks have now the larger part of the
business. The condition of the banks in 1902 is
shown in the following table:



- State and
Nt?',:,11(f,I;a1 private
banks
Number ................................ .. 47 229
Capital .................................. .. $1,958,000 $2,579,000
Surplus .................................. .. 253,000 398,000
Cash, etc ............................... .. 791,000 1,552,000
Deposits ................................ .. 10,899,000 17,089,000
Loans......_ .............................. .. 8,409,000 12,574,000
GOVERNMENT. The State Constitution was
adopted by popular vote i11 October, 1889. Pro-
posed amendments must secure the approval of
a majority of the members elected to each House,
and a majority of the electors voting at a popu-
lar election. Upon the approval of two-thirds of
the members elected to each House and a ma-
jority of the people voting at a popular election
the Legislature shall call a constitutional con-
vention. Voters must be citizens, or foreigners
who have declared their intention of becoming
citizens and have resided in the United States
one year, in the State six months, in the county
thirty days, and in the election precinct ten days,
Pierre is the capital.
LEGISLATIVE. The Legislature convenes on the
first Tuesday after the first Monday of Janu-
ary in the odd years. It consists of a Senate
of 45 members and a House of 87 members.
The people have the right to propose measures,
which the Legislature must submit to a vote of
the electors. The people may further require
that, with certain exceptions, any laws enacted
must be submitted to the people, and not more
than five per cent. of the electors are required to
invoke these initiative or referendum rights. The
Governor’s veto does not extend to matters re-
ferred to the people.
EXECUTIVE. The executive power is vested
in a Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, elected
Von. XVI.—2.
for two years, the latter being, ea: ofiicio, presi-
dent of the Senate. The Governor has a veto
power on legislation, which may be overridden by
a two-thirds vote of both Houses. He may veto
items of an appropriation bill and approve the
rest. The other ofiicers are a Secretary of State,
Auditor, Treasurer, Superintendent of Instruc-
tion, Commissioner of Schooland Public Lands,
and Attorney-General—all holding ofiice for two
vears.
JUDICIAL. There are five Supreme Court
judges, elected for four years. The State is di-
vided into judicial court districts, in each of
which a judge is elected for four years.
FINANCES. The larger part of the public debt
was incurred in 1883-89, before the admission to
Statehood, and for the construction of hospitals,
normal schools, and college buildings. At the time
of admission the debt amounted to $710,200 in
41/2 per cent. and 5% per cent. bonds, but in ad-
dition South Dakota was obliged to pay to North
Dakota in settlement of accounts more than
$150,000. The Constitution limited the borrow-
ing power of legislation to $100,000, but this
limit was soon reached. In 1892 the debt was
more than one million dollars, and in 1895 $1,-
562,800, of which $424,000 were in warrants. In
1902 the bonded indebtedness was $417,500 and
the outstanding warrants were $250,000, making
a total debt of $667,500. The income in the be-
ginning came mainly (almost 85 per cent.) from
a State tax. Later the sale and lease of public
lands developed into an important source of in-
come, which by a special provision of the Con-
stitution must go into the permanent school fund,
while the interest on deferred payments must be
devoted to current school expenses. During the
fiscal year 1901-02 the total income was $2,174,-
257, and the total expenditure $2,098,620, almost
60 per cent. of which was'for school purposes.
There was a balance of $840,525 in the treasury,
of which $633,000 lay in the school fund.
MILITIA. In 1900 there were 87,505 men of
militia age. The organized militia in 1901 num-
bered 949.
POPULATION. The population in 1890, accord-
ing to the first State census, was 328,808, and
the figure increased in 1900 to 401,570. In the
latter year South Dakota ranked thirty-seventh
in population. The foreign-born population was
88,508, among whom the Norwegians, Germans,
Russians, and Swedes were the 1nost numerous.
There were 9293 Indians taxed and 10,932 not
taxed. There were only 5.2 persons to the square
mile in the State. There are five towns having
(1904) more than 5000 inhabitants each. In
1900 Sioux Falls had a population of 10,266,
Lead City 6210, Yankton 4125, Aberdeen 4087,
and Mitchell 4055. South Dakota ‘sends two
members to the National House of Representa-
tives.
RELIGION. The Catholic Church includes about
one-thirteenth of the inhabitants. The Lutherans
are the strongest Protestant denomination.
EDUCATION. In 1900 only five per cent. of the
population over ten years of age were illiterate.
There were then 129 days in the school year.
Owing to the large scattered rural population,
the educational difficulties have been extreme. In
1900 there were only 176 graded schools, as
against 3191 ungraded, the former being almost
wholly in the towns. Only the towns have high
. SOUTH DAKOTA.
SOUTHEY.
12
schools. In 1900 there were 96,822 pupils en-
rolled, of whom 68,000 were in average attend-
ance. There were in that year 1172 male and
3630 female teachers. The average monthly
wage received was $33 for the male teacher and
$30.25 for the female teacher. The cost of the
public schools was $1,598,757, of which $1,026,126
was paid as salaries to teachers and superinten-
dents. The most important source of financial
support is the district tax. The State has the
advantage of large Congressional land grants,
which aggregated 2,823,320 acres. There are
three State normal schools located respectively -
at Madison, Spearfish, and Springfield. Higher
education is provided at the State University,
situated at Vermillion, and at the following de-
nominational co-educational institutions: Huron
College (Presbyterian), at Huron; Dakota Uni-
versity (Methodist Episcopal), at Mitchell; Red-
field College (Congregational), at Redfield; and
Yankton College (Congregational), at Yankton.
There are a school of mines at _Rapid City and
an agricultural college at Brookings.
CHARITABLE AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS. A
State insane asylum is situated at Yankton, a
school for the deaf at Sioux Falls, an institution
for the blind at Gary, and a soldiers’ home at
Hot Springs. The State penitentiary is at Sioux
Falls, and the Reform School at Plankinton.
HISTORY. The State was formed on the divi-
sion of Dakota Teritory and was admitted to the
Union November 3, 1889. (For early history,
see NORTH DAKOTA.) The convention which met
July 4th adopted the ‘Sioux Falls Constitution,’
framed in 1885, with a few necessary changes. A
prohibitory amendment was adopted at the first
election in October, 1889, but, on account of the
‘original package decision’ of the United States
Supreme Court, did not go into effect. The Sioux
Indians by treaty ceded large tracts of land,
which were opened for settlement in February,
1890. Other reservations were opened in 1892
and 1895.'
_ GOVERNORS or SOUTH DAKOTA
Arthur C. Mellette ................ ..Repub1iean ................ ..1889-93
Charles H. Sheldon ................ .. “ ................ ..1893-97
Andrew E. Lee ...................... ..Populist ................. ..1897-1901
Charles N. Herreid ................ ..Repub1ican ............. ..1901-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Child, South Dakota: Re-
sources, People, Statehood (New York, 1888);
Hagerty, The State of South Dakota; a Sta-
tistical, Historical, and Political Abstract (Aber-'
deen, S. D., 1889) ; Beadle, Dakota (Saint Paul,
1889) ; Finerty, War Path and‘ Biooaac (2d ed.,
Chicago, 1890) ; Todd, “Hydrographic History of
South Dakota,” in Geological Society of America
Bulletin, vol. xiii. (Rochester, 1902).
SOUTH DAKOTA, UNIVERSITY or. A co-
educational State institution at Vermillion, S. D.,
organized in 1882, and maintained almost wholly
by appropriations of the Legislature. Its en-
dowment consists of 86,000 acres of land, yield-
ing in 1902-03 an income of $5600, the total
income of the university being $60,000. The tui-
tion is $6 per semester, except to students who
have served in the Spanish War, who are exempt-
ed from tuition charges. The university has
established a loan fund for the assistance of
needy students. Military science and tactics
form part of the course. The degrees conferred
are those of Bachelor of Arts, Law, Commerce,
and Music. The estimated value of the property
under control of the university in 1903 was
$300,000, its grounds, buildings, and equipment
being valued at $295,000. The institution car-
ries on the State geological survey. The faculty
in 1903 numbered 34 and the students 450, dis-
tributed as follows: College of Arts and Sci-
ences, 150; Law, 30; Music, 50; Commerce, 40;
Engineering, 30; Preparatory, 150. The library
contained about 8000 volumes.
SOUTHDOWN. An English breed of sheep,
bred for their superior mutton. See SHEEP.
SOUTH DOWNS. A ridge of hills in Eng-
land. See under DOWNS.
SOUTHEND-ON-SEA, s1'1TH’end-. A munici-
pal borough and seaside resort in Essex, England;
at the mouth of the Thames, 42 miles east of
London (Map: England, G 5). It is a popular
holiday and residential resort of Londoners. The
town owns fine municipal buildings, promenade
piers, a concert pavilion, electric street railways,
pleasure grounds, and a cemetery, a11d maintains
technical schools, a sanatorium, and an isolation
hospital. Population, in 1901, 28,850.
SOUTHERN CROSS. A famous constella-
tion near the South Pole. Of its four principal
stars, one, the southernmost, is of the first mag-
nitude; two, the eastern and northern, of the
second; and one, the western, of the third. The
stars are not arranged very accurately in a
cruciform position; and, on the whole, it must
be said the constellation is much overrated.
SOUTHERN CROSS, ORDER on THE. The
highest Brazilian order, founded by Dom Pedro I.
in 1822, in commemoration of his accession to the
throne. The order has four classes, and until
1889 the members received pensions. The decora-
tion is a white enameled cross of five arms, with
a wreath of coffee and tobacco leaves. The effigy
of Dom Pedro on the medallion is surrounded by
the inscription Petras I ., Brasilia; Imperator. On
the reverse is a cross composed of nineteen stars,
with the words Bene M erentimn Proemiam.
The decoration is suspended from a crown and is
worn on a blue ribbon.
SOUTHERN E, snTII’ern, THOMAS (1660-
1746). An English playwright. He was born in
Ireland, and was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin. Entered at the Middle Temple in Lon-
don, he abandoned law to write for the stage, his
first play being The Loyal Brother, or the Persian
Prince (1682). His two best known pieces are
the tragedies of The Fatal Marriage (1694),
which was afterwards revised by Garrick, and
Oroonoho, or the Royal Slave (1696), founded
on a novel of the time and remarkable as in-
cluding one of the earliest English condemnations
of the slave trade.
SOUTHEY, SOl1TH'l or suTII’i, CARoLINE ANNE
(1786-1854). An English poet, daughter of
Capt. Charles Bowles, a retired officer. She
was born at Lymington, Hampshire. After the
death of her mother (1816) and the loss of her
property, she turned to literature. She sent the
manuscript of a narrative poem, Ellen Fitzarthar
(published 1820), to Robert Southey, who ap-
proved of it. A correspondence followed which
led to marriage (1839). In the meantime Miss
Bowles wrote Tales of the Factories (1823)
in verse; Solitary Hours (1826) in verse and
prose; Chapters on Oharchyards (1829), a group
SOUTHEY.
SOUTHINGTON.
13
of tales which gained for her wide attention; and
The Birthday (1836), a poem recalling Cowper.
She also collaborated with Southey on a poem
entitled Robin Hood (never completed). Soon
after l1er marriage, Southey’s mind completely
broke down, and she passed three miserable years.
After his death (1843), she lived in retirement.
Consult the interesting Correspondence of Robert
Southey with Caroline Bowles, ed. by Dowden
(Dublin, 1881).
SOUTHEY, ROBERT (1774-1843). An English
poet and miscellaneous writer, born August 12,
1774, at Bristol, where his father was a linen-
draper. Southey passed much of his boyhood
with an aunt at Bath, read through her library,
containing Spenser, Sidney, Shakespeare, and
many other writers, and tried his own hand at
the drama. In 1788 he was sent to Westminster
School, from which he was expelled four years
later, on account of an essay against flogging.
Aided by an uncle living at Lisbon, he entered
Balliol College, Oxford (1792), where he re-
mained for only two years. He met Coleridge in
1794; and in conjunction with another friend,
Robert Lovell, they formed a socialistic scheme,
which they called ‘pantisocracy.’ They were to
take wives and emigrate to the banks of the
Susquehanna. They all married sisters, but the
scheme went no further. After secretly marrying
Edith Fricker, at Bristol (November 14, 1795),
Southey immediately left to visit his uncle at
Lisbon. On returning (1797) he studied law at
Gray’s Inn, but soon abandoned the pursuit. He
settled with his wife first at VVestbury, between
Bath and Salisbury, and then at Burton, in
Hampshire; and after another trip to Portugal
and a short period at Bristol, he joined Coleridge
at Keswick in the Lake district (1803). Here
at Greta Hall he passed the rest of his life amid
his books. Besides the income from his pen,
which eventually became large, he received, be-
tween 1796 and 1806, an annuity of £160 from a
school friend named VVynn. Its place was soon
filled by a Government pension of the same
amount, to which was added, in 1835, another
pension of £300. In 1813, then as strongly con-
servative as he had once been republican, he
was appointed poet laureate. In this capacity
he wrote The Vision of Judgment (1821), an
apotheosis of George III, in hexameter verse.
The incident is made memorable by Byron’s
brilliant parody under the same title. Southey’s
wife died in 1837, and two years later he mar-
ried Caroline Anne Bowles. His mind was al-
ready giving way and soon became a blank. He
died at Keswick, March 21, 1843, and was buried
in the Crosthwaite churchyard. A recumbent
statue was placed in the church. When a school-
boy Southey formed the plan of a series of nar-
rative poems on the mythologies of the world.
Under the inspiration of this idea, subsequently
modified, he wrote a number of epics, comprising
Joan of Arc (1796); Thalaba, the Destroyer
(1801), an Oriental tale; Madoc (1805); The
Curse of Kehama (1810), founded on Hindu
legend; and Roderick, the Last of the Goths
(1814). Though they contain many noble passages
and interesting experiments in versification, they
are in the main only rhetorical. His prose
is best represented by Letters from England
by Don Manuel Alvarez Espriella (1807), a
view of England from the assumed standpoint
of a Spanish gentleman; The Doctor (1834-37),
containing the nursery classic, “The Three
Bears,” the lives of Wesley (1820) and of
Nelson (1813) ; and his delightful letters.
Of his other miscellaneous work may be cited
History of Brazil (1810-19), part of a contem-
plated history of Portugal; History of the Penin-
sular War (1823-32) ; Colloquies on Society
(1829), unnecessarily ridiculed by Macaulay;
Naval History (1833-40); and a revolutionary
drama, Wat Tyler (written in 1794, and surrep-
titiously published in 1817). As a conservative
in religion and politics Southey sustained many
bitter attacks from the leaders of rising liberal-
ism. In unfiagging literary industry he was one
of the most notable figures of his time. His
prose, far more than his poetry, is a contribution
of permanent value to English letters.
Consult: The Life and Correspondence, by his
son, Rev. C. C. Southey (London, 1849-
50), containing the fragment of an autobiog-
raphy; Selections from Southey’s Letters, ed.
by Warter (ib., 1856) ; Correspondence with
Caroline Bow-les, ed. by Dowden (Dublin, 1881) ;
Dennis, Southey: Story of His Life, an excellent
selection from letters (Boston, 1887); Southey,
- a memoir and estimate by Dowden, “English Men
of Letters” series, new ed. (New York, 1895);
and poems with memoir by S. R. Thompson, in
the “Canterbury Poets” series (London, 1888).
SOUTH FORE’LAND. See FOBELAND,
NORTH AND Sourn. <
SOUTH GEORGIA, jor'ja. An island in the
South Atlantic Ocean belonging to Great Britain,
and situated in latitude 54° 30’ S., longitude
37° W., 800 miles east by south of the Falkland
Islands (Map: \/Vorld, VVestern Hemisphere, P
17). Area, about 1600 square miles. The isl-
and consists of mountains of Archeean formation
from 6000 to 8000 feet high. Several permanent
glaciers exist in the deep gorges on the moun-
tain slopes, and the climate is damp and chilly.
The lower slopes are covered with grass, but the
flora is poor. The island is uninhabited. It
was discovered in 1675 by Laroche.
SOUTH HAD’LEY. A town in Hampshire
County, Mass., three miles northeast of Holyoke,
on the Connecticut River (Map: Massachu-
setts, B 3). It is the seat of Mount Holyoke
College (q.v.) and has a public library. There
are manufactures of writing paper, brick, fertiliz-
ers, and lumber product. The government is ad-
ministered by town meetings, held annually.
Population, i11 1890, 4261; in 1900, 4526.
SOUTH HOI/LAN.'D. A province of the
Netherlands, bounded on the north by North
Holland, and on the west by the North Sea
(Map: Netherlands, C 3). Area, 1166 square
miles. Population, in 1899, 1,144,448, more than
half of whom lived in the larger cities. The
capital and largest city is Rotterdam. The
Hague also is in this province.
SOUTHINGTON, s1'r.rH'ing-ton. A borough
in a town of the same name, in Hartford County,
Conn., 20 miles south of Hartford; on the New
York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map:
Connecticut, D 3). It is engaged principally in
manufacturing pocket cutlery, general and car-
riage hardware, carriage bolts, tools, and wood
screws. Population, in 1900, 3411. Originally a
part of Farmington and called Panthorn, South-
SOUTHINGTON.
SOUTH ORANGE.
14
‘Indian Territory, H 4).
ington was settled about 1697 and became a sep-
arate parish in 1724. It was incorporated as a
town in 1779. The borough of Southington was
incorporated in 1889.
SOUTH KEN’SINGTON, NATIONAL ART
SCHOOLS OF. The schools of South Kensington
(London) were founded in 1852 for the applica-
tion of art to industry. The nucleus of an art in-
dustrial museum was also formed. (See SOUTH
KENSINGTON MUSEUM.) The central school for
the systematic training of art teachers and stu-
dents in all departments of design was after-
wards established at South Kensington. Aid
is furnished in the teaching of art in elementary
schools, in night classes for artisans, and in
regular schools of art. The sa1ne body controls
the provincial schools connected with South
Kensington, which have grown extensively in
number since their first establishment. Many
national, local, and free scholarships are also
open to British subjects.
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. An im-
portant London museum, under the charge of the
Department of Science and Art of the Commit-
tee of Council on Education. It was opened in
1857 and is contained in buildings at Brompton,
South of Hyde Park. It includes the extensive
Museum of Ornamental or Applied Art, one of
the most valuable in the world, with 45,000 works
of modern and mediaaval art and numerous repro-
ductions; the National Gallery of British Art;
the Art Library, with 70,000 volumes and nearly
200,000 engravings, drawings, and photographs;
the India Museum (q.v.) ; the National Art
Training Schools; and the Royal College of
Science. It maintains as a branch the Bethnal
Green Museum for the benefit of the working
classes in the East End. The museum is visited
annually by about 2,000,000 persons.
SOUTH KIN GSTOWN , kings’ton. A town,
including West Kingston, the county seat, and
several other villages, in VVashington County,
R. I., 23 miles south of Providence; on the New
York, New Haven and Hartford, and the Narra-
gansett Pier railroads (Map: Rhode Island, B 4).
The Rhode Island College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts is in the village of Kingston; also
a public library with 7000 volumes. Other note-
worthy features include the Narragansett Libra-
ry, at Peacedale, and the Robert Beverly Hale
Memorial Library at Matunuck. Matunuck is a
popular watering place. South Kingstown is a
rich farming district and also has fishing inter-
ests. The leading manufactured products are
woolens and worsteds. The first power loom in
the United States was established at Peacedale
in 1814. Population, in 1890, 3415; in 1900,
4972.
SOUTH McAL'ESTER. A town of the Choc-
taw Nation, Indian Territory, about 85 miles
southwest of Fort Smith, Arkansas; at the junc-
tion of the Missouri, Kansas and Texas and the
Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf railroads‘ (Map:
There are extensive
coal mines. The town is engaged in coke-
making and is a centre for wholesale trade.
There are cotton gins, a large cotton compress,
iron foundries, brick plants, a flour 'mill, etc.
Population, in 1900, 3479.
SOUTH MOUNTAIN, BATTLE or. A battle
fought September 14, 1862, during the Civil War,
at Crampton’s Gap and Turner’s Gap in the
South Mountain range, near Sharpsburg, Md.,
between a Confederate force of about 18,000 un-
der the immediate command of McLaws and D.
H. Hill, and a Federal force of about 28,000 under
the immediate command of Generals Franklin
and Reno. The two forces formed parts respect-
ively of the Army of Northern Virginia, under
Lee, and the Army of the Potomac, under Mc-
Clellan. The Confederate troops, who had the
advantage of position, resisted with great stub-
bornness the advance of the Federals, but were
finally drivenback, and on the 16th the Army of
Northern Virginia and the Army of the Potomac
met at Antietam (q.v.). The loss of the Fed-
erals in killed, wounded, and missing was about
1800; that of the Confederates about 2600.
SOUTH N OR/WALK. A city in the town of
Norwalk, Fairfield County, Conn., 14 miles west
by south of Bridgeport; at the mouth of the
Norwalk River, on Long Island Sound, and on
the New York, New Haven and Hartford Rail-
road (Map: Connecticut, B 5). Its beautiful
situation, on rising ground overlooking the Sound,
makes it a very attractive residential city. There
are two libraries; the Public and the Roth and
Goldschmidt. South Norwalk has a good har-
bor, and a large coastwise trade is carried on.
Its manufactures include hats, locks, and various
iron products. The government is vested in a
mayor, elected annually, and a unicameral coun-
cil. The water works and electric ligl1t plant are
owned and operated by the municipality. (For
history, see NORWALK.) Population, in 1900,
6591.
SOUTH OMAHA, o’ma-ha. A city in Doug-
las County, Neb., adjoining Omaha; on the Mis-
souri River, and on the Union Pacific, the
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, the Burlington
and Missouri River, and other railroads (Map: Ne-
braska, J 2) . It has a public library. South Omaha
ranks third among the cities of the United States
in its slaughtering and meat-packing interests,
being surpassed only by Chicago and Kansas City.
In the census year 1900 the five establishments
connected with that industry had an invested
capital of $15,635,418 and an output valued at
$67,716,724. The city government, under the
revised charter of 1901, is vested in a mayor,
elected biennially, and a unicameral council, and
in administrative officials, the majority of whom
are appointed by the mayor, with the consent of
the council. The board of education, however,
is chosen by popular vote and the fire and police
board by the State Governor. South Omaha
was settled in 1882 and Was incorporated in 1886.
Its rapid growth dates from the establishment in
1884 of the Union Stock Yards. Population, in
1890, 8062; in 1900, 26,001. '
SOUTH OB/ANGE. A village in Essex
County, N. J., 4 miles west of Newark; on the
Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad
(Map: New Jersey, D 2). The main portion is
picturesquely situated on a gentle eminence
facing Orange Mountain. It is a residential
suburb of Newark and New York. Seton Hall
College (q.v.), a Roman Catholic institution,
was opened here in 1856. The village has a
public library and a handsome town hall. Popu-
lation, in 1890, 3106; in 1900, 4608. South
Orange was settled about 1670, and until erected
SOUTH ORANGE.
SOUTHWELL.
15
into a township, in 1861, was a part, first of
Newark, and then, after 1806, of Orange. Con-
sult VVhittemore, Founders and Builders of the
Oranges (Newark, 1896) .
SOUTH’PORT. A municipal borough and
watering place in Lancashire, England, at the
mouth of the Ribble Estuary, 15 miles southwest
of Preston (Map: England, C 3). It is a hand-
some town, with fine public buildings and institu-
tions. There are artificial lakes and marine
parks on the shore for bathing and model-yacht
sailing. Southport owns the gas and electric
lighting works, markets, and cemeteries, and
maintains a free library, art gallery, and tech-
nical schools. Its rise dates from 1830. Popu-
lation, in 1891, 41,400; in 1901, 48,000. Consult
Stephenson, Southport (Southport, 1898).
SOUTH PORT’LAND. A city in Cumber-
land County, Me, on Casco Bay, opposite Port-
land, with which it is connected by ferry and four
bridges, and on the Boston and Maine Railroad
(Map: Maine, C 8). It is the seat of the State
School for Boys, formerly known as the State
Reform School. Noteworthy are the Government
fortifications, the town hall, Masonic Building,
and the Soldiers’ Monument and grounds. The
city has iron works, acid works, ship railway
and machine shops, etc. The government is vested
in a mayor, chosen annually, and a unicameral
council. South Portland was a part of Cape
Elizabeth until 1895, when it was set off as the
town of South Portland. In 1889 it was char-
tered as a city. Population, in 1900, 6287.
SOUTH SEA. A name formerly applied to
the Pacific Ocean.
SOUTH SEA CHESTNUT. See INOOARPUS.
SOUTH SEA COMPANY, THE. An Eng-
lish commercial company incorporated in 1711.
It was a financial scheme organized by the Lord
Treasurer Harley for the purpose of extinguishing
the national debt, which then amounted to £10,-
000,000. The company assumed the debt on condi-
tion of receiving from the Government an annual
payment of £600,000 for a certain number of years
and a monopoly of trade to the South Seas. It
also secured from the Spanish Government the con-
tract of supplying the Spanish-American colonies
with slaves, and proposed to engage in whale fish-
eries. On the strength of its purely prospective
profits, the value of the company’s stock increased
enormously. In the spring of 1720 it proposed
to assume the entire national debt, which was at
that time over thirty millions, on being guaran-
teed five per cent. per annum for seven and a half
years. At the end of this time the debt might be
redeemed, if the Government chose, and the inter-
est reduced to four per cent. The directors used
every mea.ns to increase the value of the stocks,
until in the beginning of August, 1720, the shares
were quoted at 1000, when the chairman and
some of the principal directors sold out. This
flagrant conduct and the failure of Law’s
Mississippi Scheme in France opened the eyes of
the public, and at the end of 1720 the crash
came. Thousands of innocent stockholders were
ruined. Parliamentary investigation revealed
a scandalous complicity on the part of a number
of the Cabinet. By the able manner in which he
afforded relief to the unfortunate stockholders,
Sir Robert \Valpole (q.v.) , the new Chancellor of
the Exchequer, acqllired great popularity. The
directors were deprived of their ill-gotten gains
and almost one-third of the original capital was
saved for the stockholders. Consult: Maekay,
Memoirs of Eaitraordinary Popular Delusions
(London, 1852); Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert
Walpole (London, 1802) .
SOUTH SHET’LAND ISLANDS. An Ant-
arctic archipelago lying about 600 miles south
of Cape Horn, between 61° and 63° 20’ south
latitude, and 54° and 63° west longitude, and
separated from Graham’s Land and Louis
Philippe Land by the Bransfield Strait (Map:
Antarctic Regions, A 4). The islands are twelve
ill number, the chief of which are George, Living-
ston, Smith, Deception, Elephant, and Clarence.
The total area is about 880 square miles. They
were discovered in 1.599 by Dirk Gherritz. The
region was explored by Sir John Ross in 1842,
and in 1893 by Laskar in the Jason, who de-
termined the coast-line of Graham’s Land to the
69th degree south latitude.
SOUTH SHIELDS. A seaport of England.
See SI-IIEI.Ds, SOUTH AND NoRTII.
SOUTH VICTORIA LAND, o-r VICTORIA
LAND. A portion of the Antarctic land regions,
whose coast extends in a north and south direc-
tion between latitudes 71° and 79° south, and
along the 170th meridian east of Greenwich, the
meridian of New Zealand. It is a mountainous
country, falling iI1 steep snow-crowned cliffs to
the sea, and rising in Mount Melbourne to a
height of over 14,000 feet. It also contains the
volcanoes of Erebus and Terror, the latter 11,000
feet high. Several hundred miles inland is the
Magnetic South Pole. Victoria Land was dis-
covered by Ross in 1841, and explored and
mapped by Borchgrevink in 1899.
SOUTHWARK, s1'1TH'érk. A Parliamentary
borough in London (q.v.), on the southern side
of the Thames.
SOUTH’WELL. A town of the Newark Par-
liamentary division of N ottinghamshire, England,
27 miles by rail southwest of Lincoln. The mag-
nificent medizeval Minster of Saint-Mary, found-
ed on the site of a church said to have been erect-
ed by the first Archbishop of York in 630 still
retains its three towers. The building is cruci-
form, the towers, nave, and transept are twelfth-
century Norman, and the choir is a beautiful
example of the English Gothic. It was renovat-
ed in 1882. Population, in 1901, 3160.
SOUTHWELL, ROBERT (c.1561-95). An
English poet and martyr, son of .Richard South-
well, of Horsham Saint Faith’s, in Norfolk. Hav-
ing studied at Douai and at Paris, he went to
Rome, where he was received into the Order of
Jesuits (1578), and ordained priest (1584). He
was immediately sent to England as a missionary,
where he became chaplain to the Countess of
Arundel (1589). As a native-born subject or-
dained to the Roman Catholic priesthood, he was
guilty of treason. He was not molested, however,
till 1592, when he was arrested. After three
years’ imprisonment, with frequent tortures, he
was tried, condemned, and executed (February
21, 1595). During his residence in England,
Southwell wrote and circulated, usually in manu-
script, several Catholic tracts, and a considerable
body of choice verse (published after his death).
His most‘ ambitious poem is the long popular
SOUTHWELL.
’
16
SOVEREIGNTY.
Saint Peter’s Complaint in 132 six-line stanzas;
his best is perhaps the brief Burning Babe. Con-
sult his Poetical Works, ed. by Turnbull (Lon-
don, 1856) ; Complete Poems, ed. by Grosart
(“Fuller’s Worthies Library,” ib., 1872) ; and A
Four-foulol Meditation (not in Grosart) , ed. with
bibliography by Edmonds (ib., 1895).
SOUTH’WICK. A town in Durham, England,
1 mile northwest of Sunderland (Map: England,
E 2). It has shipbuilding industries, glass works,-
and potteries. Population, in 1901, 12,640.
SOUTIEYWORTH, EMMA DOROTHY ELIZA
[Nevitte] (1819-99). An American novelist, born
at VVashington, D. C. She wrote tales for the
National Era of Washington, in which she pub-
lished her first novel, Retribution (1849), and she
wrote nearly sixty popular novels. They dealt
principally with Southern life and were highly
wrought in color and emotion,_ but had little
literary value. A uniform edition of her works
was brought out in 1872 at Philadelphia.
SOUVESTRE, s'(>'6’vés’tr’, EMILE (1806-54).
A French novelist and dramatist.
works, Les derniers Breton-s (1835-37), Le foyer
Breton (1844), deal with his native Brittany.
More noted is the sentimentally cheerful philo-
sophe sous les toits (1851).
SOVEREIGN. An English gold coin of the
value of a pound sterling, the standard weight
of which is 123.374 grains troy. The sovereign
is worth approximately $4.85.
SOVEREIGNTY (OF. som'ai'n,te, Fr. souve-
raiuté, from OF. sovraiu, sooerairz, suuerain,
souoerain, from ML. superanus, principal, su-
preme, from Lat. super, above, over). Several
uses of the term sovereignty must be distin-
guished. Of these the principal are internal sov-
ereignty and external sovereignty. Internal sover-
eignty touches the relation between a State and
its citizens or subjects; external sovereignty re-
lates to the position of a State among other
States. The essence of internal sovereignty is
supremacy over subjects; that of external sov-
ereignty is independence of other States.
INTERNAL SOVEBEIGNTY. Under the head of in-
ternal sovereignty another distinction is made
between what is termed ‘legal’ sovereignty and
‘political’ sovereignty. Political sovereignty is
the ultimate controllin power resident in any
political society. Lega sovereignty is the or-
ganized power which at any given time must be
regarded as legally supreme. Political sovereignty
arises out of the very nature of the State as an
organization for the purposes of social control.
A supreme power enabling the State to preserve a_
form of public order, protect the community, and -
otherwise promote the general welfare is neces-
sary to the life of organized society, and its ab-
sence is anarchy. Political sovereignty, then, is
that power in the State the will of which is ulti-
mately obeyed. At any given time this supreme
will may or may not be accurately expressed by
the existing legal or governmental authority.
Legal sovereignty refers to the supreme power
of the State as embodied in some legal or gov-
ernmental organ or agency. Thus the King in
Parliament is termed a sovereign body in Eng-
land; a Constituent Convention is so called in
France; or a king in some cases is called the
sovereign. This legal sovereign may not, al-
though it generally does, represent the actual
His best-
sovereignty in the State, but it is none the less
supreme from the legal or governmental point of
view. For example, the political sovereignty
may actually belong to the mass of the people
while the legal sovereignty may be vested in an
aristocracy or a monarch; and, on the other hand,
the actual power may be vested in a few while
the government is democratic in form. Again,
the legal sovereign, as for example the Parlia-
ment in Great Britain, may pass a law opposed
by the majority of the people, but the enactment
is none the less law and legally enforceable until-
repealed, or until the Government is overthrown
by a revolution.
The origin of sovereignty has been explained in
various ways by difi'erent schools of political
philosophy. It has been asserted that the ruling
authority holds by divine appointment or sanc-
tion; that the right to rule is a property right
descending as other property in regular line of
succession; that the sovereignty is created by a
voluntary contract either between ruler and ruled
or between independent individuals, as in the
social contract (q.v.); that sovereignty is the
prerogative of superior force and belongs to the
strongest claimant. In modern times it is gener-
ally believed that sovereignty is a product of po-
litical necessity arising out of the essential na-
ture of political association, and the tenure of the
particular holders of the political sovereignty is
a result of historical evolution. This process has
thrown the supreme power in most civilized
States into the hands of the mass of the people.
CHARACTERISTICS or SOVEREIGNTY. In the nar-
rower sense, sovereignty is generally regarded
as absolute. There is no limitation of a legal
or governmental character upon the exercise of
its power. Legally speaking, all governments,
whether monarchical, aristocratic, or democratic
in form, are absolute. There are physical and
moral limitations upon it, but so far as the legal
organization is concerned, there is no other or-
ganization or association within the limits of
the State which can resist in any legal way the
commands of the sovereign. In the broader sense
of the term, political sovereignty is not abso-
lute, since the ruling element in the State, how-
ever powerful, is never strong enough to be abso-
lute in all things. It is also pointed out by
some authorities that there may be and actually
are legal limitations on the sovereign power.
Thus in the United States there is no legal way
of depriving the States of their equal suffrage in
the Senate without their consent (Const., ‘Art.
v.), and in Germany the special rights of the
States are likewise protected (Art. lxxvii.). It
has also been strongly urged that the self-limita-
tion of a State through its own Constitution gives
rise to inviolable rights against the supreme
power, and that therefore, although limited only
by its own act, the sovereignty of a State should
be regarded as legally limited, and hence not
absolute in character.
Furthermore, sovereignty in the narrower sense
of the term is indivisible. There cannot be two
sovereign powers acting on the same territory in
an organized State. Two supreme powers having
jurisdiction over the same persons and things
would be logically impossible in a unified State.
One must be sovereign and the other subordinate.
Both cannot be the highest, the supreme au-
thority. The King cannot be half-sovereign and
SOVEREIGN TY.
SOXHLET.
17
the people half-sovereign, nor in a federal system
can the various members of the union be partly
' sovereign and the central authority also partly
sovereign. VVhat seems like the division of sov-
ereignty in a ‘federal State’ is, on closer analysis,
modern constitutionalism. The sovereignty of the
political society as a whole, as ill the United
States, or the complete sovereignty of a number
of independent States, associated for certain com-
mon purposes, as in the Confederate States. The
practical difliculty arises from uncertainty as to
the degree of centralization in the given system.
The location of sovereignty has been a vexed
question, especially in connection with the rise of
modern constitutionalism. The sovereignty of the
King on the one hand and that of the people on
the other have been stoutly and ingeniously de-
fended by the partisans of court and commonalty.'
In general the theory of popular sovereignty has
triumphed, although in Germany the doctrine of
State sovereignty has been accepted as a com-
promise. There the State, including both King
and people, is declared to be the repository of
supreme power by most publicists. The location
of sovereignty has also been a subject of theo-
retical discussion as well as actual warfare in
the great federal States, Germany and the United
States, and in both instances has been decided to
the prejudice of the individual States. See
STATES’ RIGHTS.
EXTERNAL SOVEREIGNTY. States which pos-
sess certain powers, such as that of negotiating
treaties, declaring war, concluding peace, and
‘regulating their internal administration, are
called sovereign powers and are the parties
to international law, entitled to its rights and
privileges and liable to its duties and respon-
sibilities. In international law the character-
istics of sovereignty are not the same as in the
cases already considered, but are nevertheless
treated as sovereign powers for the purposes of
international law. Examples of this would be
Turkey, Servia, and Egypt. Moreover, in interna-
tional law, sovereignty is generally looked upon
as divisible in nature. Certain States are termed
half-sovereign or semi-sovereign. A State may
yield up its right to negotiate with other powers,
or the right to make war, or may surrender the
control of a large part of its internal admin-
istration, and yet remain in the eyes of inter-
national law at least a semi-sovereign State.
VVe may thus have a State which is sover-
eign internally—that is, over its own subjects
—-and at the same time subordinate to the
commands of some other State externally, as
was Madagascar. In fact, the territorial
expansion of the Great Powers has given
rise to a variety of complicated relations be-
tween strong and weak States, such as the pro-
tectorate, Suzerainty, and the ‘sphere of in-
fluence,’ which make exceedingly difficult the
logical application of the conventional idea of
sovereignty, and, indeed, can be explained only by
reference to the category of international law.
In recent years it has been maintained that
sovereignty has no place among the concepts of
political science, and should properly be elimi-
nated from its terminology. Sovereignty and
absolutism are regarded as identical in nature,
and it is declared that constitutionalism, federal-
ism, and imperialism alike require that this con-
cept, born in the days Of the struggle with feudal-
ism, should now be abandoned. Other publicists
maintain that a State may exist as a State al-
though devoid of the attribute of sovereignty.
There may be, in other words, a non-sovereign
State, of which such communities as Bavaria and
Saxony would be types. Such ‘States’ possess
true political power, governing in their right,
and not by delegated authority, but are to be
classed as non-sovereign States, in-
asmuch as they are subordinate to
the Empire as a whole. The same
position has been claimed for the
members of the American Union
by Woodrow Wilson.
SOW-BUG. A small carnivo-
rous crustacean of the family Onis-
cidae, the species of which live
under logs in the woods and in
similar places. It is an isopod.
See CRUSTACEA; ISOPODA; and compare GRIBBLE.
SOWER, sour (or SAUR), CHRISTOPHER
( 1693-1758). An early American printer and pub-
lisher, born at Laasphe, near Marburg, Germany.
After receiving a university education, and study-
ing medicine at Halle, he emigrated to Pennsyl-
vania III 1724, and in 1731 settled at Germantown.
There in 1738 he set up a printing press and
began the publication of an almanac in German,
which was continued by his descendants for sixty
years. In 1739 he issued the first number of
Der Hoch-Deutsch Pensyl/vanische Geschichte-
Schreiber, a quarterly magazine, the first of the
sort published in Pennsylvania. In 1743 he pub-
lished a quarto edition of Luther’s translation
of the Bible in German, which was, with the ex-
ception of Eliot’s Indian Bible, the first to be
published in America. He continued his activity
in publishing both English and German works,
and in connection with that business established
a type foundry, the first in America, a paper
mill, and an ink factory. He is also generally
credited with being the inventor of cast-iron
stoves.
SOWERBY (sou'er-bi) BRIDGE. A manu-
facturing town in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 3 miles southwest of Halifax. Its chief
buildings are Christ Church, dating from 1526
and rebuilt in 1819, the town hall, and municipal
offices. The town owns the gas works, slaughter
houses, and public baths. VVoolens are manu-
factured. Population, in 1901, 11,500.
SOW THISTLE (AS. saga istel, from augu,
sow + istel, thistle), Sonchus. A genus of about
30 species of Old World plants of the natural
order Composites. Several species have been in-
troduced in the United States. The common
sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) is a somewhat
branching annual weed 2 to 3 feet tall, with
small yellow flowers, common in richly cultivated
soils. The tender tops and leaves are much used
in Northern Europe as greens. The field sow
thistle (Sonchus arvensis) is a perennial with
large yellow flowers and found in similar soils.
The Alpine blue sow thistle (Lactuca alpiam)
is a native of the mountainous parts of Europe.
SOXHLET. zf>ks'lét, FRANZ (l848—). A
German agricultural chemist, born at Briinn,
Austria. and educated at Leipzig. In 1879 he
Was appointed professor of agricultural chemis-
try at the Polytechnic Institute in Munich and
superintendent of the principal Bavarian agri-


BOW-BUG.
SOXHLET.
SOYE SHIMA.
18
cultural experiment station. There he became
distinguished for his experiments in the chem-
istry of milk and its action. He put forth a
new theory of the formation of butter and de-
vised a method of extracting fats by means of
eaten there as a vegetable, but as more or less
complex food products of which natto, tofu, misc,
yuba, and shoyu are commonly made in Japan
and similar products in China. The composition
of these foods is given in the following table:
COMPOSITION or Foon Pnonvcrs MADE FROM SOY BEANB


SOY-BEAN noon PRODUCTS Water Protein Fat ,r§été'§tgI_‘;I:3t Fibre Ash
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Fresh tofu ..................................................... .. 89.00 5.00 3.40 2.10 0.50
Frozen tofu ................................................... .. 18.70 48.50 28.50 2.60 ..... .. 1.70
Natto ........................................................... .. 15.32 41.42 23.65 15.05 1.48 3.08
Yuba ............................................................ .. 2]..85 42.60, 24.62 7.65 2.82
White miso .................................................... .. 50. 70 5.70 24.40 12.60 6.60
Red miso ....................................................... .. 50.40 10.08 18.77 8.25 12.50
Shoyu (soy sauce) .......................................... .. 63.29 8.31 5.10 19.45



ether. His investigations, embracing such sub-
jects as the difference between human and bo-
Vine milk, the sterilization of milk, and the de-
termination of the percentage of fat contained
therein, the organic changes of tissue in the
sucking calf, the varieties of sugars, and the for-
‘mation of fats from carbohydrates, are all
valuable.
SOY BEAN (Jap. si-yan, Chin. shi-yu, soy),
Glycine hispida. An upright bushy annual legu-
minous plant 21/2 to 4 feet tall,anative of Asia,
where it has long been cultivated, especially in
China and Japan, and whence it has been
introduced into Europe and America. The name
soy is derived from the Japanese shoyu, a food
prepared from the seeds. The numerous varieties
in cultivation vary principally in the color,
shape, and size of the seed and the length of the
growing period. Besides its use as a forage plant
(see below) this crop is also frequently grown
as a soil-improver on soils deficient in nitrogen.
It thrives best under conditions favorable to corn
culture and on soils of medium texture well sup-
plied with potash, phosphoric acid, and lime,
although it also gives good returns on light poor
soils. If planted for hay or fodder the seed is
sown broadcast or closely in drills in the spring
when the soil has become thoroughly warm; if
for the beans, in drills about three feet apart and
cultivated like corn. When used for hay, en-
silage, or green fodder the crop is cut when the
plants are in bloom. when harvested for the
seed, before the pods become ripe enough to
burst and scatter the seeds. From eight to ten
tons of green forage are obtained from an acre.
About 40 bushels of seed per acre is considered
a satisfactory yield, but sometimestfrom 75 to
100 bushels are obtained. Insect enemies and
plant diseases do not seem to be troublesome.
Soy-bean hay out at the proper season and
well cured has a high feeding value, but since
the stems become woody and the leaves fall off
badly, the crop is put into the silo either alone
or mixed with corn ensilage. The seed, being a
very concentrated feed, is usually ground and
mixed with other feeding stuffs. Fed alone or
with other materials the meal is quite thoroughly
digested; experiments with sheep showed that
91 per cent. of the protein and 84 per cent.
of the total organic matter was assimilated.
Similar values of the seed were 87 and 85 per
cent.
Though the soy bean is eaten more exten-
sively in China and Japan than in any other
countries, so far as can be learned it is never
Most of these soy-bean products, which have
been popular from ancient times, are fermented.
The cell walls and other carbohydrate materials
are broken down, the cell contents rendered more
accessible to the digestive juices, and at the
same time peculiar and pleasant flavors are de-
veloped.
The statement is frequently made that the
Orientals live almost exclusively upon rice, eat-
ing little or no meat. It is not, however,_gen-
erally known that the deficiency of protein in
the rice is made up by the consumption of large
quantities of these soy-bean products, which are
said to take the place in the Japanese dietary of
meat and other animal nitrogenous foods too
costly to be eaten by the populace. They are
eaten in some form by rich and poor at almost
every meal. A large number of dietary and di-
gestion experiments have been made in Japan in
which soy-bean preparations formed a consider-
able part of the food consumed. Generally speak-
ing, the nitrogen was well assimilated. The beans
are sometimes used for bread-making, and when
roasted as a substitute for coffee.
SOYER, swa’ya’, ALEXIS BENOIT (1809-58).
A French cook and writer on cookery, born at
Meaux-en-Brie. After the Revolution of 1830
he went to England, where he became chief cook
to the Duke of Cambridge. In 1837 he became
chef at the Reform Club. In 1847 on a Govern-
ment appointment he proceeded to Ireland, where
a serious famine prevailed, and there erected and
conducted a large number of kitchens from which
food was served at half the regular price. In
1855 he went to the Crimea, where, in conjunc-
tion with Florence Nightingale, he directed re-
forms in the dietaries of the military hospitals.
This work he continued after his return to Eng-
land at the close of the war, with the result that
a radical dietary reform both in the hospitals
and in the ordinary barrack rations was effected.
He wrote extensively on cookery, among his pub-
lished works being: The Gastronomic Regenera-
tor (1846), The Modern Housewife (1849), A
History of Food in All Ages (1853), A Shilling
Cookery Boole for the People (1855), Soyer’s
Culinary Campaign with the Plain Art of Coola-
ery for Military and Civil Institutions (1857),
Instructions for Military Hospitals (1860). Con-
sult also Volant and Warren, Memoirs of Alewis
Soyer (London, 1858).
SOYESHIMA, s5-yesh’i-ma, TANEOMI. A
Japanese statesman and scholar, born at Saga,
in the Province of Hizen, in Kiushiu, and edu-
cated in the local school for samurai. In 1866
SOYESHIMA.
SPACE.
19
at Nagasaki he came under the influence of Guido
F. Verbeck (q.v.), an American missionary, by
whom he was taught, particularly in the New
Testament and the Constitution of the United
States. Giving his special attention to the study
of law, he was in 1868 made a commissioner by
the new Government for framing laws and later
an Imperial councilor. In 1871 the Mikado
sent him to Russian Siberia to settle boundary
question concerning the island of Saghalin, and
in the following year he was an ambassador to
the Emperor of China regarding Loo-choo. As
Minister of Foreign Affairs he was instrumental
in releasing the Chinese coolies from a Peruvian
vessel at Yokohama and thus ending the coolie
traffic. (See l\/IACAO.) On his return to Japan
he resigned from the Cabinet because of differ-
ences on the Korean war question, but in private
life continued to be influential in agitation for
constitutional government, and later was invited
to reénter the Cabinet. He revisited China in
1876, was welcomed and lauded by the mandarins
for his profound scholarship, and became a trust-
ed private adviser of the Emperor, especially in
his library.
SO’YOTS. A people of the Sayan-Altai re-
gion, Mongolian by race, usually classed with
the Samoyeds. They are of rather low stature,
with brachycephalic head form. They are un-
doubtedly at present a mixed people, with
the anthropological type of the Samoyed most
prominent. They are hunters and nomads, and
number some 35,000 or 40,000 in the Chinese
Yenesei basin.
SO-Z’OMEN (Gk. 2w§'qrev6s, S6.eomenos),
HERMIAS SALAMINIUS. A Church historian of the
fifth century. He came from a wealthy family
of Palestine and spent at least a part of his life
as a lawyer at Constantinople. He wrote a his-
tory of the Church in nine books, covering the
period from 323 to 439. The latter portion, deal-
ing with the years from 423 to 425, is lost. He
follows Socrates (q.v.) very closely, but has some
independent material, especially upon monastic
matters. The work was edited by Hussey (Ox-
ford, 1860), and there is an English translation
by Hartranft (New York, 1891).
SPA, spii. A famous watering place in the
Province of Liege, Belgium, 20 miles southeast
of the city of Liege (Map: Belgium, D 4). It is
attractively situated in a hilly region. The waters
of the Pouhon spring are largely exported. It is in
an inclosure erected to commemorate the visit of
Peter the Great in 1717. The Etablisscment des
Bains, a handsome modern structure, is in the
Place Royale adjacent to the Casino. There are
noted manufactures of woodenware, which is
stained brown by being steeped in the mineral
waters. Population, in 1900, 8192. Spa gained
prominence in the sixteenth century and reached
its greatest popularity in the eighteenth century,
when it was the favorite resort of the European
nobility. It declined in importance after the
French Revolution, but is rapidly regaining its
former prestige. About 15,000 people visit the
place annually. ‘Spa’ as applied to mineral
springs originated in the name of this town.
Consult Poskin and Guilleaume, Spa, les eauw
et les bains (Spa, 1895).
SPACE (OF., Fr. espace, from Lat. spatium,
space; connected with apes, hope, OChurch Slav.
sp-eti, to result, Lith. spéti, to have leisure, AS.
sp6/wan, OHG, spouan, to succeed, Skt. sphay, to
fatten). A term denoting the physical basis for
dimension and magnitude. From ancient times it
has occupied a large place in philosophical discus-
sions. Parmenides and Plato make it equivalent to
non-being. Leucippus (q.v.), on the contrary,
recognizes its reality. Space of course is presup-
posed as a fundamental reality in all materialistic
atomism. Aristotle defines place as limit, thereby
committing himself to the denial of empty space.
In modern philosophy the nature of space is one
of the central questions. Descartes considered it
one of the two attributes of reality, and Spinoza
followed him in making it one of the two known
attributes. Leibnitz (q.v.) cannot recognize
space as an original attribute of his monads, else
they become material and not spiritual. Space
is therefore only the order of possible coexistent
phenomena of sense. \Vhen thought clarifies
away the obscurities of sense space is no longer
left as a relation in which realities stand to each
other. Natural science, however, and material-
ism have vigorously maintained the ultimate
reality of space. Berkeley practically reduces
space to time and Hume makes it the disposi-
tion of colored points. Kant taught that space
is a form of perception; phenomena appear in
space simply because the mind gives them a local
habitation, and, he argues, we may not say
that things in themselves are spatial. He tries
to prove the a priori character of space from its
inevitableness in our experience; and according
to his view whatever is a priori must be of sub-
jective origin. Hegel regards it as ‘the first or
immediate characteristic of nature,’ and yet it is
an abstract characteristic, not an independent
entity. At the present time there are advocates
of almost all theories that have in the past been
broached. There are transcendentalists (Kanti-
ans) ; there are realists, who attribute an inde-
pendent reality to space as if it were a vessel to
be filled with objects; there are those who be-
lieve that our idea of space is so full of contra-
dictions that it has no ultimate value; and there
are those who believe it is a real quality of ex-
perienced objects and a real relation between such
objects, but who refuse to attribute to it an ex-
istence entirely apart from the objects it quali-
fies or correlates. The last mentioned view seems
to be in closer agreement with the facts than any
of the others. According to this view pure space
is an abstraction having no actual existence.
Space is always in experience the figure of some
object or the distance between some objects, or in
some way an attribute or a relation, not a self-
existent thing. The question of the origin of our
spatial ideas is psychological. A question that
has always been much mooted is that as to the
finitude or the infinity of space. Kant tried to
cut the Gordian knot by denying the reality of
space as a thing in itself, whereby he thought to
be able to say that the whole trouble was re-
moved. Space is, therefore, for Kant neither
infinite nor finite, but there is no limit to our
power to produce space. It is indefinitely pro-
ducible. Taking, however, the view that space is
a real but not an independent element in the
objective world, the question as to the infinity
of space becomes one to be answered only on the
basis of induction (q.v.), and if we may judge
from past experience, we should say that there is
no definite indication that experienceable spatial
SPACE.
SPAIN.
20
objects are limited. But the data are not sufli-
cient for a dogmatic judgment. But even if an
end of perceptible objects were found imagina-
tion would add further objects, and thus remove
the limits. See Baumann, Die Lehre vom Raum,
Zeit uncl Mathematilc in der neuen Philosophie
(Berlin, 1868-69) ; Deichmann, Das Problem cles
Raumes in der go-iechischen Philosophie bis Aris-
toteles (Leipzig, 1893) ; Hodgson, Time and
Space (London, 1865) ; Lechalas, Etude sur
l’espace et le temps (Paris, 1896) ; Saleta, Ew-
posé sommaire de l’ide’e d’espacc (ib., 1872) ; also
the metaphysical works of Kant, Hegel, Lotze,
Bradley, Bowne, Hobhouse.
SPADEFOOT. A ‘toad’ of the family Peloba-
tidae, prominently characterized by the inner
bone of the ankle (tarsus) being covered with a
hard, sharp-edged horny sheath, which forms an
effective tool for digging. Three species belong
to Western Europe and the Mediterranean re-
gion, of which the best known is Pelobates fuscus,




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FOOT or A srnnnnoor.
Under surface of a left foot, showing the ‘ spade’ (a).
which makes deep holes in the sand, where it
hides during the day, coming out to hunt at
night. The very numerous eggs are laid in
strings in water, and the tadpoles grow to a
disproportionately large size, shrinking greatly
when they change into young toads. American
representatives of the family are several species
of the genus Scaphiophus, one of which (Sca-
phiophus solitarius), common from New Jersey
southward in all suitable places, is renowned
for the remarkably loud noise it makes when
calling in the spring. Other species are found
in Mexico. Consult: Gadow, Amphibia and Rep-
tiles (London, 1902); Abbott, A Naturalist’s
Rambles About Home (New York, 1884).
SPAETH, spat, ADOLPH (1839—). A Ger-
man-American theologian, born at Esslingen, in
Wiirttemberg, and educated at Tiibingen. He
became a vicar in Wiirttemberg and afterwards
a tutor in the family of the Duke of Argyll. In
1864 he came to the United States and for ten
years was pastor of a church in Philadelphia.
He then became professor of New Testament exe-
gesis in the theological seminary of the Lutheran
Church at Philadelphia. He published the Amer-
ican edition of Biicher’s Hand-Koulcorda/nz and
his own Saatkdrner (1893).
SPAGNA, spa’nya, Lo (c.1480-c.1530). A
Spanish painter domiciled in Italy, known as
Giovanni lo Spagnuolo or Giovanni di Pietro.
Although one of the most distinguished pupils
of Pietro Perugino, with whom—and with his
own fellow pupil Raphael—he has often been
confused, little is known of this Raphaelesque
painter, save that he was born in Spain, was
established in Umbria after 1500, studied under
Pintoriccino, and was made head of the Painters’
Guild of Spoleto in 1517. His chief works are in
Assisi, Perugia, Spoleto, and Todi. In the Na-
tional Gallery in London there is also a fine ex-
ample, “The Agony in the Garden,” and at Caen
is the “Marriage,” long attributed to Raphael,
and a “Saint Jerome.”
SPAGNOLETTO, spa'nyo-lét’to, L0. The fa-
r(nilia)r name of the painter Juste de Ribera
q.v. .
SPAHIS (Fr. spahi, from Hind., Pers. sipahi,
soldier, horseman, from Pers. sipah, supah,
army). Native Algerian cavalry, originally
formed from the Turkish spahis serving in the
country at the time of its conquest by the
French. The uniform is like that of the Arabs.
The natives are not allowed to hold any rank
higher than captain.
SPAHR, spar, CHARLES BABZILLAI (1860-).
An American author and journalist, born at C0-
lumbus, Ohio. He was educated at Amherst Col-
lege, at Leipzig, and at Columbia University.
In 1886 he became an associate editor of The
Outlook. His publications include “Essay on
the Present Distribution of Wealth in the United
States” (1896), in the Library of Egzonomics and
Politics, and America’s Working People (1900).
SPAIN (Sp. Espafla, from Lat. Hispania).
A kingdom occupying about six-sevenths of the
area of the Iberian peninsula, about one-seventh
falling to the share of Portugal. Lying be-
tween latitudes 36° and 44° N. and longitudes 9°
15’ W. and 3° 20’ E., it is bounded by France, the
Atlantic (in the north the Bay of Biscay), Por-
tugal, and the Mediterranean. At the extreme
south the narrow Strait of Gibraltar separates
it from Morocco. Its continental area is 192,004
square miles. As the Canary and Balearic
Islands and the small possessions on the north
and west coasts of Africa are officially included
in the kingdom, its total area is 194,783
square miles. The gorges of the Mifio (Minho
in Portuguese), the Guadiana River, and the
cafions of the Duero (Douro) and Tagus (Sp.
Tajo) constitute to a great extent a natural
demarcation between Spain and Portugal.
TOPOGRAPHY. The predominating natural fea-
ture of Spain is the great Iberian tableland which
occupies the middle and much of the northern
portion of the peninsula—a very compact, lofty,
and mainly treeless plateau sloping as a whole
to the west. The surface of the tableland rises
from 1000 to 3000 feet above the sea, and in its
highest part, on the edge of the Iberian Moun-
tains, which wall in Castile on the cast, it is
3500 to 5000 feet high. This lofty plateau is
crossed by many mountain ridges called sierras,
the most important of which are the Cas-
tilian Mountains in the centre of the king-
dom (Sierra de Guadarrama and Sierra de
Gredos), which divide the extensive high plains
of Old Castile from those of New Castile. The
northern limits of the tableland are the Canta-
brian Mountains, the western continuation of the
Pyrenees, and the southern limits are the Sierra
Morena, which is nothing more than the steep
edge of the plateau separating Castile from An-
dalusia. The highest mountains of the tableland
are those of the central region, such as the Plaza
Almanzor (8730 feet) in the Sierra de Gredos,
and the Pico de Pefialara (7890 feet) in the Sierra
de Guadarrama; but these summits rise scarce-
ly 5000 feet above the general level of the pla-
teau. Some of the depressions between the moun-
tain ranges are narrow valleys drained by many
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MEAD 5 COMP '
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
21
rapid rivers, and communication across the sier-
ras from valley to valley is difiicult.
The long unbroken chain of the Pyrenees
forms a mighty barrier on the side of France.
They form a wall of exclusion over which ‘no
highways have been built, the mountains being
circumvented only by roads at their extreme
ends. The highest peak of the Pyrenees (which
is situated on the Spanish side of the boundary)
is the Pico de Aneto (Pic d’Anethou), whose
summit is about 11,160 feet above the sea. The
Sierra Nevada, in the extreme south, close to the
coast, attains an elevation of 11,420 feet, in
Mulahacén, the highest mountain in Europe (re-
garding the Caucasus as not belonging to
Europe) outside of the Alps.
The alternation of mountain and river valley
in Spain is very conspicuous—-first the Canta-
brian Mountains and the Duero River in the
north; then in succession the Guadarrama Moun-
tains and the Tagus, the Toledo Mountains and
the Guadiana, the Sierra Morena and the Guadal-
quivir, with the Nevada Mountains, in the south.
The coast throughout nearly its whole extent is
bordered by mountains, giving it a very rugged
character, and there are few openings that may
be converted into good harbors. The coasts are
further impaired for shipping by dangerous cur-
rents which tend to throw vessels on the shore.
Barcelona has the only really first-class harbor.
Spain contains two great low plains. One is
the plain of Aragon in the northeast, through
which fiows the Ebro, which drains the greater
part of Northeastern Spain. This plain extends
between the Pyrenees and the Iberian Mountains,
and is walled in from the Mediterranean by the
Catalonian Mountains. The other is the Anda-
lusian plain in the southwest, traversed by the
Guadalquivir River and extending between the
Sierra Morena and the Sierra Nevada. These
plains, like the narrow and comparatively short
coastal plains, are among the most fertile regions
of Europe, but are of small extent compared with
the wide-spreading tableland.
HYDRCGRAPIIY. All the long rivers, excepting
the Ebro, empty into the Atlantic, as the main
water parting is nearer to the Mediterranean
than to the ocean. Most of the rivers are for the
greater part of the year very deficient in water
and not navigable, and, therefore, of small value
for shipping. They lie too far below the gen-
eral level to be of much use even for irrigation.
The Mifio, Duero, Guadiana, and Tagus are not
navigable in Spain, though they are useful for
commerce to some extent in Portugal. Of the
800 miles of waterways in Spain only 300 miles
are available the year around. The Guadalquivir,
which flows through a part of the Andalusian
plain, is the deepest river in Spain; vessels as-
cend it as far as Seville, and small boats reach
Cordova. It draws most of its water supply
from the high mountains of Andalusia. The
Mifio and Duero flow across the plateau of Old
Castile; the Tagus, the longest of the rivers,
courses through New Castile. These rivers with
the Guadiana flow in deep rocky valleys. The
Ebro reaches the Mediterranean through a tor-
tuous gorge. VVith its largest tributaries, which
bring much water from the slopes of the Canta-
brian Mountains and the Pyrenees, it is of great
value for irrigating the fertile low lands of
Aragon. There are no important lakes, the
small lake of Albufera, near Valencia, being the
largest.
CLIMATE AND SCIL. Spain has almost a con-
tinental climate notwithstanding the great length
of its coast line. The range of temperature be-
tween summer and winter and the diurnal varia-
tions are great and rapid. Spain has often been
misconceived as a land of eternal spring, in which
groves of olives and oranges thrive. The climatic
conditions adapted for these fruits are found,
however, only in the coast districts, and in Anda-
lusia, in the extreme south, and Galicia in the
northwest. The summers of the tableland are
so hot that nearly all the rivers are dried
up and the earth becomes so parched and
unproductive that whole villages are sometimes
compelled to migrate. The nearness to the
Sahara, across the narrow Mediterranean, ex-
poses the southern part of the country to in-
tense heat. On the other hand, the height of the
tableland causes the winter temperature to be
low. At Madrid, in the centre of the peninsula,
there is often skating in winter, although in sum-
mer the temperature may rise to 107° F. in the
shade, making the climate of Madrid the most
extreme in Western Europe. On the southern
coast, by contrast, the mean temperature in Janu-
ary is 55°, and frost and snow are extremely
rare. The mean temperature at Malaga, on the
south coast, is in summer 77° and in winter 57°;
at Barcelona, in the northeast, on the Mediterra-
nean, the summer and winter means are respec-
tively 77° and 50°, and at Madrid, in the centre,
75° and 44.6°. The climate is also one of the
driest in Europe, and has been made still drier
by the destruction of the forests. The rainfall is
very small, only 8 to 12 inches per annum in the
interior. The evil of deficient precipitation is
increased by the fact that, as in all Mediterra-
nean lands, the largest rainfall is in the winter
months after the growing season. Irrigation is,
therefore, the basis of agriculture. The soils
need only moisture to make them very fertile.
The hot south wind of Andalusia, known as the
Solano, and the cold north wind, called the Gal-
lego, are peculiar to Spain.
FLORA. The vegetation is that of Central Eu-
rope. It is, however, very monotonous on the
whole, for the number of plants capable of sup-
porting great extremes of temperature is natu-
rally limited. Herbs and shrubs predominate on
the plateau, but a greater variety of plants is
found in ascending from the plains to the moun-
tain summits. Woods are met with only on the
slopes of the mountains, where chestnut trees
and oaks of various species occupy the lower zone
and conifers extend to the tree limit. The elm is
found in many river valleys, and is planted with
success in some cities. The poplar is one of the
cultivated trees, and the beech forms large forests
on some of the mountain slopes. The vine flour-
ishes on stony soil, and the olive tree is an im-
portant element in the national wealth. The
cork tree, from which the bark may be stripped
every ten years, is found in Granada and south-
west of the Pyrenees, and also in various other
districts. Esparto, or alfa, and rushes, largely
used for baskets and mats, are grown on the
coast and in the interior; sugar cane is culti-
vated in Andalusia and Valencia; European and
Mediterranean fruits and nuts, such as apples,
pears. oranges, lemons, almonds, chestnuts, and
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
22
figs, grow in abundance; the southern provinces
also raise maize and rice; and Spain is the chief
saffron-producing country in the world.
FAUNA. The remnants of the forests still har-
bor wolves; lynxes, wildcats, foxes, and even
wild goats. The bear is now rare. Deer, hares,
and other game abound, and wild boars of
great size and strength are hunted in the oak
forests.
GEoLoeY AND MINERAL RESoURoES. The table-
la11d is a very ancient and much altered block of
the earth’s crust, chiefly composed of Archaean
and Paleozoic rocks, for the most part of Cam-
brian, Silurian, and Devonian formation. O11 the
north and south margins of the tableland two
younger land masses were upheaved into lofty
bordering ranges, the Pyrenean-Cantabrian on the
north, and the Andalusian on the south. The
Pyrenees are an example of a young folded
mountain system built up of parallel belts usual-
ly in a northwest and southeast direction. The
crust folds of the Andalusian system have a low
outer zone of folded Mesozoic and Tertiary strata
and a lofty inner girdle, in which the Archaean
and Paleozoic rocks rise high above the Mediter-
ranean. Spain had the reputation till the
discovery of America of being the richest metal-
producing country iii the world. It is the
most metalliferous land of Europe, not except-
ing the Ural mining district. The rapid develop-
ment of mining has been impeded by insufficient
fuel and defective means of communication; but
the chief reason for the inferior condition of the
mining industries is found in the lack of enter-
prise and skill among the Spaniards. Foreign
capital and energy have brought about most of
the development in recent years, and the greater
part of the ore is exported to foreign countries
in its raw state. The rich iron ore and the cop-
per ore go to England and Germany, and Span-
ish gold and silver ores are melted at Freiberg
in Saxony. The great iron fields of North Spam
have been chiefly tributary to Great Britain,
whose iron-makers have imported from first to
last about 100,000,000 tons of this ore, chiefly
through the port of Bilbao. It is especially de-
sired in Great Britain and Germany because it is
hematite of the best steel grade. These mines
along the Bay of Biscay are now nearly exhausted,
but iron of excellent quality is also found in con-
siderable quantities in Andalusia, the Sierra Mo-
rena, and Leon. In 1903 a fresh source of oxide
of iron ore, discovered 85 miles from Malaga, be-
gan to enter into commerce.
Nearly every province contains coal measures,
the resources of the country being estimated at
l3,000,000,000 tons. Coal is worked chiefly in
Asturias, Leon, and Lérida, but the amount
mined is comparatively small and the railroads,
even in the coal-producing provinces, burn
English coal. The quicksilver mines of Al-
maden are the richest in the world. Spain pro-
duces more lead than any other country of Eu-
rope, and lead-mining in recent years has given
new life to Granada, most of it being obtained
from the mines of the Alpujarras (q.v.) and
those of Linares in Jaén. Copper is found in in-
exhaustible quantities on the Rio Tinto, in South-
ern Spain, where mines have been worked by
British and German capital since 1873. The ore
is also mined in Murcia, Oviedo, Jaén, and Za-
mora. Salt is chiefly obtained by evaporation of
sea water at Cadiz, Valencia, and the Balearic
Islands, though Catalonia and New Castile
abound in rock salt. Among the other important
minerals are sulphur, soda, saltpetre, alum,
graphite, and potter’s clay. Mineral springs are
numerous, the best known being the thermal sul-
phur springs of Mombuy, in Catalonia. In 1901
there were in Spain 2291 productive mines em-
ploying 87,409 workmen. The output of raw
minerals in the same year was valued at $26,-
960,328. The quantities and values of the
more important minerals produced in 1901 (the

peseta being valued at 14.28 cents) were as
follows:
. .- 1 1,000
LRUDE MINERALS ’1ons pesetas
Iron ............................................. .. 7,906.51’? 40,833
Coal .................................... ... ...... .. 2,556,591 28,932
Copper ......................................... .. 2,672,365 45,756
Lead ............................................ . . 174,326 13,666
Silver-lead ....................... ..- ......... .. 207,188 33,578
(Quicksilver .................................. .. 28, 367 5,200
Zinc ............................................. .. 119,708 4,029
M an ganese .................................. .. 60,235 1,008
Salt ............................................. .. 345,090 3,000


AGRICULTURE, LIVE~ Sroox, AND FISHERIES.
Spain’s largest interests are agricultural, over
half the people living by farming, which supplies
about two-thirds of the exports. In general the
husbandry of Spain is of an antiquated charac-
ter. Farm methods and implements are primitive,
and the special disadvantages are’ that 1nuch of
the land is owned by the nobility in large hold-
ings, the taxes are high, and communications
poor. Four-fifths of the area is classed as produc-
tive; 33.8 per cent. is devoted to general agri-
culture. and gardening, 3.7 to vineyards, 1.6 to
olive-growing, 19.7 to natural grasses, and 20.8
to fruit. Pasturage is abundant, even the great
plains of the dry tableland being covered in sum-
mer with aromatic herbage on which sheep thrive,
while in winter the flocks are driven down to the
lower districts, especially to Estremadura. Al-
though about 250,000 of the holdings a-re in large
estates, the subdivision of the soil has been rap-
idly advancing in recent years. As in all coun-
tries in which winter rains prevail, irrigation, as
stated above, is necessary during the rainless
months. Artificial watering in a wide belt along
the Mediterranean coast transformed a great area
into a region of remarkable fertility. These
lands are called huertas or gardens. All avail-
able fertilizers, including street sweepings, are
used, with the result that no land in the world
is more productive than the huertas. Here are
produced southern fruits, vegetables, sugar cane,
maize, and other crops requiring abundant
moisture. Only about nine per cent. of the coun-
try, however, is artificially irrigated. The Gov-
ernment in 1900 took steps to enlarge the
agricultural area by the construction of reser-
voirs and irrigation canals. The plans adopted
for the irrigation system cannot fully be carried
out for many years. Lands now irrigated in the
valleys of the Ebro and Tagus are yielding twelve
times as much fruit as the dry lands.
The most profusely watered and the best cul-
tivated region is Valencia, where three or four
crops are harvested every year. The level parts
of Catalonia, Murcia, and Andalusia are also
very fertile, while Asturias and Galicia, though
less productive, are carefully cultivated. A
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
'23
large part of the dry lands of the interior is
untilled, though where subterranean waters are
near the surface wheat and other cereals are
grown. In good years the northern provinces
export cereals, though the wheat crop does not
always meet the home demand. A region extend-
ing widely around Valladolid is called the gran-
ary of Castile. The swampy lands bordering the
Gulf of Valencia yield fine crops of rice. Oats
are little grown; rye is the chief breadstuff in
the part of Spain fronting on the Atlantic; and
barley is grown for cattle food.
The areas in acres devoted to the cereal crops
in the year of 1901 were as follows: Wheat,
9,172,196; barley, 3,301,115; rye, 1,968,989; oats,
944,198; maize, 1,156,126; rice, 84,463.
The most important branch of husbandry is
the cultivation of the vine, and wine at times
forms as much as a third of the total exports.
As much as 700,000,000 gallons is sometimes
produced, but most of the wines are poorly made.
In the African climate of the south are produced
the famous wines of Malaga, Alicante, and Jerez
(Sherry). These wines are highly valued both
for medicinal and table purposes. Besides wine
Valencia, Malaga, and Alicante also export great
quantities of raisins and grapes. The most profit-
able crop of the huertas is fruits. Oranges and
lemons thrive best along the Gulf of Valencia and
in the Balearic Islands. Large quantities of the
peel of the bigarade or bitter orange are sent to
Holland to be used in the manufacture of the
liqueur Curacao. Olives and olive oil are large
products, though somewhat less important than
oranges in the export trade. No other country
produces so much olive oil as Spain, and_most of
the product is consumed at home. The mdustry
is chiefly developed in the southern provinces,
Seville supplying the greater part of the olives
for table use, while the oil comes from Cordova.
As a large amount of the home product is poorly
made, much of the oil is refined in France; but
efforts have been made in recent years to improve
the quality of the oil, so that it may compete in
foreign markets with French and Italian oils.
Leguminous vegetables, a staple article of food
in Spain, are raised in sulficient quantity to pro-
vide a surplus for export. Esparto, which thrives
in droughty lands, grows in the southeast and is
sent in large quantities to England. Tobacco is
cultivated, but much is also imported; the to-
bacco industry, which is a Government monopoly,
is an important source of revenue. Hemp and
flax are grown chiefly in the northern provinces.
Though the area in forests is said to comprise
7,500,000 acres, the timber supply is deficient
and large quantities must be imported from
Scandinavia and North America.
The breeding of domestic animals was once of
great importance in Spain, but the industry has
retrograded. The most famous domestic animal is
the fine-fleeced merino sheep, now not so numerous
as formerly. Though Spain raises more sheep in
proportion to population than any other country
of Europe, the number has been reduced from
23,000,000 to 16,500,000 since 1890; and the
famous fine-wool merinos have been largely re-
placed by coarse-wool breeds. In the mountain dis-
tricts about 2.600.000 goats are reared for their
milk, flesh, and skins. A single peasant in Sierra
Nevada sometimes owns as many as 3000 or 4000
goats. The best horses, originally of Arab stock,
are raised in Andalusia and Asturias; but horse-
breeding is much neglected in favor of the highly
prized mule, the kingdom containing only about
400,000 horses. On the other hand, there are 1,-
521,000 mules and asses, which are bred with
great care in most parts of Spain. The number
of cattle amounts to barely 2,217,000 head. -
They are 1nost numerous on the pastures
of the northwest, where the rain from the
Atlantic is abundant. To this region dairy
farming is confined. The wild cattle spe-
cially raised for bull-fighting are obtained from
the Sierra Guadarrama and the Sierra Morena.
Hogs, about 2,000,000 in number, are reared
chiefly in the mountainous parts of the kingdom,
especially in the north and in Estremadura.
Silkworm culture is only one-tenth as large as
half a century ago, and is chiefly confined to the
regions around the Gulf of Valencia. The yield
of cocoons in 1901 amounted to 2,190,000 kilo-
grams. Most of the raw silk is sold to France
and large quantities of silk goods are imported.
The sea fisheries are important. The home indus-
try does not begin to supply the demand and
much fish is imported from Norway. The total
number of boats engaged in the industry in 1892
was 14,726; fishermen, 67,197. The chief catches
are sardines, tunny, and cod.
MANUFACTURES. The manufacturing industries
do not supply the home demand. Catalonia has
always been the home of the greater part of
Spanish manufactures. Next in order come those
districts of Galicia, Asturias, and Vizcaya in
which water power abounds and also a few towns
in the interior, such as Madrid, Seville, and
Toledo. Barcelona, in Catalonia, is the leading
manufacturing town and the chief seat of the tex-
tile, metal, paper, and leather industries and lace-
making. The cotton industry, which is improv-
ing on the whole eastern coast, depends for its
patterns upon France and England and does not
satisfy the home demand. The silk industry of
Valencia, Murcia, and Andalusia and the woolen
industry of Barcelona, Alicante, and Buwos also
fail to supply the local consumption. (Iordova,
once famous for its horse-hide leather (Cordovan
leather), no longer leads in the leather industry.
The manufacture of tobacco is carried on exten-
sively in the royal factories of Madrid, Valencia,
Seville, and other towns, about 50,000 families
being supported on the wages disbursed. Alcoy
manufactures much cigarette paper, and paper-
making is steadily growing in importance. The
metal industry is most flourishing in Catalonia
and the northern provinces near the largest
sources of iron, but meets the domestic demand
in no department. In the iron and steel indus-
try, however, Spain is making every effort to
supply the entire home demand. Large wire
mills have been erected, and in 1903 the largest
plant for the production of all classes of steel
was completed at Badalona. Gold and silver
wares are produced in large quantities in Madrid,
Toledo, Seville, and Barcelona; and Gijon, Se-
ville, and Madrid are noted for their glass and
porcelain. In the manufacture of cotton goods
2,614,500 spindles and 68,300 looms were em-
ployed in 1901; the woolen manufactures used
662,000 spindles and 8800 looms; about 150 paper
mills make printing, packing, writing, and cigar-
ette paper; 47 mills produce beet, and 22 cane
sugar, the total output in 1901 having been
SPAIN.
24 SPAIN.
86,243 tons. Under Government encouragement Exronrs
the production of the sugar beet is growing. ‘ More than 30 factories make glass; about 33,000 DESCRIPTION 1900 1901 (1902
tons of corks are manufactured every year; and Raw materials .......... .. $42,413,783 $43,563,968 $45,666,832
there are over 60 mills for expressing Olive Oil. Manufactures ........... .. 24,431,365 21,344,998 20,516,587
. . . . . - F d 1' ........... .. 3 , L, ‘ , ,
The pickling of green ohves IS an important 00 Supp .188 1788873 3)859’108 39114447
branch of industry; 1n addition to the large Total ................... .. $104,634,021 $97,748,074 $105,297,866
home consumption, some 6000 to 7500 tons are
annually exported. There are about 400 factories
engaged in sardine-canning, with about 16,500
workmen. ~
COMMERCE. The trade consists chiefly in the
export of raw produce and the import of the


The following table shows in greater detail the
various classes of goods which entered into the
import and export trade, including precious
metals, in two years, in pesetas (average value,
14.28 cents) :




Imports Exports
DESCRIPTION
1900 1901 1900 1901
Pesetas Pesetas Pesetas Pesetas
Stone, minerals, glassware, and pottery ............................................. .. 106,480,129 112,686,699 159,124,433 150,298,509
Metals and their manufactures ............................................................ .. 45,849,988 34,952,014 101,422,310 98,912,374
Drugs and chemical products .............................................................. .. 76,340,119 79,996,894 20,154,902 20,651,895
Cotton and its manufactures ............................................................... .. 94,211,048 108,225,041 34,056,899 29,001,152
Other vegetable fibres and manufactures ............................................ .. 25,224,672 23,396,478 1,308,698 922,467
Wool and hair and their manufactures ............................................... .. 27,061,270 26,466,035 9,780,502 11,636,039
Silk and its manufactures .................................................................... .. 25,280,134 24,333,578 4,979,960 5,071,664
Paper and its applications .................................................................. .. 11,345.657 11,582,591 8,463,849 8,305,112
Timber and its manufactures .............................................................. .. 60,846,964 61,716,512 60,658,103 47,715,308
Animals and their products ................................................................ .. 82,320,185 70,867,651 65,498,346 61,478,108
Machinery, vehicles, and vessels .......................................................... .. 135,198,181 97,553,930 792,952 797,322
Alimentary substances, including grain, sugar, wine, etc ................... .. 139,238,556 136,222,950 264,627,966 233,475,688
Various ................................ .. . ............................... .. 8,398,878 8,214,438 1,865,811 2,192,731
Gold and silver (bar and coin) ............................................................. .. 5,566,400 7,987,283 20,854,768 21,612,215
Other articles (special) ......................................................................... .. 31,443,631 42,574,855 ............................ ..
Total ............................................................................................. .. 874,805,792 846,776,949 753,589,499 692,070,584


larger part of the manufactures consumed. Wine,
minerals, and fruits form the larger part of the
The following table shows the distribution of
the more important foreign trade in two years:




Imports from Imports from Exports to Exports to
COUNTRY (1899) 0) (1899) (1900)
Pesetas Pesetas Pesetas Pesetas '
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 144,564, 896 137, 386, 661 213,666,360 187,750,220
Great Britain ............................................................... .. 240,687,682 246,107,975 279,340,901 274,801,514
United S‘ ‘ ..................................... .. 119,558 539 105,834,020 13,195,777 17,415,050
Germany ...................................................................... .. 64,543,730 77,792,154 25,436,218 31,804,682
Belgium ............................................. . .............. .. . ...... . . 35,349,215 43,017 ,270 28,213, 103 25,046,872
Russia. .......................................................................... .. 46,043,435 42,663,843 1,867 ,944 2,679,615
Italy ............................................................................ .. 23,200,446 24,015,794 15,524,072 23,199,680
Sweden and Norway .. ................ .. 21 091,476 24,783,175 2,702,859 2,482,547
Portugal ...................................................................... .. 26,594,170 37,271,048 29,627,197 32,385,749
Argentina ................................................................... .. 24,843,715 30,553,983 13,042,623 12,607,616
Cuba ............................................................................ .. 21,375,477 5,335,477 73,778,216 56 796,054
Philippine Islands ........................................................ .. 21,181,983 15,849,846 11,653,148 2233741782
Porto Rico ................................................................... .. 9,751,437 3,227,480 13,042,623 12,607,616




expo-rts. The imports are chiefly confined to cotton,
coal, foodstuffs, textiles, lumber, and machinery.
The domestic trade is seriously hampered by nat-
ural and artificial obstacles. The rivers are
navigable only to a very small extent, the canal
system is very deficient, the different provinces are
separated from one another by lofty mountains,
the common roads are very poor, and excessive
rates are charged for freightage by rail. Spain’s
commerce with foreign lands is chiefly maritime,
and England and France are the most important
factors in it. The imports and exports, exclusive
of gold and silver bars, in three years were as
follows:




Imronrs
nnscnrrmon 1900 1901 1902
Raw materials .......... .. $59,589,346 $61,146,277 $63,068,206
Manufactures ........... .. 44,654,776 37,566,175 34,892,771
Food supplies ........... .. 19,883,248 19,790,997 16,062,014
Total ................... .. $124,127,370 $118,503,449 $114,022,991

Cotton, petroleum, staves, and lumber are the
chief imports from the United States. The United
States sales of raw cotton to the mills in the
Barcelona manufacturing district averaged 267,-
093 bales in the three years 1900-1902. Wine,
fruits, and cork wood are the chief exports from
Spain to the United States. The following table
shows the value of the total trade with the
United States in three years:

I 1900 1901 ' 1902


Imports into Spain.....‘ $13,399,680
Exports from Spain. 5,950,047
$15,480,288 $15,511,987
5,409,301 8,270,546

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS. Much
of the domestic trade is carried by coasting ves-
sels, as Spain possesses more than 100 harbors
large and small on its two seas. The home mer-
chant marine is inferior, and most of the ship-
ping is under the British and French flags. The
merchant marine in 1900 comprised 449 steam-
ers of 430,966 tons net and 693 sailing vessels of
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
25
110,968 tons net; total, 1142 vessels of 541,964
tons. In 1901 18,241 vessels of 14,503,348 tons
entered and 17,118 ‘vessels of 14,302,589 tons
cleared from the Spanish ports. There is ex-
cellent communication with the chief Atlantic
and Mediterranean ports of Europe and with the
Philippine Islands and Cuba, and regular steamer
service between New York and Barcelona and
the north and south coast ports of Spain. New
Orleans has regular steam communication with
Barcelona and Bilbao. The most important
Spanish ports are Barcelona, Cadiz, Malaga, Bil-
bao, Santander, Alicante, and Valencia. The
railroad system connects all the chief towns with
one another and unites Spain with France by two
routes around the ends of the Pyrenees. Madrid
is the centre of the Spanish broad-gauge railroad
system. In 1900 the length of the railroads open
for traffic was 8315 miles.
BANKING. The chief financial institution is
the Bank of Spain. Its note issue up to 1,200,-
000,000 pesetas is guaranteed by a metallic re-
serve of one-third the amount of the issue, half
of which must be in gold. If the note issue
exceeds this amount it must, up to 1,500,000,000
pesetas, be guaranteed by metallic reserves of at
least 40 per cent. in gold and 60 per cent. of the
remainder in silver. For issues exceeding 1,500,-
000,000 and up to 2,000,000,000 pesetas, 50 per
cent. must be guaranteed in gold, and 70 per
cent. of the remainder in silver. On January 21,
1903, the notes in circulation amounted to 1,634,-
504,000 pesetas ; capital and reserve, 170,000,000;
deposits and accounts current, 617,431,000 ; prop-
erty, 11,305,000; portfolio, 1,542,825,000; cash in
hand, 901,924,000.
FINANCE. The revenue of Spain in 1901
amounted to $170,998,000 and the expenditure to
$174,752,000. Revenue is raised by direct taxes
on land, trade, mines, Government salaries, etc. ;
indirect taxes are derived from imports, articles
of consumption, tolls, and bridge and ferry dues;
other sources of revenue are the tobacco mo-
nopoly, the lottery, mint, and receipts from the
sales and rentals of national property. The de-
tailed estimates of revenue and expenditure for
1903 were as follows:


REVENUE
Pesetas
Direct taxes on land, trade, mines, Government
salaries, registration, etc ............................... .. 421,967,930
Indirect taxes, customs, excise, etc ................... .. 328,710,000
Tobacco monopoly, lottery, mint, and minor
sundries .......................................................... .. 164,870,000
National property: Revenue ............................ .. 19,997,797
“ " Sales ................................. .. 2,770,000
From the public treasury ................................. .. 12,862,500
Total .......................................................... .. 951,178,227
EXPENDITURE
Pesetas
Civil list ............................................................. .. 9,200,000
Cortes ................................................................ .. 1,838,085
Public debt ........................................................ .. 409.092,054
Various ............................................................ .. 1,365,900
Pensions ............................................................ .. 71,780,500
Council of Ministers .......................................... .. 735,883
Ministry of State .............................................. .. 5,002,212
“ Justice and Worship ..................... .. 54,171,544
“ War ............ ..*. ................................ .. 144,012,982
“ Marine ........................................... .. 35.936201
“ Interior .......................................... .. 51,543,426
" Instruction, etc ............................. .. 43,122,259
" Public works, etc ........................... .. 73,283,908
" Finance .......................................... .. 16,500,845
Tax-collecting ................................................... .. 29.076,099
Colonial ................................ .. 2,000,000
Total 948,661,898
In 1901 the outstanding debt amounted to
$1,727,994,620 bearing interest at 4 and 5 per
cent. Details of the outstanding debt on March
31, 1902, are as follows:
Pesetas
Recognized debt to the United States .......... .. 3.000.000
External 4 per cent ....................................... .. 1,226,878,704
Perpetual internal 4 per cent ........................ .. 5,903,208,270
Redeemable internal 5 per cent ..................... .. 1,190,085,000
Convertible internal, Cuba and Philippine..... 87,009,000
Guarantee stock ........................................... .. 2,000,000,000
Total ...................................................... .. 10,410,180,974
GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of
Spain was proclaimed June 30, 1876. It declares
the government to be a constitutional monarchy
with the executive power vested in the King. The
King is forbidden to alienate or exchange Span-
ish territory, or to admit foreign troops into
the realm, or to make treaties of alliance, of
commerce, or of subsidy or such as impose
burdens on Spaniards, or to abdicate the crown
in favor of a successor without special authori-
zation by the Legislature. The sovereign is de-
clared to be inviolable and irresponsible. He is
aided by ministers who countersign all his official
acts and who thereby assume the responsibility '
for them. Since the aoolition of the Colonial De-
partment in 1899 the Ministry has been organ-
ized as follows: President of the Council; Minis-
ter of Foreign Affairs; Minister of Justice; Min-
ister of Finance; Minister of the Interior;
Minister of War; Minister of Marine; Minister
of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works;
Minister of Education. The Ministers have seats
in the national legislature and are permitted to
take part in the debates.
The legislative power is vested in the King and
a Cortes composed of a Senate and a Chamber of
Deputies, the two Houses having substantial
equality of powers in legislation. The Senate is
composed of three classes of Senators: First,
those entitled to seats in their own right (Sena-
dores de derecho propio) ; secondly, 100 life Sena-
tors nominated by the Crown from certain desig-
nated classes; and thirdly, 180 Senators elected
by communal and municipal delegates and by the
provincial estates, the Church, the universities,
learned societies, etc., and by the largest tax-
payers. The first two groups must not exceed
180 members. Senators by right embrace the
adult sons of the King and those of the immedi-
ate heir to the throne; Spanish grandees who have
an annual income of at least $12,000; captain-
generals of the army, admirals of the navy, the
patriarch of the Indias and the archbishops, and
the presidents of the councils of State, of war,
of the navy, of the Supreme Court, and of the
tribunal of accounts. One-half the elective Sen-
ators retire every five years; and all retire when-
ever the King dis-solves the Senate. The Chamber
of Deputies is composed of 431 members chosen
-for a term of five years by popular election.
Eighty-eight Deputies are elected by general
ticket in 26 districts, provision being made for
minority representation. The members are ap-
portioned on the basis of one to every 50,000 of
the inhabitants. They must‘ be twenty-five years
of age. By a law of 1890 all male Span-
iards twenty-five years of age who are in the
full enjoyment of their civil rights and who
have been citizens of a municipality for at
least two years are qualified voters. The Depu-
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
26
ties receive no compensation for their services
and are disqualified from holding ofiice while
serving in the Parliament. Annual sessions
of the Parliament are held; it is summoned
by the King, and may be prorogued or dissolved
by him, subject to the limitation that the new
Cortes must be summoned within three months
after the dissolution of the old. The sessions are
public; each Chamber regulates its own pro-
cedure, and is the judge of the election and quali-
fication of its own members. Both Senators and
Deputies are responsible only to their respective
Chambers for any words spoken in debate or
votes cast. They are also privileged from arrest
except in case of flagrant crime. The seat of
government is Madrid.
For purposes of local government Spain is
divided into provinces and communes, each with
its own elected assembly. The Ayuntamiento or
elected assembly of the commune consists of from
5 to 39 Regidores and is presided over by an
Alcalde chosen from the body of the Ayuntami-
ento, except in some- of the large towns, where
he is appointed by the King. The term of the
members of the Ayuntamiento is four years, one-
half the membership being renewed biennially.
The provincial deputations meet once a year and
are represented during the interval by a perma-
nent committee. These two local assemblies have
entire control of the local government in their
respective jurisdictions and are free from inter-
ference of the central Government except when
they exceed their powers to the detriment of the
general interest.
The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court of
Cassation, which sits at Madrid; a number of
district courts or audiencias immediately under
the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court; tribunals
de partidos below the audiencias ; justices of the
peace; and municipal courts. The audiencias
serve as courts of appeal in civil matters and
as courts of first and last resort for crimes and
certain misdemeanors. The tribunals de particles
have jurisdiction in first instance of civil causes
and in first and last resort of misdemeanors.
They also have appellate jurisdiction in cases de-
cided by the inferior courts. The particle is
divided into circumscriptions, usually two, in
each of which is a juee cle instruoeio’u, with civil
and criminal jurisdiction in cases assigned to
them by the higher courts of a Minister. The
circumscriptions are subdivided into communes,
in each of which is a municipal judge with juris-
dictionof petty offenses.
CoLoNIEs. The colonial possessions of Spain
are confined to Africa and are represented in the
following table:

PossEssIoNs sq‘§I;1°;ai’1’eS Population
Rio de Oro and Adrar ................. .. 243,000 100,000
Bata (Rio Muni) and Cape San -
Juan ........................................ .. 9,000 - 302
Fernando Poo, Annob6n, Corisco.
Elobeyr Chico, Elobey Grande. 850 23,709
Total .................................... .. 252,850 124,011

The Rio de Oro Colony and Adrar are admin-
istered by the Governor of the Canary Islands.
The national expenditure on account of the above
possessions far exceeds the revenues derived from
them. About $300,000 had to be provided by the
Spanish Government to supply the deficiency for
1902, the revenues being only about $19,000. For
an account of the colonies, see the respective
headings.
WEIGHTS, MEASUEES, AND MONEY. Spain
maintains the double gold and silver standard.
The unit of coinage is the peseta, nominally
worth 19.3 cents or 1 franc, but actually valued
at an average of about 14.28 cents. The value
of the money coined in Spain from 1868 to 1901
was: Gold, 920,537,615 pesetas; silver, 1,285,-
010,511 pesetas. Metric weights and measures
were introduced in 1859, but in addition to these
the old Spanish weights and measures are still
largely used.
DEFENSE. See ARMIES and NAVIES.
POPULATION. The population of Spain by the
census of 1900 was 18,618,086, with a density of
96.7 inhabitants to the square mile. In 1850
it was about 14,000,000. The population in
1900 consisted of 9,087,821 males and 9,530,265
females. Emigration from Spain is chiefly to
Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, the emigrants
in 1900 numbering 63,020. The cities with a
population of over 90,000 each are: Madrid, the
capital, 539,835; Barcelona, 533,000; Valencia,
213,530; Seville, 148,315; Malaga, 130,109; Mur-
cia, 111,539; Cartagena, 99,871; and Saragossa,
99,118. The following table gives the area and
population of each of the 49 provinces according
to the census of 1900:



Area, Popula-
PROVINCE sq. miles tion,1900
Alava .......................................... .. 1,175 96,385
Albacete ...................................... .. 5,737 237,877
Alicante ...................................... .. 2,185 470,149
Almeria ....................................... .. 3,360 359,013
Avila_ .......................................... .. 3,042 200,457
Badawz ....................................... .. 8,451 520,246
Baleares (Balearic Islands) .......... .. 1,935 311,649
Barcelona .................................... .. 2,968 1,054,541
Burgos ........................................ .. 5,480 338,828
Caceres ........................................ .. 7,667 362,164
Cadiz and Ceuta .......................... .. 2,834 452,659
Canarias (Canary Islands) .......... .. 2,807 358,564
Castellon ..................................... .. 2,495 310,828
Ciudad-Real ................................ .. 7,620 321,580
Cordoba (Cordova) ..................... .. 5,299 455,859
Corufia ....................................... .. 3,051 653,556
Cuenca ........................................ .. 6,636 249,696
Gerona ........................................ . . 2,264 299,287
Granada ..................................... . . 4,928 492,460
Guadalajara ............................... .. 4,676 200,186
Guipfizcoa ................................... .. 728 195,850
Huelva ........................................ .. 3,913 260,880
Huesca ........................................ .. 5,848 244,867
Jaén ............................................ .. 5,203 474,490
Led n ............................................ .. 5,936 386,083
Lérida ........................................ .. 4,690 274,590
Logrofio ...................................... .. 1,946 189,376
Lugo ........................................... .. 3,814 465,386
Madrid ........................................ .. 3,084 775,034
Malaga ....................................... .. 2,812 511, 989
Murcia ......................................... .. 4,453 577,987
Navarra (Navarre) ...................... .. 4,055 307,669
Orense ......................................... .. 2,694 404,311
Oviedo ........................................ .. 4,205 627,069
Paleucia ..................................... .. 3,256 192,473
Pontevedra ................................. .. 1, 695 457,262
Salamanca .................................. .. 4.829 320,765
Santander ................................... ..( 2,108 276,003
Segovia ....................................... .. 2,635 159,243
Sevilla (Seville) ............................ .. 5,428 555,256
Sdria ........................................... .. 3,983 150,462
Tarragona .................................. .. 2,505 337,964
Teruel ..................................... ..'. . . .. 5,720 246,001
Toledo ........................................ .. 5,919 376,814
Valencia ........ ..' ............................ .. 4,150 806,556
Vallad olid ................................... .. 2,922 278,561
Vizcaya (Biscay). ........................ ..I 836 311,361
Zamora ....................................... .. 4,097 275,545
Zaragoza (Saragossa) ................ 6,726 421,843
Total .................................... 194,770 18,607,674

SPAIN.
SPAIN.
27
RELIGION. The national Church is the Roman
Catholic, and in few countries has it so powerful
an influence. The whole population adheres to
that faith excepting about 30,000 Protestants,
Jews, and others. The Constitution requires the
nation to support the clergy and religious build-
ings and institutions, the State expending for
these purposes annually about 41,000,000 pesetas.
Only restricted and private liberty of worship
is permitted to Protestants. In 1884 there were
32,435 priests, 18,564 churches, 11,202 other build-
ings of a religious character, 1684 monks, and
14,592 nuns. The religious Orders are numerous
and influential, and many of them have schools
and teach industries of all kinds.
EDUCATION. Instruction was almost entirely
neglected until quite recent times. The older
generations of the poorer classes are, for the
most part, unable either to read or to write.
The middle schools and the once famous uni-
versities are far inferior in their standards to
corresponding institutions in most European
countries. Spaniards seldom learn any language
but their own, excepting the nobility, who usually
can converse in French. In 1889 68.1 per cent. of
the population could neither read nor write,
though by the law of 1857 education was made
compulsory. Improvements in the educational
system have been in progress for some years. It
is now under charge of a Minister of Education
with a council. The public primary schools
are supported chiefly by the municipalities, with
a small contribution from the Government; and
the average sum now spent on primary educa-
tion (most of the children being educated free) is
about $5,000,000 a year. By a law passed in
1902, the schools are now regularly inspected, and
rules regarding sanitation, discipline, and the
appointment of qualified teachers are enforced
under Government authority. In 1901 there were
25,340 public schools, with 1,617,314 pupils, and
6181 private schools, with 344,380 pupils. The
secondary schools, of which there must be one in
every province, prepare for the universities and
are largely attended, but they are still regarded
as inefficient. There are nine universities, with
about 16,000 students, the largest being at Ma-
drid, which has upward of 5000 students. The
Government also supports special schools for
instruction in engineering, agriculture, fine arts,
music, and other branches. The sum set apart
in the budget of 1903 for education was 43,122,-
259 pesetas.
ETIINOLOGY. The perspective of Spanish eth-
nology extends back to the Chellean Epoch, im-
plements of that type having been dug up in the
ancient alluvium at San Isidro and other sta-
tions near Madrid. Solutrean implements were
found in the grotto of Altamira, Province of
Santander. In the same grotto Magdalenian im-
plements and characteristic objects in bone were
discovered, and relies belonging to this epoch
come from the Basque Provinces, from the basin
of the Ebro, and from Catalonia. In historic times
all the great divisions of the Caucasian race
have mingled their blood in Spain in greater or
less proportion-—Hamite, Semite, Teuton, Celt,
and Mediterranean. The fundamental type bears
the name of Celtiberian, and is a result of a mix-
ture of the earliest long-headed Mediterraneans
and the later-coming brachycephalic Celts produc-
ing a cranial index of 76-79. Keane and Ripley
VOL. XVI.-3.
call attention to the uniformity of this index in
Spain and in Britain, associated with tall stature
and blondness in the latter, with dark color and
low stature in the former. Spain has been invaded
in historic times by Phoenicians, Carthaginians,
Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, Arabs, and Moors.
It is generally believed that these conquerors
modified the original type but little, simply be-
cause many of them -were already short of
stature, dark in skin, hair, and eyes, as well as
dolichocephalic.
HISTORY. Spain, the Iberia of the Greeks, and
the Hispania (q.v.) of the Romans, is supposed to
have been originally inhabited by a distinct race
called Iberians, upon whom, however, a host
of Celts appear to have descended from the
Pyrenees. In the earliest times of which we have
any record, these two races had already coalesced
and formed the mixed nation of the Celtiberians,
who were massed chiefly in the centre of the pen-
insula, in the western districts, and on the north
coasts. In the Pyrenees and along the east coast
were to be found pure Iberian tribes, while un-
mixed Celtic tribes occupied the northwest. On
the south and east coasts were Phoenician, Car-
thaginian, Rhodian, and other colonies. In the
second half of the third century BC a- large
territory was brought under subjection to
Carthage by Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), who, accord-
ing to Roman tradition, founded the city of
Barcelona. After the death of Hamilcar, in RC.
228, the Carthaginian interest was advanced, and
the power of Carthage further strengthened by
Hasdrubal (died B.C. 220), son-in-law of Hamil-
car, who founded Carthago Nova (the modern
Cartagena) and concluded a treaty with the
Romans whereby it was stipulated that he should
not advance his standards north of the Iberus
(Ebro). Hannibal (q.v.) , son of Hamilcar, after
the death of Hasdrubal attacked and destroyed
Saguntum (q.v.), in B.C. 219, and thus initiated
the Second Punic War. (See OARTIIAGE; ROME;
HANNIBAL.) After the Romans had driven the
Carthaginians from the peninsula, in RC. 206, the
country was made into two Roman provinces
(B.C. 197), Hispania '(7z'tem'0r, including the east-
ern and northern districts, and H ispania Ulterior,
including the southern and western districts. The
conquest of the native tribes proved an arduous
task for the Romans. (See LUSITANIA; NUMAN-
TIA.) It was not till RC. 19 that the Cantabri
and Astures in the extreme north of the country
laid down their arms to Augustus. Under
Augustus the peninsula was divided into the
three provinces of Hispania Tarraconensis,
Beetica, and Lusitania. (See HISPANIA.) From
the time of the establishment of the complete -
supremacy of the Romans till the death of Con-
stantine the condition of Spain was eminently
prosperous. Its fertile fields formed for a con-
siderable time the granary of Rome, and from its
metal-veined sierras an immense amount of
treasure in gold and silver flowed into the
Roman coffers.
In A.D. 409 hordes of barbarians, Alans, Van-
dals, and Suevi crossed the Pyrenees and swept
over and desolated the peninsula. About 414 the
Visigoths invaded the country, and their King,
Athaulf, who acknowledged a. nominal depend-
ence on the Roman Emperor, established the
Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. (See GOTHS.)
The best known of the kings were Wallia (415-
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
28
- and
419), who greatly extended the Gothic monarchy,
making himself master of a great part of Aqui-
tania (where a century later the Visigoths were
overcome by Clovis) ; Euric (465-485), who, be-
sides increasing his territory, introduced and
enforced a body of laws, and did much for the
advancement of civilization in Spain; Leovigild
(569-586), who effected the subjugation of the
Suevi; Wamba (672-680), who built a fleet for
the protection of the coasts; and Roderic (q.v.),
who was killed at Jerez de la Frontera in 711,
in battle with the Arabs(Saracens) . The battle of
Jerez gave the Arabs almost undisputed mastery
of nearly the whole of Spain, as well as of Septi-
mania (Languedoc) in France. The remnant of
the Goths betook themselves to the highlands of
Asturias, Burgos', and Biscay, where they main-
tained their independence.
The Arabs held Spain for the first few years
of their rule as a dependency of the Province of
North Africa; but after the downfall of Musa
(q.v.) the country was governed (717) by emirs ap-
pointed by the Caliph of Damascus. These emirs
were intent upon the extension of their conquests
into Gaul, to the neglect of the rising power of
the Gojzhs in Asturias. Their northward progress
was arrested in the battle of Poitiers by Charles
Martel (q.v.) in 732. The walis, or local gov-
ernors of districts and provinces, frequently
rebelled against the emir, and drew swords
against each other. Within a period of forty
years no fewer than twenty emirs had been called
to the direction of affairs; but a revolution
at Damascus, which unseated the Ommiads, and
placed the Abbassides in possession of the cali-
phate, put an end to this state of misrule in
Spain. The last of the emirs, Yusuf, was in
favor of the Abbassides, but the walis and alcay-
des, being chiefly of the Ommiad faction, invited
one of this family, Abd-ur-Rahman, who was in
concealment among the Zeneta Arabs in Barbary,
to become an independent caliph in Spain. (See
OMMIADS.) Thus was founded (756) the Emira-te
of Cordooa. By 778 the Franks had wrested
from the Arabs all their possessions north of
the Pyrenees and northeastern Spain to the Ebro.
The latter acquisition, subsequently denominated
the Spanish March, was for a time alternately in
the hands of the Moslems and dependent upon
France.
During the early eriod of Arab-Moorish domi-
nation t e small in ependent Kingdom of Astu-
. rias, founded by Pelayo (q.v.), grew in power
and extent.
of Pelayo,
Alfonso the Catholic, son-in-law
conquered nearly all of Galicia
recaptured Leon, ‘together with Sala-
manca and other cities. Alfonso the Great
(866-910) by his victories greatly extended the
Asturian dominions, which soon after his reign
figure as the Kingdom of Leon. In the course
of the ninth century Navarre struggled into
existence as a separate State.
of Leon was for a long time distracted by
bitter and bloody strife among the members of,
the royal line, and with its neighbor, Navarre,
would have fallen an easy prey to the powerful
Ommiads had not the latter directed their chief‘
attention to the subjugation of Morocco. During
this relaxation of the constant warfare between
Moors and Christians another independent State,
Castile, an offshoot from Leon, came into exist-
The Kingdom‘
ence, at first under the rule of the famous Count
Fernan Gonzalez. In 1033 it was erected into a
kingdom. Castile, from its central position, and
consequently greater facilities for expansion, soon
became the most powerful of the Spanish States.
A considerable part of Aragon was wrested from
the Moors by Sancho the Great of Navarre (1000-
35), and at his death this part of his dominions
passed as a separate kingdom to his son Ramiro,
who added to it the districts of Sobrarbe and
Ribagorza, and a.considerable extent of country
which he conquered from the Moors. In 1151
the territory of the counts of Barcelona (Cata-
lonia) was united with Aragons. The last Chris-
tian kingdom to be founded in the Iberian Penin-
sula was Portugal (q.v.).
The Ommiads ruled Mohammedan Spain for
about 275 years. The greatest of this dynasty
was Abd-ur-Rahman III., who ruled from 912
to 961, and who in 929 assumed the title of
Caliph. His capital, Cordova (q.v.), was the
greatest city in Europe except Constantinople,
and was unrivaled in the splendor of its edifices.
The civilization of Spain during the Moorish
supremacy was far in advance of that of the
rest of Europe. At the great Mohammedan uni-
versities medicine and mathematics were culti-
vated, and Aristotle was studied there long be-
fore he was well known to Christian Europe. An
extensive literature was developed, the caliphs
themselves often being poets and authors of
note. Commerce and agriculture were fostered,
and the stranger marveled at the splendid
system of irrigation, which made the country
like a garden. The Moorish fleets controlled the
Mediterranean and carried on an extensive trade.
For the art which was developed in Spain by
the Moors, see M01-IAMMEDAN ART.
The Ommiad dynasty came to an end in 1031,
and a number of independent Moorish kingdoms
were formed——C‘ordova, Seville, Toledo, Lisbon,
Saragossa, Tortosa, Valencia, Murcia, Badajoz,
and others of less note. The kings of Castile and
Aragon did not fail to benefit by this disruption
of the Mohammedan realm, for by well-directed
and unremitting attacks they subdued some
States and rendered others tributary. A few
years more might perhaps have destroyed the
Moorish domination in Spain had not the rulers,
hard pressed by Alfonso VI. of Leon and Castile,
who in 1085 conquered the Kingdom of Toledo
(New Castile), applied for aid to the ruler of
the sect of the Almoravides (q.v.) in Morocco.
The Almoravides crossed over to Spain, but after
defeating the Christians they turned their arms
against the Spanish Moors, and by the beginning
of the twelfth century the Almoravide sovereign
was acknowledged the ruler of Mohammedan
Spain. The power of the Almoravides was ex-
tinguished by the Almohades (q.v.), a fanatical
sect who passed over from Morocco just before
the middle of the twelfth century, and conquered
the territories of the Mohammedans. In a
great battle fought on the plains of Tolosa (las
naoas de Tolosa), in 1212, the kings of Castile,
Navarre, and Aragon broke the Almohade power
in Spain. Soon nothing was left out of the
wreck of the Almohade realm but the Kingdom
of Granada. which was forced to acknowledge the
overlordship of Castile. This last Moorish king-
dom rose to great splendor.
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
29
Prominent among the late Castilian monarchs
Were Ferdinand III., who extended the dominions
of Castile far into Andalusia, conquering Cor-
dova in 1236 and Seville in 1248 ; Alfonso X., the
Wise, famous as a legislator, writer, and patron
of learning; Alfonso XI.; Peter the Cruel; and
Isabella, whose marriage with Ferdinand the
Catholic (1469) brought about the union of
Castile and Aragon in 1479. Among the sov-
ereigns who raised Aragon to the position of an
important power and extended its dominion be-
yond the bounds of the Iberian Peninsula were
James I. (1213-76), who conquered Valencia and
the Balearic Islands ;- Pedro III. (1276-85), who
obtained Sicily (1282); James II. (1291-1327),
who annexed Sardinia; Alfonso V. (1416-58),
who conquered Naples; and Ferdinand V., the
Catholic (1479-1516), who became the ruler of
the whole of Spain. The mediaeval history of
Castile and Aragon is marked by a vigorous
development of constitutionalism as embodied
in the assertion of their power by the es-
tates of the realm. (See Corrrns.) In both king-
doms the cities enjoyed great political freedom,
of which they were gradually deprived after the
consolidation of Spain into a single monarchy.
The union of Castile and Aragon enabled the
Christians of Spain to undertake the subversion
of what remained of Moorish dominion in the
peninsula. In 1482 Ferdinand and Isabella_en-
tered upon a war for the subjugation of the King-
dom of Granada, and at the beginning of 1492
the sovereigns made their entry into the Moorish
capital. All Spain,with the exception of Navarre,
was now practically one power. The shrewd
policy of Ferdinand the Catholic, who followed
the tendency of the age and strengthened the
royal power at the expense of the privileges both
of the feudal nobility and the people, enabled
Spain to grow in external power and influence,
and to assume a military preeminence among the
countries of Europe. In Italy the arms of Spain,
under Gonsalvo de C6rdova, triumphed over those
of France. In 1512 Ferdinand made himself master
of Navarre, with the exception of the district
north of the Pyrenees, and thus completed the
unification of Spain. The discovery of the New
World by Columbus and his successors under
Spanish auspices in the closing years of the
fifteenth century made Spain the pioneer colonial
power, and for a considerable period the greatest.
The expulsion of the Jews from the Spanish do-
minions in 1492 deprived them of a large body
of industrious citizens. In 1516 Charles I. (from
1519 Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V.), the
grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Maxi-
milian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, in-
augurated the Hapsburg dynasty on the throne
of Spain. He was the ruler of the Netherlands,
which became part of the Spanish realm, and
he acquired the Duchy of Milan (embracing
most of Lombardy), which was made a Spanish
possession. Mexico and Peru, whose mines poured
the precious metals into Spain in an inexhaus-
tible supply, were acquired during his reign.
Charles was the most powerful Christian mon-
arch of his time. His reign was taken up with
endless contests with the French, and, as Ger-
man Emperor, with efforts to suppress Protest-
antism, as well as with war against the Turks.
(See CHARLES V., HOLY RQMAN EMPEROR.) His
son Philip II. (q.v.) (1556-98), who succeeded
to the Spanish possessions of the House of Haps-
burg, prepared the way by his narrow and bigoted
policy for the decline of Spain. He developed
the Inquisition, which had been introduced by
Ferdinand and Isabella, into a powerful engine
for the repression of religious and political dis-
sent, and his attempt forcibly to root out the
Reformation in the Netherlands brought about a
rising which resulted in the severance of the
Dutch provinces from Spain. With England he
waged long wars, which were disastrous to the
Spanish naval power. (See ARMADA; DRAKE.)
In 1580 Philip II. conquered and annexed Portu-
gal. The Spaniards took possession of the Philip-
pines in his reign. Under Philip III. (1598-
1621), in whose reign the Moriscos were expelled,
and under Philip IV. (1621-65), in whose, reign
the Dutch Netherlands were definitively given up
and Portugal reasserted its independence, the de-
cadence of the nation proceeded at a rapid rate.
The male line of the Hapsburgs became extinct
in Charles II. (1665-1700) and the conflicting
claims to the throne produced the war of the
Spanish Succession (see SUCCESSION WARS), in
which England and Holland were allied with
Austria, Prussia, the German Empire, and Savoy
against Louis XIV. to prevent the aggrandize-
ment of France by the acquisition of Spain as an
appanage of the House of Bourbon. When the
rival Austrian claimant became Emperor and
head of the Austrian dominions as Charles VI.,
in 1711, a similar objection existed to his obtain-
ing the throne of Spain, and the allies conceded
the succession to Philip of Anjou, who had been
proclaimed King of Spain as Philip V. in 1700,
and was confirmed by the Peace of Utrecht in
1713. This was the beginning of the Bourbon
dynasty in Spain. Spain emerged from the VVar
of Succession stripped of the Belgian Nether-
lands, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and her Lombard
territories. She had to cede Gibraltar to the
English, who had captured it in 1704.
A few years later Spain, whose policy was at
this time directed by Alberoni, made an effort
to recover some of her lost possessions, but her
aggressions were promptly met by the Quadruple
Alliance of 1718 between Great Britain, France,
Austria, and Holland, and the schemes of the
able Prime Minister came to naught. In the
War of the Polish Succession, however, Don Car-
los, son of Philip V., wrested the Two Sicilies
from Austria and established the Bourbon
dynasty there.
Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI.
(1746-59), in whose reign numerous reforms
were introduced in the administration. Ferdi-
nand was succeeded by his half-brother Charles
III. (1759-88), who, on ascending the Spanish
throne, relinquished the Two Sicilies to his son,
Ferdinand IV. Charles brought into Spain from
his Italian domains a new spirit, and initiated
reforms in the internal administration, foreign
policy, and economics of the State. As a result
of the Seven Years’ War, in which Spain joined
France, Florida was ceded to Great Britain and
Louisiana acquired from France (1763). In 1767
the Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish do-
minions. In 1779 Spain became the ally of
France in the war against England, and in 1783
she recovered Florida, which in 1819 was ceded
SPAIN.
' SPAIN.
30
to the United States. Charles IV. (1799-1808)
was incapable of continuing his father’s vigorous
policy. He was under the control of the notori-
ous Godoy (q.v.), the Queen’s favorite, who
played into the hands of Napoleon for his own
profit. In March, 1808, the King abdicated in
favor of his son, Ferdinand, and the latter was
compelled to renounce his claims to the crown in
favor of his father, who then handed his right
over to Napoleon. The latter then conferred the
Spanish crown upon his brother Joseph Bona-
parte. Deserted by their rulers, the Spanish peo-
ple organized resistance, declared for Ferdinand
VII., and refused to recognize the Bonapartes. A
supreme junta of leading Spaniards was estab-
lished at Seville and subordinate juntas were
formed in each of the provinces.
It was the obstinate resistance of Spain and
the efficient work of the supporting English
armies in the Peninsular War that first checked
Napoleon and showed Europe that he was not
invincible. (See PENINSULAB WAR.) Meanwhile
the Spanish colonies in America revolted, and
after a fierce warfare of sixteen years the Span-
ish dominion on the American mainland was
completely extinguished (1826). After the
expulsion of the French King Ferdinand
VII. returned to Spain and entered Madrid
May 14, 1814. The liberal Constitution of 1812
enacted by the Cortes was at once abrogated,
the religious Orders were restored to their earlier
predominance, the Cortes were abolished, and the
Inquisition was reestablished. A popular reac-
tion aided the King and his Ministers in this
course. A liberal revolution in 1820 restored the
Constitution of 1812 and instituted a Cortes
which was notable for its extreme liberalism.
The Inquisition was abolished and the privileges
and exemptions of the Church were invaded. The
clergy and the peasants opposed the revolution,
but it was received with favor by the army and
the educated classes. In 1822 the Holy Alliance
(q.v.) took note of the Spanish situation, and
France was commissioned to suppress the liberal
movement. A French army of nearly 100,000
men invaded the peninsula and the Spanish forces
were entirely unable to meet the attack. On
May 24, 1823, the French entered Madrid, estab-
lished a regency, drove the Cortes from Seville to
Cadiz and out of the country, and restored Ferdi-
nand, who had been declared of unsound mind
by the Cortes. The King at once revoked all of
the liberal measures, except the abolition of the
Inquisition. Repression and wholesale punish-
ment followed. The French army remained in
occupation until 1827. Bermudez, the Prime
Minister, adopted finally a moderate policy, but
this satisfied neither absolutists nor liberals. The
clerical party guided by the Apostolic Junta ral-
lied around Ferdinand’s brother, Don Carlos, as
the representative of extreme absolutism and
cléricalism, and a number of insurrections were
started by the Junta in his interest. In 1831
Ferdinand, having no male heir, decreed the re-
vival, on behalf of his daughter Isabella, of the
old law admitting female succession. Ferdinand
died in 1833 and Queen Maria Christina became
Regent for her daughter Isabella II. The Carlists
proclaimed their candidate as Charles V., and
there was an immediate division of parties in the
kingdom into Carlists and Cristinos. The Queen
Regent was compelled to turn to the liberals for
support. A royal charter, in lieu of a constitu-
tion, was promulgated in 1834, but it did not
give real popular government, and the Ministry
and the Chambers were both under the control of
the Crown. Civil war broke out and the Carlists
were at first successful. An alliance was con-
cluded by the Regent with England, France, and
Portugal, for the purpose of maintaining the
crowns of Spain and Portugal against the pre-
tenders, Carlos and Miguel (q.v.). The death
of Zumalacarreguy (q.v.), the only Carlist leader
of ability, and the accession to the command of
the Government forces of General Espartero (q.v.)
turned the tide. Maroto, the Carlist commander,
concluded the convention of Vergara with the
Government in 1839 and returned to his al-
legiance with his army. By this treaty Navarre
and the Basque Provinces, which had been the
strongholds of Carlism, were confirmed in their
ancient privileges. Espartero defeated the rem-
nants of the Carlists in Catalonia, and Don
Carlos went into exile, handing over his preten-
sions to his son.
In the meanwhile the struggle for a liberal
constitution was being waged in the kingdom,
and a revolutionary movement at the palace of
La Granja in 1836 forced Maria Christina to
swear to the Constitution of 1812. In 1840
Espartero, the liberal leader, was made the head
of the Ministry on his own terms. Maria Chris-
tina resigned the regency October 12, 1840, and
the Cortes made Espartero Regent and guardian
of Isabella and her sister. The Regent’s firm
government made enemies, and in 1843 a revo-
lutionary movement, headed by Narvaez and
Prim (qq.v.), drove him from power. In No-
vember, 1843, Isabella was declared of age and
assumed the crown with Narvaez, the leader of
the Moderates (Moderados), as Prime Min-
ister. Maria Christina was recalled and
the Constitution modified on reactionary lines.
Narvaez exercised practically dictatorial pow-
ers until 1851. Parties gradually read-
justed themselves, the old Absolutists, with
whom the Moderates tended to assimilate, group-
ing themselves about Queen Isabella and her
mother, and the liberal elements joining the Pro-
gressists. In March, 1851, a concordat was ar-
ranged with the Pope by which all ecclesiastical
affairs were to be canonically regulated and all
religions but Catholicism were forbidden in the
kingdom, the Church in return yielding its sec-
ular jurisdiction and recognizing the sale of
church lands. A Cabinet of personal supporters
was made up by the Queen mother. They at-
tempted in 1852 a modification of the Constitu-
tion in the direction of absolutism. This led in
1854 to a new outbreak. A coalition of the more
liberal Moderates under Narvaez and Progressists
under O’Donnell was formed and was joined by Es-
partero, now again recognized as one of the Pro-
gressist leaders. Maria Christina left the country
and a Government was formed with Espartero as
President of the Council and O’Donnell as Minis-
ter of War. The latter was now at the head of a
new party, the Liberal Union, which favored a
liberal constitutional monarchy. In the coalition
Government the Progressists were at first the
dominant factor, but before the new Constitution
of 1855 was promulgated they lost control. There
were republican risings in the northeast and
Carlist risings in the northwest, and the suspen-
SPAIN.
SPAIN.
31
sion of popular liberties by the Government,
while engaged in the suppression of these revolts,
gave an opportunity to O’Donnell and his party.
Their control was short-lived, and in 1856 Queen
Isabella appointed a Moderate Ministry under
Narvaez, which adopted a reactionary policy. In
1858 the Queen recalled O’Donnell and he held
office for five years. A war with Morocco
(1859-60) had no result except to test the
efliciency of the Spanish army. Spain joined
France in the ill-advised Mexican expedition, but
Prim, in command of the Spanish forces, signed a
convention with Juarez and refused to support
the French. Napoleon III. was indignant with
his ally, and in Spain there was bitter discussion
of Prim’s course. The Progressists made it a
handle for a partisan attack on the Government
and the Moderates also took a hostile attitude.
The O’Donne1l Government, which had added
vastly to the national debt, went down in 1863.
With the passing of the Liberal Union there
was a gradual return to absolutism. The Mira-
flores Government, which succeeded that of
O’Donnell, attempted to govern constitutionally,
but the absolutist pressure in Court circles was
too strong, and this Ministry gave way to sue-
cessors more pliable. The Government really fell
into the hands of the. camarilla, a group of per-
sonal favorites who had influence with the Queen.
The Liberal groups were forced more and more
into a hostile and revolutionary attitude. Cas-
telar (q.v.) , then a professor in the University of
Madrid, raised his eloquent voice against the ex-
travagance of the Crown and was supported by
the university. The Government attempted to
suppress such agitation. The Cortes was dis-
solved in 1866 and Marshal Serrano (q.v.) , presi-
dent of the Senate, was sent into exile. Narvaez,
who had represented all shades of political opin-
ion at different times, was now called to the head
of affairs and maintained a strong Government,
which was really a military dictatorship, until
his death in 1868. An open revolt, headed by
Prim, failed, but a little later Prim, Serrano, and
Admiral Topete (q.v.) began a better organized
eul better supported revolutionary movement.
The fleet at Cadiz under Topete declared for na-
tional sovereignty. Serrano marched toward the
capital, defeated the Government forces at Al-
colea on September 28, 1868, and on October 3d
entered Madrid, already in a state of insurrec-
tion. Isabella in the meanwhile escaped into
France and the revolution was accomplished.
A provisional government was established by
the revolutionists under the presidency of Ser-
rano. A liberal monarchical constitution was
put through by a combination of Republicans
under Castelar and Progressists under Prim, and
was promulgated June 6, 1869. Serrano was
made Regent, with Prim as Prime Minister. Carl-
ists, Republicans, and Constitutional Monarch-
ists all aspired to profit by the upheaval in the
government. Several foreign princes were in-
vited to take the crown—among them Prince
Leopold of Hohenzollern, whose candidacy (July,
1870) gave rise to irritation between France and
Germany, and in a measure provoked the Franco-
German War. At last, 1n December, 1870,
Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, son of King Victor
Emmanuel, accepted the crown (see AMADEUS
1.), but before his arrival in Madrid Prim, the
king-maker, was assassinated. King Amadeus
thus lost a strong support, and he abdicated Feb-
ruary 11, 1873, after a brief and uncomfortable
reign, distracted at the end by a great rising in
favor of the young Don Carlos (Charles VII.)
and disturbed by an insurrection in Cuba, which
had broken out in 1868. A republic was then de-
clared. Figueras was the first president of the
Ministry, with Castelar as Minister of Foreign
Affairs. A constituent Cortes was summoned in
June, and prepared a constitution making Spain
a federal republic. Several Ministries attempted
vainly to cope with the situation, which, in ad-
dition to the Carlist insurrection in the north,
was complicated by the risings of the Intran-
sigentes (see INTBANSIGEANTS) and Interna-
tionals in the cities of Andalusia, Murcia, and
Valencia. On September 7th Castelar was
made President of the Executive with dictatorial
powers, and the Cortes adjourned until January,
1874. The wise and positive course of Castelar
in enforcing order and recognizing conservative
interests displeased the extremists, and when
the Cortes reassembled a vote of lack of con-
fidence was passed. Castelar resigned, and Ser-
rano became nominally President of the Execu-
tive, but in reality a military dictator. He car-
ried on with vigor the war against the Carlists,
but he had hardly secured recognition for his
Government from the European powers when
Gen. Martinez Campos (q.v.) proclaimed Alfonso
XII., son of Isabella, King (December, 1874).
The army declared for Alfonso. The Serrano
Government, of which Sagasta (q.v.) was then
Prime Minister, gave way, and Canovas del Cas-
tillo (q.v.) headed a provisional government.
Alfonso, then seventeen years of age, assumed the
government on January 14, 1875, guided by
Canovas del Castillo. The Carlist revolt was
completely suppressed in 1876. Don Carlos went
into permanent exile, and Navarre and the
Basque Provinces were deprived of their ancient
privileges and fueros (q.v.). A constitution of
a decidedly illiberal character was adopted in
1876, and its provisions were enforced with se-
vere literalness by the Ministry of Canovas del
Castillo. By 1878 order had been reéstablished
throughout most of Cuba. Martinez Campos,
who was sent to the island to put down the in-
surrection, came back in 1879 an advocate of a
reform policy toward Cuba, and attempted to
form a Ministry on that issue, but failed and
went into the opposition. Much of his pro-
gramme including abolition of slavery in the An-
tilles, was carried out by Canovas del Castillo.
In 1881 a more liberal régime was inaugurated
under Sagasta.
The government under the restored monarchy
was nominally in the hands of a Ministry re-
sponsible to the majority in the Cortes, but per-
sonal factions and rivalries disintegrated parties
to such an extent that this was not so in prac-
tice. There were two leading parties—Conserva-
tives, and Liberals or Constitutionalists, both
upholding the constitutional monarchy. The
remnant of the Carlists could do little but agi-
tate. The Republicans lacked a leader, since
Castelar had given up the republican programme
as impracticable. Czinovas del Castillo returned
to power in 1884, after having been out of office
for three years. On November 25, 1885, Alfonso
XII. died, and his widow, Christina, who was
pregnant, became Regent of the kingdom, the Pre-
SPAIN.
SPALATO.
32
miership being intrusted to Sagasta. On May
17, 1886, Christina gave birth to a son, who be-
came King as Alfonso XIII. Sagasta governed
with vigor, energetically repressing military up-
risings, and brought about the enactment of a
measure providing for universal suffrage. A
Conservative Ministry under Cfmovas del Castillo
was in office from July, 1890, to December,
1892. The succeeding Liberal Ministry under
Sagasta was unpopular because of its attempt
to apply needed economies and its severe meas-
ures to repress anarchism, which had become
rampant in Catalonia. In 1895, when a new revolt
broke out in Cuba, the Conservatives returned to
power under Canovas del Castillo. The army of-
ficers were dissatisfied with the growth of the
civil power and restive under the criticism of
an increasingly independent press. Premier
Canovas del Castillo was assassinated in 1897,
and Sagasta took his place at the helm, in time
to face the Problems of a war which was already
imminent. The Cuban revolt, which consumed
the flower of the Spanish army, and in the effort
to suppress which the most cruel military meas-
ures were instituted, produced complications
which led in 1898 to a conflict with the United
States. (See CUBA; SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR;
UNITED STATES.) This unequal struggle was
brought to a close by a treaty of peace negotiated
at Paris, December 10, 1898, by which Spain re-
linquished her sovereignty in Cuba, Porto Rico,
and the Philippine Islands. Later the Caroline,
Pelew, and Ladrone Islands were sold to
Germany.
The military party under Weyler (q.v.)
made the peace treaty an issue, and forced
Sagasta out of office. A Conservative Min-
istry headed by Silvela came in but resigned
in October, 1900, and a reconstruction was ef-
fected under General Azcarraga on distinctly
military lines. A congress of the Spanish-Ameri-
can States was held in Madrid in November,
1900, at the instance of the Sociedad Union
Ibero-Americana, for the purpose of establish-
ing more cordial relations with these offshoots
of- the older Spain. Anti-clerical disturbances
in 1901 pointed to a growing spirit of liberalism
and independence. A new government was organ-
ized under Sagasta, March 6, 1901, and adopted
a stern attitude toward the religious Orders.
King Alfonso XIII, came of age May 17, 1902,
and the regency was terminated. For several
months Sagasta retained oflice with great reluc-
tance, and on December 6, 1902, the Ministry
retired and an entirely new Cabinet was consti-
tuted by Silvela.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Reclus, Géographie
universelle, vol. i. (Paris, 1879); Foresta, La
Spagna dc Irun a Mcilagd (Bologna, 1879);
Eschenauer, L’Espagne (Paris, 1884); Mariana
y Sanz, Diccionario geogrdfico, estadistico muni-
cipal de Eslpana, (Valencia, 1886) ; Lawson, Spain
of To-day (London, 1890); Castillo, Gran dic-
cionario geogrdfico, estadistico é histo'rico die
Espdnd (Barcelona, 1889-92); Wallis, Spain,
Her Institutions, Politics, and Public Men (Balti-
more, 1896) ; Root, Spain and Its Colonies (Lon-
don, 1898); Plummer, Contemporary Spain
(ib., 1899).
TRAVEL: Dnsonrrrron: Hay, Custilian Days
(Boston, 1882); F. Hopkinson Smith, Well-
Worn Roads of Spain, Holland, and Italy
(Boston, 1886) ; Finck, Spain and Morocco:
Studies in Local Color (New York, 1891); de
Amicis, Spain and the Spaniards, trans. (New
York, 1892); Hare, Wanderings in Spain (6th
ed., London, 1892) ; Wood, The Romance of Spain
(London, 1900); Bates, Spanish Highways and
Byways (ib., 1900); Higgin, Spanish Life in
Town and Country (New York, 1903) ; and for
the people, Rose, Untrodden Spain and Her Black
Country (ib., 1875); id., Among the Spanish
People (ib., 1877).
Consult also for economics, government, etc.,
Carey, Constitutional Government in Spain (New
York, 1889); Seignobos, Histoire politique de
l’Europe contemporaine (Paris, 1897); Zimmer-
man, Die Kolonialpolitih Portugals und Spaniens
(Berlin, 1896) ; Diercks, Spanien. Kulturge-
schichtliche und wirtschaftspolitische Betrach-
tungen (ib., 1901); and for flora and fauna,
Chapman and Buck, Wild Spain (Londort, 1893) ;
Colmeiro, Enumeracion de las plantas de la penin-
sula hispano-lusitana é Islas Bcleares (Madrid,
1885-89) ; Willkomm, Grundzilge der Pflanzenven
breitung auf der iberischen Halbinsel (Leipzig,
1896).
For history: Lafuente, Historic general de
Esparia, 28 vols., extends to the death of King
Ferdinand VII.; Dunham, The History of Spain
and Portugal (London, 1832), covers the field
down to the French Revolution. Other gen-
eral histories are Burke, History of Spain (2d
ed, by Hume, New York, 1900) ; and Lembke and
Schiifer, Geschichte von Spanien (Hamburg,
1831-61). Works on special periods are: Momm-
sen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (Eng.
trans., New York, 1887) ; Lane-Poole, Story of
the Moors in Spain (ib., 1891); Watts, The
Christian Recovery of Spain (ib., 1894) ; Irving,
The Conquest of Granada (many editions) ; Pres-
cott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and
Isabella; id., History of the Reign of Philip II. ;
Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the
House of Bourbon from the Accession of Philip
V. to the Death of Charles III. (London, 1815) ;
Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens vom Ausbruch
der franzéisischen Revolution bis auf unsere Tage
(Leipzig, 1860-71); Hume, History of Modern
Spain 1788-1898 (London, 1899).
SPALATIN, spa'la-ten’, GEORG BURCKHARDT
(1484-1545). A German reformer and friend of
Luther. He was born at Spalt, near Nuremberg,
and studied law and theology at Erfurt and Wit-
tenberg. In 1508 he was ordained priest. He
became one of the trusted advisers of the Elector
Frederick the Wise of Saxony. He continued to
enjoy Court favor after the death of Frederick,
and was made Canon of Altenburg in 1525. He
wrote biographies of the electors Frederick the
Wise (ed. by Neudecker and Preller, Weimar,
1851) and John the Constant, Christliche Re-
ligionshiindel or Religionssachen (extracts from
which were published as Annalee Reformationis
by Cyprian, Leipzig, 1818), and a history of
popes and emperors of the Reformation period.
Many
Consult Seelheim, Georg Spalatin als siichsischer
Historiograph (Halle, 1876).
SPALATO, spa’la-to. A seaport of Dalmatia,
charmingly situated on a peninsula in the Adri-
atic Sea, 74 miles southeast of Zara (Map:
Austria, E 5). High mountains lie to the north
of his manuscripts are still unpublished. '
SPALATO.
SPANGENBERG.
33
and east. Fort Grippi is on the east. The
harbor, protected by a long mole, is ample and
safe. In the vast and remarkable palace of
Diocletian, to which the town owes its name, the
Emperor lived after abdicating. The remains are
interesting—the loggia, with its red columns, and
a ruined rotunda, both being especially note-
worthy. The old town, with its narrow streets,
is mostly inclosed in the confines of the palatial
ruins. The new town, with wide thoroughfares,
lies to the west. The cathedral is an attractive
octagonal structure of Roman origin. Spalato
has a naval school, an episcopal seminary, a
Serbo-Croatian national Realschule and Gym-
nasium, and a public garden. Spalato exports
olive oil, fruit, and especially wine. A railroad
connects the town with Sebenico and Knin.
There are manufactures of wool and silk. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 27,198, mostly Serbo-Croatians.
SPALDING, spal’ding, JOHN FRANKLIN
(1828-1902). An American bishop of the Prot-
estant Episcopal Church. He was born at Bel-
grade, Me., educated at Bowdoin College, and
at the General Theological Seminary, New York.
Ordained priest he was first stationed at Saint
James’s, Old Town, Me. In 1873 he was con-
secrated Missionary Bishop of Colorado, with
jurisdiction in Wyoming. Later the missionary
territory became a diocese and was divided. His
principal publications are: The Church and Its
Apostolic Ministry (1887) ; The Threefolcl Min-
istry of the Church of Christ (1864; 2d ed.
1887); The Best Mode of Working a Parish
(1888); Jesus Christ the Proof of Christianity
(1891).
SPALDING, JOHN LANCASTER (1840-). An
American Roman Catholic bishop. He was born
at Lebanon, Ky., and educated at Mount Saint
Mary’s College, and at the University of Lou-
vain, Belgium; was ordained priest in 1863; was
appointed secretary and chancellor of the diocese
of Louisville (1869), and of Peoria (1877). He
took a prominent part in various social and edu-
cational movements, and his position as an
authority in the former class of questions was
recognized by his appointment in 1902 as a mem-
ber of the President’s commission to investigate
the coal strike. Among his works are: Educa-
tion and the Higher Life (1890) ; Things of the
Mind (1894); Means and Ends of Education
(1895) ; Thoughts -and Theories of Life and Edu-
cation (1897); Opportunity and Other Essays
and Addresses (1900) ; Socialism and Labor
(1902); Religion, Agnosticism, and Education
(1902).
SPALDING, MARTIN JCHN (1810-72). An
American Roman Catholic bishop. -He was born
near Lebanon, educated at Saint Joseph’s, Bards-
town, Ky., and in Rome, where he was ordained
priest in 1834; became Coadjutor Bishop of
Louisville in 1848; Bishop 1850, succeeded Dr.
Kenrick as Archbishop of Baltimore in 1864. He
published Early Catholic Missions in Kentucky
(1846), Lectures on the General Evidences of
Christianity (1847; 4th ed. 1866), Life of Right
Rev. B. J. Flaget, his predecessor at Louisville
(1852), History of the Protestant Reformation
(1860). Consult his Life by his nephew, Bishop
J. L. Spalding (Baltimore, 1872).
SPALLANZANI,
spal’1an-za’ne, LAZZABO
( 1729-99) .
An Italian naturalist. He was born
at Scandiano, and educated at Modena and
Bologna. In 1754 he became professor at
Reggm, in 1761 at Modena, and in 1768 professor
of natural history at Pavia. He was distin-
guished in experimental physiology, where he
showed the falsity of the doctrine of the spon-
taneous generation of life, demonstrated the
physiology of digestion, and the true nature of
the spermatic fluid and of the spermatozoa. His
works are: Opuscoli di fisica animale e oegetabile
(1780) ; Eaapériences pour seruir a l’histoire de
la generation des animaua; et des plantes (1786) ;
Viaggi alle Due Sicilie ed in alcune parti degli
Apennini (1792).
SPANDAU, spi-in’dou. A town in the Prov-
ince of Brandenburg, Prussia, situated at the
confluence of the Havel and the Spree, nine
miles west-northwest of Berlin (Map: Prussia,
E 2). Through extensive improvements in its
fortifications and the construction of numerous
detached forts Spandau has been made a strong-
hold of the first rank for the protection of Ber-
lin. In the citadel, which is also used as a Gov-
ernment prison, is kept the Imperial military
reserve fund. Spandau has an infantry rifle-
practice school, an artillery construction bureau,
and a Gymnasium. The State ammunition, rifle,
and artillery works are located here. The city
owns the gas works. Its manufactures include
porcelain, woolens, and military tents. The town
is the shipping centre for a large trade between
Berlin and Hamburg. There are- fisheries and
important horse and lumber markets. Spandau
received municipal privileges in 1232 and was
strongly fortified in the fourteenth century.
Population, in 1900, 65,014. '
SPANDREL. The fiat wall space comprised
between the extradoses of two adjoining half-
arches and a horizontal line or molding touching,
or nearly touching, their crowns; or, at the end
of an arcade, and in structures having arches
set between vertical piers or pilasters or columns,
the space included between such vertical feature,
the adjacent half-arch, and the molding or line
immediately above the arches. This space is
approximately triangular, and in decorative ar-
chitecture offers an admirable field for decora-
tion. It may be adorned with figures in relief,
as in Roman triumphal arches, or with medal-
lions; as in the Ospedale degli Innocenti at
Florence and many other Renaissance buildings;
with surface enrichments in color or with incised
surface carving. In certain types of steel arched
bridges the spandrels are formed by series of
columns or other supports for the upper chord
of the truss or the roadway. The term is also
applied in the engineering of steel-skeleton build-
ings to the rectangular -space between two col-
umns from the head of a window to the sill of
the window next above it.
SPANGENBERG, spting’en-berK, AUGUSTUS
GOTTLIEB (1704-92). A bishop of the Moravian
Church. He was born at Klettenberg, Prussia,
and educated at Jena. In 1732-33 he was a
member of the theological faculty of the Uni-
versity of Halle. He then allied himself with the
United Brethren and was sent to the West Indies
and North America as a missionary, receiving in
1735 a grant of land near Savannah, Ga., and
establishing a colony there. The Moravians made
him bishop in 1744 and for nearly twenty years
SPANGEN BERG.
34 SPAN ISH-AMERICAN LITERATURE.
he exercised his jurisdiction principally in Amer-
ica. In 1760 he was called to the supreme coun-
cil of the sect; four years later was appointed
supreme inspector in Upper Alsatia, and in 1789
was made president of the general directory. He
died at Berthelsdorf, Saxony. His principal
work is Idea Fidei Fratrnm, oder hurzer Begriff
der christlichen Lehre in den evangelischen
Britclergerneinden (1782), translated into Eng-
lish by Benjamin La Trobe. Consult Ledderhose,
Leben Spangenbergs (Heidelberg, 1846; Eng.
trans., London, 1855).
SPANIEL (abbreviation of OF. chien es-
pagnol, Fr. chien épagneal, Spanish dog, from
Sp. Espanol, Spanish, from Esparia, Spain). A
short-legged, long-haired variety of the domestic
dog. Two groups may be made: (1) Hunting
spaniels, (2) fancy or toy spaniels. The first
contains the field spaniel, cl-umber, cocker,
Norfolk, Sussex, and the English and Irish
water dogs; the second has the King Charles,
Prince Charles, Ruby, Blenheim, and the Jap-
anese spaniels. All the spaniels are exceedingly
close hunters on a ground scent, and although
for rapidity of action and range they have been
largely supplanted by the pointer and setter,
they are unsurpassable in a rough, tangled coun-
try. They neither ‘point’ nor ‘set,’ but (except
the clumber) give tongue when their nose has
discovered the game. The difliculty with them is
to keep their eagerness in control. They will not
only find game, but will retrieve it, especially
from water. The chief characteristics of all
varieties are length of body and Shortness of
legs, which in modern dogs has been greatly ex-
aggerated, a great abundance of beautiful silky
coat, and a placid disposition.
FIELD SPANIEL AND COOKER. Although of dif-
ferent origin, these may well be considered to-
gether. Both in form are long and low, with
shapely, gracefully carried heads, and straight
strong front legs. The coat is straight, dense,
and silky, heavily fringing the ears, the back of
the legs, and the toes. The color most preferred
is solid black. The cocker usually weighs from
18 to 24 pounds, while the field spaniel is twice
as heavy.
THE CLUMBER. This is a large dog weighing
. up to 65 pounds, with a predominance of white
in its color. It takes its name from the seat of
the Duke of Newcastle, who introduced the
breed into England from the kennels of the Due
de N oailles of France, early in the eighteenth
century. Unlike other spaniels, these hunt in
silence. They are handsome, grave-looking dogs.
Their heads are massive, and marked with a
furrow between the eyes. The nostrils are large,
open, and flesh-colored; the eyes large and deeply
set, and show a ‘haw.’ The coat is not very long,
except the profuse ‘featherings,’ properly lemon
and white with few markings. The tail is usu-
ally docked. The Sussex spaniel is a variety of
clumber which must be a rich golden liver color.
It is faster in the field, and, although not mute,
is less noisy than any other, kind. The Norfolk is
another variety of this type which arose in the
English county of that name as a pheasant dog.
In the days of hawking this spaniel was the fal-
coner’s special assistant. See Plate of DOGS.
IRISH WATER SPANIEL. This dog is of very
ancient lineage and great value as a retriever.
Its general appearance is that of a large
spaniel, with a top-knot of hair falling down over
the eyes. The tail tapers like that of a pointer;
the face is long and the hair on it is quite free
from curling, although that on the body is closely
curled, and the small, dark amber eyes are set
flush and have no eyebrows. The color is a
rich dark liver, and the weight from 50 to 60
pounds.
Tor SPANIELS. The best known of the small
pet or ‘fancy’ spaniels is the King Charles—a
black and tan breed, which was maintained pure-
blooded for many generations with jealous care
by the dukes of Norfolk. In early times they
were broken to hunt. Now they are only pets.
They are in the main simply miniature spaniels,
weighing from 7 to 10 pounds, with eyes large,
wide apart, and level, and ears long, drooping,
and silky. The Blenheim resembles the King
Charles, but its ears are shorter and it differs
in color, being a pure pearly white, with bright
chestnut or ruby red markings, evenly distrib-
uted in large patches. Both the ears and cheeks
are red, with a blaze of white between them, in
the centre of which is one small red spot. The
breed derives its name from the estate of the first
Duke of -Marlborough, by whose family it was
bred. They were in those days trained for the
hunt as well as highly prized in the house. The
Prince Charles, Charles I. spaniel, or tricolor,
resembles the Blenheim, except that where the
Blenheim is red he is black, and he has no ‘blaze.’
The ‘ruby’ is a King Charles spaniel, with a black
nose, and is wholly red. The Japanese spaniel
is pure white, parti-colored with black or red or
lemon, and of very small size. It may weigh
8 to 12 pounds, or only one pound, as do some of
the ‘sleeve-dogs,’ so called in Japan because they
may be carried in the coat sleeve. The Japanese
spaniels have a very compact body, large, highly
arched head, and their dark eyes are set high and
wide apart. The nose is short and pug-like; the
legs are slender; and the tail is well feathered
and carried in a tight curl over the back. They
are very alert and affectionate. A similar dog
is highly esteemed in China, especially when solid
fawn or silver in color.
Consult authorities cited under Dog; also
Spicer, Toy Dogs (London and New York, 1903).
SPANISH-AMERICAN LITERATURE.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD. Spanish-American liter-
ature owes almost nothing to the few fragments of
Nahua and Inca literature that survived the de-
struction of hieroglyphs by the Spanish con-
querors. The early literature centres largely
around the City of Mexico. (See MEXIOAN
LITERATURE.) As subsidiary literary centres,
Bogota, Quito, Lima, and Guatemala became
noted during the later colonial era.
The subject matter of intellectual colonial ef-
fort consists largely of the preparation of gram-
mars and dictionaries of native languages (Me-
néndez y Pelayo in La ciencia espanola gives a
list of fifty-nine of the principal ones), and of
catechisms and sermons in both Spanish and the
native vernacular. This work was largely utilita-
rian in object, and, save for the occasional trans-
lation of some fragment of native hieroglyphs, is
merely of philological interest. Another branch
of literary activity was the writin of the
history of the conquest and early sett ement of
America, or the compiling of materials for that
purpose. During the later colonial period works
SPANISH-AMERICAN LITERATURE. 35
on natural and political science began also to
appear. The remaining literary effort, directed
toward what is generally called pure literature,
produced a few works of merit (so recognized
by the mother country), which were of impor-
tance in the further literary development of Amer-
ica. These writers (largely ecclesiastics, though
occasionally some conquistador handled the pen
equally well with the sword), described the con-
flicts of the Spaniards with the natives, as did
the Chilean epic poet Pedro de Ofia (born c.1571)
in his Araucano domado and Pedro de Peralta y
Barnuevo (d. 1760; of Spanish birth) in his Lima
fundada; or they depicted the beauties of natural
scenery and the happenings of agricultural life,
as did the Guatemalan Rafael Landivar (1731-
93), in his bucolic Latin poem, Rusticatio Meani-
cana; or they collected the materials for history
and wrote excellent accounts of the pacification
and settlement of America, as did Juan de Ve-
lasco, of Ecuador, in his Historia del reino de
Quito, and the Jesuits Ovalle and Rosas in Chile.
Fr. Juan de Barrenechea y Albis, of the latter
country, in his Restauraci6n de la Imperial
(1693), made a solitary attempt at novel-writing.
There appeared also some worthy attempts at de-
votional writing, both in prose and verse, such as
the Sentimientos espirituales of Sor Francisca
Josefa de la Concepcion (d. at Tunja, 1742), and
La Cristiada of Diego de Hojeda (who lived in
Lima. early in the seventeenth century). Juan
de Castellanos (sixteenth century), of New Gra-
nada, in his Elegias de /oarones ilustres, not only
celebrated in hendecasyllabic verse the deeds of
the early explorers of America and of his native
viceroyalty, but also achieved the doubtful
distinction of writing the longest poem in
the language. The crowning glory of New
Granada, however, lies in the intellectual
movement which, under the leadership of José
Celestino Mutis (1732-1808), the “illustrious pa-
triarch of botanists of the New World,” and the
many-sided José de Caldas (1741-1816), became
memorable in the Spanish-American scientific
literature of the latter half of the eighteenth
century. During this same period the Ecuado-
rean Antonio de Alcedo (died 1812) produced his
Diccionario geografico-hist6rico de las Indias oc-
cidcntales (1786-89), a translation of which, by
G. A. Thompson, with numerous additions, was
published in London (1812-15).
THE PERIOD or INDEPENDENCE. The revolution-
ary days of the early nineteenth century, which,
in Spanish America, substituted the radical phi-
losophy and sentiment of the progressive French
branch of the Latin stock for the unswerving loy-
alty and religious mysticism of the conservative
Spaniard, did not wholly release American writ-
ers from dependence upon Peninsular schools of
thought. It is true that through translation and
imitation it is possible to trace the influence of
Byron, of Hugo, of I-Ieine, and of the other great
leaders of the romantic school of literature; but
in the majority of cases these and other writers
are introduced to Spanish America indirectly,
and above all through the writings of the Span-
ish romanticist Zorilla, who has exerted a most
profound influence upon American authors. The
one great bond that unites the separate republics
and, though perhaps unwillingly, keeps them in
touch with the thought of the mother country,
is the ‘sonorous Castilian language,’ which its
SPANISH-AMERICAN LITERATURE.
best writers have preserved in all its grammatical
and rhetorical purity of diction; but to which
they have given a buoyancy and flexibility lack-
ing in the original, and a greater freedom of
thought and a more revolutionary and virile
spirit that together have rendered this ‘offshoot
of French art and of Latin culture’ a vigorous
literary product.
During the early decades of the nineteenth cen-
utry themes suggested by the revolutionary con-
flict, in which so many of the writers took an ac-
tive part, naturally formed the greater portion
of the literary output. The period which fol-
lowed is marked by literature of a more contem-
plative and personal tone. Within recent years
there has arisen the new school of ‘Creolism,’
whose devotees show in the faithful portrayal of
native customs, generally of a rustic character,
many elements of rugged strength that promise
well for the originality of future literature.
During the century there has also occurred a
shifting of literary centres in South America.
Lima, Quito, and Bogota have beenrelegated to a
secondary rank, while Buenos Ayres, early
brought under the direct influence of the French
romantic school, and Caracas, influenced as pro-
foundly by Zorilla and his followers, and San-
tiago, at present the centre of the most inspiring
literary productions of the South American
continent, far outstrip their rivals of colonial
fame.
The chief literary figure of Latin America is
that of Andres Bello (q.v.),' whose mastery
of Castilian is illustrated in his many-sided ca-
reer and whose reputation as a poet rests chiefly
upon his georgic La agricultura en la zona tor-
rida. José Antonio Maitin (1792-c.1859), an
other native of Venezuela, was one of the first
of the ardent followers of Zorilla. Rafael Maria
Baralt (1810-1860), in his Historia antigua y
moderna de Venezuela, in style and method com-
pares favorably with the best of modern Span-
ish historians, and also ranks high as a linguist
and poet. Among others who have shed lustre
on the literary reputation of Venezuela are the
members of the gifted Calcafio family; the lyr-
icist Jacinto Gutierrez C011 (1836—), made
famous by his A mi angel guardidn and Suerio de
amor; Francisco de Sales Perez (1836--),
whose La vida del campo is a faithful portrayal
of the customs of his native llanos; and the pres-
ent day Diaz Rodriguez, whose artistic romance,
Sangre patrician, recalls the Italian D’Annunzio.
Colombia was the home of the lyric poet José
Eusebio Caro, whose Lara (published in 1834)
marked an important literary period in the his-
tory of his native land. His associate, Julio Ar-
boleda (died 1862), essayed in Gonzalo de Oy6n
a notable attempt at epic-writing, but achieved
a greater success in his brilliant romance Casi-
miro el Montariés. The realistic poet José Joa-
quin Ortiz is favorably known because of his
masterpiece, Los colonos. The most noted Span-
ish-American novel, Maria, is the work of the
Colombian Jorge Isaacs; while the Historia de
la renolucio'n de Nueva Granada (1827) of José
Manuel Restrepo is but one of the many histori-
cal works that have brought honor to the north-
ern republic. Her southern neighbor, Ecuador,
boasts of the statesman poet José Joaquin de
Olmedo (1782-1847), wh0se Canto de Jun/in is
the most stirring of revolutionary poems, but
SPANISH-AMERICAN LITERATURE. 36
whose work has been rivaled by the more recent
verse of Juan Leon Mena, famous also as a
critic and for his novel Oamanda, and Julio
Zaldumbide, a poet of the contemplative school.
Lima, in Peru, was the home of the political sat-
irist Felipe Pardo de Aliaga, famous also
for his dramas, Frntos de la edacacion and
Una huérfana en Chorillos. From the middle of
the century Peruvian writers have largely fol-
lowed the Spanish school of romantic literature,
and one of the most inspiring of this class of
writers is Fernando Velarde, whose collected
poems, Flores del clesierto, appeared in 1848.
José Arnaldo Marquez (1825-81) is regarded as
the leading lyric poet of modern Peru. The
N oche de dolor en las» montanas of Numa Pom-
pilio Llona (born 1832) is one of the best poems
of recent American literature. In fiction El
Padre Orani of Narciso Arestegui occupies a
prominent place, and the dramatists Corpancho
and Segura take a high rank. As under the po-
litical regime of viceroyalty days, Bolivia has
continued to be in a literary sense the appendage
alternately of Peru and of Argentina, but the
lyric poetry of Ricardo J. Bustamante (born
1821) and the Ensayo sobre la historia de Bo-
livia of Manuel José Cortés (1811-65) have re-
ceived favorable notice, as has also the Ultimos
dias coloniales en el Alto-Peru (1896), written by
Gabriel René-Moreno.
Chile, long the most backward of the South
American republics, was greatly aroused by the
long residence of Bello and by the coming of
many exiled Argentines. Of the succeeding gen-
eration the publicist and poet Arteaga Alem-
parte (1835-1880) achieved a poetic triumph in
his hymn Al Amor. Isaias Gamboa, in his Poemas
(1902); the rare and strange Antonio Borquez
Solar, in his Oampo lirico (1900); and Carlos
Walker Martinez in Poesrias (1894) and Ro-
mances A/mericanos (1899) exhibit an elevation
of thought and a beauty of versification un-
equaled elsewhere in Spanish-America and hardly
surpassed in Europe. Chilean writers of history
and political science, among whom are reckoned
Arana and the Amunsiteguis, likewise enjoy an
international reputation, while Alberto el juga-
dor, a novel by Rosario Orrego de Uribe, and
Contra la marea, by Alberto del Solar, attest
the worth of her writers of fiction.
With the dawn of independence the classic
translations and imitations of Valera, Quintana,
and Cienfuegos inaugurated the literary history
of Argentina, a history which includes that of her
neighbor, Uruguay. In Argentina Estéban Eche-
verria, one of the first American lyricists,
known for his La caatioa, introduced roman-
ticism directly from the French, and liberated
the thought of his own countrymen. His
fellow citizen José Rivera Indarte produced
the stirring poem El festin de Baltasa/r, and his
pupil Juan Maria Gutierrez the lyrics Recaerclo
and A mi caballo. Following these came a host
of littérateurs, with centre at Buenos Ayres, or,
in time of political proscription, at Montevideo,
whose work in poetry and prose has greatly influ-
enced the political thought and literature of their
own and neighboring republics, and has rendered
famous the names of the historian Vicente Fidel
Lopes, the dramatist José Marmol (author also
of the novel Amalia), and the poet José Hernan-
dez, whose M artin Fierro has been the most wide-
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
ly sold poem of the southern continent. The
Flores silvestres of the dramatist Francisco Javier
de Acha, of Uruguay, have also met with a favor-
able reception, and the Libra eatraiio of Francisco
Sicardi is one of the best of recent novels. The
H istoria Argentina (1894) of Mariano A. Pelliza
is a monumental work of great merit. In the
department of criticism the reoistas of Buenos
Ayres have occupied a leading place, and one of
their most famous contributors was Juan Bau-
tista Alberdi, whose Escritos pristamos appeared
during the last decade. Bartolomé Mitré’s His-
toria del general Belgrano is one of the most
successful attempts at biographical history that
the century has produced. During recent years
the prevailing commercialism of the Plata valley
has undoubtedly exerted a pernicious effect upon
its literature. Central America, in addition to a
number of political writers, has contributed to
the field of letters the satirist J osé Batrés y Mon-
tfifar, and the writers of fables Garcia Goyena
and Matias Cordoba of Guatemala.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lagomaggiore, America‘ li-
teraria (Buenos Ayres, 1883) ; Antologia de
poetas Hispano-Americanos (Madrid, 1893) ; Me-
nendez y Pelayo, La ciencia espmiola (ib., 1889) ;
Rojas, Biblioteca de escritores venezolanos con-
temporrineos (Paris, 1875) ; Duron, Honduras
literaria (Tegucigalpa, 1896) ; La Vénézuéla
littéraire in La Revue, vol. Xliv. (Paris, 1903) ;
Beristain de Souza, Biblioteca hispa/na-americana
septentrional, edited by Medina (Santiago, 1897) ;
Revista critioa cle historia y literatara, vol. vii.
(Madrid, 1902) ; Torres-Caicedo, Ensayos bio-
gréficos y de critica literaria sobre los prin-
oipales poetas y literatos hispano-americanos
(Paris, 1863); Palma, Lira americana (ib.,
1865).
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. The war
between Spain and the United States in 1898.
After more than a century of unrest in the island
of Cuba, and intermittent struggles between the
Cubans and their home Government, when the in-
crease of bloodshed, starvation, and general de-
vastation had attracted world~wide attention, and
when the rights of American citizens had been
systematically disregarded by the Spanish au-
thorities, the United States decided to interpose
its friendly offices. After the ‘Ten Years’ War’
(1868-78) in Cuba, there had been a period
of comparative peace (see CUBA), but in Feb-
ruary, 1895, the Cubans again rebelled, and the
Spanish Government resorted to repressive meas-
ures of unusual severity and cruelty. The island
was devastated, famine and death were every-
where, American interests sufi'ered greatly, and
the condition of affairs fast became intolerable.
On April 6, 1896, Secretary of State Olney repre-
sented to Spain that American commerce was
being greatly damaged, and that the Cubans
were threatened with ‘absolute impoverishment.’
and vaguely offered the friendly offices of the
United States, his ‘offer,’ however, falling short
in definiteness to that of a resolution passed, on
April 4th, by the American Congress. 0lney’s offer
was immediately declined by Spain, and in De-
cember, 1896, President Cleveland, in his annual
message, spoke of ‘higher obligations’ than those
due to Spain, which “would devolve upon the
United States if conditions should grow worse
in the island and if Spain’s inability to deal
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
37
successfully with the insurrection should become
manifest. In Congress feeling was much more
radical, and the President’s ‘timidity’ was vigor-
ously criticised. President McKinley, at the out-
set of his administration, devoted special atten-
tion to the situation in Cuba. In May, 1897,
Congress appropriated $50,000 for the relief of
the Cubans, and on May 20, 1897, the Senate
passed a resolution recognizing the belligerency
of Cuba, which, however, was never acted upon
by the House. Meanwhile, the activity of Cuban
agents in the United States caused almost con-
stant diplomatic friction between the two gov-
ernments. A new Ministry under Sagasta in
Spain made an effort to ameliorate conditions,
and on October 6, 1897, recalled Captain-General
Weyler, who had been held responsible for much
of the Spanish cruelty to the Cubans, General
Blanco being sent out in his stead. Stewart L.
Woodford, of New York, had been sent as United
States Minister to Spain, with special instruc-
tions to urge that country to establish civil
order in Cuba, and to announce that the United
States could not view with indifference the in-
definite prolongation of the existing conditions.
The representations of the American Minister
were met with promises from Spain to give Cuba
local autonomy and to ameliorate the conditions
which the war methods had created. In view of
these assurances, the President, in his annual
message of December, 1897, recommended to Con-
gress the postponement of action until Spain had
been given ample opportunity to redeem her prom-
ises. On December 24th an appeal was issued
by Secretary Sherman in the President’s name,
calling for contributions for the relief of the
Cuban reconcentrados. This appeal met with a
hearty response. At the opening of 1898 the
Government began to concentrate its naval forces,
and to accumulate war supplies. The tone of the
press and the expressions of public opinion gen-
erally showed that the nation was ready for war.
The relations with Spain were further strained
on February 8th, when a Cuban sympathizer pur-
loined from the mail a letter from the Spanish
Minister at Washington, Sefior Dupuy de Lorne,
addressed to a Spanish editor, and containing
severe strictures on President McKinley and his
policy. The Minister at once admitted that he
had written the letter and resigned. The prompt
disavowal on the part of Spain of any sympathy
with the Minister’s conduct closed the incident
so far as official circles were concerned. On the
evening of February 15th the battleship Maine
(Captain Charles D. Sigsbee), which had been
sent to Cuba on the representation of Fitzhugh
Lee, the American Consul at Havana, but not
for unfriendly purposes, according to official an-
nouncement, was blown up in Havana harbor
and 266 of the crew killed. The United States
and Spain at once appointed separate boards of
investigation. Congress immediately appropri-
ated $50,000,000 for national defense. On March
28th the American commission reported. It at-
tributed the catastrophe to the explosion of a sub-
marine mine in the harbor, but in view of the lack
of evidence declined to fix responsibility. Public
opinion, however, at once decided that the Span-
ish officials in Cuba were responsible for the dis-
aster. On the day before the report of the M wine
commission, the President made overtures to
Spain for a cessation of hostilities and a peace-
able settlement of difiiculties. He tendered his
good offices in the negotiation of peace and pro-
posed a dissolution of the concentration camps
and the relief of the suffering Cubans by the
United States through the mediation of Spanish
officers. In reply, Spain offered to leave the
peace negotiations to the Cuban Parliament ap-
pointed to meet on May 4th, and to cease hostili-
ties when the Cuban insurgents asked for it.
Spain added that the concentration orders had
been revoked, agreed to a joint relief of distress,
voted $600,000 for that purpose, and offered to
arbitrate the Maine case. The President re-
garded this reply as unsatisfactory and an-
nounced his intention of submitting the whole
matter to Congress in the forthcoming message.
Meanwhile, in anticipation of the war, American
inhabitants left Cuba, the Cuban Government de-
clared against interference on the part of the
United States, the Cuban ‘junta’ demanded recog-
nition of independence before intervention, and
Spain on April 10th declared a general armistice.
On the following day the President’s message,
describing the situation in Cuba and giving an
account of the state of diplomatic relations with
Spain, was laid before Congress. The President
did not favor the recognition of Cuban belliger-
ency or independence, but advocated intervention
as a neutral. At all events, he declared, the war
in Cuba must be ended, and he accordingly asked
Congress for authority to use the army and navy
to secure the formation of a Cuban government
capable of discharging its international obliga-
tions and maintaining internal order. Congress
promptly replied by a joint resolution declaring
the people of Cuba free and independent, demand-
ing the surrender of all Spanish authority over
the island, and directing as well as empowering
the President to enforce the resolution by the
army and navy. Congress further declared that
the United States was not “to exercise sover-
eignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island
except for the pacification thereof.” The Presi-
dent signed the measure, and on April 20th sent
the ultimatum to Spain, fixing the hour of noon,
April 23d, as the last date for a satisfactory
reply. This was a practical declaration of war,
for the Spanish Government had already an-
nounced its intention to oppose the policy out-
lined in the President’s message. Both Powers
at once defined their attitude on questions of in-
ternational law, and preparations that had been
going on in both countries were quickened, the
United States devoting special attention to the
equipment of the navy.
Almost immediately the Spanish Minister de-
manded his passports and the American Minister
at Madrid was notified by the Spanish Govern-
ment that diplomatic relations between the two
nations had ceased. On April 23d President
McKinley called for 125,000 volunteers and
ordered the North Atlantic squadron to blockade
Havana and other Cuban ports. Formal dec-
laration of war by Spain on the 24th and by
the United States on the 25th inst. were followed
by the proclamations of neutrality by Great
Britain and other foreign Powers.
The first gun of the Spanish-American War
was fired (April 23d) by the U. S. S. Nashville
across the bows of the Buena Ventura, a Spanish
merchantman, and the first action occurred on the
27th, when three vessels of the United States
SPANISH-AMERICAN ‘WAR.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
38
Navy under Captain Sampson bombarded the de-
fenses of Matanzas.
Spain had an army of 60,000 men distributed
throughout Cuba, and had fleets near that island
and in the Philippines. Commodore Dewey,
U. S. N ., commanding the Asiatic squadron, then
in Chinese waters, had completed the equipment
and coaling of his ships, when the cable brought
him orders to “proceed to the Philippine Islands;
commence operations at once against Spanish
fleet; capture vessels or destroy.” Entering the
harbor of Manila (April 30th) under cover of
darkness, with his fleet (131 guns, 1678 men),
made up of the Olympia (flagship, Captain C. V.
Gridley), the Baltimore (Captain N. M. Dyer),
the Raleigh (Captain J. B. Coghlan), the Boston
(Captain F. Wilder), the small cruiser Gon-
cord (Commander A. Walker), the gunboat Pet-
rel (Commander E, P. Wood), the revenue cutter
Hugh M cflulloch, and two colliers, he attacked
the ships of Admiral Montojo, ten in number
(120 guns, 1796 men), supported by land bat-
teries. The action, which lasted from 5.41 AM.
(with an interruption of three hours) till 12.30
P.M., ended in the destruction of the Spanish
vessels and the silencing of the fortifications.
The American casualties were 6 wounded; Spain
admitted a loss of 634 killed and wounded.
The mobilization of the United States land
forces proceeded rapidly, and on May 25th a sec-
ond call was made-—for 75,000 volunteers. While
camps of instruction were established near
Tampa and Chickamauga, the Navy was watching
the seacoast and preparing the way for a combin-
ed attack by the land and naval forces upon Cuba.
In the meanwhile the movements of a Spanish
fleet of four cruisers and three torpedo-boat de-
stroyers under Admiral Cervera, which sailed
from Saint Vincent on April 29th, for some time
puzzled the Americans. But finally (May 29th)
the Spanish ships were discovered by Commodore
Schley (q.v.) at anchor in the Bay of Santiago,
and a carefully organized blockade of the bay
Was planned and rigorously conducted by Ad-
miral (then Captain) Sampson, the commander
of the American fleet in Cuban waters, who had
arrived at Santiago and had superseded Schley
in actual command on June 1st. In Sampson’s
fleet was the Oregon (Captain Charles E. Clark),
which to join the fleet had made a wonderful trip
from Puget Sound to Key West between March
6th and June 4th. A daring attempt by Lieuten-
ant R. P. Hobson (q.v.) on June 3d to lock the
door upon Cervera’s fleet, by sinking the collier
Merrimao in the entrance to the harbor, was
only partially successful. The harbor of Guan-
tanamo was occupied as a coaling station by the
Americans after several collisions with the Span-
ish troops.
Finally, an expedition consisting of 32 trans-
ports bearing 819 officers and 15,058 enlisted
men under Major-General Shafter, U. S. V., left
Tampa, June 15th. The force was composed al-
most entirely of regulars——18 regiments of in-
fantry, 6 regiments of cavalry (dismounted), 1
battery of engineers, 4 batteries of light artil-
lery, 2 batteries of siege guns, and 1 balloon de-
tachment——together with 1 regiment of cavalry
and 2 regiments of volunteer infantry (subse-
quently increased to 4 regiments).
General Shafter’s instructions from his Gov-
ernment were to “go with your force to capture
garrison at Santiago and assist in capturing the
harbor and fleet.” Arriving off Guantanamo
(June 20th), he communicated with the Cuban
forces (5000 strong) under General Garcia, whose
cooperation was secured. It was estimated that
there were about 12,000 Spanish soldiers in
Santiago and vicinity. A plan having been
agreed upon between the United States land
and naval forces, a landing was effected (June
22d) at Daiquiri of 6000 men, and on the three
following days the remainder of Shafter’s troops
disembarked there and at Siboney, without op-
position. The rainy season having set in in-
creased the natural difliculties of an advance
over a soft clay surface, covered with a tough
undergrowth, interspersed with cow-paths in
lieu of roads. The Spaniards had withdrawn to
their intrenchments near Santiago, protected by
an entanglement of barbed wire.
Although orders had been issued to the Ameri-
can advance to await the completion of the dis-
embarkation and landing of supplies, the leading
division under General Wheeler (June 24th) at-
tacked the Spanish troops at Las Guasimas and
after a sharp engagement dislodged them, with
casualties of 68 Americans and 36 Spaniards.
When the preparations had been completed for a
general advance, the United States troops on
July 1st, having taken up positions on the
slopes of the hills in front of Santiago with a
detachment of Cubans protecting their flanks,
opened fire with a field battery, which, using
black powder, became a target for the Spanish
gunners. A battery of rapid-fire guns, however,
did much execution. The character of the ground,
the absence of roads, and the stout resistance of
the garrison of El Caney (q.v.) retarded the ad-
vance of a part of the American force under
General Lawton, but by sundown Shafter’s troops
were in full possession of the line of hills along
the San Juan River, one and a half miles from
the city. These engagements were fought chiefly
by regulars, but eflicient services were rendered
by the First Volunteer Cavalry, popularly known
as the “Rough Riders,” under Colonel Leonard
VVood and Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roose-
velt. The following day was utilized by both
sides in strengthening the lines and by the Amer-
icans in bringing up ammunition and rations.
The exposed position of the American forces ren-
dered an immediate advance or temporary with-
drawal necessary.
On the morning of Sunday, July 3d, Cervera,
taking advantage of the operations on land, had
sought to escape from the harbor of Santiago.
The appearance of the leading ship was the signal
for every ship in the American squadron to close
in upon the fugitives with a hot fire, which was
returned with spirit, but without material effect.
Within two hours the six Spanish ships were
totally destroyed, with a loss of about 350 men
killed and about 1700 men and oflicers captured,
including Admiral Cervera. Early in the morning
Sampson in his flagship New York had started for
Siboney, where he had planned to hold a con-
ference with General Shafter, and Schley was
thus left as the ranking officer. At the begin-
ning of the battle, however, Sampson, about ten
miles away, started back, arriving before the
battle was over. During the battle the Ameri-
cans lost only one man killed and ten wounded.
The seven American vessels engaged had a total
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
SPANISH FOWL.
39
of 225 guns, while the Spanish fleet had only
146; the weights of metal the two fleets could
throw per minute were 6720 and 4827 pounds
respectively. On the same day as that on which
the naval battle occurred General Shafter noti-
fied the Spanish commander, Toral, that unless
he surrendered by the morning of the 4th, the
city would be shelled. After several communica-
tions had passed between these officers, and the
request of foreign consuls for an extension of
time had been complied with, a final demand
brought the truce to an end on the 10th and the
joint attack by ships and troops was resumed.
On the 11th another demand upon the besieged
was made, culminating on July 15th in articles
of capitulation providing for the surrender of all
forces, material, and territory of the district of
Santiago, and the transportation of all Spanish
soldiers to Spain. The Spanish forces in the cap-
tured territory numbered 23,500 and of these
10,000 defended the city. Their losses aggre-
gated nearly 1000, while the Americans killed
and wounded numbered 1614, of whom 114 were
officers. On Sunday (July 17th) at noon the
Stars and Stripes were hoisted in the plaza of
Santiago. On July 27th General Miles,
U. S. A., at the head of an expedition
landed at Ponce, Porto Rico, and a few
days later formally took possession of the
island. On the 25th General Merritt ar-
rived at Manila to assume command of
20,000 United States troops, of which the
advance guard had already been sharply en-
gaged with the Spanish forces stationed there.
On August 7th Admiral Dewey and General Mer-
ritt united in a demand for the surrender of the
city and the islands. This being refused, a com-
bined attack was made, and 7000 regular and
4000 volunteer Spanish soldiers fell into the
hands of the Americans, who lost 50 men killed
and wounded. Meanwhile, the Filipinos had been
organized by Aguinaldo, who subsequently con-
ducted hostilities against the American troops
for the purpose of gaining independence. See
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
On July 26th Spain made overtures for peace
through the French Ambassador at Washington,
M. Cambon, who was authorized to act as Min-
ister Plenipotentiary for Spain during the com-
ing negotiations. On August 12th the peace pro-
tocol and preliminary arrangements were con-
cluded. It was provided that the final treaty
should be made by a commission to meet at Paris
not later than October 1st. The representatives
of the United States were William R. Day (chair-
man), Senator Cushman K. Davis, Senator
William P. Frye, Whitelaw Reid, and Senator
George Gray. After prolonged discussions and
threatened failure, the treaty was signed on De-
cember 10th. It was ratified by the United
States Senate on February 6, 1899, signed by the
Queen Regent of Spain on March 17th, and final
ratifications were exchanged on April 11th. Diplo-
matic relations were soon resumed. By the treaty,
Porto Rico and the other Spanish West Indian
Islands, Guam in the Ladrones, and all of the
Philippines were ceded to the United States,
which in return agreed to pay $20,000,000 and to
yield some temporary commercial privileges in
the Philippines. The political status of the in-
habitants of the new possessions was to be
determined by the new Government.
The finances for the war were provided by spe-
cial taxes. On June 13, 1899, an act was ap-
proved for that purpose. Internal taxes were in-
creased and a stamp tax imposed on certain
papers and articles. A popular loan was also
negotiated. This war tax continued in force un-
til March 2, 1901, when a reduction was made,
and on April 14, 1902, the remainder was re-
pealed. The total expenses for the war from the
opening to October 31, 1898, were estimated at
$165,000,000. During that period the lives of
2910 American soldiers were lost. all but 306
from disease. The enormous death rate in the
camps brought out serious charges of maladmin-
istration against the War Department that cul-
minated in the appointment of a committee of
investigation, which after a thorough examina-
tion of charges reported in general in favor of
the department, laying most of the blame upon
the want of preparation at the time war broke
out. For further details concerning the results
of the war, see UNITED STATES; CUBA; PORTO
RICO; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
Consult: Lodge, The War with Spain (New
York, 1899) ; Bigelow, Reminiscences of the San-
tiago Campaign (ib., 1899) ; Alger, The Spanish-
American War (ib., 1901); Sigsbee, The Maine
(ib., 1899); Hobson, Sinking of the Merrimac
(ib., 1899) ; Kennan, Campaigning in Cuba (ib.,
1899) ; Miley, In Cuba with Shafter (ib., 1899) ;
Spears, Our Navy in the War with Spain (ib.,
1898) ; Joseph Wheeler, Santiago Campaign,
1898 (Philadelphia, 1899); Atkins, The War in
Cuba; the Ewperiences of an Englishman with
the United States Army (London, 1899); Bon-
sal, The Fight for Santiago (New York, 1899) ;
Morris, The lVar with Spain (Philadelphia,
1899) ; Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (New York,
1899) ; and Titherington, History of the Spanish-
American Tl'ar of 1898 (New York, 1900).
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, NAVAL AND
MILITARY ORDER OF THE. A patriotic and heredi-
tary society organized in New York City on
February 2, 1899. It admits to membership any
man of good repute who served on the active
list, or performed active duty as a commissioned
officer, regular or volunteer, in the United States
Army, Navy, or Marine Corps, during the war
with Spain, or in the subsequent insurrection in
the Philippines, or who participated in the war
or insurrection, prior to April 1, 1901, as a naval
or military cadet, or as an officer in the Revenue
Cutter Service on any vessel assigned to duty
under the control of the Navy Department.
SPANISH BARBER, THE. A comedy by
George Colman, the elder, produced in 1777,
based on Beaumarchais’s famous comedy Le bar-
bier de Sénille.
SPANISH BAYONET. See YUCCA.
SPANISH FLY. See BLISTER-BEETLE.
SPANISH FOWL. The black Spanish fowls
constitute one of the oldest varieties of domestic
poultry, and are renowned for their exceptionally
fine laying qualities. The white face is a dis-
tinguishing feature, and should be long, smooth,
free from wrinkles, rising well over the eyes
in an arched form, extending toward the back of
the head and to the base of the beak, covering
the cheeks and joining the wattles and ear-lobes.
The color of the plumage is rich, glossy black, and
any gray is considered a serious defect. Shanks
SPANISH FOWL.
SPANISH LANGUAGE.
40
and toes are blue, or dark leaden blue. The
comb is single, and bright red in color; wattles,
bright red, except the inside of the upper part,
which is white; ear-lobes, pure white.
SPANISH FRIAR, THE. A drama by Dryden,
produced in 1681, written against the Roman
Catholic priesthood. Two plots, one serious, the
other comic, are combined in the story, connected
by Dominick, the friar, a fat amusing rascal.
SPANISH GYPSY, THE. (1) A romantic
comedy by Middleton, assisted by Rowley, printed
in 1653. Two stories are combined, one from
Cervantes’s Fuerea de la Saugre and the gypsy
tale from his La Gitanilla. (2) A long dramatic
poem by George Eliot (1868). A duke of
mediaeval Spain is about to marry Fedahua, a
beautiful girl, who discovers that she is the
daughter of the gypsy chief Zarco. The call of
race and duty conquers, followed by a tragic
renunciation of her love.
SPANISH LANGUAGE. A Romance lan-
guage, evolved out of Latin in the Iberian Pen-
insula and carried by Spanish colonists to the
Canaries, the Antilles, the Philippines, Mexico,
portions of the United States, Central America,
the greater part of South America, and a few
places on the coast of Africa, and by the Jews
into Turkey and other regions in which they
settled after their expulsion from Spain. In
the Iberian Peninsula the boundaries of the Span-
ish-speaking domain do not coincide exactly with
those of the political division called Spain, since
within the latter are contained Galicia, whose in-
habitants speak a Portuguese dialect, a Basque-
speaking district in the north, and a Catalan-
speaking region in the east. The inhabitants of
the Balearic Islands speak a Catalan dialect.
Probably not far from 50,000,000 persons at
present use Spanish as their native tongue, the
majority being in the New World. Five prin-
cipal dialects are distinguishable in the language
as spoken in the mother country: Asturian,
Leonese, Aragonese, Andalusian, and Castilian.
Castilian has become the standard literary speech.
Castilian has the five simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u,
a variety of diphthongs, and a few triphthongs
produced by the union of a strong vowel (e, o, a)
with two weak vowels (i, u). Examples of the
diphthongs and triphthongs are iu in piuda,
‘widow;’ ui in ruido, ‘noise;’ ai in baile,
‘dance;’ eu in deuda, ‘debt;’ io in Dios, ‘God ;’
iai in estudiais, ‘you study.’ The diphthongs ie
and ue are especially common as representatives
of a Latin short e or 0; compare Latin béne and
fdrum with Spanish bien and fuero. Qualitative
distinctions in vowels (open and close e and 0)
exist, but are not so marked as in certain other
Romance languages (e.g. Italian and French).
In assonance (rhyme of vowels without that of
the consonants) these qualitative distinctions
are not regarded; open and close e may therefore
rhyme together, as may also open and close 0,
and, furthermore, final unaccented i and u may
rhyme respectively with e and o similarly situ-
ated. Although liaison, strictly speaking, is not
a feature of Spanish pronunciation, yet in rapid
speech the vowel ending one word may be merged
into the same vowel of the immediately following
word, provided this latter be syntactically allied
to it (e.g. mi querida amiga may become mi
queridamiga, with a possible compensatory
lengthening of the a). The consonant sounds
are p ,' a bilabial spirant written both b and v
(the more frequent sound of these letters); a
labial stop written both b and p (the value of
these characters where they follow an m of the
same word or an n at the end of the preceding
word, as in también and en oida; the sound is
that of the usual English I), the sound of the
English /0 not existing in Spanish) ; f; w
(written it in hiatus) ; m ,' t ,' (1 (both t and d
are articulated farther forward in the mouth
than the corresponding English sounds, and d
has a decided tendency to become everywhere the
interdental spirant); a voiceless spirant that
is interdental or nearly so (written c before e or
i, and e before a consonant, at the end of a word,
or before any vowel, though rarely now before
e or i ,‘ e.g., celo, ‘zeal;’ cielo, ‘heaven;’ zapato,
‘shoe ;’ raiz, ‘root;’ the value is about that of th
in the English breath; a voiced spirant, inter-
dental or nearly so (written d, which has this
sound especially between vowels, as in lado,
‘side;’ or when preceded by a vowel and followed
by r, as in padre, ‘father,’ or at the end of a word,
as in abad, abbot; the value is about that of th in
the English breathe) ; l; a palatalized l (written
ll and pronounced nearly like the li of filial) ; n ,'
a palatalized n (Written n, and pronounced like
the ni of pinion); a simple tongue-trilled r
(never slurred) ; a reéinforced form of the same
sound (written rr between vowels and r at the
beginning of a word, or after s, l, or n within a
word, e.g. perro, ‘dog ;’ reo, ‘criminal;’ israeli-
ta, ‘Israelite;’ honra, ‘honor’) ; a voiceless s
(with the value of the English ss) ; y (written
both i in hiatus and y) ; It (written c before a, 0,
and u, or before a consonant and in the final posi-
tion, and qu before e and i—carro, ‘car;’ frac,
‘frock coat;’ acto, ‘act;’ querer, ‘to like;’ quién,
‘who’) ; g (the so-called hard sound of English g
in game, get; written g before a, o, u, and gu be-
for e, i—gato, ‘cat;’ guerra, ‘war’); a velar
or guttural spirant (with approximately the
value of ch in Scotch loch and German nach;
written 7' in all positions and g frequently before
e, i-—jam¢is, ‘never;’ gente, ‘people;’ some ob-
servers find also a voiced form of this spirant,
but it is usually voiceless) ; a velar n (with the
value of English ng in sing; written n before a
guttural or palatal, as in banco) . It is the gen-
eral rule that the Spanish written characters
represent actual sounds; but u is frequently
used before e or i as a sign that a preceding
palatal consonant has the ‘hard’ or stop value,
as in que or guerra; j is silent in the singular
noun reloj; and in a few words like usted a final
d may not be pronounced. The simple h is gen-
erally not pronounced, though before the diph-
thong ue it may have a slight aspiration. In
the conjunction y ( : ‘and’) the sound is that of
the vowel i. An aversion to the doubling of con-
sonants is a distinguishing feature of Spanish
spelling; c and n alone may be doubled, as in
acci6n, ‘action,’ and innoble, ‘ignoble,’ and
these combinations must be pronounced as
double sounds wherever they occur; ll and rr
are properly not doubled consonants, and
they figure as individual signs in the al-
phabet. Among the combinations of con-
sonants may be mentioned ch, like ch in the
English word church; e.g. chico, ‘little.’ Ac-
cording to the Academy the written a; is a double
SPANISH LANGUAGE.
SPANISH LANGUAGE.
41
consonant equivalent to hs; but before a con-
sonant there is a rather widespread tendency to
pronounce it like a simple s. In older Spanish 41:
was a much more common character than now
and had the value of our sh. By a decree of the
Spanish Academy issued in 1815, :1; with the
value of sh has been displaced in favor of 7', pro-
nounced as described above. The matter of ac-
centuation is governed by strict rules of the
Academy. Words ending in a consonant not n
or s regularly stress the last syllable; e.g. oer-
dad, ‘truth;’ amar, ‘to love.’ Words ending in n
or s or in a vowel regularly stress the syllable be-
fore the last; e.g. aman, ‘they love;’ hijos, ‘sons.’
Words infringing these rules and all words
stressed on a syllable not the last or second last
must bear a written acute accent on the stressed
syllable, as naei6n, ‘nation ;’ eortés, ‘courteous;’
médieo, ‘physician.’ If a diphthong or a. triph-
thong occur in the stressed syllable the stress
will fall upon its strong element (a, e, or 0), and
where the diphthong consists of two weak ele-
ments (i, u) the second of the two will have the
stress.
In its chief grammatical usages Spanish ac-
cords with French, Portuguese, Italian, and
the other Romance languages. A decided pecu-
liarity is the use of the preposition a, ‘to,’ before
the direct object of a verb, when that object
represents a person, e.g. eeo (2 mi amigo, ‘I
see my friend.’ Like Portuguese, Spanish has
two verbs ‘to have’ (tener and haber, the latter
used as an auxiliary in conjugation) and two
verbs ‘to be’ (estar and ser), and in each
case the functions of the verbs are distinct.
With estar and the gerund of a principal
verb there may be formed a very useful
periphrastic conjugation corresponding to the
English progressive form, thus, Juan estoi
estudianclo, ‘John is studying.’ Instead of the
four conjugations of Latin there are but three
in Spanish; furthermore, regular verbs of the
Spanish second conjugation and the Spanish
third conjugation differ in only four forms, viz.
the present infinitive, the first and second per-
sons plural of the present indicative, and the
second plural of the imperative. There are cer-
tain radical-changing verbs which, though per-
fectly regular as to their endings, change their
root vowels e and 0 under the accent, and in
some cases where they are not accented, to the
diphthongs ie and ue respectively, or, going a
stage farther, to the simple vowels i and u. The
subjunctive mood persists with much more vigor
than in most modern languages; besides the usual
present and imperfect tenses, it has a second
imperfect form (called also the conditional sub-
junctive) , which is properly a descendant of the
Latin pluperfect indicative, and upon occasion
may still be used as an indicative pluperfect or
aorist in Spanish, and also a future tense. Auxili-
aries are used to form the compound tenses, as in
the sister Romance tongues, but, contrary to the
custom in French and Italian, it is ‘to have’
(haber) and not ‘to be’ that forms the perfect
tenses of reflexive verbs, thus, se ha lisonjeado,
‘he has flattered himself.’ The neuter gender
survives in the case of the singular of the definite
article lo, of the demonstrative words, esto. eso,
aquello, and of the objective pronoun of the third
person lo. These neuter forms occur only in
indefinite and general constructions, and then
the neuter article, always accompanied by an
adjective (or an adverb), forms abstract ex-
pressions, thus, lo bueno, ‘the good’ = ‘good-
ness.’
Latin, of course, forms the basis of the Span-
ish vocabulary, but there is an admixture of
words from other sources. There are doubtful
traces of words from pre-Romance languages,
such as Iberian and Celtic and the speech of the
Punic invaders and colonists. Despite trading
relations, no permanent acquisitions seem to have
been made from Greek until after the Roman
conquest. The Visigothic invasion brought a few
Germanic words, and that of the Arabs brought
in a host of Oriental words, many of which are
easily detected by the prefixed Arabic article al.
In the eleventh century many lexical elements
came from beyond the Pyrenees with the entrance
of French soldiers, ecclesiastics, and colonists,
and an infusion of Italian elements was occa-
sioned by Aragonese domination in Italy and by
the great vogue of Italian poetry in the Spanish
Peninsula during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies. Colonial relations have led to the intro-
duction of a few terms from Indian and other
sources; and learned influences have constantly
increased the stock of borrowings from Latin,
Greek, and French.
Traces of written Spanish are found in Latin
deeds and grants as early as the eighth century,
but the first really important Spanish document
is one of the eleventh century, containing a series
of glosses, and literature in Spanish does not be-
gin until the twelfth century, in so far as the
extant documents are concerned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The second decade of the
eighteenth century saw the founding of the Span-
ish Academy, and the results of its activity were
a Diccionario de la lengua castellana (Mad-
rid, 1726-39), an Ortografia (1742), and a
Gramritica (ib., 1771; new ed. 1895). An
abridged edition of the Diceionario was produced
in 1780, and has been repeatedly revised (13th
ed., ib., 1899). Among the many dictionaries,
grammatical treatises, etc., may be mentioned:
Salva, Nuepo cliecionario ole la lengua eastellana
(7th ed., Paris, 1865); Dominguez, Dieeionario
nacional, 6 gran diceionario clasico de la lengua
espaiiola (15th ed., Madrid, 1882); Barcia,
Primer diccionario general etimol6gieo (ib.,
1881-83) ; De Eguilaz y Yanguas, Glosario
etimolo'gico de las palabras esparioles de origen
oriental (Granada, 1886) ; Dozy and Engelmann,
Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais clé-
riués cle l’arabe (2d ed., Leyden, 1869) ; Cuervo,
Diccionario de construceion y regimen cle la
lengua eastellana (Paris, 1886 et seq.); Lopes
and Bensley, Nuevo diceionario inglés-espariol y
espaiiol-inglés (ib., 1900); Velasquez de la Car-
dena, New Pronouncing Dictionary of the Span-
ish and English Languages (rev. ed., New York,
1900); Bustamante, Dictionary of the Spanish
and English Languages (Paris, 1897 ) ; Bello and
Cuervo, Gramcitica de la lengua castellana (6th
ed., ib., 1898) ; Knapp, Grammar of the Modern
Spanish Language (New York, 1882) ; Ramsey,
Tent-Book of Modern Spanish (new ed., ib.,
1902); Garner, Spanish Grammar (ib., 1901);
Edgren, Elementary Spanish Grammar (ib.,
1899) ; Baist, “Die spanische Sprache,” in Groi-
ber, Grundriss der romanisehen Philologie, vol. i.
(Strassburg, 1888).
SPANISH LAW.
SPANISH LAW.
42
SPANISH LAW. The most widely extended
branch of the civil law (q.v.). Even if Portu-
guese law, which is an offshoot of mediaeval Span-
ish law, be left out of the reckoning, Spanish
law prevails to-day over a wider area and gov-
erns a larger population than any other system
except the English. Spanish law, in its Cas-
tilian form, was introduced into all the Spanish
colonies. In Mexico, in Central America,
and in all of the South American States, ex-
cept Brazil (which is governed by Portuguese
law) , the law of Castile still forms the historical
basis of the legal order. Modern Spanish law,
as codified in the later decades of the nineteenth
century, obtains in Cuba, in Porto Rico, and in
the Philippines.
HISTORY. (1) Pre-Roman and Roman Periods.
——in mediaeval Spanish law, some legal historians
find traces of Iberian, Celtic, and Phoenician cus-
toms; but for all practical purposes the history
of Spanish law begins with’ the conquest
and civilization of the peninsula by the
Romans. Until the fifth century of the Chris-
tian Era the rule of the Roman law was as com-
plete in Spain as in any other province of the
Roman Empire. The laws of Malaga and Sal-
pensa, preserved in inscriptions dating from
A.D. 82 or 83, are among the most valuable
pources of our knowledge of Roman municipal
aw.
(2) Visigothic Period.—A new and important
element was introduced in the fifth century by
the German conquest of the peninsula. In the
Visigothic kingdom, which existed until 711,
the conquered Roman population retained, for
nearly two centuries, their own law in mat-
ters that concerned themselves only. A special
compilation of Roman law, the so-called
Breviary of Alaric (q.v.), was drawn up for
their use, A.D. 506. From the name of the
royal official who attested the copies of
this compilation, it is generally described in
Spanish legal literature as the Breviary of Ani-
anus. The Visigothic conquerors, however, lived
by their own customs and laws; and to these,
in case of conflict, the Roman law gave way.
Their law also was put in written form. The so-
called Lex Antiqua Visigothorum (palimpsest in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris) is ascribed
by some authorities to King Euric (AD. 466-
c. 485), by others to King Leovigild or to King
Reccared, a century later. The written law of
the Visigoths was developed from reign to reign,
with an increasing infusion of Roman law, civil
and ecclesiastical. The assemblies which ap-
proved these laws were practically Church coun-
cils; they consisted wholly or chiefly of prelates.
About the middle of the seventh century the
Breviary of Alaric was deprived of legal author-
ity, and the Romanized Lex Visigothorum became
the general law of the peninsula. The form in
which this code has come down to us is practi-
cally that which it received in the reign of King
Reccessuinth (649-672). In the eighth and fol-
lowing centuries the Visigothic code was frequent-
ly described as the Liber Judicum, or Forum
Judicum, or (in the vernacular) Fuero Juzgo.
To the Visigothic period belongs a Spanish col-
lection of council decrees and Papal decretals,
the so-called Hispana, which was much used in
Western Europe and became one of the most im-
portant sources of the canon law (q.v.) .
(3) M edioaoal Period.—The Moorish conquest
and occupation of the peninsula (A.D. 711-1492)
left few permanent traces upon Spanish law. The
Christians who lived under Mohammedan rule
retained not only their religion, but, in matters
concerning themselves alone, their laws also. This
was the case even with the so-called ‘Mozarabs’
who accepted the speech of the conquerors, as is
shown by the existence of an Arabic translation
of the Hispa11a and by Arabic notes on the Visi-
gothic code. As the peninsula was gradually re-
conquered and the Christian States of Northern
Spain, the Moors who remained enjoyed similar
privileges; but the general expulsion of the
‘Moriscos’ (A.D. 1609-14) left Catholic Chris-
tianity and Gothic-Roman law in complete do-
minion. In Christian Spain, however, as in other
parts of Europe, the development of the law dur-
ing the Middle Ages was particularistic. The
Visigothic code remained, in theory, applicable,
but its rules were superseded by local, provincial,
and class customs and laws (fueros, q.v.).
The Spanish cities obtained charters of self-
government (cartas pueblas) and developed
independent city laws earlier than in the cities
in the rest of Europe. The earliest town
law that has come down to us is that
of Leon (1020). At the close of the four-
teenth century there was scarcely a town of any
consequence that had not its own fuero. In the
open country, the tenants and serfs of the Crown,
of the Church, and of the nobles lived by differ-
ent manorial customs. The earliest fueros of
provinces or kingdoms represented the legal cus-
toms of the nobles; one of the most interesting of
these is the Fuero Viejo of Castile (1212). In
the thirteenth century attempts were first made
to combine the general rules of provincial and
town law in ‘general fueros’ of the various king-
doms, issued by the kings with the approval of
the estates. Such were the Fuero Real (1255)
and the Ordeniamento de Alcala (1348) in Cas-
tile; the Fuero de Huesca (1247) and the Ob-
servancias (1437) in Aragon; and the Fueros
Generales of Navarre (1237) and of Valencia
(1239). The revival of the study of the law-
books of Justinian in the twelfth and follow-
ing centuries resulted in Spain, as elsewhere, in
more or less ‘reception’ of Roman Imperial law.
(See CIVIL LAW.) In Catalonia, in Valencia, and
in Navarre the law-books of Justinian, as inter-
preted by the Italian commentators and taught
in the Italian and Spanish universities, were re-
ceived as subsidiary ‘common law.’ In Aragon
and in Castile they were not so received, in bulk;
but in Aragon the new jurisprudence influenced
legislation, and in Castile it produced an essen-
tially Roman code, the celebrated Siete Partidas.
In its first form (so-called Spéculo or Setenario)
this code dates from c.1260, but it did not obtain
legal force until 1348. It was to be applied only
when the general laws of Castile and the special
fueros still in force furnished no rule; but in
practice, through the influence exercised upon
the courts by the doctrines of the universities,
the Partidas to some extent supplanted the pure-
ly Spanish sources.
(4) M oderu Period.—The union of Castile and
Aragon (1479), the conquest of Granada (1492),
and the annexation of Navarre (1512) estab-
lished the modern Kingdom of Spain. In the
new Spain, however, the provinces that had been
SPANISH LAW.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
43
separate kingdoms retained a considerable degree
of autonomy. Each of them kept its separate
parliament (Cortes) and in each of them the law
was developed by provincial legislation. In each
of them compilations of the laws were made from
time to time. In Castile the most important
legislative products were the Ordinanzas Reales
(1485), the Leyes de Toro (1505), the
Nueva Recopilacion (1567), and the Novf
sima Recopilacion (1805-7). After the par-
liaments had ceased to play an important
part some of the new laws promulgated by the
kings were made applicable to all Spain, but no
serious efforts to establish a common national
law of marriage, it does not derogate from the
penal code was adopted in 1822; another in 1848;
another, which is still in force, in 1870. The ex-
isting code of criminal procedure dates from
1882. A code of civil procedure was promulgated
in 1855 and revised in 1881. In 1885 a com-
mercial code was adopted. The attempts to unify
th.. civil law encountered obstinate resistance, be-
cause of the attachment of the provinces to their
ancient fueros. The law of real property was
transformed, early in the century, by the abolition
of feudal tenures and of entails, and an impor-
tant law requiring the registration of convey-
ances, mortgages, etc., was adopted in 1861 (re-
vised in 1871). Civil marriage was introduced in
1870. In 1888 a general civil code was adopted
(revised in 1889), but this code has not given
Spain a common law, for, except as regards the
law of marriage, it does not derogate from the
laws previously in force in Navarre, Aragon,
Catalonia and the Balearic Isles; i.e. it has, in
these provinces, only subsidiary force. In Cata-
lonia the Roman law, civil and canon, is still
subsidiary law. In the rest of the peninsula,
however, the code of 1888-89 has replaced the
older laws.
SPANISH CoLoNIEs. From the early part of the
sixteenth century many laws were issued concern-
ing the colonies. The earliest compilation of
these laws was made in Mexico, in 1563, by Vasco
de Puga. In 1570 was published, in Spain, a col-
lection of Orders in Council affecting the colonies,
and a fuller collection was made early in the
seventeenth century. In 1680 a code of colonial
laws was published—Recopilaci(m de las leyes
de las Indias. (This was repeatedly revised, the
last edition dating from 1841.) This code dealt
chiefly with administrative matters, to some ex-
tent with crimes and penalties, hardly at all
with rivate law. In matters not covered by
specia colonial legislation the laws of Castile
had been applied from the beginning, and this
practice was expressly sanctioned in the Laws of
the Indes, II., i., 2 and II., xv., 66.. In the
early part of the nineteenth century (1810-26)
all the Spanish colonies of Central and South
America achieved their independence. These re-
publics have adopted codes of their own. The
earliest Spanish American civil code was that of
Bolivia (1831). The most important is that of
Chile, which has served as a model for several
other Central and South American codes. All
these codes, like the Spanish code of 1888-89, show
the influence of the Code Napoléon. (See CODE.)
In Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines the
Spanish codes of the nineteenth century are still
in force.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. SPANISH: Histories of Spanish
VOL. XVI.--i.
Law, by Sempere (1847), Marichalar y Manrique
(1863), Falcon (1880), Moret (1893), Antequera
(1895). That by Hinojosa (1887) deals with the
earlier periods only, till AD. 711. Systematic
works on the older Spanish law by Sala (1803,
and many subsequent editions) and De la Serna
y Montalban (1841, 13th ed. 1881). Commen-
taries on the civil code of 1888-89 by Manresa y
Navarro, Falcon, Sanchez Roman, and Scaevola.
The last is the most voluminous. Dictionaries
(i.e. encyclopaedic works in alphabetical order) by
Escriche (1876), Sanchez de las Matas (1883),
and Alcubilla (1895) . The last is in 9 Vols. with
annual appendices. In English there are no
works of value except translations of texts, as
selections from Las siete partidas (New Orleans,
1820). The Spanish codes and the more impor-
tant Spanish laws in force in our insular depen-
dencies are published by the United States War
Department. In German: a history of Spanish
law by Brauchitsch (1852) . In French: transla-
tions of the codes; also Lehr, Eléments cle droit
civil espag/nol (Paris, 1880, 1890). .
SPANISH LITERATURE (called also Cas-
tilian literature, since the dialect of Castile is the
dominant and literary speech of Spain). Litera-
ture in the Spanish tongue began only when the
process of reconquest restored to the Christian
Spaniards a considerable portion of their ances-
tral domain. This first literature was epic song
reflecting the warlike spirit of an heroic age. Very
little of the Old Spanish epic poetry has been
preserved to us in anything like its original form.
The only considerable remains are some poems
on the Cid, of which one, the Poema del Cid, is
the oldest extant monument of Spanish literature,
some fragments of a poem or of poems on the
Infantes of Lara, and a learned poem on Fernan
Gonzalez. But allusions and records in the
Chronicles and elsewhere lead us to believe that
there once existed epics now lost. It was the
jaglares or minstrels who popularized and de-
veloped Spanish epic tradition, according to the
theory of Gaston Paris, at first singing only the
heroes celebrated by the French jonglears. It
was quite natural that the French tales dealing
with Charlemagne’s wars against the Spanish
Arabs should most impress the Spaniards; and
it was equally natural that the Spanish juglares
should seek to make native heroism play some
part in the conflicts with the Moors. This they
did by inventing the figure of Bernardo del Car-
pio to supplant the French hero Roland. The
traditions concerning Bernardo are preserved for
us only in the prose accounts of the Chronicles,
especially the C'r6nica general of Alfonso the
Wise; but the Chronicles drew upon the poems of
the juglares for the matter that they contain.
We come to a thoroughly domestic tradition in
the story of Fernan Gonzalez, Count of Castile
(932-970), with whom began the actual though
not the nominal independence of that region. An
extended poetic account of his active life we owe
to a monk of the monastery of San Pedro de Ar-
lanza. This work was written in the second half
of the thirteenth century, but we now possess it
only in a late manuscript of the fifteenth century,
which is incomplete. The Orcinica general, how-
ever, affords us the substance of what must
have been the second part of the poem. A
purely Spanish tradition is found again in the
tragic story of the seven Infantes of Lara (or
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
44
Salas), done to death through the perfidy
of their uncle and aunt, and later avenged by
their Moorish half brother, Mudarra. Here,
also, the legend is preserved by the Crof-
nica general, which has, in this case, absorbed
many verses of the Old Spanish poems on the
subject without wholly obliterating their rhyme
and metre. By good fortune we still possess two
of the Old Spanish poems dealing with the story
of the doughtiest of all the native heroes, the
Cid (q.v.) , an historical personage of the eleventh
century. The Poe/ma del Cid has survived in but
a single and incomplete manuscript of the four-
teenth century, and, besides, its versification is in
an exceedingly corrupt state. There are two main
divisions (or cantares); the first begins with
Rodrigo’s exile from Castile, and ends with the
conquest of Valencia and the marriage of his two
daughters to the unhistorical Infantes of Carrion;
in the second, the necessity of punishing the In-
fantes for their abuse and desertion of their
spouses brings the Cid to the Court of Castile and
affords an opportunity for completely reconcil-
ing him and his liege lord. The poem ends with
a second marriage of the Cid’s daughters, who,
now wedding the princes of Barcelona and Na-
varre, make the Cid an ancestor of the later royal
house of Spain. An imaginative account of the
Cid’s youth is found in the poem termed the
(lrrinica r/imada, a document of the thirteenth cen-
tury relating particularly Rodrigo’s slaying of
Count Gormaz and the marriage of the youthful
slayer to the Count’s daughter, Ximena.
Much greater than the bulk of the heroic poetry
preserved is that of Old Spanish religious, didac-
tic, and narrative verse. The greater part of
this verse is in the form of quatrains of alexan-
drines, with a single rhyme in the stanza (the
so-called caaderna via). There is no knowledge
of the existence of this learned poetry before the
thirteenth century, but in the first half of that pe-
riod it is found fully developed in a mystery play,
in translations from the French or Provenoal, and
in poems. The mystery play, which is incom-
plete, is El misterio ole los reyes magos. It is an
outgrowth of the liturgical dramas or offices of
the Church. No other important remains of
the early Spanish drama have been discovered.
Of the matter composed in cuaclerna via a large
proportion is due to the cleric Gonzalo de Ber-
ceo, who is the first Spanish poet that we know
by name. He flourished in the first half of the
thirteenth century. Most of his productions deal
with religious subjects. There is now attributed
to him furthermore a long poem dealing with pro-
fane matter, the Llbro de Alexandre, which re-
lates in some 2500 stanzas the life of Alexander
the Great. _
With the end of the thirteenth and the begin-
ning of the the fourteenth century the use
of the caaderna via began to yield to prose
in didactic composition. Contemporary with
this change appeared the first true poet in
Spanish literature, Juan Ruiz, who is known
as the Archpriest of Hita. He belonged to the
reign of Alfonso XI. (1312-50), and he was impris-
oned by his superiors because of his evil life; but,
like the French poet Villon, he sang with the true
note of passion. In his Oantares (called by him
El libro de baen amor) he recounts his erotic
adventures, interspersing here and there many fa-
bles, descriptions of his disputes with Love (Don
Amor), an account of a lesson which Venus, wife
of Don Amor, gave him, etc.
Spanish prose, at first clumsy and labored, ear-
liest appeared in law codes and ofiicial docu-
ments. The first use of Spanish prose for chron-
icle purposes is seen in the two Anales Toledanos
put together before 1250. Between 1217 and 1223
were written certain genealogies and translations
from Latin chroniclers were made in following
years. Under the direction of Saint Ferdinand
was begun the encyclopaedic Septenarlo, which his
son, Alfonso, completed, and there was planned
a codification of Castilian laws. The prose thus
formed, employed largely for didactic and his-
torical works, was applied to fiction in the
framework tales of Juan Manuel. Alfonso X.,
the Wise, wrote, or had written under his direc-
tion, many works dealing with the science of
the time. Great value attaches to the so-called
Or6nz'ca general, in which, availing himself of
earlier Latin chronicles, he dealt with the history
of his land from the earliest times down to the
period of his own accession.
Moralizing works and collections of sententious
sayings drawn from Arabic sources or written in
imitation of them became rife both in Alfonso’s
time and in the ensuing period. One of the
Arabic moral anthologies thus introduced into
Spanish was the very popular Bocados de oro,
which lived on in the poetical aphorisms of Sem
Tob and Santillana.
Sancho IV. (1284-95), the successor of Alfonso
X., inherited his father’s love for letters, and by
his direction there were prepared translations
from Latin, French, and Provencal. The interest-
ing translation, the Gran conqwlsta de Ultramar,
dealing with the Crusades, preserves the sub-
stance of French literary monuments now lost.
This and other translations show a broadening
interest in foreign literature, further exemplified
in an early fourteenth-century version of the
prose Tristan. To the first half of the same cen-
tury may be ascribed the first independent exam-
ple of Spanish prose fiction, the Caballero Oifar,
and possibly also the Amadis, for the chivalrous
romance seems already to be beginning its long
period of popular favor.
Literature was not especially favored by San-
cho’s immediate successor, but a monarch of in-
tellectual force appeared again in Alfonso XI.
The most important of the works which were pre-
pared under his direction was a series of chron-
icles that should close the gap between his own
time and the period with which the Gronica gene-
ral of Alfonso X. ended, a work which formed
the basis of the Poema de Alfonso XI. Don Juan
Manuel (1282-1345), a nephew of Alfonso X.,
played a more direct part in the development of
letters at this time, being, like his uncle,
one of the greatest prose writers in early Span-'
ish literature. The most interesting and impor-
tant of his many treatises is the famous frame-
work of tales called the Oonde Lucanor or Libro
de Patronio, in which Count Lucanor, seeking ad-
vice from his tutor, Patronio, is answered by the
latter with moralizing tales conveying the neces-
sary counsel. The contents of the fifty-one tales
comprise historical or pseudo-historical elements
relating to Spain, matters of personal experience,
Arabic traditions, besides elements drawn from
Phaedrus, the Oalila et Dimna, the Barlaam
story, and above all the general European stock
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
45
of stories; and all are told in an original and
unpretentious style.
With the middle of the fourteenth century, an
artificial form of the lyric continuing the tradition
of the Troubadour poetry of Galicia, and called
Court poetry—because it was mainly cultivated
by versifiers attached to the royal Court—began
to take the place of importance formerly occupied
by epic, religious, and didactic verse. There was
a transition period of some duration, however, so
that the greatest development of the Provencal-
ized lyric did not come until the reign of
John II. (1407-54), and then there flourished
by its side a humanistic literature hear-
ing the impress of the Renaissance move-
ment and an allegorical poetry that derived from
the works of Dante and other Italian poets. As
time went on, the Provencal Galician Court
poetry passed out of vogue and the lyric measures
of Italy became predominant everywhere through-
out Spain. Spanish prose, already given consider-
able flexibility by Alfonso the Wise and Juan Ma-
nuel, becomes in the second half of the fourteenth
century the medium of translation from the class-
ics of antiquity, and, even more than the verse
of this time, teems with Latinisms. Much more
attractive than the verse already mentioned is
the epic ballad, which was much cultivated dur-
ing the period preceding the Golden Age (1550-
1700) of Spanish literature; here and there may
be found examples of a charming popular lyric.
Pedro Lopez de Ayala (1332-1407), who held
important offices at the courts of King Pedro the
Cruel and of Henry of Trastamare, was one of
the last writers of his time to make any large
use of the cuaderna /via. This form prevails in
his satirical and didactic Rimado de palacio, in
which he assails the social, political, and other
abuses of his time. In the second part of the
poem, he inserts, here and there, plaints, laments,
and songs to the Virgin, which are lyric in their
nature and are composed in various measures.
These mark Ayala as one of the earliest of the
Court poets who imported into Castilian that
form of the lyric which, following Provencal
rules, had long been cultivated in Galician. Dur-
ing the reign of Pedro the Cruel the Rabbi Santo
of Carrion (Sem Tob) prepared his Prooerbios
morales. This collection constitutes one of the
most important Hebrew contributions to Spanish
literature, and it introduces a genre which is later
to be attempted by such writers as Santillana and
Pérez de Guzman. Seriousness of purpose, lacking
in the Court poetry, is present in the Dantesque
allegory and vision introduced into Spain, soon
after 1400, by Imperial, a native of Seville, but of
Genoese origin. The serious moralizing tendency is
also visible in the Doctrina of Pedro de Veragua
and especially in the noted Danza de la muerte
(Dance of Death), which seems to be the work
of the middle of the fifteenth century. The highest
point reached by culture in the reign of John
II. is seen in the literary works of San-
tillana, of Fernan Pérez de Guzman, of Mena,
and of Rodriguez del Padron. To Fernfm Pérez
we owe the Claros oarones de Esparia (a pane-
gyric in verse), versified Proverbios, and allegor-
ical and lyrical poems, besides historical works in
prose; Rodriguez has left us ballads and a little
verse in the conventional Court manner, besides a
prose tale. Ifiigo Lopez de Mendoza, Marquis of
Santillana (1398-1458) , is probably the most im-
pressive literary figure of the fifteenth century. He
was one of the first to imitate Horace in Spain, he
imported the sonnet from Italy, and he furthered
the influence of Dante by copying the latter’s al-
legorical methods in his Comcdieta de Ponza, his
Coronacio’n de M ossén Jordi, and his Infierno de
enamorados. In certain other poems he displays
a didactic and a satirical bent, as in his Prover-
bios, his Dialogo de Bias contra Fortuna, and his
Doctrinal de privados. The most interesting and
certainly the most entertaining element of his
poetical work is that represented by his love
songs, such as the serranillas. In prose he him-
self prepared a Carta al Condestable de Portugal,
in which he appears as the first true historian of
Spanish literature. The influence of Dante, as
well as that of Lucan, is obvious in the allegor-
ical Laberinto (also called the Trecientas, from
the original number of its stanzas) of Juan de
Mena (1411-56), and to him are due likewise a
poetical eulogy of Santillana, entitled La corona-
ci6n, and the moralizing Coplas de los siete peca-
dos mortales. Of other noteworthy poets of this
time there can be mentioned here only Gomez Man-
rique (died 1491) and Jorge Manrique (died
1479); the latter is remembered for his noble
Coplas on the death of his father.
During the reign of Henry IV. (1454-74) there
appeared no slight amount of political satire, the
chief instance being among the Coplas de Mingo
Reuulgo. Of ballads (romances) Spain has been
exceedingly productive; in broadsheets or in col-
lections (romanceros) , there were published dur-
ing the final years of the fifteenth century, and
during the sixteenth century, a very large number
dealing with subjects drawn from the real or
legendary history of Spain and of France, etc., as
well as with subjects chivalrous and erotic.
In Spanish prose of the fifteenth century, the
humanistic work already begun in Italy was zeal-
ously carried on. There was much translation of
the classics of antiquity and of the modern Latin
writings of Boccaccio and others. Ecclesiastical
Latin authors also received some share of atten-
tion, and works were introduced from the French,
Catalan, and Italian, those of Boccaccio being
particularly popular for translation purposes. The
influence of all these translations—and especially
those from Plutarch, Livy, and Valerius Maxi-
mus—manifested itself in the development given
to the writing of history. Lopez de Ayala con-
tinued the oflicial chronicle of the realm (Croni-
cas de los reyes de Castilla); Garcia de Santa
Maria, Fernan Perez de Guzman, and Diego de
Valera (1412-86) worked upon the Crcinica del
rey Juan II. ,' the last named writer and En-
riquez del Castillo dealt with the reign of
Henry IV. in the Memorial do dinersas hazanas;
and Fernando del Pulgar and Andrés Bernfddez
prepared the account of the reign of Isabel I.
There also appeared a multitude of chronicles
dealing with the lives of individual personages.
No little interest attaches to the Cr6nica Sar-
racena of Pedro de Corral, which gives the whole
legendary history of Roderick the Goth.
In French stories of a pseudo-historical nature
the Spaniards had very early begun to take a seri-
ous interest ; and these stories, particularly those
treating the matiére de Bretogne, were to play
an important part in connection with the devel-
opment of prose fiction in Spain. The Court
poetry of the reign of John 11. (first half of the
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
46
fifteenth century) is full of references to Arthur
and his knights of the Round Table, to Merlin, and
to the Quest of the Holy Grail. Charlemagne and
Roland are still named along with the heroes of
the Round Table, but they obviously have no
longer the same living interest.
With the Caballero Oifar, of the first half of
the fourteenth century, we have the first inde-
pendent work of fiction in Spain, and this was
followed perhaps a generation later by one of the
most famous of all modern romances, the Amad/is
cle Gaala. (See AMADIS OF GAUL.) This important
Spanish work may lay claim to no small amount
of originality; it accepts the elements at the
basis of the French courtly romance, but it de-
velops them in its own way, for, though retaining
the traditional service of woman and quest of
adventure, it stresses the virtuous qualities of
the hero no less than his courtliness, something
that the French romances had not done. In the
form in which we possess it, the Amadis
is due to Garcia Ordofiez de Montalvo, who
completed his redaction of it between 1492
and 1504. By him we are told that he
had simply rid its first three books of the
errors and imperfections introduced into it by
earlier redactors and by scribes, that he borrowed
and improved the fourth book, and that he him-
self added the whole fifth book, the Sergas de
Esplamlian (or Exploits of Esplanadian), in
which he deals with the history of the son of the
hero, Amadis. The Amadis was the forerunner of
many similar romances which enjoyed enormous
vogue in the sixteenth century.
In imitation of Boccaccio’s Fiammetta, which
had been translated about the middle of the fif-
teenth century, the tale was now attempted in
Spain; noteworthy instances are Rodriguez del
Padrc’>n’s Sieroo libre de amor and El ccircel de
amor of Diego de San Pedro. Novelistic and didac-
tic in its manner is the Trabajos dc Hércales of
Enrique de Villena (1384-1434). One of the most
original and entertaining works of the whole pe-
riod appeared in 1438; this is a satire on woman-
kind by Alfonso Martinez de Toledo, chaplain to
John II. and archpriest of Talavera, entitled De
los oicios ole las malas majeres, but also called
the Oorbacho. Of decided interest for the-study of
folk-lore are the Hebrew-Spanish and the alia-
ma documents, in which the Jews and the Moors,
writing in Spanish, but using their Hebrew and
Arabic characters, created a rather considerable
literature of their own. Many of the documents
in question belong to the fifteenth century, and
especially the most important of them all, the
Poema dc José, which gives a Mohammedan ver-
sion of the story of Joseph.
The sixteenth century ushers in the classic age
of Spanish letters, that period which extends into
‘the second half of the seventeenth century and is
generally known as the Golden Age. The influence
of Italy and the Renaissance, which had been so
strong during the preceding century, persists, but,
contrary to what happened in other European
lands, it does not tend to bring about any disso-
lution of continuity as between the old and the
new. The ancient Church remains unaffected and
the humanistic paganism of the Renaissance gets
no foothold in Spain. In lyric verse Italian
forms prevail, but the subject matter is only par-
tially affected by influences from without. A
realistic movement, marked by a strict applica-
tion of keen powers of observation, guides the de-
velopment of the novel, which is perfected by Cer-
vantes in the reign of Philip II. The ballad con-
tinues to be a favorite form and it contributes to
the rise of the drama. The drama, giving fullest
expression to the national and religious ideals of
the Spaniard, constitutes the greatest glory of
the Golden Age.
Already, in the fifteenth century, Santillana had
imitated the structure of the Italian sonnet, but
in this innovation he had had no followers; it re-
mained for the Catalonian Boscan(c.1493-0.1542)
to establish Italian verse methods in Castilian.
A better poet than Bosczin is his friend and com-
panion in the work of innovation, Garcilaso de la
Vega (1503-36). Petrarch is the chief model
of the lyric poet, but so far as content is con-
cerned, the love lyric of Petrarch did not differ
very materially from that already cultivated by
the Spaniard; the real innovation was a formal
one. Moreover, the older Castilian measures were
not cast aside; even those who favored most
warmly the use of the imported forms continued
to employ the domestic forms. A third leading
representative of the movement was Diego Hur-
tado de Mendoza (1503-75) ; elements of refine-
ment still lacking in the art of the three poets
mentioned were added by writers such as Fer-
nando de Acuiia (c.1500-80), Gutierre de
Cetina (c.1520-60), and the Portuguese Gre-
goria Silvestre (1520-70). In the second
half of the sixteenth century the followers of
Garcilaso formed two main groups, the school of
Seville and the coterie at Salamanca; minor
groups were those at Grenada and in Valencia
and Aragon. The head of the school at Seville
was Fernando de Herrera (1534-97), who is noted
both for the purity of his style and the rich-
ness of his diction, best exhibited, perhaps, in his
hymns on the battle of Lepanto and on the tra ic
fate of the Portuguese King, Dom Sebastian. T e
most important member of the Salamancan group
was the charming poet Luis de Leon (1527-91),
whose religious and mystic strains have never
ceased to please. Allied to him in spirit are the
other mystic poets San Juan de la Cruz (1542-
91) and Malon de Chaide. The religious lyric
may be seen at its best in the Romancero espirl
taal of Valdivielso (died 1636) and in the Rimas
saoras of Lope de Vega; its vogue began to de-
crease when that of the conceptism of Ledesma
and his fellows began to grow. An overstressing
of the importance of the formal side of things
and an undue straining of the means necessary to
the attainment of perfection of style led, in the
early years of the seventeenth century, to the
adoption of the kind of lyric mannerism
which is known in Spain as culteranismo, and
which is paralleled by the Marinism of Italy,
by the Euphuism of England, and by the
préciosité of France. Luis dc Gongora (1561-
l627) was the founder of this artificial style,
which is therefore often called Gongorism.
Its characteristics of bombast, obscurity, and
general extravagance are fully exhibited in
the so-called Soledades of Gongora. Even con-
temporaries of so high an order of talent as Lope
de Vega and Francisco Gomez de Quevedo (1580-
1645), who at first opposed the Gongoristic move-
ment, later adopted many of its methods. As a
poet, Quevedo was most successful in his satires,
which are full of the spirit of Juvenal. The lyric
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
47
poets of the seventeenth century were legion: Mira
de Amescua, Estéban Manuel de Villegas (1596-
1669) , Jacinto Polo de Medina, Francisco de Bor-
ja, Principe de Esquilache (1581-1658), and
the dramatist Calderon were but a few of them.
With the facilities now provided by the printing
press, it became possible to make extensive collec-
tions of the ballads (romances), which, previous
to the end of the fifteenth century, seem to have
survived only through oral tradition.
There appeared during the siglo de oro more
than two hundred poems belonging to the category
of the artificial epic. Of these the most important
deal with subjects appertaining to the national
history; many treat religious matters, and many
others are of the class of the chivalrous epic.
They are mainly written in octaves, only occa-
sionally in blank verse (verses sueltos). Chief
among the epics of an historical character is the
Araacana of Alfonso de Ercilla (1533-94), writ-
ten by a soldier who here gives the results of his
experience in the wars of the Spaniards with
the Araucanian Indians. The historical value
is still of a high degree in the Elegias de varones
ilastres de las Indias (first part printed 1589)
of Juan de Castellanos, and the Argentina of
Centenera. The imagination plays a larger
part than the historical fact in the Aus-
triada of Juan Rufo (1547-c.1600). In the
period of greatest dramatic productivity the
historical epic gradually wanes in importance;
the Nnipoles recaperada of Francisco de Borja
(1651) is one of the last. A place apart is oc-
cupied by the Amantes de Ternel (1616) of Salas,
which the author pretended to be an historical
account of the tragic fate of the famous lovers.
The Vergilian epic was made known to many by
the Eneicla of Hernandez de Velasco (1557);
after the appearance of Boscan’s Fribala de Lean-
dro 3/ Hero, mythological episodes from classic
antiquity were made the theme of poems by
Hurtado de Mendoza, Lope de Vega, Montemayor,
G6ngora, etc. The Italian epic of the Uinqaecento
was transplanted to Spain, and was made the
subject, not only of verse translations, but also
of amplifications and continuations, some of these
latter dealing with Spanish history or legend.
A religious epic deserving of note is Azevedo’s
Creacién del mando (1615), being remarkable in
that, imitating the Semaine of Dubartas, it shows
a resumption of literary relations with France.
The mock heroic of Greece and Italy finds an
echo in Juan de la Cueva’s Batalla de ranas y
ratones, Villaviciosa’s M osqaea (1615) , and Lope
de Vega’s Gatomaqaia.
The tendency to fill Spanish prose with Latin-
isms, so strong in the preceding period, now
yields to a feeling which finds a native dignity
in the mother tongue. Juan de Valdés, in his
Dirilogo de la lengaa (c.1535), initiated the
scientific study of the grammatical and stylistic
peculiarities of Castilian. Comparative perfec-
tion of form is attained in Mariana’s Historia de
Espaqia (1601, etc.), the first thoroughly good
account of Castilian history based on the study
of documents. In his Agudeea y arte de ingenio,
Baltasar Gracian (c.1601-58) gave the law-
book of that system of literary mannerisms
termed conceptism; he also got the attention of
contemporaries and posterity by his aphoristic
and sententious sayings of various kinds. Re-
ligious literature of a mystic and ascetic nature
must occupy an important place in the annals of
the time; it is best represented by the writings
of Luis de Leon, San Juan de la Cruz (Saint
John of the Cross), Malon de Chaide, Luis de
Granada, and Santa Teresa de Jestis (Saint
Theresa, 1505-82).
Preceding the period of activity of Cervantes,
we have the continuation of the chivalric novel;
the pastoral novel; the narrative form as ex-
hibited in the GeZestz'na; and the earliest of the
picaresque novels. Of the posterity of the
Amadis, the unsurpassable type of the romance
of chivalry, are a number of continuations deal-
ing with the adventures of Florisando, Lisuarte
of Greece, Perion of Wales, Amadis of Greece,
and similar heroes. Hardly less a favorite than
the A/rnadis was an imitation of it entitled Pal-
merin de Oliva (1511), which in its turn was
made the subject of other continuations and imi-
tations. The books of chivalry prepared the way
for the pastoral romance, introduced into Span-
ish by Jorge de Montemayor (c.1515-61), who
founded his Diana on the Arcadia of the Italian
Sannazaro. For contemporaries a good deal of
the interest in the Diana and its kindred depend-
ed upon the personal allusions conveyed by the
characters and in the dialogue. The Tragicomedia
de Galisto y M elibea (later termed the Celestina)
was published at Burgos in 1499, and appeared in
an amplified form at Salamanca in 1500. Al-
though it is called a tragicomedy, it cannot in
its present form have ever been capable of scenic
representation, and it is certainly more a novel
than a play. On account of its spirited action
and of the development which the Oelest/ina gave
to the handling of dialogue and the delineation
of character, it exerted an influence upon later
dramatists and novelists both. It soon provoked
continuations and imitations, and a connection
may even be traced out between it and the
Dorotea of Lope de Vega. The realistic ten-
dencies evinced in the Gelestina are equally pro-
nounced in the first of the picaresque novels,
the anonymous Lazar/illo de Tor/mes (1554), long
ascribed to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. In this
novel we follow the career of a rogue (picaro),
who, beginning as the guide (lazarillo) of a
blind beggar, deceives him, and, passing into the
service of other personages representing various
ranks of life, shows himself no less ready to be-
guile them. There is no attempt at palliation of
the truth; it is a picture of the bald and in-
iquitous fact that is presented to us in the
Laearillo and its successors.
Realistic fiction of the style cle oro culminates
in the magnificent Don Qaijote of Miguel Cer-
vantes de Saavedra (1547-1616), a novel in which
the matter-of-fact philosophy of Sancho Panza
stands in sharp contrast with the grotesque ideal-
ism of his master. It is not improbable that
Cervantes wrote the book in order to destroy the
vogue of the chivalrous romances, although it
may be urged that their popularity was already
on the wane and that at the most he simply gave
them the coap' de grcice. Don Qaijote (usually
Don Qaimote in English) has become one of the
world’s imperishable books. The first part of it
was published in 1605; the second part was hur-
riedly prepared for the press in 1615, in order to
bafile the designs of a certain Avellaneda, who
had published a spurious sequel to the novel in
1614. Cervantes had much less success in an-
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
48
other novel, the Persiles y Sigismunda (pub-
lished posthumously), but that he could handle
the shorter tale with skill is proved by his
N ovelas ejemplares. Among those who cultivated
the tale after the time of Cervantes were Lope
de Vega, Tirso de Molina (in his Cigarmles de
Toledo, 1621), Montalban (Para todos, 1632),
Maria de Zayas, Solorzano, Salas Barbadillo, and
Luis Velez de Guevara (with his famous Diablo
cojuelo, 1641, the source of Lesage’s Diable
boiteuw). Quevedo (1580-1645) was the fore-
most of the prose satirists of the age; in his
witty and sarcastic Suenos, cartas del eaballero
de la tenaza, etc., he cries out against abuses
with which bitter personal experience had made
him acquainted.
As a literary form the drama had been prac-
tically unrepresented since the end of the twelfth
century; but now, at the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury, it was to revive and receive an unsurpassed
development. Juan del Encina (c.1468-1534) be-
gins the new order. Encina spent some years in
Italy; hence an Italian influence on his work is
not improbable. The comic elements in some of
the pieces may show an influence of the French
farce. Disciples of Encina were Lucas Fernandez,
who employs the terms ‘farsa’ and ‘comedia’;
the Portuguese Gil Vicente; and Torres Naharro,
whose art shows considerable progress over that
of the master. In his plays we meet for the first
time with a division into acts. The pieces of the
foregoing authors were intended for the refined
audiences of the Court; those of Diego Sanchez
(c.1530-47) seem to have been meant for per-~
formance amid more popular surroundings.
Italian influence is unmistakable in the comedias
of Lope de Rueda, an actor (c.1540-66) , famed for
his short and witty pasos or entremeses. The Latin
tragedy is obviously imitated in the first really
important Spanish tragedy, the N umancia of Cer-
vantes. Avendaiio in 1533 first adopts the divis-
ion into three acts instead of five. Juan de la
Cueva (1550-1607), the first Spanish drama-
tist to deal with incidents taken from the na-
tional history, adopted a division into four acts.
But by common consent there is awarded to
Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and to his younger
compeer Pedro Calderon de la Barca (1600-81)
supremacy among the many gifted dramatic au-
thors. Inventive beyond conception and amaz-
ingly prolific in production, Lope is known to
have composed over 1500 plays, irrespective of a
number of autos (one-act plays of a religious and
allegorical nature), loas (preludes), and entre-
meses (interludes) ; of these pieces about 500 are
still extant. The number of enduring masterpieces
among his pieces is remarkably large, especially
in the case of his historical dramas, such as El
mejor alcalde el rey and Los Tellos de M eneses ,'
and we even still find hardly less interesting and
powerful than they such a play as the Estrella
de Seuilla and not a few of his comedias de capa
y espada or plays dealing with every-day life.
Lope’s disciples included Mira de Amescua
(c.1578-1641), Luis Vélez de Guevara (1570-
1644), Montalban, and Ruiz de Alarcon (died
1639). Alarcon wrote the comedy La verdad
sospechosa, the model of Corneille’s M enteur.
In talent, Lope was most nearly approached by
the cleric Gabriel Téllez (1570-1648; known also
by the pseudonym Tirso de Molina).
After Lope’s death Calderon reigned on
the stage. Though less inventive, Calderon paid
more attention to details of form, simplifying
somewhat the multitudinous metrical forms in
use in the drama. In philosophic insight he
was inferior to Lope, yet in La viola es sueno
(“Life is a Dream”) he cannot really be deemed
unsuccessful in his endeavor to give dramatic
reality to one of the most transcendental of ideas.
He first gave great importance on the boards to
the pundonor (the point of honor) as an actuat-
ing impulse of the Spaniard’s life, and he gave
its greatest development to the stock figure of
the gracioso or clown. He devoted no little at-
tention to the type of religious play called the
auto sacramental. Of his followers, two were
men of distinguished talents: Francisco de Rojas
Zorrilla (1607-c.1660), who produced the excel-
lent play, Del rey abajo ninguno, and Agustin
Moreto (c.1618-1669), to whom we owe El desdén
con el desdén.
Swift and deep was the decline in Spanish let-
ters that followed the siglo de oro, and it went
hand in hand with a decay in things national and
political, which the advent to the throne of the
French Bourbon house could do little to check.
By the opening years of the eighteenth century
Gongorism had thoroughly vitiated lyric verse,
the novel had become unimportant, and the stage
was controlled by dull or absurdly fantastic imi-
tators of the older national drama. Not a single
Spanish writer of the first order made his ap-
pearance during the first three decades of the
eighteenth century, and during that period the
only event of importance was the establishment
in 1714 of the Spanish Academy (La Real Aca-
demia Espafiola), whose Dictionary appeared in
1726-39. With the fourth decade came a new
movement, the chief object of which was to chasten
popular taste by the introduction of foreign
aesthetic canons, particularly those of France. The
impulse to the new movement was given by Ignacio
de Luzan (1702-54), a man of great talent and
greater culture, who set forth in his Poética ( 1737 )
the principles that ought to govern poetic produc-
tion. Luzan preached that the various literary
genres should not be intermingled and that the
Spanish drama should be subjected to the French
system of unities. The doctrines which he thus
laid down were taken up and applied by his
disciples Nassare (1689-1751), Montiano (1697-
1765), the author of two tragedies, and by Luis
José Velazquez (1722-72), in his Origenes de la
poesia castellana (1749). In his Teatro critico
(1726-29) and in his Oartas eruditas 3/ curiosas
(1742-60), Benito Feijoo (1676 ‘Z-1764) first
made known to a large part of the Spanish nation
many of the scientific developments and discov-
eries of the age. José Francisco de Isla (1703-
81), in his amusing though rather long-winded
novel, Historia del famoso predicador, Fray Ge-
rundio de Oampazas (1758), ridiculed unmerci-
fully the extravagance, ignorance, and pedantry
that characterized most of the pulpit eloquence
of his time. Isla is also famous for his attempt
to appropriate to Spanish literature the Gil Blas
of Lesage.
A party headed by Garcia de la Huerta (1734-
87 ) strove, but ineffectually, to curb the growing
tendency to imitate French models. On the other
hand, the followers of Luzfin formed a Strong
school, known as the Salamancan school. The
foremost member of this new school was Juan
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
49
Melendez Valdes (1754-1817). His little volume
of lyrics shows more true poetic sentiment than
anything that had preceded them since the days
of the masters of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. Of considerable merit were Iglesias
(1748-91), best known for his letrillas; Cien-
fuegos (1764-1809), whose lyrics come nearest
to those of Meléndez in the expression of genuine
feeling; and Diego Gonzalez (1733-94). It was
in the drama that the imported French classi-
cism was to have its real triumph. To be sure,
one writer of more than average ability, Ramon
de la Cruz (1731-c.95), still kept alivethe tra-
ditions of the Spanish stage of the Golden Age in
his humorous little plays called sainetes, but, on
his side, Ramon de le Cruz stood alone. It was
only natural that men of taste, like Nicolas Fer-
nandez Moratin (Moratin the Elder, 1737-80)
and the dramatist statesman Jovellanos (1744-
1811), should, in their love for moderation and
order, seek to elevate the fallen stage _by adopt-
ing for their own compositions the rigid prin-
ciples of the French theatre. But neither of
these became a favorite with the masses, and it
remained for Leandro Fernandez de Moratin
(1760-1828), the son of Nicolas, to compose
dramas governed by the French rules, that could
captivate Spanish audiences. Moratin _the
Younger brings us over the threshold of the mne-
teenth century; still he belongs properly ‘to the
eighteenth century. An enthusiastic admirer of
Moliere, he both imitated and translated plays of
that great dramatist. But Moratin was more
than a mere imitator or translator; for his mas-
tery of dialogue, his pure style _and.his faithful
description of the manners of his time show in
him a talent of the highest order. Although.he
carefully applied the French system of unities,
he did not disdain certain elements of the home
stage. Thus, he divided his plays into three acts
instead of five, as the French and classic Latm
rules would have exacted, he employed_the popu-
lar romance verse in a number of pieces, and,
above all, he made a skillful use of the element of
intrigue that had been so prominent in the dramas
of the Golden Age and has ever remained dear. to
the Spanish heart. It was this happy blendmg
of the spirit of romantic intrigue wlth the cold
precision of French rules that made his master-
piece, the 86 de las nifias (1806), obtam at once
the popularity that it has never since lost, and
constitute it the only masterpiece produced for
the Spanish stage since the days of Lope and
Calderon. '
Spanish literature of the nineteenth century
begins with the patriotic poets, Manuel 'José
Quintana (1772-1857) and Juan Nicasio Gallego
(1777-1853), whose lyrics voice the sentiments of
a party sprung up to combat the French invader.
Quintana was the Tyrteeus of the struggle
against the Napoleonic arms, and he attained his
greatest success in the heroic ode (Al armamento
de las procincias contra los Franceses and A
Espafia después de la reoolucl6n de M area,
1808). His friend Gallego is also seen at his best
in the burning patriotic lyric, and although the
bulk of his verse is slight, he was a good literary
artist. The classic influence still dominated Quin-
tana and Gallego, and is no less clearly marked in
the members of a poetical coterie which from its
centre may conveniently be termed the School
of Seville. The members of this school, of whom
the chief were Manuel Maria de Arjona (1771-
l820), Jose Maria Blanco (1775-1841, known in
the history of English literature as Blanco
White), Alberto Lista (1775-1848), and Felix
José Reinoso (1772-1841), sought to reform the
prevailing bad taste by setting up the authority
of a respectable classic tradition. They
contributed eflicaciously to the restoration of a
proper aesthetic sense in Spanish literary aims,
and they also helped to improve the purely
formal side of Spanish verse by developing
rhyme and metre.
In the thirties of the nineteenth century the ro-
mantic movement began to appear in the Spanish
Peninsula, somewhat belated, indeed, but none
the less sweeping in its effects. Two elements con-
tributed to the establishment of romanticism in
Spain: (1) the influence of foreign literatures;
and (2) the influence of the older national litera-
ture, and in particular of the drama of Lope and
Calderon and of the romances. Even this latter
influence did not make itself felt until foreigners
had aroused Spain to a realization of the worth
of her dramatists of the Golden Age and of her
ballads. Many of the young writers of the early
part of the nineteenth century had opposed the
despotic administration of Ferdinand VII., had
been obliged to flee the land, and, going to France
and England, they had had some contact with the
romantic movements of those countries. The
romantic writers whom political considerations
did not force to abandon their native region
founded, about 1830, a club called the Parnasillo,
which, as the Cénacle had done in France, was to
herald the new ideas.
In the lyrics of Manuel de Cabanyes (1808-33;
Preludios de mi lira, 1833) there is no tinge of
romanticism; but a transition stage is visible
in the writings of Martinez de la Rosa (1789-
1862), in the main a man of classic tastes, '
yet who in two plays, the Aben-Humeya and
the Conjuracién de Venecia (1834), entered
into the domain of romanticism. Jose de
Lazza (1809-37) in his novel El doncel ole
Don Enrique el Doliente, and in his play
Macias, showed similar romantic tendencies.
The triumph of romanticism was insured by
the performance in 1835 of the drama Don
Alvaro of Angel de Saavedra (1791-1865),
one of the writers whom Ferdinand’s tyranny
had compelled to seek a refuge in England
and France. The romantic principles to which
he gave effect in this work governed also
the composition of his lyric El faro de Malta,
and of his epic poem El Moro eacpésito, in the
latter of which he revived the Old Spanish legend
of the Infantes of Lara. In the person of José
de Espronceda (1810-42), the author of the mag-
nificent though fragmentary poem El diablo
mundo, and of the Estadiante de Salamama,
there are represented both the romantic element
of revolt against social and literary conventions,
which in England is strongly marked in the per-
son of Byron, and that element of Bohemianism
which characterizes so many of the French ro-
manticists. Lyric supremacy is disputed with
Espronceda by José Zorrilla (1817-93), who is,
however, more justly celebrated for his treat-
ment of legendary material from the Spanish
Middle Ages than for his purely lyric endeavors.
In the Don J uan Tenorio he gives a modern version
of the story at bottom of the Burlador de Sevilla,
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH LITERATURE.
50
a drama of the Golden Age. The Cuban poetess
Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda (1816-73), who
spent most of her life in Spain and there became
famous, had affiliations with the romantic school.
Her lyrics owe no small amount of their inspira-
tion to Chateaubriand, Lamartine, and Hugo;
her novels reflect the methods of Dumas the
Elder and George Sand. Sentimentalism appears
in two well-known dramas, the Trouador of
Antonio Garcia Gutiérrez (1813-84), on which
Verdi’s opera is founded, and the Amantes ole
Teruel of Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (1806-
80) , a play which gave new life to an old Spanish
story of true love that did not run smoothly.
The passing of the romantic movement be-
comes evident after the beginning of the fifth
decade of the century. The fertile playwright
Manuel Breton de los I-Ierreros (1796-1873) had
temporary connections with it, but he gained his
repute mainly as a writer of lively dramas of
manners, although in his masterpiece, the comedy
entitled Escuela del matrimonio (1852), he paved
the way for the coming psychological drama of
Ayala and Tamayo y Baus. Adelardo Lopez de
Ayala (1828-79) gives us, in his mercilessly so-
ciological play El tanto por ciento (1861), a de-
tailed analysis of the modern greed for wealth
that has stifled the nobler instincts of man and
made him capable of the basest treachery; and
in his Consuelo (1878) he makes another power-
ful attack upon the positivism and the lack of
idealism in our modern life. The psychological
development is also obvious in the work of
Manuel Tamayo y Baus (1829-98). In Lo posi-
tioo (1862) he treats the positivism of the mod-
ern world with no less severity than does
Alaya, and in his chief play, Un drama nuevo
(1867), he portrays the slowly growing and
finally all-pervading power of marital jealousy.
The particular glory of the second half of the
nineteenth century in Spain has been the rise
and growth of a new novelistic literature. To
the development of this a considerable impetus
was given by the essay on manners, which had
already been handled with skill by Larra in the
first half of the century, and was now taken
up by Estébanez (1799-1867), and by Ramon de
Mesonero Romanos (1803-82) , who has left us ex-
cellent descriptions of life in older Madrid. These
essayists on manners prepared the way for the
tale of manners and the novel of manners
(nooela de costu/rnbres). The former was culti-
vated, though with no brilliancy, by Antonio de
Trueba (1821-89) ; the latter was written, in a
way to attract attention and applause, by Cecilia
Btihl von Faber de Arrom (1797-1877), familiar
still by her nom de guerre Fernan Caballero.
A thoroughly delightful figure appeared in the
person of the short-lived story-teller and poet
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (1836-70) . All his work
is permeated by the highly subjective qualities
that are more common in Northern Europe. His
tales are all of a legendary cast and are every-
where actuated by the instinct of mystery.
Pedro Antonio de Alarcon (1833-91) is most
felicitous in the composition of the short tale of
manners or adventure of the type; he is less suc-
cessful in the more ambitious novel, although the
less lengthy among the novels, particularly the
Sombrero de tres pi-cos and the Oapittin Veneno,
continue to delight and amuse their readers. An
incomparably greater artist is Juan Valera y
Alcala Galiano (born in 1824), whom a pro-
tracted career in the diplomatic service of his
country has made one of the most cosmopolitan
and cultured of moderns. In his novels Valera
differs from the majority of his contemporaries in
that he consciously tends toward idealism,
Whereas they seek rather to render the living fact.
The novel of manners has been raised to a
higher level than ever before by Jose Maria
de Pereda (born 1834), who, in his chief works,
has portrayed life on the mountains and at the
seaside in a way hardly to be excelled for detail
and charm of description. The Don Gonzalo Gon-
zalez de la Gonzalera and the Sotileza show
Pereda in the fullness of his power; where he
leaves the scenes of rustic life and ventures into
the city and the fashionable whirl, as in the
Pedro Sanchez, he is still a master novelist, but
he treads on uncertain ground. The work of
Benito Pérez Galdos (born 1845) from first to
last has been marked by tendencies frankly revo-
lutionary. One of the most admirable and im-
portant divisions of his labors has been the com-
position of the collection of novels forming the
Episodios nacionales, but it is by his psycholog-
ical novels that Gald6s has attracted most atten-
tion abroad. At least two other novelists
of the first rank must be mentioned here,
Armando Palacio Valdes (born 1853) and the
remarkable woman Emilia Pardo Bazan (born
1851). Both have had tendencies toward a
naturalism not unlike that which has so pro-
foundly affected the French novel of the second
half of the nineteenth century. ' _
In the recent period we meet with only two
poets of importance, Ramon de Campoamor y
Campoosorio (1817-1901), who will continue to
be pleasantly remembered for his philosophical
and humoristic Doloras and a few descriptive
poems, and Nfifiez de Arce, the virile author of
the Gritos del combate. The latter has had
disciples both at home and in Spanish America,
but none of them have displayed superior talent.
Criticism has flourished, principally through
efforts of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (born in
1856), who in his Historia de las ideas estéticas
en Espaaia (1884-91) has raised a noble monu-
ment to the glory of his country.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best collection of the
Spanish classics is Rivadeneyra’s Biblioteca de
autores espanoles (71 vols., Madrid, 1846-80),
embracing texts of Spanish masterpieces ‘from
the earliest times down to the opening of the
nineteenth century; note also Ooleocién de ascri-
tores castellanos (106 vols., ib., 1882-96) ; Ochoa,
Oolecoirin de los mejores autores espanoles (60
vols., Paris, 1837-60) ; and O‘ole'cci6n de autores
espaiioles (48 vols., Leipzig, 1860-86). For the
history, consult: Baist, “Die spanische Littera-
tur,” in Gr6ber’s Grundriss der romanischen Phi-
lologie (Strassburg, 1894-97); Ticknor, History
of Spanish Literature (4th ed., Boston, 1871);
Fitzmaurice-Kelly, A History of Spanish Litera-
ture (New York, 1898); Bouterwek, Gesohichte
der spanisohen Poesie und Beredsamlceit (G6ttin-
gen, 1804), continued by Brinckmeier, Die Na-
tionallitteratur der Spanier seit Anfang des 19.
Jahrhunderts (ib., 1850) ; Lemcke, Handbuch der
spanischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1856); Klein,
Geschichte des spanischen Dramas (ib., 1871-
75) ; Schack, Geschichte der dramatisohen Lit-
teratur und Kunst in Spanien (Berlin, 1846;
SPANISH LITERATURE.
SPANISH WAR VETERANS.
51
supplement, Frankfort, 1855); id., Poesie und
Kunst der Araber in Spanien und Sizilien (Stutt-
gart, 1877) ; Schiiifer, Geschichte des spanischen
Nationaldramas (Leipzig, 1890) ; Balaguer, His-
toria de los trooadores (Madrid, 1888); Menén-
dez y Pelayo, Calderon y su teatro (ib., 1881),
La ciencia espafiola (ib., 1889), Estudios de
critioa literaria (ib., 1895), Antologia de poetas
liricos castellanos (ib., 1890 et seq.); De Puy-
maigre, Les oieum auteurs castillans (Paris, 1888-
90) ; Menéndez Pidal, La legenda de los Infantes
de Lara (Madrid, 1896) ; Cotarelo y Mori, Iriarte
y su época (ib., 1897).
SPANISH MACKEREL, or SIERRA. Any of
several mackerels of southern waters, especially
Scomberomorus maculatus, a slender, compressed,
fusiform fish, bluish green above, a beautiful
satiny white below, with yellowish spots on the
back and sides, weighing usually from two to
four pounds, although sometimes much larger.
They are natives of tropical seas, but they range
along the Atlantic coast from Brazil to Cape
Cod. They are among the very finest of fish for
the table. A California species of high quality
for the table is the Monterey Spanish mackerel
(Scomberomorus concolor), the male of which
is steel blue, without spots on its silvery sides,
while the female has dusky cloudings and two
series of dark spots along the sides. The ‘Spanish
mackerel’ of England is a typical mackerel,
known in the United States as ‘chub mackerel’
(q.v.). Compare MACKEREL; and see Plate of
SPANISH MACKERELS.
SPANISH MOSS. See BROMELIA.
SPANISH MUSIC. Spanish music has al-
ways been imitative. At first the influence of the
great school of the Netherlands predominated.
This period was followed by a prevalence of
Roman influence, especially that of Palestrina.
The sixteenth century may be regarded as the
time when music in Spain was at its height, for
then it boasted Morales, whose compositions are
still sung at Rome, and the great Vittoria, the
master who most closely resembles Palestrina.
With the appearance of Italian opera, Spanish
composers not only imitated the Italians, but
actually wrote Italian operas. With Wagner’s
innovations Spain was again ready to adopt the
new tendencies. At this juncture the name of
Pedrell deserves special mention. Stimulated by
the attempts of Russian, Scandinavian, and Bo-
hemian composers to establish a national school
of music, Pedrell chose for his operas national
subjects. His most ambitious undertaking is
a trilogy, Los Pireneos, somewhat after Wagner’s
Nibelungen. The rise of the Spanish drama
in the seventeenth century exerted a bene-
ficial influence upon lighter music. The earlier
musical dramas of the Florentine school had no
overture. Instead, a madrigal was sung before
the curtain rose. The Spaniards adopted this
custom for their purely dramatic representations,
so that before very long even the most serious
tragedies were preceded by such ‘curtain-raisers.’
These were called cuatros dc empezar, and were
always performed by the women of the company
to a harp accompaniment. At first the cuatros
were choruses for four voices; but with the rise
of the monodic style polyphonic writing was
abandoned and an action was introduced. When
the ‘curtain-raisers’ had been developed so far,
¢
they were called tonadillas. This custom of be-
ginning all dramatic representations with a tona-
dilla was adopted by the Italians, who called the
tonadilla intermeezo, and soon developed this
latter into the opera buffa. (See INTERMEZZO.)
Then the Spaniards again imitated the Italians;
and the result was the development of the tona-
dilla into the eareuela. This was a kind of
comic opera, operetta, or vaudeville, generally in
two acts and with spoken dialogue. The name is
derived from the castle of Zarzuela, where, in
the seventeenth century, the first representations
of this kind took place. This form has always
been very popular in Spain, and about 1850
Hernando gave it a new impetus. Among the
numerous composers who devoted their talents
to this form, four deserve mention: Oudrid,
Gaztambide, Barbieri, and Arrieta.
But for originality and characteristic traits
we must turn to Spanish folk-music. Here we
notice that the real folk-songs are almost exclu-
sively used as accompaniments to dances. The
limitations of the national instrument, the
guitar, influenced the melodies and rhythms to a
great extent, rendering the latter more attractive
than the former. Of the old folk-songs com-
posed in the time of the Troubadours a great
number have been preserved in literary collec-
tions called cancioneros, but the music has been
lost. The music of the folk-songs of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, however, has been tran-
scribed from the actual performances of blind
singers, who even now, as formerly, wander from
town to town. The melodies of Andalusia, which
are in all respects superior to those of the north-
ern provinces, show undoubted traces of Moorish
influences, as shown by the elaborate embellish-
ments of the notes of the melody, peculiar inter- -
vals foreign to European scales, and a strange
combination of distinct rhythms in the several
parts. This foreign element has always attracted
composers, who by this means have succeeded in
creating a local atmosphere in their works. In
this connection it is only necessary to mention
the names of Bizet (Carmen), Massenet (Le
Cid, La N avarraise) , Weber (Oberon), and Mosz-
kowski (Boabdil). The best known Spanish
dance-forms are the bolero, cachucha, fandango,
jota, malagueiia, rondefia, and seguidilla, which
are accompanied by the guitar and castanets. Con-
sult: Soriano-Fuertes, Musica espmiola hasta cl
ano 1850 (Madrid, 1857) ; Juan F. Riafio, Critical
and Biographical Notes on Early Spanish Music
(London, 1887) ; A. Soubies, Histoire de la mu-
eique. Espagne (Paris, 1900).
SPANISH NEEDLES. See BUR MARIGOLD.
SPANISH POLITICAL PARTIES. See
SPAIN; POLITICAL PARTIES, section on Spain.
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE. See
SUCCESSION WARS.
SPANISH TOWN. A town in Jamaica,
British West Indies, on the Cobre River, about
10 miles west of Kingston (Map: West Indies,
J 6). It was founded by Diego Columbus in 1525
and was the capital of Jamaica until 1871.
Population, over 5000.
SPANISH WAR VETERANS. A patriotic
society incorporated in Washington, D. C., on
November 2, 1899. It admits to membership any
soldier or sailor of the regular and volunteer
army and navy and marine corps of the United
SPANISH WAR VETERANS.
SPARROW.
52
States who honorably served during the war
with Spain or the war in the Philippines. The
National Auxiliary of this order admits to mem-
bership mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters of
members, and other women, as nurses, who ren-
dered species service during the war.
SPANKER. A fore-and-aft quadrilateral
sail set on the mizzenmast of ships and barks
(q.v.) . It was formerly called the driver.
SPAR (AS. spoer, Ger. Spar, gypsum). A
term used by miners to denote any bright crystal-
line mineral, and which has been adopted by
mineralogists in the names of a number of
minerals, as calcareous spar, fiuor spar, etc., in
which, however, it has no proper generic signifi-
canoe.
SPARIDE (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat.
sparus, from Gk. crirdpos, gilt-head, sort of fish).
An important family of spiny-rayed fishes, to
which belong the porgies, sheepshead, soup, etc.
(qq.v.). The body is elongate, with the dorsal
side more or less elevated. The scales are rather
large. There is a single dorsal fin, the anterior
portion being spinous. The family contains about
100 species. They are shore fishes, carnivorous in
habit, most common in the tropical seas.
SPARKS, JARED (1789-1866). An American
historian, editor, and educator, born at Willing-
ton, Conn. He graduated at Harvard College in
1815. Here, after teaching school, he was (1817-
19) tutor in mathematics and natural phi-
losophy. During this time he studied theology
and (1817-18) edited the North American Re-
view. From 1819 to 1823 he was pastor of a
Unitarian church in Baltimore; in 1821-23 he
edited there the Unitarian Miscellany and Chris-
tian Monitor (monthly) ; and from 1824 to 1831
again edited the North American Review, of which
he was chief proprietor. In 1830 he founded and
was the first editor of the American Almanac and
Repository of Useful Knowledge, published an-
nually until 1861. In 1839 he became professor
of history at Harvard, of which institution he
was president from 1849 to 1853. During this
time he reformed administrative methods, in-
sisted upon the recognition by the Massachusetts
Legislature of Harvard’s chartered rights, and
vigorously opposed the elective system. He is
best known, however, as a biographer, and as an
editor and collector of documents relating to
American history. In- this field he was a pioneer
and rendered services of great value. As an
editor he was severely criticised for taking
liberties with his materials, such as failing to re-
produce letters and documents accurately, mak-
ing many verbal and other changes, and omitting
numerous passages; but the extent to which he
took such liberties has been greatly exaggerated.
Perhaps his best known work is his edition of
the Writings of George Washington (12 vols.,
1834-37), the first volume of which is an excel-
lent biography of Washington, frequently pub-
lished separately. This edition met with much
criticism, involving Sparks particularly in a con-
troversywith Lord Mahon, and it has since been
superseded in many respects by that of W. C.
Ford. Sparks also edited: The Library of Amer-
ican Biography (first series, 10 vols., 1834-38;
second series, 15 vols., 1844-47), to which he him-
self contributed several biographies; The Diplo-
matic Correspondence of the American Revolu-
tion (12 vols., 1829-30), since superseded in most
respects by Wharton’s Revolutionary Diplomatic
Correspondence of the United States (6 vols.,
1889) ; The Works of Benjamin Franklin with a
Life of the Author (10 vols., 1836-40), since
superseded by Bige1ow’s Complete Works of Ben-
jamin Franklin (l0 vols., 1887-89); and Corre-
spondence of the American Revolution; Letters
of Eminent Men to George Washington (4 vols.,
1853). He also published a Life of Gouverneur
Morris, with Selections from His Correspondence
and Miscellaneous Papers (3 vols., 1832). He
left voluminous manuscript journals, and a mass
of valuable documentary material relating chiefly
to the diplomatic history of the American Revo-
lution, which was collected by him during several
trips to Europe, and which he bequeathed to the
Harvard Library. Consult: H. B. Adams, Life
and Writings of Jared Sparks (2 vols., Boston,
1893).
SPARROW (AS. spearwa, spearewa, Goth.
sparwa, OHG. sparo, sparwe, sparling; connect-
ed with OPruss. sperglas, spurglas, sparrow, and
probably ultimately with Eng. spur, spurn). A
small bird of the finch family (Fringillidee),
generally with dull plumage and slight powers
of song, feeding on the ground or among under-
brush or weeds, and nesting in bushes or low
trees or on the ground. Originally the name be-
longed specifically to the common European spar-
row (see HoUsE SPARROW), but now has been
inaccurately extended to include certain war-
blers, weaver-birds, and others. Of American spar-
rows probably the most familiar is the common
chipping sparrow (see CHIPPY) , a small grayish
bird. The field-sparrow (Spizella pusilla) is a
very similar species, which occurs throughout
the Eastern United States in summer, distin-
guished by its brighter rufous color and flesh-
colored bill. A third species of this genus, the
tree-sparrow (Spizella monticola), occurs in the
United States only in winter, breeding in La-
brador and the Hudson Bay region. It is con-
siderably larger than the chippy and has a con-
spicuous black spot on the grayish-white breast.
Next to the chippy the best known American
sparrow is probably the song-sparrow (M elospiza
melodia or cinerea), which in some one of its
- varieties ranges throughout practically the whole
of North America. It is between six and seven
inches in length, the general shade of the upper
surface brown, of the under surface dirty white,
but everywhere more or less streaked with black
or rufous brown, the streaks on the centre of
the breast tending to form one large characteris-
tic blotch. This is one of the earliest spring
songsters in the Northern States, and its refrain,
although not extended, is remarkably clear and
sweet. Its nest is composed of grasses, rootlets,
and the like, lined with fine grasses and long
hairs, and is frequently placed on the ground.
The eggs are very variable in color and form, the
ground shade ranging from nearly white to deep
blue thickly marked with reddish brown. Two
broods are often raised in a season. Two other
species of Melospiza range through Eastern
North America, the swamp-sparrow (M elospiza
Georgiana) and Lincoln’s sparrow (Melospiza
Li/ncolni) . They resemble the song-sparrow in
appearance, but are much more shy and retiring
in their habits. Some twenty or thirty other birds
are called sparrows in the United States, among
FAMILIAR SPARROWS

. SONG SPARROW (Mohnplza melodial.
. BLUE SNOWBIRD (Junco hyemallsl‘.
. OHEWINK (Plpllo erytlwophthalmusl.
. BLACK-THROATED SPARROW (Euspln Americana).
1. CHIPPV (Splzella soclallsl.
2. VESPER SPARROW (Poacmu grarninousl.
8. WHITETHROAT llonotrlchla alhlcolllsl.
4. PURPLE FINCH (Car-podaoua purpureus).
UHOUU
SPARROW.
SPARTA.
53
which the vesper-sparrow (Poocaates gramineas),
the savannah sparrow-s of the genus Ammodra-
mus (which also includes the sharp-tailed and
seaside sparrows), the crowned -sparrows of the
genus Zonotrichia, the wood-sparrows or sum-
mer finches of the genus Peucaea, and the large
fox-sparrow (q.v.) are especially worthy of men-
tion, while the sage-sparrows (Amphispiza) and
the lark-sparrows (Uhondestes grammacus) are
characteristic Western forms. The former group
includes the black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza
bilinea ta) , found on the Western plains. The vesper-
‘sparrow is often called grass-finch or bay-winged
bunting, but its more common name has reference
to its fondness for singing late in the afternoon.
It is essentially a ground-loving species, feeding
and nesting only on the ground. The outer tail-
feathers of each side are white and are exposed
by the bird when it flies. Ammodramus in-
cludes upward of a dozen species, widely dis-
tributed, but popularly little known, on account
of their retiring habits. They are chiefly shy,
elusive little birds of fresh and salt marshes.
The crown-sparrows are large, handsome birds, of
which the common white-throated Peabody-bird
(Zonotrichia albicollis) is the best known. The
conspicuous black and white and sometimes
golden-yellow markings on the head make the
crown-sparrows conspicuous among their more
plainly colored relatives. The wood-sparrows are
a group of Southwestern and Mexican species of
medium or rather small size, with short rounded
wings, one species of which, known as Bachman’s
finch or the pine-woods sparrow (Peucea casti-
valis) , occurs in the South -Atlantic States, espe-
cially Florida, and is noted as a very superior
songster; a variety of this species, the oak-woods
or Bachman’s sparrow, is found in the Missis-
sippi Valley as far north as Illinois. The lark-
sparrow is notable for the fact that, unlike other
sparrows, the sexes are very unlike in color;
while the female is streaked grayish brown, the
male is black with a large white patch on the
wings. , This is a prairie species abundant on the
central plains, ranging eastward to Illinois, and
occasionally, as a straggler, to the Atlantic
Coast. Consult Ridgway, Birds of N orth_arwl
Middle America, part i. (Washington, 1901), and
authorities there cited. See Plate of FAMILIAR
SPARBOWS; and Colored Plate of Eces or Sorro-
BIRDS.
SPARROW-HAWK. Any of several distinct
species of small hawks, whose prey consists
chiefly of sparrows and other small birds,
insects, and mice. In America the name is uni-
versally given to Falco spar/uerius, a handsome
little falcon less than a foot long. It is very
courageous and very active, and lives largely on
mice and insects. It is rufous above, barred
with black; most of the head is slaty blue, and
underneath it is buffy. It breeds from Florida
to Hudson Bay, and winters from New Jer-
sey southward, and is everywhere one of the
commonest species of hawk. It nests in a
hole in a tree and lays from three to seven
creamy or reddish eggs, finely marked with
darker tints.
The Old World sparrow-hawk (Accipiter
nisus) is very similar, and has often been trained
for the purposes of falconry, to take land-rails,
partridges, and similar game. See FALCON; FAL-
coNRY; and Plate of EAGLES AND HAWKS.
SPAR’TA (Lat., from Gk. Zrdprn, Sparte,
Doric Zrdpra, Sparta), also LACEDZEMON. The
capital of Laconia, and the most famous city of
the Peloponnesus. It occupied partly a group of
low hills on the right bank of the Eurotas, and
partly the intervening plain. Its appearance in
its palmiest days was by no means equal to its
renown, for it was little better than a group of
five villages, with plain and even mean private
houses, though there were a few notable public
buildings, such as the shrine of Athena or the
Bronze House, whose walls seem to have been
lined with bronze, probably decorated with re-
liefs. The passes which lead into the
valley of the Eurotas are so easily defensible,
and the distance from the sea is sogreat, that
Sparta continued without walls down to the end
of the fourth century 13.0., and, indeed, was not
regularly fortified till the time of the tyrant
Nabis (3.0. 195). The five districts or villages,
Cynosura, Limnae, Mesoa, Pitane, and Dyme,
were united in the worship of Artemis Orthia
and Athena, and had a common agora, or market-
place, on which stood the public buildings—the
senate-house, and the offices of the ephors and other
magistrates. Famous public places were the Ghoros,
where the youths danced in honor of Apollo; the
Dromos, or race-course, where the gymnastic ex-
ercises took place, and where were also temples of
the Dioscuri and other gods; and the Platanistas,
a broad level space, shaded by plane-trees, and
reached by two bridges where the Spartan
youth, divided into two bands, met in strenuous
personal conflict. Probably the so-called Acropo-
lis, which was crowded with temples, was situated
on the hill to the northwest, on whose southern
side the theatre can still be traced. Not far from
here excavations conducted by the American
School at Athens in 1892 and 1893 brought to
light the foundations of a circular building,
which had contained a colossal statue, and may
have been identical with one mentioned by Pau-
sanias as containing statues of Zeus and Aphro-
dite, said to be a foundation of Epimenides of
Crete.
After the Dorian conquest of Laconia the su-
preme power always remained in the hands of the
pure-blooded Dorian families of Sparta. The
farmer population and the lesser Dorian towns
seem to have been reduced to Perioeci (q.v.), or to
Helots (q.v.). Their situation, amid a subject
population largely in excess of their own num-
bers, practically forcqd upon the Spartans a strict
military discipline, and this formed the basis of
their whole system. Sparta was little else than
a permanent camp. At the birth of a child, the
elders decided whether it was strong enough to be
reared. A weakling was exposed on Mount Tay-
getus. After the seventh year the boys entered
on a course of severe training, designed to de-
velop physical strength and courage, as well as
the uncomplaining endurance of hardship and
cunning such as might serve the soldier. Music
and the dance were added, and perhaps the ele-
ments of letters. Girls, too, passed through a
training in gymnastics and the dance, that they
might be fit consorts and bearers of strong chil-
dren. Sentiment played but little part in the
Spartan system, and the function of marria e
was only the perpetuation of the State. At t%e
age of twenty the young Spartan was liable to
active service, was admitted to the public meals,
SPARTA.
SPARTACUS.
54
and was now allowed to marry, though he could
only obtain stolen interviews with ‘his bride, since
he was still obliged to live with his companions.
At thirty he became a full citizen. Discipline, how-
ever, was not relaxed. He must still eat regularly
at his Phiditla, or mess, and contribute regularly
to its support from the produce of his farm, which
was cultivated by Helots. The government was
a development from the old Homeric form of the
king and council of elders. In Sparta there was
a double kingship. The two lines claimed descent
from the twin sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes
and Procles, but were named from the second gen-
eration, Agis and Eurypon, Agidae and Eurypon-
tidae. These two kings were the religious repre-
sentatives of the State, on whose behalf they of-
fered stated sacrifices, and also exercised limited
legal functions. Their chief duty was, howemr, the
command of the army, over which in early times
they exercised unlimited power, though in the
fifth century 13.0. they were subject to the ephors
and the Assembly. In the field their power was
absolute. Associated with the kings was a coun-
cil (the Gerousia) of 28 elders, men over 60 years
of age, chosen for life from certain noble families
by acclamation in the popular assembly. They
discussed and prepared the orders to be sub-
mitted to the assembly, and also sat as a court of
criminal jurisdiction in crimes against the State,
especially where the kings were involved. Once a
month the assembly of the citizens (Apella) met
at the call of the kings, though in the fifth century
BC. the ephors presided. The body seems ordi-
narily to have simply voted on the business pre-
sented to it. Speeches were in general delivered
only by the ofiicials, and there was certainly no
general discussion. Into this government were in-
troduced, at an early date, the ephors, who, during
the period of Spartan greatness, were the real
rulers. (See EPHORI.) They exercised a general
oversight over the community and maintained the
authority of the established order. Elected for
one year, they had the power to call any magis-
trate to account and even to suspend him from
office. They presided over the Gerousia, and
could impeach any citizen before that court.
Their short term of ofiice and accountability to
their successors were really almost the sole lim-
its to their power. Under the iron discipline of
this constitution, which was attributed to the
mythical Lycurgus (q.v.), the Spartan State
gradually extended its power until it had gained
complete control over Laconia and Messenia, and
the recognized leadership of a somewhat loosely
joined confederacy, which included most of the
Peloponnesus outside of Argos. At the time of
the Persian wars Sparta was the leading State
in Greece, but the constitution was not adapted
for military operations requiring prolonged ab-
sence from home, and with the transfer of the
war to Asia the Spartans soon withdrew from
the scene. (The leading events other than do-
mestic in the history of Sparta have been given
under GREECE.) The creation of the fleet which de-
cided the Peloponnesian War put a severe strain
upon the ancient customs, and long absences in
foreign lands, often with free opportunity for
luxury, rendered men unwilling to submit to
stern discipline on their return. The hegemony
of Greece, which had fallen to Sparta on the over-
throw of Athens, was used solely as a means of
aggrandizement and profit, and in a short time
led to renewed wars. In 13.0. 371 the defeat at
Leuctra at‘ the hands of the Thebans
broke forever the power of Sparta, and the
disintegration, which had begun with naval
empire and the accumulation of the gold and
silver, forbidden by the ancient laws, went rapid-
ly forward. The attempt of Agis IV. (c.244-240
13.0.) to reform the State was defeated and Agis
put to death, but Cleomenes III. (c.235-219 B.C.)
carried through a serious of sweeping changes,
which increased largely the number of citizens,
and reestablished the Lycurgean order. After his
death Sparta was ruled by the tyrants Machani-
das and Nabis, was then forced into the Achaean
League, and finally with the rest of Greece passed
under the rule of Rome. Treated with favor by
the Romans, the city prospered; the old laws of
Lycurgus were once more_ placed in force, and
the old training practiced at least nominally,
though the forms of government seem to have
been much altered. In the thirteenth century
the Acropolis was fortified by a wall, which
may still be traced. The Frankish lords of the
Peloponnesus built a strong fortress at Mistra
(1248-49) on a spur of Taygetus, west of
Sparta, and its superior security led to the aban-
donment of the ancient city. After the Greek
Revolution a new town of Sparta was laid out as
the capital of the Nomarchy of Laconia.
Consult, on the topography: Curtius, Pelopon-
nesus II. (Gotha, 1852) ; Leake, Travels in
the Morca (London, 1830) ; N. E. Crosby,
“Topography of Sparta,” in American J carnal of
Archceology, vol. viii. (Princeton, 1893) ; Frazer,
Paasanias, vol. iii. (London, 1898). On the an-
cient constitution, consult: Hermann, Lehrbuch
cler griechischen Antiquitriten, vol. i., 6th ed., by
V. Thumser (Freiburg, 1889); Busolt, “Griech-
ische Staats- und Rechtsaltertiimer,” in Miiller’s
H andbuch der klassischen Altertamswissenschaft
(Munich, 1892), both of which contain full
bibliographies.
SPARTA. A city and the county-seat of
Monroe County, Wis., 26 miles east by north of
La Crosse; on the La Crosse River, and on the
Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul and the
Chicago and Northwestern railroads (Map: Wis-
consin, C 5). It has an attractive situation and
artesian mineral wells, and is a much frequented
summer resort. There are in Sparta a public
library, the State Public School for Dependent
and Neglected Children, and Saint Mary’s Con-
vent. The city is the shipping centre for a rich
farming and stock-raising section, and manu-
factures flour, paper, and iron products. The
water-works are owned by the municipality.
Population, in 1890, 2795; in 1900, 3555.
SPARTACUS. The leader in the great in-
surrection of Roman slaves in Southern Italy
which took place 13.0. 73. He was a native of
Thrace, originally a shepherd, but afterwards a
robber chief. He was taken prisoner and placed
in a gladiatorial school at Capua. Seventy
gladiators, including Spartacus, escaped and
forced their way through the streets of Capua,
defeated a detachment of Roman soldiers sent
to bring them back, and established themselves
on Mount Vesuvius, where they received consid-
erable accessions, chiefly runaway slaves. Spar-
tacus was chosen leader, and proclaimed freedom
to all slaves. Thousands rushed to his standard.
SPARTACUS.
SPEAKER.
55
After defeating Claudius Pulcher, Spartacus
routed and slew Cossinius, legate of P. Varinius
Glaber, the praeetor; then he worsted Varinius
himself in several engagements, capturing his
lictors and the very horse on which he rode. All
the southern part of the peninsula now fell into
his hands; the country was devastated, the cities
either pillaged or garrisoned. After the defeat
and death of his lieutenants, who had separated
from him, B.C. 72, he marched northward through
Picenum toward the Po, overthrew first one con-
sular army under Cn. Cornelius Lentulus and
then another under Gellius Poplicola, and at
the head of a large force meditated a march upon
Rome. Servile indecision saved the city. Spar-
tacus was forced by his followers to retreat
south, and took up his winter headquarters at
Thurii. In B.C. 71 the proconsul, C. Cassius
Longinus, and the propraetor, Cn. Manlius, were
defeated; in Picenum, Mummius, a legate of
Crassus, was utterly routed; at last, however,
Crassus succeeded in forcing Spartacus into the
narrow peninsula of Rhegium. Crassus now
built lines of circumvallation to hem him in
and force him to surrender; but one stormy
winter night Spartacus broke out of the toils
prepared for him, and resumed the offensive.
Near Petelia, Spartacus once more defeated his
adversaries; but seeing clearly that with such
wretched materials as he had he could not hold
out much longer, he made a dash for Brundusium,
hoping to seize the shipping in the harbors, and
get safely across the Adriatic to his native
shore, but was baflied by the presence of Lucullus
(q.v.) . There was nothing left for Spartacus but
to die gallantly as he had lived. Drawing up his
army in battle array, and solemnly slaying his
war-horse, he began his last fight in a spirit of
heroic desperation, and after performing prodi-
gies of valor he fell unrecognized among the
heaps of his slain foes. After his death the
slave insurrection was at an end.
SPAR/TANBURG. A city and the county-
seat of Spartanburg County, S. C., 93 miles
northwest of Columbia; on several branches of
the Southern and the Atlantic Coast Line rail-
roads (Map: South Carolina, C 2). It has the
Kennedy Public Library, and is the seat of Con-
verse College, a non-sectarian institution for
women, opened in 1890, VVofford College (Meth-
odist Episcopal, South), opened in 1854, and the
State Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Institute. Spar-
tanburg is situated in a rich cotton-growing and
farming section, which also has deposits of gold,
limestone, and granite, and other mineral wealth.
It is the centre of a large cotton-manufacturing
district, containing some 30 mills with more
than 400,000 spindles. There are several large
cotton mills in the city and suburbs; also iron
works, lumber mills, and manufactories of brooms
and soap. The government, under the charter of
1901, is vested in a mayor, chosen every two
years, and a unicameral council. Population, in
1890, 5544; in 1900, 11,395.
SPARTEINE (from Neo-Lat. Spartium, from
Lat. spartum, spartan, from Gk. avrdp-row, Span-
ish broom, cable). A volatile, oily liquid alkaloid
obtained from the tops of the broom-plant
(Cytisus Scoparius), a European shrub of the
order Leguminosae. Sparteine is odorless, very
bitter, soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform,
but insoluble in water. Its sulphate, which is
used in medicine, is a colorless, crystalline pow-
der, soluble in water and in alcohol. It is a
cardiac stimulant, acting at times when others
fail, and used under these circumstances or when
it is necessary to obtain a substitute for other
drugs of its élass. It increases the amount of
urine excreted.
SPARTIUM, sp'zir’shi-fim. A genus of plants.
See Bnoorr. '
SPASM (Lat. spasmus, from Ck. <nra<rp.6s,
spasmos, a'1rd.o'p.a., spasma, spasm, from arrfiv, span,
to draw, rend). Involuntary and sudden muscu-
lar contraction, due to central nerve disturbance,
to peripheral irritation, or to reflex conditions
from irritation of other parts. There are two
kinds of spasm: tonic and clonic. Tonic spasm is
a prolonged involuntary rigidity of a muscle or
a group of muscles. Such spasm occurs at 1he
beginning of an epileptic attack, during hysteria
major, tetanus, angina pectoris, and meningitis.
It also occurs in the muscles of the calves of the
legs in swimmers, attended with pain, when it
is called cramp (q.v.). Clonic spasm is an in-
voluntary contracting and relaxing of groups of
muscles, causing twitching, jerking, and rolling
movements and contortions. It is the common
convulsion, or fit. Such a spasm occurs in
epilepsy, hysteria major, uraemia, chorea, hydro-
phohia, and in some cases of indigestion and
worms. In asthma (q.v.) there is spasm of the
muscles controlling the bronchial tubes, as also
in whooping cough (q.v.), together with hyper-
aesthesia. Spasm occurs also in colic.
The treatment of spasm consists of the use of
antispasmodics such as asafoetida, galbanum,
musk, sumbul, valerian, belladonna, cannabis
indica, opium, the bromides, and stramonium,
and the administration by inhalation of choloro-
form or amyl nitrite, or by outward application
of heat in a prolonged hot bath.
SPAVIN, Boe (OF. esparvain, esparoent, Fr.
éparvin, spavin; possibly from Goth. sparwa,
OHG. sparo, sparwe, AS. spearwa, spearewa, Eng.
sparrow; in allusion to the hopping gait of a
spavined animal). A lesion of the true hock-
joint of the horse, consisting in distention of the
capsule inclosing the joint. It usually arises sud-
denly from a sprain in action, from overwork, or
wounds.
SPAVIN, BONE. An inflammation of and
bony deposit on the flat bones of the lower and
inner part of the hock-joint of the horse. At
first there is tenderness, local heat, swelling, and
lameness, but as the inflammatory stage passes
the lameness is less perceptible, although the
horse still continues to go stifily. If the lameness
is only slight it usually disappears after a little
exercise. The animal should be given rest.
SPAWN-EATER. The spotted-tailed min-
now (N otropis Hudsonius). See MINNOW.
SPEAKER. The name given to the presiding
officer in various legislative bodies. In the Eng-
lish House of Commons the ofiice of Speaker seems
to have existed as early as the reign of Henry
III., but the title Speaker was first given to Sir
T. Hungerford in the reign of Edward III.
(1377). The Speaker of the House of Commons
presides over the deliberations of the House, and
enforces the rules for preserving order. He puts
SPEAKER.
SPECIAL JURY.
56
the question and declares the determination of
the House. As the representative of the House,
he communicates its resolutions to others, and
conveys its thanks or its censures. He issues
warrants in execution of the orders of the House
for the commitment of offenders, for the issue of
writs, the attendance of witnesses, the bringing
up prisoners in custody, etc. He cannot speak
or vote on any question, but on an equality of
voices he has a casting vote.~ The office is non-
political; and hence a Speaker may hold during
several successive and opposing administrations.
A retiring Speaker is usually rewarded with a
peerage. See PARLIAMENT.
Unlike the English prototype, the Speakership
of the United States House of Representatives is
a political office of the highest importance. The
first Speaker, chosen in 1789, was a moderator on
the British pattern. But beginning with the right
to appoint the standing committees in 1790, the
powers of the office have gradually expanded until
the Speaker has become the acknowledged leader
of the House and the chief of his party. Henry
Clay (1811-25) developed the political resources
of the oifice, especially through the constitu-
tion of committees. The modern Speaker has
been well called the American Premier. So
far has the office departed from its original
character that the Speaker now has the right
to dispense the privileges of the floor in the in-
terest of his party. He may even refuse to ‘recog-
nize’ on the ground of personal dislike. More-
over, since 1860, as chairman of the Committee
on Rules, he may in effect control the whole
course of legislation. He “practically decides
what shall be considered, how long debates shall
last, and when the votes shall be taken.” Through
this function a kind of substitute for the right
of the English Ministry to introduce and pro-
mote so-called ‘Government bills’ has been found.
The Speaker is a member of the House chosen by
the members; and he freely exercises his privilege
of voting on any measure. Since 1874 his salary
has been $8000 a year. He signs all bills, reso-
lutions, and acts of authority; certifies to the
mileage, etc., of members; and appoints three
of the regents of the Smithsonian Institution. He
may be removed from his office by an act of the
House.
For the early history of the Speakership, con-
sult Stubbs, Constitutional History, and in gen-
eral, Todd, Parliamentary Government (London,
1869). The most important work on the Ameri-
can ofiice is Follett, The Speaker of the House of
Representatives (New York, 1896). This was
preceded by Hart, “The Speaker as Premier,” in
Atlantic Monthly, March, 1891; reprinted in his
Practical Essays (New York, 1893).
SPEAKING TRUMPET. An instrument
for concentrating the waves of sound originated
by the articulation of the human voice, and
thereby enabling the sound to be conveyed to
a greater distance. It was used on shipboard in
enabling the officers to convey orders during
windy weather from one part of the deck to an-
other, or to the rigging, and in its more modern
form, the megaphone (q.v.) is extensively em-
ployed. The invention is ascribed to Sir Samuel
Morland (1625-1695) in 1670, though Athanasius
Kircher laid claim to it. Morland’s trumpet
was shaped like a truncated cone, with an out-
ward curve or lip at the opening.
SPEARFISH, or SPIKEFISH. The great ‘bill-
fish’ or ‘aguja blanca’ (Tetrapturus albidus) of
West Indian waters, which is dark blue above,
whitish beneath, and may be seven feet long,
including the spear-like jaws, and weigh 100
pounds. It is probably identical with the Medi-
terranean species, and others occur in the East-
ern tropics. Their habits are similar to those of
their relatives the sailfishes and swordfishes. See
Plate of Srnanrrsn AND Swonnrrsn.
SPEARMIN T. See MINT.
SPEARS, JOHN RANDOLPH (1850—). An
American author and journalist, born at Van
Wirt, Ohio. In 1875 he became editor of the
East Aurora Advertiser, and the next year he
founded the Silver Creek Local. He was a re-
porter on the Buffalo Express from 1880 until
1882, when he 'oined the stafi' of the New York
Sun. His pubiications include: The Gold Dig-
gings of Cape Horn (1895) ; The Port of Missing
Ships and Other Stories of the Sea (1896) ; The
History of Our Navy (1897) ; Our Navy in the
War with Spain (1898) ; The Fugitive (1899) ;
and History of the American Slave Trade (1900).
SPECIAL ASSESSMENT. A compulsory
contribution levied in proportion to the spe-
cial benefits derived from a public improve-
ment, and designed to cover, entirely or in
part, the cost of that improvement. A spe-
cial assessment‘ is levied most frequently in
connection with the opening or improvement of
streets or highways. It differs from a tax in
that it is levied in proportion to the benefit di-
rectly derived from the uses to which the con-
tribution is put. (See TAXATION.) Charges of
the nature of special assessments were imposed in
France as early as 1672. In 1807 a general law
was passed authorizing such levies, but it has
rarely been invoked. In Prussia, since 1875, the
expenses of certain street improvements have
been partially defrayed in this manner. In Eng-
land contributions of the nature of special,assess-
ments we're imposed in 1427 and in 1667. The
Public Health Act of 1875 permits urban au-
thorities, under certain contingencies, to recover
the cost of improvements from property-owners,
in proportion to the frontage of their premises.
In England, however, no general policy of cov-
ering the costs of improvements by special as-
sessments exists.
The principle of special assessments first ap-
peared in America in a law of the Province of
New York of 1691. By that law, however, all
houses in the city of New York might be assessed
in proportion to benefits derived from public im-
provements. By a law of 1787, assessments
were limited to the owners of roperty which
was intended to be benefited. 11 other States
this form of revenue appeared about 1830. After
the Civil War the principle became far more ex-
tended, and is now throughout the United States
a recognized principle of local finance. In a
typical case, when a street is graded or paved,
after the improvement has been made a board
of assessors is appointed, who apportion the cost
in proportion to benefits received. Such assess-
ments are usually subject to legal limitation as
to amount. Consult Rosewater, Special Assess-
ments (New York, 1893).
SPECIAL JURY. In the English law, a
jury consisting of men who are entitled to be
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SPECIAL JURY.
SPECIE PAYMENTS.
57
called esquires, or persons of higher rank, bank-
ers, merchants, and persons who occupy private
dwelling houses, or possess certain other prop-
erty qualifications. Under the ‘Juries Act’ of
1870, either the plaintiff or the defendant in an
action is entitled to demand a special jury, but
the one making such demand must bear the ad-
ditional expense, unless at the end of the trial
he can obtain a certificate from the trial judge
to the effect that the case was a proper one to
be tried by a special jury. In some of the
United States no provision is made for special
juries; but in a few States struck or special
juries may be ordered, in the discretion of the
court, in important cases. See JURY.
SPECIAL PROCEEDING. Under modern
codes of procedure, any civil proceeding which
is not an action (q.v.). Under the New York
Code of Civil Procedure, the following have
been held to be special proceedings: An applica-
tion for admission to the bar; supplementary
proceedings; a proceeding to vacate an assess-
ment; proceedings for contempt; proceedings for
condemnation of land; habeas corpus. See
ACTION, and consult Fiero, Special Proceedings
(2d ed., New York, 1899) .
SPECIAL SESSIONS. Under the English
judicial system, where two or more justices of
the peace sit together for the trial of some im-
portant cause, or to transact other urgent judi-
cial business, the sitting is lmown as Special
Sessions. In New York a criminal court for
the trial of misdemeanors and petty criminal
cases is called the Court of Special Sessions. See
COURT; PETTY SESSIONS. ,
SPECIALTY. In law, in its broadest sense,
any formal, as distinguished from a simple, con-
tract, including judgments, recognizances, statutes
staple, statutes merchant, and deeds of grant;
but the term is more frequently used as synony-
mous with contract under seal. Contracts under
seal were the earliest form of contract known to
the law, having been used from the earliest time
both under the common and the Roman law sys-
tem. Unlike simple contracts, no consideration is
required to give them validity at law, their
validity, as in the case of all other specialties,
depending on their form and the method of their
execution. They must be written or printed on
paper or parchment and they must be sealed and
delivered by the grantor or obligor. It is said
that signing a deed by the obligor is not es-
sential to the validity, although it is now the
universal practice to execute the instrument by
signing as well as by sealing and delivering it.
Delivery is effected by an actual delivery of the
instrument by the person executing it to the
obligor or to another for the obligor with the
intent that it should become operative as a
deed or contract under seal. After sealing and
delivery the instrument remains in full force
even if the person executing it take it back into
his possession. One executing a specialty may,
however, make a qualified delivery of it called a
delivery in escrow (q.v.). Formerly specialties
were classified as deeds poll a.nd indentures (see
DEED), but now the most satisfactory classifica-
tion of specialties (using that term as applicable
only to instruments under seal) is into grants,
bonds, and covenants (qq.v.). All statements
contained in a specialty are absolutely conclusive
against the party making them and executing the
instrument, that is, he is conclusively estopped
to deny them. Whenever a specialty contract is
given on account of or in place of a simple con-
tract-, the simple contract is merged in the spe-
cialty contract and thereby becomes extin-
guished. (See MERCER.) The statute of limita-
tions provides a much longer period of limitation
for specialties than other forms of obligations,
the usual period being twenty years. (See LIMI-
TATION OF Acrrons.) In case of the death of the
obligor the holder of specialty obligations exe-
cuted by the deceased had at common law much
higher rights against his estate than the holder
of simple contract obligations. (See ADMINIS-
TRATION.) Although consideration is -not neces-
sary to give legal validity to a specialty, courts
of equity will not grant their peculiar form of
relief by way of specific performance to one
who has not given consideration for the specialty
obligation which he holds. See SPECIFIC PER-
FOBMANCE; Tnusr; UsE.
It was formerly held that a corporation could
contract only by specialty under its corporate
seal. This, however, is no longer the rule in the
United States, where it is held that a corporation
may enter into contracts by its proper Oflicers
without the use of its seal, wherever a private
individual might -so contract. For further in-
formation consult such titles as CONTRACT;
BOND; DEED; COVENANT ; SEAL; EQUITY; CON-
SIDERATION, etc., and consult the authorities re-
ferred to under CONTRACT and SEAL.
SPECIAL VERDICT. A verdict in which
the jury find merely the facts as proved by the
evidence and do not apply the law to the facts,
but leave it to the discretion of the court as
to whether in its opinion the plaintiff or defen-
dant shall succeed. The matter is now regulated
by statute in most jurisdictions. In some States
such a verdict is said to be ‘subject to opinion.’
See JURY; VERDICT.
SPECIE PAYMENTS (abbreviation of ML.
in specie, in coin, Lat. in kind, from in, in, and
specie, abl. sg. of species, kind), SUSPENSION AND
RESUMPTION OF. The circulating medium of
modern States consists both of metallic money
and of credit money, issued either by banks or
by the Government, which in normal times is
convertible into metallic money on demand. (See
MONEY.) But there are few States which have
not passed through crises when the metallic cov-
ering of its paper money has become too scanty,
and the conv_ertibility of the paper has been sus-
pended. Sifcli a general suspension of specie
payments is legalized either directly or tacitly by
the Government. The issues of credit money are
usually in such close relation with the Government
that such an action must receive governmental
sanction. The effect of suspension is to relax the
restrictions upon the issue of paper money, and
the general result is a redundancy of such money
and its depreciation. This does not happen im-
mediately, as the action generally leads to the
boarding or export of such metallic money as re-
mains in the country, thus causing a void in the
monetary circulation which the issues of paper
money do not at once fill. The extent of the de-
preciation of the paper money usually depends
upon the facility with which it is issued. On
the suspension of specie payments by the Bank
SPECIE PAYMENTS.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
58
of England in 1797, the effect of increased note
issues was only gradually felt, for the bank fol-
lowed in the main a conservative policy. This
was true also of the suspension by the Bank of
France in 1870. On the other hand, during the
suspension of specie payments in the United
States in 1813, the banks issued notes recklessly
and the depreciation was considerable. When
the banks of the United States, on December 30,
1861, again suspended specie payments and the
Government followed their example, the large is-
sues of legal-tender notes caused a like result.
The resumption of specie payments is usually
a slow and tedious process. The first step toward
resumption is the gradual restriction of the paper
issues; in the case of Government notes redemp-
tion is accomplished by the aid of taxation, while
in the case of bank notes resumption occurs
through pressure of the Government by taxation
of excessive issues or by other means. The second
step is to procure a fund of metallic money suf-
ficient to meet probable demands for redemption.
To effect this end the Government credit is usually
called into requisition. The resumption of specie
payments restores the convertibility of credit
money, but does not destroy the money itself. It
provides for the redemption in metallic money
of such sums as may be presented, but not the
compulsory redemption of the whole.
The financial history of the United States in
the years succeeding the Civil War illustrates the
process of resumption. The close of that war
found the monetary circulation of the United
States exclusively paper, Government issues, State
bank notes, and national bank notes. Specie pay-
ments had been suspended since 1861, and a re-
turn to them seemed the first duty of financial
policy. The fear of a contraction of the cur-
rency, however, made the first steps in this direc-
tion hesitating and uncertain. The gradual re-
demption of the United States notes, which in
January, 1864, had stood at $449,000,000, under-
taken under the law of April 12, 1866, had been
arrested in February, 1868, when the amount
stood at $356,000,000. In the financial troubles
of 1873, the Secretary of the Treasury, upon
somewhat dubious authority, had increased the
volume, but by act of June 20, 1874, Congress
stopped this increase when the issue had reached
$382,000,000. The task of resumption was ear-
nestly taken in hand early in 1875, when an act
was passed providing for resumption on January
1, 1879. In its several provisions and as a whole
the act was in the following years the object.of
repeated attack, but all efforts to repeal it failed.
This law removed the limitation which had here-
tofore rested upon the aggregate issue of national
bank notes. It provided, moreover, that as new
notes were issued, United States notes to the
extent of 80 per cent. of the new bank issues
should be retired and canceled. Under this pro-
vision the volume of the legal-tender notes
diminished by May 31, 1878, when this provision
was repealed, to $345,000,000. The resumption
act further authorized the Secretary of the
Treasury, by the accumulation of surplus rev-
enues and by the sale of bonds, to collect a supply
of gold wherewith to resume. The amount to be
collected and the amount to be maintained after
resumption became a fact were left to his dis-
cretion. By the sale of bonds at favorable op-
portunities the Secretary had on hand on the day
of resumption $140,000,000 in gold. As the day
approached, the growing strength of the Treasury
had produced a diminishing premium on gold,
and the first of January, 1879, passed off without
the dreaded shock. Only a small amount of
paper money was actually presented for pay-
ment. See MONEY.
SPECIES. See CLASSIFICATION; Evonurrorr.
SPECIFICATION. In the law of patents, a
technical description of the invention mentioned
in an application for a patent, and when used
without the word ‘claim’ it includes the claims
or arguments of the inventor as to the novelty,
usefulness, etc., of his invention. See PATENT,
and the authorities there referred to.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (ML. specificus, spe-
cific, particular, from Lat. species, kind). The
ratio between the weights of equal volumes of
any substance and of some other, chosen as a
standard. For solids and liquids the standard
substance is water, for gases, air, or sometimes
hydrogen. Since the volume of a given weight
of a -substance changes with temperature, it is
necessary for exact determinations that the
standard selected should be at a certain fixed
temperature. Thus specific gravity is not the
ratio of an equal volume of a given substance to
water at any temperature, but only at the stand-
ard temperature which is selected, as described be-
low. Likewise for a specific gravity determination
to be of value the temperature of the substance at
the time of making the measurement should
be given. For gases not only the temperature,
but the pressure must be mentioned. For many
purposes the term density has replaced specific
gravity, but the two are not synonymous. The
density of a substance (at a given pressure and
temperature) is the mass of that substance in a
unit volume, provided it is homogeneous; other-
wise it is the mass of a volume so small as to
be homogeneous, divided by the volume. Thus
density is an absolute term, expressing the quan-
tity of a certain kind of matter in a given space,
while specific gravity is merely relative, being in
fact the ratio of the density of the substance to
the density of the standard. The specific gravity
of a gas or vapor is usually referred to air at
the same pressure and temperature as that of
the gas, but also frequently to hydrogen under
like conditions. In terms of the latter it is
equal to half the molecular weight of the gas.
See MoLEoULEs—-MoLEcULAR WEIGIITS.
The specific gravity of solids and liquids is
variously referred to water at 4° C., 15° C., or
62° F., and sometimes still other temperatures.
Specific gravities on these scales are respectively
as 1.000045, 1.000913, l.00ll80—the density of
water at these temperatures being inversely as
these numbers. The difference is obviously not
of importance except for purposes of extreme
accuracy. Density in the metric system is meas-
ured in grams per cubic centimeter (kilograms
per liter). If a liter of water at 4° C. weighed
exactly a kilogram, as was intended, the density
of water at this temperature would be one and
metric density and specific gravity referred to
water at 4° C. would be identical. The density
of water at this temperature is actually .999955,
so that specific gravity referred to wa.ter at 4°
is equal to density X 1.000045. Specific gravity
referred to air at 0° C. and 76 centimeters pres-
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
59
sure is equal to metric density divided by the
density of air : .0Ol293.
On the English system density is variously ex-
pressed in pounds per cubic foot, pounds per
cubic inch, grains per cubic inch. To reduce
specific gravity referred to water at 62° F. to
density on these scales multiply by 62.3546,
.0360848, 252.593, respectively.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT. I. DENSITY. Two
courses may be pursued to determine the density
of a substance: (1) Weigh a portion of it and
measure its volume; (2) determine its specific
gravity referred to a substance of known density.
For approximate purposes the former is best,
particularly in the case of solids of regular
shape. To attain a high degree of accuracy,
however, is difficult, since the direct determina-
tion of volume is subject to many errors. Hence
the density of most substances is found by deter-
mining, by one of the methods below, its specific
gravity referred to water or hydrogen, the density
of each of these having been carefully investi-
gated. The density of water is found by observing
the loss in weight of a solid of regular shape
when immersed in water, some of the best results
being obtained with a glass cube whose exact
dimensions were found by a method based on the
interference of light.
II. SPECIFIC GRAVITY or SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS.
Most of the methods given below are based on
Archimedes’s principle, which states that a solid
floating or immersed in a liquid loses weight
equal to that of the liquid it displaces. Hence
if it is totally immersed the loss of weight is
the weight of a volume of liquid equal to the
volume of the solid. Hence:
Weight of solid specific gravity of solid.
Loss of weight specific gravity of liquid.
Thus if either is known the other may be found.
For exact purposes the temperature of the liquid
must be known, weighings in air must be cor-
rected for the buoyancy of the latter, and the
solid must be supported in the liquid so that only
a single fine wire cuts the surface. Air bubbles
are also a serious source of error, and for this
reason water when used should be freely dis-
tilled or boiled.
(A) HYDBOSTATIO BALANCE. A chemical bal-
ance (see BALANCE) so arranged that a vessel of
liquid may be placed under one end of the beam
without resting on the pan. This is done by re-
placing the ordinary pan by a shorter (Fig. a)
or else by resting the vessel on a bridge (Fig. 1))
over the pan.

-
-


BRIDGE AND PAN FOR USE WITH BALANCE.
The solid is weighed in air, then suspended
from a hook on the pan or pan support by a wire
of known weight, so that it hangs totally sub-
merged in the vessel of liquid, and again
weighed.
(B) JOLLY BALANCE. A large delicate spiral
spring supported by a vertical rod of adjustable
VOL. XVI.-5.
length and carrying at the bottom two pans, one
below the other. For description see JOLLY BAL-
ANCE.
(C) SPECIFIC GRAVITY BoTTLE. A light glass
flask with a ground stopper generally pierced
with a fine hole so
that it may be
completely filled.
The flask is weighed
empty, then full of
water. Knowing
the density of wa-
ter, the internal
volume is calcu-
lated. The bottle
may now‘ be filled
with a liquid of
unknown density
and weighed and
the density calcu-
lated. Oraweighed
amount of solid in
small pieces may
be put in the bot-
tle, which is then
filled up with wa-
ter and weighed.
The difference be-
tween the weight
of the solid plus
that of the bottle
entirely filled with


water and the SPECIFIC GRAVITY BOTTLE on P3!!!-
Welght observed is NOMETER
the weight of wa- A, simple form; B, with ther-
mometer.
ter displaced by
the solid. This is the most accurate method for
liquids and solids in small bits.
(D) MOHR’S BALANCE. A balance beam di-
Vided into tenths carries suspended from one end
by a platinum wire a glass cylinder, F, almost
solid. On the other end is a counterpoise, P, balanc-
ing the cylinder in air. Riders, A, B, C, D, are
provided of weight equal to the loss of weight of
the cylinder in water at 15° C. and of 1-10, 1-100,




SPECIFIC GRAVITY, MOHR’S BALANCE.
l-l00O this weight. When the cylinder hangs
in a jar, E, filled with a liquid whose density
is desired, these riders are adjusted on the beam
so that balance is restored, and the position of
the riders then gives directly the specific gravity
referred to water at 15°. Thus with the riders
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
SPECTACLES.
60
as in the figure the specific gravity would be
.8642. The glass cylinder carries a small ther-
mometer, and the temperature should be ad-
justed to about 15°. The method is extremely
convenient to three places of decimals. The
fourth requires many corrections.
(E) HYDROMETER. A long hollow glass cylin-
der or ‘stem’ Weighted at one end by a bulb con-
taining shot or mercury so that it will float
upright in a liquid. The stem is graduated and
the specific gravity is given by the mark to
which it sinks, read through the liquid. The
graduations are sometimes in specific gravity or
density, but often according to established arbi-
trary scales, those of Beaume and Twaddell being
best known. Instruments are made of different
styles for milk, spirits, oil, acids, etc. See
HYDBOMETEB.

APPARATUS FOR METHOD
OFBALANQNGCOLUMN&
(F) BALANCING COLUMNS. A tube such as
that shown is supported vertically in two jars
containing two liquids. These are drawn up
into the tubes by suction on the tube at the top,
which is then closed. The height of the liquids
in the tubes above their surfaces in the tumbler
are inversely as their densities. If the liquids
do not mix a simple inverted U tube may be
used, one liquid being poured into each arm.
If tubes less than half an inch in diameter are
used the liquids should be drawn up only a
little, heights measured, then as far as possible,
and the ratio of the increase in lengths of the
columns taken.
HYDROMETEB.
(G) The specific gravity of a solid lighter than-
water is found by either the hydrostatic or J olly’s
balance, a weight being attached suificient to sink
it. This weight should hang under water
throughout.
III. SPECIFIC GRAVITY or Gasns. BUNsEN’s
METHOD. The rate of effusion of a‘ gas, i.e. the
volume which escapes per second through a very
small opening, is for a given opening and dif-
.ference of’ pressure inside and out, inversely as
the square root of its density.
Near the top of a long vertical glass tube is
a partition consisting of a disk of platinum
pierced by a hole about .0005 inch in diameter.
Above this the tube is closed by a ground stopper.
The tube is filled with gas and plunged into a
deep bath containing mercury and adjusted until
a glass float carried by the mercury stands at a
fixed level. The stopper is removed and the time
required for the float to rise to another fixed
level as the mercury drives out the gas is meas-
ured. The experiment is then repeated in ex-
actly the same manner with the standard gas.
The ratio of the times observed is the square of
the ratio of the densities, i.e. the specific gravity
of the unknown gas referred to the standard gas.
See MoLEcULEs——MoLEoULAR WEIGHTS.
For tables of density and specific gravity, con-
sult Smithsonian Physical Tables (Washington,
1896) . Methods of determining the specific grav-
ity of a substance will be found in any standard
text-book on physics.
SPECIFIC HEAT. See HEAT.
SPECIFIC LEGACY. See LEGACY.
SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE. A technical
legal term employed to denote the equitable doc-
trine and rules under which a court may compel
a party who has refused to perform his part of
an agreement to carry it out according to its
terms. In an action at law for the breach of a
contract the only relief possible is damages, but
as money is not always an adequate compensa-
tion for the loss which may be suffered, the
courts of equity will in certain cases decree a
specific or actual performance of the terms of
the contract. It lies in the discretion of the
court whether or not to grant this relief, but
precedents must be followed as a guide. In gen-
eral, to obtain a decree of specific performance
the plaintiff must satisfy the court that the
remedy at law is entirely inadequate; that there
was a valid, fair, and reasonable contract be-
tween the parties; and that he has done nothing
inequitable on his part. It is a general rule to
grant specific performance of contracts for the
conveyance of real estate. It is only in excep-
tional cases that the relief will be granted in
cases of contracts to convey personal property,
and then only when the article is unique in its
character and practically unobtainable elsewhere,
such as a rare picture which could not be dupli-
cated. In a few cases specific performance of a
contract to do some act, such as build a struc-
ture, will be decreed. For example, where a rail-
road agreed to build an ornamental bridge over
a private roadway in consideration of the right
of way through a man’s premises, the court de-
creed that the company should construct the
bridge according to the terms of their contract.
Consult Fry, On Specific Performance. See also
CONTRACT, and authorities there referred to.
SPECTACLED BEAR (so called from the
marking on the face). The small hear of the
northern Andes. See BEAR.
SPECTACLES (Lat. speetaculu/m, show, from
spectare, to behold, from specere, to see; con-
nected with Gk. o'Ké1r1'ea'0a.¢, sheptesthai, to look,
Skt. spaé, to see, OHG. speh6n, Ger. spiihen, to
SPECTACLES.
SPECTROMETER.
61
A device for the purpose of aiding the
sight when impaired by age or otherwise. (See
Srcnr, DEFECTS or.) They were invented during
the thirteenth century. The credit is attributed
by some to Alessandro di Spina, a Florentine
monk, and by others to Roger Bacon. The lenses
are nearly always made of the best optical glass,
and by the best makers are ground with extreme
care. Lenses may be mounted in either eye-glass
or spectacle frames, care being taken that the
centre of the le11s is opposite the pupil and that
the glasses are tilted at a proper angle for read-
ing or distance as desired. When separate lenses
are required for these purposes the so-called
bifocal glasses may be used. They are made by
cementing a small strong lens upon the lower
part of the other, so that when the eyes are low-
ered, as in reading, the line of vision passes
through that portion. Lenses are now numbered,
with one of a focus of one meter as a unit,
known as one diopter. One with four times that
strength has a focal distance of one-quarter of
a meter and is known as 4 D. (diopters) . Con-
vex spherical lenses are used in hypermetropia,
presbyopia, and after removal of the crystalline
lens for cataract. Concave spherical lenses are
employed in myopia. If astigmatism exists a
cylindrical lens, either concave or convex as re-
quired, is used. As the astigmatism may be in
only one meridian, while that at right angles to
it is normal, or as there may be either hyperopic
or myopic astigmatism in both, or hyperopic in
one and myopic in the other, it is sometimes
necessary to employ cross-cylinder lenses, a com-
bination of two cylinders with their axes at
right angles to each other. Prismatic glasses are
used in cases with weakness of ocular muscles,
one being chosen which will make the images
seen by the two eyes coincide. Combinations of
cylindrical and spherical lenses and prisms are
needed when errors of refraction or accommoda-
tion are combined with astigmatism and muscu-
lar weakness, which cause double vision.
SPECTATOR, THE. (1) A famous periodical
published daily in London from March 1, 1711,
to December 6, 1712, to which Addison and
Steele were the principal contributors. Ad-
dison wrote 274 papers, Steele 240. Addison’s
essays, almost perfect in form, fixed a new
standard in manners, morals, and taste, whose
influence lasted for years.
revived in 1714, when 80 numbers were issued, of
which Addison contributed 24.
(2) A London weekly periodical, founded in
1828, devoted at first solely to literature and
social questions; politics were, however, intro-
duced and it became a strong advocate of the
Reform Bill. The first editor was Robert S.
Rintoul, who continued in oflice till his death in
1858. John Stuart Mill was a member of
the staff. From 1861 to 1897 it was edited by
Richard Holt Hutton, who wielded great influ-
ence in literature and theology, while his partner,
Meredith Townsend, managed politics. which were
liberal until 1886' He was succeeded as editor
and owner by John St. Loe Strachey, the polit-
ical attitude of the paper being Liberal-Unionist.
SPECTRAL BAT. See BAT and Colored
Plate of MALIMALIA.
' SPECTRE (from Lat. spectrum, appearance,
image, apparition). A fanciful book-name for
one of the small lemurine animals of the Malayan
SPY) -
The Spectator was ‘
region, the tarsier, on account of its gaunt form,
enormous eyes and nocturnal appearance. Many
superstitious notions attach to these and related
animals (see LORIS) among the natives of the
East Indies, causing them to be regarded with
more dread than curiosity. Their nocturnal and
irregular appearance have caused certain bats
and small owls also to be called ‘spectral.’
SPECTROGRAPH (from Lat. spectrum, ap-
pearance, image, apparition, from specere, to see
+ Gk. 7pd¢ew, graphein, to write) . A particular
form of spectroscope (q.v.) in which the appa-
ratus to record the radiations is a photographic
plate. The apparatus, then, consists of a colli-
mator, a prism or a grating, and a telescope in
which the eyepiece is replaced by a photographic
camera.
SPECTROMETER (from Lat. spectrum, ap-
pearance, image, apparition + Gk. ,uérpov,
metron, measure). An instrument especially de-
signed to determine the index of refraction of
transparent bodies. The ordinary type of instru-
ment is illustrated in the cut, and, as shown, con-
sists essentially of two arms which are movable
around an axis carrying a platform on -which
rests a prism of the substance to be investigated.
One of the arms carries a telescope, A, while
the other supports what is known as the ‘colli-
mator,’ B. This consists of a tube at one end of
which is a slit made by two movable parallel
edges, and at its other end is a lens so placed that
the slit is in its principal focus. If a source of
light, for instance a sodium flame, is placed in
front of the slit, a beam of parallel light will
proceed from the collimator lens, fall upon the
prism, suffer deviation, enter the telesco e and be
focused by the objective on the cross-hairs of the
eyepiece. The angles made between the tele-
scope and collimator may be read on a scale at-
tached to the platform of the instrument.


BPECTROMETER.
To determine the index of refraction of a sub-
stance in the form of a prism, for radiations of a
given wave length, it is necessary to know: First,
the angle of the prism, that is, the angle made
between the two plane faces of the prism; second,
the angle of minimum deviation for the given
radiations. Both these quantities can be meas-
ured with the spectrometer, care being taken to
have the axes of the telescope and collimator per-
pendicular to the axis of the instrument, and the
edge of the prism parallel to it. The following
formula then gives the index of refraction, in
which A represents the angle of the prism and D
the angle of minimum deviation:
_ A—|-D
sm ——
Index of refraction n :
sin
m|p>w
SPECTBO-PHOTOMETBY.
SPECTRO-PHOTOMETRY.
62
SPECTRO-PHOTOMETRY (from Lat. spec-
trum, appearance, image, apparition, + Gk. ¢6s,
phds, light -1- '."-"Pia, -metria, measurement,
from uérpov, metron, measure), or SPECTRAL
Pnoromnrnx(see also Srsornoscorr and Pnorom-
ETBY). The study of the relative intensities of
light of various colors from the same source or
from different sources. Not only, as an ordinary
photometry, may the relative intensities of two
sources of white light or of monochromatic light
be compared, but spectro-photometers are pro-
vided with dispersing prisms so arranged that the
various colors of one beam of white light may be
compared with the corresponding colors of an-
other. The general method is to bring some of
the light from one source and some from the other
1)
4'5 ‘ U



\--_.._—
FIG. 1. DOUBLE PRISM, BRACE'S BPEOTBO-PHOTOMETEB.
source side by side in the same field of view, and
by suitable means to alter the intensity of either
beam (or of both) in a known degree until a
- ‘match’ or photometric equality is secured; this
condition of equality being determined by the
vanishing of the line of separation between the
two portions of the field of view, illuminated re-
spectively by the two sources to be compared.
There is also a so-called ‘method of contrast’ de-
vised by Lummer and Brodhun.
The most recent and efficient form of spectro-
photometer is that devised by Professor Brace of
T!


-n_
0
FIG. 2. OPTICAL sxsrnm, 1311.401-;’s BPECTRO-PHOTOMETEB.
the University of Nebraska. It consists essential-
ly (see Fig. 1) of a double prism P with a nar-
row silvered strip SS on the face AD of the right
half. T and T’ are two similar collimators sym-
metrically situated with respect to the prism and
provided with adjustable slits through which the
light from the two sources enters the optical sys-
tem of the photometer. The amount of light
entering the system through either collimator de-
pends upon the width of its slits. The width of one
slit, say T, is, after the initial adjustments of
the instrument, kept fixed throughout any one
series of observations, while the width of the
other collimator-slit (T’) may be altered at will
to secure a match in intensity of the two beams.
Light of the same wave-length (i.e. of the same
color) is thus brought by direct transmission
from the collimator T, and after reflection at the
silver strip from T’, to the same focus in the
observing telescope R. When the eyepiece is
removed and the prism
viewed through a slit in F
the focal plane of R, the
eye sees three fields (as in
Fig. 3), the central one,
ABCD illuminated by light
from the right collimator,
T’, and the upper and lower
ones, ACF and BDG, by
light from the left colli-
mator, T. The fields meet
in the sharp edges of the
silver strip. A match in intensity is secured
by altering the width of the slit T’, which
is controlled by an accurately turned screw
carrying a graduated drum so that the width
of T’ can be altered at will by a known amount
and thus the total amount of light passing
through this collimator can be changed as desired.
The intensities of two beams will be inversely pro-
portional to the slit-widths required for a
match between them and the light coming
through the fixed slit T. (This simple relation is
not quite true; the deviations from it are treated
in the articles cited below.) The amount of light
coming through the collimator with the fixed slit
may be altered without changing the width of the
slit by means of a rotating disk mounted direct-
ly in front of the fixed slit, so as to cut off the
light during a certain fraction of each revolution.
This device greatly increases the range of the in-
strument.
By turning the telescope R through a small
angle the various colors of the spectrum may be
brought into the field of view in succession, and
the relative intensities of the two sources for
each ‘color determined.
A
B
C
D
G
FIG. 3. FIELD view or
BPEOTBO-PHOTOMETER.
Jntmflt)
Wave-length
FIG. 4. INTENSITY cnnvn, INCANDEBCENT BODY GENERALIZED.
According to the measurements of Fraunhofer, _
Koenig, Brodhun, and others, the distribution of
intensity in the spectrum of the sun and other
incandescentbodies corresponds roughly to the
SPECTRO-PHOTOMETRY.
SPEGTROSCOPE.
63
curve in the accompanying diagram, Fig. 4. A
comparison of the intensity-distribution in the
spectra of the electric incandescent and are lights
with that of the sun gives the following results,
calling unity the relative intensity of each with
respect to the sun for sodium light (D line):

Inc. Arc
WAVE-LENGTH _
sun sun
800 up. ......................................... .. 11.86 1.67
Line A ......................................... .. 4.88 1.37
" B ......................................... .. 2.68 1.28
' C .......................................... .. 1.25 0.97
“ D ......................................... .. 1.00 1.00
" E ......................................... .. 0.38 0.77
“ F ......................................... .. 0.17 0.56
" G ......................................... .. 0.10 0.83
" H ......................................... .. 0.05 1.21


The reflecting power of a polished plane sur-
face or the absorbing power of a thin film or plate
of an absorbing medium can be determined for
various colors by means of a spectro-photometer,
by placing the mirror or the thin film in front of
the adjustable slit T’, and comparing the inten-
sity of the light after reflection or transmission
with the intensity of the light coming directly to
the other collimator of the photometer. For ex-
ample, a polished silver surface reflects 95 per
cent. of the red light falling on it normally, while
for the blue only 60 per cent. is reflected. A mirror
of solid cyanine reflects 15 per cent. of the orange,
2 per cent. of the green, and 6 per cent. of the
violet.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The methods of observation and
of calibration, and the sources of error are fully
treated in the following articles: Lummer und
Brodhun, Zeitschrift fiiir Instrumentenkunde,
1889, p. 42, and 1892, p. 137 (Berlin) ; Murphy,
Astro-Physical Journal, 1897, p. 1 (Chicago);
Brace, Philosophical Magazine, 1899, p. 420 (Lon-
don), and Astro-Physical Journal, 1900, p. 6
(Chicago) ; Capps, Astro-Physical Journal, 1900,
p. 25 (Chicago) ; Tuckermann, Astro-Physical
Journal, 1902, p. 145 (Chicago).
SPECTROSCOPE (from Lat. spectrum, ap-
pearance, image, apparition + Gk. axoneir,
skopein, to view). An instrument designed to
investigate the nature of the radiations emitted
by various sources of ‘light,’ it being understood
that this term includes all waves in the ether,
although only those within certain narrow limits
of wavelength affect the sense of sight. It is
shown in the article on SPECTROSCOPY that radia-
tions are being sent off in the ether from all
natural bodies, and that these are in the form of
waves of different wave-length. When these
waves pass through a spectroscope they are dis-
persed in such a way that the waves of certain
wave-length are brought to focus at‘ a point dif-
ferent from that to which waves of a different
wave-length are brought. In this way the radia-
tions from any source are analyzed and spread
out in what is called a ‘spectrum.’ The essential
features of a spectroscope are then: First, a slit,
or extremely small source of radiation; second,
some means of producing dispersion: third, a lens
or other means of focusing the radiations at the
eyepiece of a telescope, upon a screen, or upon
some suitable recording instrument. If the radia-
tions are of such a nature as to affect a photo-
graphic plate, that is, if they are in the ultra-
violet or in the visible portion of the spectrum,
methods of photography may be used in connec-
tion with the spectroscope. (See SPECTBOGBAPH.)
If the radiations are in the infra-red, that is, if
the wave-lengths are so long that they do not af-
fect the sense of sight, instruments must be used
which are sensitive to such radiations; for in-
stance, a thermometer, bolometer, radio-micro-
meter, radiometer, or other heat-registering de-
vice. It has been found that if a plate of glass
covered with some phosphorescent substance,
such as Balmain’s paint, is exposed to light and
then carried into a darkened room, it will con-
tinue to be luminous for some time; but, if ex-
posed in a spectroscope to infra-red radiations,
the phosphorescence at those points reached by
the radiations is destroyed. This furnishes a
method, therefore, for the study of these long
Waves.
As ordinarily constructed, a spectroscope has
the same general appearance as a spectrometer
(q.v.). There is, however, in addition, in case
prisms are used to produce dispersion, some aux-
iliary apparatus for the purpose of enabling the
observer to record numerically the positions oc-
cupied by the waves which he is observing, in
comparison with other waves. One method which
is in common use is to attach to the instrument a
tube containing at‘ one end a transparent scale,
and at its other end a lens, the tube itself being
so placed that when the scale is illuminated by a
lamp the waves proceeding from it fall upon the
last face of the last prism and are reflected in
such a manner as to be brought to focus in the
same plane as are the radiations under investiga-
tion. By this means there is produced across the
spectrum a series of lines regularly spaced and
numbered, and the position of any radiation can
be recorded.
Various means are used to produce dispersion,
but the two methods most generally adopted are
(1)to interpose a prism or train of prisms between
the collimator and telescope, or (2) to allow the
light from the collimator to fall upon a diffraction
grating (q.v.). The dispersing action of a
prism and of a grating has been explained before
(see DIFFRACTION AND DIFFRAOTION GRATINGS) ;
but there are several important differences be-
tween the spectra obtained by these two instru-
ments. Prismatic spectra are said to be ‘irration-
al’ because there is no simple relation between
the material and shape of the prism and the dis-
persion produced by it; and, further, because
prisms of the same shape and size produce quite
different spectra, in the sense that the relative
deviations of the same waves differ widely when
different prisms are used. See DISPERSION.
The spectra produced by plane gratings, on the
other hand, obey a definite law, there being an
extremely simple relation between the constants
of the grating and the deviation of a given train
of waves, which is independent of the material of
the grating, and which enables one by simple
means to measure the wave-length of the radia-
tions being studied. If a concave grating is used
in place of a plane one, as was first done by
Rowland in 1882, it is not necessary to have
lenses in the spectroscope, the essential parts of
the instrument then being simply a slit, a grat-
ing, and some receiving apparatus, such as a pho-
tographic plate. There is a further advantage in
the use of a concave grating (which may also be
obtained with a plane grating if suitably ad-
SPECTROSOOPE./
SPECTROSCOPY.
64
j usted) if this instrument is used in the standard
manner, in the fact that the spectra produced
are of such a kind that the distances along the
photogra hic plate are proportional to differences
1n wave- engt of the waves which are thus re-
corded. A spectrum of this kind is said to be
‘normal.’
SPECTROSCOPY. The science which deals
with the methods of production of the spectra
by various sources of light (or of waves in the
ether) and with their study and interpretation.
Newton, in 1672, was the first to observe that if
sunlight entering a darkened room through a
small opening were allowed to fall upon a prism
a spectrum was produced, owing to the fact that
waves characteristic of different colors suffer dif-
ferent deviations by the prism, and that, therefore,
the components of white light were separated.
(See DISPERSION.) Newton made no observations
except upon the visible portions of the spectrum;
but in the year 1800 F. W. Herschel observed
that the spectrum continued beyond the red, as
was shown by holding a thermometer in that po-
sition; and in 1801 J. W. Ritter proved the ex-
istence of the ultra-violet light by showing that
silver chloride was affected not alone by the vio-
let portion of the spectrum, but beyond. In 1802
VVollaston made the discovery that the solar
spectrum was not continuous, but was interrupted
by certain dark lines, using in his experiments a
slit and a prism with its e ge parallel to the slit.
It is remarkable that Newton did not make this
same discovery in his investigation on the spec-
trum of the sun, because he also at times used a
slit in the same manner as did VVollaston. The
most important investigation, however, on the
solar spectrum, one which in fact serves as the
foundation of the science of spectroscopy, was
that of Fraunhofer beginning in the year 1814.
Fraunhofer (q.v.) was the inventor of the dif-
fraction grating (q.v.) , and was the first to meas-
ure accurately the wave-lengths of light waves.
By using both grating and prism spectroscopes
he showed that there were numerous dark lines
in the solar spectrum, to the strongest of which
he gave certain names in the form of letters, A,
B, C, etc. He studied, further, the radiations
from certain of the stars and from certain sources
of light such as flames, etc. He made the impor-
tant observation that the position occupied in the
solar spectrum by the dark D lines is identical
with that occupied by the bright yellow line ob-
served in the spectra of all flames. His whole
work was epoch-making.
Herschel was the first to investigate the ab-
sorption spectra produced by various bodies, that
is, to study the effect of interposing between the
source of light and the spectroscope a substance
which absorbs certain radiations. The next great
step was made by Kirchhoff, who showed from
theoretical considerations that the emission spec-
trum and absorption spectrum of a substance
should be the same at a definite temperature, and
that as the temperature changed the intensity of
the spectra would vary. In this way Kirchhoff
was able to explain the dark lines in the solar
spectrum as due to an absorbing layer of metallic
vapors forming an atmosphere around the white-
hot central portion of the sun, which was sup-
posed to emit a continuous spectrum. In collabo-
ration with Bunsen he then undertook a careful
study of the spectra of various substances and
founded the science of spectrum analysis. The
explanation of the fact that absorption spectra
and emission spectra are identical was first given
by Stokes many years before Kirchhofi"s state-
ment, and Balfour Stewart had also arrived at
the same idea. From the day of Kirchhoff up to
the present time all branches of spectroscopy
have been pursued most vigorously, the most im-
portant discovery being the principle of the con-
cave grating, made by Rowland in the year 1882,
which is discussed under SPECTBOSCOPE, and
under DIFFRACTION AND DIFFRACTION GRATINGS.
There are many methods of making vapors
luminous, among which it may be sufficient to
name the flame, the electric arc, the electric
spark. The spectra produced in these various
ways have received the names of flame spectra,
are spectra, etc. The. standard method of pro-
ducing flame spectra is to hold a portion of the
substance to be investigated or a salt of the sub-
stance in the Bunsen flame until it is vaporized,
and thus the vapor is raised to the temperature
of the flame, and in general becomes luminous.
Other flames than that of the Bunsen burner may
be used. Extremely minute amounts of the sub-
stance may be recognized in this way, as has been
shown by Kirchhoff and Bunsen. They state that
one fourteen-millionth of a milligram of so-
dium can be recognized in the Bunsen flame; one
sixty-thousandth of lithium; one fifty-thou-
sandth of a milligram of calcium, etc. To pro-
duce arc spectra it is customary to bore out a
small opening in a carbon rod, fill this with some
salt of the substance to be investigated, and then
use it as the positive pole in the ordinary electric
arc. By this means a high temperature is pro-
duced, namely about 4000° Centigrade, and the
vapor of the substance is made luminous. To
produce the spark spectrum numberless methods
are in use. Among these it may be sufficient to
mention two. If the electric spark produced by
an induction coil or transformer is made to pass
between solid electrodes made up of the substance
to be studied, they will be vaporized and the
vapor will be luminous. If a gas, for instance
nitrogen or hydrogen, be inclosed in a glass bulb
into which enter two metal wires to serve as elec-
trodes, and if the pressure be made sufiiciently
low, a spark can be made to pass through the re-
maining gas. Changes in the pressure, in the
electrical constants of the circuit, etc., produce
alterations in the spectra. The main distinction
between the flame spectra and are spectra is
one of temperature, but so little is known in re-
gard to the mechanism of a spark that no con-
clusions can be drawn with certainty. Beyond a
doubt the spectra produced in the are are due in
the main to the high temperature of the arc,
whereas the cause of the production of spectra in
the spark is probably not a temperature effect at
all, but something concerned with the transforma-
tion of electric energy.
The means of producing spectra are discussed
under the head of Srnornosoorn (q.v.). Prisms
or gratings are used for this purpose. The ac-
cepted method at present for measuring wave-
lengths in the spectrum of any substance is to
photograph on the same plate with these lines the
spectrum of some substance whose lines are
known and then to obtain the desired quantities
by a method of interpolation. The spectrum of
iron is as a rule used to give the comparison lines.
I/\l(lH.I.D'EldS
Vll.|.Oid_9 U3N.l.O ONV VIHUJ.OHdB-Nfli EH1 H.LlM 03UVdWO0 3V‘lfl83N ONV BUYJJ Gill! 3|-IL 50 VH1-0369
Carbon.
(Illuminating Gas.) Nitrogen.

-Hydrogen.
Nebula
in Draco.
T in Corona.
a in Hercules.
Sirius.
Double Star 5 in Cygnus.
Blue Star. Reddish Yellow Star.
Sun-
Spectrum.
SPECTROSCOPY.
SPECTROSCOPY.
65
It has been found as a result of careful obser-
vation that, with one or two doubtful exceptions,
the spectrum of a solid or liquid is always con-
tinuous; and within recent years attempts have
been made successfully to express in mathemati-
cal form the connection between the temperature
of the solid and the distribution of energy in its
spectrum as a function of its wave-length. These
laws have been deduced theoretically and Verified
by experiment. It has been found further that
the spectrum of a gas when rendered luminous is
in all cases discontinuous, although occasionally
there is a faint continuous background. This
fact in regard to gaseous spectra is what would be
expected from the kinetic theory. The exact ori-
gin of the spectrum is in general inside the atom;
but the connection between the parts of the atom
and the ether in which waves are produced is not
known. The spectra of compounds when ren-
dered' luminous at a temperature not suflicient
to decompose definitely the substance have been
studied with care, and many interesting facts
have been discovered. It has been shown that all
gases will produce under varying conditions dif-
ferent spectra, but the reason for this is by no
means clear. There are at least three different
spectra of hydrogen, many of oxygen, many of
argon, etc. The influence of pressure, of tempera-
ture, and of the electrical conditions is marked;
and these sub'ects form at present one of the
most importan fields of research in spectroscopy.
The spectrum of a gas is modified if the source
of light is either approaching or receding from
the spectroscope, as, for instance, in the case of
a star with a motion toward or away from the
earth. It is owing to this fact that one is able, by
a comparison of the spectra of certain stars with
spectra produced here on the earth, to calculate
the motion of the stars in the line of sight. See
DOPPLEB’S PRINCIPLE.
A careful comparison of the lines in the spec-
trum of any one gas or vapor, and of the spectra
of different vapors, has led to the discovery of
several simple mathematical laws connecting
them. Thus the lines in the ordinary hydrogen
spectrum have such wave-lengths that they can
be expressed in a mathematical formula which
is known as Balmer’s law. This can be expressed
m2 '
as follows: 7\=h7;L7_—_—,1_ where 7\ represents the
wave-lengths, m has in succession the values 3,
4, 5, etc., and h is a constant whose value is ap-
proximately 3647.20.
A relation similar to this of Balmer’s has been
shown by Kayser and Runge to apply to most of
the lines in the spectra of the alkalies and the
alkaline earths; Another law has been found to
express most accurately the distribution of the
lines in the well-known bands which are pro-
duced by carbon, nitrogen, and other substances.
Laws have been found also connecting the spec-
tra produced by different substances, in those
cases where these substances are related chemi-
cally.
In the year 1896 Zeeman discovered that a
source of light if placed in a magnetic field and
viewed either along the lines of force or at right
angles to them had its spectrum changed by the
resolution of its lines into several components.
This fact has a most important bearing upon
theories of matter and serves to prove that the
vibrations in the ether are produced by the vi-
brations inside the atom of minute electrical
charges which have been called electrons. A re-
cent investigation of the Zeeman effect byRunge
has shown that the components of these spectrum
lines produced by the magnetic field also obey
certain mathematical laws.
A most important branch of spectroscopy is the
study of the solar spectrum as we observe it on
the earth. A few of the absorption lines are due
to the fact that the waves coming from the sun
pass through the atmosphere of the earth, and,
therefore, suffer absorption owing to the water
vapor and oxygen in it. The ‘rain band’ is due
to the presence of the former. The other lines
are, as explained above, caused by the absorption
in the atmosphere of the sun itself. The interior
portion of the sun, which is at a high tempera-
ture, emits a continuous spectrum, but, owing to
the presence in the atmosphere of the sun of me-
tallic vapors at a temperature less than that of
the interior, there is absorption, and thus the
solar spectrum is a continuous one crossed by
dark lines. There are radiations also coming to
us from the outer portions of the sun, the so-
called chromosphere' and corona; but these are
not easily observed, except at times of solar
eclipses. Most of the solar lines can be identified
with the spectra of known substances on the
earth; for instance, sodium, iron, carbon, etc.,
are known to be in the sun. It may be stated in
general that if the earth were raised to a tem-
perature as high as that of the sun its spectrum
as seen at a distance would be practically identi-
cal with that of the sun as we see it.
A careful study has been made of the spectra
of the various stars, and attempts have been made
with more or less success to group the stars in
certain classes according to their spectra, the
idea being that some knowledge might be ob-
tained in regard to the evolution of the stars and
their present stage in this progress. Consult
Schuster, “The Evolution of Solar Stars,” Astro-
physical Journal, April, 1893.
The wave-lengths of a few of the important
Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, as meas-
ured by Professor Rowland, are as follows:
-8 -8
B ............. ..6870.186 X 10 Cm. F ............ ..4861.527 X 10 Cm.
C ............. . .6563. 054 ‘ ‘ G 4308 . 081 “
D1 ........... . .5896 . 357 “ J """" ' ' 4307 . 907 “
D, ........... ..5890.186 , H H ............ ..3968.625 “
E1 ........... ..5270.495 " K ............ ..3933.825 “
E, ........... ..5269.723 BIBLIOGRAPHY. There is a complete discussion
of the methods, results, and theories of spectro-
scopy in Kayser, Lehrbach der Spelotroslcopie
(Leipzig, 1900). A briefer account is given in
Landauer, Spectrum Analysis (New York, 1897).
Fraunhofer’s original papers are reprinted in
Prismatic and Difiraction Spectra, Scientific Me-
moir Series, vol. ii. (New York, 1898) ; and those
of Stewart and Kirchhoff in Radiation and Ab-
sorption, same series, vol. xv. (New York, 1901).
Rowland papers On Concave Gratings for Op-
tical Pnrposes (1883); On the Relative Wave
Lengths at the Lines of the Solar Spectrum
(1886); together with other papers contained
in his collected physical papers (Baltimore,
1902), should be consulted by the student.
More popular books dealing with spectroscopy
are: Lockyer, Contributions to Solar Physics
(London, 1874) ; id., Chemistry of the San (Lon-
SPECTROSCOPY.
SPECULATION.
66
don, 1877) ; Roscoe, Spectrum Analysis (London,
1866) ; Schellen, Spectrum Analysis (New York,
1872). See LIGHT.
SPECTRUM. See LIGHT; Drsrnnmon; SPEC-
mosoorn; Srnornoscorr.
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. As is explained
in the article on SPECTROSCOPY, the spectrum of
a definite substance under definite conditions is
always the same. The spectrum of the radia-
tions emitted by iron vapor, for instance, when
rendered luminous, is characterized by certain
definite trains of waves, or, as ordinarily ex-
pressed, by certain ‘lines.’ If the conditions
under which the spectra are produced are varied,
for instance, if for one case the spark was used,
and in another the are, there are differences in
the spectra, consisting mainly in variations in
the intensity of the lines. Further, if other sub-
stances are mixed with the iron, or if the iron
exists as an impurity in some other substance, or
if the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere
is varied, there are corresponding alterations in
the iron spectrum. But under definite conditions
there are definite lines which are characteristic
of iron. Extremely small traces of a substance
may be thus made evident by the presence of its
spectrum; and in a mixture of many substances
the presence of the various parts may often be
ascertained by a study of the spectrum emitted.
This constitutes the science of spectrum analysis
and has proved useful to the chemist in many
cases. In fact the discovery of several elements,
viz. caesium, rubidium, and gallium, was due to
the detection in certain spectra of lines which
could not be ascribed to any known substances.
The application of spectrum analysis to the study
of the spectra of the sun, stars, and other heaven-
ly bodies has proved most important, and some of
the results of various observations and investiga-
tions are given in the article on SPECTBCSCCPY
(q.v.).
SPEGULAR IRON ORE. See HEMATITE.
SPECULATION (Lat. speculatio, explora-
tion, contemplation, from speculari, to view,
watch, spy out, from specula, watch-tower, from
specere, to see). Buying and selling of property
chiefly with a view to securing a profit through
changes in the price of that property. There is
a speculative element in a great variety of busi-
ness transactions; but the term is usually con-
fined to those in which the element of risk is
relatively important. In former times specula-
tive activity was largely engaged in seeking to
take advantage of differences in price in dis-
tant markets. Foreign trade 100 years ago was
highly speculative. Improvements in transporta-
tion and in means of communication have re-
duced such differences to a matter of exact cal-
culation. Speculative business has, therefore,
come to be confined almost exclusively to trans-
actions involving the time element.
In its simplest form time speculation involved
the buying of property outright, and the holding
of it jn anticipation of a rise in price. This
practice is as old as civilization, and until late
times has usually been regarded as socially in-
jurious. Toward the end of the seventeenth
century the practice developed in Holland of
buying and selling the products of fishing voy-
ages before the results of the voyage were actu-
ally known. In the early part of the eighteenth
century speculation in grain, coffee, etc., was
very active in Amsterdam, developing many of
the practices of modern exchanges. -In all of
these early forms of speculation, however, what
was bought and sold was the right to a particular
lot of goods.
With the development of warrants and the
grading of goods speculation received a new
impetus. It thus became possible for a man to
sell goods which he did not possess, since he
could at any time secure identical goods upon the
market if he could pay the price. It is largely
to this principle that the phenomenal develop-
ment of speculation in recent years is due. For
the extent of speculative dealings and the prac-
tices of modern exchanges, see STOCK EXCHANGE.
ECONOMIC FUNCTION or SPECULATION. When
the supply of any commodity is subject to great
uncertainty, as, for example, the products of
agriculture, it is manifestly to the advantage of
society that it should be properly distributed
through a period of considerable length. A class
of individuals who study the conditions of de-
mand and supply endeavoring to buy such com-
modities when they are abundant and cheap, in
order to sell them when they are dear, serve to
bring about such a distribution of consumption
and thus . render an important social service.
Again, some commodities, such as iron, are sub-
ject to great fluctuations in demand, and hence
in price, thus introducing a large element of
uncertainty into all of those forms of industry
which make extensive use of them. The specu-
later, by making contracts to deliver the article
at a future date at a fixed price, frees the con-
sumer from that uncertainty. Legitimate specu-
lation thus serves as a means of insurance
against certain classes of risks.
It may be, however, that the speculator is
mistaken in his estimates of future supply and
demand. In that case he exaggerates the evil
which it is his function to minimize. Thus specu-
lation may keep prices abnormally high for a
period, only to render prices abnormally low for
a succeeding period. Speculation may thus bring
about a crisis (q.v.) with its attendant indus-
trial stagnation.
A more serious evil results from the fact that
speculation is carried on not only by those who
are conversant with market conditions, but by
a large class of individuals who engage in it
without the proper equipment of technical knowl-
edge. Unscrupulous operators, through false re-
ports, or through their own apparent eagerness
to buy or sell, often lead such unsophisticated
speculators to their financial ruin. Such influ-
ences tend to increase business-uncertainty, and
hence diminish considerably the net social gain
from speculation.
Popular sentiment in England and America
has generally been hostile to speculation, and
laws have frequently been passed to prevent it.
An act of Parliament was passed in 1733, “To
prevent the infamous practice of stock-jobbing.”
The act had no effect and was repealed in 1860.
In America an act was passed in 1864 to pre-
vent speculation in gold, but its operation was
so unsatisfactory that it was repealed in two
weeks. In several of the States laws have been
enacted aiming to prohibit speculation in one
form or another. These have proved quite in-
effective. Bills were introduced in the Fifty-
first, Fifty-second, and Fifty-third Congresses
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SPEGULATION.
SPEIE.
67
which were designed to prevent certain forms of
speculation in grain, but did not become law.
Consult: Emery, Speculation ~on the Stock and
Produce Exchanges of the United States (New
York, 1896) ; Hadley, Economics, chapter “Spec-
ulation” (ib., 1898). See also general treatises
on political economy (q.v. for references).
SPED’DING, JAMES (1808-81). An editor
of Bacon’s works.. He was born in Cumberland,
England.
Saint Edmunds he passed to Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he graduated in 1831.
Leaving Cambridge in 1835, he entered the Co-
lonial Oflice. This position he gave up in 1841
that he might devote himself to the study of
Bacon. For 30 years he continued his researches
with slight interruptions. He died from an acci-
dent in London. Spedding’s most delightful book
is Evenings with a Reviewer (written in 1845,
and privately printed; published 1881), in which
with quiet humor Macaulay’s essay on Bacon is
torn into shreds. His magnum opus is an edi-
tion of Bacon’s entire works with an exhaustive
life (14 vols., 1857-74), in the preparation of
which he was in some degree aided by Leslie
Ellis and D. D. Heath. The biographical and
historical parts of this work, much cut, were
published under- the title, Account of the Life
and Times of Bacon (2 vols., 1878). Spedding
also contributed articles to J. Gairdner’s Studies-
in English History (1881) and wrote several
other admirable historical papers. Consult the
memoir of G. S. Venables prefixed to Evenings
with a Reviewer (London, 1881) ; Edward Fitz-
gerald’s Letters (ib., 1889); and Hallam Lord
Tennyson’s Memoir of his father (London and
New York, 1897). .
SPEECH (AS. spcec, spec, sprcec, sprec, OHG.
sprrthha, Ger. Sprache, speech, from AS. specan,
sprecan, OHG, sprehhan, Ger. sprechen, to speak;
possibly connected with Skt. spharj, to murmur).
The act of producing vocal sound for the com-
munication of ideas. Speech differs from voice
in that the latter is rather the physiological
potentiality and mechanical process, and from
vocal language, which is the result produced by
speech. Speech is, so far as known, like vocal
language, peculiar to man, although attempts
have been made to assign it also to monkeys and
apes, while gesture language (q.v.) is shared by
man with other animals. In a looser sense
speech is synonymous with language. See LAN-
GUAGE; VoIcE.
SPEECH, DEFECTS or.
MUTE
SPEED, JAMES (1812-87). An American
politician, born near Louisville, in Jefferson
County, Ky. He graduated at Saint Joseph’s
College (Bardstown), was in the office of the
clerk of the Circuit and County Courts, and after
further legal study at Transylvania University
began practice at Louisville in 1833. In 1847
he was elected to the State Legislature, where
he served one term. He was the most effective
opponent of the disunion cause in Kentucky, was
elected to the State Senate in 1861, and in 1861-
64 was in charge of the Kentucky recruiting
stations. In 1864 he was appointed Attorney-
General of the United States by President Lin-
coln, but he resigned from the post in 1866
because of his opposition to the reconstruction
See APHASIA; DEAF
From the grammar school at Bury_
policy of President Johnson. In 1856-58 and
1875-79 he held a chair in the law department
of the University of Louisville. His reputation
as a jurist was considerable.
SPEED, JOHN (c.1552-1629). An historical
antiquary, the son of a London tailor. Through
the ‘generosity of Lord Brooke, he was able to
give up manual labor and devote himself to
study. Between 1600 and 1610 he published 54
maps of England and I/Vales, which were col-
lected and described under the title of Theatre
of the Empire of Great Britaine (1611). He
next published the great work on which he had
been engaged for many years: The History of
Great Britaine, from the invasion of Julius
Caesar to King James I. (1611) . This is regard-
-ed as the best history up to that time written by
an Englishman. He also published Genealogies
Recorded in Sacred Scripture (about 1611), of
which 33 editions appeared in the course of 30
years, some of them being attached to issues of
the Bible, and A Cloud of Witnesses Confirming
the Holie Word (1616).
SPEEDWELL (Veronica). A genus of about
200 annual and perennial herbs and shrubs of
the natural order Scrophulariaceae, natives of
temperate and cold climates. Some species grow
in ditches and marshes, some only on the driest
soils. They have generally very beautiful blue,
white, or pink flowers, for which several species
are cultivated. ~The bitter and astringent leaves
of the common Speedwell (Veronica olficinalis),
widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere,
are in some countries used medicinally and as a
substitute for tea, as are those of the germander
Speedwell. Veronica Virginica is called Culver’s
physio in North America. Brooklime (q.v.) be-
longs to this genus.
SPEISS (Ger. Speise, amalgam, food, OHG.
spisa, food, from OIt., ML. spesa, expense, cost,
from ()It. spendere, from Lat. ewpendere, to ex-
pend, from em, out —|— pendere, to weigh). A
mixture of the antimonides, arsenides, and sul-
phides of copper, iron, and nickel, that collects
at the bottom of a crucible when ores of arsenic,
antimony, cobalt, or lead, containing sulphur, are
smelted with fluxes. The speiss containing nickel,
which is obtained largely in the preparation of
smalt, is an important source of that metal.
SPEKE, spek, JOIIN HANNING (1827-64). An
English African explorer. He was born at Jor-
dans, Somersetshire, entered the Indian army in
1844, served in the Punjab campaigns, and distin-
guished himself as a soldier, naturalist, and
sportsman. While in the Indian service he made
several trips into the Himalayas and even en-
tered Tibet, bringing back valuable collections.
He began his brilliant though brief career as an
African explorer in 1854, when he accompanied
Captain Burton into Somaliland. He was also
Burton’s companion on the expedition of 1857-59
from Zanzibar into the interior of Africa. In
1858 they discovered Lake Tanganyika, and in
the same year, while Burton was ill at Kaze,
Speke reached the Victoria Nyanza. He believed
that he had found one of the sources of the Nile,
but Burton discredited the information he
brought back and Speke could not verify his dis-
covery until 1862, when he returned to the lake
with Capt. J. A. Grant, and, proceeding north-
ward, came to the Nile, which he found to be the
SPEKE.
SPELLING.
68
outlet of the lake. Speke was killed by the
accidental discharge of his gun. His books were
_ What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the
Nile (1864), and Journal of the Discovery of
the Source of the Nile (2 vols., 1863). His com-
panion, Grant, also described their journey in A
Walla Across Africa (London, 1864).
SPELLING (from spell, ME. spellen, OF.
espeler, to spell, -OHG. spell6n, to declare, nar-
rate, discourse, from OHG. spel, AS. spel, spell,
Goth. spill, ta-le, narrative, history, tidings). The
representation of words by combinations of alpha-
betic symbols; the practical application or use
of an alphabet. In an alphabet that is accu-
rately constructed and used there is one, and
but one, symbol for each significant speech-
sound, and but one speech-sound is represented
by any given symbol. Under these conditions
spelling is determined solely by the pronuncia-
tion (‘sound’) of the word to be spelled, that is,
it is at once obvious when the pronunciation is
known, and is accordingly marked by no irregu-
larity or ambiguity. Such phonetically correct
and simple orthography requires no special con-
sideration apart from the alphabet employed.
(See ALPHABET; PIIONETICS; and SPELLING RE-
FORM.) Outside of the writings of phoneticians,
however, spelling of this degree of precision does
not exist, though in certain languages there is a
fairly close approximation to it. In customary
spelling, in brief, each of the above-stated princi-
ples is, to a greater or less extent, violated, viz.
there is alphabetic inadequacy, or the lack of
symbols to represent certain important speech-
sounds; redundancy, or the use of two or more
symbols or combinations of symbols to represent
the same sound; and the use of the same symbol
or combination to represent two or more sounds.
In other words, alphabetic writing as actually
practiced is more or less ambiguous, irregular,
and arbitrary. This divergence of cus-
tomary spelling from the true alphabetic method
has resulted, historically, in part, from defects
inherent in the alphabets themselves (inade-
quacy and redundancy); but principally from
continuous change in the sounds of the languages
to which they have been applied. Since in every
language pronunciation varies from age to age
and from locality to locality, the phonetic charac-
ter which every alphabet has originally possessed
—or, more precisely, its phonetic use in spelling—-
could be maintained only by continuous adap-
tation to these alterations of the uttered words.
As a matter of fact changes of this sort in
spelling have taken place in all alphabetically
written languages, and in living European lan-
guages in particular (which alone are considered
here) they have occurred abundantly, especially
prior to the invention of printing; but except in
some modern instances they have been effected
under conditions unfavorable to phonetic re-
cision, and so, in many cases, instead of pro ne-
ing greater accuracy, have often resulted in in-
creased confusion. At‘ best they have been inade-
quate to prevent spelling from becoming more and
more faulty, from the phonetic point of view, as
the alteration of pronunciation has advanced.
Ambiguities and irregularities multiplied, new
and complex associations between sounds and
symbols were formed, and it‘ became increasingly
difficult to infer the pronunciation of a word from
its written form. Moreover, this natural tendency
O
toward phonetic corruption was intensified by a
cause to which most of the defects of modern
spelling may be attributed, namely, the estab-
lishment of a ‘standard,’ relatively unchangeable
orthography, due principally to the introduction
of the printing press. The beginnings of such
an inflexible system existed earlier, wherever
certain spellings were recognized as customary
and then as ‘correct’ from the literary point of
view (regardless of their phonetic value), and
the feeling that the unity of the written a11d
spoken words should be preserved was, accord-
ingly, weakened; but its chief sources were the
practical need of uniformity in spelling, which
was quickly felt and (with much blundering)
supplied in the printing ofiice, and the influence
of printed books. From this fixation of orthog-
raphy it resulted not only that practically all
the existing faults of the spelling found by the
printer (together with those which he himself
added) were rendered permanent, but also that
even the imperfect earlier tendency to respond
to phonetic change was almost wholly sup-
pressed. Pronunciation has continued to change,
often radically, but spelling has lagged behind.
In certain languages notable divergence of the
written from the spoken language has thus been
effected, while others, like Italian, have been
more fortunate in having had a relatively ration-
al system of spelling to start with, or having
undergone less extraneous disturbance, or having
been able to adhere more closely or revert more
frequently to the phonetic method.
These facts are well illustrated by English
spelling, which in its existing standard form
presents an extreme case of phonetic corruption
or dealphabetization. The earliest English
(Anglo-Saxon) spelling was almost purely pho-
netic, that is, the scribes sought to indicate the
actual sounds of the words they wrote, using-—
with a high degree of precision—for this purpose
the Roman alphabet (with certain modifications)
and giving to its letters the values assigned to
them in the pronunciation of Latin, with which
they were familiar. But as the sounds gradu-
ally changed, confusion, due largely to imperfect
adaptation (see above), slowly set in; certain
symbols were not accurately distinguished, or
were employed with different values in different
combinations; the significance of some was ir-
regularly altered and new ones were introduced;
others were lost; and the accentual marks over
the long vowels used in Anglo-Saxon disappeared,
increasing the difficulty in distinguishing the
long from the short vowels—a defect which has
never been remedied except (in part) by non-
alphabetic devices. But the most impor-
tant irregularities were due to the influence
of Norman, and later of literary (Parisian)
French, under which, in the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries, English was practically re-
spelled in accordance with Anglo-French meth-
ods. Notwithstanding this and other sources of
confusion, however, English spelling remained
for a considerable period in a notable degree
phonetic. The change effected by the invention
of printing has been indicated above; but it
should be added that the printer’s choice of
spellings not only was not guided by any princi-
ples, but was often determined by ignorance,
English having sufiered, in this particular, more
than any other language. Alteration in response
SPELLING.
SPELLING.
69
to phonetic change was not, indeed, wholly
stopped—for it has continued in some measure
until the present day-—but it was made more
and more difficult, and from the sixteenth century
the power of effecting any substantial phonetic
improvement of English spelling has been lost.
Notwithstanding many later modifications of de-
tails (there are still over 3000 words whose
orthography is unsettled), the development of
English orthography ends with that period, the
subsequent life of the spoken language being
practically unrepresented in it. In this direc-
tion—that of sound—the alteration has been
great, but we still retain what is essentially the
Elizabethan spelling, in total disregard of the
fact that the pronunciation which it embodies
has very largely disappeared.
Another important source of confusion in Eng-
lish spelling, closely associated with this process
of fixation, must also be mentioned. Under the in-
fiuence of the revival of learning, which brought
words of classical origin into special prominence,
the idea was developed that (regardless of their
pronunciation) such words should be made to
conform in spelling as exactly as possible to the
Latin and Greek terms from which they were
ultimately derived. This etymological theory of
spelling gained strength, both from the weakness
of the contemporary feeling for phonetic accu-
racy and from the practical difiiculty found by
the printer, in -his quest of uniformity, in mak-
ing a selection among existing forms, which
offered a wide opportunity for the activity of
pedants; and from the sixteenth century until
the present time it has kept its hold upon our
orthography. There was much tinkering, not
only with words directly borrowed from the class-
ical tongues, but also with words of Romance
origin, while the native English and Scandi-
navian elements of the language were but little
interfered with. A result was the introduction
of many forms erroneous from both the phonetic
and the true philological points of view; for apart
from the indefensibility of this use of spelling
as a means of rendering derivation obvious to the
eye the method was dangerous in the hands of
men whose knowledge of the history of the lan-
guage was necessarily inadequate. A familiar
example is the present English debt (from Early
Modern English and Middle English det, dette,
from Old French dette), in which the b was ety-
mologically inserted both in French (though
later abandoned) and in English to make the
spelling more directly suggest the original Latin
debita, though it has never been pronounced. On
the other hand, this process in some cases actu-
ally corrupted pronunciation. For example, the
l in fault (Middle English and Old French
faute), which was inserted in the same way, to
suggest the Latin fallere, has actually come to
be pronounced, though the correct pronunciation
(in this particular) survived as late as the time
of Pope, who makes the word rhyme with ought,
thought, and taught. Of pure etymological
blunders, again, an instance is the s in island,
which was inserted to indicate derivation from
the Latin insula and connection with English
isle (also corrupted from ile), to neither of
which it is at all related. The corruptions of
this kind form a long and instructive list.
The results of the above-indicated history, em-
bodied in modern English orthography, are
briefly as follows:
(1) While all of the other principal European
alphabets have retained with comparatively
small variations the Roman or ‘Continental’
values of the letters, that of English has to a
very large extent abandoned them. This is
especially true of the ‘long’ vowels—at least of
their common or name-giving values: Thus, ap-
proximately, ‘long a’ (say) = Cont. e‘; ‘long e’
(mete) = Cont. i; ‘long i’ (isle) : Cont.
diphthong ai; ‘long 0’ : Cont. 6 ,' ‘long u’ (duty)
: Cont. diphthong iu. Great confusion thus
exists in the vowel-nomenclature, as well as an
unfortunate divergence from the common usage
of those languages which are most closely
connected with English, both historically and
practically. The quantity of vowels, also, as
was noted above, is not (as in oldest English)
distinguished by any alphabetic means, while the
various orthographic devices employed for the
purpose (doubling of consonants, etc.) are
clumsy and are not used with uniformity.
(2) The letters of the alphabet are used with
a great diversity of sound-values: Thus, of the
vowels, accented and unaccented, a has 9 (as in
name, bare, man, father, water, want, ask,
village, data), e 9 (be, here, there, acme, met,
alert, English, sergeant, prudent); i, 8; 0, 10;
u, 9; y, 3—48 in all; of the consonants,
b, 2 (counting the silent ones) ; c, 6; d, 4; f, 3;
g, 4-; h, 3; 7', 5; k, 2; l, 3; m, 3; n, 3; p, 2;
q,3;r,2;s,5; t,5; v,2;w,2; ac,5;y,2;z,4-—-
70 in all. To a certain extent this multiplica-
tion of values is due to the inadequacy
of the alphabet, which has bpt 26 sym-
bols to represent the 40 elementary sounds
of cultivated English speech (44 with the diph-
thongs), but it is far in excess of what is neces-
sary and results in manifold ambiguities.
(3) The various English speech-sounds are
written with an even greater variety of symbols
and combinations of symbols. These sounds,
which comprise 16 volwels and 24 consonants
(with 4 diphthongs), are represented in the
standard phonetic alphabet, adopted by the
American Philological Association, as follows
(the sound being that of the corresponding letter
in the word placed within the parenthesis):
i (it), e (met), a (at), (1 (ask), e (not), 0
(obey), U (but), u (full), i (pique), é (they),
a (air), (1 (arm), e (nor), 6 (no), 5 (burn),
11 (rule), p (pet), t (tip), ch (chest), c or k
(come), f (fat), th (thin), s (sown), sh (she),
11 (he). b (be), <1 (dip),j (rest). g (gum).
v (vat), dh (thee), z (zone), zh (azure), ‘w
(wit), 1 (lo, ell), r (rat, are), y (ye, year),
m (me), n (no), ng (sing): diphthongs, oi
(aisle, isle), on (out, hour), ei (oil, boy), in
(feud, jeu:). The ways in which these sounds
are represented iii the customary -spelling are
too numerous to be here given and illustrated in
full, but the orthographic situation will be under-
stood from the following examples: i (it), ac-
cented or unaccented, is represented by i, y, e,
o, u, ie, ee, ui, ai, hi, ive, eo, a, ia, ei, ey, ea,
eig (’), ehea, ewi, ois, uy, oi, igh, ay, ieu, as
in the following words: fit, hymn, pretty, women,
busy, sieve, breeches, build, Saint John (sin’jun) ,
exhibit, ficepence (fip’ens), Theobald (tib’ald),
carriage, forfeit, donkey, guinea, sovereign,
James’s forehead, housewife (hus’if), chamois,
plaguy, Jervois (jer'vis), Denbigh, Rothesay
(roth'si), Beaulieu (bew’li). E (met) : e, ea,
SPELLING.
SPELMAN.
70
a, u, ai, ei, ie, eo, ue, ay, oe, ave, as in get, head,
many, bury, said, heifer, friend, leopard, guess,
says, fcetid, Aberga/venny (abergen’i). O (no)
I: o, o-e, oa, ow, ou, owe, oe, oo, ew, ewe, ough,
011, eau, eo, au, os, aut, ock, as in holy, vote,
road, bowl, soul, rowed, woe, brooch (broch),
sew, sewed, though, oh, beau, yeoman, hauteur,
apropos, hautboy, Cockburn (kO’bn). C (come)
: c, k, q, ck, ch, cc, cq, qu, que, lk, gh, sc,
x, ke, lke, quh, cch, as in call, kill, quell, back,
ache, account, acquaint, liquor, barque, walk,
hough, viscount, ewcept, Burke, Folkestone,
Urquhart, Bacchanal. T (tip) :2 t, tt, ed, th,
tw, bt, ct, pt, cht, phth, te, tte, as in ten,
better, stopped, thyme, two, debt, indict, receipt,
yacht, phthisis, caste, gazette. In brief, the 44
(with the diphthongs) English sounds are repre-
-sented by upward of 500 symbols and combina-
tions. From this it results that an English word
can, theoretically, be written in a great variety
of forms.
The confusion of English spelling, however,
while great, is not so complete as might be ex-
pected from its above-stated theoretical defects;
it exhibits a certain amount of system and it is
possible also to demonstrate in it a very con-
siderable phonetic element. Apart from the in-
adequacy of the alphabet, its chief practical
defects are the ambiguities in the use of c and
k (cat, kill), c and s (cinder, seat), f and ph
(fool, philosopher), t and d or ed (dropped,
kept), oh and k (cholera, keep), and the em-
ployment of silent letters, that is, letters which
if omitted would leave the symbol (see above) a
simpler and, generally, more common (though
not necessarily more phonetically correct) one
for the same sound (as in feather, jeopardy, par-
liament, pedagogue, guard, add, feign, ghost,
though, thorough, scythe, etc.).
SPELLING REFORM. The modification of
customary spelling in such a way as to remove,
or at least lessen, the divergence of orthography
from pronunciation. (For the origin, character,
and practical results of this divergence, particu-
larly in English, see SPELLING.) Complete re-
form of this sort involves: (1) The elimination
of superfluous letters (e.g. in English, of two of
the equivalent letters c (hard), 10, and q) ; (2)
the enlargement of the alphabet by the addition
of enough symbols (letters or digraphs) to rep-
resent all the significant speec_h-sounds of the
language (in English there are 40 elementary
sounds and but 26 letters) ; (3) the use of each
letter or symbol to represent but one sound; and
(4), in English the use of the letters of the al-
phabet with their Roman values. Among such
(proposed) remodelings of the English alphabet
the most practical is that adopted by the Ameri-
can Philological Association and given above in
the article on SPELLING. If the above-stated con-
ditions were fulfilled, orthography and pronuncia-
tion would be in harmony——that is, spelling would
be essentially phonetic. While, however, such
completeness is the aim of the modern spelling
reformer, it has hitherto remained—and is likely
long to remain—merely an ideal. The customary
spelling is so firmly connected with the habits,
the practical interests, and the aesthetic (liter-
ary) sentiments of its users that such thorough-
going reform of it is impracticable, changes in
the alphabet especially being very hard to intro-
duce. The practical efforts of the reformers are
accordingly now directed almost exclusively
toward the simplification of spelling by the re-
moval of irregularities which can be eliminated
without radically changing the forms of words,
and by the omission of silent letters which are
‘phonetically useless (that is, do not determine
the value of another letter, as does the silent
e of English hate). Changes of this sort have
occurred sporadically at every period in every
European language; the spelling reformer at-
tempts merely to make this familiar process more
general and systematic. Rules for such simplifi-
cation were adopted in 1883 by the American
Philological Association and the British Philo-
logical Society, and in 1886 a list of amended
spellings, based upon them, was adopted by the
Philological Association and published in its
Transactions. It has since been republished in
(and approved by) the leading American diction-
aries. While simplification of this sort would
not, alone, produce phonetic accuracy, it would
greatly enhance the phonetic character, uniform-
ity, and simplicity of English spellin . Up to
the present time, however, spelling re orm, even
in this restricted sense, though persistently urged
by special associations and by persons of high
scientific and literary authority, has made but
little headway. Certain of the recommendations
of the philological societies have been put into
practice by a few individuals and journals, and
by some scientific societies, but no general ten-
dency to adopt them has been evident. Perhaps
the most important step in this direction was the
adoption by the American National Education
Association in 1898 of the twelve simplified spell-
ings: Program, tho, altho, thoro, thorofare,
thru, thruout, catalog, prolog, decalog, dema-
gog, pedagog.
In France, where the peculiarities of orthog-
raphy give spelling reform a practical importance
second only to that which it has in English-
speaking countries, much interest in this subject
has long existed, but little has been accomplished,
the French being in matters of orthography al-
most as conservative as the English. The reform
has also been active in Germany, and something
has been done there, particularly in the omission
of silent letters (tat for that, etc.). Spanish
and Italian spelling are so simple and so largely
phonetic that the practical reasons for reform
have relatively little application to them.
SPEL'MAN, Sir HENRY (c.1564-1641). An
English antiquary and philologist. He was
born at Congham, Norfolk, and was educated
at Cambridge and in law at Lincoln’s Inn.
He became High Sheriff of Norfolk, and
was employed on various public missions by
King James. In 1612 he removed to London,
where he began to devote himself to the investi-
gation of ancient law and custom with a view to
establishing their relation to the English Con-
stitution. In prosecuting this work he encoun-
tered so many strange and obsolete words that he
turned aside to compile a lossary of law terms
the first part of which, to t e end of the letter L,
he published in 1626, at his own expense. The
second volume appeared in 1664 edited by Sir
William Dugdale. He also compiled a collection
of decrees of English Church councils from 1066
to 1531. He is best known in modern times by
this and his curious History and Fate of Sacrilege
(1693; new ed., London, 1846, -1853).
SPELT.
SPENCER.
71
SPELT (AS. spelt, from Lat. spelta, spelt).
A species of wheat (Triticum Spelta) , character-
ized by grains held tightly within the chaff
and not hulled out in threshing. It is grown
chiefly where wheat fails on the poorer soils of
the mountainous regions of Germany, Italy,
Spain, and France, and is mainly employed as a
stock food. It is little grown in America. The
grain commonly called spelt in the United States
and Russia is emmer (Triticum dicoccum) , which <
has a much shorter and more compact head than
spelt, and is much hardier as regards cold,
drought, and rust resistance. Both spelt and
emmer are grown and harvested like wheat.
SPEN CE, HENRY DONALD MAURICE (1836-).
An English clergyman and theological writer,
born in London. He was educated at Westmin-
ster School and Cambridge University; took
orders in the Church of England; held various
important charges; and in 1886 became Dean of
Gloucester. Among his numerous published
works are: Cloister Life in the Days of Coeur de
Lion (1892) ; The Church of England; a History
for the People (4 vols., 1897-99); The White
Robe of Churches of the XI. Century (1900);
and Early Christianity and Paganism (1902).
SPENCE, JOSEPH (1699-1768). An English
anecdotist, born at Kingsclere, in Hampshire, He
was sent to Eton and WVinohester, whence he
passed to Oxford. Elected fellow of New College
in 1720, he took orders in 1724. An Essay on
Pope’s Odyssey (1726) led to an intimate friend-
ship with the poet, and to Spence’s appointment
as professor of poetry at Oxford (1727). He
afterwards held the professorship of modern his-
tory and several ecclesiastical appointments. In
1749 he was presented by a former pupil with
a small estate at Byfleet, in Surrey, where
he amused himself with gardening. He was found
dead in a canal in his garden. While associated
with Pope he noted down the conversations of the
poet and his friends. These most valuable anec-
dotes, after circulating in manuscript for the.
benefit of Warburton, Joseph Warton, Dr. John-
son, Malone, and other critics, were published in
1820. Among Spence’s other works is the pleas-
ant Polymetis (1747), dialogues on the Roman
poets and artists. Consult the Anecdotes, edited
from Spence’s own manuscript, by S. W. Singer
(London, 1820; reprint, 1859) ; Selections, edited
by Underhill (Camelot Series, London, 1890);
Dobson’s essay on Spence in Eighteenth Century
Vignettes (first series, New York, 1892).
SPEN'CER. The county-seat of Clay County,
Iowa, 152 miles northwest of Des Moines; on the
Little Sioux River, and on the Chicago, Milwau-
kee and Saint Paul and the Minneapolis and
Saint Louis railroads (Map: Iowa, B 1). It has
a public library and a_ fine court house. Spencer
is known for its large hay interests. There are
also some manufactures. The water-works and
the electric light plant are owned by the munici-
pality. Population, in 1890, 1813; in 1900, 3095.
SPENCER. A town, including several villages,
in Worcester County, Mass., 12 miles west by
south of Worcester; on the Boston and Albany
Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, D 3). It has
the Richard Sugden Library, with more than
11,000 volumes, and Spencer Public Park. Boots
and shoes, wire, and woolen goods are manu-
factured. The government is administered by
town meetings. The water works are owned and
operated by the town. Population, in 1890, 8747;
in 1900, 7627. Settled in 1720, Spencer formed
a part of Leicester until 1753, when it was sepa-
rately incorporated. Consult: Draper, History of
Spencer (\\'orcester, 1860) ; Tower, Historical
Sketches Relating to Spencer, Massachusetts
(Spencer, 1901-02).
SPENCER, AMBROSE (1765-1848). An Ameri-
can jurist, born in Salisbury, Conn. He was edu-
cated at Yale a11d Harvard; was admitted to
the bar in New York; in 1794 entered the
State Assembly, and the next year became a
member of the State Senate, to which he was
reélected in 1788. From 1802 to 1804 he
was Attorney-General of the State, and in the
latter year he became one of the judges of the
Supreme Court, and was its Chief Justice from
1819 to 1823, when he resumed his private
practice. From 1824 to 1826 he was Mayor of
Albany, and from 1829 to 1831 a member of Con-
gress.
near Albany, but continued to take an interest in
politics, and in 1844 he presided over the Na-
tional Whig Convention at Baltimore. He se-
cured the abolition in New York of the death sen-
tence in all cases except those of murder and
treason; took an important part in the State
Constitutional Convention of 1821; and later op-
posed an amendment making the judiciary elect-
ive. Consult Memorial of Ambrose Spencer (Al-
bany, 1849).
SPENCER, CHARLES, third Earl of Sunder-
land. An English statesman. See SUNDERLAND,
CHARLES SPENCER, third Earl of.
SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903). A distin-
guished English philosopher. He was born at
Derby, April 27, 1820. His father was a teacher
by profession, with views in advance of his time.
He believed in training the student’s mind in ob-
servation and in reflection on objective facts in-
stead of mere ideas. Herbert’s health was deli-
cate in childhood, and he was largely educated at
home with as much outdoor life as possible. A
little later he was put in charge of his uncle, ‘a
clergyman of the Church of England. He early
showed a fondness for studies in nature, and for
a good many years his favorite occupation was
the catching and preserving of insects and the
rearing of moths and butterflies; he also studied
botany with some passion, and in these ways laid
the foundation for the scientific character and in-
terest of his later work. His parents were both
originally Methodists, but his father became a
Quaker. The boy’s mind, however, being an in--
dependent one, and having early been brought
into contact with the intellectual influences cen-
tring about John Stuart Mill and with the scien-
tific spirit, he imbibed the tendencies of the age
toward extreme liberalism in theological matters.
An uncle planned to send him to Cambridge,
but the boy ‘perseveringly objected,’ and con-
tinued to study privately. He had no aptitude
for languages, and made little progress in the
classics, but showed original constructive power
in mathematics and mechanics. His father
wanted him to take up teaching, but an acciden-
tal opportunity decided in favor of another voca-
tion more suitable to his tastes. In the autumn
of..l837 work was offered to him under the chief
engineer of the London and Birmingham Railway,
Eight years later he retired to a farm_
SPENCER.
SPENCER.
72
with whom he spent nearly a year. For some
ten years he engaged in engineering pursuits.
When the railawy mania finally subsided,
Spencer, now twenty-six, was left, like many
other young men, without occupation. But the
time spent at home while he was looking for
something to do was not wasted. He had leisure
for a good deal of miscellaneous reading. He
studied Lyell’s Principles of Geology, in which
the doctrine of evolution as defended by Lamarck
was attacked, but came away from the reading
with a favorable impression of Lamarck’s doc-
trine as against creationism.
While he was in the railway service, still a
mere boy, he wrote some articles for The Non-
conformist on “the proper sphere of government,”
in which he outlined the principles of non-inter-
ference which regulated all his thinking in later
life. When no more work offered as an engineer,
he went to London and soon obtained employ-
ment on The Economist, becoming its sub-editor
in 1848. This position, which he held till 1852,
gave him time for his studies, and made him ac-
quainted with that brilliant coterie which cen-
tred about George Henry Lewes, George Eliot,
and John Stuart‘ Mill. During his leisure hours
he wrote his first considerable work, Social Sta-
tics (1851). It is of a decidedly a priori char-
acter, and not written in the inductive spirit of
his later thinking. It shows, however, his ten-
dency to reconcile opposing influences and to dis-
cover closeness of relations where others did not
suspect them. Subsequently he became dissatis-
fied with both its views and its methods, and
wished to recall it from circulation. This being
found impossible, in later years he revised it by
omitting what he had outgrown.
In the eight years after his leaving The Econo-
mist, he pursued his studies with eagerness, and
published a work on Psychology (1855), which
he afterwards revised and expanded into a part
of his Synthetic Philosophy. Over-application
brought on a serious attack of nervous prostra-
tion, which obliged him for the rest of his life to
abridge his hours of study. He became a chronic
sufferer from dyspepsia and insomnia, so that all
his later work had to be done under these disad-
vantages. Meanwhile he had conceived a system
of philosophy which should embrace the general
principles of all existing knowledge. In 1850 he
published a prospectus or outline of it, indicating
his intention to give twenty years to its develop-
ment. The first instalments of the system did
not meet with the reception he expected, and he
feared he would have to abandon his undertak-
ing. But the timely aid of American friends, at
the -head of whom was Mr. Youmans, editor of
the Popular Science Monthly, enabled him to con-
tinue his work. His health, however, was so
precarious that at one time he feared he would
not live to complete the system. With this view
he suspended his labors on the main part of his
work to write The Data of Ethics, which had been
the object of the whole system, and in which
it was intended to culminate. Fortunately, his
life was prolonged sufficiently to enable him to
complete the system, and to revise a part of it in
order to bring it up to date. It consists of First
Principles ( 1862) ; Principles of Biology ( 1864) ;
Principles of Psychology (1871-72); Principles
of Sociology (1876-80) ; Principles of Ethics
(1879). He also wrote three volumes of Essays
Scientific, Political, and Speculative (1858-63),
and some fugitive articles includin two essays
on Weissmannism (1894, 1895). %[e died De-
cember 8, 1903.
It was his intention in the Synthetic Philoso-
phy to develop a complete and articulated con-
ception of all cosmic phenomena, including those
of mental and social principles. His qualifica-
tions for attempting so comprehensive a task
were wide powers of generalization, profound ac-
quaintance with the facts of the various sciences,
and a veritable genius for detecting the relations
and connections of phenomena that escape the
specialist. No philosopher has employed such a
wealth of illustration and facts to explain his
meaning or to prove his thesis. It is the clear-
ness of his thought, the force of his illustra-
tions, and the dependence of his views upon
the facts and methods of the inductive sciences
that have given him his power over all thinkers,
except the technical and traditional philosophers.
His attempt to systematize all knowledge in
terms of modern science must always receive high
credit among intelligent men.
The First Principles endeavors to define the
fields of ‘the unknowable and the knowable,’ and
the postulates with which the study of the know-
able must be pursued. The whole weakness of
Spencer’s system is shown in his discussion of
the unknowable. The Absolute, Space, Time,
Matter, Force, and Motion were all taken as un-
knowable. After telling us that all these are un-
knowable, he asserts that the most certain things
in our conviction are the ‘Absolute’ and all the
other fundamental data for the knowable. Be-
sides, after telling us that all explanation con-
sists in reference to the known, he says that all
phenomena are explained as manifestations of
the unknowable. Then, in the discussion of the
knowledge, Space, Time, Matter, Force, etc., ap-
pear as known. Both the strength and weakness
of his system are due to this equivocal import
of the term knowledge. If Spencer had omitted
all reference to the dogma of the unknowable
and confined himself to a discussion of the know-
able, he would have avoided the controversy
which has invited the distrust of his system.
The postulates with which he conducted his
speculations were, besides the existence of Space,
Time, Matter, Motion, and Force, the assumption
of the indestructibility of Matter, the continu-
ity of Motion, and the persistence of Force, which
he regarded as an a priori truth, though also
determinable inductively.
The whole system is an application of the idea
of evolution to the universe, and more particu-
larly to organic life and its forms, and to po-
litical and social institutions. Spencer’s con-
ception of this process did not go beyond Dar-
win’s in its details, but it was apparently quite
as original and certainly more comprehensive,
besides involving philosophic conceptions of
which Darwin was incapable. Spencer applied
the materialistic formula to the explanation of
all things, but protested that he was not a ma-
terialist. Even if he had expressed his doctrine,
as he said he could as well have done, in terms
of consciousness, it would not have modified the
accusation against his materialism, as the ex-
pression of philosophy in terms of mental states
does not insure one against all that materialism
stood for. In order to adapt the conception to
all forms of phenomena, he variously expressed
SPENCER.
SPENCER.
73
the process as the passage from the simple to
the complex, from the homogeneous to the hetero-
geneous, from indefinite homogeneity to definite
heterogeneity, and so on. This description of the
process brought him into controversy with all
those who like metaphysics, and gave him no
credit with those who do not. It was at best a
vague formula, which might be true or false ac-
cording to the definition of the terms and the
statement of the facts ; the phrase at least meant
nothing more than the facts, and was not ex-
planatory. In his facts and illustrations, how-
ever, Spencer gives a clearer idea of his doctrine
than in his abstract formulas intended to cover
every type of phenomena in the organic and in-
organic kingdoms. These facts, he thinks, show
a continuous order of things with historical con-
nections and relations which suggest a common
origin from some ultimate indefinite form of
force which he calls matter and motion. Darwin
did not pretend to go beyond the extension of a
few types in the organic world or to develop their
genesis. He was content to demonstrate the
origin of species in the organic world and left
unsolved and undiscussed the general origin of
things———a much larger task. Spencer sought to
make intelligible the process of evolution
throughout the whole field of nature, and hence
the importance of his formula about the ‘con-
tinuous redistribution of matter and motion,’ as
embodying the whole system of changes and
growths in the cosmos.
It was Spencer’s antagonism to the doctrine
of creationism that caused a complete misunder-
standing of what evolution really undertakes to
accomplish. The theory of creation was equiv-
ocal. It assigned a cause for the origin of
phenomena, and it was associated with the con-
ception of the miraculous and supernatural.
Spencer denied the creational theory and adopted
the gradual development of all things in its
stead. But what he failed to recognize suffi-
ciently, though he sees it at times, is the fact
that evolution is the history of origin, not the
explanation of it. It determines the law, not the
cause of genesis. All that Spencer and his co-
adjutors established is the fact that the origin
of things was gradual instead of catastrophal.
Creationism was so closely associated with the
latter conception that the disproof of great
breaks in nature carried with it the principle by
which every change has to be explained. The
transition from species to species may be gradual
instead of catastrophal, but this fact does not
eliminate the agency of causes, and it was cause
that the creationistic theory sought and un-
fortunately made catastrophal. It was natural,
therefore, when the evolutionists showed that the
process was gradual, that creationism should
suffer to the same extent, but after all the real
conquest was in favor of law instead of caprice
in the order of nature, so that if Spencer and
the evolutionists had refused to conceive their
problem in opposition to creationism, and had
limited themselves to the conception of the his-
tory of genesis, they would have escaped con-
troversy with the metaphysicians on the one
hand and with the theologians on the other.
Conceiving evolution, however, as the history
rather of events than of causes that originate
change, we shall find that Spencer’s services
to human knowledge can hardly be overestimated.
It was a stroke of genius to combine the ideas
of the persistence of force, adjustment to en-
vironment, and natural selection for the purpose
of explaining the relations of all phenomena. It
offered a mode of unifying the cosmos which
showed identities and relations throughout the
whole not before observed. The persistence of
force guaranteed the fundamental identity of all
reality, in spite of the differences of form which
it assumed, while the varieties of composition
explained the differences. The conception sup-
plies an initial presumption of the variation of
a single species to account for the varieties; this
once done, the whole problem of evolution is at
least historically conceived as intelligible. In
the inorganic world it is merely a question of
the collocations of matter. In the organic world
it is a question both of collocation and of the
adjustment of structure and function. In the
ethical world the growth is in the form of the
substitution of altruism for egoism or selfish-
ness. In the political and social worlds the proc-
ess is but a repetition of that in the others, ex-
cept that we deal with collective as distinct from
organic wholes. One law prevails throughout
the whole process-—the redistribution of matter
and motion according to the conditions of the
persistence of force. Originally Spencer re-
duced life to a function of matter and motion.
But in the last edition of his Biology he admitted
that life was an ‘unknown force,’ a position
which involves a complete revolution in his sys-
tem as recognizing something more in the world
as ultimate than matter and motion. The hypoth-
esis of a universal ether and the modification
of older views regarding the nature of electrical
and magnetic phenomena, with the discovery of
a number of forms of energy not suspected a
generation ago, threaten to modify greatly the
bases of Spencer’s system. But they do not
disturb the general conception which he formed of
the process of evolution, since this is independent
of the forces involved and is simply a process of
composition and decomposition throughout the
cosmos and in all specific forms of reality. It is
Spencer’s manner of tracing the relations and
affinities between the various phenomena of ex-
istence that gives his work its interest and has
so generally influenced the intelligent public.
He knew little of Greek philosophy and less of
the modern Kanto-Hegelian movement. The con-
sequence was that he began his speculations with
science, eschewed the transcendentalism of Ger-
man epistemology, and wrote in terms that every
intelligent man can understand. The public has
not cared whether his abstract formulas were
clear or not, or whether they really expressed an
explanation. They were impressed with his
power of illustration and reference to facts which
they were willing to use as interpreting his for-
mulas, and as his illustrations and analogies
depicted such an interesting unity in the course
of nature, they were ready to take him as a
prophet of the new gospel and leave subtleties to
the transcendentalists. Spencer will not be for-
gotten for a method that supplies a clear con-
ception of the unity of all things in terms of
facts instead of abstract conceptions, though he
was at times too much of a philosopher to avoid
the sins which his scientific temperament sought
to correct in others.
Consult: Hudson, Introduction to the Phi-
SPENCER.
SPENCER.
74
losophy of Herbert Spencer (New York, 1894) ;
Collier, An Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy
(ib., 1889) ; Guthrie, On Spencer’s Unification of
Knowledge (London, 1882) ; Painter, Herbert
Spencer’s Evolutionstheorie (Jena, 1896) ;
Gaupp, Herbert Spencer (Stuttgart, 1897).
SPENCER, Jnssn ADAMS (1816-98). A
Protestant Episcopal scholar. He was born at
Hyde Park, N. Y.; graduated at Columbia Col-
lege (1837), and the General Theological Semi-
nary; was ordained 1840, and became rector of
Saint James’s Church, Goshen, N. Y.; professor
of Latin and Oriental languages at Burlington
College, N. J., 1849-50; editor and secretary of
the Episcopal Sunday School Union and Church
Book Society (1851-57) ; rector of Saint Paul’s,
Flatbush, L. 1. (1863-65) ; and professor of Greek
in the College of the City of New York (1869-81) .
He edited the American reprint of T. K. Arnold’s
series of Greek and Latin text-books (1846-56)
and other classics, including‘ the Greek New
Testament (1847). His independent works in-
clude a History of the English Reformation
(1846), Egypt and the Holy Land (1850), His-
tory of the United States (1856-69), Eschatology
(1887), Memorabilia, 1820-86 (1890).
SPENCER, JOHN CANFIELD (1788-1_855). An
American jurist and politician, born at Hudson,
N. Y. He graduated at Union College in 1806,
studied law, and was admitted to the bar at
Canandaigua in 1809. In 1813 he was brigade
judge-advocate-general in the army on the north-
ern frontier. From 1817 to 1819 he was a Demo-
cratic member of the United States House of
Representatives and wrote the report condemning
the United States Bank, which was afterwards
used by President Jackson at a time when the
author’s views had changed. In 1820-21 he was
a member of the Lower House of the State Legis-
lature, serving as Speaker the first year. He
was in the State Senate from 1824 to 1828, and
in 1827 was appointed by Governor Clinton one
of the committee to revise the statutes of New
York. This work was finished in 1830; a second
edition was published in 1835-36, and a third in
1846-48. For a time he was aifiliated with the
Anti-Masonic Party, and he was appointed by
Governor Van Buren to prosecute the alleged ab-
ductors of William Morgan (q.v.), but resigned
in 1830. He again sat in the Legislature in 1832,
and in 1834-40 was Secretar of State for New
York and Superintendent of chools. On October
12,_ 1841, he became Secretary of War in the Cabi-
net of President Tyler. He was transferred to
the Treasury Department, March 3, 1843, but op-
posed measures looking to the annexation of
Texas and resigned May 2, 1844. He then re-
sumed the practice of law at Albany, and was
influential in establishing the State Asylum for
Idiots. He edited a translation of De Tocque-
ville’s Democracy in America (2 vols., 1838).
Consult Proctor, Review of John C. Spencer’s
Legal and Political Career (New York, 1886).
SPENCER, JoHN CHARLES, Earl (1782-1845).
An English statesman, best known as Lord Al-
thorp. He was the son of the second Earl Spen-
cer, and was born in London. After being edu-
cated at Harrow and Cambridge, he entered Par-
liament in 1804 and became a junior lord of the
treasury in 1806. From that year till 1834 be
continuously represented Northamptonshire in
the' Whig interest. In 1830 he became Chancellor
of the Exchequer and leader in the House
of Commons under the Grey Ministry, and
was active in carrying the Reform Bill
of 1832. He held ofiice under the Mel-
bourne Ministry which succeeded the Grey
Ministry in July, 1834, but in November of the
same year the death of his father gave him a
seat in the House of Lords. He died October 1,
1845. He was a man without ambition or
especial ability, fond only of agriculture and
country sports; but honesty and industry raised
him to positions of responsibility, all of which
he filled with great credit. Consult Myers, Lord
Althorp (London, 1890) .
SPENCER, JOHN POYNTZ, fifth Earl Spencer
(1835—-). An English statesman. The only son
of the fourth Earl, he was born at Spencer
House, was educated at Harrow and at Cam-
bridge, and in 1857, the year of his graduation,
was elected member of Parliament, and by his
father’s death succeeded to the peerage. He was
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1869-74, and again in
1882-85; and lord president of the council, with
a seat in Mr. Gladstone’s Cabinet, 1880-83 and
1886. He was First Lord of the Admiralty
1892-95.
SPENCER, JOSEPH (1714-89). An American
soldier, born in East Haddam, Conn. He was a
probate judge in 1753, and rose to the rank of
colonel in the French and Indian War. He was
one of the eight brigadier-generals appointed by
Congress on June 22, 1775, served at Boston and
New York, became a major-general in August,
1776, and commanded in Rhode Island in 1777.
He resigned in January, 1778, and was a mem-
ber of Congress in 1779.
SPENCER, J osnrn WILLIAM Wrwrnnor
(1851—). An American geologist, born at Dun-
das, in Ontario, Canada. He graduated at McGill
University in 1874, and received the degree of
Ph.D. from the University of Giittingen three
years later. He was professor of geology in
King’s College, Nova Scotia, in 1880-82, and in
Missouri State University, 1882-87; and was
State geologist of Georgia, 1888-93. He is espe-
cially distinguished for researches in lacustrine
geology. Among his published works are: Niag-
ara Fossils (1884) ; Glacial Erosion in Norway
(1887) ; Geological Survey of Southwestern
Georgia (1891) ; Geological Survey of the Paleo-
zoic Belt of Georgia (1893); and Duration of
Niagara Falls and History of the Great Lakes
1895).
SPENCER, PLATT ROGERS (1800-64). The
originator of the Spencerian system of penman-
ship. He was born at East Fishkill, New York,
and at the age of ten years removed to Ashtabula
County, Ohio. He gave many lectures upon pen-
manship in various parts of the country, and his
work was influential in causing .the establishment
of business colleges. Spencer published Spencer
and Rice’s System of Business and,Lrwlies’ Pen-
manship (1848), later republished as Spencerian
or Semi-Angular Penmanship, --
SPENCER, ROBERT, second Earl-' of Sun(l(3r-~ I.
‘land. An English statesman.
Rosnnr SPENCER, second Earl of.
SPENCER, sna ANDREWS '(I837—-_). American author and woman-suifragist, prelssi-"|‘.¢.
dent and proprietor of the Spencerian Business "
College, Washington, D. C. She was born in
See SUNDERLAND, '
SPENCER.
SPENSER.
75
Savona, Steuben County, N. Y., and in 1864 mar-
ried Henry C. Spencer, and afterwards removed
to Washington, D. C. In 1871, with other
women, she made an unsuccessful attempt to
register and vote, and afterwards brought suit
on which the Supreme Court of the United
States decided (1874) that women have not the
right to vote without local legislation. She rep-
resented the National Woman’s Suffrage Asso-
ciation at the Republican National Convention
in Cincinnati, in 1876; and engrossed, signed,
and presented the Woman’s Declaration of Rights
at the Centennial Celebration at Philadelphia.
Her publications include Problems on the Woman
Question (1871).
SPENCER, WILLIAM Rosnsr (1769-1834). An
English poet and wit. He was a grandson of the
third Duke of Marlborough. He was educated
at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but left
the university without a degree. Among his
friends were Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Sydney
Smith. His last years were passed in Paris,
where he died in poverty. In 1796 Spencer pub-
lished a version of Biirger’s Leonore, which was
praised by Scott; and in 1802 burlesqued Ger-
man romance in Urania, a pla performed at
Drury Lane. In 1811 he collecte his poems in a
volume, which contained his best known pieces,
like “Beth Gélert” and “Too Late I Stayed.” As
a poet, Byron ranked him with Moore, Campbell,
and Rogers. Consult the reprint of Spencer’s
Poems with biography (London, 1835).
SPENER, spa’ner, PHILIPP JAKOB (1635-
1705). A German clergyman, the founder of
the German Pietists. He was born at Rappolts-
weiler. in Upper Alsace, and was educated at
Strassburg, Basel, Tiibingen, Geneva, and Lyons.
At Geneva he was influenced by Laba-
die (q.v.), and his natural disposition led
him strongly toward a religion of spiritual and
untheological type. He preached at Strassburg,
was transferred to Frankfort, and in 1666 became
first pastor there. He strove to awaken a deeper
faith and more active Christian life, emphasized
the necessity of conversion and regeneration, and
the study of the Scriptures, in opposition to the
prevalent teaching which laid stress on orthodoxy
and connection with the Church, and cared more
for the symbolical books than for their source.
His views were set forth in his Pia Desideria, oder
herzliches Verlange/n nach gottgef-iilliger Besse-
rung der wahren evangelischen Kirche (1673). In
1670 he began meetings at his house for the culti-
vation of evangelical morality, the so-called
collegia pietatis, with the aim, as he expressed
it, of forming within the Church (ecclesia) a
smaller church (ecclesiola) which should have a
deeper spirituality. At the same time he reor-
ganized the method of catechising and improved
the religious instruction given to children. In 1679
a preface which he wrote for a new edition of
the Postille of Arndt, in which he censured the
morals of the upper classes, brought him into
difficulties; and in 1686 he accepted an invitation
to become Court preacher at Dresden and member
of the upper consistory. In this capacity he
effected changes in the theological teaching of
the University of Leipzig and in the system of re-
ligious catechising practiced throughout Saxony;
but because of attacks from the orthodox the-
ologians, and having fallen into disgrace with
the Elector Johann Georg III., in 1691 he went
Von. XVI.—6.
to Berlin as provost of the Church of Saint
Nicholas and consistorial inspector, offices which
he retained till his death. The Elector of Bran-
denburg encouraged his efforts for religious re-
form and intrusted theological instruction in the
new University of Halle to Francke, Breithaupt,
and others of his disciples. In 1695 the theo-
logical faculty of Wittenberg formally censured
as heretical 264 propositions drawn from Spener’s
writings. There is no collected edition of his
works; the full list (180 in number) is given in
his biography by Von Canstein (Halle, 1740),
and his chief works have been edited by Griin-
berg (Gotha, 1889). Consult also the lives by
Hossbach (Berlin, 1828; 3d ed. by Schweder,
1861), by Wildenhahn (Leipzig, 1842; Eng.
trans., Philadelphia, 1881), and by Griinberg
(Giittingen, 1892-97). See PIETISM; GERMAN
Tnnomsr.
SPENGEL, speng”1, LEONHABD (1803-80). A
German classical scholar, born at Munich. He
became known through his edition (1826) of
Varro’s De Lingua Latina, and was appointed in
1826 lector, in 1830 professor in the present
Wilhelmsgymnasium of Munich. In 1842 he ac-
cepted a chair at Heidelberg which he held until
his return, as professor, to Munich in 1847.
Among his publications were his edition
of the Ars Rhetorica ad Alearandrum,
which, following Petrus Victorinus, he attributed
to Anaximenes of Lampsacus (Anaximenes Ars
Rhetorica qute Vulgo Fertur Aristotelis ad
Alewandrum, 1844), his edition of the Rhetoric
of Aristotle (Aristotelis Ars Rhetorica cum
Ad/notatione, 1867), and his text edition of the
Rhetores Grteci (3 vols., 1853). His address
Ueber das Stadium der Rhetorilc bei den Alten
(1842) is a valuable outline sketch of the art of
eloquence in classical times.
SPEN’NYMO0R. A town in Durham, Eng-
land, 4 miles northeast of Bishop Auckland
(Map: England, E 2). It has coal-mining and
iron industries. Population, in 1901, 16,660.
SPEN’SER, EDMUND (c.1552-99) . An English
poet, born in London. He claimed relationship
to the noble family of Spencers at Althorp, but
he seems to have been more closely connected
with the Spensers of Lancashire. His father,
certainly in reduced circumstances, has been iden-
tified with John Spenser, a London clothmaker.
The boy was apparently sent to the Merchant
Taylors’ School, London, whence he passed, as
sizar or poor scholar, to Pembroke Hall, Cam-
bridge. At the university he read widely and
eagerly in Latin, Greek, Italian, and French liter-
ature. He was especially fond of Petrarch
and Chaucer, of Marot and Du Bellay. He
formed lifelong friendships with Gabriel Harvey
and Edward Kirke. After graduating M. A. in
1576, he seems to have spent nearly two years
with his kinsfolk in Lancashire, where he fell in
love with a young woman whom he celebrated
in verse under the name of Rosalind. In 1578 he
went to London and found a place in the house-
hold of the Earl of Leicester. There he prob-
ably met Sir Philip Sidney, to whom he dedicated
The Shepheardes Calender (1579). In 1580 he
was appointed secretary to Lord Grey, the new
Lord Deputy of Ireland. Thenceforth Spenser
lived mostly in Ireland. There he completed The
Faerie Queene, already begun at Leicester House.
SPENSER.
SPERMACETI.
76
By 1588 or 1589 he was living at Kilcolman
Castle, in the County of Cork, which with its ex-
tensive lands was legally transferred to him in
1591. In the meantime he had written Astrophel,
a noble pastoral elegy on Sidney, and had re-
ceived a visit from Sir Walter Ralegh (1589),
made memorable by Colin Clou-ts Come Home
Againe. In 1590 he accompanied Ralegh to
London, was welcomed by the Court, and pub-
lished the first three books of The Faerie Queene,
a moral and historical allegory. In 1591 followed
a volume of miscellanies called Complaints, in-
cluding “The Ruines of Time,” “The Teares of
the Muses,” “Mother Hubberd’s Tale,” “The Tale
of the Butterflie,” and four other oems. Evi-
dently disappointed of expected Cour preferment,
Spenser returned to Ireland, where he Inarried a
certain Elizabeth, probably Elizabeth Boyle, re-
lated to the first Earl of Cork. The courtship
is described in the Amoretti (published in 1595) ,
a series of mellifluous sonnets; and the marriage
is celebrated in the Epithalamion (published in
1595), the richest nuptial hymn in the English
language. In 1596 he brought to London for pub-
lication three more books of The Faerie Queene.
Spenser intended to continue the work to twelve
books, but he never got further than two cantos on
Mutabilitie (printed 1609). While in England
he seems to have completed a prose treatise on
the Present State of Ireland (not published till
1633); he prepared for the press the beautiful
Foure Hymnes (1596), in honor of love, beauty,
heavenly love, and heavenly beauty; and wrote
for a double marriage at Essex House the Pro-
thalamion (1596), one of his choicest poems.
Once more disappointed of preferment, he re-
turned to Ireland. In October, 1598, his castle
was sacked and burned by the Irish rebels. Spen-
ser fled to England, where he died at a London
inn, January 16, 1599. He was buried near
Chaucer in Westminster Abbey.
The Shepheardes Calender marks an epoch in
English poetry. Conventional in theme, it yet
shows a command over rhythm greater even than
Chaucer’s. It sounded the note of the Elizabethan
outburst. As Spenser grew older he became more
weighty in substance and discovered new
melodies. In The Faerie Queene he invented a
nine-line stanza known as ‘Spenserian.’ It is
the Italian ottana ri-ma with an added Alex-
andrine (twelve syllables). The rhymes run
ababbcbcc. But there is more in Spenser than
sweet verse. His imagination dwelt in a realm
of beauty and the noblest ideals. His greatest
fault is an insistence on the allegory until it
becomes monotonous and obscure. With the
poets themselves, for whom this weakness counts
less than for the general public, Spenser has
been a favorite. The generation following him
were Spenserians, and to him Milton owed much.
In the romantic revival at the end of the eight-
eenth century Spenser was potent, and Keat-s’s
Eve of Saint Agnes and Byron’s Childe Harold
were written in the Spenserian stanza.
Consult the Life by R. W. Church (English
Men of Letters, London, 1879); I-Vorks, ed. H.
J. Todd (8 vols., ib., 1805, new ed. 1877), by J.
P. Collier (5 vols. new ed., ib., 1891), by R Mor-
ris, with memoir by J . W. Hales (Globe edition,
ib., 1869, often reprinted), and by A. B. Grosart
(Huth Library, 10 vols. ib., 1882-84). Consult
also G. L. Craik, Spenser and his Poetry
(ib., 1845), and the essays by Lowell, Among My
Books, second series (Boston, 1876), and by Au-
brey de Vere (London and New York, 1894).
The Spenser Society, founded at Manchester in
1867, published a facsimile of the first edition of
The Shepheardes Calender.
SPENSERIAN STANZA.
EDMUND; VERSIFICATION. .
SPERANSKI, spa-r'zin’ske, MIKHAIL, Count
(1772-1839). A Russian statesman. Educated
at the Saint Petersburg Ecclesiastical Academy,
he was appointed professor of mathematics there
in 1797, and State Secretary in 1801. He he-
came Assistant Minister of Justice in 1808, and
Privy Councilor in 1809. During his administra-
tion he remodeled the system of taxation and
the system of nation.al education, and instituted
many other reforms. His influence brought him
many enemies, and he was banished in 1812, but
recalled in 1816 and made Governor of Pensa.
A-s Governor-General of Siberia (1819-21) he dis-
played great energy in fighting oificial corrup-
tion and bettering the condition of the exiles.
In 1821 he was made a member of the Imperial
Council. Nicholas 1. intrusted him with the
codification of the Russian laws, which task he
performed with singular success.
SPERM, IN PLANTS (Lat. sperma, from Gk.
ovréppa, seed, from anelperv, speirein, to SOW),
ANTHEROZOIDS, SPERMATOZOIDS. The male sexual
cell, whose union with the egg is the process of
fertilization, and results in the formation of an
embryo. Sperms are produced by all plants ex-
cept the lower algae and many of the fungi, and
are often characteristic of great groups of plants.
An ordinary sperm is an actively moving, naked
cell, consisting essentially of a relatively large
nucleus with a thin sheath of cytoplasm, form-
ing the body, and delicate, hair-like swimming
See SPENSER,

TYPES O F SPERM8.
1, Chara; 2-4, tern: 5, Marsilia; 6, club moss; 7, tern; 8,
quillwort; 9, liverwort.
appendages (cilia). The male organ which pro-
duces sperms is uniformly called an antheridium
(q.v.). See FERTILIZATION; REPRODUCTION; SEX.
SPERMACETI (Neo-Lat., whale’s seed, from
Lat. sperma, from Gk. mrép;/.a, seed + ceti, gen.
sg. of cetus, from Gk. K’fiTOS‘, ketos, whale ; so
called because at first supposed to be the spawn
of the whale). A waxy substance obtained from
cavities in the head of the sperm whale (Ph/yseter
SPERMACETI.
SPERMATOPHYTE S.
77
macrocephalns), which lives in the Pacific and
Indian Oceans. In the living whale it is dissolved
in an oil, but on cooling separates as a solid. As
much as twelve barrels of crude spermaceti is
obtained from an ordinary whale. It is purified
by pressure, melting, and crystallization. It is
white or translucent, crystallizable from alcohol
and ether, not soluble in water, smooth to the
touch, and without taste or odor. It becomes
rancid and grows yellowish on exposure to light.
It burns with a bright flame. Its specific gravity
is .945, and its melting-point is about 38° C.
(about 100° F.). It does not, like fats and oils,
give glycerin after saponification, but cetyl
alcohol. It consists chiefly of cetin, or cetyl pal-
mitate, 0161131 0 }O. Spermaceti is used as
C:16 H33
an ingredient of many ointments and cerates.
It is made into sperm candles of definite weight
for photometric purposes.
SPERMATISTS. A school of physiologists
of the seventeenth century, who held that the
whole of the material transmitted from the
parents to the offspring as the foundation of the
embryo was contained in the spermatozoiin of
the male, opposing those (the ovulists) who
asserted that all the material was supplied by
the mother in the egg. See PREFORMATION.
SPERMATOPI-IYTES (from Gk. 0'1rép/.u1.,
sper/ma, seed -1- ¢vr6v, phyton, plant), SEED-
PLANTS. The highest of the four primary divi-
sions of the plant kingdom, distinguished from
the other groups by the production of seeds. The
much used name phanerogams, meaning evident
sexual reproduction, is unfortunate because in
this group sexual reproduction is least evident.
The once used name anthophytes, meaning flow-
ering plants, which last is probably the most com-
monly used popular name, is also inappropriate,
since the production of flowers is not coextensive
with the group. The most recently proposed
name siphonogams, meaning sexual reproduction
by means of a tube, referring to the passage of
the male cells to the eggs through pollen-tubes,
has not been extensively adopted. Since the
seed-production seems to distinguish the group
more than any other character, the name sperma-
tophytes, which is in common use, seems likely to
prevail.
This group. which includes practically all the
conspicuous vegetation (herbs, shrubs, and trees),
is by far the most useful group to man, so useful,
indeed, that until the closing years of the nine-
teenth century elementary botanical training dealt
with no other group and botanists were thought
of chiefly as students of flowers. More than 100,-
000 species of seed-plants have been described,
and grouped in two distinct but very unequal
divisions, gymnosperms (q.v.) and angiosperms
(q.v.). They are distinguished by the position of
their seeds, which are naked or freely exposed in
the former, but inclosed in a seed-case in the latter.
In all seed-plants the alternation of generations
(q.v.) is very much obscured by the great reduc-
tion of the sexual plants, which are not popularly
recognized, and are undiscoverable except by
laboratory manipulation, the whole visible body
of these plants, contrary to the popular notion,
being the sexless phase or sporophyte. All the
members of the grou are also heterosporous.
(See HETEROSPORY.) %‘he pollen-grain is a sex-
less microspore that in germination gives rise to
a small plant consisting of only a few cells,
among them two male cells, which are formed
within the pollen-grain and are to function as
sperms. The pollen-grain is transferred to the
immediate neighborhood of the female plant,
usually by the wind or by insects. See POLLI-
NATION; FERTILIZATION.
The megaspore, a large sexless spore, that pro-
duces the female plant, is developed within the

FIG. 1. OVULE.
Showing 1', integument; e, embryo-sac; a, antipodal
cells; p, polar nuclei fusing; s, syneryids; 0, eggs; and
m, pollen tube containing male cells.
ovule, which is, therefore, a sporangium. The fact
that In this sporangium there is but a single mega-
spore, and that is not discharged, but retained,

FIG. 2. OVULE IN OVARY CAVITY.
Showing I, outer integument; i,inner integument; n, nu-
cellus; s, embryo-sac; and e, embryo.
is what makes a seed possible; for the retained
megaspore germinates within its sporangium
SPERMATOPHYTES.
78 SPEY.
(ovule) and produces the female plant there.
This megaspore within the ovule was once
thought to be merely a sac-like cavity, within
which the embryo appeared, and hence wasmalled
the ‘embryo-sac’ (e, Fig. 1 ; s, Fig. 2) . In germina-
tion the megaspore produces a female plant, with
several or many cells, which has long been called
‘endosperm,’ and recognized as a prominent nutri-
tive tissue Within the seed. The female plant,
therefore, is entirely inclosed within the ovule,
and produces an egg (0, Fig. 1) which is reached
by a pollen-tube (m, fig. 1) and fertilized. This
act of fertilization is followed by two conspicuous
results, namely (1) the development of the em-
bryo (e, Fig. 2), and (2) the development of a
hard superficial tissue (testa) in the outer
part of the ovule, which hermetically seals the
female plant and embryo within, the whole com-
plex structure constituting the seed.
In the seed condition the plant passes into a
resting period of greater or less duration, and
then, under favorable conditions, the seed is said
to germinate. This simply means the renewed
growth of the young plantlet, whose embryo,
which had begun to develop, was checked by the
hard investment of the seed. A seed, therefore,
is a complex of three generations: (1) the old
sexless generation (sporophyte), represented at
least by the seed coats; (2) the following female
sexual generation (gametophyte) , represented by
the endosperm; and (3) the new sexless genera-
tion (sporophyte), represented by the embryo.
SPERMATOZOCN (Neo-Lat., from Gk. o'1rép-
/ra, sperma, seed + fqaov, eo'on, animal). The
male germ cell. The phenomenon of sexuality
consists of the union of two cells. In the
lowest forms these may be alike, but in the
higher plants and animals there is a difference
in size of the two uniting cells. The larger is
called the female cell or ‘egg,’ the smaller the
spermatozoiin. This diflerence in size is advan-
tageous, for it means a division of labor. The
large cell is passive and accumulates a large
amount of food-material by virtue of which the
future embryo is better provided for. The sper-
matozotin, on the other hand, retains the capacity
for locomotion; it seeks the passive egg. Conse-
quently, the spermatozoon becomes as small as
possible and is provided with a large locomotive
organ——the tail, flagellum, or lash. The spermato-
zoon is thus a highly specialized, actively loco-
motor cell. A typical flagellate spermatozoiin
consists of three parts: head, middle piece, and
tail. The head contains the nucleus, made up of
an extremely dense mass of chromatin; also often
an apical body or acrosome, lying in a spur of
the head. The middle piece is larger than the
tail and usually contains the centrosome. The
tail is a cytoplasmic thread, containing a central
delicate thread and having a lateral membrane
or fin which makes the stroke of the tail more
effective. Spermatozoa exhibit a great variety of
forms. Thus, the head may be nearly globular
or spear-shaped, or even of the shape of a cork-
screw. The membrane may be absent or it may
twist spirally around the axial thread. Finally
the spermatozoiin may, as in certain Crustacea,
be not thread-like, but star-shaped or spindle-
shaped, with the head at the centre. In plants,
also, the spermatozoiin (spermatozoid) exhibits
a great diversity of form from a sphere to a
screw-like thread.
The spermatozoa develop in a special organ of
the body called testis, typically a. mass of germ
cells, young and old. In the young male this
gland is made up of epithelial cells known as
primordial germ cells; from these by cell-division
arise ‘spermatogonia,’ still undifferentiated cells.
The spermatogonia grow until they become very
big, and are then called ‘spermatocytes.’ Each
large spermatocyte divides and the daughter cells
promptly divide again into ‘spermatids,’ four of
which thus arise from each spermatocyte. But
each spermatocyte has only half the number of
chromosomes that the original spermatocyte had.
Each spermatid now undergoes a change of form
by which it becomes a spermatozoiin, and not
until then is it ready to fertilize the egg. See
FEBTILIZATION.
SPERMOPHILE (from Gk. airépua, sperma,
seed + ¢i>\ei‘v, philein, to love). A ground-
squirrel of the genus Spermophilus, of which
more than a dozen species occur in the United
States, but only one or two in Europe. They are
all terrestrial, live in burrows under ground,
feed chiefly on herbage and seeds, are very pro-
lific, and are commonly called ‘gophers’ (q.v.),
thus confusing them with an entirely different
group of mammals. Three of the species, at
least, are sufficiently abundant to do much dam-
age to lawns and cultivated fields. A very effec-
tive means of destroying them is by soaking some
absorbent substance in carbon bisulphide and
placing it in the burrows. In size, form, color,
and length and shape of tail, the spermophiles
show great variety. They are usually some shade
of brown, mottled, spotted, or striped with other
shades. With the tail, they will average about
a foot in length. All are western, and denizens of
open regions, only two species occurring as far
east as Illinois. The flesh is edible. Consult Bailey,
“Prairie Ground Squirrels,” in Bulletin 1; (De-
partment of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology
and Mammalogy, Washington, 1893). Compare
CHIPMUNK.
SPERM WHALE. See WHALE.
SPES (Lat., hope). The Roman goddess of
hope, represented as a youthful divinity clad in
a long robe and bearing a bud in one hand. Spes
personified particularly hope for good harvests
and for children, and gradually came to be looked
upon as a goddess of the future, to be invoked
at births, marriages, and other important times.
SPEUSIP’PU'S (Lat., from Gk. Z1red<mr1ros)
(c.395-c.339 13.0.). An Athenian philosopher,
nephew and pupil of Plato, with whom he is sup-
posed to have visited S acuse. For the last
eight years of his life. peusippus was head of
the Old Academy. He went even further than
Plato in his mystical interest in the Pythagorean
numbers, but in general agreed with his master,
save that he denied the perfect goodness of the
primordial unity, inasmuch as bad must be held
to proceed from it as well as good. Consult
Fischer, De Speusippi Atheniensis Vita (Rastatt,
1845).
SPEY, spa. A river of Scotland, rising in
Inverness-shire, and, after a northeast course of
about 110 miles, falling into the Moray Firth, 3
miles west of Portgordon (Map: Scotland, E 2).
The Spey is the second longest river in Scotland.
It has salmon fisheries.
SPEYER.
SPHERE.
79
SPEYER, spi’er, or SPEIER (in Eng. often
Spire). The capital of the Palatinate, Bavaria,
situated at the confluence of the Speyerbach and
the Rhine, 23 miles norm of Karlsruhe (Map:
Prussia, C 4). The chief feature is the magnifi-
cent cathedral, a vast Romanesque edifice. Its
construction was begun in 1030 by Conrad II.,
the founder of the Franconian dynasty of German
emperors, and in its original form it was com-
pleted in the reign of his grandson, Henry IV.
It was long the burial place of the German em-
perors. It suffered in 1689 and 1794 from the
vandalism of the French invaders, who spared
nothing. The work of restoration was com-
pleted in 1858. The interior is embellished with
magnificent frescoes, statues, and reliefs by
Schraudolph and other masters. Among the
other architectural monuments of the city is a
splendid gate of the thirteenth century. Speyer
has a fine museum of anti uities. The manufac-
tures include woolens, mac inery, shoes, tobacco,
vinegar, and sugar. Speyer, the Roman Augusta
Nemetum (later Noviomagus), was created an
episcopal see in 348. It was a favorite residence
of the German emperors, and became a free Im-
perial city in 1294. At the Diet of Speyer in
1529 the followers of Luther presented their pro-
test, which gave them the appellation of Protest-
ants. The city belonged to France from 1801 to
1814, when it passed to Bavaria. Population, in
1900, 20,911.
SPEZIA, spet’sé-a. A city in the Province of
Genoa, Italy, on the Gulf of Spezia, 56 miles by
rail southeast of Genoa (Map: Italy, D 3). The
beautiful scenery and mild climate have made it
a favorite winter resort. The advantages of the
Gulf as a naval station were pointed out by
Napoleon I., and in 1861 the Italian Government
made it the chief naval harbor of Italy. On
the hills around the harbor there are strong
fortifications. The ship-building yards are im-
portant, some of the largest Italian warships
having been constructed here. The city has a
technical institute, a school of navigation, and a
marine hospital. Considerable trade is carried
on, chiefly in olive oil, wine, fruits, and marble.
There are manufactures of furniture, hemp-linen,
and leather. Spezia is near the site of the an-
ceint Luna, of which some remains exist. Popula-
tion (commune), in 1881, 30,732; in 1901, 65,612.
SPHACTEYRIA, or SPHAGIA. An island off
the southwestern coast of Messenia, Greece, com-
manding the entrance to the Bay of Navarino.
SPHAGNUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. c¢d7vos,
sphagnos, o¢dxos, sphalcos, ¢daxos, phaskos,
¢d<n<ov, phaslcon, sort of moss), or Boc Moss. A
genus of mosses intermediate between the liver-
worts and true mosses (see MUSCI) remarkable
for their whitish or pale color. They often grow
in considerable masses, absorbing water like
sponge, but becoming friable when dry. They
contribute much to the formation of peat, al-
though peat from sphagnum alone is of poor
quality. Gardeners employ them for covering and
moistening the roots of plants because they read-
ily absorb moisture from the air. The cells of
the leaves are remarkable for their spiral struc-
ture, and for large pores in their sides. See Plate
of BRYOPHYTES and Colored Plate under Muscr.
SPHENE (from Gk. a¢nv, sphen, wedge; so
called from the shape of the crystals). One of
the light-colored (yellow or green) varieties of
titanite (q.v.).
SPHENISCI (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
a¢nvloxos, spheniskos, diminutive of o'¢ijv, sphén,
wedge). A group of birds, the penguins (q.v.).
SPHENOID BONE (Gk. o'<}!>i7voe¢51§s. sphén-
oeides, wedge-shaped, from 0'¢i§11, sphen, wedge +
eldos, eidos, form). A bone situated at the an-
terior part of the base of the skull, and articu-
lated with all the other cranial bones, which it
wedges firmly together. It somewhat resembles
a bat with its wings extended, and hence was
termed the os vespertilionis. It is divisible into
a body, the greater and lesser wings, and various
processes. The greater wings present three sur-
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SPHENOID BONE AS SEEN FROM THE FRONT.
faces: a superior or cerebral surface, forming
part of the floor on which the brain rests; an
anterior surface, which assists to form the outer
part of the orbit of the eye; and an external sur-
face with a rough ridge, giving attachment to the
external pterygoid muscle, one of the most power-
ful muscles of mastication. The second, third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth cranial nerves emerge
from the cranial cavity through foramina in
this bone.
SPHERE (Lat. sphwra, from Gk. oqbaipa,
sphaira, ball, globe; connected with Lith. spira,
ball of dung, and perhaps with Skt. sphar, to
hasten, stretch out). A solid bounded by a sur-
face every point of which is at a given distance
from a fixed point. The given distance is called
the radius and the fixed point the centre of the
sphere. A spherical surface may be generated
by revolving a semi-circumference about its diam-
eter. Sections of a sphere made by planes are
circles. If the plane passes through the centre
of the sphere, the circle is a great circle, other-
wise a small circle of the sphere. If the seg-
ments into which a plane divides a sphere are un-
equal, the smaller is called the minor and the
larger the major segment. That portion of the
spherical surface which is included between two
parallel planes which cut or touch the surface
is called a zone. The portion of a sphere gener-
ated by the revolution of a circular sector about
any diameter of its circle as an axis is called a
spherical sector.
The surface of a sphere is equal to
four times the area of a great circle of the
sphere, or 41rr”, r being the radius of the
sphere. Its volume is -?,1rr3. The rectangular
equation of a sphere, the origin being at the
centre, is as’ + y2 + z” :: r’. (See CO6RDINATES.)
(For the formulas for areas and volumes relating
SPHERE.
SPHINX.
80
to zones, segments, and sectors, see MENSUBA-
TION.) A remarkable property of the sphere is
that its surface is equal to the curved surface of
the circumscribed cylinder and its volume is two-
thirds of that of the cylinder, a property said to
i\\\\\\\\\\\\\l|Illlfll/I///l


BPHEBICAL SECTORS. THE LEFT ONE A BPHERICAL CONE.
have been discovered by Archimedes (q.v.) . If a
sphere and a double cone be inscribed in an equi-
lateral cylinder, the sphere and the volume be-
tween the cone and the cylinder are Cavalieri
bodies. See CAVALIEBI.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
TRIGONOMETBY.
SPHEROGRAPH. See SAILINGS.
SPHEROID. See Ermresorn.
SPHEROIDAL STATE (from spheroid, from
Gk. a¢mpoerfivjs, sphairoeides, like a ball or
sphere, from a¢ai‘pa, sphaira, ball, globe +
ef6os, eidos, form). The phenomenon observed
when a drop of water placed on a highly heated
surface remains in its spherical shape and moves
about over the surface, evaporating gradually,
instead of vaporizing instantaneously. The ex-
periment to show this condition of a liquid is gen-
erally performed by using a metallic disk heated
by a lamp or Bunsen burner, on which one or
more drops of water are carefully let fall. If
the disk is sufficiently heated a layer of vapor will
be formed between its surface and the drop, which
is known as the ‘Crookes’s layer.’ The liquid re-
mains suspended on this vapor and the drop
takes the form of an oblate spheroid, the tem-
perature, however, never rising above the boiling
point, being in the case of water about 206° F.
or 96.6° C., while the disk itself must have a
temperature of at least 340° F. or 171° C. The
explanation of this fact is that the latent heat
carried off in the course of vaporizatibn is suf-
ficient to keep the temperature below the boiling
point. The drop does not actually touch the
disk, but is supported on a cushion of vapor,
which is evaporating toward the hot plate so
rapidly as by its reaction to keep the water from
falling. This may be seen by looking at a flame
through the intervening space, or by attempting
to pass an electric current from the drop of water
to the metal disk, using a galvanometer to detect
its passage, there being no deflection of the needle
unless the two substances are in actual contact.
The liquid takes a spherical shape owing to capil-
lary action. Other liquids and bodies that are
solid at ordinary temperatures also show this
phenomenon, and instead of a metallic surface,
that of a hot liquid can also be used. A striking
illustration of this same principle is the immer-
sion of a hand in molten metal, or in liquid air,
the thin layer of aqueous vapor preventing the
passage of the heat or cold to the hand. Consult:
Stewart, Elementary Treatise on Heat (6th ed.,
Oxford, 1895) ; Barker, Physics (New York,
1893); Daniel, Tewt-Book of the Principles of
Physics (3d ed., New York, 1804).
See
SPHINCTER MUSCLE ( Lat. sphincter,
from Gk. a¢n/Kwjp, sphinkte'r, that which binds
tight, sphincter, from o'¢>l"y'yew, sphingein, to
strangle; possibly connected with Arm. pirlc,
tight). A circular band of muscular fibres, whose
function is to antagonize the expellent action of
certain viscera, especially the bladder and the
lower part of the intestinal canal. It is to the
presence of these muscles that the higher animals
owe the power of retaining for a considerable
period the excrementitious matters collected in
the bladder and rectum, and of discharging them
at intervals, the sphincter muscles being, like
those engaged in the process of respiration,
mainly, but not entirely, under the control of the
wil .
SPHINX (Lat., from Gk. o-¢l'y£, sphinx, from
o'¢l'y')/ea:/, sphingein, to strangle). A composite
monster, famous in Greek mythology, having the
head of a woman, the body of a lion, the wings of
a bird, and the tail of a serpent. According to
the legend, she proposed a riddle to the Thebans,
slaying all who were unable to guess it, and
when (Edipus finally solved her riddle, she threw
herself over a cliff and perished. She is said to
have been the daughter of Echidna and her son
Orthrus, or of Chimeera and her brother Orthrus.
The name sphinx was applied by the Greeks to a
class of composite figures, familiar in Egyptian
art, having the body of a lion and the head of a
man or of some animal. A figure of this sort
with a human head was called an androsphinx;
one having a ram’s head, a criosphinx; and one
with a hawk’s head, a hieracosphinx. Like the
winged bulls and lions found in Assyria, the
Egyptian sphinx was the guardian genius of the
temple before which it stood. The avenues lead-
ing to many Egyptian temples were guarded by
long rows of sphinxes placed at intervals on
either side. Primarily the sphinx represented
an imaginary human-headed animal, living in the
desert, and believed to be a favorite incarnation
assumed by the Sun-god Re. As a rule, the face
was modeled after that of the reigning Pharaoh,
the son of Re and his representative upon earth,
and therefore Egyptian sphinxes were almost in-
variably male, though they might also present
the features of a reigning queen. Where the
sphinx has the head of an animal, the head is
that of the animal sacred to the god before whose
temple the figure is placed.
The most remarkable of all Egyptian sphinxes
is the Great Sphinx of Ghizeh, lying about 300
feet east of the second pyramid. It is sculptured
out of the native rock, to which masonry has been
added in certain places to complete the form. The
body is roughly hewn out, but the head was
originally executed with great care. The entire
height of the monument, from the crown of the
head to the pavement on which the fore legs rest,
is about 66 feet. In length the figure measures
172.5 feet; the fore legs are 50 feet long; and the
head is 30 feet long by nearly 14 feet in breadth.
The face was originally colored red, but the color-
ing has almost entirely disappeared. In 1816
the front of the Sphinx was cleared of sand
by Caviglia, who found close to the breast a
shrine, or small temple, containing an inscription
of Thothmes IV. and one of Rameses II. Both
monarchs had cleared away the sand that had
accumulated about the monument. From the
inscription of Thothmes IV. it is clear that the
SPHINX.
SPIDER.
81
Sphinx was considered to represent Harmaehis
(q.v.), a special form of the sun-god, and its office
was to serve as a guardian of the necropolis near
the pyramids. It has been supposed to be the
work of King Chephren of the Fourth Dynasty,
and some archaeologists have even assigned it to
an earlier period, but the existing evidence is
insufficient to fix its date with any- degree of
accuracy. Consult: Vyse, The Pyramids of Gizeh
(London, 1840) ; Lepsius, Denhmaler (Berlin,
1849-58) ; Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in
Ancient Egypt (London, 1883) ; Baedeker, Aegyp-
ten (4th ed., Berlin, 1897) ; Petrie, A History of
Egypt (New York, 1899) ; Budge, A History of
Egypt (ib., 1902). See Plate of PYRAMIDS.
SPHINX MOTHS. Moths of the family
Sphingidae, described under HAWK-MOTH. Promi-
nent American examples are depicted on the Col-
ored Plates of Morns, and of INSECTS.
SPHYGMOGRAPH (from Gk. o¢vy,u6g,sphyg-
mos, pulse + ypauw, graphein, to write). An
instrument invented by Vierovdt and perfected
by Marcy by which are ascertained and perma-
nently recorded the force and frequency of the
pulse-beat and the changes which it undergoes.
It consists of two essential parts: (1) Of two
levers, one of which is so delicately adjusted, on
the vessel the pulsation of which it is desired
to examine, that on each expansion of the vessel
the lever undergoes a corresponding slight eleva-
tion; this lever communicates by a perpendicular
arm with a second, to which it transmits the
impulse received from the vessel; the extremity
of this second lever is armed with a pen-point,
which records the movement thus indicated on a
movable plate, controlled by the second part of
the instrument. (2) The -second portion consists
of a plate, moved by clockwork, and bearing a
strip of paper on which the sphygmogram is
written. The instrument may be combined with
a microphone, constituting a sphygmophone. The
pulsations may be seen by an appliance termed a
sphygmoscope.
SPICCATO, spé-ka’to (It., separated). A
term in music indicating a distinct and detached
mode of performance. Its usual application is
to music for bowed instruments, where it im-
plies that each note is to be played with a
springing bow. The bow is allowed to fall by
its own weight upon the string; it rebounds and
falls again, thus producing the next tone.
SPICE BUSH. See FEVER BUSH.
SPICE ISLANDS. A group of islands in the
Dutch East Indies. See MOLUCCAS.
SPICES. See FLAVORING PLANTS.
SPIDER (ME. spither, from AS., Goth., OHG.
spinnan, Ger. spinnen, to spin; cf. OHG. spinna,
Ger. Spinne, spinner, spider). Any member of
the Araneida, an order in the class Arachnida.
The arachnids are distinguished from insects
by the possession of four pairs of legs; while
spiders are separated from other Arachnida by
the presence of spinning-organs near the tip of
the body. The body of a spider is divided into
two portions connected by a small slender pedi-
cel. The anterior part is called ‘cephalothorax.’
and is supposed to represent the combined head
and thorax of insects. The posterior part is
the ‘abdomen.’ On the anterior part of the
cephalothorax are the eyes, commonly eight in
number, and frequently arranged in two trans-
verse rows of four each. In the lower front
margin of the cephalothorax are the mouth-
parts. These consist of a pair of jaws, some-
times called mandibles or ‘falces;’ a pair of
palpi, whose basal joints are enlarged into max-
illae; and a median unpaired lower lip. The
mandibles are two-jointed; the basal joint is
very large and stout, the apical one is small,
claw-like, and called the ‘fang.’ The palpi are
filiform, and six-jointed. In the female they are
simple and often terminate in a claw ; in the
male, however, the apical joint is curiously
modified into a complicated accessory sexual
organ, suited to carry and apply the seminal
fluid. The four pairs of legs are similar in
structure, but variable in length. Each con-
sists of seven joints, and ends in two or three
toothed claws. The spiders that live on webs
usually have three claws, the median more
curved than the others; while other spiders com-
monly have but two. In place of the median
claw is sometimes a dense fascicle of hairs. The
abdomen of spiders is generally soft, tumid, and
has no apparent joints. The genital organ opens
near the base of the abdomen beneath. The male
aperture is inconspicuous, but the female vulva
or epigynum is often very prominent, and some-
times quite complicated. At the apex of the
abdomen are four to six short, often two-jointed
pieces, the spinnerets or spinning-organs. Each
spinneret has on its surface many minute ori-
fices, from each of which may issue a thread,
and the many threads joined together make the
spider’s line. The substance which exudes from
the spinnerets is glutinous, but dries on contact
with the air. Some spiders possess an accessory
spinning-organ, a transverse surface in front of
the base of the spinnerets known as the ‘cribel-
lum.’ Correlated with this is a row of curved
hairs on the hind metatarsus, called the ‘calamis-
trum.’ The spider draws the row of hairs over
the cribellum and combs out a curled or tangled
thread of silk.
The mouth of the spider opens into a short
(esophagus, which leads to a sucking-stomach
which draws up the liquid food. From the
posterior part of this organ arise two branches
which extend upward and forward and meet over
the month; each branch gives off on the outer
side four smaller branches, one in front of each
leg, and these unite below the sucking-stomach.
From the stomach arises the intestine, which
passes into the abdomen and opens just behind
the spinnerets. In the abdomen just above the
intestine is a long tubular heart or pulsating
vessel, with openings in front, behind, and along
the sides. The nervous system is represented by
a large, long ganglionic mass lying on the floor
of the cephalothorax. In front is a -smaller mass
which gives rise to nerves to the eyes and jaws.
At the base of the abdomen below there is a
cavity on each side, nearly filled by a series of
thin plates through which the air reaches the
blood. These are the ‘lungs.’ Spiders also have
a pair of branching tracheae, which open just in
front of the spinnerets. The silk-glands lie
above the spinnerets and along the floor of the
abdomen. They are of two kinds, most of them
short, but two are larger and very long. Each
silk-gland ha-s a separate opening or duct in the
spinnerets.
SPIDER.
srmenL.
82
The eggs are deposited (10 to 2000 in number)
within silken cases or cocoons made by the
mother spider for this purpose. The young
spider on hatching is in general appearance much
like the parent, but with larger hairs, and less
distinctly marked. As the young spider grows,
it is obliged to molt the skin. The number of
molts varies from six to nine. The spider’s
silk is not used solely in the construction of
webs, but serves a variety of purposes. With
many spiders the web is a loose, irregular maze
of crossed threads, which are the true ‘cobwebs.’
In other cases it is a flat sheet of threads with
a tubular retreat at one corner. The geometric
or orb webs consist of a varying number of ra-
diating lines, crossed by many parallel or
spiral threads. The whole is supported by sev-
eral guy-lines or stouter threads. At one corner
or in the near vicinity is a -silken nest or'retreat,
where the spider remains concealed during the
day or when not using the web. This retreat is
connected by a line to the centre of the web.
When waiting for prey the spider rests upon the
centre of the web, head downward and legs ex-
tended. See ORB-WEAVER.
The male spider is usually smaller than the
female, with longer legs, and often is more highly
colored; sometimes he has additional spines on
the legs, or spurs on the coxae. In many of the
minute species the male has the front of the
cephalothorax greatly swollen and elevated, often
molded into grotesque shapes. The courtship
of spiders is frequently attended with grave peril
to the male. The female, if not in the suitable
temper, may attack and devour her devoted ad-
mirer. In -some cases, however, the male is
larger than his mate.
As a rule spiders can see clearly only for a
few inches. They have an acute sense of hear-
ing, as well as of touch. A number of spiders
are so shaped or colored as to deceptively re-
semble ants, an appearance heightened by their
erratic movements. Others resemble the sur-
faces upon which they usually occur, as the bark
of trees, dead leaves or twigs, and the petals of
flowers. A few are able to produce sounds;
some by rubbing the base of the abdomen over
the base of the cephalothorax, others by rubbing
the palpi against the sides of the mandibles. A
considerable number, known as trap-door spiders,
dig holes in the ground, line them with silk, and
cover the entrance by a close-fitting door, the
upper surface of which is made to resemble its
surrounding. Some species make similar nests in
trees. A few spiders are social and produce
web-s in common, or closely connected to each
other. Some of the large spiders are very power-
ful and can kill small birds, rats, fish, and other
animals. All spiders have poison-glands and
use them in capturing prey, but with most
spiders the mandibles are so small and weak as
to be incapable of piercing the human skin, and
if they did so the small amount of poison in-
jected could have no deleterious effect. With the
large tarantulas it is different, although cases
of death from their bites are few and doubtful.
There is one group of spiders, however (genus
Latrodectus), which appear to merit the name
of ‘poisonous spiders.’ The New Zealand species,
locally known as ‘katipo’ (q.v.), certainly ap-
pears to be dangerous. A species of Latrodectus
occurs in the Southern United States, where it
is called ‘malmignatte,’ but ‘its bite (as far as
known) has not proved fatal.
The classification of spiders, formerly quite‘
simple and based on their habits and webs, has
undergone a complete revolution. Thirty-five or
forty families are now known; several, however,
contain but few species. The more prominent
families may be grouped in two classes for con-
venience. Of the non-web-building kinds are the
Theraphosidae, or tarantulas, and trap-door
spiders. They have vertically moving fangs, four
lung-slits, and are of large size. The Dysderidae
possess but six eyes and live in dark places.
The Drassidee are flat, with prominent spin-
nerets, and live on the ground or under stones.
The Clubionidae are convex and occur on bushes
or among dead leaves. The Sparassidae are very
flat and broad and are abundant in the tropics.
The Thomisidae, or crab-spiders, are flat, broad,
can walk sidewise, and catch prey by the fore
legs. The Lycosidae, or wolf-spiders, have the
eyes in three rows, those of the lowest very
small; they wander in woods and fields. The
Attidae, or jumping spiders, have eyes in three
rows, those of the lowest row the largest; they
jump, and stalk their prey.
Among web-building forms are the Agalenidae,
which make flat sheets of web with a tubular
retreat at one side; the Dictynidee, which possess
a cribellum, and make irregular webs, with
curled threads; the Theridiidm, which make the
familiar cobweb; and the Epeiridae, which make
geometric or orb webs.
Consult: Emerton, The Common Spiders of the
United States (Boston, 1902); McCook, Ameri-
can Spiders and Their Spinning Work (Phila-
delphia, 1889) ; Cambridge, The Spiders of Dor-
set (Sherbourne, 1879-81) .
SPIDER-CRAB. Any crab in which the legs
are of unusual length in comparison with the
body. The famous giant crab of Japan (Macro-
chira Kempferi) is the largest known spider-'
crab, and has legs from four to six feet in length.
On the eastern coast of the United States the
name is usually given to species of Libinia, es-
pecially Libinia canaliculata, which is very com-
mon on muddy shores or flats.
SPIDER-MONKEY. One of the small Ameri-
can monkeys of the genus Ateles, with very long,
slender, inelegant limbs. The tail is very long,
prehensile, and sensitive. Spider-monkeys are
very active, agile creatures, easily recognized by
the absence of a thumb. The largest species
is the coaita (Ateles paniscns) of the Amazon
Valley, which is two feet long exclusive of the
tail. Another species (Ateles oellerosus) is no-
table because it is found farther north than any
other American monkey. The hooded spider-
monkey (Ateles cncnllatns) figured on the Plate
of AMERICAN MONKEYS is black, and inhabits the
eastern slopes of the Andes. Consult authorities
cited under Monxnv.
SPIEG-EL, spé’gel, FRIEDRICH von (1820-).
A German Orientalist, one of the pioneers in the
field of Iranian philology. He was born in Kitz-
ingen, studied at Erlangen, Leipzig, and Bonn,
then spent five years in the libraries of Copen-
hagen, Paris, London, and Oxford, and from
1849 to 1890 was professor of Oriental languages
in the University of Erlangen. His early studies
on Pali and the publication of the Kamma/vdhya
SPIEGEL.
SPINACH.
83
(1841) and the Ancedota Palica (1845) did
much for the knowledge of southern Buddhism.
They were quickly followed by his researches on
Zoroastrianism and the Avesta. The edition of
the greater part of the extant Avesta, together
with the Pahlavi translation (1853-58), was fol-
lowed by a German version (1852-63), and sup-
plemented by a commentary (1865-69). Then
came the valuable linguistic and archaeological
works Die altpersischen Keilinschriften (1862, 2d
ed. 1881), Era/n (1863), Era/n/ische Alterums-
kunde (1871-78), Vergleichende Gra/mmatik der
alteranischen Sprachen (1882), and Die arische
Periode und ihre Zustzinde (1887). Mention
should be made of a Chrestomathia Persica
(1845) , of the Grammatik der Parsisprache
(1851), and of the Einleitung in die traditionellen
Schriften der Parsen (1856-60).
SPIEGELEISEN, spé'gel-i'zen. See IRON AND
STEEL.
SPIELCHAGEN, spei-l’ha-gen, FRIEDRICH
(l829—). A German novelist, born at Magde-
burg, and educated at Berlin, Bonn, and Greifs-
wald. He taught for a while at Leipzig, and in
1859 became editor of the Zeitung fiir Nord-
deutschland, in Hanover. Thence he moved in
1862 to Berlin, and edited (1878-84) Wester-
mann’s I llustrirte M onatschefte. Spielhagen be-
gan novel-writing with Problematischc N aturen
(1860), and then for a while dealt with social
problems, arising from the irrepressible conflict
between the stolid landed nobility and the intel-
ligence of the nation. In several books (Durch
Nacht zum Licht, 1861; Die eon Hohenstein,
1863; In Reih il/nd Glied, 1866; Hammer 'u/nd
Arnboss, 1869) he treated the subject with an
aggressive optimism that won him a popularity
which he afterwards maintained by sensational
novels of a lower type. Of these Stumnflut
(1877), Der neue Pharao (1899), and Freige-
boren ( 1900) are sufficient exemplars. Excellent are
his critical Beitniige zur Theorie und Technik des
Romans (1883). His own ideal for the novel is
to present an artistically composed picture of
the times, and for this he makes constant hardly
veiled allusions to persons of contemporary
prominence, so that his novels lose with time
something of their significance and actuality. As
a translator Spielhagen rendered into German
Curtis’s Howadji, Emerson’s English Traits, a
selection of American poems (1859 ; 2d ed. 1865),
and Roscoe’s Lorenzo de’ Medici. He also trans-
lated from the French minor works of Michelet,
L’amour, La femme, La mer. His collected
novels appeared in 22 vols. in 1895. Consult his
autobiographical Finder und Erfinder (1890),
and Karpeles, Friedrich Spielhagen (Leipzig,
1889).
SPIELMANN, spél’man, MARION H. (1858
—). An English art critic and author. He was
born in London and studied at University Col-
lege, London, with a view to becoming an en-
gineer. He soon turned to literature, beginning
with articles on art for the Pall Mall Gazette
(1883). Afterwards he became art critic of the
Daily Graphic, art editor of Black and White,
and (1887) editor of the Magazine of Art.
Among his publications are the History of Punch
(1895), exceedingly well done; Millais and His
Works (1898); The Unidentified Contributions
of Thackeray to Punch (1899); John Ruskin
(1900); Notes on the Wallace Collection in
Hertford House (1900); and British Sculpture
and Sculptors of To-Day (1902).
SPIGELIA (Neo-Lat., named in honor of
Adrian van der Spiegel, a Belgian physician and
professor of anatomy at Padua in the seventeenth
century). A genus of plants of the natural order
Loganiaceae. Spigelia marilandica, often called
worm grass and Carolina pinkioot, a native of
the Southern United States, occurring from New
Jersey to Wisconsin, and west to Texas, is a
perennial plant with a simple quadrangular stem.
The root has been employed in the United States
as a vermifuge, as has also Spigelia anthelm/ia,
a tropical American annual with spike-like ra-
cemes of purplish flowers.
SPIKE. A kind of inflorescence (q.v.).
SPIKENABD (OF. spiquenard, from Lat.
spica nardi, spike of nard, from spica, spike,
point, head or tuft of a plant, and nardi, gen. sg.
of nardus, Gk. vdpdos, nard, from Pers. nard,
from Skt. nalada, Indian spikenard), or NABD. A
costly perfume of India highly prized by the
ancients and used both in baths and at feasts.
The ‘ointment of spikenard’ (John xii. 3) was
probably an oil or fat impregnated with the
perfume. The plant which produces it has been
ascertained to be the Nardostachys jatamansi, a
native of the mountains of Northern India. The
root, which is from three to twelve inches long,
sends up many stems, with little spikes of purple
flowers, which have four stamens. Andropogon
nardus yields an oil which is sometimes called
oil of spikenard; and in the United States Ara-
lia racemosa, a tall herb with large perennial
spicy aromatic roots, is known as spikenard.
See ABALIA.
SPINA BIFIDA (Lat., cleft spine). A con-
genital hernia of the membranes of the s inal
cord through a fissure in the wall of the ony
canal. A tumor is thus formed, which is nearly
round, varying in size from that of an egg to that
of an adult head, lying in the middle line of the
back, fluctuating, and adhering to the adjacent
vertebrae either directly or by a pedicle. The sac
may contain only the spinal membranes (men-
ingocele) or a part of the cord with the mem-
branes (meningo-myelocele), or lastly the spinal
cord so distended by the expansion of the cen-
tral canal as to form a neural lining to the sac.
The usual termination of the condition is death.
As the size of the tumor increases, fatal con-
vulsions ensue; or the skin investing the tumor
may ulcerate, and suffocation follow. Occasional
cases are, however, recorded in which patients
with this affection have survived till middle life.
Active surgical treatment usually hastens death,
and should only be used in the most urgent cir-
cumstances. Moderate support by means of a
hollow truss, or a well-padded concave shield,
may tend to keep the disease stationary; and any
interference beyond this is, in the great majority
of cases, unadvisable.
SPINACH, or SPINAGE (OF. spinache,
espinache, espinage, espinace, from ML. spinacia,
spinacium, spinach, from Lat. spina, thorn, spine,
so called because of the prickly fruit), Spinacia.
A genus of herbs of the natural order Chenopo-
diaceae; probably natives of Asia. Common
spinach, or garden spinach (Spi/nacia oleracea),
SPINACH.
SPIN IDLE TREE.
84
is an annual widely cultivated for its young
leaves, which are used as greens. Two very dis-
tinct botanical varieties are cultivated: prickly
spinach, with somewhat triangular and arrow-
headed leaves and rough knobby fruit; smooth
spinach, or round spinach (Spinacia glabra of
some botanists), with round and blunt leaves and
smooth fruit. Upon poor soil and after the ap-
pearance of the stem, which reaches a height of
two feet, the leaves become bitter, hence the
more luxuriantly spinach grows, the better it is.
It may be sown in spring in rows about one foot
apart, but it is generally sown in autumn for
early spring use. The smooth spinach is very
generally preferred for the former purpose, and
the prickly kind for the latter. Several unre-
lated plants are also called spinach, of which the
best known is New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia
ewpansa), a plant of the natural order Mesem-
bryacem, a trailing, succulent annual that with-
stands the heat of summer and is a valuable suc-
cessor to true spinach. See Plate of YAM,
SWEET Porarons, etc.
SPINAL CARIES.
OF THE.
SPINAL COLUMN (Lat. spinalis, relating
to a thorn or to the spine, from spina, thorn,
spine), or SPINE. The most important and char-
acteristic part of the skeleton of the highest ani-
mal sub-kingdom, which includes mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and fishes. In each of these
classes it is composed of a series of bones placed
one above or in front of another, and called the
vertebrae; and hence, these animals, having this
distinguishing characteristic in common, are all
included in the term vertebrates. The vertebrae
vary greatly in number in different animals, and
in shape they differ extremely, even in differ-
ent parts of the same spine, in accordance with
their special functions. In man the number of
vertebrae which collectively form the spinal col-
umn is 7 in the neck (cervical vertebrae), 12 in
the back (dorsal vertebrae), 5 in the loins (lum-
bar vertebrae), 5 ossified together, forming the
sacrum, and 4 similarly united forming the ter-
mination of the column or coccyx. However long
or short the neck may be, every mammal has 7
cervical vertebrae, excepting the three-toed sloth,
which has 9, and the sea-cow, which has 6. In
the other regions of the spine no such law exists.
Each vertebra is attached to the two between
which it lies by numerous strong and more or
less elastic ligaments, and between each pair of
vertebrae there is interposed a lenticular disk of
fibro-cartilage, which acts as a buffer. By these
arrangements the spinal column is rendered
highly elastic, the communication of jars or
shocks is prevented, and a very considerable gen-
eral range of movement permitted, although the
motion between any two adjacent vertebrae is
slight. The elasticity of the column is further
increased by the component vertebrae being ar-
ranged in curves, instead of being placed perpen-
dicularly. These curves enable the spine to bear
a greater vertical weight than it could otherwise
maintain; they facilitate the movements of the
body, especially in the act of running; and they
are so disposed as to protect the cord in move-
ments of the spine.
The vertebral canal formed by the apposition
of the spinal foramina, or neural arches, and
See SPINE, CURVATURE
containing and protecting the spinal cord, varies
in its size at different parts of the column. The
intervertebral foramina through which the nerves
emerge vary in shape and position in different
parts, but are always of sufficient size to pre-
vent injurious pressure on the nerves during
movements of the spine; and in the dorsal region,
which is the ordinary seat of angular curvature,
the nerves are so protected by bony arches that
they may escape injury, even when the bodies of
several dorsal vertebrae have been destroyed by
ulceration.
SPINAL CORD. See Nnnvous SYSTEM AND
BRAIN.
SPIND’LER, KARL (1796-1855). A German
novelist, born at Breslau. He studied law at
Strassburg, fled thence to escape being drafted
into the military service of France, and became
an actor. In 1825 he turned to literature, and
became one of the group, including Hauff and
Htiring (‘Wilibald Alexis’), which imitated in
historical fiction the lVaverley methods of Scott.
1\fost of his work. which fills 101 volumes in the
Stuttgart collective edition of 1854-56, while fas-
cinating as to plot, is careless in execution. In
a few cases. however, as Der Jesuit (1820), Der
Jude (1827), Der Invalidfie (1831), and Der
Vogelleiincller von I/mst (1842), he skillfully de-
picted the historical background, and merited,
though he did not gain, a more than temporary
success.
SPINDLESHELL. A genus (Fusus) of
gastropodous mollusks nearly allied to Murex
(q.v.), having a spindle-shaped shell, with a
very elevated spire, the first whorl often much






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SPINDLE-SHELLS
a, A living species (Fusus proboscidalis); b. A fossil
(Miocene) species (Fusus Iongirostris).
dilated, and with a straight elongated canal.
About 100 existing species have been described,
and more than three times that number of fossil
ones.
SPINDLE TREE (Euonymus). A genus of
about 60 species of shrubs or small trees of the
natural order Celastraceae. The common spindle
tree (Euonymus Europceus), a European shrub
with an orange-colored aril, is often planted for
ornament. The hard, fine-grained wood is used
for fine turnery and for skewers. It was for-
merly used for making musical instruments and
for spindles, whence the name. Charcoal made of
it is much valued for crayons. In the United
States wahoo, or burning bush (Euonymus
atropurpureus), is a small crimson-fruited tree
or shrub, which occurs from New York to Ne-
braska and southward. Strawberry bush (Euony-
mus Americanus) is a low shrub often found
along wooded river banks from Illinois south-
ward. See Bmnnnnnur.
SPINDLE TREE.
SPINELLO ARETINO.
85
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SPINDLE TREE (Euonym us Europzeus).
SPINE, CURVATURE on THE. There are two
distinct forms of curvature, lateral curvature,
arising from weakness of the bones, ligaments,
and muscles, and angular curvature, Wh1Ch re-
sults from carious disease of the vertebrae.
Lateral curvature of the spine, or scoliosis, is
. not simply a bending of the spine laterally. In
addition there is also considerable rotation or
twisting of the vertebral bodies which normally
are held in their proper relation and position by
the ligaments and muscles. Muscular action is
necessary for the maintenance of the erect pose;
and if, through fatigue and exhaustion or
through muscular weakness, from disease, such
as rickets (q.v.), the muscles fail to act, a
temporary deformity is brought‘ about. If this is
not remedied the ligaments become relaxed, the
bones which are not yet fully developed adopt
their growth to conform to the new relations, and
the deformity persists. Postural habits, such
as standing on one leg or sitting incorrectly at a
desk, tend to distort the spine and to stretch
certain ligaments, and often result in perma-
nent deformity.
Lateral curvature is more frequent among girls
than among boys, for their muscles are less de-
veloped by physical exercise and their general
strength is often unequal to the strain put upon
them in their school life. In lateral curvature
the bodies of the vertebrae rotate toward the con-
vexity and the spines toward the concavity of
the curve. In the dorsal region the ribs are car-
ried with the vertebrae in their rotation, and
therefore the chest becomes deformed and the
functions of heart and lungs are seriously in-
terfered with. In order to maintain the erect
position a compensatory curve develops. In
the dorsal region the tendency is to the right,
While in the lumbar region it is to the left.
The subjects of this affection do not usually
complain of pain and often nothing wrong is
noticed except an awkwardness in gait or a ten-
dency to carry one shoulder higher than the
other. An examination will show the prominent
spinal processes and the abnormal curve of the
spine. Spinal supports and plaster jackets are
not to be used. The whole treatment should be
directed to strengthening the muscles by exercise
and massage. Exercise, however, must not be
carried to excess, for this will only aggravate the
existing conditions.
Angular curvature of the spine, commonly
known as Pott’s disease, is the result of caries of
the vertebrae, a disease essentially tubercular
in character. It occurs most frequently in chil-
dren between the ages of three and twelve
years, but is also met with in babes and in
adults. An injury such as a blow or a fall often
acts as an important factor, but at times we can
trace no existing cause whatever. The most
common seat of disease is in the dorsal vertebrae.
The inflammation begins in the bodies of the
vertebrae, and as they become softened or de-
stroyed the spinal column above settles down
upon the healthy portion below and the spines
of the diseased vertebrae are pushed backward,
producing a deformity more or less marked.
The symptoms are rigidity of the spine with
tenderness and a deformity of varying degree.
Sometimes abscesses form and pus and bony
debris are evacuated (especially lumbar and
psoas abscesses). The pain is frequently marked
and in some cases pressure upon the spinal cord
or nerves gives s. mptoms of an aggravated type.
The disease is s ow, with a poor prognosis, al-
though the chances are vastly improved if treat-
ment is begun early. The best we can hope for
is an arrest of the disease and an ankylosis at
the site of the trouble. Rest of the spine is the
essential factor in treatment, and is obtained by
a plaster-of-Paris jacket or some one of the
surgical appliances especially adapted to special
regions. General treatment and hygiene are of
course necessary.
SPINEL (OF. spinelle, espinelle, Fr. spinelle,
spinel, from Lat. spina, thorn, spine) . A mineral
magnesium aluminate crystallized in the ortho-
rhombic system. It has a vitreous lustre and is
found in various shades of red, passing into blue,
green, yellow, brown, black, and occasionally
nearly white. It is highly prized as a gem, and
the transparent red colored crystals are called
spinel rubies; while the violet and purple ones
are known as alrnandine; the rose-red to pink
colored varieties as balas rubies; the black
varieties as pleonaste; the yellow or orange
spinels are called rubicelle, and the pale to sap-
phire-blue kinds are known as sapphirine. The
gem varieties are found for the most part in
Ceylon, Siam, and other Eastern countries, and
near Franklin, N. J., crystals occur that occa-
sionally afford small gems.
SPINELLO ARETINO, spt--nel'lo a’ra-te’no,
properly LUCA SPINELLE (c.1333-1410). A Flor-
entine painter, a prominent representative of the
declining school of Giotto. He was born in Flor-
ence, of a family of Aretine goldsmiths settled
there. and probably was a pupil of Jacopo
di Casentino. He was employed upon the
chief decorative tasks of Middle Italy, in
the churches of Florence, in the Campo
Santo of Pisa. where he painted scenes from
the lives ‘of Saints Ephesus and Hippolytus,
and in the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena, decorating
the Sala di Badia with subjects from the life of
SPIN ELLO ARETINO.
SPINNING.
86
Pope Alexander 111. His best preserved works are
the frescoes of the “Life of Saint Benedict,” in
San Miniato, Florence. He also executed exten-
sive frescoes at Casentino and Arezzo, where, in
Santa Maria degli Angeli, was his celebrated
“Fall of Lucifer,” which gave rise to Vasari’s
well-known fable that the painter died of fright
in consequence of an apparition of Lucifer call-
ing him to account for the painting. Spinello’s
work is facile in composition and vivacious in
presentation, but superficial in form and exe-
cution.
SPINET (OF. espinette, Fr. épinette, from
It. spinctta, spinet, point, diminutive of spina,
from Lat. spina, thorn, spine). A stringed musi-
cal instrument with a keyboard, smaller and

SPINET.
weaker than the harpsichord, and, like it, one
of the precursors of the pianoforte. The general
outline of the instrument nearly resembled that
of a harp laid in a horizontal position, with the
keys occupying the position of the sounding-
board. The oldest extant specimen is dated
1490.
SPINNAKER. A triangular racing sail car-
ried by yachts. It hoists to the foremast or fore-
topmast head and is spread by a boom which is,
at other times, carried up and down the fore-
mast. The spinnaker is only set when the wind
is free or behind the yacht. See YACHT.
SPIN’NER, FRANCIS ELIAS (1802-90). An
American political leader, born at German Flats,
now Mohawk, N. Y. From 1845 to 1849 he was
auditor of the naval office in New York City. In
1854 he was elected to Congress as a Free-Soil
Democrat, but soon identified himself with the
newly organized Republican Party, and was twice
reelected to Congress, serving from 1855 until
1861, when he was appointed Treasurer of the
United States. This position he filled with great
credit until 187 5, when he resigned on account of
failing health and went to Florida, where he
passed the remainder of his life. During his
administration women were first employed as
clerks in the Treasury Department to take the
places of the men who enlisted in the Federal
armies.
SPINNING (from spin, from AS., Goth.,
OHG. spinnan, Ger. spinnen, to spin; probably
connected with AS., OHG. spannan, Ger. spannen,
Eng. span, to stretch out, extend, and ultimately
with Lat. spatium, extent, Gk. arrdr, span, to
draw out). The art of drawing, twisting, and
combining either animal or vegetable fibres, so
that they are formed into continuous threads
ready for the further operations of weaving, knit-
ting, or sewing. The principal textile fibres are
silk, wool, flax, jute, and cotton (qq.v.), and the
method of spinning each of these substances
differs slightly from the rest.
The most ancient instruments for spinning
were the spindle and distafi, representations of
which are to be seen on the earliest Egyptian
monuments. The distaff was a stick or staff upon
which a bundle of the prepared material was
loosely bound, and which was held in the left
hand or stuck in the belt; the spindle was a
smaller tapering iece to which the thread was
attached. By a exterous twirl of the hand the
spindle was made to spin round and at the same
time recede from the spinster, who drew out be-
tween the forefinger and thumb of the right
hand a regular stream of fibres so long as the
twisting of the spindle lasted. It was then
drawn in, the new length of thread wound upon
it, and the operation renewed. An obvious im-
provement in this device was to set the spindle
in a frame and make it revolve by a band passing
over a wheel, driven by occasional impetus from
the hand.
The Saron wheel is said to have been invented
in Nuremburg in 1530. This wheel, used only for
flax-spinning, contained the germ of Arkwright’s
invention, described later on. A bobbin or ‘pirn’
with a separate motion was placed on the spindle,
which had a bent arm—a flyer or flight--for
winding the yarn on the bobbin. The spindle
and bobbin revolved at different speeds, the revo-
lutions of the spindle giving the twist, and the‘
difference of the speed causing the winding on.
The two-handed wheel had two spindles and pirns
a little apart, with the distaff stuck into the
frame between them, and the spinster produced a
thread with each hand.
During the last half of the eighteenth century
three inventions were made which completely
revolutionized the art of s inning. These three
inventions were Hargreaves s spinning jenny, Ark-
wright’s throstle machine or roll-drawing spin-
ning machine, and Crompton’s mule spinner.
In the spinning jenny a number of large reels
of fibre formed into a thickish coil, called a
roving, were set on upright fixed spindles, and
the ends of the rovings were passed between two
small movable bars of wood placed horizontally
and under the control of the spinner, who could
thus make them press more or less on the roving,
and consequently increase or decrease the draw
upon it from the spinning spindles, which were
set in a row at the other end of the frame, and
all capable of being set in motion simultaneously
by the wheel. The s inner drew out the rovin s
by moving the bars ack and forth and at t e
same time turned the crank with his right hand
to rotate the spindles.
The throstle machine, patented by Arkwright
in 1769, had for its object the drawing of the
rovings through a succession of pairs of rollers,
each pair in advance of the others, and moving
at different rates of speed. The first pair receive
the sliver, compress it, and pass it on to the sec-
ond pair, which revolve at a greater speed, and
thus pull it out to exactly the number of times
SPINNING.
' SPINNING.
87
greater length that their revolutions exceed those
of the other pair, and as the first roving is passed
though a second, third, and sometimes fourth ma-
chine, the finished roving is 32 times longer
than the sliver. As the roving issues through
the last rollers of each machine it is received on
spools or reels, calculated to hold a given quan-
tity; and these are transferred to the spinning
frames, which resemble the roving frames. Here
the roving takes the place of the sliver, and, as
it unwinds from the spool, is drawn through suc-
cessive pairs of rollers, moving as before at differ-
ent rates, each succeeding pair faster than the
backward ones, so that the roving gets thinner
and thinner, until the tenuity is carried as far as
is fed to it in a hopper or by some kind of au-
tomatic feed, and delivered in laps which are
then placed on the intermediate lapper, either 3
or 4 laps being ‘doubled’ on the same and the cot-
ton after being loosened and further cleaned is
delivered in laps to be placed on the finisher
lapper, 3 or 4 laps from the intermediate being
again ‘doubled’ and delivered in a single lap
ready for the card. The function of the lappers
is to thoroughly loosen the lumps of cotton as
taken from the bale, to remove dirt and dust
and as much leaf, trash, and motes as possible.
There are usually three of these, the breaker, in-
termediate, and finisher lapper. Fig. 1 is a sec-
tion of an intermediate or fin/isher lapper. The


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Fxe. 1. saorrou or INTERMEDIATE on rmrsrmn LAPPEB.
desirable. It is then carried on to a spindle
which revolves with great rapidity, and, by
means of a simple arrangement, is made both
to twist the thread and wind it on the spindle
ready for the weaver.
It was found that the process of spinning by
rollers produced too great a strain upon the
thread in its progress to admit of its being drawn
so fine as is wanted for many purposes, and this
led to the invention of the mule jenny by Cromp-
ton in 1779, which has a traveling frame upon
which the spindles are set, and which in its mod-
ern form is described below.
During the nineteenth century many‘ important
improvements were made in the details of the
construction of spinning machinery, but the gen-
eral principles are those worked out a hundred
years ago. The greatest improvements have been
changes in the construction of spindles, allow-
ing them to revolve more rapidly and freely. In
the modern factory spinning is the final process
in a series of operations necessary to convert
the raw fibre into thread. Each of these pro-
cesses has for its object the removal of smaller
and smaller impurities and the production of a
finer and stronger thread. These are: (1) open-
ing and picking; (2) carding and combing; (3)
drawing; (4) roving; (5) spinning. Other in-
termediate operations may be introduced.
The opener or breaker lapper is a similar ma-
chine to the intermediate or finisher lappers, as
shown in Fig. 1, and described below. In the
breaker lapper the cotton as taken from the bale
cotton enters these machines in a sheet made up
from the laps, A, delivered onto the slowly mov-
ing apron, from which it is taken by the feed-
rolls and delivered to the rapidly revolving
beater, which forces it against the grid-bars,
loosening the dirt and motes which fall through
the grids into the mote-bow. The cotton is left
in a light and feathery mass which is drawn be-
tween the squeeze-rolls by the suction of the fan,
which also draws the dust and fine dirt from the
beaten mass and discharges them through the
dust-flue. The sheet of cotton from the squeeze-
rolls is taken by the calender-rolls, and com-
pressed and finally rolled into the lap B. The
lap is about one inch in thickness, 40 inches to
48 inches wide, and usually from 48 to 52 yards
long.
After the cotton has passed through the series
of lappers the laps from the finisher lapper go
to the card (Fig. 2). (See CARDING.) The cot-
ton in the lap A is delivered to the feed-roll
of the card and is grasped by the teeth
of the liclcer-in or taker-in, from which it is
taken in a thin sheet by the fine wire teeth of
the card-clothing on the cylinder B, and carried
u ward to come in contact with the teeth on the
c othing of the top-flats, and the fibres are
combed into a degree of parallelism—the cylinder
revolving rapidly, while the flats, which are in a
chain, move slowly forward so that new flats are
continually coming in contact with the cylinder‘-—
and much of the short and broken fibres are re-
moved; the comb, C, removes the short fibres
SPINNING.
SPINNING.
88
from the flats and they are rolled upon the rod,
and the flats are further cleaned by the brush.
The carded cotton is taken from the cylinder by
the dof/er cylinder, the latter having a surface
velocity somewhat less than that of the main
cylinder, and is removed from the doffer by the
To p-f I ate
described. The drawing sliver is carried through
the trumpet and deposited in the can by the coiler
the same as from the card. This drawing process is
repeated two or three times as the work may de-
mand, always ‘doubling’ and ‘drawing,’ but with-
out putting in any twist. After the drawing


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FIG. 2. SECTION or REVOLVING TOP-FLAT CARD.
comb, D, in a thin evenly carded film; this film
is drawn through the trumpet by the calender-
rolls, in a round strand about one inch thick
called a sliver, which is automatically coiled in
the slicer-can by the coiler.
As all the processes are arranged to ‘double’
the mass of cotton and then to reduce the mass
Drawing-rolls





Dwmg-sliver
Drawmg-rolls
FIG. 3. DETAIL or DRAWING PRINCIPLE.
in size by ‘drawing’ it out to several times its
original length until the yarn is finally produced,
an examination of Fig. 3 will help the reader to
understand how the ‘drawing’ acts on the fibres.
On the left is shown the sliver from the card, the
cotton being in a more or less tangled condition,
but after passing between the successive pairs of


FIG 4. SECTION or DRAWING FRAME.
drawing-rolls, 4.4’, the last or right hand pair,
revolving faster than the others, ‘draws’ the
fibres past each other and straightens them,
bringing them into a nearly parallel position.
The card-sliver goes first to the drawing frame,
Fig. 4, and four or six slivers, A, are combined by
passing them through the drawing rolls as above
frames, the drawn sliver is placed in cans, behind
the first of the roving frames which have rolls
similar to the drawing frames, but have spindles
by which the stock, then called roving, is twisted
and wound on bobbins. The first of the roving
frames is called the slubber, and is heavier than
the intermediates and fine frames, as the other


--Bobbins
,1, ' BSplndles
; nl‘ B0bblI1S


*1
FIG. 5. SECTION OF BOVING FRAME.
roving frames are designated. The full bobbins,
A, from the slubber are placed in the creel of the
intermediate frame, as shown in Fig. 5, and two
strands combined are delivered to the rolls and
drawn, the new strand of roving is carried to the
top of the fiyer, on the spindle B, is passed
through one arm of the fiyer, which is hollow, and
SPINNING.
SPINNING.
89
delivered to the bobbin, C, by the presser-foot.
The revolving of the fiyer puts the twist into the
strand of roving, while the difference in speed be-
tween the fiyer and the surface of the bobbin
winds the roving on the latter.
The fine frame is a similar-frame to the above,
and delivers the roving finer and more even than
any of the preceding machines and ready for
the spinning frame (Fig. 6). The roving may be
doubled or run singly on the spinning frame, the
rolls produce the drawing effect as on the pre-
ceding machines, and the revolution of bobbin
and spindle puts in the twist. The bobbin A is
fast on the spindle B, and draws the yarn
through the traveler, a small wire loop attached
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Endless Cotton-bend

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FIG. 6. SECTION OF SPINNING FRAME.
to and movable on the spinning ring, which sur-
rounds each spindle. The spindles are made to
revolve by an endless cotton band, which passes
around the whorl of the spindle and is driven by
the cylinder D. The production of the spinning
frame is technically ‘frame-spun yarn,’ either
ll Drawmg-rolls
. O 0

FIG. 7. SECTION OF SPINNING MULE.
warp or filling. This is wound on the bobbins
by the moving up and down of the ring rail,
which holds the spinning rings with the travelers,
the pull or drag of the travelers winding the
yarn on the bobbin.


\
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____—___—__ ____——_______—- _
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_
Mule-spun yarn is produced by spinning the
roving on a mule (Fig. 7), the roving coming
from the fine frames as for frame-spun yarns,
but the drawing and twisting being accomplished
in a difl'erent manner. On the spinning frame
the roving is drawn, twisted, and wound con-
tinuously, while on the mule it is drawn out
while the twist is being put in and is spun in-
termittently, and then wound on bobbins or cops
intermittently. The roving is placed in a creel and
passed through the drawing rolls, as on the spin-
ning frame, and carried to the spindles, which,
instead of being in a stationary rail, are mounted
in a carriage, which runs away from and back
to the rolls alternately, traveling about 5 feet
each way. As fast as the rolls deliver the roving
the carriage and spindles recede from the roll
stand and the spindles revolving twist the yarn
over the top of the spindles, where it is held by
the fallers. In some cases the carriage travels
several inches more than the delivery of the
front roll and causes additional drawing. The
movement out of the carriage is called stretch,
and at the end of each stretch the rolls are
stopped automatically, the required twist being
completed, the spindles are stopped and reversed
in motion, while the fallers guide the spun yarn
away from the top of the spindle and wind it on
the cop or bobbin, the carriage approaching the
rolls again, after which the same movements are
repeated continuously. The spinning frames are
arranged with an average of 104 spindles to a
side of about 27 feet in length, but this number
varies according to the gauge or distance be-
tween centres of spindles. The mules, not hav-
ing spinning rings, admit of the spindles being
nearly twice as near together, the average num-
ber per mule being 480, though some are built
much larger.
In a general way the spinning of other textile
fibres is the same as for cotton, the desire being
to reduce the strands and to make them of uni-
form diameter throughout their entire length and
to give them the requisite amount of twist.
Woolen yarn is spun on a mule as described for
spinning cotton, except that the carded roving
comes to the mule in a different shape, being
carded differently and without twist until spun
on the mule. Worsted and some cotton yarns are
produced by a combing operation
which is a special drawing process,
the cotton being afterwards worked
on the roving frames, while worsted
is spun on a frame not unlike the
roving frame, the twist being put in
by flgers, as the twist in the cotton
roving. For the spinning of silk
and other fibres, see special articles
on those fibres.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult: Posselt,
Structure of Fibres, Yarns, and
Fabrics (Philadelphia, 1890) ; Byrn,
Progress of Invention in the Nine-
teenth Centurg (New York, 1900) ;
and the preliminary chapter in Ash-
enhurst, Weaving and Designing of
Textile Fabrics (Bradford, Eng.,
1887). More technical in treatment are the
two books by Thomas Thornley, Draw Frames
and Fly Frames, and Self-Acting Mules (Lon-
don, 1898). See LOOM; WEAVING; TEXTILE
MANUFACTURING.
Fallers
SPINN IN G-GLAND.
SPINOZA.
90
SPINNING-GLAND. One of a class of
glands (q.v.) possessed by the larvae of many
kinds of insects and by the majority of spiders.
See SPIDER.
SPINOLA, spe'no-1a, Amnuosro, Marquis de
(1569-1630). A Spanish general, born in Genoa,
Italy. In 1602 he led a force of 9000 vet-
erans to the Netherlands against Maurice
of Nassau. Made chief commander of the Span-
ish army there, he forced Ostend to surrender in
1604, after a siege of more than two years. He
continued his operations against Maurice till the
twelve years’ truce of 1609, when he took .com-
mand of the Spanish troops in Germany. He
took the field against the Elector Palatine Fred-
erick V. and the Protestant Union in 1620, and
forced the Union to disband in 1621. He
captured Jiilich in 1622, and Breda in 1625.
Disease forced him to give up his command, but
he afterwards commanded the Spanish army in
Italy.
SPINOZA, spe-no'za, BABUCH, or BENEDICT
(1632-77). A famous Dutch-Jewish philosopher,
born in Amsterdam, November 24, 1632. His
father, a Portuguese merchant, had fled from
Catholic persecution to the Netherlands. Spi-
noza was carefully educated in Jewish the-
ology and speculation. He was, however, alien-
ated from the orthodox belief by studies of
physical science and of the writings of Descartes
and probably those of Giordano Bruno. His here-
sies resulted in threats of severe punishment
from his instructors in the Talmud and the
Cabala, and the relation soon became so unpleas-
ant that Spinoza withdrew from the synagogue.
The rabbis, in 1656, excommunicated him and
secured his banishment from Amsterdam. How-
ever, he remained in the neighborhood of the city
for five years, supporting himself, as in later
years, as a lens-maker.
Previous to his expulsion from the Jewish com-
munity Spinoza is said to have fallen in love
with the daughter of Van den Ende, his master
in Greek and Latin, and to have been rejected
by her. Possibly even before his expulsion
he composed his first work, Tractatus ale Dec et
Homine ejusque Felicitate (discovered in a
Dutch translation in 1852, the. Latin original not
being extant), in which the form of his developed
system is foreshadowed. And the De Intellectus
Emendatione and Tractatus Theologico-politicus
are also probably referable to the period of his
Amsterdam residence, although the latter was
not published until 1670 and the former until
1677.
In 1661 Spinoza went to Rhynsburg, near Ley-
den, and two or three years later to Voorburg,
near The Hague. Shortly after, yielding to the
solicitations of friends, he removed to The Hague
itself. The Elector Palatine, Charles Lewis, of-
fered him a chair at the University of Heidelberg,
but Spinoza declined the position in order to be
free from any restrictions upon his thinking. An
offer of a pension, on the condition of his dedicat-
ing a work to Louis XIV., he rejected with scorn.
His domestic accounts, after his death, show that
he preferred to live on a few pence a day rather
than be indebted to another’s bounty. He died
February 21, 1677. His constitution was no less
undermined by consumption and overwork than
his sensitive mind was wrought upon by persecu-
tion and the violent severance of natural ties.
But no word of complaint ever passed his lips;
simplicity and heroic forbearance, coupled with
an antique stoicism and a child-like, warm, sym-
pathizing heart, were the salient features of his
character. His life, in its nobility and suffering,
is perhaps the most convincing plea for the
vitality of the philosophy for which it served as
the human context.
Spinoza’s philosophy finds its most adequate
expression in his great work, Ethica Ordine Geo-
metrico Demonstrata (posthumously published in
1677). The basis from which it was developed
was mainly Cartcsianism. Certainly from
Descartes he derived his empirical rationalism
and his conception of exact demonstration. This
latter, on the analogy of geometrical demonstra-
tions, consisted of a series of axioms with corol-
laries, propositions, and elucidations, designed to
render bias or extraneous inference impossible,
and there can be no doubt that, Spinoza was one
of the most conscientious of thinkers in his
effort to eliminate the personal equation. Never-
theless, there are few philosophers in whom the
personal element is more distinctive. The very
fact of Spinoza’s severance from his own race
and religion, together with his failure to adopt
Christian thought, made the individuality of his
system the more inevitable; he was bound by
no tradition and so followed to the fullest the
instincts of his reason. He was influenced by
Descartes in method and probably by Bruno in
his pantheism, but his system is still his own to
a degree seldom true in the history of philosophy.
This system is a thorough-going and compli-
cated pantheism. The universe is identical with
God, who is the substance of all things. The
conception of substance (which Spinoza inherited
from the Scholastics) is not that of a material
reality, but of a logical subject-—the self-sufi‘i-
cient and comprehensive basis for all reality,
capable of sustaining as its attributes all tem-
poral existences. Spinoza recognized the possi-
ble existence of an infinite number of such at-
tributes, but held that only two kinds are known
to us——extension, or the world of material things,
and thought. These two comprehend existence
and they include all that exists in a real and pal-
pable way, at least so far as human knowledge
is concerned.
The idea of extension as the gist of physical
reality, and of thought as a non-extended reality,
Spinoza derived from Descartes. But Descartes
made each of these independent substances and
conceded to them the power of causal interaction
-—mind acting upon body and vice oersa. Spi-
noza, as we have seen, makes both forms of
reality dependent upon an ultimate substance-
God—-in which is their existence. Furthermore,
he denies their power of causal interaction.
Cause and effect in his conception are always
similar; extension and thought are wholly dis-
similar, therefore their causal interrelation is
impossible. Causation may subsist between indi-
vidual objects in the attribute extension, that is,
between physical bodies, or between individual
ideas in the attribute thought, but not between
ideas and things. To explain the apparent causal
interactions of the latter Spinoza resorted to an
elaborate theory of parallelism. Every idea has
a physical counterpart in the attribute exten-
sion; every physical object has its idea. This
SPIR/EA, ETC.

1. HAFIDHACK (SDIIBZ tomentosal. 3. SHADBUSH (Amedanchler Canadensls).
2. WILLOW-LEAVED SPIREA {Spin-as salicifollal. 4 SAXIFRAGE (Saxlfraga Vlrglnlenslsl
SPINOZA.
SPIREA.
91
is not only true for the individuals in each at-
tribute, but necessarily for their relations also.
Hence parallel with every physical causal series
there is an ideational causal series reduplicating
it; neither is dependent upon the other, but both
depend upon the divine substance made manifest
through them.
The individuality of things, whether ideas or
physical objects, Spinoza explained as particular
modes or ‘affections’ of substance. All particular
things in space are the modes of God in the
attribute extension; all particular thoughts and
feelings are modes of God in the attribute
thought. The modes are natura naturata; sub-
stance or God is natura naturans. The modes
are ephemeral and their existence assumes tem-
poral form; God is eternal, outlasting all at-
tributive changes. Particular things, accord-
ingly, whether of body or mind, are evanescent
and finite. All existence is mortal.
Nevertheless there is an indestructible world.
It is not to be found in the realm of existences,
but in a realm of essences—something wholly
different. The Spinozistic conception of essence
is most nearly related to the Scholastic concep-
tion of Realism and to Plato’s conception of a
world of ideas. It is an hypostatization of the
universal aspect of things, that is, of their essen-
tial nature in a logical or definitive sense, and
in many respects is a striking forecast of Hegel’s
logic of the Absolute. The most distinctive dif-
ference between Spinoza’s world of existences and
his world of essences is that the former exists in
time, while the latter has no temporal being.
But mortality can pertain only to temporal
being; therefore the world of essences, being
timeless, must be immortal. Furthermore, the
world of essences is a world of immanent being.
Every existence has a universal or essential char-
acter, though to realize this character it must
transcend its own intrinsic form, that is, free
itself from whatever gives it particularity. The
world of essences thus has a kind of being within
the world of existences—as the immanent cause
of the latter—though it does not share its tem-
poral limitation. Now this is precisely true of
the divine substance; and so it is that the world
of essences represents the essential nature of
God.
Immanent causation means self-causation, and
that which is self-determined is free. From this
reasoning Spinoza derived his doctrine of free-
dom to be won in the world of essences. Existence
in the attribute is bondage, for each existent thing
is determined by its own causal series; every par-
ticular object or idea is subject to other objects
or ideas, and the form of its being is determined
by them. Only in non-temporal, self-caused be-
ing, that is, in the universal and immanent, is
freedom possible; only by identification with the
eternal verities, with substance or God, is im-
morta1ity—and with it peace—to be obtained.
From this conceptionsprings Spinoza’s ethical
doctrine, developed in the third, fourth, and fifth
parts of the Ethica. In its practical form his
teaching assumes that everything, so far as in
it lies, strives to remain in its own being. The
effort by which this striving is manifest is noth-
ing but the actual essence of the thing. This
effort, when it is in the mind alone, is will;
when in mind and body it is appetite. If desire
is satisfied, we have pleasure; if not, we have
sorrow. All afl'ections and emotions resolve into
VOL.XVI.—7.
desire, joy, and sorrow, accompanied by ideas.
The good is that which we know to be useful,
that is, that which we know to be a means for
the nearer attainment of the standard of human
nature which is our ideal. Knowledge of good
and bad can be a cause in the moral world,
counteracting passion and raising us from the
world of appetite and mortality to the world of
eternal truths. -
The passage from mortality to immortality,
from bondage to freedom, is made plausible to
Spinoza’s mind by the fact that every reality
has its immanent cause, its universal aspect, or
what may be called its cosmological truth. By
cultivating steadily this immanent and uni-
versal nature man is enabled to realize his im-
mortal destiny. As to the nature of the initia-
tive by which a soul in bondage is to alter its
course, Spinoza has no clear teaching. The prob-
lem seems not to have presented itself to him,
and indeed this is hardly to be wondered at, since
his own mind turned so instinctively to what he
conceived to be the divine and the good.
Spinoza’s position in the development of philo-
sophical thought is in many respects unique. He
belonged to no school and he founded none.
While in a measure his work was based upon
that of his predecessors, it is too strikingly indi-
vidual to be conceived a mere continuation, even
of Cartesian thought. In the vigor and com-
prehensiveness of his conception, in synthetic
daring, he must be ranked with the greatest philo-
sophical thinkers; and though his system gave
rise to no sequential development, he has had
perhaps the most pervasive influence of any
modern philosopher except Kant. Not only met-
aphysicians, but poets such as Goethe, Words-
worth, and Shelley, have gone to him for inspira-
tion, and the essence of his thought has been in
large part appropriated in the poetic pantheism
of modern interpretations of nature.
Complete editions of Spinoza’s works have
been published by Paulus (1802-03), by Bonden
(1843-46), and by Van Volten and Land (1882-
82). English translations have been made for
the Bohn Library (1883), by White and Stan-
lay, the Ethics (London, 1883), by Fullerton,
The Philosophy of Spinoza, selections with intro-
duction (New York, 2d ed. 1894). Of the ex-
tensive literature especially to be mentioned
are: Caird, Spinoza (Edinburgh, 1888); Mar-
tineau, A Study of Spinoza (London, 1882);
Pollock, Spinoza (2d ed., ib., 1899); Fullerton,
On Spinozistic Immortality (Philadelphia,
1899) ; Camerer, Die Lehre Spinozas (Stuttgart,
1877) ; Baltzer, Spinozas Entwichelungsgang
(Kiel, 1888) ; Berendt and Friedliinder, Spinozas
Erhenntnislehre (Berlin, 1891) ; Hoff, Die
Staatslehre Spinozas (ib., 1895) ; Kuno Fischer,
Geschichte der neueren Philosophie, I. (Heidel-
berg, 1897).
SPIREA (Lat., from Gk. mreapaia, speiraia,
meadow-sweet, from arreipa, speira, coil, twist,
spire; so called from the shape of the follicles).
A large genus of herbs and low deciduous shrubs
of the natural order Rosaceee, natives of the
Northern Hemisphere. Dropwort (Spircea fili-
pendula) and meadow-sweet or queen of the
meadow (Spiruta ulmaria) are European species.
Two other species are shown on the accompanying
plate. Many species are cultivated in shrub-
beries for their flowers.
SPIRAL.
SPIRAL.
92
SPIRAL (ML. spiralis, from Lat. spira, coil,
spire, from Gk. a-areipa, speira, coil, spire, twist).
A curve which during its gradual regression
from a point winds repeatedly around it. A
plane spiral is generated by a point moving along
a line according to a fixed law, while the line
revolves uniformly about a fixed point in the
plane. A spiral which is not plane is generated
by a point moving on a given surface other than
a plane, about a fixed point according to a given
law, e.g. the loxodrome (q.v.). A great many
spirals have been studied. Of these the most
common are the spiral of Archimedes, the hyper-
bolic, parabolic, Cotes’s, logarithmic or equi-
angalar spirals, and the litaas.

//'— -N-‘\
. ' \
/
I
-" a l A
0 I
/
g \
\

ARCHIMEDES SPIRAL-
The spiral of Archimedes, probably discovered
by Conon, has the equation r = a0. In this
curve the point moves with a constant velocity
along the radius vector, and the length of the
radius is proportional to the angle described.
The curve may be constructed by points as fol-
lows: Draw a circle of radius a about 0 as a



HYPEBBOLIO SPIRAL.
centre; draw radii dividing the circumference
into n equal parts, and lay off from O on these
2 3 4
radii the distances g/. -2 -2 —-a. etc. The cir-
n n n
cle used in this construction is called the measur-
ing circle of the spiral. If the point so moves
that the radius vector varies inversely as the
angle described, the curve is called a hyperbolic
k
or reciprocal spiral. Its equation is r :3,
la being the circumference of the measuring
circle. It follows from the equation that an
infinite number of spires are necessary for the
curve to reach the origin. The curve received its
name from the fact that it can also be con-
structed by means of an auxiliary equilateral
hyperbola. If r varies directly as the square
root of 0 the equation becomes r2 :: a6, and we
have the parabolic spiral. The figure represents
the curve for both positive and negative values
of r.


If p denotes the perpendicular distance from
the pole to the tangent at any point P of the

I T C O
curve, and if p :7-;;—;, various splrals may
a r
be formed representing this equation. These are
known as Cotes’s spirals, and are of scientific



PARABOLIC SPIRAL.
interest, especially in their relation to trajecto-
ries (q.v.). If b : a the equation is that of the
logarithmic or eqaiangular spiral. The charac-
teristic property of this spiral is that the angle
between any radius vector and the corresponding
tangent is constant. The equation of the loga-
rithmic spiral is logr I a6. It is evident from
the equation that the curve has an infinite num-
ber of spires. The evolute (q.v.) of the logarith-
mic spiral is a similar logarithmic spiral.
C
LOGARITHMIO SPIRAL.
A spiral in which the square of the radius
vector varies inversely as the angle described is
called the litaas or trumpet, a curve described by
Cotes (1682-1716). Its equation is r2 :3 The
curve begins at infinity and winds round the
origin, but cannot reach it by a finite number of
spires.
P
W
One of the best, although not recent, mono-
graphs on the general subject is to be found in
the M émoirs cle l’Academie des Sciences (1704,
pp. 47, 69). For the general and special bibliog-
raphies and for a list of various spirals studied,
LITUUS.
SPIRAL.
SPIRITUALISM.
93
consult Brocard, Notes de bibliographic des
courbes ge'ométriques (Bar-le-Due, 1897, p. 252;
partie complementaire, 1899, p. 166). On the
spiral of Archimedes, consult Pfaff, Betrach-
tungen iiber die Spirale (Munich, 1830). On
the parabolic spiral and that of Cotes, consult
Sacchi in the Nouoelles Annales de Mathe'-
matiques (1860). On the logarithmic spiral,
Turquan in the same journal (1846) and Whit-
wortn (1869). On the hyperbolic spiral, Fouret
and Lebon in the same journal (1880).
SPIRE (AS. spir, stalk, Ger. Spier, needle,
pointer). A very acute pyramidal roof in com-
mon use over the towers of churches or secular
buildings. The history of spires is somewhat
obscure, but there is no doubt that the earliest
examples of anything of the kind are the pyra-
midal roofs of towers in the Romanesque build-
ings of the eleventh century. In the twelfth
century, especially in France, these stone roofs
were often made octagonal and pointed and took
the form we call spire. They were less used in
England and Italy, where square and flat tops
remained common; they were most developed in
France and Germany. The point where the
square tower merged into the octagonal base of
the spire was marked by angle turrets and pin-
nacles, to which tabernacles and windows often
corresponded in the alternate faces of the spire.
This masking afterwards was carried still farther
up by galleries, flying buttresses, and pinnacles,
enhanced by every variety of tracing and surface
ornament, breaking up the outlines of the spire.
At first the surface of the spire was of solid
masonry merely varied by angle moldings and
scaled surfaces, but before the close of the thir-
teenth century the masonry was often more or
less pierced and the outlines infinitely varied,
first with windows and galleries and then by a
network of tracery which made of the entire spire
a series of lacework patterns or grouped arcades
and pinnacles.
SPIRE. A town of Germany. See SPEYER.
SPIRIFER (Neo-Lat., from Lat. spira, coil,
spire + ferre, to bear). A genus of long hinged _
fossil brachiopods of Paleozoic age. The shells are
biconvex with the greatest width on the hinge
line, the hinge areas are well marked and usually
large, the ventral beak prominent and overreach-
ing that of the dorsal valve, the surface marked
by strong radial folds or striations, and with a
pair of calcified spirally coiled brachidia within
the interior of the shell. These brachidia served
as supports for the breathing organs and are
coiled in the form of cones with the apices of the
cones directed toward the outer angles of the
shell. The genus has many species, ranging from
the Silurian system upward into the Carbonifer-
ous and distributed all over the world. Consult
Schuchert, “Synopsis of American Fossil Brachi-
opoda, etc.,” Bulletin of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, No. 87’ (Washington, 1897).
SPIRILLUS. See BACTERIUM.
SPIRIT (Fr. esprit, from Lat. spiritus, spirit,
breath, air, from spirare, to breathe). A term
sometimes used in connection with a variety of
volatile substances, and more especially with
solutions of volatile substances in alcohol. Spirits
of wine is ordinary alcohol; spirits of -wood or
pyroa-ylic spirit, is wood alcohol, or methyl alco-
hol; spirit of hartshorn is aqueous ammonia;
spirit of copper is acetic acid (when distilled
from verdigris) ; spirit of alum is aqueous sul-
phurous acid, etc. Among the ‘spirits,’ i.e.
alcoholic solutions, used in medicine may be
mentioned those of lemon, peppermint, ether,
chloroform, phosphorous, camphor, lavender, bit-
ter almonds, etc. Aromatic spirits of ammonia
is made up of 34 parts of ammonium carbonate,
90 parts of ammonia water, 1 part of nutmeg
oil, 10 parts of oil of lemon, 700 parts of alcohol,
and 1 part of oil of lavender flowers, enough
water being added to make 1000 parts. In the
British pharmacopoeia alcoholic solutions of 20
per cent. strength are called ‘essences.’
SPIRITUALISM (from spiritual, Lat. spiri-
tualis, relating to spirit or breath, from spiritus,
spirit, breath, air, from spirare, to breathe). A
term which, as most commonly used, describes
the belief of those who think that communications
are occasionally established between the living '
and the dead who survive in some other mode of
existence. This conception, in so far as any gen-
eral acceptance of the doctrine is concerned, is
probably not more than half a century old, al-
though sporadic instances of the belief are pos-
sibly as old as human nature.
_ In modern times the first definite movement in
the direction of a general interest in spiritualism
took place in 1848 in America, and was associated
with the Fox sisters, at Hydesville, New York.
The ‘phenomena’ associated with these sisters
were the traditional ‘raps’ and ‘knockings,’ the
meaning of which required that the experimenter
agree upon some certain number of ‘raps’ as an
indication of an aifirmative or negative answer
to questions. In more complicated matters the
answers were spelled out by pointing to letters,
etc. The modus operandi of the ‘communications’
is not important, as it was only the familiar pro-
duction of physical phenomena supposed to be
evidence of some transcendental origin. The Fox
sisters performed their wonders for all classes of
men and women and numbered among their fol-
lowers many intelligent people. But opinion was
divided as to the value and significance of their
‘phenomena.’ The more intelligent investigators
discovered fraud in them, and finally the sisters
confessed to the manner in which they had con-
sciously produced the ‘raps’ and ‘knocks.’ In the
meantime the excitement and interest in spirit-
ualism had spread to England and the Continent.
It was probably much less the actual "facts in the
alleged phenomena that created the widespread
interest in the subject than it was two facts in
the mental condition of the age wholly independ-
ent of the inciting cause. The first was the im-
mense strides which skepticism and criticism had
made in discrediting the older theology; the sec-
ond was the growing faith in scientific experiment
and methods.
It was about the same time that hypnotism
(q.v.) began to arouse a scientific interest and to
contribute to the spiritualist’s cause. It had
arisen about 1770 or 1780 under Mesmer and was
called mesmerism (q.v.) after him. But the
quackery and incautiousness associated with it,
encouraged by the inertia of scientific academies,
brought it into neglect, and it was not heard
of more until Dr. Braid, of Manchester, England,
reopened the question by showing that there were
genuine phenomena in it worthy of scientific at-
tention. This was about 1840. He changed the
SPIRITUALISM.
SPIRITUALISM.
94
name of mesmerism to hypnotism and employed
‘suggestion’ as the explanatory principle as
against ‘magnetic fluids’ of Mesmer. But the
peculiar methods of producing hypnosis and the
strange psychological susceptibilities exhibited by
hypnotic patients were well calculated to impress
the popular mind with the belief in occult forces,
and in spite of the scientific treatment to which
it has been exposed, it still suggests to the public
the possibility of supernormal phenomena. Its
facts were more easily demonstrable, and could
be put to more dignified uses, than the ordinary
absurdities of the séance room.
Another type of phenomena occurred about the
same time to encourage the spiritualist in his
general theory. It was the production of Andrew
Jackson Davis, who discovered in 1844 that he
could go into a ‘trance,’ and that he had a strange
power of performing intellectual feats in this con-
dition, which were not natural to him in his nor-
mal state. He made a bargain with two friends
to ‘mesmerize’ him and to take down in notes
what he said during the ‘trance.’ A volume was
published as a result representing the work of
fifteen months. His utterances, which were very
slow and deliberate, were taken down verbatim,
and the volume was called The Principles of N a-
ture, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to
Mankind. The work dealt with the physical,
chemical, and vital phenomena of the cosmos on
a large scale, and treated of astronomical mat-
ters in a manner to excite curiosity, especially
when the prediction of a new planet was verified
soon afterwards by the discovery of Neptune by
Leverrier and Adams. At the same time the man
was practicing ‘clairvoyance,’ and the book as-
serted the existence of spirit ‘communication.’
But it was not the philosophic nature of the
work that gave it its influence. It was the ap-
parent illiteracy of the man‘ who produced it, and
its association with ‘clairvoyance’ and alleged
spirit ‘communications.’ Davis himself said
that, up to the time of his work, he had read but
one book in his life and this was a romance called
Three Spaniards. This claim, however, seems to
be fairly well controverted, and it is probable
that the man had read scientific matter in a
casual way. But no amount of casual reading
will easily explain in a normal way the system-
atic character of this work. There are indica-
tions in the man’s history, and the fact that he
was ‘clairvoyant’ or subject to the ‘trance’ state
is evidence, that his was a remarkable case of
secondary personality. See DOUBLE CONSCIOUS-
NESS.
In 1853 a work was published by Judge Ed-
monds and Dr. George Dexter that was second
in interest only to that of Davis. Mr. Edmonds
was a Judge of the Supreme Court of New York
State and Dr. Dexter was an eminently respect-
able citizen of New York City. Their attention
had been called to the subject of spiritualism by
the excitement about the Fox sisters, and they
set about investigation for themselves, and soon
developed personal phenomena of a peculiar in-
terest. They entered upon a system of experi-
ments in cooperation upon themselves and vari-
ous ‘mediums,’ with the result that they pub-
lished a work which soon became classic, owing
to the reputation of the authors. The phenomena
recorded and described purported to represent
more or less direct communications with discar-
nate spirits. At first they investigated with a
view to ascertain whether the phenomena were
genuine in any sense of the term, and having con-
vinced themselves that they were dealing with
spiritistic influences, they published, as the bulk
of their work, the alleged messages from Sweden-
borg and Bacon, and the respectability of the
men availed to carry their work through many
editions. But the subject of secondary person-
ality was not understood in their time, and was
not worked out until a generation later, when
the result was to discredit the spiritistic claims
of Edmonds’s and Dexter’s work.
The most remarkable personality, however, in
this movement was William Stainton Moses. He
was born in 1839 and was educated at Oxford in
England, becoming a clergyman in the Estab-
lished Church. In 1872 he became interested in
spiritualism through his friend, Mrs. Speer, and
soon developed ‘mediumistic’ powers in himself.
He fought against their influence on his mind for
a long time, but his skepticism was finally over-
come, and he became a spiritualist and abandoned
the Church and at last became the editor of the
chief spiritualist paper, Light. N 0 one ever ques-
tioned his sincerity a.nd honesty. The phenomena
which he records were of a type and variety
which tend to excite astonishment. They in-
cluded the physical and the trance phenomena of
the usual kind, such as the alleged movements of
physical objects without contact, and even
through other matters, and automatic writing
evincing the personal identity of deceased persons
and the spiritual and hortatory counsel of dis-
carnate spirits long since deceased. His two
works, Spirit Identity and Spirit Teachings, were
widely read. But he resented scientific investiga-
tion because he thought it a reflection on his
honesty, and hence, though there is some inde-
pendent testimony to the nature of his phenom-
ena, they depend mostly upon his own assevera-
tions; and though there is no reason to impeach
the probity of these, neither he nor his contempo-
raries reckoned sufliciently with the problems of
abnormal psychology and secondary‘ personality
to assure the elimination of influence in the pro-
duction of the phenomena that were quite com-
patible with honesty and yet were inconsistent
with their supernormal character.
After the excitement produced by the Fox sis-
ters, there appeared a perfect inundation of simi-
lar and more questionable performances in the
person of all sorts of traveling ‘mediums.’ The
popular conception. of spiritualism was soon de-
termined by the methods of this class of impos-
tors. Their ‘demonstrations’_ took the form of
cabinet séances, ‘materializations,’ slate writing
performances, and tricks that are easily imitable
by the prestidigitator. To this day the general
public has no other conception of spiritualism
than that which is furnished by the most absurd
and most trivial legerdemain. Finally the indif-
ference of the public after discovering the futility
of such methods and the influence of the Report
by the Seybert Commission (see below) caused
the interest in -such phenomena to decline. The
Society for Psychical Research (see PSYCHICAL
Rnsmnon, Socrnrv FOR) also had its share of
the credit in this depreciation of the movement.
To this period, contemporaneous with Moses
and apparently combining the phenomena de-
scribed by him and the performances of the
SPIRITUALISM.
SPIRULA.
95
average trickster, belonged David D. Home, who
created an enormous sensation throughout Ameri-
ca and Europe. He received the attention of Sir
William Crookes, and a system of experiments
involving all sorts of physical ‘miracles,’ which
still mystify students who have confidence in
Crookes.
What the Society for Psychical Research has
accomplished tends to show that the methods of
physical science which had captivated the last
generation are not adequate to cope with the
problem. It has been shown to be a psychological
problem that must comprehend the whole field of
normal and abnormal psychology, including in the
latter all the phenomena of automatism, sensory
and motor, illusion, hallucination, secondary per-
sonality, hysteria, insanity of the functional sort,
and the various hyperaesthesias. The consequence
of all this has been to suggest that neither fraud
nor spirits are always necessary to account for
seemingly supernormal phenomena. VVe are being
made acquainted with a vast fund of facts in
connection with subliminal consciousness which
are well calculated to strike the unwary as having
a spiritistic significance, but which are only the
strange productions of irresponsible secondary
personalities. These personalities, like the dream
life of normal people, are apparently quite as
liable to deception as are the states of conscious-
ness of every-day life. However, the range and ca-
pacity of the powers of subliminal states have not
yet been exactly determined.
About the same time that the Society for Psy-
chical Research was founded a Mr. Seybert gave
a fund to the University of Pennsylvania for the
investigation of spiritualism, and the Seybert
Commission was appointed for the purpose. The
commission exposed many of the ordinary frauds
of professional mediums, and its conclusions were
adverse to the usual spiritistic claims. After
publishing a Report, the commission was allowed
to lapse.
In German and France the movement has had
a similar history and outcome. In Germany
Reichenbach was the most important investigator,
and in France Cahagnet and Du Potet are the
principal men of interest. This was in the earlier
period. Later we have Karl du Prel, A. N.
Aksakoff, a Russian, and Schrenck-Notzing,
who manifested interest in the subject and wrote
freely upon it.
In recent years the Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical Research have recorded data, espe-
cially in the phenomena of coincidental appari-
tions and experiments with a Mrs. Piper, a Bos-
ton ‘medium,’ which some of the members have
thought favorably confirm the possibility of the
spiritistic theory. She has been the subject of ex-
periment for nearly eighteen years. This, with
two recent volumes of Mr. F. W. H. Myers, has
had the effect of reviving an interest in the gen-
eral problem. But the subject must still run
the gauntlet of scientific skepticism and investi-
gation. The early history of the movement has
been so infected with charlatanism, fraud, half-
baked science, and various forms of radicalism in
religious and social matters as to put it under
abeyance by the intelligent part of the com-
munity.
It is not possible to determine with any accu-
racy the number of adherents to the spiritualistic
belief. They are certainly very numerous, and
have many thriving organizations. These take
the form of the ordinary church. It is claimed
that they have nearly 350 churches and over
200,000 members. It is probable that the num-
ber of believers far exceeds this figure. There is
nothing in the belief to suggest the necessity of
organization as in the orthodox Christian Church.
Their periodicals are quite numerous. There
are few, however, of first class character. Light,
a weekly, published in London, England, is, per-
haps, the best. The Banner of Light is published
in Boston, Mass.
The literature on the subject is a very large
one, but most of it is not of much importance.
Even the best of it has to be read with more than
the usual caution. The following, in addition to
those mentioned in the body of the article, is a
brief list of the most important works connected
with the claims of spiritualism and dealing with
various phases of it: Edmonds and Dexter,
Spiritualism (New York, 1854-55); Allan Kar-
dec, Livre des esprits (Paris, 1853); Mrs. De
Morgan, From Matter to Spirit (London, 1863) ;
Alfred Russel Wallace, Miracles and Modern
Spiritualism (ib., 1876) ; Karl Du Prel, Philoso-
phy of Mysticism (Eng. trans., ib., 1889) ; Frank
Podmore, Aspects of Psych/ioal Research (ib.,
1897) ; id., Modern Spiritualimn (ib., 1902) ;
Frederick VV. H. Myers, Human Personality and
Its Survival of Bodily Death (ib., 1902) ; Flam-
marion, L’inc0nnu (Paris, 1899) ; Flournoy, Des
Indes a la planete Mars (Geneva, 1900) ; Parish,
Hallucinations and Illusions (London, 1897).
SPIROPHYTON (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 0-arr-2‘pa,
speira, coil, twist, spire + ¢v'r6v, phyton, plant).
A fossil alga found in rocks of Devonian age. It
presents a flabellate expansion with a central pit
from which radiate curved ribs as from the cen-
tre of a vortex. The surfaces of the Esopus grit
of Lower Devonian age in eastern New York and
Pennsylvania are covered with these algal fronds.
The genus is known also in the Carboniferous
rocks, and it has been described from European
localities under the name of Taonurus.
SPIRULA (Lat., diminutive of spira, coil,
spire). A genus of small decapod, dibranchiate
cephalopods, comprising two or three species, and
constituting the family Spirulidee, in which the
internal skeleton is in
the form of a na-
creous, discoidal shell,
the whorls of which
are not in contact
with one another, and
which are divided into
a series of chambers
by partitions pierced
by a ventral tube or
siphuncle. The animal
has minute lateral
fins, and there are six
rows of small suckers
on the arms. The
three species consti-
tuting the family dwell
in the deep waters of
the tropical seas. In internal anatomy Spirula is
a true dibranchiate, having two branchiee and an
ink-bag. It has the peculiar feature that the
hinder end of the body acts as a suctorial disk for
fastening itself to foreign bodies.


BPIRULA.
1, Animal, showing position
of shell; 5, shell; zn, siphon
muscles; 2, shell enlarged.
SPIRULA.
SPITZWEG.
96
The genus Spirula is not known in a fossil
state, but it has ancestors, S irulirostra and
Spirulirostrina, in the Tertiary eposits of Italy.
These latter have remnants of the ‘guard’ at the
apical portion of the shell, which feature seems
to indicate the descent of Spirula from some form
of shell like Belemnites. See CEPHALOPODA.
SPIT’ALFIELI)S. An eastern district of
London, England, in \Vl1itechapel, adjoining
Bethnal Green. It is a manufacturing district
inhabited chiefly by the poorer class of popula-
tion, and by silk-weavers, descendants of French
Huguenots. It is the seat of the Spitalfields
market. Spitalfields derives its name from the
Hospital of Saint Mary, founded in 1197. Popu-
lation, in 1891, 26,594; in 1901, 27,965.
SPIT’HEAD. A roadstead off Portsmouth,
England, between Portsea Island and the Isle of
Wight (Map: England, E 6). It is 14 miles
long by 4 miles in average breadth, and receives
its name from the ‘Spit,’ a sand-bank stretching
south from the English shore for three miles.
Fortified by circular towers, and, except on the
southeast, protected from all winds, it is a fa-
vorite anchorage of the British navy, styled by
sailors ‘the King’s bedchamber,’ on account of its
security.
SPIT’TA, KARL JoHANN PHILIPP (1801-59).
A German religious poet, born in Hanover. He
was educated at Gtittingen, and fro1n 1824 to 1828
he was a tutor at Liine, and there wrote the best
of his hymns. Afterwards he was vicar or pastor
in several churches, and in 1859, shortly before his
death, was made superintendent at Burgdorf. His
hymns, contained in Psalter und Harfe (1833;_
revised with biographical note by his son, Lud-
Wig, 1890; ‘Jubilee’ ed., 1901), and in the Nach-
gelassene geistliche Lieder (1861 and often), rank
high in the German spiritual song of the century,
and attained great popularity by their freshness
of thought, purity of style, and depth of senti-
ment.
SPITZ’BERGEN. A group of islands in the
Arctic Ocean, situated about 430 miles north of
the northern extremity of Norway, between 76°
30’ and 80° 48’ north latitude, and between 10°
and 30° east longitude (Map: Arctic Regions,
H 3). The group consists of three large islands,
West Spitzbergen, North East Land, and Edge
Island, whose areas are, respectively, about 15,-
000, 4000, and 2500 square miles, and a number
of smaller islands. All of them are of a rocky
and mountainous character and very irregularly
indented. West Spitzbergen has an ice-covered
plateau running along its eastern coast and
eroded toward the west into deep and narrow
valleys terminating in fiords, and carrying the
overflow of ice in the form of glaciers to the sea.
These valleys and fiords are separated by rugged
and rocky mountain spurs, here and there form-
ing a network of craggy peaks and ridges inter-
spersed with glaciers. The highest point is the
Horn Sund Tind with an altitude of 4560 feet.
North East Land is almost wholly covered with
an ice sheet, while the other islands are free
from permanent ice, or carry only isolated
glaciers on their eastern slopes. The mean
monthly temperatures range from 10° below zero
in February to 37° above in August. Snow falls
at all seasons, but in summer a considerable
herbaceous growth covers the lower western
slopes. This consists largely of mosses, though
there are 130 species of flowering plants and
ferns, with sedges predominating along the
shores. The fauna includes the reindeer, which,
however, is fast disappearing, the polar bear, and
the fox. The walrus is still found along the
coast, but the birds are becoming fewer.
Spitzbergen has no permanent inhabitants, and
no country claims possession of it. The islands
were discovered by the Dutch in 1596. The interior
was first explored in 1892 by Rabot, and in 1896
by Sir Martin Conway, who was the first to cross
the large island. Spitzbergen has been an im-
portant base for polar expeditions, and in 1897
Andree made it the starting point in his ill-fated
attempt to reach the Pole by balloon. In recent
years the west coast has been visited by a num-
ber of tourists, and in 1896 a weekly steamship
service during summer was established from Nor-
way, and a small hotel was built on the coast.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Nordenskjbld, Die schwed-
ischen Earpeditionen nach Spitzbergen und Biiren
Eiland (Jena, 1869); Zeppelin, Rcisebilder aus
Spitsbergen, Biireneiland und Norwegen (Stutt-
gart, 1892) ; Conway, The First Crossing of Spitz-
bergen (London, 1897) ; Hafter, Briefe aus dem
hohen Norden (Frauenfcld, 1900).
SPITZ DOG, or POMERANIAN Doe. See SHEEP
Doc.
SPITZ’KA, EDWARD CHARLES (1852—). An
American psychiatrist, born in New York City.
He was educated at New York University, in
Germany, and i11 Vienna. He served as interne in
the New York City Asylum for the Insane, was
professor of medical jurisprudence and diseases
of the nervous system in the New York Post
Graduate Medical School and Hospital from
1881, consulting surgeon to the Northeastern
Dispensary, physician to the department of nerve
diseases in the New York Polyclinic, and phy-
sician to the Metropolitan Throat Hospital. His
writings include A Treatise on Insanity (New
York, 1883), besides many monographs.
SPITZWEG, spits’vaK, KARL (1808-85). A
German genre and landscape painter, one of the
most original figures in the art world of Munich,
the most genial exponent of the humorous genre.
Born and educated in Munich, he dispensed
drugs for several years, then studied at the
university, and in 1833 was won to art by his
accidental surroundings in a watering place.
Under the introductory guidance of the histori-
cal painter Hansonn (1791-1863), he took to
brush and palette, but, practically self-taught,
developed his rare talent for the depiction of
those inimitable types of German philistinism
amusingly associated with his name. On the
establishment of the Fliegende Bliitter in 1844,
he became one of its most diligent contributors,
whose incomparable humorous drawings were
for years the delight of the entire reading world.
Among his finely colored pictures of old bache-
lors, bookw0r1ns,' hermits, etc., and his poetic
landscapes with fanciful accessories, may be
mentioned: “The Poor Poet” (1837), “Two Her-
mits” and a “Scholar in the Attic” (1882), all
in the Pinakothek, Munich; “Spanish Serenade,”
“The I-Iypochrondriac,” “Herd-Girls on an Alp,”
and “Turkish Coffee-House,” all in the Schack
iallery, Munich; “Going to Church Near Da-
chau” (1862), in Dresden; “His Reverence” and
SPITZWEG.
SPLINT.
97
“Village Street,” both in the National Gallery,
Berlin. Reproductions of his works appeared in
the collections Spiteweg Mappe (Munich, 1887)
and Spitz/weg Album (ib., 1888). Consult:
Regnet, in Zeitschrift fiir bildende Kunst (Leip-
zig, 1886), and Holland, in Allgemeine deutsohe
Biographie, xxxv. (ib., 1893).
SPLAY. The sloping or bevelled opening in
window recesses and other such openings. Also the
corner taken off the outer angle of such openings.
SPLEEN (Lat, splen, from Gk. cr1rMiv, spleen;
connected with Lat. lien, Skt. plihan, spleen).
The largest and most important of the so-called
ductless glands. It is generally oval i11 form,
somewhat concavo-convex, soft, of very brittle
consistence, highly vascular, of a dark bluish-red
color, and situated in the left hypochondriac
region, with its interior slightly concave surface
embracing the cardiac end of the stomach and
the tail of the pancreas. In the adult it is usu-
ally about 5 inches in length, 3 or 4 in breadth,
and an inch or an inch and a half in thickness,
and weighs about 7 ounces. At birth its weight
in proportion to that of the entire body is as 1
to 350, which is nearly the same ratio as in the
adult; while in old age the organ decreases in
weight, the ratio being as 1 to 700. The size of
the spleen is increased after gastric digestion,
and is large in highly fed and small in starved
animals. In intermittent fevers and leucocythee-
-mia it is much enlarged, weighing occasionally
from 18 to 20 pounds, and constituting what is
popularly known as the ague-cake.
The spleen is invested externally by the peri-
toneum and inside this by a fibrous capsule
giving off from its inner surface numerous small
fibrous bands termed trabeculce, which unite at
numerous points with one another, and run in all
directions. The parenchyma or proper substance
of the spleen occupies the interspaces of the
above-described areolar framework, and is a soft
pulpy mass of a dark reddish-brown color, con-
sisting of colorless and colored elements. The
colorless elements consist of granular matter, of
nuclei about the size of the red blood-disks, and
a few nucleated vesicles, and constitute one-
half or two-thirds of the whole substance of the
pulp in well-nourished animals, while they dimin-
ish in number, and sometimes altogether disap-
pear, in starved animals. The colored elements
consist of red blood-disks and of colored cor-
puscles either free or included in cells; some-
times enlarged blood-disks are seen included in
a cell, but more frequently the inclosed disks
are altered in form and color, as if undergoing
retrograde metamorphoses. Besides these, nu-
merous deep-red, or reddish-yellow, or black cor-
puscles and crystals, closely allied to the haema-
tin of the blood, are seen diffused through the
pulp substance.
The venous blood of the spleen is carried away
by the splenic vein, which contributes to form
the great portal venous system, distributed
through the liver; while arterial blood is sup-
plied by the splenic artery, the largest branch of
the coeliac axis. The branches of this artery
subdivide and ramify like the branches of a tree,
with the Malpighian or splenic corpuscles at-
tached to them like fruit. These splenic cor-
puscles, originally discovered by Malpighi, are
whitish spherical bodies, which are either con-
nected with the smaller arterial branches by
short pedicles, or are sessile upon their sheaths.
They vary considerably in size and number, their
diameter usually ranging from 1-30 to 1-60 of an
inch. Each consists of a membranous capsule,
homogeneous in structure, and formed by a pro-
longation from the sheath of the artery. The
blood capillaries form a delicate plexus within
these corpuscles.
With regard to its uses the spleen may be re-
garded as a storehouse of nutritive material,
which may be drawn upon according to the re-
quirements of the system, and the constant pres-
ence in large amounts of certain nitrogenous
substances seems to indicate that some special
nitrogenous metabolism takes place in it. The
formation of both white and red blood cells
probably also occurs in the spleen as well as the
disintegration of exhausted blood corpuscles.
SPLE-ENWORT. See ASPLENIUM, and Col-
ored Plate of FERNS.
SPLICING. See Kuorrme AND Srmcrue.
SPLINT (Swed. splint, spike, forelock, fiat
iron peg, Dan. splint, splinter; connected with
Eng. split). In surgery, a certain mechanical
contrivance for keeping a fractured limb in its
proper position, and for preventing any motion
of the fractured ends; it may also be employed
for securing perfect immobility of the parts to
which it is applied in other cases, as in diseased
joints, after resection of joints, etc. Many dif-
ferent kinds of splints are used, but wood and
plaster of Paris are most common. In using
wooden splints we take- light strips slightly wider
than the limb and long enough to reach beyond
the joints that lie to either side of the injury.
The fractured ends are brought as nearly as
possible into their normal relation, thoroughly
padded with absorbent cotton to prevent pressure
or friction, and then the splints are applied and
firmly bandaged to the limb, so as to prevent all
motion. VVire netting, gutta percha, leather,
and other materials are also frequently employed,
as they can be molded to the shape of the limb.
In the same way plaster of Paris can be applied
to one side of a limb, carefully molded to it,
and held in place by bandages. All movable
splints, however, have the disadvantage that
they must be readjusted from time to time, and
thus the fractured limb is subjected to handling.
The plaster of Paris splint is desirable, there-
fore, in many cases. The limb is carefully pro-
tected with a light layer of non-absorbent cot-
ton, especial care being used to guard bony prom-
inences and to avoid any unevenness. Coarse,
wide-meshed bandages well rubbed with dry
plaster of Paris are immersed for a moment in
water and then applied like ordinary bandages,
each layer being rubbed into the one beneath so
as to make a firm cohesive splint. The plaster
should include the joints to either side of the
injury. This splint may be both strengthened
and lightened by the introduction of wooden or
metal strips between the layers of plaster. Dry-
ing takes place rapidly and gives a firm resisting
splint. In compound fractures or -in operative cases
a fenestrum may be left over the wound proper
and an opportunity thus given to attend to the
required dressings without disturbing the splint.
SPLINT. A bony enlargement on the horse’s
leg between the knee and the fetlock, usually ap-
pearing on the inside of the fore leg, frequently
situated between the large and small canon bones.
SPLINT.
SPOKANE.
98
It is usually caused by concussion, and is most
common in young horses that have been driven
rapidly along hard roads before their bones have
become firm.
SPLUGEN, spli_1’gen. An Alpine pass leading
between the Tambohorn and the Surettahorn
from the Swiss Canton of Grisons into Italy at an
altitude of 6946 feet (Map: Italy, D 1). The
southern or Italian descent has three great gal-
leries built to protect the road from avalanches,
and completed by the Austrian Government in
1834.
SPODUMENE (from Gk. arrodozhaevos, spo-
dou-menos, pres. part. mid. of mro5oiiv, spodoun,
to burn to ashes, from 0'1I'056$, spodos, ashes). A
mineral lithium and aluminum silicate crystal-
lized in the monoclinic system. It has a vitreous
lustre and is light green, gray, yellow, or purple
in color. It occurs commonly in the coarse gra-
nitic veins, and is found in Sweden, the Tyrol,
Scotland, Brazil, and in Massachusetts, Maine,
Connecticut, North Carolina, and South Dakota.
The yellow green to emerald green crystalline
variety found in Alexander County, N. C., is
highly valued as a gem, and is known as hid-
denite, from its discoverer, W. E. Hidden, of
New York.
SPOF’FORD, AINSWORTH RAND (l825— ). An
American librarian, born at Gilmanton, N. H.
He was privately educated, became a bookseller,
then associate editor of the Cincinnati Daily
Commercial (1859), and in 1861 assistant libra-
rian of Congress. From 1864 to 1899 he was
librarian in chief of the Congressional Library,
and became widely known for exceptional knowl-
edge of books. He wrote much for periodicals on
literature, economics, and history, and edited with
others a Library of Choice Literature (10 vols.,
1881-88), a Library of Wit and Humor (5 vols.,
1884) , and a Practical Manual of Parliamentary
Rules (1884). He published annually The Amer-
ican Almanach and Treasury of Facts, Statistical,
Financial, and Political (1878-91), and A Boole
for All Readers (1900), on the collection and pres-
ervation of books and the founding of libraries.
SPOFFORD, HARRIET ELIZABETH (Pnnsoorr)
(1835— ). An American novelist, born at Calais,
Me. Educated at Newburyport, Mass., and
Derry, N. H., she adopted literature as a profes-
sion and first attracted attention in 1859 by a
story of Parisian life, In a Cellar, printed in the
Atlantic Monthly. In the same year she pub-
lished Sir Roha/n’s Ghost, followed by The Amber
Gods and Other Stories (1863), and Aearian, an
Episode (1864). In 1865 she married Richard
S. Spofford, a Boston lawyer. The more note-
worthy of her later books were: New England
Legends (1871), The Thief in the Night (1872),
Art Decoration Applied to Furniture (1881),
Marquis of Carabas (1882), Poems (1882),
Hester Stanley at Saint Marks (1883), The
Servant Girl Question (1884), Ballads About
Authors (1888), Scarlet Poppy and Other
Stories (1894), A Master Spirit (1896), and In
Titian’s Garden and Other Poems (1897).
SPOHR, spor, LOUIS (1784-1859). A Ger-
man composer and violinist, born at Brunswick.
He studied there under Kunisch and Maucourt
and in 1802 became a pupil of the celebrated
Franz Eck. In 1805 he accepted the appointment
of concertmeister at Gotha and in 1812 went to
Vienna as leader at the Theater an der Wien,
where he remained until 1815. From 1817 to 1819
he filled a similar position at Frankfort and in
1821 received a life appointment as Court
conductor at Cassel. It was in connection
with this last position that he won his
greatest successes as a violinist, composer,
and conductor; besides which he succeeded in
bringing his orchestra to a pitch of perfection
that earned it a world-wide reputation. In 1831
he completed his work, The Violin School, which
has remained one of the standard works of in-
struction for that instrument. His oratorio Cal-
vary received its first presentation on Good
Friday, 1835. He was a prolific composer and
wrote in all nearly 200 works. Most of his
operas were little known outside of Germany, but
his oratorios have been very popular in England
and America, particularly Die letzten Dingo
(The Last Judgment). As a composer of dis-
tinct individuality he ranks but little below the
greatest representatives of German music. He
died at Cassel. Consult: Autobiography (Cassel,
1860; Eng. trans., London, 1865); Schletterer,
Louis Spohr, in Waldersee’s Samm-lung (Leipzig,
1881).
SPOILS SYSTEM. See CIVIL SERVICE RE-
FORM.
SPOKAN, spo-kan’. An Indian tribe of
Salishan stock (q.v.) formerly occupying the
whole basin of Spokane River in Washington and
Idaho, and now chiefly gathered upon reserva-
tions in the same States. They were visited in
1806 by Lewis and Clark, who call them Liarti-
elo. In language, customs, and alliance they
were closely connected with the Sanpoil (q.v.).
All are now civilized and Christianized, about
equally divided between Catholic and Protestant.
The majority are reported to be thrifty and in-
dustrious, promising soon to become self-support-
ing and good citizens. They numbered about 700
in 1903.
SPOKANE, spo-kan’. The county-seat of
Spokane County, Wash., 450 miles east of Puget
Sound, on the Spokane River and on the North-
ern Pacific Railway, the Great Northern Rail-
way, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Com-
pany, and several local branch lines (Map:
Vvashington, H 2). The city was formerly
known as Spokane Falls. Elevation, 1900 feet
above sea level. The Spokane River flows through
the heart of the city from east to west in a
series of waterfalls, having a total descent of
142 feet, from which, at the lowest stage of
water, 30,000 horse-power is available. Elec-
trical power generated here is transmitted to the
famous Coeur d’Alene silver and lead mines of
Idaho, 100 miles away. Spokane has the Gonzaga
College (Roman Catholic), opened in 1887, Bru-
not Hall, an Episcopal school for girls, and Saint
Stephen’s School for Boys. The city is well pro-
vided with hospitals and charitable institutions,
and expends about $8000 annually for a public
library (Carnegie). The notable buildings are
the court house, city hall, post office, and Audi-
torium Theatre. Twenty-three bridges span the
river within the city limits. Fort Wright, a
large United States army post, is situated on the
river just outside the city. Spokane is the min-
ing centre of the Pacific Northwest, the tributary
mines producing over $21,000,000 annually in
gold, silver, copper, and lead. The city is sur-
rounded on the north, east, and south by large
SPOKANE.
SPONGE.
99
pine timber forests. It is also the metropolis of
a highly productive cereal belt. In the census year
1900 there was $2,678,823 capital invested in the
various industries, whose output was valued at
$15,427,540. Lumber, foundry and machine shop
products, cars, flour, malt liquors, brick, brooms,
furniture, pottery, marble and granite, and orna-
mental iron constitute the principal manufac-
tures. The government is vested in a mayor,
chosen every two years, and a unicameral coun-
cil, and in administrative officials, the majority
of whom are appointed by the mayor with the
consent of the council. The city spends annually
for maintenance and operation about $547,000,
the principal items of expense being: Schools,
$157,000; interest on debt, $145,000; the fire
department, $67,000; police department, $36,000;
and streets, $21,000. The water-works, which
represent an expenditure of $1,326,761, are owned
and operated by the municipality. Population,
in 1890, 19,922; in 1900, 36,848. In the early
part of the nineteenth century an Indian trading
post was established at Spokane, but there was
a population of only 350 in 1880. The growth
of the present city dates from 1884, when the
Northern Pacific Railway was completed to this
point. The city soon became an important dis-
tributing centre, and by 1892 was entered by
eight railways. In 1889 it was almost completely
destroyed by fire, but was quickly rebuilt. Con-
sult a chapter' by Harold Bolce, in Powell, His-
toric Towns of the Western States (New York,
1901) ; Edwards, An Illustrated History of Spo-
kane County (11. p., 1900).
SPOLETO, spo-la’to. A city in the Province
of Perugia, Italy, situated on a hill, 61 miles
north-northeast of Rome (Map: Italy, G 5). It
is dominated by a citadel, now a prison, in which
in 1499 Lucretia Borgia was incarcerated. The
town is united with the neighboring height of
Monte Luco by a Roman bridge and aqueduct.
Beneath the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele are the
ruins of a Roman theatre. Several of the
churches occupy the sites of Roman temples.
The eleventh-century cathedral has a fine Renais-
sance portico. The gathering of truffles, together
with the preservation of meats, fruits, and vege-
tables, the manufacture of olive oil and silk, and
the mining of lignite are the chief industries.
Population (commune), in 1881, 21,507 ; in 1901,
24,642. The ancient Umbrian town of Spoletium
was colonized by the Romans in B.C. 241. It was
destroyed by the Goths, but rebuilt by Narses.
In 574 it became the capital of the Lombard
Duchy of Spoleto, which rose to great power in
the ninth century, when two of the dukes, Guido
(q.v.) , and Lambert‘, his son, suecessivel re-
ceived the Imperial crown from the Pope. rom
1220 to 1860 it was a Papal possession.
SPOLIATION (Fr. spoliation, from Lat.
spoliatio, a plundering, from spoliare, to plun-
der, spoil). The destruction of a thing by a per-
son not an owner or interested therein, particu-
larly the erasure of a signature on or alteration
of the body of an instrument in writing. The
wrongdoer is liable in damages for his act. Such
an alteration or destruction of an instrument
will not destroy its legal effect if the original
contents can be clearly proved. Spoliation differs
from alteration in that the former is committed
by a stranger and the latter by a person inter-
ested in the thing destroyed or altered.
In admiralty law, the hasty spoliation or de-
struction of ship’s papers or other documents
connected with the voyage by the officers of a
vessel suspected of smuggling or blockade run-
ning is held to create a presumption of guilt,
which, however, may be rebutted.
In ecclesiastical law the term denotes the de-
struction or waste of church property.
SPONGE (Lat. spongia, from Gk. o1ro'y')/la,
sponge; connected with Lat. fungus, mushroom).
A group of animals representing a distinct
branch or phylum, Porifera. The sponges are
many-celled animals, with three cell-layers, with-
out a true digestive cavity, supported usually by
calcareous or siliceous spicules, the body-mass
permeated by ciliated passages or containing
minute chambers lined by flagellate, collared,
monad-like cells. There is no true mouth-open-
ing, but usually an irregular system of inhalent
pores opening into the cell-lined chambers or
passages through which the food is introduced
in currents of sea water, the waste particles
passing out of the body by a single but more
usually by many cloacal openings (oscula).
Sponges are hermaphroditic, multiplying by fer-
tilized eggs, the germ passing through a morula
and a gastrula stage.
Sponges are divided, according to the nature
of the skeleton or supporting fibres or spicules,
into two orders: (1) Calcispongiw, in which the
spicules are calcareous, and (-2) S-ilicispongia’,
or glass sponges, in which the spicules are si-
liceous, or horny and fibrous, as in the bath
sponges, when spongin instead of silica forms
the supporting framework. Examples of the
siliceous sponges are the Venus’s- flower-basket
(Euplectella) and allied deep-sea forms, such
as Hyalonema, Holtenia, etc. To the second
order also belongs the fresh-water sponge (Spon-
gilla) , which grows in lakes or sluggish streams.
These differ from other sponges in producing
statoblasts or winter buds, formed by the proto-
plasm dividing into round bodies as large as a
pin’s head and enveloped by a dense membrane,
thus enabling the species to survive freezing cold
or droughts.
Certain sponges bore into shells, causing
them to disintegrate. For example, Cliona sul-
phurea has been found
boring into various
shells, such as the oyster,
mussel, and scallop; it
also spreads out on all
sides, enveloping and dis-
solving the entire shell.
It has even been found to
penetrate one or two
inches into hard statuary


marble. Cliona also dis-
integrates coral.
Of t h 9 marketable A FOSSIL SPONGE.
sponges there are six One of the Brachiospom
species, with numerous gia‘ (ThOIIaSteFQII“" gm‘
varieties. They are avail- CHIS)’
able for our use from being simply fibrous, hav-
ing no siliceous spicules. The Mediterranean
sponges are the best, being the softest; those of
the Red Sea are next in quality, while our West
Indian species are coarser and less durable. Our
glove-sponge (Spongia tubulifera) corresponds
to Spongia Adriatica, which is the Turkey cup-
sponge and Levant toilet sponge of the Mediter-
SPONGE.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.
100
ranean. Spongia gossypina, the wool sponge of
Florida and the Bahamas, corresponds to Spongia
equina, the horse or bath sponge of the Mediter-
ranean. This wool sponge of Florida attains
under favorable circumstances a weight of one-
tenth pound, in six months, and reaches a size of
commercial value in a year.
Fossil sponges are known in rocks of all ages.
They appear first in the Cambrian as Proto-
spongia and Archaeoscyphia, representing the
hexaetinellids and lithistids. They are repre-
sented in the Ordovician by the curious Brachio-
spongia, and a number of irregular forms; in
the Silurian by Astrecospongia, Astylospongia;
in the Devonian by Hindia and the Dictyospongi-
dae, which latter enjoyed such great expansion
in the shallow seas of western New York during
Chemung time. Receptaculites is a peculiar
sponge that is common in the Ordovician. Dur-
ing the Mesozoic sponges attained a great de-
velopment, became especially abundant during
the Cretaceous period, and declined during the
succeeding Tertiary. Noteworthy Cretaceous
genera are Ventriculites and Coeloptychium.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Hyatt, “Revision of North
American Poriferac,” in Memoirs Boston Society
of Natural History (vol. ii., Boston, 1875) ;
Rauff, “Palaeospongiologia,” in Palceontographica,
vol. xl. (Berlin, 1893) ; Hinde, Catalogue of
Fossil Sponges of the British Museum (London,
1883); Hall and Clarke, “A Memoir on the
Paleeozoic Reticulate Sponges Constituting the
Family Dictyospongidee,” in Memoirs of the New
York State Museum, vol. ii. (Albany, 1898).
SPONGIOZOA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
error;/la, spongia, sponge + §'q5‘ov, e6on, animal).
One of the branches or phyla of Invertebrates, in-
termediate between the Protozoan and the Coelen-
terati, and represented by a single class, Parifera,
which comprises the sponges.
SPONSORS (Lat. sponsor, surety, from spon-
dere, to promise; connected with Gk. mrév5ew,
spendein, to pour a libation) . The persons, also
called godfathers and godmothers, who present
a candidate for baptism, and in the Roman
Catholic Church for confirmation also, to the
minister of those sacraments. In the case of
infants they are representatives who make the
vows the child is incapable of making; with adults
they act rather as witnesses, and among their
duties is a subsequent general oversight in spirit-
ual matters, with a view to preserving religious
life in their godchildren. The spiritual bond
resulting from this relation is supposed by
Roman Catholic theologians to constitute a
species of affinity, and hence an impediment of
marriage, extending to the parents of the bap-
tized, and even at one time operating between
the sponsors themselves.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION (Lat. spon-
taneus, willing, of one’s own accord, from sponte,
abl. sg. of *spons, will). The ignition of sub-
stances at a given moment apparently without
the intervention of any causative agency. The
spontaneous combustion of organic materials is a
frequent cause of fires. When large quantities of
soot, linen, paper, cotton or woolen stuffs, ship’s
cables, etc., are soaked with relatively small
amounts of oils (especially drying oils) and ex-
posed to a limited access of air, they may be ex-
pected to take fire sooner or later. Similarly,
trimmings of lamp-wicks have been known to
take fire if kept in open boxes. The presence of
moisture frequently aids spontaneous combustion,
and piles of damp hay, freshly mown grass, some-
times take fire spontaneously. The phenomenon
is not, however, without a clearly defined cause.
Fats and oils can be shown to undergo a slow pro-
cess of combustion at but slightly elevated, if not
at the ordinary, temperatures. This fact may be
demonstrated by placing a little oil 011 a hot
(but not red-hot) metallic surface, when the
combustion of the oil will cause a peculiar odor
and will render the oil faintly luminous in the
dark. The combustion of a small amount of oil
causes the evolution of a corresponding amount
of heat; the consequent rise of temperature ac-
celerates the combustion, and hence produces a
further elevation of temperature, and so forth,
until at a given moment the temperature may
become so high as to cause the inflammation of
the oil, and with it of the entire mass of organic
material containing it. The more porous the ma-
terial, the greater the surface of oil exposed to
the air, provided the amount of oil is not large
enough to fill the pores completely. Free ac-
cess of air might prevent spontaneous combus-
tion by efiecting a lowering of the temperature;
nor could combustion take place if too little or no
air at all were admitted. As to the spontaneous
combustion of human bodies, it is an impossibil-
ity, and all reports of such cases can be clearly
shown either to be due to erroneous observation
or to be intentionally fraudulent. See PYBO-
PHORUS.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION and PRO-
TOGENESIS. The doctrine that different forms
of life, especially the lower, have arisen by phy-

SPONGE srnucrnnn.
1. Exterior of a living bath-sponge: the arrows show how the water is sucked into the small pores and ex-
pelled from the elevated canal-mouths (oscules). -
2. Diagram of canal system, represented by a young sponge with a single excurrent orifice; such a system is
represented in a large sponge by each oscule: a, oscule; b, inhalent pores.
3. Vertical section of a part of a bath-sponge: b. inhalent pores; c, canals; d, d, flagellated chambers; e, 1}
skeleton fibres; g, maturing eggs.
4. Enlarged view of a part of the canal system: a, inhalent pores and passages by which water is drawn into
the spherical flagellated chambers and their connecting passages (apopyles) conducting it into larger spaces (1))
whence it flows out through an oscule (0). Cf. Fig. 2.
5. Enlarged view of flagellated cells lining the chambers and canals; and a single cell: 12, nucleus; 0, contractile
vesicle; m, collar; fl flagellum.
6. Various forms of siliceous spicules.
7. One form of siliceous fibrous skeleton.
. 8. Fresh-water sponge; vertical section of Spongilla; the water enters through the dermal pores (a) into the
sub-dermal cavities (b). then enters the incurrent pores and passages (c, colored black), and passes into flagellated
chambers (17). thence out through the excurrent canals (e), into the main central canal or perigastric cavity (1),
in which the openings (g) of these canals from all sides are indicated by the black dots; and the water is finally
discharged through the apical oscule (11).
9. A bath-sponge (Spon 1a).
8 .
10. A branching sponge (0baIinopsilIa oculata), a ‘finger’ sponge, common on the Atlaninc coast of the
United States.
SPONGE STRUCTURE



For Names and Descrlptlons, see Text
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.
101
sico-chemical agencies from inorganic substances.
This view prevailed from ancient times until
after the middle of the seventeenth century, and
as late as 1842 Weeks maintained that mites
(Acarus) were spontaneously generated in “sev-
eral solutions under electrical influence.” In
1859 Pouchet, in his H e’te’roge’nie, revived the sub-
ject, and in 1871 Bastian maintained that bac-
teria and torulae were developed at the present
day in certain fluids containing organic matter
by laws similar to those by which crystals arise,
or by what he calls ‘archebiosis.’
In 1660 Redi disproved the prevailing notion
that the maggots of flies were generated in putre-
fying meat, by covering similar pieces of meat
with fine gauze, and keeping away the blow-flies.
He thus demonstrated that the maggots grew
from eggs, and that there was “no life without
antecedent life.” About a‘ century and a half ago
Needham experimented by boiling and corking
flasks of water containing infusoria, but in every
case animalcules appeared after a longer or
shorter period. This led Spallanzani (1768) to
make more careful experiments. He boil.ed in-
fusions longer, and instead of simply corking,
fused the necks of his flasks. The result was
that the infusions remained entirely free from
living organisms. Schulze and Schwann in
1836 made further experiments. They care-
fully boiled their infusions, and then sup-
plied air; but they made it first pass through red-
hot tubes, so that any germs present in it would
be burned. Under these conditions no infusoria
appeared. Then the discovery was made by Ca-
gniard de la Tour that fermentation, like putre-
faction, is always accompanied by the presence of
microscopic organisms. In 1854-59 Schroeder and
Dusch invented the screen of cotton-wool now
used for plugging the openings of tubes, which
kept out the germs, and it was thus found that
the cause of putrefaction and fermentation, and
the origin of the living forms accompanying these
processes, must be microscopic particles existing
in the air. The next step was taken by Pasteur
(On the Organized Particles Eavisting in the Air,
1862). On sowing these particles in suitable
sterilized infusions he raised from them micro-
scopic organisms. Germs like these were after-
wards shown by Cohn to be low plants to which
he gave the name ‘bacterium.’ Finally Tyndall,
in 1869, by passing a beam of light through the
air in a box, showed that whenever dust was pres-
ent the putrefaction occurred sooner or later;
when it was absent it did not. The result of
these experiments and conclusions is that the
view that spontaneous generation takes place at
the present day has been entirely discarded.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (PROTOGENESIS)
NECESSARY ro Accounr FOR THE BEGINNINGS or
LIFE. Some of those who, like Wyman, made obser-
vations disproving its occurrence at the present
day, yet supposed that in the beginning the first
living organisms probably arose from inorganic
matter, through the action of unknown physico-
chemical processes. In 1868 Herbert Spencer,
While rejecting the ancient doctrine of spon-
taneous generation, stated his belief that the
formation of organic matter and the evolution
of life in its lowest forms “took place at a time
when the heat of the earth’s surface was fallin0
through ranges of temperature at which the
higher organic compounds are unstable.” He
conceived that the molding of such organic mat-
ter must have begun with portions of protoplasm,
more minute, more indefinite, and more incon-
stant in their characters than the lowest rhizo-
pods, or even the Protogenes of Haeckel. With
this view biologists are now in agreement.
It is evident that the earliest living organism
appeared when the temperature of the earth’s
crust and of the air and sea approached that
which it is now; the earth’s climate probably ex-
ceeded in temperature that of the present torrid
zone; the sea may have been less saline; but we
know that at present exceedingly few plants -and
animals can live in hot‘ springs; that there is no
life in our geysers, and, judging from analogy,
the earth’s surface must have been nearly as it
is now when the first bit of animated protoplasm
came into being.
When the earth had assumed its present shape,
with its incipient continents, and the oceans lying
in their basins, the period arrived when the con-
ditions for the appearance of life became favor-
able, and at this critical moment the protoplasmic
substance probably came into being. The chemi-
cal compounds giving origin to it were far more
abundant, and the physical and chemical con-
ditions more favorable.
The origin of protoplasm was probably the re-
sult of a combination of circumstances which cer-
tainly never occurred before in the history of our
planet, and which has never happened since. The
phenomenon of protogenesis, after taking place
once for all, could never have again occurred.
Such is the nature of cell-division, of sexual re-
production, of growth, a.nd of heredity, that it
would be contrary to the course of nature to sup-
pose that it was ever afterwards necessary for it
to again occur. After protoplasm appeared, the
earth and ocean probably became too cool to sup-
ply a sufficiently high temperature, or chemical
compounds of the right degree of stability to
form protoplasm.
Fmsr BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. To account for the
beginnings of life we have been compelled to im-
agine the creation of a primordial microscopic
bit of protoplasm. In shape it was drop-like,
spherical or oval, its form being due to gravity,
as the primary form of all living beings tends by
the action of gravity to be round or ovate.
This primordial being had the power of ab-
.sorbing and digesting food, or the protoplasmic
materials round it, and hence of growing; it was
contractile and could move automatically, and
thus it was adapted for moving through the wa-
ter, sending out from its body rootlike exten-
sions or pseudopodia to aid in seizing its food
and in locomotion. A single ‘chance’ germ
(though i11 nature there is no such thing as
chance) would have been suflicient. Such a
primordial cell or sphere of protoplasm, by the
simple process of self-division, even if not far
enough advanced in organization to have a
nucleus, may have multiplied itself, and in
a few hours even become the parent of thousands
of young, while the lapse of a few days would
enable it to give birth to millions.
These primordial beings were plastic. Already
the earth’s surface varied, if not in relative dis-
tribution of land and sea, in depth, specific grav-
ity, density, light, and shade, in the nature of
the bottom of the primeval sea, and in chemi-
cal constitution and other physical features.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.
SPORADIC.
102
There would follow migrations and the foundation
of new colonies in scattered areas. Adaptation
to each new environment would take place, and in
the course of time variation would set in and the
evolution of higher organisms take place. See
EVOLUTION. Consult: Chambers’s Encyclopcedia,
art. “Spontaneous Generation;” Spencer, Princi-
ples of Biology (New York, 1898-1901) ; Haeckel,
The History of Creation (ib., 1876); Verworn,
General Philosophy (ib., 1899).
SPONTINI, spon-te'ne, GASPARO LUIGI PACI-
FICO (1774-1851). An Italian dramatic com-
poser, born at Majolati, Ancona. In 1871 he be-
came a pupil at the Conservatory della Pieta
de’ Turchini at Naples, where he studied under
Sala and Tritto. As early as 1803 he had pro-
duced sixteen operas in the light Italian style
used at that time. His opera La finta filosofa and
two imitations of French opéra comique, Julie
and La petite maison, met with little success.
He then gave himself up to the study of Mo-
zart and showed a marked change in the one-act
opera Milton produced in 1804. The Empress
Josephine, to whom he had dedicated the score
of Milton, had him appointed chamber-composer,
and she secured the production of La Vestale
in 1807. It proved a great success. His grand
opera Ferdinand Cortes (1809) was equally suc-
cessful. In 1810, as director of the Italian
Opera, he staged Mozart’s Don Giovanni in the
original form for the first time in Paris. In
1820 he was appointed general musical director
at Berlin. He wrote for the Berlin festival play
Lalla Rulch (1821), remodeled as the opera
Narmahal, oder das Rosenfest non Kaschmir
(1822) ; Alcidor (1825) ; and Agnes non Hohen-
staufen (1829). In 1842 he resigned his position
and returned to Paris. He died in his birth-
place.
SPOONBILL. An ibis-like bird of the family
Plataleidae, distinguished by the flat, dilated,
spoon-like form of the bill. The species are five
or six, in two genera widely distributed. The
spoonbills of the Old World belong to the genus
Platalea, and have the windpipe curiously con-
voluted. The spoonbills of the New \Vorld lack
these convolutions, and are therefore placed in a
distinct genus Ajaja. The roseate spoonbill (A ja ja
ajaja), the only American species, is very abun-
dant within the tropics. It is nearly three feet
in length, and is a beautiful bird, with plumage
of a fine rose color, of which the tint is deepest
on the wings; the tail-coverts are carmine. It
was formerly abundant in Florida, but is now
rare there, and most commonly seen along the
coast of Texas. It nests in colonies, and builds
a coarse platform of sticks, in trees, on which it
lays three eggs, white spotted with brown. The
only European species is the white s oonbill
(Platalea leucorodia), common in mars y dis-
tricts throughout Northern Europe and Asia in
summer, and in the salt marshes of the Mediter-
ranean in winter. See Colored Plate of
WADERS.
SPOON-BILLED SANDPIPER. A rare
reddish, stint-like sandpiper (Eur;/norhynchus
pygmaaus) of Eastern Asia, remarkable only for
its spoon-shaped bill. (See Colored Plate of
SHORE-BIRDS.) It breeds in Siberia, occasionally
crossing to the Alaskan coast, and migrates
southward in winter to China and India.
SPO0N’ER, Jonn Corr (1843- ).
can lawyer and legislator, born in Lawrenceburg,
Ind. In 1859 he removed with his parents to
Wisconsin. He graduated at the University of
\Visconsin in 1864. He served during the Civil
War first as a private in the Fortieth Wisconsin
Volunteers and subsequently as a captain in the
Fiftieth Wisconsin, and was brevetted major at
the close of hostilities. In 1867 he was admitted
to the bar, and from 1868 to 1870 he was Assist-
ant Attorney-General of the State. He was a
member of the State Assembly in 1872-74, and in
1885 he was elected to the United States Senate.
In 1892 he was defeated for Governor by George
IV. Peck, and in 1893 resumed legal practice in
Madison. In January, 1897, he was again elected
to the United States Senate to succeed Senator
Vilas. He took a prominent part in legislation
and debates, and became recognized as the spokes-
man of the McKinley and Roosevelt administra-
tions. He was reéilected for a third time in Janu-
ary, 1903, despite the opposition of Governor La
Follette’s faction in the Wisconsin Legislature.
SPOONER, SHEARJASHUB (1809-59). An
American dentist and author, born at Brandon,
Vt. He graduated in 1830 at Middlebury (Vt.)
College, at the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, New York City, in 1835, and practiced
dentistry in New York with much success until
1858. He contributed extensively to periodicals,
professional and other, and published, in addi-
tion to dental works, two compilations once valu-
able: Anecdotes of Painters, Engravers, Sculptors,
and Architects, and Curiosities of Art (1853),
and a Biographical and Critical‘ Dictionary
of Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects
from Ancient to Modern Times (1853; new ed.
1865). He also bought and restored the plates of
%3oydell’s Shakespeare Gallery, which he repub-
ished.
SPORADES, sp6r’a-dez (Gk., scattered). The
collective name for the islands lying in the south-
eastern portion of the Ailgean Sea between Samos
and Rhodes, and east of the Cyclades (q.v.)
(Map: Greece, J 5). The ancients included un-
der the Sporades a number of islands which lie
south of the Cyclades proper and whose principal
members are Melos, Ios, Santorin, and Amorgos;
but these are now classed with the Cyclades, be-
longing to the Greek nomarchy of that name. The
Sporades proper belong to Turkey. Their prin-
cipal members are Astropalia, Leros, Patmos,
N icaria, Calimno, Cos, Nisyros, and Scarpanthos.
Some also include Rhodes, Samos, Chios,
and Lesbos with the neighboring islands. In a
wider sense the name Sporades is applied to all
the islands of the 2Egean Sea except the Cyclades
proper. The group lying in the western part of
the sea, north and east of Euboea or Negropont,
the principal member of which is Scyros, are
known as the Northern Sporades, and belong to
the Greek Nomarchy of Euboea. For details, see
articles on the principal individual islands.
An Ameri-
SPORAD’IC (Lat. sporadious, from Gk.
o'1ropa6u<6s, sporadihos, from arrelpew, speirein,
to sow). Isolated. In medicine, a disease is
sporadic when but few cases, widely separated,
appear. If many cases are found in the same
region, the disease is called epidemic (q.v.). In
botany, sporadic growths are those which are
scattered or widely dispersed.
SPORANGIUM.
SPORE.
103
SPORANGIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 0’-mipos,
sporos, seed + av-pie», angeion, vessel). The
plant organ within which asexual spores are pro-
duced. Among algae and fungi the sporangium is
usually a single cell (mother-cell), which pro-
duces few to numerous spores. Among bryophytes
there are no distinct sporangia, the spores being
produced by a more or less complex capsule which
is the essential feature of the characteristic leaf-
less sporophyte (sporogonium) of the group.
Among pteridophytes the sporangia are} very
prominent, and their origin is the basis of a
fundamental distinction in the group. They are
complex, many-celled organs, usually borne on
leaves, and if they are developed from a single
superficial (epidermal) cell the plant is lepoto-
sporangiate, if they involve several epidermal and
deeper cells the plant is eusporangiate. The an-
cient ferns, represented by a few tropical forms
to-day, were eusporangiate; while the great host
of modern ferns, including the water ferns, are
leptosporangiate. It is natural, therefore, to
regard the eusporangiate condition as primitive,
and the leptosporangiate as derived. The two
other divisions of pteridophytes (horsetails and
club mosses) and all the spermatophytes (seed-
plants) are eusporangiate.
The structure of the ordinary fern sporangium
indicates its highly specialized character. It
consists of a long slender stalk that bears a
spore-containing capsule. The walls of the capsule
are thin, except for a single row of thick-walled
cells (annulus) which girdles the capsule like a

rrrns or sronxnou.
1, Qulllwort; 2, fern; 3, liverwort; 4, club moss; 5, fungus.
meridian, from the stalk nearly around to the stalk
again. At maturity the annulus acts like a bent
spring, and when the thin wall of the cap-
sule begins to yield straightens violently,
hurling out a spray of spores. In the eusporan-
giate plants such a contrivance is absent.
In most ordinary ferns the sporangia are de-
veloped in very great numbers upon the under
surface‘ of foliage leaves, usually occurring in
definite groups (sori), popularly called ‘fruit
dots,’ which are generally protected by a flap-like
outgrowth (indusium, q.v.) from the epidermis. In
some ferns (e.g. ‘sensitive fern’), however, foli-
age-work and spore-production are separated,
‘though somewhat diverse in details.
early stages of a sporangium, when it consists.
and distinct foliage leaves and sporophylls
(‘spore-leaves’) occur. This distinction persists
in the other groups of pteridophytes (horsetails
and club mosses) and in the spermatophytes, the
sporophyll being a constant organ in them. In
the horsetails (Equisetales, q.v.) and most of the
club mosses (Lycopodiales, q.v.) the small sporo-
phylls are organized into a cone-like cluster
(strobilus), which also appears as the so-called
cones of pines, and as the equivalent in general
of the flowers of angiosperms. In plants which
exhibit heterospory (q.v.) the sporangia are dif-
ferentiated, some producing megaspores (mega-
sporangia) and others microspores (microspo-
rangia). This differentiation begins among the
pteridophytes, most notably in the club mosses
(Selaginella, q.v.), and is found in all seed-
plants. Since the two forms of sporangia in
seed-plants, long called pollen sacs and ovules,
are really microsporangia and megasporangia re-
spectively, stamens and carpels are properly
sporophylls, and not sex organs, as commonly
supposed.
The structure of a complex sporangium, such
as occurs among all the vascular plants (fern-
plants and seed-plants), is constant in character
In the very
of a mass of similar cells, there is no distinction
of regions. Very early, however, a single cell or
group of cells (archesporium) assumes the office
of spore production, dividing more or less and
producing in some cases a considerable mass of
tissue. In any event, the cells of the last division
are called the spore mother-cells, because within
each one of them four spores are formed, the
group of four being known as a tetrad. In a
completely formed sporangium, just outside of the
mass of mother-cells, there is a more or less dis-
tinct nourishing layer called the tapetum, out-
side of which is the sporangium wall, consisting
usually of two to five layers of cells, and various-
ly modified for protection, discharge, etc. This
general account applies to all sporangia of the
higher plants, excepting the megasporangia or
ovules of seed-plants, where the ordinary sporan-
gium structure is more or less modified, and the
formation of the tetrad is obscured.
SPORE (from Gk. mrépos, sporos, seed). In
general, a single cell separated from the parent
plant for reproduction. In the simplest plants
spores are not produced, as in the blue-green algae
(Cyanophyceae, q.v.) , but in all other plants they
are a prominent method of reproduction, and one
or other of two great groups that differ in their
mode of origin. Asexual spores are usually pro-
duced by mere division of the cells in a sporan-
gium. Sexual spores are produced by the fusion
of two sexual cells (gametes), which arise in a
simple or complex organ called a gametangium
(q.v.).
Asnxuan Sronns. The diverse names given to
asexual spores usually indicate some peculiar
character of the spore or the group of plants
which produce it. Among the green algae (Chlo-
rophyceae, q.v.) the characteristic spore is a zo-
ospore or swarm spore, a minute, pear-shaped
naked mass of protoplasm, swimming freely by
means of one or two cilia at one end (fig. 9).
Among the brown algae (Phaeophyceae, q.v.) the
zoiispores are bean-shaped, with two cilia on the
concave side. Among the red algae (Rhodophy-
SPORE.
SPOROZOA.
104
ceae, q.v.) the spores have no cilia and hence can-
not swim, and as each sporangium produces
four such spores they are called tetraspores.
Among the fungi, asexual spores, which are
produced in great profusion and variety, have
received many names. Among the alga-like fungi
(Phycomycetes, q.v.) they are developed in one-
celled sporangia, and are mostly light, dry cells,
easily scattered by wind. Such are called simply
spores, with no designating prefix. Among the
sac-fungi (Ascomycetes, q.v.), however, two con-
spicuous forms of asexual spores occur: the
one, conidia, which are successively cut off from
the tip of a filament, often forming chains; the
other, ascospores (fig. 4), developed within a
delicate sac (ascus). Among the rusts (Uredi-
nales, q.v.)
spores for one plant is reached; e.g. in wheat rust
there are four. Among toadstools (Basidiomy-
cetes, q.v.) the characteristic spores are basidio-
spores, borne two or four together on the tips of
pointed branches from a swollen filament, the
basidium (fig. 8). There are several other spores
of minor significance among the fungi, each with
its distinctive name. Among the bryophytes
(liverworts and mosses) and most of the pterido-
phytes the asexual spores are called simply-
spores. In heterosporous plants (some pterido-
phytes and all spermatophytes), however, there
are two kinds of asexual spores, megaspores or
macrospores and microspores (qq.v. ) . Before their
character in seed plants was appreciated these
two kinds were called respectively embryo-sacs
and pollen-grains. In all of these wind-dispersed
asexual spores, the spore-wall consists of two lay-
ers, a delicate inner one (intine or endospore) and
a tough outer one (exine or exospore), often
variously sculptured, especially in the pollen-
grains of flowering plants, and sometimes even
winged, as in the pollen-grains of pines (fig. 2).
SEXUAL SPCRES. Only two names, zygospores
and zygotes, are used to designate sexual spores
which result from the union of similar gametes
(fig. 5, 7). (See ISOGAMY.) Oiispores, pro-
duced by all but the lowest plants, are formed

TYPES OF BPORES.
1. Megaspore of Selaginella; 2, microspore (pollen) of
pine; 3, spore of Equisetum with elaters, 4, ascospore of
lichen; 5, zogospore of Spirogyra; 6, zoiispore of Vau-
cheria; 7, zygospore of Mucor; 8, basidiospores; 9, zoiispores
of green alga.
by the union of dissimilar gametes (see HETERC-
GAMY) known as sperms and eggs (oiispheres).
See SEX in plants.
the greatest variety of asexual
Under suitable conditions any spore begins to
form a new plant, the process being called germi-
nation. In some cases the germination is imme-
diate; in others it is delayed for a longer or
shorter period by unfavorable conditions, as
winter. Spores adapted to delayed germination
are called resting spores, and may be recognized
by their unusually heavy protecting wall. See
REPRODUCTION.
The methods of spore dispersal are as diverse
as the various means of seed dispersal. In many
of the “lower forms, as in the algae and some fungi,
zoiispores may distribute the species over wide
areas. Most aerial spores are light and usually
small, and are thus readily scattered great dis-
tances by wind, a fact evidenced by the usually
early appearance of ferns on new tropical is-
lands. Mechanical expulsion and special devices
for separating or entangling spores, as the ela-
ters of Equisetum (fig. 3), are common.
SPORER, spe’rer, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH WIL-
HELM (1822-95). A German astronomer, born
in Berlin and educated there. He taught at
Bromberg, at Prenzlau, and at Anklam (since
1849). Here he began in 1860 to observe sun
spots with the view of determining the law of
solar rotation. Through a Government endow-
ment a solar observatory was erected by him at
Anklam. Sptirer arrived independently at a con-
clusion similar to that of Carrington concerning
the equatorial quickening of the sun’s movement
on its axis. In 1868 he took part in an
expedition to East India for observing a total
eclipse of the sun. The structure of the chromo-
sphere was also investigated by Spiirer. This
showed the chromosphere to be of the same na-
ture as the vast protrusions from it. From 1874
to 1894 Sptirer was observer at the astrophysical
observatory at Potsdam.
SPOROPCHYLL (from Gk. 0'1r6pos, sporos,
seed + ¢6AAor, phyllon, leaf). A leaf-like organ
that occurs only in spermatophytes and in cer-
tain pteridophytes and bears sporangia (spore-
cases). Though generally unlike ordinary foli-
age leaves in appearance, they are regarded as
foliar organs. See SPCRANGIUM.
SPOROPHYTE (from Gk. mrépos, sporos,
seed —|— ¢6r6v, phyton, plant). The sexless phase
in alternation of generations (q.v.) .
SPOROZOA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
d'1r6por, sporos, seed + §'q'5ov, e6on, animal). A
class of parasitic protozoa comprising the ma-
laria germs, Texas cattle-fever germs, etc. While
the sporozoa differ much in structure, they are
similar in parasitic habits and development.
a rule they are more or less oval or elongated,
with no organs of locomotion except in the early
stages. They are very minute, though Gregarina
gigantea, which lives in the intestine of the Eu-
ropean lobster, is of comparatively colossal size,
being a little over half an inch in length. They are
nourished by the absorption of the fluid in which
they live. The young arise as ‘sporoblasts,’ which
when enveloped with a membrane are called
spores, the contents of which break up into sev-
eral small bodies or ‘sporozoites;’ the latter to
complete their development must leave the first
host and enter a second one.
Some of the sporozoa are parasites in the in-
terior of cells, such as those lining the intestine
of higher animals. Malaria in man has been
proved to be due to the presence of a sporozoan
As~
SPOROZOA.
SPOTTISWOODE.
105
(Hcemamaeba or Plasmodium Laverani) which
invades and destroys at a certain stage in its life
history the red corpuscles of the blood. The spo-
rozoites are developed in a mosquito (Anopheles)
and are transferred from the salivary glands to
man by the sting or proboscis. The bird-malaria
germ is communicated by the ordinary mosquito
(Culex). Another form (Apiosoma bigeminum)
causes the Texas fever in cattle, the infection
being carried by ticks (q.v.). A parasite of the
tsetse fly (q.v.), which is a flagellate haemato-
zoan, is the cause of the tsetse disease in Southern
Africa. See Insects and Disease, in article INSECT.
The Myxosporida are generally rather large
sporozoa, their hosts being fish and insects. The
silkworm disease called pebrine is due to one of
the Myxosporida (Glugea bombycis), which in-
habits all the tissues of the caterpillar.
The Sarcosporida, also called Rainey’s or
Mieschers’s corpuscles, take up their abode in the
voluntary muscles of mammals. They form oval
cysts, which when ripe inclose spores, each of
which contains numerous kidney-shaped sporozo-
ites. Thus Sarcocystis Miescheriana occurs in the
muscles of the pig; Sarcocystismuris in the mouse;
Sarcocystic Lindemanni rarely in human muscle.
SPORT (by aphaeresis for disport, from OF.
desporter, deporter, depporter, to support, banish,
amuse, divert, from Lat. deportare, to carry
away, from de, down, away + portare, to carry).
In biology, the appearance at birth of an indi-
vidual having one or more marked or extraordi-
nary physical or mental characteristics; a sud-
den aberration from the type. See EVOLUTION;
NATURAL SELECTION.
SPORTS, Boox OF. A name popularly given
to an edict issued by James I. of England in
1618 dictating the games which should or should
not be played on Sundays after divme service.
According to this declaration “no lawful recrea-
tion shall be barred to my good people which
does not tend to the breech of the laws of my
kingdom and the canons of the established
Church.” The sports allowed were dancing,
archery, leaping, vaulting, May games, Whitsun
ales, Morris dances, and the setting up of May
poles. The occasion of this proclamation was
the conduct of some Puritan authorities in the
County of Lancashire, who, by their arbitrary
repression of the customary recreations of the
people, had created considerable discontent and
(in the estimation of the King and his advisers)
“had given much comfort to the Roman Cath-
olics” by giving a repulsive aspect to the re-
formed religion. The unlawful sports were bear-
baiting, bull-baiting, and bowling. In 1644 the
Long Parliament ordered all copies of the Book of
Sports to be called in and publicly burned.
SPOT, or LAFAYETTE. A small food-fish (Lei-
ostamus wanthurus) of the South Atlantic and
Gulf Coast, locally called ‘Lafayette’ (q.v.),
‘goody,’ and ‘oldwife.’ The color is bluish above
and silvery below, with about fifteen dark, wavy
bands slanting down the sides, and a black spot
behind the eye. It appears numerously on the
northern coast in September, when it is prepar-
ing to spawn in the inlets.
SPOTS’WO0D, or SPOT’TISWO0D, ALEX-
ANDER (1676-1740). A British soldier and
American colonial governor. He was born at
Tangier, Africa; entered the British Army;
served with 1\Iarlborough and was wounded at
Blenheim. He was appointed Lieuten-ant~Governor
of Virginia in 1710, became active in promoting
the interests of William and Mary College, and
was also interested in the improvement of the
condition of the Indians. It is to his efforts that
the improvement in the production of tobacco is
attributable, and he favored the act for making
tobacco-notes a circulating medium. He intro-
duced the manufacture of iron into Virginia.
Owing to a lack of support, disputes, and other
difficulties, he was superseded in 1722, but he re-
mained in America, and in 1730 was appointed
Deputy Postmaster-General.
SPOTTED FEVER. See MENINGITIS.
SPOT’TISWOODE, SPOT’TISWOOD,
SPOT’ISWOOD, or SPOTS’WOOD, JOHN
(1565-1639). Archbishop of Saint Andrews.
He was educated at the University of Glasgow,
and on his father’s death in 1583 succeeded him
as parson of Calder. He was for many years an
uncompromising Presbyterian, but he afterwards
adopted English episcopal ideas. He became the
chief instrument of James I. and Charles I. in
their attempts to reconstruct the Scottish Church
after the English model. He was made Arch-
bishop of Glasgow in 1603 and member of the
Scottish privy council in 1605. In 1610 he was
moderator of the Assembly which gave its con-
sent to the introduction of episcopacy into Scot-
land. In 1615 Spottiswoode was translated to
the see of Saint Andrews, which held the primacy
in Scotland. In 1618 he persuaded the General
Assembly to accept the Five Articles of Perth,
ordaining certain ceremonial innovations, and he
subsequently inforced the articles as far as he
could. He took part in the revision of the
Scottish Prayer-Book, but was opposed to the in-
troduction of the Laudian system into Scotland.
In 1633 he crowned Charles I. at Holyrood, and in
1635 he was made Chancellor of Scotland, a dig-
nity which no churchman had held since the Ref-
ormation. Finding that the King was determined
to introduce the Prayer-Book, he, as usual, stifled
his own scruples and acted energetically, accord-
ing to the King’s wishes, but in the resulting dis-
orders he found it necessary to flee from Scot-
land. He was excommunicated and deposed by
the General Assembly, December 4, 1638, and
Charles asked him to resign the Chancellorship.
Spottiswoode was the author of the History of
the Church and State of Scotland from the Year
of Our Lord 203 to the End of the Reign of King
James the VI., 1625, an oflicial compilation writ-
ten at the request of King James, first printed
in London in 1655.


THE SPOT.
SPOTTISWOODE, WILLIAM (1825-83)‘. An
English mathematician and physicist, born in
\
SPOTTISWOODE.
SPRAGUE.
106
London. He was educated at Balliol College, Ox-
ford. His memoirs on the contact of curves and
surfaces in the Philosophical Transactions and
various other scientific journals are important
and original. Among his works are: Medita-
tiones Analyticce (1847); Elementary Theorems
Relating to Determinants (1851; a second edition
appeared in Crelle’s Journal, 1856) ; A Tarantasse
Journey Through Eastern Russia (1857) ; Polar-
ization of Light (187 4) ; A Lecture on the Elec-
trical Discharge, I ts Form and Functions (1881).
SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT HOUSE, BAT-
TLES OF. A series of battles during the Civil
War, fought between Ma 7 and MayI 21,
1864, at and near Spottsy vania Court ouse
in Virginia, 49 miles north by west of
Richmond, between the Federal Army of the
Potomac, under General Meade, and the Confed-
erate Army of Northern Virginia, under General
Lee. As in the battle of the Wilderness (q.v.),
the movements of the Federal army were directed
by General Grant. Both armies paused for
breath after the battle of the Wilderness (May
5th; 6th) , and prepared to renew the struggle. The
Federal wagon trains were early in the afternoon
of the 7th drawn to the eastward to clear the
direct road to Spottsylvania Court House, upon
which a night march had been ordered. This
was, however, anticipated by General Lee, and
Longstreet’s corps (under R. H. Anderson)
moved toward the same point, which (having a
shorter line) they reached early on the morning
of the 8th in time to oppose the advance of War-
ren’s corps. Anderson had been ordered to begin
his march at about the hour when (forced to
move earlier by the burning forest in which he
could not bivouac) he actually arrived at his
destination. Notwithstanding the celerity with
which Anderson moved, Watson’s division of the
Federal cavalry reached the Court House some
hours earlier, and had not, as alle ed, Sheridan’s
dispositions been countermanded y Meade, the
result might have been different. Anderson im-
mediately intrenched, and, although attacked by
Warren with vigor, was enabled to maintain his
position until heavily reinforced.
By noon of the 9th the relative positions of
the opposing forces were as follows: The Con-
federate line formed a semicircle in front of
the Court House, facing north, northwest, and
northeast, with Anderson, Ewell, and Early from
left to right. Confrontin them were Warren,
Sedgwick, and Burnside rom right to left in
order named; Hancock had not yet arrived, but
had been ordered to threaten Lee’s left. In the
course of these movements the distinguished
commander of the Sixth Corps—Genera1 Sedgwick
—was killed by a sharpshooter, and was succeeded
by General Wright. It was discovered that Han-
cock’s movement had caused Lee to draw troops
from his right, and Grant thereupon (on the
10th) delivered a severe blow upon that part of
his enemy’s line. Combinin for the purpose the
Fifth, Sixth, and part of t e Second Corps, all
under Hancock, while Burnside was to coiiperate
(a storming party of 12 regiments under Colonel
Upton being a feature of the attacking column),
he scaled the enemy’s intrenchments and took sev-
eral guns and some hundreds of prisoners. The
general attack failed, and was repulsed with loss;
it was renewed with success and Upton’s men
(their commander severely wounded) were final-
ly withdrawn, bringing their risoners with
t em, but leaving the guns behin . On the 11th
there was no fighting.
A reconnaissance made on the 11th from Han-
cock’s corps discovered a salient, at the right
centre of the Confederate intrenchments. At 4
o’clock the next morning a combined attack of
Hancock and Burnside was made, resulting in
the capture of 4000 prisoners, 30 guns, sev-
eral thousand stand of arms, and many colors.
This success was only achieved after the most
severe hand-to-hand fighting that occurred dur-
ing the war. The ca tured artillery was turned
upon the defenders of) the position, who, heavily
reinforced, resisted most strenuously. Five
times Lee’s men made desperate attempts to dis-
lodge Hancock, each time losing heavily. It was
3 o’clock next morning before the fighting ceased,
after the troops had been for nearly twenty
hours under fire. Lee retired to a fresh position
in rear of the one reviously occupied and
strongly intrenched. ntil the 18th the two
armies lay facing each other, engaging in sev-
eral minor conflicts, and Grant then, on May
19th-21st, transferred his army to the North
Anna River. On the 8th Sheridan had been de-
tached with his command and sent on a raid in
the direction of Richmond and against Lee’s com-
munications. He was promptly followed by the
Confederate cavalry, but, notwithstanding their
efforts, succeeded in passing entirely around
Lee’s army. He had four severe engagements
with Stuart’s cavalry, in one of which that dis-
tinguished leader was mortally wounded, re-
captured 400 Federal prisoners, captured large
quantities of supplies and war material, de-
stroyed miles of railroad and telegraph, passed
within the outer defenses of the enemy’s capital,
and after a fortnight’s absence reached Grant’s
headquarters. The Federal losses at Spottsyl-
vania are estimated at 6820; those of the Con-
federates at 9000, in killed, wounded, and
missing. Consult: Ofiicial Records; Johnson and
Buel (eds.), Battles and Leaders of the Civil
War (New York, 1887); Humphreys, The Vir-
ginia Campaign of 1864 and 1865 (New York,
1883) ; Grant, Personal Memoirs (last ed., New
York, 1895); Badeau, Military History of
Ulysses S. Grant (New York, 1868-81); and
Swinton, Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac
(new ed., New York, 1882).
S. P. Q. R. The abbreviation of Senatus
populusque Romanus (the senate and the Roman
people), the motto surmounting the Roman stand-
ards.
SPRAGUE, sprag, CHARLES (1791-1875). An
American poet, born in Boston, Mass. Leaving
school at an early age, he became a merchant’s
clerk, and in 1820 teller in a bank. From
1825 to 1865 he was cashier in the Globe Bank
of Boston. His literary skill was chiefly shown
in occasional poems, which were first collected in
1841. In 1850, 1855, and 1876 editions
of his Poetical and Prose Writings were pub-
li-shed. Much of his verse is in the familiar
rhymed couplet of the eighteenth century, to
which period its literary feeling chiefly belongs.
SPRAGUE, WILLIAM (1830——). An Ameri-
can manufacturer and olitician, born at
Cranston, R. 1. After stu ying at the Irving
Institute, Tarrytown, N. Y., he entered his fa-
SPRAGUE.
SPREN GEL.
107
ther’s calico factory, and afterwards became in-
terested in linen weaving and locomotive building.
He was elected Governor of Rhode Island, but at
the outbreak of the Civil War he offered his ser-
vices to the United States Government, and
served with the Rhode Island troops, participat-
ing in the first battle of Bull Run and in the
Peninsular campaign. From 1863, when his term
as Governor expired, until 1875, he was a mem-
ber of the United States Senate and served as
chairman of the committees on public lands and
on manufactures and as a member of the com-
mittees on commerce and on military affairs.
SPRAGUE, WILLIAM BUELL (1795-1876). An
American clergyman and compiler of Annals of
the American Pulpit (10 vols., 1857-1869), a com-
prehensive biographical dictionary of the leading
American ministers of all denominations. He
graduated at Yale (1815), studied theology at
Princeton (1819), had pastoral charges at West
Springfield, Mass. (1819-29), and Albany, N. Y.
(1829-69), and afterwards devoted himself to
literary work at Flushing, L. 1. Besides the An-
nals mentioned above, he wrote numerous books,
of which the chief are: Life of Rev. Edward Dorr
Gri/fin, D.D. (1838) ; Life of Rev. Jed/idiah Morse
(1874) ; and Women of the Bible (1850).
SPRAIN (from OF. espreindre, from Lat. ew-
primere, to press out, from Lat. em, out + pre-
mere, to press), or STRAIN. A term employed in
surgery to designate a violent stretching of ten-
dinous or ligamentous parts with or without rup-
ture of some of their fibres. Sprains are very
frequent in all the joints of the upper limbs, espe-
cially in the wrist and the articulations of the
thumb. In the lower extremity the ankle is the
joint by far the most frequently affected; and
this is accounted for anatomically by the small
size of the articular surfaces, the great weight
the astragalus (the bone presenting the lower ar-
ticular surface) has to support, and the unyield-
ing nature of the lateral ligaments. In slight
sprains of this joint the ligaments are only
stretched or slightly lacerated, but in more se-
vere cases they may be completely torn through.
Sprains are sometimes mistaken for fractures,
and nice persa; and the two injuries may co-
exist. The pain and swelling sometimes make an
accurate diagnosis difficult, especially if the pa-
tient is not seen for some time after the acci-
dent; and if any doubt exists, the case should
be treated as for the more severe injury. Sprains
of the knee are not uncommon, and are character-
ized by great swelling from effusion of fiuid with-
in the joint. Sprains of the back are not unfre-
quent accidents, and are the most serious of any.
The treatment of sprains generally must be regu-
lated by their severity. In most cases, elevation
of the joint, the application of cold, and complete
rest in a splint will be sufiicient, and as soon as
the inflammation subsides massage and movement
are necessary to prevent adhesions. Sometimes
pain and impaired function persist for a long
time, and frequently after a severe sprain a joint
is permanently weaker.
Sprains, or strains, are very common among
horses, owing to the severe exertions required of
them, often while they are young and unpre-
pared for such work. Various muscles, liga-
ments, and tendons are liable to strain, but none
more frequently than the large tendons passing
down the back of the fore limbs. In slight cases
VOL. XVI.—8.
cold water continuously applied for several hours
gives relief; but in all serious cases diligent fo-
mentation with water about the temperature of
100° is preferable; or the injured part may be
swathed in a thick woolen rag, kept constantly
moist and warm by frequent wetting with the
hot water. Perfect rest is essential, and in order
to insure the relaxation of the large tendons of
the horse’s limbs, he may in bad cases be kept
slung for several days. Blisters, hot oils, firing,
and all such irritants are on no account to be
used until the inflammation abates, and the part
becomes cool and free from tenderness. Such
remedies are then useful for causing the reab-
sorption of swelling, and perhaps also for in-
vigorating the weakened part.
SPRAT (dialectic variant of sprot, from AS.
sprota, OHG. sprozo, sprozzo, Ger. Spross, sprout,
from AS. spréotan, Ger. spriessen, to sprout).
A small European herring (H arengula sprattus) ,
very abundant in the northern Atlantic. It is
six inches in length when fully grown. Sprats
are cured in great quantities both dry-salted and
in brine, and form a cheap and excellent food.
Certain small and unimportant species have
taken the name in America, where the true sprat
is not found.
SPREAZDING AIDDER. See HoeNosE; and
the photographic Plate of SNAKES.
SPRECK’ELS, CLAUS (l828—). An Ameri-
can business man, born at Lamstedt, in Hanover,
Germany. He emigrated to Charleston in 1846;
worked for a time in New York City; and went
to San Francisco in 1856. In 1857 he started
the Albany Brewery in San Francisco, and in
1863 organized the Bay Sugar Refining Com-
pany. Two years afterwards he sold his in-
terests and went to Europe, where he studied
the manufacture of sugar in all its aspects.
Returning to California, he engaged more ex-
tensively than ever in business, having large
interests in manufactures and shipping both
in California and in the Hawaiian Islands. He
acquired large sugar interests in Hawaii; built
large refineries with improved processes; engaged
in beet-sugar farming in California; and by the
control he exercised over the sugar industry
gained for himself the name of the ‘sugar king.’
SPREE, spra. A river of Prussia, which rises
in the eastern part of the Kingdom of Saxony, on
the borders of Bohemia (Map: Prussia, E 2),
and after a winding northwest course of 226
miles, mainly through Brandenburg, falls into
the Havel at Spandau. It flows through a low
and marshy region, frequently expanding into
lakes. It becomes navigable for small vessels at
Liebsch, and has recently been deepened below
Berlin so as to admit large ships to that city.
It is connected with the Oder by two canals.
SPREMBERG, sprem’berK. A town of Prus-
sia, on the Spree, 77 miles southeast of Berlin
(Map: Germany, F 3). Its chief industry is
cloth manufacture. There are oil mills and
mines of lignite. Population, in 1900, 10,925.
SPRENGEL, spr€>ng’el, KURT (1766-1833). A
German physician and botanist, born at Bolde-
kow, near Anklam, and educated at Halle. In
1789 he was made professor of medicine there.
and in 1797 he was appointed professor of
botany as well. He published: Versuch einer
pragmatischen Geschichte der Arznei7cunde(1792-
SPREN GEL.
SPRING.
108
1803; 4th ed. 1846), Handbuch der Pathologie
(1795-97; 4th ed. 1815), Historia Roi Hcrbariaa
(1807-08) , Geschichte der Botanih (1817-18) , and
Neue Entdeckungen im ganeen Umfange der
Pflanzenkunde (1819-22) .
SPRENGER, sprengler, ALoYs (1813-93). A
German-English Orientalist, born at Nassereit,
Tyrol. He was educated at Innsbruck and at
the University of Vienna. In 1836 he settled in
London and became a naturalized British subject.
In 1843 he proceeded to Calcutta under an ap-
pointment to the medical service of the East In-
dia Company. In 1844-48 he was principal of
the 1)-Iohammedan College at Delhi. In Decem-
ber, 1847, he became an assistant resident at
Lucknow, where he was employed for some
time in cataloguing the manuscripts in the royal
library of the King of Oudh. From 1851 to 1854
he was oflicial Persian translator at Calcutta, and
principal of the Mohammedan College at Hoogli.
During these years he traveled extensively through
the Orient, gathering materials for his projected
Life of M ohammed, the first portion of which was
published at Allahabad in 1851. In 1857 he re-
turned to Europe, and settled at Heidelberg.
In 1858-81 he was professor of Oriental languages
at the University of Bern. The remainder of his
life he spent in retirement at Heidelberg. His
published works include: Technical Terms of the
Suffees (1844); An Englisih-Hindustani Gram-
mar (1845); Selections from Arabic Authors
(1845) ; The History of Mahmud Ghaznih
(1847) ; The Gulistan of Saadi (1851), a trans-
lation from the Persian; Leben und Lehre des
Mohammed (3 vols., 1861-63); and Die alte
Geographic Arabiens (1875).
SPRING (AS. spring, spryng, OHG. spring,
sprung, Ger. Spring, spring, from AS. springan,
sprincan, OHG. springan, Ger. springen, to spring,
leap; probably connected with Gk. 0'11-épxeadai,
sperchesthai, Lith. sprugti, to spring away, es-
cape). A subterranean stream which discharges
at the earth’s surface. Most springs are fed by
meteoric waters in the form of rain and snow
that percolate into the soil and accumulate at
some depth in the strata. This accumulation is
known as ground water, and its upper surface,
which is called the water-level, coincides more


ARRANGEMENT OF BTRATA CAUSING A SPRING.
The water collects in the depression A, and percolating
through the porous stratum D, issues at B as a spring.
0 and E are impervious layers which prevent the escape
of the water above or below D
or less closely with the surface of the ground,
receding from it, however, under the hill crests
and approaching it closely under the valleys.
When the side of a valley is steep or its floor
is much depressed the ground water may come to
the surface and escape as a spring. Springs
may also be formed by the percolating waters
encountering an impervious layer of clay or
cemented sand which retards their further de-
scent, causing them to follow this dense stratum
until they emerge on some hill slope. Springs
of this character are more or less dependent on
rainfall. All water in penetrating the soil and
rocks, even if at no great depth, becomes more
or less charged with dissolved mineral and or-
ganic matter, as by reason of its carbonic acid
it possesses marked solvent powers. Spring
waters therefore commonly contain various solid
substances in solution, such as the carbonate,
sulphate, or muriate of lime, salts of soda, pot-
ash, magnesia, and iron, or more rarely silica.
When the quantity of dissolved solids is un-
usually large the spring is termed a mineral
spring, and is often utilized for medicinal pur-
poses. See MINERAL WATERS.
Underground waters may collect above an im-
pervious stratum which does not appear at the
surface, and they escape by slow percolation
through the overlying strata, forming a marsh or
swale. To such marshy tracts occurring in the
arid regions of California, Arizona, and Mexico,
the name cienega has been given.
Thermal springs, whose temperatures are nota-
bly higher than that of ordinary springs, usually
have a deep-seated origin. In regions where the
rocks have been greatly disturbed and fractured
the surface waters penetrate to great depths, and
thus become warmed by the interior heat of the
earth, or they may be heated from contact with
uncooled masses of lava. It is also known that
igneous rocks of all kinds give off a great quan-
tity of vapor during the process of cooling, and
some springs thus may be fed by waters whose
source lies deep within the earth, and which
for the first time appear at the surface. Ther-
mal springs are mostly limited to mountainous
regions; in the United States they occur in
great numbers along the Appalachians and the
Rocky Mountains. In company with geysers they
are found in the Yellowstone National Park,
Iceland, and New Zealand. Consult Schlichter,
The Motion of Underground Water’, Vllatei~ Sup-
ply and Irrigation Papers, No. 67, United States
Geological Survey (Washington, 1902). See
ARTESIAN WELLs ; Gnrsnns ; GECLCGY.
SPRING. A term used in mechanics to desig-
nate variously constructed devices of metal or
other elastic material adapted to resist concus-
sion, to supply motive power, or to register
stress through their property of tending to re-
turn to their original form. A spiral spring is
one which is wound around a fixed point or cen-
tre in constantly receding coils, like the main-
spring of a watch or clock. Spiral springs are
usually made of flat strips or ribbons of steel,
but may be made of round or other shaped wire.
A helical spring is one which is wound around
a cylindrical arbor in advancing spirals like the
thread of a screw. Helical springs are usually
made from round bars or from square rods of
steel, and are perhaps more extensively used than
any other form. An elliptical or laminated
spring is made of flat bars, plates, or ‘leaves’
of regularly varying lengths superposed one
upon the other. For formulas for calculating the
strength and energy of springs of various forms
and sizes, consult Kent, Mechanical Engineers’
Pocket Book (New York, 1900).
SPRING, GARDINEE ( 1785-1873).
can Presbyterian clergyman, son of Samuel
Spring (q.v.). He was born at Newburyport,
Mass., and was graduated at Yale College in
An Ameri-
SPRING.
SPRINGFIELD.
109
1805. He began the study of law at New Haven,
taught for two years in Bermuda, at the same
time continuing his legal studies, and was ad-
mitted to the bar at New Haven in 1808. The
next year he entered Andover Theological Sem-
inary to study for the ministry. In 1810 he
was ordained, and settled as pastor of the Brick
Presbyterian Church, New York City, where he
remained for over fifty years. ' He was one of
the founders of the American Bible Society in
1816, the American Tract Society in 1825, and
the American Home Missionary Society in 1826.
He published many books of a religious char-
acter besides his Personal Reminscences of the
Life and Times of Gardiner Spring (1866.)
SPRING, SAMUEL (1746-1819). An American
Congregational clergyman. He was born at
Northbridge, Mass., graduated at the College of
New Jersey in 1771, and later studied theology.
In 1775 he joined the Continental Army, and
accompanied Benedict Arnold as chaplain of the
invading army into Canada. In 1776 he left the
army, and the next year was installed pastor
of the church at Newburyport, Mass., where he
continued until his death. He was one of the
founders of Andover Theological Seminary, and
also of the Massachusetts Missionary Society, and
to him is attributed the idea of forming the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions. Many of his occasional sermons have
been printed, the most notable of them being A
Sermon on the Death of Washingtori (1799),
and A Discourse in Consequence of the Late Duel
(l804)—that between Burr and Hamilton. Con-
sult the Life and Times of Gardiner Spring,
vol. i. (New York, 1866).
SPRING BALANCE. An instrument used to
determine the weight of a body by the exten-
sion or compression of a spring. In the usual
form of spring balance a spring of coiled wire
is contained in a metal case and incloses a central
rod to which is attached at one end a hook, and at
the other a projection which extends through a slit
in the case and moves over a graduated scale. The
central rod can also be connected by means of
a rack and toothed wheel with an axle on which
is fastened a pointer moving over a circular
scale or dial. The spring balance measures the
amount of attraction of the earth at any par-
ticular place; consequently, readings at the equa-
tor would be different from those at the poles or
other places on the earth’s surface. The ordinary
balance, on the other hand, would give the weight
for a body irrespective of its position. The force
of the spring Varies with temperature, which
alters the length and elasticity of the wire and
renders impossible precise measurements.
SPRINGBOK (Dutch, springing goat). A
South African gazelle (Gaeella euchore). It is
larger than the common deer, and its neck and
limbs much longer and more delicate. The general
color is fulvous brown on the upper parts, pure
white beneath, the colors separated on the flanks
by a broad band of deep vinous red. The whole
head is white, except a broad brown band on each
side from the eye to the mouth, and a brown
spot in the centre of the face. The springbok
derives its name from the prodigious leaps which
it takes either when alarmed or in play, often
to the height of seven feet, and sometimes of
twelve or thirteen feet. It is one of the most
sought-after game animals of South Africa, yet
remains numerous. Consult authorities cited un-
der ANTELOPE ; and see Plate of GAZELLES.
SPRING EEL. A fish of the small order
Opisthomi and family Mastacembelidee, several
species of which occur in the fresh waters of the
East Indies; they are eel-like in form, with the
dorsal fin very long, and the fore part of it com-
posed of low free spines. Allied to this is a small,
curious eel (Derichthys serpentinus) dredged
from the depths of the North Pacific. See Plate
of EELS.
SPRING/ER, ALFRED (1854—). An American
chemist, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He studied
chemistry at the University of Heidelberg, and
then settled in the practice of his profession in
Cincinnati. He published studies on Glycocholic
Ether (1879), Pentachloramyl For/mate (1881),
and Reduction of Nitrates by Ferments (1883),
in which he announced his discovery of denitrify-
ing ferments among the micro6rganisms of the
soil, and forming a sort of link between the plants
and their nitrogenous constituents; also, A
Latent Clzaracteristic of Aluminum (1891) and
Increase of Segmental Vibrations (1897).
SPRINGER, ANTON (1825-91). A German
art critic and historian. He was born at Prague,
and studied at the university of his native city
and at Tiibingen. He taught successively at
Prague, Bonn, Strassburg, and Leipzig. His his-
torical works include: Geschichte des Revolutions-
ecitaltcrs (1849) ; Oesterrcich, Preussen und
Dcutschland (1851) ; and Geschichte Oesterreiehs
seit dcm lViener Frieden (1863-65). His prin-
cipal works on art are: Die Baukunst des
christlichen Mittelalters (1854) ; Geschichte der
bildenden Kit-nste im 19. Jahrhundert (1858);
Bilder aus der neucren Kunstgeschichte (1867 ) ;
Raffael und Michelangelo (1877) ; Grundeiige der
Kunstgcschichte (1888; 4th ed., as Handbuch
der Kunstgeschichte, 1895) ; and Albrecht Diirer
(1892). Consult the posthumous Aus meinem
Leben (Berlin, 1892).
SPRINGER, WILLIAM MCKENDREE (1836-).
An American jurist and political leader, born at
New Lebanon, Ind. He graduated at the Indiana
State University in 1858, and for the next four
years was a newspaper correspondent and editor.
He was admitted to the bar in 1859, and in
1872 became a member of the Illinois Legislature.
From 1875 to 1895 he was a member of Congress,
where he introduced a resolution which was car-
ried by a large majority, declaring that it would
be “unwise, unpatriotic, and fraught with peril
to our free institutions” for one man to serve
more than two terms to the Presidency. From
1895 to 1899 he was United States Judge of the
Northern District of'Indian Territory and Chief
Justice of the United States Court of Appeals
there.
SPRING’FIELD. The capital of Illinois,
and the county-seat of Sangamon County, 185
miles southwest of Chicago; on the Illinois Cen-
'tral, the Chicago and Alton, the Chicago, Peoria
and Saint Louis, the Baltimore and Ohio South-
western. the Saint Louis, Chicago and Saint
Paul, the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton,
and the Wabash railroads (Map : Illinois,
C 4) . It is regularly laid out with wide
streets. The most prominent edifice is the
State Capitol, a handsome building begun in
SPRINGFIELD.
SPRINGFIELD.
110
1867, and completed twenty years later. It
is 399 feet long and 286 feet wide, and has a mas-
sive dome 364 feet high. Other interesting struc-
tures are the old Capitol, now used as the county
court-house, and the Lincoln residence, now under
State supervision. The Lincoln Monument and
Mausoleum of gray granite, the cost of which
was borne by several States, is situated a little
more than a mile from the heart of the city.
There are the Bettie Stuart Institute (female),
Concordia Seminary, Saint Agatha’s School, and
the Academy of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart.
The State Library has 50,000 volumes, and the
Public more than 42,000 volumes. There are
also the State Historical Library, that of the
Illinois State Museum of Natural History, and
the Supreme Court Library. Other noteworthy
features are the City Hall, Post-Office, Governor’s
Mansion, the High School, and the Odd Fellows’
Buildings, the Orphanage of the Holy Child, the
Springfield and Saint John’s Hospitals, and the
David Prince Sanitarium.
Springfield is the centre of a rich farming and
coal-mining region, which also has important
horse-breeding interests. Its industries in the
census year 1900 had an invested capital of
$5,030,438, and an output of $6,612,286. The
Illinois Watch Company maintains a very large
establishment here, and there are also engine
works, boiler works, car shops, foundries and
machine shops, lumber mills, woolen mills, brew-
eries, and manufactories of soap, saddlery, flour,
mattresses, brick, clothing, etc. The govern-
ment is vested in a mayor, elected biennially,
and a unicameral council. The subordinate offi-
cials, with the exception of the school board,
which is chosen by the council, are appointed by
the mayor. For maintenance and operation, the
city spends annually about $375,000, the principal
items being: Schools, $106,000; interest on debt,
$52,000; fire department, $45,000; police depart-
ment, $32,000; municipal lighting, $23,000; and
streets, $21,000. The water-works are owned by
the municipality. Population, in 1890, 24,963;
in 1900, 34,159. First settled in 1819, and laid
out in 1823, Springfield was incorporated as a
town in 1832, and was chartered as a city in
1840. In 1837 it was chosen as the State capital,
and the State Legislature assembled here for the
first time in 1839. Consult Power, History of
Springfield (Springfield, 1871). .
SPRINGFIELD. The county-seat of Hamp-
den County, Mass., 98 miles west-southwest of
Boston; on the Connecticut River, and on the
Boston and Albany, the Boston and Maine, and
the New York, New Haven and Hartford rail-
roads (Map: Massachusetts, B 3). Several
bridges here span the river. There are 498 acres
in the public park system. Forest Park, the
largest of the pleasure grounds, contains 464
acres. In Court Square are the Soldiers’ and
Sailors’ Monument and a statue of Miles Morgan.
“The Puritan,” by Saint Gaudens, ‘near the li-
brary, is a work of great merit. Among the
prominent buildings of Springfield are some
designed by H. H. Richardson, the most
notable of which, perhaps, are the County Court-
House and the Church of the Unity. The United
States Arsenal is conspicuously situated within
the extensive armory grounds. Some 1200 men
are employed here in making rifles for the United
States Government. (See SMALL ARMS.) Other
prominent structures are the railroad station,
the Springfield Science Museum, Art Museum
(containing the George Walter Vincent Smith col-
lection, one of the best in the country), the City
Hall, the Federal Government Building, the High
School, and the Public Library.. Springfield is
the seat of the French-American College, opened
in 1885, and of the International Y. M. C. A.
Training School. The Public Library has more
than 115,000 volumes. There are several other
collections of books, among which is the Hamp-
den County Law Library, dating from 1813. The
most important charitable institutions include
the State Almshouse, Springfield Hospital, Mercy
Hospital, and the Hampden Homoepathic Hos-
pital.
Springfield is a port of entry, its foreign trade
in 1901 consisting of imports valued at $88,846.
In the census year 1900 the various manufactur-
ing industries had capital to the amount of $17,-
106,000, and an output valued at $21,207,000.
The leading manufactures are foundry and ma-
chine-shop products, paper and envelopes, tobacco,
cigars and cigarettes, brass castings, lumber and
lumber products, buttons, electrical apparatus
and supplies, confectionery, bicycles, automobiles,
rubber and elastic goods, cotton and woolen
goods, tools, etc. The government is vested in a
mayor, annually elected, and a bicameral council.
Springfield spends annually for maintenance and
operation about $1,165,000, the principal items
being: Schools, $360,000; interest on debt, $140,-
000; streets, $135_.000; fire department, $97,000;
police department, $68,000; municipal lighting,
$67,000; and charitable institutions, $58,000. The
water-works are owned and operated by the mu-
nicipality. The system has cost $2,141,263. The
net debt of the city in 1902 was $2,196,888; the
assessed valuation of real and personal property,
$74,338,927. The population in 1800 was 2312;
in 1850, 11,766; in 1870, 26,703; in 1880, 33,340;
in 1890, 44,179; in 1900, 62,059.
Springfield was first settled in 1636 by a party
from Roxbury headed by William Pynchon. Until
1640, when it received its present name, it
was known as Agawam. On October 4, 1675, dur-
ing King Philip’s War, it was attacked by Indians
and burned. During Shays’s Rebellion it was the
scene (September, 1786) of a riot headed by
Shays. Later (January 25, 1787) occurred a
sharp skirmish between a small body of State
militia and about 2000 insurgents led by Shays,
the latter being easily defeated. In 1852 Spring-
field was chartered as a city. Consult: Green,
Springfield, 1636-1886 (Springfield, 1888) ; Burt,
The First Century of the History of Springfield,
The Official Records from 1636-1736 (Springfield,
1898-99).
SPRINGFIELD. The county-seat of Greene
County, Mo., 200 miles southeast of Kansas City;
on the Saint Louis and San Francisco and the
Kansas City and Memphis railroads (Map: Mis-
souri, C 4). The city is in the vicinity of the
Ozark Mountains, and is surrounded by beauti-
ful forest and prairie scenery. It is the seat of
Drury College (non-sectarian), opened in 1873,
and of Loretto Academy. Other features include
the United States Government building, the high
school building, Saint John’s Hospital, and the
Zoiilogical Gardens. The national cemetery here
has 1703 graves, of which 737 are of unknown
dead. Situated in the mineral belt of southwest
SPRINGFIELD.
SPRUCE.
111
Missouri, Springfield has also important agri-
cultural, lumbering, and stock-raising interests.
In manufacturing, it ranked fourth in the State
in the census year 1900, its industries having an
invested capital of $2,111,048, and an output
valued at $4,126,871. The leading establishments
are carriage and wagon factories, lumber mills,
fiouring mills, foundries, and shops of the Saint .
Louis and San Francisco and the Kansas City
and Memphis railroads. Springfield is also the
centre of an extensive wholesale trade. The gov-
ernment is vested in a mayor, chosen biennially,
and a unicameral council. The school board is
elected by popular vote. Population, in 1890,
21,850; in 1900, 23,267. Springfield was settled
as an Indian trading post about 1819, and in
1838 was incorporated, having been laid out
three years earlier.
SPRINGFIELD. The county-seat of Clark
County, 0., 45 miles west of Columbus; at the
confluence of Lagonda Creek and the Mad River,
and on the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago and Saint Louis, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati,
Chicago and Saint Louis, and the Ohio Southern
railroads (Map: Ohio, C 6). It is the seat of
VVittenberg College (Lutheran), opened in 1845,
and has a female seminary, and the Warder Pub-
lic Library, with more than 18,000 volumes.
Noteworthy are the city hall, the United States
Government building, the homes of the fraternal
organizations, and Snyder Park. The Soldiers’
Monument here was erected at a cost of $400,000.
Springfield is surrounded by a highly productive
farming section. Excellent water power has
aided in making an important industrial centre.
In the census year 1900 there was invested in
the various industries capital to the amount of
$14,091,175. Their output was valued at $12,-
777,173. More than five-sevenths of the capital,
and nearly two-thirds of the output were repre-
sented by the manufactures of agricultural im-
plements, and foundry and machine shop prod-
ucts. The government is vested in a mayor,
elected biennially, and a unicameral council. For
maintenance and operation the city spends an-
nually about $395,000, the principal items being:
Schools, $132,000; streets, $152,000; municipal
lighting, $48,000; fire department, $40,000; in-
terest on debt, $37,200; police department, $34,-
000. The water works, which represent an ex-
penditure of $707,577, are owned by the munici-
pality. Population, in 1890, 31,895; in 1900,
38,253.
SPRING HILL COLLEGE. A Roman
Catholic institution near Mobile, Ala., founded
in 1830, under the direction of the Society of
Jesus. Its courses are preparatory (one year),
commercial (four years), and classical (six
years). The students in 1902 numbered 166, and
the faculty 26. The buildings and ground were
valued in that year at $250,000. The income
was about $42,000 and the library contained
18,500 volumes.
SPRINGING USE. A use which is limited
to take effect on the happening of a future event
and not depending upon any preceding use or
estate. This is a peculiar form of future estate
and differs from a shifting use, which operates
in derogation of some other estate, and from a
remainder which must be limited upon some par-
ticular or preceding estate. It may be limited to
rise either upon a certain or uncertain and con-
tingent event. Consult Gilbert On Uses, Sudgen’s
edition.
SPRINGTAIL. Any one of the very minute
insects of the families Poduridae, Smynthuridae,
Entomobryidae, and Papiriidee, of the thysanu-
ran suborder Collembola. These little insects
leap by the tail-like organ arising from the under
side of the penultimate or antepenultimate seg-
ment of the abdomen, reaching forward horizon-
tally when at rest, nearly to the head. This
organ when suddenly drawn toward the perpen-
dicular throws the insect high into the air and
sometimes to a distance of several feet. The
springtails are found in great numbers on the
surface of the ground or just beneath the surface
in boreal and even arctic regions. They occur
in the spring in the Northern United States on
bright sunny days when the snow is melting,
frequently in great numbers on the surface of the
snow. One species (Achoreutes nivicola) is
commonly known as the ‘snow-flea.’ Springtails
are also found on the surface of stagnant water,
and commonly in deep soil which contains more
or less soil humus. '
SPRING VALLEY. A city in Bureau County,
Ill., 17 miles southeast of Princeton; on the Chi-
cago, Rock Island and Pacific and the Chicago,
Burlington and Quincy railroads (Map: Illinois,
C 2). It is important as the shipping centre
of a coal-mining and farming region. There is a
public library. The water-wo-rks are owned by
the municipality. Population, in 1890, 3837;
in 1900, 6214.
SPRING WHEAT. See FLOUR and WHEAT.
SPRIT (AS. spreot, pole, sprout, from spree-
tan, Ger. sprieseen, to sprout). A light spar ex-
tending from the peak (see SAIL) to a sliding
becket on the mast‘. In the early days of
square-rigged ships, square sails set on yards
under the head booms were called the sprit-sail,
sprit-sail topsail, and sprit-sail topgallant sail.
When the square sprit-sails of the head booms
were replaced by fore-and-aft jibs and staysails,
the various sprit-sail yards were no longer used,
but as a spreader was needed for the jib guys,
whisker booms (see SHIP) were devised, and
these are occasionally called sprit-sail yards,
though they are in two parts, one on each side
of the bowsprit cap.
SPRUCE (ME. Spruce, Pruce, from OF.
Pruce, from ML. Prussia, Prussia), Picea. A
genus of about twenty species of coniferous trees,
indigenous to the Northern Hemisphere, nearly
half being natives of North America. The genus
was formerly combined with Abies (see FIB-),
from which it differs in having pendulous cones,
leaves jointed on the twigs, keeled on both sides
and not arranged in ranks, but scattered and
pointing in every direction. The spruces occur
as trees farther north than most others, forming
forests within the Arctic Circle, and extending
south, especially in the mountains as far as the
Pyrenees in Europe, and North Carolina and
Arizona in the United States. Some of the
species occur in pure forests over immense tracts,
the white spruce and also the black spruce cover-
ing extensive areas in Canada to the almost total
exclusion of other trees. In Europe the Norway
spruce is similarly distributed. The species are
pyramidal in habit of growth, the lower branches
drooping when old. The Norway spruce (Picea
SPRUCE.
SPUR.
112
ewcelsa), the principal European species, is of
rapid growth, attains a height of 150 feet or
more, and is extensively planted both as a forest
tree and as an ornamental. The timber is valu-
able for fuel and for house building, and is large-
ly exported from Norway and Sweden for masts
and spars of sailing vessels. The tree yields
resin and turpentine; its bark is used in tanning
and for basket-making, etc. The wood is used
for wood pulp and paper manufacture. In North
America the prevailing species over the greatest
extent of territory are the white and the black
spruce (Picea alba and Picea nigra), although
in lumbering the two species are seldom recog-
nized. The former is found from New York to
British Columbia and northward to Newfound-
land, Hudson Bay, and Alaska. It is a hand-
some tree 50 to 150 feet high. The wood is light,
soft, compact, nearly odorless, light yellow. and
with scarcely distinguishable sap wood. It is
largely used for general building, spars, flooring,
etc. It also yields some of the spruce gun1 of
commerce. The latter has a distribution some-
what similar to the white spruce, except that it
descends along the mountains to North Carolina
and Tennessee and probably does not reach Alas-
ka. It is a somewhat smaller tree, but is other-
wise very similar to the white spruce. It forms
immense forests in Maine, New York, Canada,
and elsewhere, and is largely used for wood pulp
and paper. These two species are the chief and
best source for wood paper-making. The gum of
the black spruce is used for chewing. The
branches are used in the preparation of essence
of spruce, and by adding sugar or molasses and
slightly fermenting, spruce beer is obtained. The
bark contains tannin and is used to some extent
in tanning leather. The roots are often
split into narrow strips and made into bas-
kets, coarse mats, ropes, etc. The Sitka or tide-
land spruce (Picca sitchensis) is a large tree oc-
curring abundantly from northern California to
Alaska, following the coast as far as the island
of Kadiak. It is one of the largest trees of North
America, attaining in its lower regions a height of
more than 300 feet and a diameter of 7 or 8 feet
at 100 feet from the base. Specimens upon the
islands in southeastern Alaska measured more
than 200 feet in height and 25 feet in circum-
ference 4 feet from the ground. The timber of
this tree is very valuable, entering into all kinds
of building operations. In the tree-planting oper-
ations in the West the spruces, especially the
white and the Norway, have proved among the
most adaptable of evergreen species. The black,
being of slower growth, less ornamental, and not
so well adapted to dry soils, is less frequently
planted. For ornamental planting none excels
the blue spruce, which is of rather slow growth.
All are hardy and all have been extensively
planted in Europe. Each of the American species
has developed several well-known varieties, which
vary principally in the character of their foliage,
branching habits, etc. A tree known as Douglas
spruce or Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglassi) is
one of the important timber trees from the Rocky
Mountain region to the Pacific and north to
British Columbia. Upon the Pacific Coast it
attains a height of more than 300 feet and a
diameter of 10 to 12 feet. The timber is fine,
straight-grained, heavy, and very strong, and is
useful for all kinds of building, masts, etc. It
has been very successfully planted in Minnesota,
where it is believed it will supersede the other
species for general planting.
SPRUNER VON MERZ, KARL (1803-92).
A German chartographer, historian, and poet,
born at Stuttgart. He entered the Corps of
Cadets at Munich in 1814, became lieutenant in
1825 and had attained the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in 1855, when King Maximilian II. ap-
pointed him his aid-de-camp. Favored with that
monarch’s special confidence, he was a steadfast
advocate of Pan-German and liberal principles at
the Bavarian court. In 1864 King Ludwig II.
appointed him his adjutant-general and in 1883
general of infantry. He retired from service
in 1886 and died in Munich. His principal
work is the great Historisch-geographischer
Handatlas (118 maps, 1837-52; 4th ed. by Sieg-
lin, 1893 et seq.) ; besides which he published a
model Atlas eur Gcschichte von Bayern (1838) ;
Handatlas fiir die Geschichte des Mittelalters
and cler neucren Zeit (90 maps, new ed. by Menke,
1879); Historisch-geographischer Schulatlas
( 10th ed._, 1880) ; and others. He wrote a Leit-
faclen zur Gcschichte con Bayern (1853) ; Pfalz-
graf Rupert cler Kacalier (1854); Charakter-
bilcler aus der bayrischen Geschiehte (1878);
several historical dramas and, anonymously,
Jambcn cines greisen Ghibellinen (1876), and
Ans dcr Mappe cles yreisen Ghibellinen (1882),
both strictly Christian, but anti-papal.
SPULLER, spu’lar’, EUGENE (1835-96). A
French publicist and political leader, born at
Seurre (Cote d’Or) . He was educated at the col-
legs at Dijon and studied law at the University
of Paris, but in 1863 became identified with
journalism. After the proclamation of the Re-
public in 1870 he became Gambetta’s secretary
and one of his most trusted supporters, and
with him escaped from Paris in a balloon on
October 7, 1870, in order to assist him in re-
organizing the provincial governments. He was
elected by a Paris constituency to the Chamber
in 1876, and became one of the most influential
leaders of the Union Republic group. Upon the
formation of Gambetta’s short-lived Cabinet, in
November, 1881, Spuller was made Under-Sec-
retary of State for Foreign Affairs. He returned
to the Chamber in the following year, and in
1884 was chosen one of the vice-presidents of the
body. He was Minister of Public Instruction in
the Rouvier Cabinet in 1887, and Minister of
Foreign Affairs in the Tirard Cabinet in 1889-90.
In 1892 he was elected Senator, and in 1893-94
held the portfolio of Public Instruction in the
Cabinet of Casimir-Perier. He published: Petite
histoire du second empire (1870); Ignace dc
Loyola ct la compagnie de Jésus (1876) ; Miche-
let, sa rie et ses oeuvres (1876).
SPUNGIl\TG—HOUSES. In the law of Eng
land, the private houses of the bailiffs, who may
detain there a debtor who has been arrested for
debt for 24 hours, to admit him or his friends
to arrange to settle the debt. The name is derived
from the extortion often practiced on the debtor.
The name is not used in the United States.
SPUR (AS. spora, OHG. sporo, Ger. Sporn,
spur, from AS. speornan, OHG. spurnan, to kick,
spurn; connected with Lat. spernere, _to despise,
Gk. mralpew, spaircin, to flounder, Lith. spirti,
to tread, Skt. sphur, to thrust with the foot).
SPRUCE

NORWAY SPRUCE AND CONES DOUGLAS SPRUCE AND CONES
SPUR.
SPURRY.
113
Originally spurs were made with a single point or
prick and were known as the ‘prick-spur’ or
goad-spur, but they soon developed into the rowel.
In some instances the spur proper consisted of a
ball from which projected a sharp point. Al-
though the rowel is first met with in the thir-
teenth century, it was not common until the
middle of the fifteenth century. In the Middle
Ages the use of the spur was limited entirely to
knights, who were granted their spurs as a sym-
bol that they had won their right to knighthood.
Similarly, the hacking off of his spurs denoted
the public disgrace and degradation of the knight.
During the age of chivalry, to serve a pair of
spurs on a dish before a knight was a pointed
declaration on the part of the host that he de-
sired his guest to leave as speedily as possible.
In the United States Army the spurs of mount-
ed officers are of yellow metal or gilt, with orna-
mentation, while the rank and file wear the same
pattern spur made of steel with a plain surface.
Throughout Europe generally, the gilt spur de-
notes an officer of field rank, and the steel spur
a mounted officer of regimental rank. The use
of the spur is not nearly so common in these
days of lightly equipped horsemen and intelli-
gently bred horses.
SPURGE (OF. spurge, espurge, from espurger,
from Lat. earpurgare, to purge, cleanse, from em,
out + purgare, to
cleanse, from purus,
pure + agere, to drive,
to do), Euphorbia. A
genus of about 600 spe-
cies, mostly tropical
4 . ' ‘ shrubs or trees or tem-
/ perate climate herba-
. ccous species of the


W 1‘ \ natural order Eup51q)r-
biacem, characterize y
a resino_us,.milky, usu-
" - \' ally acrid juice. Some
II of the g’reen-stemmed,
;\ \\|)\§'r[//j) 1' fleshy, and spiny Afri-
can spec1es so resemble
I _ -
certain cacti in their
habit of growth as to
render their identifica-
tion more or less uncer-
tain when not in flower.
/( The leaves are either
/ ,'\\ wanting or fall off
( \
early, and the functions
of assimilation are per-
CYPRESS BPUBGE
(Euphorbza cypaz-z'ssz'as).
//
formed by the stems.
The flowers of many
species, especially of
Poinsettia, have bright-colored bracts that make
them very ornamental. About forty species are
indigenous or introduced in the Eastern United
States.
SPUIVGEON, CHARLES HADDON (1834-92). A
celebrated English preacher. He was born at
Kelvedon, Essex, attended school at Colchester,
and spent a few months at an agricultural col-
lege at Maidstone. His family intended him
for an Independent minister, but his own sym-
pathies drew him toward the Baptists, whose
connection he joined in 1850. The same year he
became a school-teacher, and, removing to Cam-
bridge, began to deliver cottage sermons in the
neighborhood. The popularity of the ‘boy preach-
er’ was almost immediately established, and at
the age of eighteen he had charge of a small Bap-
tist congregation in the village of Waterbeach,
Cambridgeshire. In 1854 he entered upon the
pastorate of the New Park Street Chapel, London,
where his preaching proved so attractive that in
two years’ time the building had to be greatly
enlarged. The Surrey Music Hall was for some
time engaged for his use, and finally his follow-
ers built for him the well-known ‘Metropolitan
Tabernacle’ in Newington Butts, opened in 1861.
Many evangelistic and philanthropic agencies
grew up in connection with this immense chapel,
such as the Stockwell Orphanage; a pastor’s col-
lege, where hundreds of young men were trained
for the ministry under Spurgeon’s care; the Gold-
en Lane Mission, etc. He was compelled in his later
years to stop his work frequently because of ill
health, and died at Mentone, France. His sermons
were published weekly from 1854, and yearly vol-
umes were issued since 1856. They had an enor-
mous circulation, and many of them were trans-
lated into various languages. He also published
many volumes, including: The Saint and His
Saviour (1857) ; Morning by Morning, and Even-
ing by Evening (1866-68); John Ploughman’s
Talks (1869); The Treasury of David (a com-
mentary on the Psalms, largely from Puritan
writers, 1870-85) ; Lectures to My Students
(1875-77) ; Commenting and Commentaries
(1876) ; John Ploughman’s Pictures (1880) ;
and after 1865 he edited a monthly magazine,
Sword and Trowel.
In theology he was a pronounced Calvinist, in
biblical science an extreme conservative, in policy
an open communion Baptist, in politics a Liberal
Unionist, in all things independent. He attacked
the Low Church Party in the Church of England
because it countenanced, he asserted, the teaching
of baptismal regeneration in the Prayer Book,
and in 1864 withdrew from the Evangelical Al-
liance because it was supported by it. He at-
tacked his own co-religionists for their alleged
rationalistic views and withdrew in 1887 from
the Baptist Union. As a preacher he knew how
to enchain the attention of his hearers through
sermons of great lengtl1, by a flow of vigorous
English and a mingling of tenderness and stern-
ness, humor and soberness. A biography by his
wife and private secretary was published in Lon-
don in 1897-98.
SPURRY (OF., Dutch spurrie, MDutch
sporie, spurie, speurie, spurrie, spurrey; of un-
certain etymology). Plants belonging to the
genera Spergula and Buda of the order Cary-
ophyllaceae. The species of Spergula are natives of
Europe, those of Buda of America. Spurry is
a weed sometimes cultivated as a forage crop.
Corn spurry or common spurry (Spergula ar-
vensis) is an annual from 6 to 12 inches high,
producing a tangled mass of succulent stems with
numerous whorled linear leaves. It prefers sandy
or stony soil, upon which it is often planted as a
green manure and as a soiling crop for sheep
and cattle. The plant readily re-seeds the ground,
but need not become a pest on well-tilled farms,
where it is often welcomed as a catch crop. Giant
spurry (Spcrgula maazima), by many botanists
not regarded as a species distinct from the above,
is similar to, but larger than, common spurry.
SPURS.
SQUARES.
114
SPURS, BATTLE or THE. See BATTLE or THE
SPURS.
SPUR-WINGED GOOSE, PLOVER, etc.
Many terrestrial birds have the bend of the
Wing armed with one or more spurs or bony
knobs, which they use for attack and defense.
This armament is conspicuous in the geese of
the African family Plectropteridae, of which
there are four species, and here it is based upon
one of the wrist-bones, instead of on the meta-
carpus, as is usual elsewhere. The ‘spur-winged
plover’ (Hoplopterus spinosus), one of the com-
monest birds of the Nile Valley, is only one of
many tropical plovers so armed, the largest and
finest spurs being those of a Chilean plover
(Belonopterns Ohilensis) ; its spur is situated just


ANATOMY OF WING-SPURS.
a, spur of the spur-winged plover; b, relative positions
of the two wing-spurs of the screamer (q. v.).
at the base of the thumb, and, as in other cases,
is sheathed with horn, and sharp at the end.
Some of the jaganas have wing-spurs, and others
a peculiar blade-like enlargement of the fore-
arm. Lastly, the large, turkey-like South Amer-
ican screamers (q.v.) have two wing-spurs, the
larger of which is an inch and a quarter long.
Consult Lucas, “Weapons of Birds,” in Bird
Lore, vol. iv. (New York, 1902).
SPURZHEIM, sp6Urts’him, JOHANN KAsPAR
(1776-1832). A German physician and phrenolo-
gist, born near Treves. While studying medicine
at Vienna he was introduced to Gall (q.v.), and
became his pupil and later his colleague in in-
vestigating the structure and functions of the
brain. He lived in France and England alter-
nately, and was widely known as a lecturer. In
1832 he came to the United States on a lecturing
tour, but fell ill and died suddenly in Boston.
Among his works are: The Physiognomical
Works of Drs. Gall and Spnrzheim (1815) ; Ele-
mentary Principles of Education (1821) ; Phre-
nology (1825); Anatomy of the Brain (1826);
and Sketch of the Natural Laws of Man (1828).
Consult Carmichael’s Memoir of Spa/rzheim
(Dublin, 1833). See PHRENOLOGY.
SPUTUM. See EXPECTORATION.
SPUYTEN DUYVIL (spi’ten di'vil)
CREEK. A channel connecting the Hudson with
the Harlem River, at the northern end of Man-
hattan Island (q.v.).
SPY (OF. espie, from espier, Fr. épier, to spy,
from OHG. speh/6n, Ger. spiihen, to watch; con-
nected with Lat. specere, Gk. cncém-eo'6a.t, skep-
testhai, Skt. spaé, paé, to look). A person em-
ployed to obtain information regarding an enemy
by entering the latter’s camp, and employing any
possible means or methods by which to attain
his ends. He differs from the scout in that the
latter never surrenders his military character, is
invariably a soldier, and secures his information
without employing false pretenses. While the
employment of spies is recognized by the law of
nations, the spy himself is regarded as an outlaw
and generally meets with an ignominious death
whenever discovered. Military law (q.v.) , al-
though distinct in ordering the death of a spy, is
not clear in defining what constitutes a spy.
SPY, spé. One of the most important archaeo-
logical sites in Europe. In 1886 while exploring
a grotto in the commune of Spy, near Namur,
Belgium, MM. de Puyot and Lohest recovered
two human skeletons from a bed rich in Paleo-
lithic implements and remains of ancient ani-
mals, among which those of elephants abound.
These ancient men were below the Belgians in
stature and were dolichocephalic. Consult
Mortillet, Le préhistorique (Paris, 1900).
SPY, THE. A novel by James Fenimore
Cooper (1821) giving the story of Harvey Birch,
a spy employed by Washington in 1780 in West-
chester County, New York, ‘the neutral ground.’
His services could not be acknowledged and he
was suspected by patriots and Tories alike.
SQUADRON (OF. esqnadron, Fr. escadron,
from It. squadrone, squadron, augmentative of
sqnadra, squad, square). Ordinarily two troops
of cavalr . It occupies the same position to
cavalry t at battalion does to infantry. The
actual strength of a squadron varies with that
of the component troops and ranges from 120
to 200 swords. See ARMY ORGANIZATION. For the
use of the term in naval affairs, see TACTICS,
NAVAL.
SQUALODON (Neo-Lat., from Lat. squalus,
sort of sea-fish + Gk. 6506s, odous, tooth). An
extinct genus of whale based on fossil skulls and
teeth found in Miocene and Pliocene deposits.
See CETACEA ; MAMMALIA, FOSSIL.
SQUALORAJA (Neo-Lat., from Lat. sqnalus,
sort of sea-fish + raja, ray, skate). A fossil
shark of the“Lower Lias of England, ancestral
to the modern chimaera (q.v.).
SQUARCIONE, skwiir-cl1o'na, FRANCESCO
(1394-1474). An Italian painter of the Early
Renaissance, founder of the school of Padua.
He was a teacher rather than a painter. From
the large number of his pupils he has been styled
the ‘Father of Painting,’ and the influence of his
school was dominant throughout Northern Italy.
His method of teaching differed from that of
other masters in that he had his pupils copy
antique statues rather than his own works. The
chief characteristics of their art are the statu-
esque character of the figures and the wealth of
antique ornamentation, combined, however, with
a trenchant realism. It is impossible to distin-
guish the works ascribed to him at Padua and
elsewhere from those of his pupils, only one, a
“Madonna,” in possession of the Lazzari family,
Padua, being signed.
SQUARE (in geometry). See PABALLELO-
GRAM.
SQUARE ROOT. See INVOLUTION AND Evo-
LUTION.
SQUARING THE CIRCLE. See CIRCLE;
QUADRATURE.
SQUARES, METHOD or LEAsT.
SQUARES, METHOD OF.
See LEAST
SQUASH.
SQUID.
115
SQUASH (abbreviation of squanter-squash,
squonter-squash, from North American Indian
askutasquash, asquash, plural of asq, green, un-
ripe). The common name for the fruits and
plants of various varieties of Cucurbita M awima,
Oucurbita Pepo, and Oucurbita Moschata. The
term is frequently applied in America to what
are known in Europe as pumpkins. Squashes
are cooked as a vegetable and also used for
making pies. They are of divers forms, with
early, late, and mid-season varieties of each.
Squashes like a warm fertile soil. They are
planted about the same time as corn in hills
eight feet apart each way. From four to six
seeds are put in each hill, which should be made
rich with a few shovels of we-ll-rotted manure
placed in the bottom. The winter varieties are
gathered upon the approach of frosty weather
and left in the sun to cure for a while, being
covered at night with hay or like- material. Be-
fore cold weather sets in the fruits should be
stored on shelves one deep in a dry, cool, not cold,
room. See Plate of CUCUMBER ALLIES.
SQUASH. A ball game belonging to the fam-
ily of tennis, which it is considered to have
preceded in origin. It is played with a racquet
the ball in an inclosed court of varying size
without any aflixed standard, but generally less
than 40 feet by 20 feet, divided by a central line
on the floor and a cross line into four spaces.
The underlying principle of squash is that two
players try alternately to hit the ball up against
the front wall above a ‘tell-tale’ line. Whichever
first fails to do so before the ball’s second bounce
from the floor l.oses the point. There are various
rules governing the placing of the ball and of
scoring, which will best be studied in The Game
of Squash, by Eustace Miles (New York, 1901) .
SQUASH INSECTS. The insect fauna of the
squash and the pumpkin are practically identical,
and several insects which feed upon these plants
also attack melons, cucumbers, etc. (See MELON
INSECTS.) The most important in the United
States are the squash-bug (Anasa tristis) and
its closely similar relative, the horned squash-


COMMON SQUASH-BUG (Anasa tristis).
bug (Anasa armigera), the‘ squash-vine borer
(Melittia satyriniformis), and the squash lady-
bird (Epilachna borealis). The squash-bug is
a dull grayish brown musky-smelling bug of the
family Coreidae, a little over half an inch long,
which hibernates in the adult stage. Its large
golden brown eggs are laid in the spring upon
the foliage. The young bugs, which grow rap-
idly and molt five times, suck the juices of the
plant. Hand-picking the bugs before eggs are
laid, kerosene sprayed upon vines started very
early to act as decoys, and destruction of the
bugs on the vines and fruits after the crop has
been gathered, are the only feasible remedies.
The squash-vine borer, a clear-Winged moth of the
family Sesiidae, has an orange or red and black
and bronze abdomen and hairy hind legs, red
or orange on the outer surface, and black inside.
The young caterpillars hatched from eggs laid
on the stems in late spring bore into the stem,
which wilts and "dies. In midsummer they pu-
pate in a tough cocoon beneath the surface of the
ground, whence the adult emrges in spring.
In the South a second generation appears in
August. The best preventive measures consist
in late fall harrowing and deep spring plowing.
The squash ladybird, belonging to the genus
Epilachna, which contains the only plant-feeding
species of the family Coccinellidae (see LADY-
BIRD), is a black-spotted, yellow, hemispherical
species of wide geographical distribution. The
adult beetles hibernate and lay their eggs upon
the leaves in May or June. The yellow, spiny
larvae chew circular holes in the leaves, reach
full growth in from two to four weeks, and
transform to pupae, attaching themselves by the
tip of the body to a leaf or stem. There are two
or more generations each year, and the insect is
readily controlled by an arsenical spray.
The pickle-worm, melon caterpillar, certain
plant-bugs, and flea-beetles (qq-v.) are also
troublesome. Consult: Smith, Manual of Eco-
nomic Entomology (Philadelphia, 1896); Chit-
tenden, Bulletin 19, Division of Entomology,
Department of Agriculture (Washington, 1899).
SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY. See POPULAR
SOVEREIGNTY.
SQUAWFISH. A fresh-water fish (Ptyoche-
lus Oregonensis) of California, where it is local-
ly known as ‘Sacramento pike.’ It is the largest
American species of the carp family (see CY-
PRINIDZE), and reaches a length of from three
to five feet. See Plate of DACE AND MINNOWS.
SQUEERS, WACKFCRD. In Dickens’s Nicholas
N ickelby, the heartless, ignorant Yorkshire
schoolmaster of Dotheboys Hall.
SQUETEAGUE, or DEEP~WATER TRDUT. A
fish (Cynoscion regalis) latterly far more widely
known as weakfish (q.v.).
SQUID (of uncertain etymology). A cephalo-
pod mollusk, differing from the nautilus in hav-
ing no outer shell, the body being supported by
an inner pen-shaped horny structure, or, in the
cuttle of the Mediterranean, by a calcareous
‘bone,’ flattened oval in shape. The body of the
squid is somewhat fish-like, pointed behind, with
two fins, while the head is rather large and
armed with ten long arms, bearing cup-shaped
suckers, two of the arms being longer than the
others. The eyes are large and perfect. The
mouth is armed with two powerful black teeth,
shaped like the jaws of a parrot. At the base
of t re smaller jaw is the lingual ribbon (radula) .
With this they divide their food. The squid is
provided with an ink-sac, and when attacked it
will discharge the water in its mantle through
its siphon, the ink passing out with the water
as if from a syringe; in this way the water is
colored, and under cover of the inky cloud the
squid darts backward. Squids are very active
and powerful in their movements; they will
enter a school of fish, dart to the right or left,
and seize a fish, biting it in the nape of the
neck and killing it instantly. The body is beau-
tifully tinted and spotted with all the colors
of the rainbow, and the animal rapidly changes
SQUID.
SQUIRREL.
116
its hues, this being due to the contraction and
dilatation of the pigment-cells or chromatophores.
(See METACHROSIS.) Flying squids (q.v.) are
oceanic decapods of the genus Ommastrephes.
Ordinary squids are from 1 to 2 feet in length.
The largest squid known is Architeuthis princeps,
nearly 19 feet long in body; the longer arms
measure about 29 feet, the entire animal, with ex-
tended arms, reaching a length of 40 feet.
Another species (Architeuthis monachus) has a
body about 7 feet long, with the two longer arms
24 feet in length. (For fossil squids, see BELE-
MITES.) Consult Verrill, “The Cephalopods of
the Northeastern Coast of America,” in Transac-
tions of the Connecticut Academy, vol. v. (New
Haven, 1879-80). Compare CEPIIALOPODA and
see Colored Plate with article DECAPODA.
SQUIER, skwir, EPHRAIM GEORGE (1821-88).
An American archaeologist and traveler, born at
Bethlehem, N. Y. After varied experience he be-
came known to science through his study of the
antiquities of the Mississippi Valley. In 1849
he went on a diplomatic mission to Central Ameri-
ca, which he revisited in 1853 in the interest of an
interoceanic railway and of archaeology. In 1863
he was appointed United States commissioner to
Peru, where he investigated Inca remains. He
was first president of the Anthropological Insti-
tute (1871). He made extensive contributions
to the Encyclopazdia Britannica and published:
Serpent Symbols (1852) ; Nicaragua, Its People,
Scenery/, and Monuments (1852; The States of
Central America (1857 and 1870) ; Tropical
Fibres and Their Economic Extraction (1861);
and Peru, Incidents and Eacplorations in the
Land of the Incas (1877).
SQUILL (from Lat. squilla, scilla, from Gk.
a-:d7\7\a, slcilla, squill) , Scilla. A genus of bulbous-
rooted plants of the natural order Lilaceae, with
a spreading perianth, stamens shorter than the
perianth, smooth filaments, a three-parted ovary,
and a three-cornered capsule with three many-
seeded cells. Many of the species are plants of
humble growth, with scapes like those of hya-
cinths and beautiful flowers.
SQUILLA. A mantis-shrimp (q.v.).
SQUINTING. See STRABISMUS.
SQUIRREL (OF. esquirel, escureuil, Fr.
écureuil, squirrel, from ML. sciuriolus, sciurellus,
diminutive of Lat. sciurus, from Gk. cxlovpos,
slciouros, squirrel, shadow-tail, from amd, shia,
shadow + ozipd, oura, tail). A rodent mammal
of the family Sciuridae, subfamily Sciurinee.
The Sciurinee are a group of seven genera with
compressed incisors, rather slender bodies, and
long, hairy tails. The number of species is still
a matter of doubt, owing to the remarkable
range of color-variation among the individuals.
Squirrels are found in all parts of the world
except Australia, and are most abundant in
India and Southern Asia. They range from the
size of a mouse to that of a cat. In color squir-
rels tend toward gray, reddish brown, or black,
though many species are white underneath, and
the Oriental species are often handsomely vari-
egated. The pelages differ locally in texture,
being affected apparently by the climate. Some
of the northern species have a fine, dense fur,
and their skins have considerable commercial
value, while some of the tropical species have
the hair scanty and rather stiff, and in one
genus spines are present comparable to those of
a porcupine. The genus Sciurus includes nearly
three-fourths of all known squirrels, and all but
five of the American species.
The commonest and most widely distributed of
these is the red squirrel or chickaree (Sciurus
Hudsonius), which ranges from the northern
and the mountainous parts of the United States
to the limit of trees in British America. It is a
small species only eight inches long, not including
the tail. Its upper surface is bright ferruginous
or chestnut red ; the lower surface is pure white,
and there is a black stripe along the sides. The
cars are commonly tipped with a little tuft of
hairs. In its habits the chickaree is a typical
squirrel, very active, almost exclusively arboreal,
and very fond of nuts, which are one of the
most important items in its bill of fare. The
diet is, however, diversified, as is true of most
squirrels, for while nuts and grains are doubt-
less the staple articles, birds and their eggs and
young, insects, young twigs, and fruit are often
eaten. Many ornithologists, indeed, consider this
squirrel one of the most deadly enemies of the
common song birds, and this enmity is fre-
quently expressed by the birds themselves. The
home of the chickaree is-usually in some hollow
tree, though frequently a special nest is con-
structed out of branches, twigs, and leaves. The
young are born in the spring, three or four in a
litter. The chickaree is a rather noisy little
animal, and though not gregarious, several are
usually found within calling distance of each
other. The sounds uttered are rapidly repeated
notes, making a shrill, scolding chatter.
East of the great plains and south of the
chickaree’s range occur the fox squirrels, the
largest and handsomest of the American Sciu-
ridee. They are a foot or more in length, besides
the beautiful bushy tail, which is somewhat
longer than the head and body. The color ranges
from gray with a reddish tinge to jet black. The
largest form is the black squirrel (Sciurus niger)
of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, which is
usually very dark colored, but always has the
nose and ears white. The fox squirrel of the
Middle States (Sciurus cinereus) is usually red-
dish, with the tips of the hairs whitish, giving
it a grizzled appearance, but black specimens are
common. The fox squirrel of the Mississippi
Valley (Sciurus Ludovicianus) is more strongly
and constantly reddish and is rarely, if ever,
black. These large squirrels all agree in their
habits, which are not essentially different from
those of the chickaree, except that fox squirrels
seem to do less harm to the birds. They are
intelligent and in captivity make interesting
pets. They have a considerable antipathy to the
chickaree.
The ‘gray’ squirrels are a third group of com-
mon American species, somewhat smaller than
the fox squirrels and more widely distributed,
ranging as far west as California. They have a
considerable tendency toward melanism in cer-
tain regions. They are white or whitish under-
neath. The common Eastern species (Sciurus
Carolinensis) is about ten inches long, besides
the somewhat longer tail. It is one of the popu-
lar game animals of New England, where the
fox squirrel is very rare, and not only is it prized
for food, but the skin has some commercial value.
It is also often kept as a pet, and, like the fox
squirrel, can be taught simple tricks. Two or
SQUIRRELS




1. eeouno SQUIRREL: CHIPMUNK (Tarnias mum.-.). 4. NEW MEXICAN SQUIRREL (Otoxlurus Abel-ti).
2. RED SQUIRREL (Sclurus Hudsonlue). 5. BLACK-MUSTACHED EAST INDIAN SQUIRREL.
3. FLYING SQUIRREL (Scluropterua volans). 6. common EUROPEAN SQUIRREL (ScIurus vulgirlal.
7. AMERICAN GRAY SQUIRREL (ScIuI-us Carollnemlal.

SQUIRREL.
SRINAGAR.
117
three other species of gray squirrel occur in the
Southwestern United States and California, of
which the chestnut-backed gray squirrel (Sciurus
Abcrti) is notable for having the ears tufted as
in the chickaree. This is a very handsome
species, with a broad band of chestnut on the
back and a black stripe on each side; melanistic
specimens are common. ‘The California gray
squirrel (Sciurus fossor) is remarkable for its
large size and black tail.
Of the remaining sixty or seventy members of -
' the genus Sciurus the most important is the com-
mon squirrel of Europe (Sciu-r-us ruulgar-is),
which ranges from Ireland to Japan and from
Northern Italy to Lapland. It is a little larger
than the chickaree, and, like that species, it is
brownish red above and white beneath. In winter
it undergoes some change of pelage, becoming
gray or even almost white. I The ears are tufted
with little pencils of hair. A handsome Oriental
squirrel (Sciurus caoziceps) is remarkable as the
only known instance among mammals of the
temporary assumption during the breeding sea-
son of a distinctly ornamental pelage. During
most of the year this squirrel is gray, but in
December the back becomes a beautiful orange
yellow, which becomes gray again late in March,
after the breeding season is over. Of the other
five genera one contains only a single species, a
large and very handsome Bornean species (Phi-
throsciurus mawotis), which is very remarkable
for certain peculiarities of the skull and particu-
larly for the vertical grooves on the front sur-
face of the incisors. The tail is also unusually
long, the ears have long tufts, and the coloration
is peculiar, the sides being handed with black
and white. The genus Xerus includes four
species known as ‘spiny squirrels,’ .on account of
the pelage, which is coarse and prickly, the hairs
being intermingled with spines. They are ground-
loving species, and live in burrows which they
themselves dig. They are somewhat larger than
the chickaree and are all natives of Africa. The
genus Tamias includes the small ground squir-
rels, chiefly American, which connect the tree
squirrels with the spermophiles. They are all
similar in size and habits to the common chip-
munk (q.v.) . The remaining genera, mainly Old
World species, are remarkable for their powers
of sailing from one tree to another. They are
described in the article FLYING SQUIRREL.
Consult: Coues and Allen, Monograph of N orth
American Rodentia (Washington, 1877); Stone
and Cram, American Am'/mals (New York, 1902) .
SQUIRREL-FISH (so called from the sound
made by the fish when taken from the water,
Which resembles the bark of a squirrel). Any
of several brilliantly colored tropical fishes. One
group is the family Holocentridae, allied to the
mullets, many species of which abound about
coral reefs and are numerous in American trop-
ical waters. The best-known species (Holocen-
trus Ascensiomls) is about two feet long and
bright red, with shining streaks along the rows
of scales. Another group is the genus Diplectrum
of the sea-bass family, among which one very
handsome species (Diplectrum formosum) is com-
mon from Charleston to Montevideo, and is also
called ‘sewano’ and ‘sandfish.’ It is about a foot
-long and brownish, with many blue markings.
SQUIRREL-MONKEY. One of the names
applied to certain small, active, bushy-tailed
tropical American monkeys of the marmoset
group, and especially of the golden-haired genus
Chrysothrix, because of their squirrel-like size,
manners, and appearance. A well-known species
is one of the titis (O'hrysothri:v sciureus), whose
crown, muzzle, and rings about the eyes are
black, giving a comical likeness to a human skull,
so that it is known as the death’s-head squirrel--
monkey.
SRADDHA, Sh1‘ii(l’h€1 (Skt. éraddha, faith,
connected with Lat. crederc, to believe). The
funeral ceremony of the Hindus, in which balls
of rice are offered to the deceased ancestors of
the sacrificer, or to the pitris (q.v.) collectively.
It is especially performed for a parent recently
deceased, or for three paternal ancestors, repre-
sented by three Brahmans, and secures the resi-
dence of the souls of the dead in the heaven of
the pitris at the end of a year. The term
sraddha is also applied to the daily offer-
ings to the manes in general, and to offerings
performed on various domestic occurrences, as on
the birth of a son. There are likewise voluntary
sraddhas performed for a special object, such
as the hope of religious merit. The presentation
of the ball of food to the deceased, and to
his progenitors in both lines, is the office of
the nearest male relative. If, however, sons
have divided their patrimony contrary to
their father’s wishes, they may be excluded
from the sraddha. The widow can inherit only
on condition that she has the ceremony duly per-
formed. The éfraddha is still offered in certain
parts of India, as at Gaya in Behar. The entire
ceremony is based on the fear of maliemant
ghosts, since if the s'raddha is not performed, the
dead man will return to seek revenge for the neg-
lect shown him. See GHOSTS. Consult: Caland,
Uobcr Todtenocrehrung bet cinigcn der indoger-
ma/nischen V6llcer (Amsterdam, 1888); id., Alt-
hzdisclzer Ahnenlcult (Leyden, 1893) ; Jolly,
Recht mad Sitte (Strassburg, 1896) ; Hillebrandt,
Ritual-Lz'tteratur (ib., 1897). _ _
SRAVAKA, shr2i’va-ka (Skt. ‘is‘rdoaka, Pali
siwalca, disciple, from éru, to hear). Originally
any true disciple of Buddha. The term was later
applied to those who were on the four-fold road
to Nirvana (q.v.) . The four classes of sravakas
are the s'ro't(ip(mnas (Pali sot-rtpanna), neophytes
or converts; the salcarrigfz'min-as (Pali salea-
dcig-dinin.) , who are so far purified that they need
be reborn on earth only once; the anagammas
(Pali also amigrimin), who will be reborn in a
Brahmaloka, not in an inferior heaven or on
earth; and the arhats (Pali a/rahft), who have
attained such sancity that they are freed from
reincarnation.
Northern Buddhists for the Southern
sravakas.
SRINAG-AR, sré’na-gfir’, or SERINAGUR,
se-ré’na-gfir’. The capital of the native State of
Kashmir, India, on the Jhelam River, 195 miles
by rail northeast of Rawal Pindi (Map: India,
C 2). It is in the ‘Vale of Kashmir,’ a region
noted for its picturesque lakes, lofty mountain
peaks, and interesting ruins. The Jhelam River
flows through the city, and the numerous canals
extend in ill directions. VVithin the wall-girt
citadel are the city fort and a summer residence
of the Maharaja. Dal Lake, a beautiful sheet
of water on the eastern border of the city, was
sect is
The general name among the
SRINAGAR.
STABLE FLY.
118
formerly a favorite resort of the Mogul rulers.
Srinagar is surrounded by a rich agricultural
section, and manufactures shawls, papler maché,
and leather. The city was founded in the sixth
century, and came under British protection in
1846. Population, in 1901, 122,618.
SRIRANGAM, sré-rfing’iim, or SERI1\TG-
HAM, sé-ring’h‘zim. A town in the Province of
Madras, India, two miles north of Trichinopoli,
on an island of the same name in the Kaveri
River (Map: India, C 6). It is connected with
the mainland by a bridge of 32 arches and is
noted for its great temple to Vishnu. (See
INDIAN ART.) The temple of Jambukeshwar,
about a mile distant, and the neighbor-
ing anikuts or dams of the Kaveri River are also
noteworthy. Population, in 1891, 21,632; in
1901, 23,039.
SRIRANGAPATAM, sre-r\"1ng’a-pa-tam’. A
town of Mysore, India. See SERINGAPATAM.
SRUTI, shr56’t<§ (Skt., hearing, revelation).
In Sanskrit literature, the technical term for
those works which are regarded as divine revela-
tion. It originally applied only to the texts of
the Vedas (q.v.) and to the Brahmanas (see
BBAHMANA), but at a later period it included
also the Upanishads (q.v.). The term éruti is
therefore contrasted with smrti, or tradition. See
SMBITI.
SS, COLLAR OF. A collar composed of a series
of the letter S, either linked together or set in
close order, on a blue and white ribbon, with
the ends connected by two buckles and a trefoil-
shaped link, from which hangs a jewel. Such
collars have been much worn in England by per-
sons holding great offices in the State, as well
as by gentlemen of various ranks, from esquires
upward. The origin of the device has not been
satisfactorily explained. It had, without doubt,
originally a Lancastrian character. Collars of
SS are still worn, with certain recognized distinc-
tions, by the Lords Chief Justices, the Lord Chief
Baron of the Exchequer, the Lord Mayor of Lon-
don, the heralds, and the sergeant-at-arms.
ssAsz, S218, KAROLY (1829—). An Hunga-
rian poet and translater, born at Nagy-Enyed,
Transylvania. During the revolution of 1848-
49 he fought in the Honvéd army, then studied
theology, was engaged in teaching and pastoral
work until 1867, when appointed councilor in the
Ministry of Public Worship and Instruction.
In 1884 he became reformed bishop at Budapest.
He was elected to the Hungarian Academy in
1858. Besides numerous lyrics he wrote the
epic Poems Almos and Salamon, the dramas
Zrinyi, Emperor Joseph, Herodes, Georg Frater,
and the tragedy The Death of Attila (1888),
but won wide reputation especially through his
masterly translations of Shakespeare, Moliere,
Moore, and Tennyson, the Nibelungenlied and
Dante’s Divina Oommedia, and poems of Goethe,
Schiller, Heine, Victor Hugo, and Lamartine,
also through those embodied in A vildgirodalom
nagy eposzai (The Great Epics of the World’s
Literature, 1882).
STAAL, sttil, MARGUERITE JEANNE [CORDIER]
DELAUNAY, Baronne de (1684-1750). A French
writer of memoirs and letters of much historic
value. She was born in Paris. Her father was
an artist. Having studied in a convent at Rouen,
she became maid to the Duchess of Maine (1711),
took part in Cellamare’s plot to deprive the
Duke of Orleans of the Regency, and was im-
prisoned (1718-20) in the Bastile. She after-
wards married (1735) Baron de Staal, captain in
the guard of the Duke of Maine. She spent the
rest of her life at the ducal Court at Sceaux and
died in Paris. Her M érnoires (Paris, 1755, best
edited by Lescure, 2 vols., 1878) are remarkable
for keen observation, sincerity, and irony, as well
as for their style. Her letters and two comedies
are in her Wuvres (Paris, 1821). Consult:
Sainte-Beuve, Portraits Zittéraires, vol. iii. (2d
pd, Paris, 1864), and a monograph by Frary (ib.,
863).
STA’BAT MA/TER. One of the most famous
of the great mediazval hymns, describing the suf-
ferings of the Virgin Mary as she stood by the
cross of Jesus. It is generally spoken of by the
above name, from the words with which it begins:
Stabat mater dolorosa
J uxta crucem lacrymosa,
Dum pendebat Filius.
It was formerly attributed to various authors,
including Pope Innocent III., Saint Bonaventura,
and Saint Bernard; but it is now generally as-
cribed to Jacopone da Todi (q.v.). It was
adopted as the sequence for the feast of the
Seven Sorrows of Mary in many places, and came
into the Roman missal, as one of the few se-
quences retained in it, in 1727, when the feast
was extended to the entire Church. It is a mag-
nificent example of the rhyming Latin poetry of
the Middle Ages, deservedly famous for the
beauty both of its language and of its thought.
Well-known musical compositions on this text are
those of Palestrina, Astorga, and Pergolese. Ros-
sini’s version, although popular, is of too secular
a character to rank with those of his predecessors.
Monographs on the hymn have been written by
Lisso (Berlin, 1843) and Ritter (Leipzig, 1883),
the latter covering the music also.
STABILITY (Fr. stabilité, from Lat. stabili-
tas, steadfastness, from stare, to stand). The
property of a body by virtue of which it
tends to return to a position of equilibrium
if it receives an impulse acting to displace
it from this position, or, in other words,
where work must be done to alter the position
of its centre of gravity. Thus a pendulum would
be said to be in stable equilibrium, as also would
be a well-ballasted ship. To satisfy this condition
the centre of gravity must occupy such a position
that when it is displaced it is raised with respect
to its original position. If under the action of
a force the centre of gravity is moved to a lower
position the body is said to be in unstable equili-
brium. Stability of floating
bodies is an important con-
s i d e r a t i o n in shipbuilding
(q.v.). See BUOYANCY; EQUI-
LIBRIUM; HYDROSTATICS ; ME-
CHANICS ; METACENTBE.
STABLE FLY. A biting
fly (Stomoazgs calcitrans) of
the family Muscidae, probably
introduced into the United
States from Europe long ago.
The larvae feed in fresh horse
manure, and the flies live chiefly on the blood of
vertebrate animals, frequently causing much an-


STABLE FLY.
STABLE FLY.
STADIUM.
119
noyance to horses and cattle, and biting human
beings. Another cosmopolitan muscid fly (Mus-
cina stabulans) is sometimes known as ‘stable fly.’
STACCATO, Sta-ka’to (It., detached). In
music, a term implying a detached, abrupt mode
of performance. A certain amount of time is
subtracted from the proper value of any note
played staccato, and a rest substituted. A dot
placed over a note indicates that it is to be
played staccato. A dash implies a greater de-
gree of staccato; and a very light degree of stac-
cato is expressed by uniting the dot with the slur.
STACHYS, sta’kis (Lat., from Gk. cm-dxvs,
woundwort, ear of corn, spike). A genus of
plants of the natural order Labiatae, containing
numerous species widely distributed in temper-
ate and tropical climates except Australia and
New Zealand. Stachys sylvatica, hedge nettle,
common in shady places, is a coarse herb from 2
to 3 feet tall with ovate, heart-shaped leaves on
long stalks and whorls of purple unpleasant
smelling flowers. Sta-chys elatior, common in
moist places, sometimes proves a troublesome
weed inmeadows. It was formerly used as a vul-
nerary, hence the name woundwort. Several
species are cultivated in flower gardens. To this
genus some botanists refer the common betony
or wood betony (Stachys Betonica), plentiful
in woods and thickets in Europe. It is a hairy-
stemmed plant one or two feet high, has oblong
heart-shaped leaves, whorls of purple or white
flowers, and a fetid smell. A Japanese species
(Stachys Sieboldi, often called Stachys tuberife-
ra) has small edible tubers an inch or two long
used as a vegetable in China and Japan; in the
latter country they are known as chorogi, under
which name they have been introduced into
America.
STADE, stii/de. A town in the Province of
Hanover, Prussia, on the Schwinge, an affluent
of the Elbe, about 4 miles from its mouth
(Map: Prussia, C 2). It manufactures ma-
chinery, ships, trimmed lumber, salt, bricks,
wine, and cigars. Stade was designated a city
as early as the tenth century. Population, in
1900, 10,575.
STADE, BERNHARD (1848-—). A German
theologian, born at Arnstadt and educated at
Leipzig and Berlin. In 1875 he was appointed
professor of theology at Giessen. He wrote
De Isaice Vaticiniis /Ethiopicis Diatribe (1873),
Ueber die alttestamentlichen V orstellungen vcm
Zustand nach dem Tode (1877), Lehrbuch der
hebriiischen Grammatilc (187 9), and Geschichte
des Vollces Israel (vol. i. 1881-84; vol. ii.,
with O. Holtzmann, 1888). In collabora-
tion with Karl Siegfried (q.v.) he published
(1893) a H ebr-iiisches W6rterbuch zum alten Tes-
tament. In 1871 he became the editor of the Zeit-
schrift fiir alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.
STADIA (ML. stadia, station, from Lat.
stadium, from Gk. orddwv, standard of length,
furlong). An attachment fitted to the telescope
of a transit and used in surveying to measure dis-
tances. Stadia surveying is a modification of
transit surveying, and is effected by the use of
the stadia or gradienter attachment. The tele-
scope of the ordinary transit (see ENGINEERING
INSTRUMENTS) contains a vertical and a hori-
zontal wire dividing the field of vision into four
quadrants; but the stadia telescope contains ex-
tra -horizontal wires mounted on an independent
diaphragm, so that the distances between the re-
spective wires are adjustable. The principle of
its operation is simple. If the Space between two
auxiliary wires, one on each side of the hori-
zontal wire of the telescope, is so adjusted as to '
subtend a foot on a rod at a distance of 100, the
space will subtend two feet on a rod at two hun-
dred feet, and so on. Thus by proper adjustment
the approximate distances to various near-by
points can be calculated at once by reading the
rod. If from any convenient point in a field the
corners are all visible, and the stadia instrument
be set at this point‘, the distance to each corner
can at once be read and also the angles between
these lines. -Thus with two sides and the in-
cluded angle of each triangle, the areas of the
different parts and that of the whole field can be
calculated. This plan is known as the method
of radiation. The gradienter attachment is a
micrometer screw which takes the place of the
tangent screw to the axis of the telescope. A
mounted scale registers the number of turns of a
micrometer screw. The value of the thread is
usually such that one revolution of the screw
moves the horizontal wire of the telescope over
a space of one foot‘ on a rod at the distance of a
hundred feet. If the micrometer screw is divided
into one hundred spaces, it is clear that when the
screw is turned through 25, 50, or 75 spaces, or
4, -§-, or 5} of a space on the scale, the wire
of the telescope will pass over 71,-, ,1-, or g of a
foot on the rod, and so on. See SURVEYING.
STADIMETER (from Gk. orddcov, stadion,
standard of length, furlong + gérpov, metron,
measure). A nautical instrument invented by
Commander B. A. Fiske, United States Navy, and
designed for measuring the distance of objects
when their height is known. It is somewhat
similar in principle to the sextant, but its read-
ings are in yards instead of angular measure.
See RANGE-FINDER.
STADIUM (Lat., from Gk. <rrd6wv, standard
of length, furlong, race-course, from iardvai, his-
tanai, Skt. stha, Lat. stare, to stand; ultimately
connected with Eng. stand). The name for the
Greek race-course, within which also other athletic
contests took place. It was used only for con-
tests, not apparently as a place for exercise.
The spectators stood or sat on the high banks
of earth at the sides and across the ends. In
some cases one end was curved like a horseshoe,
and at times one end was open. At Olympia
there seems to have been no permanent seats at
the sides, but we hear that at Athens Herodes
Atticus (see ATTICUS) fitted the stadium with
Pentelic marble seats. The floor of the stadium
was sand or loose earth. The course was straight
away, and at each end was usually a long strip
of marble which served to mark the start and
finish. The length of the course was always 600
Greek feet, but, as the foot varied in different
localities, the stadium was not of uniform length.
At Athens the standard foot seems to have been
0.2957 meter, like the Roman foot, and the
stadium was 177.42 meters. This seems to be
the length of the stadium used commonly as a
measure of distance, of which 81/3 made a Roman
mile, and a little more than 9 an English mile.
Consult: Hultsch, Griechishe und riimische Me-
STADIUM.
STA-EL-HOLSTEIN.
120
. lectual spirit of that age.
trologie (2d ed., Berlin, 1882); Diirpfeld, in
Mittheilungen des deutschen a-rch-iiologischcn In-
stituts Athens (Athens, 1882).
STADTHOLDER (Dutch stadthouder, Ger.
Staclthalter, stead-holder, lieutenant, viceroy,
governor of a province). The title bestowed on
William of Orange (q.v.) by the Dutch provinces
which rose in revolt against the tyranny of Alva
in the sixteenth century. (See NETHERLANDS.)
On the assassination of William in 1584 his son
Maurice of Nassau was appointed to the offiee.
The stadtholderate was considered to be at an end
on the death of William III. in 1702, but in
1747 William IV., descended from a collateral
branch of the House of Nassau, was proclaimed
stadtholder, captain-general, and admiral-in-
chief of the United Provinces. His son, William
V., the seventh stadtholder, was driven from the
country by the French in 1795 and resigned his
oflice in 1802.
STAEL-HOLSTEIN, sta’e1 h6l’stin, Fr. pron.
stiil o1’staN’, ANNE LoUIsE GERMAINE, Baronne
de, commonly called MADAME DE STAEL (1766-
1817). A famous French authoress, born in Paris,
April 22, 1766. She was the daughter of the
Genevese banker and distinguished French Min-
ister of Finance, Jacques Necker (q.v.), and of
his wife, Suzanne Churchod, Gibbon’s youthful
beloved. She passed her childhood in one of the
most brilliant literary salons of Paris, where her
naturally active mind was stimulated by associa-
tion with the keenest wits and critics of the pre-
Revolutionary decade, chief among them F. M.
Grimm, Thomas, Marmontel, and Raynal. In
this vortex of disintegrating ideas she assimilated
more than any other of her generation the intel-
She married in 1786,
in obedience to her mother’s wish, the Swedish
Minister, Baron de Stael-Holstein, by whom she
had three children. But she kept the tenor of
her independent way, always positive and self-
assertive, a little boisterous and rather vain,
writing much, but publishing nothing until the
appearance of her Lettres sur Jean Jacques Rous-
seau (1788), whose social ideas she warmly ad-
mired. She had fallen also under the spell of
Goethe’s Werther, and thus she sympathized with
the Revolution till the imprisonment of the King
caused a revulsion to an equally indiscreet ‘in-
civism.’ She abused her ambassadorial right of
asylum, and, in fear_of the consequences, left
Paris before the massacres of September, 1792,
going to Coppet, near Geneva, where she gathered
some political sympathizers. In 1793 ‘she tried
to make herself the centre of a more important
group in England, not without some personal
scandal. For nine years (1794-1803) she played
at politics in Paris, with brief visits to Coppet.
She was amicably separated from Baron de
Staiél in 1788, and irritated Napoleon by biting
epigrams till the consular police banished her
from Paris (1803). She went to Germany,
which then ‘ruled the kingdom of the air’ (Rich-
ter), and in her unwearying search for noted
people to talk to she came in the winter of 1803-
04 to Weimar. Goethe, after at first excusing
himself on the score of ill health, saw much of her
and later on in his Annalen spoke of “her brilliant‘
way of showing her readiness of thought and
repartee.” On the whole, in spite of her ‘passion-
ate demands’ for ready information on the most
important subjects, he admitted that “one could
get on with her easily and pleasantly if she was
taken in her own way.” Schiller found her “with
little ideality or poetry and no feminine re-
serve.” The Romanticists were more attracted,
and A. W. Schlegel (q.v.), an eccentric prophet
of the new school, became her devoted companion
and counselor. Thus the German ideas that
she introduced into France were seen through
Schlegel’s eyes, far from impartially, as
is constantly obvious in her De l’Allemagne,
written in 1809-10 and printed in England in
1813. Before her exile Madame de Staiél had
written two essays, De Pinfluence cles passions
(1796) and De la litte’rature considerée dans
ses rappo-rts a-oec les institutions sociales
(1800), the latter curious for its marks of the
close association with Benjamin Constant (q.v.),
who gave his impression of their -relation in
Adolphe. Her literary power was first revealed
in the novel Delphine (1802), a half-autobiogra-
phy of the ‘misunderstood woman,’ to be ex-
ploited later by George Sand. Much finer is a
second story, Corinne (1807), wherewith she
made the novel carry artistic discussion, as
Goethe and Richter had done in Germany.
‘ In 1810 she published her De l’Allemagne in
Paris, but Napoleon condemned the entire edi-
tion and expelled her from France. She retired
to Coppet, and there, in 1811, she married secret-
ly a young oflicer, De Rocca, _more than twenty
years her junior. In the same year she set out
on her travels in Russia, Sweden, and England,
and after Napoleon’s fall returned to France,
though she still spent much time abroad, for
her health was gradually failing, as her last
book, Considérations sur la révolution francaise
(1818), witnesses. Shedied in Paris, July 14,
1817. Of her three children by her first husband,
Auguste (1790-1827) became known as the au-'
thor of Lettres sur l’Angleterre; Albertine (died
1838) married the Duke Achille de Broglie, and
Albert became- a Swedish officer and fell in a
duel. By her second husband she had one child.
In her person, excepting her fine eyes and
well-formed figure, Madame de Staéil was not at-
tractive. In conversation she often repelled even
those who appreciated her talents. If one con-
siders only language and style she was not a great
writer, but she had great enthusiasms, faith in
human progress, and in democracy. Thus she did
much to free French literature from the self-im-
posed fetters of the classical criticism. Studiously
cosmopolitan, she compelled France to contrast
and compare her ideals of letters and art with
those of Germany and England. The French spirit,
she said, needed to be regenerated by some more
vigorous sap. It was artistic, rationalistie. They
were idealistic, individually subjective. To es-
tablish in France Ossian, Byron, Goethe, Richter,
was to complete the work begun by Rousseau.
Thus the French romantic movement, one of
the greatest literary regenerations in history, is
in large measure the work of Madame de Staiél.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Madame de- Stael’s complete
works, edited by her son, Baron Auguste de Staiél-
Holstein, and with a biography by her cousin
Madame Necker de Saussure, 17 vols. (Paris,
1820-21). There are Lines by Norris (London,
1853) ; Stevens (ib., 1880); Lady Blennerhasset,
trans. (ib., 1889) ; Sorel (Paris, 1891; trans.
London, 1892). Consult also Count d’Hausson-
ville, Le salon dc Madame Necker (Paris, 1882;
STAEL-HOLSTEIN.
STAFF.
121
trans., 1882) ; Sainte-Beuve, Gaaseries da landi,
vol. iv.; Brunetiere, Evolution de la critique
(Paris, 1890); Dejob, Madame de Saassu/re et
l’1talie (ib., 1890) ; Faguet, Politiques et moral-
istes, vol. i. (ib., 1898).
STAFF (AS. st08f, staff, Goth. stafs, rudiment,
letter, OHG. stap, Ger. Stab, staff; connected
with OChurch Slav. staba, staff, Lith. stoibas,
stribras, pillar, Skt. sthapay, to make stand, from
stha, to stand, and ultimately with Eng. stand).
In military and naval usage, the aides or assist-
ants of a commanding officer. The staff of an
army comprises the assistants of the general-in-
chief and of his generals, and their duties are
to relieve the chief of the details to which he
cannot personally attend.
In the United States this body is divided
into the military staff and the administrative
staff. The former is charged with the more
purely military duties, and comprises the
chiefs of staff (the assistants and executive
officers of the generals in the office and in
the field), the adjutants-general (who at-
tend to the correspondence, orders, etc.), the
inspectors-general (who are charged with the in-
spection of the troops), the chief of artillery
(the assistant and adviser in all matters relat-
ing to the artillery, and responsible for the artil-
lery materiel and persomiel), the chief of cav-
alry, the chief of engineers, the chief signal
officer (responsible for the military telegraph,
signal stations, and balloons), the provost-mar-
shal-general (who has charge of the police, pris-
oners, deserters, secret service, and post-office),
and the aides-de-camp (attached more directly to
the person of a general, assisting him by carry-
ing orders, studying and reporting on portions
of the field, and attending to a part of the cor-
respondence). The administrative staff is
charged with the service of administration and
supply, and comprises the judge advocate (who
supervises the proceedings of military courts
and boards), the commissary of musters (who
supervises the muster and pay rolls, and makes
musters into and out of the service), the chief
ordnance officers (who are charged with the sup-
ply of ordnance material), the chief quarter-
masters (providing transportation, forage, cloth-
ing, and camp and garrison equipage), the chief
commissaries (providing commissary stores), the
chief paymasters, and the medical directors and
their respective assistants.
GENERAL STAFF Conrs. Since the passing of
the General Staff Bill, which was approved on
February 14, 1903, and which entered into legal
effect August 15 of the same year, a general staff
organization has been instituted as follows: The
General Staff Corps establishment consists of
officers detailed from the army at large under
such rules as may be prescribed by the Presi-
dent. The duties of the General Staff Corps are
to prepare plans for national defense and mo-
bilization of troops in time of war; to investigate
and report on questions relating to the efficiency
of the army and its preparation for war; to aid
a.nd assist the Secretary of War or other general
officers and commanders, and to act as their
agents in informing and coordinating other offi-
cers, who are subject to the supervision of the
chief of the staff; and to perform such other
military duties as may be prescribed by the
President.
The General Staff Corps consists of one chief
‘of staff, and two general oflicers chosen from the
army, not below, the grade of brigadier-general,
four colonels, six lieutenant-colonels, and twelve
majors from corresponding grades, twenty cap-
tains from grades of captain and first lieuten-
ant, to have rank, pay, and allowances of cap-
tains mounted. Time of detail, four years, unless
otherwise relieved. When relieved these officers
return to their former branch of the army, and
are not eligible for service in the General Staff
Corps until they have served two years in that
branch of the army in which they hold their
commission, except in case of war or emergency.
The chief of staff supervises all troops of the
line, and the adjutant-genera1’s, inspector-gener-
al’s, j udge-advocate’s, quartern1aster’s, subsistence,
medical, pay, and ordnance departments, corps of
engineers and signal corps, and performs such
other military duties as may be assigned by the
President. All duties previously prescribed by
statute for the commanding general, as member
of the Board of Ordnance and Fortification and of
the Board of Commissioners or of the Soldiers’
Home, are performed by the chief of staff or other
officers designated by the President. Acts or sec-
tions of acts authorizing aides-de-camp and mili-
tary secretaries do not apply to officers of the
General Staff Corps.
The chief of artillery serves as an additional
member of the general staff and enjoys the rank,
pay, and allowances of a brigadier-general.
In England the regular army officers, non-com-
missioned officers, and men doing duty with a
militia, volunteer, or yeomanry corps corre-
spond very nearly to the French cadres comple-
mentaires. The -English up to 1902 had no
regular staff institution, answering to that of
the French or Germans, but strong efforts were
being made to secure the organization of such
a system. The staff college prepares officers for
staff duty, but officers are frequently thus em-
ployed who have not passed the staff college.
Officers of the British army desirous of serving
with the native army in India join what is called
the Indian Staff Corps, from which they are
appointed to any regiment to which they may
be assigned.
In Germany the Prussian general staff organ-
ization is known as the general staff of the army,
Bavaria, VViirttemberg, and Saxony maintaining
their own establishments, but subordinate to the
Prussian corps. It consists of the chief of the
general staff, usually a high ranking oflicer,
subject only to the Kaiser; the Ha/apt-Etat-, or
principal establishment of the general staff ; and
the Neben Etat, or auxiliary establishment of
the general staff. The duties and functions of
the general staff are as follows: Collecting, add-
ing to, and arranging military information neces-
sary for the knowledge of the German Empire
and all foreign States, and the further train-
ing of officers of the general staff and of the
officers attached to it for duty. The great gen-
eral staff consists of a central and six other
sections. The central section is under a major-
general, who is the principal assistant of the
chief of the general staff. The first section keeps
informed about everything that would be useful
in case of war with Russia, Austria, Sweden,
Norway, Denmark, the Balkan Peninsula, and
Asiatic Russia. The second section deals with
corresponding details regarding Germany itself.
STAFF.
STAFF COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.
122
The third section deals with England, France,
Italy, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Spain, Por-
tugal, America, and Asia exclusive of Russian
Asia. The fourth section covers the subject of
fortifications and fortresses and technical en-
gineering affairs. The fifth class is a military
historical section, and the sixth has charge of all
railway questions. Each section is in charge of
the chief of section, whose staff varies according
to the work in hand. All general officers must
have served on the general staff, an important
essential being that they must have held regi-
mental command. In order that officers of other
corps or arms of service may be eligible for the
rank of general ofiicer, every major in the general
staff, independent of the arm of the service to
which he belongs, is assigned for a period to the
command of a battalion of infantry.
In France the general staff is not a permanent
organization, but is composed of oflicers tem-
porarily assigned from the line. It is directly
under the Minister of War as chief, and com-
prises the military household of the President,
the special staff of the military governments of
Paris and Lyons, the staff of the army corps,
divisions, and brigades, the staffs of the fortifi-
cation commands, the staffs of the marshals of
France, the military attachés abroad, and the
staffs of the artillery and engineer commands.
The general staff of the army is under the chief,
who has three brig-adier-generals as assistants,
and comprises four military bureaus (one for
organization and mobilization, one for studying
foreign armies, one for military operations and
education, and one for railroads), and five sec-
tions (one for personal matters relating to the
general staff, one for materiel, one for Algiers
and Tunis, one for history, and one for land
survey). The general staff together with the
Ministry of War administers the affairs of the
army. The War Ministry is subdivided into
bureaus corresponding to the sections of the Ger-
man greater general staff. The army stafic itself
is under a general of division, called thechief of
staff, who is himself assisted by three other
superior officers with their subordinates. The
staff has its own sections, bureaus, and special
services, and is occupied with the organization
and mobilization details of the army, the pro-
curation of information regarding that of for-
eign armies, instruction, railways.
In the Italian army system the general staff
constitutes the second division of the war uni-
versity and has in charge the preparations for
war. It is subdivided into divisions and sec-
tions which are known as the ‘office in charge of
the Eastern or the Austro-Italian frontiers,’ the
‘office in charge of the Western or Swiss and
French frontiers,’ etc. The staff has charge of
the archives, geography department, information,
intendance, transport, and the Turin War Acad-
emy. The chief of staff in time of war is also
chief of the intelligence department.
In Russia the higher general staff is not prac-
tically an independent organization, as is the
German Grosser Generalstab, but instead acts
entirely under the Ministry of War, which lat-
ter consists of various branches. The general
staff has to do principally with army organiza-
tion, manoeuvres, camps, fortifications, promo-
tions, rewards, equipment, remounts, geography,
and topography, home and foreign, transport,
literature, etc. When it happens that the Czar
is not an active military leader the War Mm-
istry is dominated by the Minister or some con-
spicuous and concededly able general officer, who
is also a member_of the council of war.
REGIMENTAL STAFF. The commissioned staff
of a regimental commanding officer would con-
sist of such officers as are~ not duty officers in
the battalion squadron or regiment, as the regi-
mental adjutant, quartermaster, commissary, etc.
The aides-de-camp of a general officer consti-
tute his staff, together with such departmental
and technical officers as may be temporarily de-
tailed to assist the general in some specific under-
taking.
THE NON-COMMISSIONED STAFF consists of non-
commissioned officers not forming part of the
company establishment proper and who have
relationship only to the battalion, squadron, or
regiment, as sergeant major (battalion or regi-
mental) , quartermaster-sergeant (regimental) ,
commissary sergeant (regimental), chief musi-
cian, chief trumpeters, and principal musician.
In the United States army non-commissioned
officers doing duty as part of the permanent es-
tablishment of an army post or fort are termed
the post non-commissioned staff, which ordinarily
consists of an ordnance sergeant, post quarter-
master-sergeant, electrician-sergeant, hospital
steward, etc. Throughout the armies of Europe
battalion, regimental, and post (depot or fort-
ress) staffs, commissioned or non-commissioned,
include practically the same descriptions of offi-
cers. See STAFF COLLEGES AND SoHooLs; ARMY
Onaanrzarron.
In the navy the staff does not play as im-
portant a part as in the army, nevertheless what
is essentially a general staff is required to con-
trol the personnel and direct the movement of
fleets, etc. In the United States Navy the term
staff officer is applied to those officers who do
not belong to the executive or line branch, as
surgeons, paymasters, chaplains, etc.
' STAFF (in music). See MUSICAL Nomrron;
NEUMES.
STAFFA, staf’fa. A celebrated but uninhab-
ited Scottish islet, one of the Inner Hebrides
(q.v.), seven miles west of Mull (Map: Scot-
land, B 3). It_rises to a height of 144 feet, is
1% miles in circumference, and oval in shape.
Except on‘ the northeast its cliffs hollowed by
caverns rise from the water 84 to 112 feet high.
There are seven caves, of which the most remark-
able is Fingal’s or Great Cave. The entrance,
formed by regular basaltic columnar ranges on
each side, supporting a lofty arch, is 33 feet
wide and 65 feet high. The length of the cave
is 230 feet. As one of the most perfect and
beautiful specimens of natural architectural phe-
nomena it is much frequented by tourists.
STAFF COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. Mili-
tary training schools for ofiicers candidates for
staff appointments. To prepare officers for duty
on the staff of an army special colleges or
schools have been instituted by all the leading
military nations of the world. (See MILITARY
EDUCATION.) In the United States there is the
General Service and Staff College at Fort Leaven-
worth, Kan., to which ofiicers are ordered for
their technical and professional instruction, and
students showing marked proficiency in their
studies are considered to be eligible for staff or
other duties for which they are best fitted. In

FlNGAL’S CAVE, ISLAND OF STAFFA
STAFF COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.
STAGE.
123
_ factures woolens.
England officers desirous of qualifying for staff
appointment must have had five years’ service
in the army, undergo the two years’ course at
the Staff College at Sandhurst, and serve at
least four months at Aldershot in some arm of
the service other than the one to which they
belong. The rule in Germany is to select officers
for the general staff from among the graduates
of the military colleges having the best qualifi-
cations and the highest percentages in examina-
tion. The training is received at Berlin and
Munich. In France staff oflicers are educated at
the Higher War School at Paris, which was
first organized as a staff college at the beginning
of the nineteenth century, and reorganized in 1875
as the permanent college for general staff can-
didates. Austria-Hungary sets apart the Kriegs-
schule at Vienna for instruction in staff work.
The Italian general staff school is at Milan,
where about 24officers graduate each year. The
Saint Nicholas Academy at Saint Petersburg is
the staff school of Russia, entrance to which is
competitive to all officers of three years’ service
and upward. See STAFF.
STAF’FORD. The county town of Stafford-
shire, England, on the Sow, 29 miles northwest
of Birmingham (Map: England, D 4). Tan-
ning and the manufacture of cutlery and of shoes
are the chief branches of industry. Population, in
1891, 20,270; in 1901, 20,900. Stafford was of
importance before the Conquest, is mentioned in
Domesday, and King John confirmed and en-
larged the privileges of an old charter.
STAFFORD. A town, including the borough
of Stafford Springs, in Tolland County, Conn.,
20 miles north by west of Willimantic, on the
Willimantic River, and on the Central Vermont
Railroad (Map: Connecticut, F 1). It is a sum-
mer resort, with mineral springs. It manu-
There is a public library.
Population, in 1890, 4535; in 1900, 4297.
STAFFORD, HENRY, second Duke of Buck-
ingham (c.l454-83). An English nobleman and
political intriguer. He was the grandson of the
first Duke and succeeded to the title in 1460. He
was a prominent adherent of the Duke of
Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., while the
latter, then Protector, was conspiring to seize
the throne, and assisted him in his efforts against
Earl Rivers and Lord Grey. After the downfall
of those noblemen he received as a reward for
his services the office of Chief‘ Justice and con-
stable of the royal castles in Wales, and later
that of Lord High Constable of England. A few
months later, however, he joined the Lancastri~
ans in an effort to overthrow Richard, but his
projects were frustrated, and he was sum-
marily tried and beheaded at Salisbury in 1483.
He is “the deep revolving wily Buckingham”
mentioned in Shakespeare’s Richard III.
STAFFORD, WILLIAM Hownnn, Viscount
(1614-80). An English statesman. He was the
fifth son of Thomas, Earl of Arundel and Surrey,
and was educated as a Roman Catholic. In 1634
he married a sister of the thirteenth Baron Staf-
ford, and on the latter’s death assumed the title.
This marital claim was afterwards disputed,
but finally decided in his favor, and a new crea-
tion was made by the King, declaring him Baron
and afterwards Viscount Stafford. During the
Civil War he was a firm adherent of the King,
but after the Restoration (q.v.) frequently op-
Von. XVI.—9.
posed the royal will from his place in the House
of Peers. In 1678 Stafford was one of those
denounced by the infamous Titus Oates (q.v.)
as a conspirator in the pretended popish plot.
He was impeached on a charge of high treason,
and, despite a spirited defense against snborned
testimony, was found guilty and publicly
executed on Tower Hill. In 1824 the act of at-
tainder was reversed by Parliament.
STAF’FORDSHIRE. An inland county of
England, bounded on the west and northwest by
Shropshire and Cheshire (Map: England, D 4).
Area, 1128 square miles; population, in 1891,
771,258; in 1901, 879,618. In the north wild
moorlands in long ridges, separated by deeply
cut valleys, extend from northwest to southeast.
The surface is low and undulating in the mid-
land regions, but becomes hilly again in the
south. The Pottery coal field occupies the north,
and the Dudley coal field, remarkable also for its
abundant and rich iron ores, occupies the south.
The Trent, flowing first southeast through the
county, then northeast along its eastern border,
is the chief river. The climate is humid, much of
the soil is clayey, and agriculture is in a back-
ward condition. The manufactures, however, are
extensive and varied, including cutlery and iron-
ware, pottery, shoes, and glass, and cotton, silk,
and leather goods. Stoke-upon-Trent and Burs-
lem are the chief seats of the pottery industry.
Capital, Stafford.
STAG, or RED DEER. See DEER; ANTLERS.
STAG~BEETLE. Any member of the Luca-
nidee, a family of beetles including 500 to 600
species. The common name is derived from the
shape of the mandibles of the males, which are
developed in some species so as to equal in length
nearly that of the entire body, and are armed
with spines or teeth. The males are of varying
size and exhibit remarkable differences in the
development of the head and mandibles. In each
species in which these extraordinary variations
occur there are no subtle intergradations, so that
distinct ‘forms’ or ‘states’ occur, the largest be-
ing termed ‘teleodont,’ the smallest ‘priodont.’
and two intermediate forms ‘mesodont’ and ‘am-
phiodont.’ Lucanus cervus is the common English
species. Lucanus dama is the commonest North
American species. In the Southern States
’Lucanus elaphus, the giant stag-beetle, occurs.
See Colored Plate of BEETLES.
STAGE, THE (OF. estage, Fr. étage, stage,
floor, loft, from Lat. stare, to stand; ultimately
connected with Engnstand). A term frequently
employed to designate the profession of the actor.
This will accordingly be discussed in the present
article, with reference especially to the life and
training of actors, past and present; while in
the article THEATRE will be found details of the
construction and management of theatres as they
affect the audience. Until the beginning of the
nineteenth century the actor was classified by
English law with vagabonds. In the Middle
Ages actors, like poets and musicians, were more
or less upon a footing with the household serv-
ants of the great; in fact, often were the servants
of the nobility. Until 1875 in great Eng-
lish houses it was not uncommon to see a
silken cord placed somewhere in one of the draw-
ing rooms to separate the artists or performers at
a formal soirée from the invited guests. If this
STAGE.
STAGE.
124
was the feeling toward acknowledged artists, it
can be readily believed that the strolling player
from Shakespeare’s time down to the beginning
of the last century was looked upon as but one
step above the tramp. Within the last fifty
years the social status of the actor has
vastly improved, because of the more universal
interest taken in stage performances, the higher
salaries paid to actors, and the better organiza-
tion of the theatrical business as a whole. For
the first time in the history of England an actor,
Sir Henry Irving, has been knighted for his ser-
vices to the stage. With the growth of importance
of the theatrical business, the character of its
management has changed, with a decided loss in
some directions and a gain in others. The old-
time manager from Shakespeare’s day to that
of Sir Henry Irving in England, and of
Lester Wallack in this country, was always an
actor and not a business man. Within the last
twenty-five years the management of most Ameri-
can theatres has fallen into the hands of busi-
ness men, with a consequent loss in artistic
quality and a gain in financial stability. The per-
manency of theatrical enterprises, and the fair
certainty that contracts will be carried out, have
made the profession less of a hazardous under-
taking than it formerly was. At the same time,
the fact that theatrical contracts are seldom
made but for one season, commonly of forty
weeks, that few plays please the public for more
than a year, and that there are always several
thousand unemployed actors and actresses in the
United States alone, renders the actor’s life, for
the rank and file at least, a more or less un-
certain one. Among the other disadvantages of
the stage as a profession may be mentioned the
absence of home life, nine-tenths of the profession
having to travel from town to town, and the loss
of earning capacity after a certain age. The ad-
vantages of the profession are that it requires
no capital, and that there is always a possibility
of earning a much larger salary than the average
man or woman can expect in other businesses or
professions.
VVithin the last thirty years the num-
ber of theatres in this country has increased
from hundreds to thousands, and according to
trustworthy statistics there‘ are now about 10,-
000 stage performers in the United States, to
which number must be added about as many more
persons employed as musicians, scenic artists,
stage hands, costumers, and theatrical employees,
making an army of about 20,000 persons who look
to the stage for support. The people on the stage
are employed by 400 theatrical companies, with
an average of twenty persons to each company,
The Actors’ Fund of America, the charitable or-
ganization of the dramatic profession in the
United States, has a record of 17,000 persons
employed in capacities entitling them to its recog-
nition. Few plays are given in Germany and
France for more than a few weeks at a time.
In England and the United States the same play
is performed as long as it attracts a playing audi-
ence, and most American companies are organized
for one particular play, which is given through-
out the season. This system entails constant
traveling, which is one of the hardships of the
actor’s life. Scores of companies play the ‘one-
night stands,’ as they are called, for month after
month right through the season, traveling by
day and acting at night. Miss Clara Morris, in
her reminiscences, speaks of travelin all day
without food to get to a town where s e had to
play the light-hearted daughter of a millionaire
in the evening; she had to wear a low-necked
dress upon a stage in Winnipeg, with Arctic
blasts sweeping the stage; while a month later
in Texas, with the thermometer at 100°, the part
called for furs.
The number of women stage performers now ex-
ceeds that of men. Until 1660 they were for-
bidden upon the English stage, the female parts
in Shakespeare’s day being taken by boys or
young men, which was also the custom in France
and Germany. Women so soon became popular
as actors that one of Dryden’s comedies was pro-
duced in 1668 in London with all the parts, both
male and female, played by women. With the
employment of women greater attention was paid
to costuming. A Parisian dancer, Mlle. Sallé,
raised a storm in 1740 by appearing in the ballet
of Pygmalion in Greek costume. Paris audiences
objected to the innovation, but London accepted
it. It was not, however, until Talma insisted
in 1800 upon playing Brutus at the Theatre
Frangais in Roman costume and without a
powdered wig that classical plays were costumed
according to the epoch represented. It may also
be supposed that the appearance of women as
actors led to a more natural style of acting. So
far as may be inferred from the books of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, acting in
England and France was then as stilted and
artificial as the manners of the time. Talma,
Rachel, and Lemaitre in France, Garrick, Kean,
and Macready in England, instituted more natu-
ral methods. In more recent years what is known
as ‘realism’ has made itself felt in acting as well
as in literature. The old-time actor underwent a
long training in the traditions and technicalities
of the art; he was expected to play many parts.
The actor of to-day has usually a narrower range.
Whether to trust to study and calculation or
to inspiration when on the stage is a question on
which experts differ. The noted French comedian
Coquelin teaches that all acting is a distortion
of nature so regulated by study and experience
that it will seem to be nature when seen by an
audience. The actor, says Bronson Howard, the
American playwright, must make the people in the
audience, some of them a hundred feet away, think
that he is moving, appearing, and speaking like
the character he assumes, and to do so he must do
something that he would never think of doing in
real life in the same circumstances. His talk and
gesture must be as false as his complexion in
order that they may seem real. Such exagger-
ation is an art that must be learned like any
other. The foremost dramatic school of Europe
has been that of the Paris Conservatoire, whose
prize winners are engaged by the Paris Theatre
Francais and the Odéon. In the United States
the stage is now partly recruited from schools
in New York, Boston, and Chicago, which gradu-
ate yearly several hundred pupils who have
studied elocution, acting, make-up, costuming,
etc., and have taken part in constant rehearsals
of standard plays. Of these schols the oldest is
the American Academy of Dramatic Arts (q.v.),
founded in New York in 1884 by Franklin H.
Sargent. Many actors who have retired from
the stage also make a business of teaching.
STAGE.
STAGE.
125
A-prosperous theatre in the city of New York
may in a favorable season do a business of about
$400,000 and keep in employment 150 persons.
Only‘ a few theatres, and those in large cities,
now maintain stock companies of their own; local
managers accept the performance given by an
American or English company which comes for a
shorter or longer period, taking as its pay a cer-
tain share of -the receipts. As a rule
the dramatic author receives from five to ten
per cent. of the gross receipts in return for the
use of his play. There is also an arrangement
called the ‘sliding scale,’ by which the author’s
royalties are in a changing ratio to the gross re-
ceipts. The employees of the theatre consist of
actors, stage hands, or men who move the scenery,
manage the lights, etc., musicians, door-keepers,
ticket-sellers, and ushers. Where stock compa-
nies are maintained there are also a number of
scene-painters and costumers employed. Cos-
tumes are sometimes provided by the manager
and sometimes by the actor. In costume plays—-
those in which scenery and elaborate costumes
of another age are used——the manager provides
them; where modern plays are the rule, the male
members of the company generally provide their
own clothes.
The salaries paid vary according to the
standing of the company. In a first-class
New York theatre the leading four or five
people in the company may receive from
$100 to $250 a week. From these figures,
which are five times what actors were paid half
a century ago, there is a gradual drop to $20 or
$25 a week for the people who have but a line or
two to say. In companies playing burlesque or
light opera, the chorus girls receive from $12 to
$20 a week, while the male chorus singers average
$20. The star, as the leading actor of the com-
pany, male or female, is called, usually makes
a special arrangement to take a share of the re-
ceipts in lieu of salary. All companies include
-a stage manager, who often plays one of the
parts; for elaborate productions a special stage
manager at a salary of from $75 to $100 a week
is engaged to arrange the stage pictures. The
cost of mounting a new play may vary from
$2000 to $20,000, according to the number of
people employed upon the stage, their costumes,
the scenery, and properties. It is not unusual
for the three or four costumes used by a
chorus singer in one playto cost $100; the
costumes for the dozen or more important char-
acters may cost $500 for each player. The ex-
pense of putting on a big London Christmas pan-
tomime, which sometimes employs 250 people on
the stage, seldom falls short of $40,000. If a
play proves to be a great -success a second, third,
and even fourth company may be organized to
give it on ‘the road,’ one company going south,
another north, thus covering the country before
the fame of the original performance has died out.
The arrangement between the owner of the the-
atre and the manager of the company is a sharing
plan. The latter furnishes the play, the actors,
such special scenery and properties as have to be
carried, the costumes, the street bills, and win-
dow advertisements; he also employs a man
known as the advance agent to go ahead of the
company to awaken interest in the performance
by the insertion of newspaper articles and by
any other devices that may serve. The manager
of the theatre furnishes everything else, includ-
ing as many extra stage hands as may be neces-
sary to handle especially heavy scenery. The
average division of receipts is 60 per cent. to the
manager of the company and 40 per cent. to the
theatre. A very popular actor may insist upon
better terms.
The business of carrying a company through
the country is so complicated that it has
now largely fallen into the hands of a few
large firms, who undertake to lay out the route,
to make the engagements with local managers,
and the contracts with the railroads for transpor-
tation. To lay out a route for a traveling com-
pany it is necessary to know (1) the seating
capacity of every theatre in order that the com-
pany may not be sent to a house which it might
pack and still lose money; (2) the number,
character, and taste of the population, in order
that a play wholly unsuited to it may not be
offered; (3) the cost of railroad transportation.
The company has to be kept going. In some
places it can play a week, in others three nights,
in others only one. The manager of the company
has to pay all railroad fares, so that the nearer
the towns in which he plays the better. Further-
more, he must as far as possible know what other
attractions will be offered against him; a circus
in a country town will ‘kill’ any play. The dra-
matic agencies do all this work for the companies,
receiving a certain share of the profits in return
and also payment from the managers of theatres
to whom they furnish attractions. The most im-
portant agencies some years ago organized them-
selves into a syndicate, which made it almost
impossible for any outside manager to engage
‘time’ in any of the best houses of the larger
cities. The syndicate refused to send companies
to any theatre which received an outsider. It not
only controlled theatres, but it produced plays,
recognizing only such playwrights and actors as
consented to its terms. As the members of this
powerful syndicate are business men rather than
artists, art has suffered. A few prominent actors
and managers, tired of the syndicate rule, have
within the last year or two cut loose from it and
have encouraged the building of independent
houses in the largest cities of the country. There
are now such independent theatres in New York,
Philadelphia, Boston, and a few other cities.
The ordinary dramatic company is divided
somewhat as follows: (1) leading man and
woman, to whom are allotted the most important
parts of the play; (2) juvenile man and woman,
who play the two parts next in importance; (3)
character actors, men or women, who play parts
requiring eccentric acting or appearance; (4)
old man and woman; (5) heavy man, who is
mostly the villain of the piece; (6) utility peo-
ple, minor actors who can be trusted with small
parts; (7) walking gentlemen and ladies, people
who simply appear but have nothing to say be-
yond a few unimportant words; (8) supernumer-
aries, commonly known as ‘supes,’ people who
fill up stage pictures, but have no lines to speak
and are usually under the direction of a ‘captain ;’
(9) the stage manager. Other necessary employ-
ees in every theatre are the wardrobe woman,
who cares for all the costumes, the property
man, who looks out for the furniture and any
articles needed upon the stage, the stage car-
penters, the electricians, who attend to the lights,
STAGE.
STAHL.
126
and the scene-shifters. The stage manager is
responsible for the smooth working of the per-
formance. He sees that the stage is properly pre-
pared for each act, he ‘rings’ the curtain up and
down, and makes sure that each actor is ready
for his cue to come on. The stage manager usu-
ally plays a small part that will give him time
to attend to his other duties. In large com-
panies there is also a stage director, who re-
hearses the play, calls extra rehearsals when he
thinks they are necessary, and is generally re-
sponsible for the artistic part of the performance.
Each part is studied by two persons in the com-
pany, so that in case of sickness the understudy
can step in. Rehearsals made necessary by the
substitution of an understudy are conducted by
the stage manager, who also has charge of the
music, the behavior of the supernumeraries,
stage hands, etc.
The ‘greenroom,’ where in the old days the actor
could wait while not on the stage, has been sacri-
ficed in most modern theatres to the need of room
for the elaborate scenery now used. In Europe it
is still an institution and in important theatres,
such as the Theatre Francais of Paris, it is a
reception room handsomely fitted up, to which the
favored patrons of the house are admitted. All
important European theatres maintain stock com-
panies, the important members of which are State
employees. The company as a whole seldom plays
outside of the home theatre, but leading actors
are allowed to appear elsewhere as ‘guests,’ when
they receive double pay. This visiting system,
which is much in vogue in Germany, enables the
chief actors to see what is done in rival theatres
and provides variety of entertainment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Pougin, Dictionnaire histo-
rique et pittoresque du thécitre (Paris, 1885),
a good account of French theatres and actors;
Malone, History of the Stage (London, 1821),
an exhaustive account of the English stage to
the beginning of the nineteenth century; Lewis,
On Actors and the Art of Acting (New York,
1880) ; Dunlop, History of the American Theatre
and Anecdotes of the Principal Actors (ib., 1832),
the best account of the early American theatres;
Hubert, The Stage as a Career (ib., 1900), an
account of the actor’s life, its requirements, re-
wards, and hardships; Blum, Allgemeines Thea-
ter-Lezvilcon (Leipzig, 1842) .
STAGGER BUSH. See ANDROMEDA.
STAGGERS. Various affections of animals.
In horses, mad or sleepy staggers is attributed
to inflammation of the brain and is considered
fatal. Grass or stomach staggers is said to
result from indigestion. In sheep a tapeworm in
the brain cavity is held accountable for the
phenomenon.
STAGHOUND. See GREYIICUND.
STAGING. Staging and scaffolding are in-
terchangeable terms for the temporary frame-
works of timber erected about a building under
construction or repair, to furnish platforms for
the workmen and for the materials and imple-
ments of construction required for immediate
use. For exterior work the staging may be built
up in one of three ways: by series of movable
trestles or ‘horses’ supporting planks, in suc-
cessive tiers or stages; by ‘putlogs’ projecting
horizontally through temporary holes in the ma-
sonry, to support the platforms; or by rows of
lofty poles or posts standing on or in the ground,
to which are nailed, bolted, or lashed with ropes
the necessary girts and cross-pieces, with braces
to prevent the sidewise racking of the frame. In
cities a very heavy staging is also built of heavy
timbers over the sidewalk for the protection of
passers-by. Materials are hoisted by derricks,
or in France by means of scaffold-towers of
poles, often of elaborate construction. For the
erection of interior trusses, as in railway sta-
tions, stagings on wheels or rollers are often
used, being moved from one truss to the next, as
each is completed. Similar stagings are used in
decorating and repairing the vaults, domes, or
ceilings of lofty interiors. The construction of
stagings often calls for a high degree of engi-
neering skill. The stagings erected to support
the trusses of bridges while building are called
falseworh.
STAGI’RA or STAGIRUS. An ancient town
in southeastern Macedonia, on the Strymonic
Gulf, celebrated as the birthplace of Aristotle.
It was founded in the seventh century B.C. by
a colony from Andros, but declined during the
Peloponnesian War. The modern village of
Stavro is on its site.
STAGIRITE, THE. A name frequently given
to Aristotle from his birthplace, Stagira.
STAGNELIUS, stag-na’le-us, ERIK JOHAN
(1793-1823). A Swedish poet born on the island
of Onland, and educated at Upsala and Lund.
He was deeply interested in Gnosticism and
treated all sides of this question in his books.
He is considered a master of form. He published
the epic poem Wladimir den store (1817), the
philosophico-religious Liljor i Saran (1821),
M artyrene, his best drama (1821) , and the trag-
edy Bacchanterna (1822) .
STAHL, stiil, ERNST (1848—). A German
botanist, born near Strassburg, and educated
there, at Halle, and at Wiirzburg. He became
professor in Strassburg in 1880, and professor
and director of the botanical gardens at Jena the
following year. He visited Ceylon and Java in
the winter of 1889-90. Among his books are Ent-
wiclcelung und Anatomic der Lenticellen (1873),
Einfluss des Lichtes auf den Geotropismus ei-
niger Pflaneenorgane (1884), Zur Biologic
der Myaomyceten (1884), and Regenfall und
Blattgestalt (1893).
STAHL, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1802-61). A
German politician and political philosopher.
He was born in Munich of Jewish parents,
turned Protestant in 1819, studied at Wiirzburg,
Heidelberg, and Erlangen, and in course of time
became professor of law at Erlangen, Wiirzburg,
and Berlin. In 1849 he was made a member of
the Upper House of the Prussian Legislature,
and in 1850 he Was a member of the Erfurt
Parliament. Stahl was a leader in the Lutheran
Church, and became one of the most powerful
influences for reaction in Germany. He stood
for an absolute monarch and an absolute Church
that should control the monarch. The basis of
his political philosophy was the conception of
the subserviency of all things lay and clerical
to the will of God as expounded by the clergy.
His most important work is the Philosophie des
Rechts nach geschichtlicher Ansicht (1830). Some
of his other works are Ueber Kirchenzucht
(1845), Das monarchische Prineip (1845), Der
STAHL.
STAINED GLASS.
127
christliche Staat (1847), Die Revolution und
die loonstitntionelle M onarchie (1848), Die
lutherische Kirche and die Union (1859).
STAHL, G1-zone Ennnsr (1660-1734). A Ger-
man physician and chemist, born at Ansbach. He
was called in 1694 to the chair of medicine, anat-
omy, and chemistry in the newly founded uni-
versity of Halle, whence he removed to Berlin
in 1716, and was appointed physician to the
King of Prussia. Stahl was one of the ablest
chemists of his time, and destroyed number-
less absurd opinions which had found their way
into science, and propounded the first general
theory of chemical transformations (see CHEMIS-
TRY), which was universally accepted till the
time of Lavoisier. His works, according to Hal-
ler, number 250, the most important being Theo-
ria Medica Vera (1707, and 1831-33), which con-
tains his medical theory, and Eaoperimenta, Ob-
servationes et Animadoersiones Chymico-Phy-
sicce (1731), in which his chemical opinions are
set forth. An account of his opinions is found in
Lemoine, Le oitalisme. et Vanimisme cle Stahl
(Paris, 1864). Consult also Lasegue, De Stahl
et so doctrine médicale (ib., 1846).
STAHR, stiir, ADOLF (1805-76). A German
author, born in Prenzlau, Prussia. After study at
the University of Halle he went to the gymnasium
at Oldenberg, and in 1836 became professor there.
While on a tour through Italy in 1845, which
was afterwards described in Ein Yahr in Italien
(1847-50), he met the author Fanny Lewald,
whom he married i11 1855, after separating from
his first wife. Perhaps the most noteworthy of
his writings are his classical studies, which in-
clude translations from Aristotle, Suetonius,
and Tacitus, and Bilder ans dem Altentmni
(1863-66).v His miscellaneous works, some of
which have been translated into English, include:
Oharalcteristile Immermanns (1842); Die Re-
pnblilcaner in N eapel (1849); Die preussische
Revolution (1850); and G. E. Lessing, sein
Leben nnd seine Schriften (1858).
STAIGG, RICHARD M. (1820-81). An Ameri-
can genre and portrait painter. He was born at
Leeds, England, and studied drawing in an archi-
tect’s oflice before coming to America in 1831. He
began painting miniatures on ivory, and soon at-
tained a high degree of excellence. He was elect-
ed member of the National Academy of Design
in 1861. In 1867-69 he studied at Paris, and
after his return he ceased miniature painting
and devoted himself to portraiture and coast
scenes. His work is pleasing in color and de-
tailed in execution. His genre pictures, character-
ized by an unaffected simplicity and grace, in-
clude “Learning to Slide” and the “Sailer’s
Grave,” Stuart collection, Lenox Library, New
York City, and the “Cat’s Cradle.”
STAINED GLASS The process of coloring
glass requires particular care. When it is to be
of full color (as commonly for windows of rich
decorative effect) it is called ‘pot metal;’ but,
while colored glass of many hues and tints is
used in which the whole mass of the glass is
equally stained throughout, certain colors are
prepared by covering one side of a piece of col-
orless glass with pot metal of the color required.
Crimson and ruby glass for windows is made in
this way, the process being called ‘flashing.’
Opaline glass, much used for windows in America
since 1885, though known and used long before,
when very much clouded or stained so as to be
nearly opaque, for utilitarian purposes, has some
of the opal’s power of giving at once the general
color and its complementary color; thus glass of
smoky blue shows also a spark of orange or of
pinkish light. It has been found practicable to
give the opaline character to glass of the full
color of pot metal; and upon this depends much
of the splendor of recent American windows.
Glass so colored is often not of the same degree
of translucency throughout. Some pieces of
opaline and other glass prepared for windows
vary much in the same piece with regard to this
matter of translucency. The designer, while di-
recting the choice of glass for a rich mosaic win-
dow, will sometimes be in doubt just where to cut
off the sheet, and will experiment with rays of
sunlight falling upon the glass to see where it
becomes too nearly opaque for his use. Some
of these sheets of glass prepared for rich win-
dows have much change of color in their mass,
cloudings, and veinings of different hues, the
contrasts being enhanced by the varying thick-
ness of the parts of the same sheet. The com-
poser of a rich window knows how to utilize
these contrasts and gradations.
Iridescence, as found on the surface of ancient
glass vessels and fragments which have been long
buried in the earth, is the result of a curious
process of decay, in the course of which the sub-
stance of the glass becomes disintegrated, form-
ing thin laminae, which are no longer brittle as
a thin piece of undecayed glass would be, but
have rather the crumbling texture of flakes of
mica or the like; that is to say, this part of the
glass has lost its vitreous qualities. Modern
attempts to produce iridescence are, of course,
not in that direction; the attempt has been to
give the changing play of colored light to the
surface of perfect glass. They are of different
character, according to the greater or less degree
of translucency desired. The ancient and partly
decayed glass is of course mainly non-transpar-
ent, but still allows some light to pass through it.
Thus in a phial or plate of that pale green trans-
parent glass so common in the Greco-Roman pe-
riod, parts will be brilliantly iridescent when
the piece is found, and still other parts will have
a whitish degeneracy which is incipient change of
mass. These parts will be comparatively opaque,
not allowing a small object to be clearly seen
through their ' substances, while other parts of
the same vessel will be entirely transparent as
soon as the earthy deposits have been removed.
The most common iridescent glass of modern
manufacture is, however, entirely clear, and an
iridescent effect of the surface, like that of the
surface of a soap-bubble, is given by some process
which is often kept secret. During the last two
decades of the nineteenth century a very brilliant
glass was made in America by a single establish-
ment. In this glass, the uniting of successive
layers of the material, one imposed upon another
while hot, allows of giving to one or both sur-
faces a brilliant iridescence which, when fully
developed, makes the whole mass entirely non-
translucent. It is full of the play of brilliant
color, nearly like a rich piece of mother-of-pearl.
This process differs wholly from enameling
STAINED GLASS.
STAINED GLASS.
128
(q.v.) . in that the glass to be made iridescent is
not allowed to lose its high degree of heat. It
is continually returned to the furnace at very
brief intervals, and the layers of glass become
a solid mass, although close examination will
often reveal their once separate existence and
their number. The idea may have been taken from
the Greco-Roman pieces, which are often amber or
violet in the natural state of the glass, like mod-
ern pot metal, and rendered opaque and iridescent
by the gradual decay of the exterior surface.
In the course of experiments upon iridescent
and lustrous surfaces, much was done in the way
of depositing iron, tin, and other metals in a
nearly pure state. By way of producing tours
de force for exhibition pieces, these metallic de-
posits were sometimes carried to surprising ex-
tremes; thus about 1890 a vase was exhibited
which was of glass within, but had its outside
almost wholly non-vitreous and showing only an
opaque and rough surface of warm brown; and
this piece was described by the exhibitor as con-
taining as much iron as glass could possibly re-
ceive and retain.
STAINED GLASS WINDOWS. By far the most
important use of stained glass is its application
to the artistic decoration of windows, usually
termed glass painting, though properly speaking
it is not painting at all. Originally, there was
but one method of making ornamental glass win-
dows, and that was to produce the pattern in out-
line with finely made leaden frames, into the
grooves of which pieces of colored or stained
glass were fitted. It appears to have been a
branch of art unknown to antiquity and to have
been used in a primitive fashion in churches of
the fourth and following centuries, the different
colors forming not figures, but ornamental pat-
terns. These are described by early authors such
as Prudentius, Sidonius, Apollinaris, and Gregory
of Tours, but nothing of this period has been pre-
served. The majority of windows up to the
eleventh century were closed by thin slabs of
alabaster or other translucent material often
pierced by holes arranged to form patterns, as at
Santi Vincenzo ed Anastasio and other Roman
churches.
One of the best known of the early examples of
the use of figures in glass windows is of the
eleventh century in the former monastery of
Tegernsee (Bavaria); like all of’ the first at-
tempts, they were only tasteful arrangements of
colored glass in imitation of the stone mosaics
used for floors, etc. Shortly afterwards in the
twelfth century the monk Theophilus describes in
his treatise the method of making such windows as
the earliest ones at Chartres, Saint Denis, and
Vendome. The centre of the steady progress
throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
was in Northern France, where the use of Gothic
architecture, with its immense increase in the
size of the windows, suddenly brought stained
glass windows into prominence, not only as one of
the most important accessories of architecture,
but as the one prominent color factor in the
great Gothic interiors. As the windows occupied
the entire wall-space between the piers, 0th in
the aisle-walls and clerestories of the churches,
they afforded the same opportunity for composi-
tion that the solid walls had previously offered
to fresco-painting. The French cathedrals of the
thirteenth century at Le Mans, Chartres, Bourges,
and to a less degree Rheims and Rouen, pre-
serve whole series of contemporary windows,
which gave the type to other countries and to the
succeeding century. Those of the Sainte Cha-
pelle in Paris-' are also of extreme beauty. The
characteristics of the earliest Gothic windows
are: multiplication of small figures in many sep-
arate compositions grouped in tiers or rows of
framed medallions; rich and dark coloring; wide
decorative borders; heavy leads bent so as to
outline the figures or cut them in the deep shad- '
ows.
The development during the fourteenth century
was toward lighter coloring, larger figures, nar-
row borders, more ornamentation in the-body of
the windows, more delicate gradations of color,
and increase of modeling, loss of simplicity, and
tendency to mannerisms, while in the fifteenth
century much clear glass was introduced into
the backgrounds, and inscribed‘ ribbons and archi-
tectural accessories became conspicuous, whereas
the earlier windows are composed of many small
and distinct pictures set in a groundwork of
grisaille (q.v.) or of color ornament, the later
ones comprising a single figure or picture for each
light or even a composition occupying the whole
window. The designers of the Gothic age did
not,to any great extent, give the details of their
pictures on glass as their successors-Renais
sance and modern——mistakenly attempted to do,
but obtained their superb effects by a clear knowl-
edge of the interaction of colors, by juxtaposition
of complementary colors, and the effect of dis-
tances; the technique being that of glass colored
not on the surface, but in the mass either by
stain or incorporation. This branch of art was,
therefore, governed by totally different artistic
principles from those governing opaque painting
(fresco, oil, tempera, tapestry, etc.), and these
principles were thoroughly understood.
The practice of painting on glass, i.e. of ap-
plying color with the brush on fusible pigments
fixed by heat, began in the use of grisaille, a
browning pigment, for cross-hatching and outlin-
ing on clear glass the ornamental details of the
backgrounds, in order to soften the glare of the
clear glass without introducing disturbing color-
elements. It was then applied, even in early
French windows, to the faces and hands to indi-
cate the features and fingers; and its use ex-
tended gradually to all the shaded details, the
inscriptions and ornaments, of the later windows.
The perfection of the French work of the thir-
teenth century has never been equaled. These
series of cathedral windows were also one of the
principal branches of Christian iconography
(q.v.), joining with sculpture in expressing the
subjects of religious thought in art.
During the latter part of the thirteenth cen-
tury the art was carried to England, Germany,
and Italy, where it did not really flourish before
the following century. In Italy the imperfect
understanding of Gothic methods did not allow of
the use of such immense windows, and the art
never became thoroughly acclimated. At Arezzo
Cathedral are some windows by a French artist,
Guillaume de Marcillati, proving the transmis-
sion from France. Other interesting examples
are in San Francesco at Assisi, San Petronio in
Bologna, and the Cathedral and Santa Croce in
STAINED GLASS.
STAINER.
129
Florence. Many of the best Italian examples be-
long rather to the early Renaissance than to the
late Gothic. England would have possessed some
very fine series, as is shown by the examples at
York and Canterbury, had it not been for the
vandalism of the Reformation. In Spain there
are fine windows at Toledo and Leon, very close
to French models. Germany, however, ranks
next to France in the importance of its remain-
ing windows, beginning in the fourteenth cen-
tury, with those of the choir of Cologne Cathe-
dral, those of the cathedrals of Freiburg, Strass-
burg, and Regensburg, and the churches at Op-
penheim, Esslingen, and Nuremberg. German
works, however, do not approach the French in
quality either of technique or art.
As the fifteenth century approached the use of
grisaille or light colorless monochrome windows
increased. This process had always been in use
for smaller windows or borders with geometric
designs, as at Obasine and Auzerre in France,
Heiligenkreuz in Austria, and Sainte Gudule at
Brussels, but it became more popular and wa;-'
used in larger windows as the Renaissance period
approached; the brown enamel on the white or
greenish ground became lighter, all the glass less
opaque, and the leads more delicate. In colored
glass windows a brilliant window became very
popular, while green and violet went out of
fashion. The doner’s window at the Cathedral of
Evreux shows how the fourteenth-century artist
substituted realism for the older conventions,
and introduced profusely architectural forms as
framework and background of the figures. The
increased use of the white line and background
and the invention of the yellow stain, used pro-
fusely in place of the applied enamel, increased
the light effect. \Vith the approach of the fif-
teenth century the increased perfection in draw-
ing and naturalism does not compensate for the
loss of the special methods of glass painting, for
which artists commenced to substitute effects
taken from wall and other forms of opaque
painting. In Germany a peculiar novelty popular
during the Renaissance was the use of coats of
arms as the exclusive or almost exclusive design.
The extreme of possible realism was then reached
in the architectural and landscape effects of the
windows at Gouda in Holland. Jean Cousin in
France; Holbein, Ghiberti, and Paolo Uccello in
Italy; Diirer and Baldung Griin in Germany, were
among the prominent artists of the Renaissance
who designed windows. At the same time this
very fall of the glass-painter to the rank of an
artisan and the influence of painting on his art
hastened its fall in the seventeenth century.
The attempts to revive it during the two fol-
lowing centuries, as exemplified by Sir Joshua
Reynolds’s remarks, were based upon the same
mistaken principles. The glass windows pro-
duced to the middle of the nineteenth century
were paintings on glass in imitation of oil or
water-color pict'ures—-of opaque effects in paint-
ing. The majority are, therefore, inadequate and
commonplace, works of industry rather than art.
The Munich School bettered the process some-
what; the revival of the study of Gothic art be-
tween 1850 and 1875, especially that initiated in
France by Viollet-le-Duo, led to a better appre-
ciation of and an attempt to revert to mediaeval
processes. The French first re-discovered them,
and American artists, of whom the most promi-
nent is John La Farge, have done perhaps more
than any others during the last decade to replace
glass painting again in the sphere of ‘real art.
Besides studying again the irradiation of colors,
the special requirements of transparent painting,
and the consequent grouping of complementary
colors, artists like La Farge and Tiffany have pro-
duced wonderful effects in iridescence with an in-
crease of richness in tones similar to glass mosaic-
work. A questionable but extremely popular
American innovation has been the introduction
of what may be called modeled glass, to repro-
duce the effects of shading by its purposed or ae-
cidental variations of thickness. American
artists also make large use of the accidental
streakings of vari-colored glass (‘pot metal’) to
produce pictorial effects without painting and
without too minute subdivision and leading of
the picture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lévy, Histoire de la peinture
sur verre en Europe (Brussels, 1854-60) ; Gers-
pach, L’art de la verrerie (Paris, 1885) ; VVest-
lake, History of Design in Painted Glass (Ox-
ford, 1879-94); Kolb, Glasmalereien des Mittel-
alters und der Renaissance, with 60 plates (Stutt-
gart, 1884-89) ; Didron, in Annales archeolo-
giques, vols. xxiii., xxiv., xxvii. (Paris, 1878-81).
The first historic study, really scientific and ar-
tistic, was Viollet-le-Duc’s article “Vitraux” in
his great Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
frangaise (Paris, 1858-68). Consult also: Las-
teyrie, Histoire de la peinture sur verre ol’apres
ses monuments en France, with 110 plates (ib.,
1853-57) , and Geyling and LOW, M eisterwerlce der
lcirchlichen Glasmalerei (Vienna, 1895 et Seq.).
A model publication of one of the great series of
Gothic windows is Hucher, Vitrau.v peints de la
cathédrale du Mans (Le Mans, 1864), with one
hundred immense plates. For American work
consult Sturgis, “Decorative \Vindows in England
and America,” in Architectural Record, vol. vi.
(New York, 1896-97) ; La Farge, The American
Art of Glass (New York, 1893), and the same
author’s article “VVindow” in Sturgis, Dictionary
of Architecture (New York, 1901).
STAINER, stin’er, JAKOB (1621-83). A Ger-
man violin-maker, born at Absam, Tyrol. He was
the son of poor peasants, but at an early age
began to make violins and subsequently studied
at Cremona under the best makers of his time.
His extravagances kept him in continual poverty
and he died in an insane asylum in Absam.
Stainer violins are rare and command high
prices, though they do not rank with the instru-
ments of Guarnerius, Stradivarius, or the Amati
(qq.v.) .
STAIN’ER, Sir JOHN (1840-1901). An Eng-
lish composer and organist, born in London.
In 1854 he became organist and choirmaster of
Saint Benedict and Saint Peter’s Church, and
two years later was selected by Sir Frederick
Ouseley as organist for the newly founded College
and Church of Saint Michael, Tenbnry. He
held this appointment for three years. during
which time he had matriculated at Christ
Church, Oxford, and had taken his degree of
bachelor of music. He next became organist of
Magdalen College, Oxford, at the same -time en-
tering the university as an undergraduate. In
1863 he took his degree and was appointed
STAINER.
STAMBULOFF.
130
organist of the university and conductor of the
two musical societies. In 1865 he was made
doctor of music, and in 1866 became one of the
examiners for musical degrees. He succeeded
Sir John Goss as organist of Saint Paul’s, Lon-
don, from 1872 to 1888, when he was knighted
by Queen Victoria, and the following year was
appointed to the chair of music at Oxford Uni-
versity. He was also professor in the Royal
College of Music. In 1878 he was made a
chevalier of the Legion of Honor. His compo-
sitions are nearly all for the church and include
the oratorio Gideon, and the cantatas The Daugh-
ter of Jairus (1878), Saint Mary Magdalene
(1883), and The Crucifixion (1887). Other com-
positions include numerous anthems, services,
santicles, songs, and primers; and, in conjunc-
tion with W. A. Barret, a dictionary of musical
terms (1876, 3d ed. 1880). His text-books are
among the best in the English language.
STAIR, Vrscounr and EARLS OF.
DALRYMPLE.
STAIRCASE-SHELL. A collector’s name
for the low, conical, handsomely colored tropical
shells of the mollusks of the family Solariidae,
and especially of the genus Solarium. In this
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STAIBCASE-SHELLS.
1, The comnion existing species (Solarium perspectivum).
2, Afossil form (Solarium Leyerici) from the Upper Cre-
taceous of Belgium.
genus the umbilicus is widely open, and the
sculptured edges of the whorl seen within it are
comparable to a spiral staircase. These mol-
lusks are related to the wentletrap (q.v.) .
STALACTITE (from Gk. arahaxrés, stalak-
tos, oozing, from o"ra.)\do'o'ew, stalassein, archd-
few, stalazein, arahdv, stalan, to ooze) and
STALAGMITE (from Gk. c-ra>\ayn6s, stalagmos,
dripping, from cTa)\d§'el.v, stalazein, to ooze).
Elongated masses of lime, chalcedony, or other
mineral substances that depend from the roof or
rise from the floor of caves. Water impregnated
with carbonic acid is able to dissolve lime, and
as all rain and surface water contains more or
less carbonic acid, it takes up in its passage
through the earth to the roofs of caves a cer-
tain amount of lime. When the water is ex-
posed on the roof or floor of the cave, evapora-
tion takes place, and so both the bulk of the
water and its solvent power are reduced, and
a thin pellicle of solid carbonate of lime is de-
posited. When this takes place on the roof of
the cave, long icicle-like pendants are formed,
which are called stalactites ; and when the water
drops upon the floor, a stalagmitic layer is
formed, which rises at the points where the
largest supply of material exists in the form of
pillars to meet the overhanging stalactites.
STA’LEY, CADY (1840——). An American
civil engineer and educator, born in Montgomery
County, N. Y. He graduated at Union College
in 1865, prospected for gold in the foothills of
the Rockies, became a civil engineer on the Cen-
tral Pacific Railway, in 1867 became assistant
in civil engineering at Union, and in 1868 pro-
fessor of that subject. From 1876 to- 1886 he was
dean, and in the latter year was appointed presi-
dent of the Case School of Applied Science at
Cleveland, 0. His publications include, besides
an edition (1875) of Gillespie’s Roads and Rail-
roads, Notes on Bridge Engineering (1875),
Strength of Materials and Stability of Struc-
tures (187 6), and The Separate System of Sew-
age (_with G. S. Pierson, 1882).
STALK-BORER. A caterpillar which bores
commonly into the stems of potatoes, geraniums,
spinach, cauliflower, dahlias, corn, and many
other plants. It is the larva of a brown noctuid
moth (Papaipema nitela) commonly found
throughout the Eastern United States. The
whitish brown striped larva bores longitudinally
within the stalks, which wilt. When full-grown
they burrow in the ground, where they pupate
until fall, When the moths emerge and hibernate.
Many other insects bore in the stalks of the
plants mentioned.
STALKER, stak’ér, Rev. JAMES (1848—). A
minister of the Free Church of Scotland, born
at Crieff, in Perthshire. He was educated at
the University and New College of Edinburgh,
and studied at Halle and Berlin. In 1874 he
became minister of Saint Brycedale Church,
Kirkcaldy, and in 1887 of Saint Matthew’s, Glas-
gow. In 1902 he accepted the chair of Church
history in the United Free Church College, Aber-
deen. His works have been widely read through-
out the Anglo-Saxon world, and some of them
have been translated into several languages.
Among them are: The Life of Jesus Christ
(1879) ; The Life of Saint Paul (1884); Imago
Christi (1889) ; The Preacher and His Models,
lectures delivered at Yale (1891); Men and
Mora-ls (1892); The Two Saint Johns (1895);
The Four Men and Other Chapters (1892) ; The
Christology of Jesus (1899).
STALWARTS. The name applied to those
members of the Republican Party in New York
State in 1881 and afterwards who adhered to
Senators Conkling and Platt and were opposed to
the Half-Breeds (q.v.), who favored the admin-
istration of Garfield. See CONKLING, RoscoE.
STALYBRIDGE, sta’li-brij. A municipal
borough, partly in Lancashire and partly in
Cheshire, England, on the Tame, 8 miles east of
Manchester (Map: England, E 3). It has fine
municipal buildings and is noted for its cotton
manufactures, which date from 1776; print works,
iron foundries, and machine shops are numerous
and important. Population, in 1891, 26,800; in
1901, 27,700.
Account of Stalybridge (Ashton, 1842).
STAMBUL, stitm-bml’. The Turkish name
of Constantinople (q.v.) .
STAMBULOFF, stam-bb3’lof, Stephen (1855-
95). A Bulgarian statesman, born at Tirnova
of poor parentage. He studied at Odessa, but
was expelled from Russia for complicity in the
revolutionary propaganda. Upon his return to
Bulgaria he engaged in several conspiracies look-
ing toward the liberation of his country from
the -Turks. In 1879 he was elected to the
Sobranye, or national assembly, of which he
became president in 1884. Stambuloff combated
the Russian influence in Bulgaria and lent his
support to the annexation of Eastern Rumelia
in 1885. He acted as member of the Regency
Consult Butterworth, Historical-
STAMBULOFF.
STAMP.
131
after the abduction of Prince Alexander in Au-
gust, l886, until the election of Prince Ferdinand,
in July, 1887, then became Premier, and for
nearly seven years ruled autocratically, estab-
lishing amicable relations with the Porte, but
antagonizing Russia. In time his masterful
course gained him bitter enemies and aroused
the dissatisfaction of Prince Ferdinand. In
May, 1894, the Minister resigned. On July 15,
1895, Stambuloff was set upon by three assassins
in the streets of Sofia and was left for dead,
expiring three days later. The murderers were
sentenced to nominal terms of imprisonment. A
confession made by one of them in 1902 impli-
cated several men then in power, and tended to
cast suspicion on Prince Ferdinand. Consult:
Hulme-Beaman, M. Stambuloff (London, 1895) ;
id., Twenty Years in the Near East (ib., 1898).
STAMEN (Lat., warp, thread, fibre, stamen) .
The organ in flowers which produces pollen
(q.v.). It is usually differentiated into two re-
gions: (1) A stalk-like portion, called the fila-
ment, and (2) the terminal anther which bears
the pollen sacs. See FLOWER.
STAM’FORD. A market town in Lincoln-
shire, England, on the Welland, 16 miles by
rail northwest of Peterborough (Map: England,
F 4). It is remarkable for its history and its
antiquities, of which four fine churches, two old
gateways, and the ruins of a priory remain. Its
charter dates from 982. Population, in 1901,
8,300. Consult Neirnson, History of Stamford
(London, 1879).
STAMFORD. A city in Fairfield County,
Conn., 33 miles northeast of New York City, on
Long Island Sound, and on the New York, New
Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: Connecti-
cut, A 5). It is attractively situated, and con-
tains the homes of many New York business
men. There are the Ferguson Library, with more
than 10,000 volumes, and the Stamford Hospital.
Stamford is especially known for its manufac-
tures of hardware, including locks and keys. Dye-
stuffs, drugs, pianos, typewriters, and foundry and
machine shop products are also extensively man-
ufactured. In the census year 1900 there was
invested in all industries capital to the amount
of $5,189,195. The output was valued at $4,-
743,704. The government, under the revised
charter of 1899, is vested in a mayor, chosen
annually, and a unicameral council. Population,
in 1900, 15,997. Stamford was settled in 1641
by a company from Wethersfield, some of whom
were natives of Stamford, England. Until 1662,
when the Connecticut and New Haven colonies
united, it was under the jurisdiction of the latter.
Out of part of Stamford, Darien was created
in 1820. Stamford was incorporated as a city
in 1893. Consult: Huntington, History of Stam-
ford (Stamford, 1868), and an article, “Stam-
ford—1641-1900,” in Connecticut Magazine, vol.
vi. (Hartford, 1900).
STAMMERING (from stammer, OHG. stam-
mal6n, stamalon, Ger. stammern, stammeln, to
stammer; connected with OHG. stammal, stamal,
stammering, stam, Ger. stumm, mute, Goth.
stamms, stammering). An imperfect enunciation
of words due to irregular or spasmodic action of
the muscles of articulation. The trouble is
sometimes a form of chorea (q.v.), sometimes
entirely an emotional incoiirdination. In many
sufferers, difficulty lies in the enunciation of
the initial syllables of certain words, especially if
they begin with b, p, t, or d. In some cases, when
once pronounced, the syllable is involuntarily
repeated again and again. This variety of
stammering is sometimes termed stuttering. The
latter is physical, while stammering is mental.
The trouble often begins merely as hesitancy
with a disposition to avoid certain words, or a
little imperfect articulation and stumbling over
certain words. Many regard their condition as
hereditary because there are other members of
their family who stammer. This is probably an
error. Mimicry is the cause in many cases. Some
begin at the time of an illness, some are due to
fright. The great majority of stammerers begin
atthe age of five years or earlier. Very rarely is
the habit formed after twenty years of age. The
proportion of males to females is as 41/2 to 1.
Malformation of organs of speech in stammerers
is so rare that it may be denied. In the very
rarest instances disease or defect in the hypo-
glossal nerve and its muscles exists. Emotion,
fear, anger, argument, and embarrassment all in-
crease stammering and are in some instances en-
tirely accountable for it. If the bodily condition
is improved, the stammerer acquires more self-
control and prevents the occurrence. Out-of-door
exercise, mental and moral hygiene, avoidance of
all undermining influences, and great care result
in conquest of the condition in most cases. Bold-
ness and self-reliance will render it impossible.
Measured tones, care in attacking each word,
and thoughtful deliberation are almost always
absolutely successful. Stammerers can always
sing without difficulty. Some learn to enunciate
distinctly while performing an associated move-
ment, as tilting the head or lifting a finger with
each word. It is stated that in the. United
States there are over 400,000 cases of this speech
defect. Consult Lewis, Practical Treatment of
Stammering and Stuttering (Detroit, 1902).
STAMP (from AS. stempan, OHG. stamf6n,
Ger. stampfen, to stamp; connected with Gk.
oréafietv, stembein, to stamp, are!/Sew, steibein,
to tread, Skt. stambh, to make firm or steady).
A piece of paper upon which a mark or device
has been printed or impressed by authority of
law, and which is adapted for the purpose of at-
taching it to some object chargeable with a
duty or tax of some nature. The stamp is usually
gummed on the back and attached to the instru-
ment or article by adhesion. Such stamps are
usually made to represent different values to suit
the requirements of the tax law or revenue act
under which they are imposed.
The British Government has long employed
stamps for the above purposes, and the United
States Government for the purpose of raising
revenue during the Civil War imposed a stamp
tax upon legal instruments and a great variety of
other articles of property. The method is to re-
quire a stamp to be affixed to an article before
it can be sold, which duty is usually performed
by the manufacturer of the article. During the
Spanish-American War the United States Gov-
ernment passed a war revenue act requiring
stamps on legal instruments and certain articles
of commerce. This law was repealed when the
necessity for the increased revenue had ceased.
However, internal revenue stamps are still re-
quired on tobacco, snuff, liquors, cigars, etc., un-
der excise laws, and this is considered to be the
STAMP.
STANDARD.
132
most satisfactory method of collecting revenue
upon such articles. Where a stamp tax is im-
posed on legal instruments the revenue act usual-
ly provides that an instrument shall be void un-
less it has the proper stamp. However, the courts
are liberal in their construction of such pro-
visions, and will usually hold an instrument good
if the parties inadvertently have omitted to
afiix the stamp. Consult: Cooley, Constitutional
Limitations; Parsons, Contract. See POSTAGE
STAMPS.
STAMP ACT. In American history, an act
passed by the British Parliament and signed
for George III. (then insane) March 22,
1765, “for granting and supplying certain
stamp duties, and other duties, in the Brit-
ish colonies and plantations in America, towards
further defraying the expences of defending, pro-
tecting, and securing the same.” This act, which
was to go into effect on November 1st, prescribed
(1) that stamped paper be used for legal and
official documents, diplomas, and certificates;
(2) that stamps be placed on playing cards, dice,
books (excepting those used in the schools),
newspapers, pamphlets, calendars, almanacs, and
- various other articles; and (3) that jury trial
he denied to offenders at the discretion of the
authorized prosecuting officers. Lord Grenville
had given notice in March, 1764, of an intention
to introduce such an act, and the various colonies
had protested vigorously through their author-
ized agents, but had been unable to suggest any
satisfactory substitute. News of its actual pas-
sage reached America early in May, 17 65, and im-
mediately a fierce opposition everywhere mani-
fested itself on the ground that the colonists were
not represented in Parliament and therefore
could not legally be taxed without their formal
consent. It was urged, moreover, that the duties
would be exceedingly burdensome and would
cause the withdrawal from circulation of what
little specie there was in various colonies. The
stamp agents were nearly everywhere compelled
by the ‘Sons of Liberty’ (q.v.) to resign or to
destroy their stamps, or both, while many of
them were mobbed and much property was de-
stroyed; so that by the time it was to go into
effect the act had been virtually nullified.
Resolutions, moreover, were passed by many
of the colonial assemblies, notably by Vir-
ginia (May 30th) (see HENRY, PATRICK),
insisting on the general rights of the col-
onists as British subjects, and denying the
jurisdiction of Parliament over the colonial
pocketbook. The famous Stamp Act Congress,
composed of delegates from New York, Massa-
chusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and South
Carolina, assembled at New York on October 7th,
in pursuance of a circular letter sent out June
8th by Massachusetts, and issued a dignified
“Declaration of Rights and Grievances,” a formal
address to the King, and petitions to each House
of Parliament. In addition many able pamphlets
were written to oppose the act, and on Novem-
ber lst, when it was to go into effect, bells were
tolled, flags were placed at half-mast, and news-
papers were put in mourning. Finally, on March
18, 1766, after a long and bitter debate, Parlia-
ment repealed the objectionable measure, having
previously, however, passed (March 7th) a “De-
claratory Act” asserting a right to “bind the
colonies and people of America in all
cases whatsoever.” The repeal caused great re-
joicing throughout America, though dissatisfac-
tion was soon expressed with regard to the
Declaratory Act. The whole affair has been re-
garded as one of the chief immediate causes of
the Revolution. For the text of the act, consult
Pickering’s Statutes at Large, xxvi. Consult
also Frothingham, Rise of the Republic (Boston,
1872), and Tyler, Literary History of the Amer-
ican Revolution (New York, 1896).
STAMPING OF METALS. See DIES AND
DIE-SINKING; MINT.
STAMP MILL. See GRINDING AND CRUSH-
ING MACHINERY.
STAN’BERY, HENRY (1803-81). An Ameri-
can lawyer and jurist, born in New York City.
He was educated at I/Vashington College, Pa.,
was admitted to the bar in 1824, and for several
years was in circuit practice in Lancaster Coun-
ty, Ohio. In 1846 he became the first Attorney-
General of the State, and in 1866 was appointed
Attorney-General of the United States under An-
drew Johnson. This oflice he held until 1868,
when he resigned to act as counsel for the Presi-
dent during the impeachment proceedings. He
was then nominated for the Supreme Court
bench, but the appointment was not confirmed by
the Senate, and he resumed his professional
labors in Cincinnati.
STANDARD. A battle-flag; in a broader
sense, the emblem of a ruler or anation. On
the Egyptian monuments are representa-
tions of standards, usually consisting of the
image of some sacred animal, a fan or semi-
circular disk, an ostrich feather, the symbol of
victory, the name of the king, or some other sym-
bolic device. The standard-bearer was an ofi‘i-
cer of approved valor, and distinguished by a
badge representing two lions symbolizing cour-
age-, and two other emblems of doubtful mean-
ing. In an Egyptian representation of the siege
of a town of the Khita, the enemy appear to
have as a standard a shield pierced with arrows.
The Bible also refers to the use of banners or
standards to mark the divisions and subdivi-
sions of the children of Israel on their march
from Egypt to Palestine. The Assyrian monu-
ments show standards attached to the chariots.
These are circular disks mounted on a pole, and
bear the image of two bulls galloping in opposite
directions, a disk supported on two bulls’ heads,
or the god Asshur represented as an archer
standing on the _back of one or two bulls. Ac-
cording to Xenophon the Persian standard was a
golden eagle. The Greeks do not seem to have
used flags or standards of any kind, though we
hear on some occasions that the signal was given
by displaying a scarlet cloak on a spear or pole.
Legend claimed that the first Roman standard
was a wisp of hay, (manipulus) on a pole. In
historic times, however, we finda thorough sys-
tem of military standards or signa. One of
these belonged to each maniple (consisting of
two centuries), and their details naturally dif-
fered with the legion, and the nature of the
troops, for the auxiliaries and cavalry natu-
rally bore ensigns not like those of Roman legion-
aries. As represented on the monuments, the
signum of the maniple of the legion was a long
pole, shod with metal, and near the. top a
STANDARD.
STAN FIELD.
133
cross-bar, on which seems to have been a plate
with the name of the company. From the ends
of this bar hung ribbons tipped with silver oak-
leaves. Below the bar along the pole are a
number of metal disks, which seem to have been
marks of distinction, and consequently vary with
the legion and company. Above the bar is some-
times a disk, or a hand, the emblem of fidelity, or
the figure of an animal, though these latter
seem to appear on the standards of native troops
in the Roman service. Another standard bore
the image of the Emperor. The standard of the
legion was a golden eagle, with spread wings,
and usually holding a thunderbolt in its claws.
It was placed near the commander in battle,
and in the camp had a special shrine, for, like
all the standards, it was sacred. Another form
of standard was the vexillum, a piece of fringed
cloth, hanging from a cross-bar on a pole. This
was a very old form, as it was the banner hoisted
when the Comitia Centuriata was in session.
It gave the signal for battle when raised over
the general’s tent, and was used by any division
on detached duty. It was carried by the cavalry
of the legion, and seems sometimes to have been
attached to the signum. The color of the cloth
was red or white. For modern standards and
national emblems, see FLAG, and HERALDBY, sec-
tion on National Coat of Arms.
STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE. A name fre-
quently given to the battle fought between the
English and the Scotch, August 22, 1138, at
Northallerton (q.v.).
STANDARD OF LIVING. In economics,
the term used to designate the degree of comfort
or enjoyment derived from the use of material
goods which each social class regards as es-
sential to tolerable existence. Those have a
‘high standard of living’ who demand control
over a large and varied quantity of consumption
goods; those whose wants are few and tastes in-
expensive have a ‘low standard of living.’ The
terms are usually used without moral connota-
tions, injurious and degrading modes of con-
sumption entering into a ‘high’°standard of liv-
ing, as well as consumption of goods which ex-
ercise a refining influence. In some sociological
studies, however, the test of a high standard
of living is its moral influence. Students of the
housing problem (q.v.) regard the development
of a higher standard with respect to house room
as an advance in the standard of life, although
such a development may result in checking ex-
penditure in other directions. In a developing
society like that of the United States, the grada-
tions of standards of living are as numerous as
those of social classes. In a rough way it may
be said that the professional and business classes
have a higher standard of living than artisans;
and the standard of the latter is higher than
that of the laborer. Comparing societies as
wholes, the American standard of living is higher
than the European, which in turn is higher
than the Asiatic. While preserving a certain
fixity within relatively brief periods of time,
the standard of living of classes or of nations
tends to rise or fall as a result of general eco-
nomic conditions. Throughout the VVestern world
standards of living have been rising for the past
hundred years, although the standards of isolated
classes have fallen.
In recent discussion much emphasis -has been
laid upon the influence of the standard of living
upon wages. If a social class has a high stand-
ard, each individual in it will exert himself to the
utmost to maintain the same control over goods as
his fellows. A rising standard thus acts as a spur
to those whose individual wants would demand
no great degree of exertion. To raise the stand-
ard of backward races or classes is therefore re-
garded as a prerequisite to industrial improve-
ment. In the second place, a high standard, as-
suming that it consists in the consumption of
goods which improve the physical and mental
condition of the laborer——e.g. good food, clothing,
housing, a thorough education and technical
training for children—-tends in the long run to in-
crease industrial efficiency. Thus the native
American workman, owing to his high standard
of life, is capable of more effective work than
underfed and ignorant immigrants. Thirdly, it
is difficult for an employer to beat down wages
of laborers whose standard is high. Thus a
greater share in the social dividend may be di-
verted to labor. Fourthly, men whose standard
is high refuse to marry until they have a fair
prospect of bringing up their children in a way
in keeping with class standards. Hence the sup-
ply of labor is kept from exceeding the demand
for it and wages are kept from falling to a sub-
sistence level. See WAGES; POLITICAL Eoonomr.
STANDARD TIME. See TIME, STANDARD.
‘STANDARD-WING. Either of two African
nightjars of the genus Macrodipteryx, in which
the second primary wing-quill of the male is enor-
mously elongated, so as to look like a pennant
floating from the wing as the bird flies. In one
species it has no vane except near the tip; and
when the bird sits upon the ground these feathers
stand upright. See Plate of NIGHTJARS, ETC.
One of the birds of paradise (Semioptera Wal-
lac-ii) is also known by this name.
STANDING STONES. See MEGALITHIO
MONUMENTS.
STAND’ISH, MILES or MYLES (1584-1656).
An American colonist, born in Lancashire, Eng-
land. He served in the English army in the
Netherlands, and emigrated to America in 1620,
being one of the passengers on the Mayflower.
He was active among the Plymouth colonists as
an explorer and Indian fighter and became mili-
tary leader of the colony. In the summer of
1625, the colony being in great straits, Standish
was sent to England to secure the intervention
of the ‘Government against the merchant adventur-
ers, but was unsuccessful. He returned to the
colony in the following year with supplies and
became one of the proprietors and settlers of
Duxbury, Ma-ss., where he held the oflice of magis-
trate for the remainder of his life. A granite
monument to his memory has been erected in Dux-
bury. The second courtship of Standish has been
made the subject of one of Longfellow’s best
known poems, The Courtship of Miles Standish.
Consult Bradford, Plymouth Plantation (last ed.,
Boston, 1898).
STANDPIPE. See WATER-Wonxs.
STANTIELD, CLAnKsoN (1793-1867). An
English marine and landscape painter. He
was born of Irish parents in Sunderland, Dur-
ham, and was a sailor and a scene-painter.
In 1853 he became a member of the Royal
STAN FIELD.
STANHOPE.
134
Academy, and in 1848 settled at Hampstead, where
he executed some of his finest pictures. The “Battle
of Trafalgar,” painted for the United Service
Club, is his best work. He painted in a broad
style, but his coloring is cold, and he was seem-
ingly untouched by the sentiment of the sea.
His realism brought to him the approval of
Ruskin, but more recent critics do not find the
same pleasure in his works.
STAN’FORD, CHAnLEs VILLIERS (1852—).
A British composer, born in Dublin. In 1872 he _
became organist of Trinity College. In 1883 he
received the appointment of professor of compo-
sition and conductor of the orchestra at the Royal
College of Music; in 1885 he became conductor
of the Bach choir, and in 1887 succeeded Mac-
farren as professor of music at Cambridge. In
1897 he became conductor of the Leeds Philhar-
monic Society and in 1901 of the Leeds Festival.
He received the degree of doctor of music from
Oxford and Cambridge, and in 1902 was created
a knight. His compositions include many operas,
notably Saoonarola (1884) and Sha-mus O’Brien
(1896), but he appealed to a larger public in his
oratorios and choral works.
STANFORD, LELAND (1824-93). An Ameri-
can capitalist, born at Watervliet, N. Y. In
1849 he removed to Wisconsin and for a time
practiced law in Port Washington. In 1856 he
established a commercial business in San Fran-
cisco. He was elected Governor of California
on the Republican ticket in 1861. In the same
year he became president of the new Central Pa-
cific Railway Company, and, repairing to Wash-
ington, successfully lobbied for the pas-sage by
Congress of the bill granting Governlnent aid
to the project. In the construction of the road
he personally undertook the responsibility and
supervision of that part of the road crossing the
ridge of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and as a
result 530 miles of mountain road were con-
structed in 293 days. The road was completed in
1866 to Ogden, Utah, where it was subsequently
connected with the Union Pacific system. Stan-
ford was elected United States Senator in 1884
and in 1890. He founded Leland Stanford,
Junior, University (q.v.) at Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, as a memorial to his son.
STANG, st-‘sing, EMIL (1838——). A Norwegian
statesman, son of Frederik Stang. He studied law
in Christiania and in 1884, two years after his
election to the Storthing, was reckoned the leader
of the Conservative Party. In 1891 he was
forced to retire after two fairly successful years
as Prime Minister and became an assessor of the
Christiania Supreme Court. He was called upon _
again in 1893 to form a Ministry, and stayed in
office through the confusion of the early part of
1895, when the task of forming a new Cabinet
was declined by nearly every leader of the Radi-
cal Party. The dispute as to the division of the
consular ofiices between the two parts of the
kingdom caused his overthrow. Stang then re-
turned to his former post in the Supreme Court.
STANG, FEEDERIK (1808-84). A Norwegian
statesman, leader of the Conservative Party
and Norway’s first Prime Minister. He
represented Christiania in the Storthing in 1859-
60; in 1861 formed a Ministry; and in 1873 be-
came first Prime Minister under the new Cabinet
regulations. He became popular owing to his
part in the introduction of railroads and tele-
graphs and kept office in spite of a large radical
majority in the Storthing until 1880, when he
voluntarily resigned. Stang was a national au-
thority on jurisprudence and constitutional law,
his principal works being Systematislo fremstil-
ling of Kongeriget Norges konstitntionelle eller
grnndlovsbestimmte ret (1833) and Om den
€<;i)gg§§lg6 sanktionsret efter Norges grundlov
STANHOPE, stan’op, CHARLES MAHON,
third Earl of Stanhope (1753-1816). An Eng-
lish statesman and scientist. He was born in
London and was educated at Eton and at Geneva.
Returning to London, he married the eldest
daughter of Lord Chatham (1774), was elected to
Parliament (1780), and succeeded to his father’s
peerage (1786). Sympathizing with the French
Revolution, he introduced into the House of
Lords a motion against English interference in
the affairs of France. As his motion had no
support, he was thereafter known as ‘the
minority of one.’ He was caricatured as ‘Citizen’
Stanhope. He devised several mechanical in-
ventions, of which the most important was an
iron hand press, called the Stanhope printing
press. He also perfected a process of stereotyp-
ing, and constructed two calculating machines.
Consult Fletcher, Earl Stanhope’s Opinions
(London, 1819).
STANHOPE, EDWARD (1840-93). An Eng-
lish statesman, second son of the fifth Earl of
Stanhope, born in London, and educated at
Oxford. He was appointed by Lord Salisbury
(1886) Secretary of State for the Colonies. In
the following December he was transferred to the
War Oflice and introduced nearly all of the im-
portant measures for army reform in England
and for the reorganization of the War Depart-
ment. His administration was sustained in
Parliament and the Ministry, but did not enjoy
popular support.
STANHOPE, Lady HESTER Luov (1776-
1839). The eldest daughter of Charles, third
Earl Stanhope. ‘ In 1803 she went to reside with
her uncle, VVilliam Pitt, as superior of his estab-
lishment, and became his most trusted confidant
and private secretary. Till his death she had
full scope for the exercise of her imperious in-
stincts. On the death of Pitt a pension of £1200
a year was assigned her by the King. Conceiving
a disgust for society, she left England and wan-
dered for a year or two in the Levant, finally set-
tling among the semi-civilized Dru-ses of Mount
Lebanon in a convent, which she fortified, at the
village of Djoun. Here she adopted Eastern man-
ners and by the force and fearlessness of her
character obtained ‘a curious ascendency among
the rude races around her. She was regarded
with superstitious reverence as a sort of prophet-
ess, and gradually came so to consider herself.
Assuming the garb of a Mohammedan chieftain,
she adopted a religion which seems to have been
sincere and profound, and was compounded
in about equal proportions from the Koran
and the Bible. The main sources of information
about her are the notes of the frequent travelers,
including Lamartine and Kinglake, who visited
her in her strange seclusion, and of Dr. Meryon,
her occasional medical attendant. Consult:
Meryon, Memoirs of Lady Hester Sta/nhope (3
STAN HOPE.
STANLEY.
135
vols., London, 1845) ; id., The Seven Years’ Tram-
els of Lady Hester Stanhope (ib., 1846).
STANHOPE, JAMES, Earl (1673-1721). An
English soldier born in Paris and educated at Ox-
ford. He took a prominent part in the siege of Bar-
celona in 1705, and in 1706 was appointed Minis-
ter to Spain. In 1708, under Eugene’s orders, he
captured Port Mahon, and in 1710 saw the final
success of his policy of offensive action in the
victories of Almenara and Saragossa. But at the
close of the year, separated from his allies and
surprised by the swift approach of the Bourbon
army under Vendome, after a brief defense he
surrendered at Brihuega. Upon his return to
England (1712) he entered politics; became
Secretary of State for the Southern Department
in 1714; and, after being Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, was again Secretary of State. His for-
eign policy was vigorous and excellent, especially
in the formation of the Quadruple Alliance in
1718.
STANHOPE, PHILIP Donmzs. An English
statesman and letter-writer, fourth Earl of Ches-
terfield (q.v.) .
STANHOPE, PHILIP HENRY; Earl (1805-75).
An English historian, born at Walmer. To his
efforts are largely due the National Portrait Gal-
lery, the Historical Manuscript Commission, and
the copyright law. Though not a great historian,
as Macaulay said, he was clear, concise, and ex-
hibited “great diligence in examining authorities,
great judgment in weighing testimony, and great
impartiality in estimating characters.” His
most important works are: The War of the Suc-
cession in Spain; A History of England from the
Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles, 1713-
1783, in 7 vols.; The History of England, Com-
prising the Reign of Queen Anne, Until the Peace
of Utrecht (4th ed. 1872). The two works last
named are the most elaborate of his writings, but
are perhaps not so valuable as his Life of the
Right Hon. W. Pitt.
STANIMAKA, st'ei/né-mii'ka. A town of
Eastern Rumelia, 12 miles southeast of Philip-
popolis (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 3). It has a
trade in wine. Population, in 1893, 13,089;
STAN'ISLAS I. LESZCZYNSKI, lyésh-
chin’y’ske‘-. (1677-1766). King of Poland from
1704 to 1709, and again in 1733. He was born
at Lemberg, Galicia, of one of the greatest among
the old Polish noble families. He was Palatine of
Posen at the time of the war between Augustus
II. (q.v.) of Saxony and Poland and Charles
XII. (q.v.) of Sweden, which cost Augustus the
Polish throne, and conducted negotiations be-
tween them in such a manner as to win the re-
gard of the Swedish King, who secured the elec-
tion of Stanislas to the Polish throne in 1704.
In 1709, when Charles XII. was crushed by Peter
the Great in the battle of Poltava, Augustus
recovered Poland. The property of King Stanis-
las was confiscated and he joined Charles at
Bender, in Bessarabia. He was Governor of
Zweibriicken, in the Palatinate, from 1714 until
the death of Charles XII., when he took up his
residence in Alsace. His daughter Maria be-
came the wife of Louis XV. of France in 1725,
and this alliance enabled Stanislas to obtain the
election to the Polish throne on the death of Au-
gustus II. in 1733. The latter’s son, Augustus
III., was, however, installed with the support of
a Russian army. The War of the Polish Suc-
cession ensued, and by the preliminary treaty of
Vienna, in 1735, Augustus 111. was recognized as
King of Poland. Stanislas retained his estates and
received the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which
after his death were to fall to France, together
with a pension of two million francs. He was
also allowed to retain the title and dignity of
King of Poland. He maintained a court at Luné-
ville and Nancy, encouraged letters, established
institutions of learning, and earned the title le
bienfaisant. He left four volumes, (Eucres du
philosophe bienfaisa/nt ( 1767) .
STANISLAS II. AUGUSTUS (1732-98).
The last King of independent Poland (1764-95).
He was the son of Count Stanislas Poniatowski
(q.v.) and was born at Wolczyn. In 1752 he was
elected to the Diet and afterwards was sent as a
representative to the Russian Court. There he
gained the favor of the future Catharine II.,
who, after the death of Augustus III. of Poland
(1763), successfully exerted her influence to
bring about the election of Stanislas to the throne
in September, 1764. He lacked the force of char-
acter to impose submission on the turbulent
nobles, and the anarchic condition of the country
during his reign rendered its spoliation by Rus-
sia, Austria, and Prussia easy. On the third and
final partition of the kingdom, in 1795, he laid
down his crown. See POLAND.
STANISLAU, st'zin’is-lou (Pol. Stanislawéw).
A town in the Crownland of Galicia, Austria, on
the Bistritza, 75 miles southeast of Lemberg
(Map: Austria, J 2). There are railway con-
struction shops, flour mills, dye works, and tan-
neries. Population, in 1900, 29,628.
STAN’LEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (1815-81). An
English scholar and divine. He was born at
Alderley, of which his father (afterwards Bishop
of Norwich) was rector. From 1829 to 1834 he
was at Rugby, where he was profoundly im-
pressed by‘ the extraordinary influence of
Dr. Arnold, then head master, which
molded his whole life. His own position
in the school was one of marked power, the im-
pression of which is reproduced in Hughes’s Tom
Brown’s School Days, though Hughes and Stanley
were not, as is frequent y supposed, intimate
friends at Rugby. He went up in 1834 to Balliol
College, Oxford, where he achieved a brilliant
reputation. In 1838 he was elected a fellow of Uni-
versity College, was ordained deacon in 1829, and
priest in 1843, and soon acquired a great in-
fluence, taking a definite stand in favor of lati-
tude and liberality in religious matters, defending
both Ward and Hampden, as in later years he de-
fended J owett and Colenso. He was made Canon
of Canterbury in 1851, regius professor of ec-
clesiastical history and Canon of Christ Church
in 1856, and Dean of Westminster in 1864. Here
he assumed a commanding position, and used it,
as the recognized leader of the Broad Church
party in England, for widening the bounds of the
national Church. His preaching was more ethical
than doctrinal, and his intercourse with those
outside the Church of England, whom he wel-
comed to the Abbey and even to its pulpit, al-
though it offended many strict churchmen, gained
him a wide popularity. He accompanied the
Prince of Wales (now King Edward VII.) on his
tour through the East in 1862, and was closely
STANLEY.
STANLEY.
136
associated with Queen Victoria, whose chaplain
he was for many years. In 1863 he married Lady
Augusta Bruce, daughter of the Earl of Elgin;
her death in 1876 gave him a shock from which
he did not recover. He visited the United States
in 1878, traveled widely, and 1nade many mem-
orable addresses which were published under
the title of Addresses and Sermons in America.
His most important literary work was his
Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold
(1844). Other noteworthy books were his
Sinai and Palestine (1856) ; Lectures on
the History of the Eastern Church (1861) ;
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church
(1863-76) ; Essays on Church and State (1870) ;
and Christian Institutions (1871). Consult:
Prothero, Life and Correspondence of Dean Stan-
ley (London, 1893); id., Letters and Verses of
Dean Stanley (ib., 1895) ; Bradley, Recollections
of A. P. Stanley (ib., 1883).
STANLEY, DAVID SLOANE (1828—-). An
American soldier, born in Cedar Valley, Ohio.
He graduated at West Point in 1852. During
1861 he served in Kansas and Missouri, taking
part in several engagements, including the bat-
tle of Wilson’s Creek, and on September 28, 1861,
was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers.
In 1862 he commanded a division of the Army of
the Mississippi in the operations against New
Madrid and Island Number 10, and in the battles
of Iuka and Corinth. On November 24, 1862, he
became chief of cavalry of the Army of the
Cumberland, and on November 29th was promoted
major-general of volunteers. He took part in
the battle of Stone River, in most of the
battles of the Atlanta campaign, in the
movement of concentration about Nashville,
and in the battle of Franklin, November 30,
1864. A wound received at Franklin terminated
his active campaigning in the war. For gal-
lantry in this battle he received the brevet
of major-general, U. S. A. After the war he be-
came colonel of the Twenty-second Infantry and
was actively engaged in campaigning against the
Indians in the Northwest. In 1884 he became a
brigadier-general, retiring in 1892.
STANLEY, EDWARD HENRY SMITH. An Eng-
lish statesman, fifteenth Earl of Derby (q.v.).
STANLEY, FREDERICK ARTHUR, Earl of Derby
(l841—). An English statesman, second son of
the fourteenth Earl of Derby. He was born in
London and was educated at Eton. Elected to
Parliament in 1865, he sat in that body as a
member for various Conservative constituencies
until 1886, and was nominated to several im-
portant offices, including Secretary of State
for the Colonies (1885-86). In 1886 he was
raised to the peerage as Baron Stanley of
Preston, and from 1888 to 1893 was Governor-
General of Canada. In 1893 he succeeded his
brother as sixteenth Earl of Derby. Upon the
accession of King Edward VII. Lord Derby was
nominated supernumerary aide-de-camp to his
Majesty and Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire.
STANLEY, Sir HENRY Monron (184l— ). An
African explorer. He was born at Denbigh,
Wales, the son of John Rowlands, who died
when the boy was two years old. When 16 years
old he worked his way on a sailing vessel to
New Orleans, where he found employment in
the office of a merchant, named Stanley, who be-
came his friend. For this reason the youth
changed his name to that of his benefactor. He
enlisted in the Confederate Army and in the bat-
tle of Shiloh (1862) was taken prisoner, but man-
aged to escape and soon after returned to his
\\/elsh home. In 1863 he went to New York, en-
listed in the Federal Navy, was assigned to the
flagship Ticonderoga,- and soon became secretary
to the admiral. For gallantry in swinnning 500
yards under fire to fix a line to a Confederate
steamer he was made an officer. After the war
he left the navy and in 1867 acted as newspaper
correspondent in one of the Indian campaigns in
the West. In 1868 he was sent by the New York
Herald to Abyssinia with the British expedition
under Sir. Robert Napier. In 1869 the Herald
dispatched Stanley to find David Livingstone
(q.v.) in Central Africa. After spending a year
in traveling through various countries of the
East, Stanley started from Zanzibar February
5, 1871, with about 200 men, and on November
10th met the feeble and almost helpless Living-
stone at Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika (q.v.),
nursed him back to better health, and, as he de-
clined to return to Europe, gave him the supplies
needed to continue his explorations. After taking
part with Livingstone in an exploration of the
northern end of Lake Tanganyika, Stanley re-
turned to Europe in 187 2, and in 1873 was sent
by the Herald to West Africa to report the Brit-
ish campaign against the Ashantis.
In 1874 Stanley determined to take up the
exploration of Africa where Livingstone had left
it. The New York Herald and the London Daily
Telegraph shared the expense of fitting out this
expedition. On November 12, 1874, Stanley left
Bagamoyo, near Zanzibar, with 356 men in his
caravan, including three young white men.
Stanley’s first great work was a boat survey of
the coasts of the Victoria Nyanza (q.v.). He also
spent some time with the Waganda on the shores
of the Victoria Nyanza. To the west of the Vic-
toria Nyanza Stanley discovered the Muta
Nzige (Lake Albert Edward), one of the head
reservoirs of the Nile. He found that the
Kagera or Alexandra Nile, rising near Lake
Tanganyika, was the most important feeder of
the Victoria Nyanza. Arriving at Tanganyika
(1876), he sought in vain for its outlet, the fact
being that the level of the lake was then so low
that no water was passing through the Lukuga
into the Congo (q.v.). His expedition had been
greatly enfeebled by fever and smallpox, but he
pushed westward to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba,
which Livingstone and Cameron had visited.
Stanley determined to make his way down the
great river, and in November, 1876, embarked on
the perilous journey. He was frequently at-
tacked by cannibals, thousands of whom some-
times pursued him in canoes, and if it had not
been for his guns his expedition would undoubt-
edly have perished. After a voyage of over 1500
miles, in the course of which he twice crossed
the equator, he emerged on the Atlantic coast,
having lifted the veil that had hitherto hung
over the Congo, which was thus shown to be the
same river as the Lualaba. On August 9, 1877,
the party marched into Boma, on the lower
Congo, 999 days after leaving Zanzibar, having
traveled over 7000 miles. Besides his three white
companions Stanley lost 170 of his porters. In
the spring of 1879 Stanley sailed again for Africa
STANLEY.
STANTON.
137
under the auspices of the Africa International
Association (q.v.), and began five years of inces-
sant toil, founding his stations from Vivi, on the
lower Congo, to Stanley Falls, about 1300 miles
up the river, making treaties with 450 native
chiefs, carrying all his supplies and steamboats
in sections on the heads of men 235 miles around
the rapids of the lower Congo, building station
houses, and planting gardens. The years 1885
and 1886 were a period of comparative rest for
the explorer, who had now been the recipient of
honors from learned societies all over the world
and was the most distinguished of living ex-
plorers.
In 1886 Stanley was placed at the head of an
expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha (q.v.),
Governor of the Equatorial Province of the Egyp-
tian Sudan. In March, 1887, he reached the
mouth of the Congo, ascended it to the Aruwimi,
pushed on to the head of navigation on this
tributary, and then struck out through the equa-
torial wilderness in the direction of the Albert
Nyanza. The arty marched for months
through intermina le tropical forests, where they
had literally to hew their way, and did 'not reach
the Albert Nyanza until December 13, 1887. Out
of 389 men only 174 were left, and they were lit-
tle more than skeletons. In April, 1888, the
intrepid Emin Pasha made his appearance on
the shores of the lake. Stanley now retraced his
steps to the Aruwimi in order to bring up a de-
tachment of men which he had left there. He
found but a remnant of them. For the third time
he crossed the vast forest, and in January, 1889,
he rejoined Emin, with whom he proceeded to the
coast. On this journey Stanley made his second
crossing of Africa, emerging at Zanzibar after dis-
covering the extent of the great forest, the water
connection between Lake Albert Edward and the
Albert Nyanza, the snow-capped Ruwenzori
mountain chain between the two lakes, and the
southwestern prolongation of the Victoria Ny-
anza. This expedition ended his active career in
Africa, of which he had given to the world more
information than any other man, excepting Liv-
ingstone. Stanley was patient and kind to the
natives, and his success in founding the Congo
Free State (q.v.) was largely due to the con-
fidence he inspired and the friendships he won by
his unfailing tact. At the same time he did not
hesitate to fight the Africans with every resource
at his command if their hostility threatened the
destruction of his expeditions or imperiled his
enterprises.
Stanley was married to Dorothy Tennant, the
artist, in 1890. In 1892 he became a naturalized
citizen of Great Britain, and in July-, 1895, he
entered the British Parliament for North Lam-
beth as a Liberal Unionist. In 1899 he received a
Knighthood of the Bath. His books, which were
published in London and New York, and most of
which have been translated into several lan-
guages, are: How I Found Livingstone (1872) ;
My Kalulu (1872) ; Coomassie and Magdala
(1874); Through the Dark Continent (1878);
The Congo (1885); In Darkest Africa (1890);
My Dark Companions (1893) ; Slavery and the
Slave Trade in Africa ( 1893) ; My Early Travels
and Adventures in America and Asia (1895);
and Through South Africa (1898).
STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-78). An English
translator, born at Cumberlow, Hertfordshire,
and educated at Cambridge. During the Civil
VVar he traveled on the Continent, returning near
its close and taking rooms in the Middle Temple,
where he devoted himself to literature. He
wrote considerable verse, and translated many
classical writers. Long famous were his edition
of zEschylus with a Latin translation (1663)
and his compilation under the title History of
Philosophy (4 vols., 1655-62). Consult Stanley’s
Poems and Translations, edited with memoir by
S. E. Brydges (London, 1814-15), and his trans-
lations of Anacreon, edited by A. H. Bullen
(Bohn’s Classical Library, ib., 1893).
STAN’NARD, HENRIETTA ELIZA VAUGHAN
(PALMER) (1856-—-). An English novelist, born
at York. She became well known under the
pseudonyms John Strange VVinter and Violet
Whyte. In 1884 she married Arthur Stannard,
a civil engineer. Her first great successes were
Sketches of Cavalry Life (1881), Booties’ Baby
(1885), and Houp-la (1885). Till she threw
off the mask of anonymity, these stories were
supposed to have been written by an army officer.
Among her later novels are: On March (1886) ;
Garrison Gossip (1887); A Siege Baby (1887);
Beautiful Jim (1888); A Blameless I/Voman
(1895); Heart and Sword (1898); The Mar-
ried Miss Binks (1900); A Blaze of Glory
(1902) ; and Marty (1903).
STANOVOI (sti-i’no-voi’) MOUNTAINS. A
mountain range of Eastern Siberia. It begins on
the Mongolian frontier south of Lake Baikal,
where it merges with the Altai Ranges and is
known as the Yablonoi Mountains (Map: Asia,
O 2) . Thence it extends northeast in a large zigzag
line 2400_miles, following for a part of its length
the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, and terminating
in the East Cape on the Bering Strait. For a long
time imperfectly explored, it is now known to be
not a true mountain range, but a plateau or
height of land forming the water-parting between
the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. It reaches its
highest altitude, over 8000 feet, in Mount Te-
hokhondo, or Sokhondo, in the extreme southern
part, where it consists of rounded ridges covered
with birch and larch forests. Farther north its
mean elevation is only 3000 feet. .
STANTON, EDWIN MCMASTER-s (1814-69).
An eminent American statesman, born at Steu-
benville, Ohio, December 19, 1814, of Quaker
descent. He studied at Kenyon College from
1831 to 1833, later studied law, and was admitted
to the bar in 1836. He first practiced in Cadiz,
Ohio, and in 1837 became prosecuting attorney
of the county. Later he practiced in Steuben-
ville, Ohio, and in Pittsburg, Pa., where he be-
came the leader of the bar, and gained a high
reputation, in particular, for his conduct of the
case of the State of Pennsylvania vs. the VVheel-
ing Bridge Company. In 1856 he removed to
Washington and practiced extensively before the
United Sates Supreme Court. In 1858 he was in
California acting as counsel of the United States
in certain important land cases. After President
Lincoln’s election in 1860, on the reorganization
of Buchanan’s Cabinet, Stanton was appointed
Attorney-General to succeed Jeremiah Black. In
politics he was originally a Jacksonian Democrat,
but later he became a stanch anti-slavery advo-
cate, and while a member of Buchanan’s Cabinet
took a firm stand for the Union, declaring that
the surrender of Fort Sumter would be a public
STANTON.
STANW IX.
138
crime. In the following March he retired with
the other members of the Cabinet, but in Janu-
ary, 1862, was recalled by Lincoln, and was given
the portfolio of Secretary of War, in which office
he shared with the President the burden of the
vast war operations of the Government. His ad-
ministration was marked by a course of integrity,
comprehensive judgment, determination, and
force which won for him the admiration of his
countrymen, although at the same time provoking
criticism on the part of his opponents.
Shortly after the assassination of Presi-
dent Lincoln, Stanton tendered his resigna-
tion, but was induced by President Johnson to
remain at the head of the War Department.
After the breach between President Johnson and
Congress over the various questions growing out
of the reconstruction of the Southern States,
Stanton took sides against the President and
supported Congress. The President called for
his resignation on August 5, 1867. Stanton re-
fused to resign, on the ground that his withdraw-
al would seriously interfere with the execution of
the reconstruction acts, to which the President
was strongly opposed, and was encouraged by
leading men of the Republican Party to hold to
the oflice. On the 12th of August the President
suspended him, but Stanton still refused to sur-
render the office, after which the President re-
moved him in spite of the Tenure of Oflice Act
(q.v.), and designated a Secretary ad interim
Again Stanton refused to give up the oflice and
continued to hold it until after the impeachment
and acquittal of the President, when he sent
in his resignation and turned the office over
to his successor. He then resumed the practice
of his profession, but his health had been broken
by his long and arduous labors. On December
20, 1869, President Grant nominated him an
associate justice of the Supreme Court, and he
was at once confirmed by the Senate. He died
four days after this appointment. The most
comprehensive Life is that by Gorham (2 vols.,
Boston, 1899).
STANTON, ELIZABETH (CADY) (1815-1902).
An American reformer and promoter of the
woman’s rights movement, born at Johnstown,
N. Y. She was educated at Johnstown and at
Troy, N. Y., and married Henry B. Stanton (q.v.) ,
the anti-slavery reformer. She became interested
in the anti-slavery and other reform movements
at an early age, and through acquaintance with
Lucretia Mott (q.v.) was led to sign the call for
the first woman’s rights convention, which was
held in Seneca Falls, N. Y., in July, 1848. This
convention made the first formal demand for the
extension of the suffrage to women, and of the
National Woman’s Suffrage Association there
formed Mrs. Stanton became the first president,
retaining that office until 1893. From 1848 she
devoted a greater part of her time to travelmg
from State to State, addressing political conven-
tions, State Legislatures, and educational bodies
in behalf of woman’s rights. In 1868 she was a
candidate for Congress. She was connected edi-
torially with various reform periodicals, was a
frequent contributor to magazines, and was joint
author of A History of Woman’s Suffrage (3
vols., 1880-86). Eighty Years and More, an auto-
biography, was published in 1895.
STANTON, FRANK LEBBY (1857-—). An
American poet and journalist, born at Charles-
ton, S. C. After an apprenticeship as a printer,
Stanton was connected editorially with news-
papers in Atlanta, and finally became an editor
of the Atlanta Constitution. He contributed to
many magazines and some of his poems were col-
lected in volumes such as Songs of the Soil
(1894) and Comes One With a Song (1898).
Stanton’s verse, appearing at random, and mostly
in newspapers, has distinct literary merit, in
that it presents faithfully the folk-lore and crude
poetry of the Southern negro. In this field,
though at present less conspicuously (especially
in the North), his position is not unlike that
of Joel Chandler Harris and Thomas Nelson
Page.
STANTON, HENRY BREWSTER (1805-87). An
American reformer and journalist, born in Gris-
wold, Conn. In the abolition movement he became
prominent and allied himself with the political
abolitionists in opposition to the followers of Wil-
liam Lloyd Garrison, who did not believe that any-
thing could be accomplished by political action.
In 1840 he married Elizabeth Cady, and proceed-
ed to London, where he was secretary of the
World’s Anti-Slavery Convention. Later he
studied law, and practiced first in Boston, and
then in Seneca Falls, N. Y., being elected from the
latter place to the State Senate in 1849 and 1851
as a Free-Soil Democrat. He took part in the
organization of the Republican Party. In addi-
tion to his connection with various anti-slavery
papers, he was a member of the staff of the New
York Tribune for several years, and was an editor
of the New York Sun from 1868 until his death.
He published Sketches of Reforms and Reformers
in Great Britain and Ireland (1849), and Ran-
dom Recollections (1886) .
STANTON, OSCAR FITZALAN (1834——). An
American naval officer, born at Sag Harbor, N.
Y. He graduated at the U. S. Naval Academy
in 1855, and after considerable service in Medi-
terranean and African waters, cruised with the
Pacific Squadron from December, 1860, to March,
1862. Promoted to be lieutenant-commander in
June, 1862, he commanded the steamer Tioga of
a squadron operating on the James and Poto-
mac rivers, and from December, 1863, to Novem-
ber, 1864, was with the West Gulf Blockading
Squadron in command of the Panola. After
ordnance duty at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, and
some service with the East Gulf Blockading
Squadron, he held the command of various ves-
sels and served at the Norfolk Navy Yard, the
United States Naval Station, the New London
Naval Station, and at the Naval Academy. In
1891 he was made commodore and in 1893 was
given the command of the North Atlantic Station
with the rank of acting rear admiral. In 1894
he was retired.
STAN"W'IX, JCHN (1690-1766). An Eng-
lish soldier. He entered the army in 17 06 and in
1756 he came to America as commander of the
Sixtieth or Royal Americans, and was put in
charge of the southern district with headquarters
at Carlisle, Pa. He was sent to Albany in 1758
and erected Fort Stanwix at the Oneida portage.
At the time of Wolfe’s expedition against Quebec,
Stanwix commanded in Pennsylvania and re-
stored Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburg. He re-
turned to England in 1760, and was appointed
Governor of the Isle of Wight. He was drowned
while crossing the Irish Channel.
STANYHURST.
STAR.
139
STAIWYHUBST, RICHARD (1547-1618). A
translator of Vergil, born in Dublin, Ireland. He
was educated at Oxford, He contributed a “De-
scription of Ireland” and a “History of Ireland”
(during the reign of Henry VIII.) to Holinshed’s
Chronicles -(1577). Two years later he passed
over to the Continent never to return. At Ley-
den he published his translation of the first four
books of the /Eneid into English hexameter verse
(1582). The work is curious as an attempt to
base English verse on quantity rather than on
stress or accent. He thereafter devoted himself
to histories and theological treatises in Latin
prose. Having become a Roman Catholic, prob-
ably not long after he had left England, Stany-
hurst was appointed chaplain to Archduke Al-
bert, the Spanish ruler of the Netherlands, and
was involved in the intrigues against Elizabeth.
He died at Brussels. Consult the reprint of the
Translation of Vergil, edited, with introduction,
by Arber (London, 1895).
STAPFER, stap’far’, PAUL (1840——). A
French essayist, born in Paris, where he was
educated at the Bonaparte Lyceum. He was
tutor in the family of Guizot, and afterwards
obtained a position in the faculty of Grenoble as
a professor of foreign literature. In the same
capacity he went to Bordeaux in 1883. Stapfer’s
essays are remarkable for their clearness of style,
perfection of finish, and accuracy of detail. Among
his works are: Petite comédie de la critique littc'-
raire de M olie‘re selon les trois écoles philosoph-
iques (1866); Causeries guernesiaises (1881);
Shakespeare et l’antiquite’ (1883) ; Gothe et ses
deua: chefs-d’oeuvre classiques (1881) ; Racine et
Victor Hugo (1886) ; Rabelais, sa personne,- son
génie, son oeuvre (1889) ; Montaigne (1894) ; and
La grande prédication chrétienne en France:
Bossuet, Adolphe M onod (1898).
STA]?H’YLOCOC’CUS. See BACTERIA. .
STAPH’YLO’MA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ara¢z5-
7\w/.:.a, defect of the eye within the cornea, from
o'1'a¢v>\'fi, staphylé, bunch of grapes, swollen
uvula) . _A term employed to signify a protrusion
of one of the coats of the eye, chiefly of the sclera
or cornea. Staphyloma of the sclera may be an-
' terior, equatorial, or posterior. Posterior staphy-
loma usually results from choroiditis or is associ-
ated with myopia. O hthalmoscopic examination
shows a crescentic w ite patch at the temporal
side of the optic disk. Anterior and equatorial
staphyloma, bulging of the sclera at its anterior
or middle portion, are the result of increased
intraocular tension, caused by inflammatory proc-
esses. If the entire cornea is involved the sta-
phyloma is called total; if only a portion ‘pro-
trude, it is spoken of as partial. .
STAPLE (AS. stapel. stapol, stapul, prop,
post, OHG. stafial, staphal, Ger. Staffel, step,
from AS. stapan, OHG. stephan, staphon, to go,
step; ultimately connected with Eng. stand).
In England, a town ofiicially designated by the
Government as a market for sale and exportation.
All towns were not staple towns. They were
originally for the convenience of the tax collector,
but their inhabitants appreciated the monopoly
and jealously guarded their privileges.
STAPLES, sta’p’lz, WILLIAM READ (1798-
1868). An American jurist and historian, born
in Providence, R. I. He graduated at Brown
University in 1817, studied law, and in 1819 was
Von. XVI.—10.
admitted to the bar. He rose rapidly in his pro-
fession, was an associate justice of the Supreme
Court of Rhode Island from 1835 to 1854, and
from 1854 to 1856 was Chief Justice. He was an
authority on Rhode Island history and published
Annals of Providence to 1832 (1843) ; Documen-
tary History of the Destruction of the “Gaspé”
(1845) ; Proceedings of the First General Assem-
bly for the Incorporation of Providence Planta-
tions in 161;’? (1847) ; and Rhode Island Form-
Booh (1859). He edited vol. ii. of the Rhode
Island Historical Society’s Collections, and Sam-
uel Gorton’s Simplicities’ Defense Against Seven-
Headed Policy (1835).
STAPPE-N, Fr. pron. sta'piiN’, CHARLES
PIERRE VAN DER (1843—). A Belgian sculptor,
born at Saint Josseten-Noode, near Brussels. He
began his artistic training in 1860, under the
painter Portaels, but afterwards formed an inde-
pendent style in Paris under the influence of
Rude, Mercié, and Carpeaux. His first successful
production, the bluntly naturalistic “Faun’s
Toilet” (1869, gold medal, Brussels), brought
him the election to the Brussels Academy. It was
followed by “The Sorceress” (1872) and the
“Man with the Sword” (1876, Brussels Museum).
A sojourn of several years in Italy, during which
he studied Donatello and Michelangelo, resulted
in maturer works, of which a youthful “David”
(Munich Academy) is the most remarkable.
Upon his return to Brussels, in 1883, he was ap-
pointed professor at the Academy, and thereafter
produced in rapid succession the allegorical
group of “Instruction in Art” (Palais des Beaux-
Arts), “Saint Michael Overcoming Satan” (Stair-
case, Hotel de Ville), and the statue of “VVilliam
the Silent” (Place du Petit Sablon). Gradually
developing an individual style of his own, which
combines severe and lofty conception with a
wholly untrammeled naturalistic treatment, he
aimed especially at a vigorous dramatic expres-
sion. His most noteworthy creations of this kind
include “The Wrestlers,” “The City Builders,”
and the “Chimera Fountain” (Parc du Cinquante-
naire, Brussels). He also fashioned numerous
portrait busts of great vivacity, genre figures, al-
legorical and realistic reliefs, designs for épergnes,
candelabra, and various other objects of indus-
trial art, and contributed actively to the revival
of the chryselephantine statuary of Greek an-
tiquity, recently inaugurated in Belgium. In
1898 he was appointed director_of the Brussels
Academy.
STAR (AS. steorra,OHG. sterro, sterno, Ger.
Stern, Goth. stairno, star, connected with Lat.
stella, Gk. &o"r'hp, astér, Corn., Bret. steren,
Arm. astk, Skt. tara, star, Av. stare, star, and
possibly with Skt. star. to strew) . One of those
heavenly bodies which remain apparently im-
movable with respect to one another. Hence they
were early called fined stars, a name which they
still retain, although their perfect fixity has
been completely disproved in numerous cases,
and is no longer believed in regard to any.
Twinkling or scintillation is another mark which
distinguishes stars from planets. The first thing
that strikes the observer is the apparent daily
motions of the stars. The greater part appear
to rise in the east, describe smaller or greater
arcs in the heavens, and set in the west; while
others describe complete circles around the pole
of the heavens. These apparent ~motions arise
STAR. 14O STAR.

from the rotation of the earth on its axis. (See , _
EARTH.) With few exceptions the distance of STAR Magnitude Parallax %‘Qfi?j§‘§,;E
the fixed stars is still unknown, and must in all
cases be enormously great. Since the time of Centauria ----------------- -- 1 0"-75 4-4
Bradley many attempts have been made to (I,‘1a(l3&nd‘? 21-185 ----------- -- 2:2 8'28 3'?
measure what is called the annual parallax Siri{Y,§:_?::::::::::::1:11:11: 1 0 :39 8:4
(q.v.) of the stars, and thus determine their
distances. When we consider that the motion
of the earth round the sun alters our position
in space a whole diameter of its orbit (185,-
000,000 Iniles) in six months, we should ex-
pect a change in the relative positions of certain
stars as seen from two opposite points of the
orbit. But no such change is seen to take place,
and this was one of the early objections to the
theory of Copernicus (q.v.). The only answer
that the Copernicans could give was that the
distance of the stars from us is so great that
the diameter of the earth’s orbit shrinks into
insignificance when compared with it. The de-
tection of the parallax of the fixed stars de-
pended upon the perfection of instruments. The
parallax of a star is the minute angle contained
by two lines drawn from it, the one to the sun,
the other to the earth. If that angle amounted
to a second the distance of the star would be at
least 206,000 times that of the sun; and when
the measurement of angles came to be reliable
to a second and still no parallax was discernible
astronomers could say that the distance of the
nearest stars must be more than 206,000 times
that of the sun, i.e. 206,000 times 93,000,000
miles. , “
The method now in use for measuring stellar
parallaxes was first applied successfully by Bes-
sel (q.v.) in 1838. He employed in his observa-
tions a remarkably fine heliometer (q.v.) and
adopted what is called the differential method.
_ Having selected a star which he suspected might
be near us, and therefore have a parallax large
enough to measure, he proceeded to determine
every clear night its position in the sky rela-
tively to two neighboring very small stars. Such
relative (differential) determinations of posi-
tions can be made with far greater accuracy than
measures with the meridian circle (q.v.); and
Bessel judged rightly that the two minute com-
parison stars were really so immeasurably far
away that they would themselves suffer no ap-
preciable parallactic displacement. Sure enough,
he found his ‘parallax star,’ 61 Cygni, slowly de-
scribing day after day a tiny oval curve in the
sky, reproducing there the earth’s orbit in space.
But the comparison stars did not move. The
proof was complete that 61 Cygni had an appa-
rent motion due to the real motion of_ our earth,
and that it was measurable. This observation of
Bessel’s is one of the most famous in the annals
of astronomy.
When other astronomers had succeeded in re-
peating Bessel’s observations, and quite a number
of stars came to have known parallaxes, their
distances were found to be too great to be ex-
pressed conveniently in miles, or any other linear
unit. Therefore astronomers invented a new
unit, the ‘light-year,’ being a distance equal to
the space traversed by light in one year. As
light moves about 180,000 miles per second, it
will be seen that the light-year is a unit of
stupendous magnitude, and will be fitted to
measure the profound distances of stellar space.
A few of the larger stellar parallaxes at present
known are as follows:


In this table the second column gives the
‘magnitude’ of the stars. The third column gives
the parallax, or angle subtended by the earth’s -
orbit-radius at the star. The corresponding dis-
tance in light-years is in the last column. Thus
we do not see the stars as they are to-day, but
as they appeared so many years ago.
The principal constellations north of the Z0-
diac (q.v.) are:
Ursa Major. Boiites.
Ursa Minor. Corona Borealis.
Draco. Hercules.
Cepheus. Lyra.
Cassiopeia. Cygnus.
Camelopardus. Vulpeeula.
Andromeda. Aquila.
Perseus. Antinous.
Auriga. Delphinus.
Leo Minor Pegasus.
Canes Venatici. Ophiuchus.
Coma Berenices.
The principal constellations south of the Z0-
diac are:
Cetus. Canis Minor.
Orion. Crux.
Lepus. Argo-Navis.
Centaurus. Hydra.
Lupus. Crater.
Monoceros. Corvus.
Canis Major. Eridanus.
For the constellations of the Zodiac, see Zo-
DIAC. The several stars belonging to the same
constellation are usually distinguished from one
another by Greek letters, beginning the alphabet
with the brightest; and when these are not suf-
ficient by Roman letters and by numbers. Many
of the most brilliant stars have special names.
They are also divided according to their bright-
ness into stars of the first, second, third, etc.
magnitudes, a division which is necessarily some-
what arbitrary. The smallest stars discernible
by the unaided eye are usually called stars of
the fifth magnitude; but an unusually sharp
eye can discern those of the sixth and even sev-
enth magnitude. All below are telescopic stars,
which are divided down to the twentieth magni-
tude. The quantity of light given by a star of
any magnitude is taken as 2.512 times as great
as the quantity given by a star one magnitude
fainter. This number is called the ‘light-ratio,’
and it is so chosen that a diminution of five
magnitudes corresponds to a division of stellar
light by just 100 (2.512 : ). In other
words, 100 average stars of the sixth magnitude
should give as much light as one of the first.
But the whole matter of stellar photometry is
subject to some uncertainty. According to the
Harvard Photometry the following are the
brightest stars in the order of lucidity: Sirius,
Canopus*, Arcturus, Capella, Vega, a Centauri*,
Rigel, Procyon, Eridani*, B Centauri*, a Orionis,
Altair, Aldebaran, a Crucis*, Antares, Pollux,
Spica, a Piscis Austria*, Regulus. Those marked
with an asterisk are not visible in our northern
latitudes. No real magnitude in the proper sense
of the word has yet been observed in any star.
In the best and most powerfully magnifying tele-
scopes, even the brightest stars of the first mag-



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STAR.
STAR.
141
nitude appear, not with small disks as all the
planets do, but as luminous points without any
visible diameter, and always the smaller the
better the telescope. We are, therefore, totally
ignorant of the real size of the fixed stars; nor
could it be determined though we were sure of
their distances, for the apparent diameter is an
essential element in the calculation. We cannot,
then, say whether the greater brilliancy of one
star, when compared with another, arises from
its greater nearness, its greater size, or the
greater intensity of its light. But it is certain
that the fixed stars are self-luminous. The num-
ber of the stars is beyond determination. Those
visible to the unaided eye in the Northern Hemi-
sphere amount only to about 3000. Stars of the
first magnitude visible north of 35° south decli-
nation are reckoned by Heis at 14, of the second
at 48, of the third at 152, of the fourth at 313,
of the fifth at 854, and of the sixth at 2010. But
in the following classes the numbers increase
rapidly, so that it is impossible to say how
many there are. Recent photographic observa-
tions seem to indicate that if the exposure of the
sensitive plate in the telescope was continued
long enough the entire plate would be light-
struck. If this be so we must conclude that the
entire heavens would be found covered with stars
if we were able to see the faintest ones in ex-
istence.
That the fixed stars are not really immovable,
as their name would imply, is seen in the phe-
nomenon of double or multiple stars, which are
systems of two or more stars that revolve about
one another, or rather about their common cen-
tre of gravity. As they can be seen separate
only by means of a telescope, and in most cases
require a very powerful one, their discovery was
possible only after the telescope was invented.
Galileo himself discovered their existence and
proposed to make use of them in determining
the yearly parallax of the fixed stars. After a
long lapse of time, Bradley, Maskelyne, and
Mayer again directed attention to the phenomena
of double stars, but nothing important was made
out respecting them until the elder Herschel made
them the subject of a protracted series of obser-
vations, which led to the most remarkable con-
clusions as to their nature. At present over
10,000 stars are known to be double; and in
many cases more than one companion accom-
panies the principal star. The apparent angular
distance between two stars must be less than about
thirty seconds in order that they may be counted
a double. The theory of probabilities renders it
almost certain that this vast number of double
stars could not exist unless there were some real
physical connection between the component num-
bers of a double. Still, there is always a possi-
bility of duplicity being merely apparent, the
two stars lying nearly in the same direction in
space, but at widely different distances from the
earth. Such apparent doubles are called optical
doubles, and those in which a real physical con-
nection has been demonstrated by observed grav-
itational rotation of the component members are
called binary stars. Of these only about 250 are
known. In some cases one of the components
of a double star is much larger than the other,
as in the star Rigel, in Orion, and in the polar
star; but very often the connected stars are
nearly equal in luminous power. The two mem-
bers of double stars are mostly of one color
when the two components are nearly equal; but
a difference of color is often observed when the
components are widely different in size. In many
01 these cases the one color is the complement of
the other. It was Sir W. Herschel who first
advanced the view, which has been confirmed
since, that double stars are connected systems of
two or more stellar bodies revolving in regular
orbits around one another, or rather round their
common centre of gravity. Their motions are
found to follow the same laws as prevail in the
solar system, and the orbits are elliptical. These
distant bodies are therefore subject to the New-
tonian law of gravitation. The period of revolu-
tion has, in many cases, been computed; the
shortest is estimated at 51/; years; others are
set down at hundreds. In cases where the paral-
lax is known the size of the orbits can be deter-
mined, and thus the astronomer is able to assert
in regard to the double star or. Centauri that the
orbit described by the two components about
each other is 24 times as large as that of our
earth around the sun. Even the masses of these
stars have been calculated as being together 2,
that of our sun being 1. It is a consequence of
these revolutions that some stars are now seen
double that formerly seemed single, and vice
versa. If the plane of revolution has its edge
presented to the earth the stars will seem to
move in a straight line, and at times to cover
one another. In addition to these double stars
that can be seen to revolve and change their
relative positions there are others of which the
components are so close together that even our
most powerful telescopes fail to separate them.
These doubles are known to exist from peculi-
arities in their spectra. They show a doubling
of the spectral lines that must be caused by a
duplicity in the source of light, and where this
doubling is shown to occur periodically we must
conclude that the two sources of light are re-
volving in some way or other.
The proper motion of stars is of another kind.
It consists in a displacement in various direc-
tions of the individual stars, so that the configu-
ration of constellations is slowly changing. The
annual proper motions yet observed vary from
nothing to 8.7”. The proper motion of the binary
star 61 Cygni amounts to 5.2”, so that in 360
years it would pass over a space equal to the
moon’s diameter. It must thus take thousands
of years to alter sensibly the aspect of the heav-
ens; although, taking into account the enormous
distances, the actual velocities must be great.
But the observed proper motions of the stars do
not give us very accurate information as to their
real motions and velocities. In the first place, it
is only the angular change of the star’s position
that we observe; and we cannot tell the corre-
sponding linear shift unless we know the distance
of the star from the earth. And even where this
distance (parallax) is known we can obtain
only the transverse motion, as projected on the
sky. There may be also a component of motion
directly toward us or away from us. This
radial component remained entirely unknown
until recently, when it became possible to meas-
ure it with the spectroscope.
It was first observed by Sir W. Herschel that
there is a perceptible tendency in the proper
motions, as observed, to make the stars generally
diverge or open up in one quarter of the heavens,
and draw together in the opposite quarter; and
STAR.
smfncn.
142
this he attributed to a proper motion of our sun
with his planets in the direction of the former
point. The apparent motion thus caused is com-
plicated with the real independent motions-of
individual stars. The point toward which the
motion is directed, which is called the ‘solar
apex,’ was fixed by Herschel in the constellation
Hercules; and the result of subsequent and inde-
pendent researches gives a nearly coincident
point. The velocity has been calculated at about
11 miles per second, a figure still very uncertain.
Coming now from a consideration of stellar‘
motions and velocities to their physical charac-
teristics, we must again have recourse to infor-
mation derived from a study of star spectra.
Fraunhofer was the first to study them, and his
researches have been followed by Rutherford,
Huggins, Secchi, Vogel, Pickering, and others.
It has thus been possible to identify in the stars
many of the terrestrial chemical elements.
Many stars exhibit well-marked periodic
alterations of magnitude, and are hence
called variable stars. A considerable number
have been observed, of which perhaps the most
remarkable are Mira (the wonderful) in Cetus,
and Algol in Perseus. The first attains its
greatest lustre every 334 days, and sometimes
appears for 14 days as a star of the second
magnitude; it then decreases for two or three
months, till it becomes of the sixth and even
tenth magnitude, so as to be for half a year in-
visible to the naked eye. After this it begins to
increase, but more rapidly than it decreased. It
is visible to the naked eye for three or four
months of its period. Of all the variable stars
yet observed Algol has the shortest period, being
2 days 20 hours 48 minutes 55.4 seconds. It
appears for about 60 hours a star of the second
magnitude, then decreases for four hours, and
appears for a quarter of an hour of the fourth
magnitude, after which it increases again for
four hours. Various explanations have been
offered of these mysterious appearances; that
generally accepted postulates a large dark body
revolving about the luminous one, so as to in-
tercept more or less of its light in different
positions and making of Algol-type variables
simple eclipse phenomena.
Allied to the variable stars are the new or
temporary stars that appear suddenly in great
splendor, and then disappear without leaving a
trace. Fourteen instances are on record. It is
not improbable that these also may be periodic.


STAR SYSTEM.
STAB SYSTEMS. From the appearances con-
nected with the Milky Way or Galaxy (q.v.), Sir
W. Herschel came to the conclusion that the
stars forming our firmament do not extend in-
definitely into space, but are limited in all direc-
tions, the mass having a definite shape. He
conceived the shape to be something like that of
a. huge millstone, having one side cleft, and the
two luminw set apart at a small angle. Let the
diagram represent a vertical section of such a
broad fiat stratum, suppose the solar system situ-
ated as at S to a spectator looking on either
side, in the direction of the thickness, as SB,
the stars would appear comparatively sparse, but
all round in the direction of the breadth (as
SA) there would appear a dense ring, which
would separate into two branches (SE, SD) in
the direction of the cleft side. This supposition
accounts for the appearance of the Milky Way,
and subsequent observations have tended to con-
firm the conjecture.
Consult; Young. General Astronomy (Boston,
1900) ; Clerke, System of Stars (London, 1890) ;
id., History of Astronomy (ib., 1893) ; Chambers,
Handbook of Astronomy, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1890) ;
Newcomb, The Stars (New York, 1901) ; on the
constellations, consult Walentiner, Sternbilder
(Breslau, 1901).
STAR. A frequent charge in heraldry (q.v.) .
See ESTOILE.
STAR AND GARTER. A former London
Tavern on Pall Mall, the meeting place of the
Literary Club.
STAR ANISE. See ILLICIUM.
STAR APPLE (Chrysophyllum Cainito). A
West Indian tree about 20 or 30 feet high, intro-
duced in other warm countries, beyond which it
is not hardy. It is named from the star-like
cross-section of its large white or rose-colored,
green, a.nd yellow fruits, with an agreeably
flavored soft, sweet pulp. The tree is very beau-
tiful in foliage.
STARAYA LADOGA, stii'ra-ya la’do-gai. A
small village in the Government of Saint Peters-
burg, Russia, on the Volkzhov, a few miles south
of Lake Ladoga. It is one of the oldest Russian
settlements and has considerable historic interest.
STARAYA RUSSA, rus'sa. An ancient town
and noted health resort in the Government of
Novgorod, Russia, 181 miles south-southeast of
Saint Petersburg (Map:Russia, D 3). It is well
built, and has a number of fine parks. The
saline springs are used both for drinking and
bathing. Population, in 1897, 15,234.
STARBOARD. A naval term to denote
the right side of a vessel to an observer looking
forward. See HELM.
STARCH (assibilated form of stark, stiff.
strong, AS. stearc, OHG. stare, Ger. stark,
strong, stiff, Goth. ga-stmirknan, to dry up; con-
nected with Lith. stregti, to become rigid, Pers.
suturg, strong). A form of carbohydrate (see
CARBOHYDRATES), occurring as stored food in
many plants. Its composition corresponds to the
empirical formula C,,H,.,O,, but its molecular for-
mula, and, of course, its constitution, are as yet
unknown. The number of atoms in its molecule
is probably very large. Starch is formed as a
condensation product from sugar by the action
of certain specialized portions of the protoplasm
of plant cells. The typical starch-formers are
leucoplasts (q.v.), which occur in all cells where
starch is permanently stored. But the chloro-
plasts of the leaves may form starch When the
green cells become overloaded with sugar. Thus
STARCH.
STARFISH.
143
of starch, especially at the end of a long period
of bright illumination. The sugar formed by the
process of photosynthesis (q.v.) is -constantly dif-
fusing away into other parts of the plant, but
during periods of bright light it is formed more
rapidly than it can diffuse, and it is then con-
densed by the chloroplasts to form starch. Dur-
ing periods of darkness or of weak illumination,
when the photosynthetic process ceases or lags,
the starch of leaves is reconverted into sugar by
the enzyme diastase (q.v.), and then diffuses to
other regions of the plant. Thus leaves seldom
contain starch in the morning or on cloudy days.
But by far the greater part of the starch found
in any plant is organized into grains by leuco-
plasts. By the action of these bodies, sugar
which comes from the green leaves is condensed
or polymerized into starch. Starch is thus formed
in all parts of plants, being especially plentiful
in tubers, in thickened roots, and in the endo-
sperm and embryo of seeds.
STAR CHAMBER. A celebrated English tri-
bunal, which met in the council-chamber of the
old palace of Westminster. The origin of the
name is unknown. According to Sir Thomas
_ Smith it was derived from a decoration of gilded
stars on the ceiling. This theory is unsupported
by evidence, but it is now well established that
since the middle of Edward III.’s reign the star
chamber (Camera Stellata) was the usual meet-
ing place of the King’s Council, or Privy Council,
as it was afterwards known. The history
of the Star Chamber Court is particularly
associated with the act of 3 Henry VII., c. 1.
By this statute the “chancellor and treasurer of
England for the time being and keeper of the
King’s privy seal, or two of them, calling to
' them a bishop and a temporal lord of the King’s
most honorable Council and the two chief jus-
tices of the King’s Bench and Common Pleas for
the time being, or other two justices in their
absence,” are given jurisdiction in seven offenses:
Unlawful maintenance; giving of liveries, signs,
or tokens; retainers by indentures, oaths, writ-
ings, or otherwise; embraceries of the King’s sub-
jects; untrue demeanings-of sheriffs in the mak-
ing of panels, and other untrue returns; taking
of money by juries; and great riots and unlawful
assemblies. Since the days of Elizabeth it has
been very commonly held that the historical Star
Chamber was created by this act; and that its
proper jurisdiction was restricted to the offenses
just enumerated. Recent research has shown that -
such was not the case. The Star Chamber pos-
sessed the entire jurisdiction of the King’s Coun-
cil. During the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry
VIII. neither the membership nor the jurisdic-
tion of the court conformed to the statute of 3
Henry VII., c. l, as usually interpreted; More-
over, the King’s Council is seen performing the
same functions as the court, whether sitting in
the Camera Stellata or elsewhere; and, converse-
ly, the powers of the Star Chamber appear to be
equivalent, even in State matters, to those of the
Council itself. The Star Chamber, in fact,
claimed its vast jurisdiction on the ground that
it was the King’s Council. As a criminal court,
it could inflict any punishment short of death,
and had cognizance of all cases that might be
brought under the head of contempt of the royal
authority. Jurors were there punished for ver-
- leaves are often found to contain large quantities
dicts against the Crown. Offenders against the
royal proclamations or the religious laws were
there condemned. The form of proceeding was
by written information and interrogatories, ex-
cept when the accused person confessed, in which
case the information and proceedings were oral;
and out of this exception grew one of the most
flagrant abuses of this tribunal in the later period
of its history. Regardless of the existing rule,
that the confession must be free and uncon-
strained, pressure of every kind, including tor-
ture, was used to procure acknowledgments of
guilt; admissions of the most immaterial facts
were construed into confessions; and fine, impris-
onment, and mutilation were inflicted on a mere
oral proceeding, without hearing the accused, by
a court consisting of the immediate representa-
tives of prerogative. The proceedings of the Star
Chamber had always been viewed with distrust
by the commons; but during the reign of Charles
I. its excesses reached a height that made it ab-
solutely odious to the country at large; and in
the last Parliament of that sovereign a bill was
carried in both Houses (16 Car. I., c. 10) which
decreed its abolition. See especially Burn, The
Star Cha/mber (London, 1870).
STARE DECISIS, sta’r-e de-si’sis (from the
Latin: Stare decisis, et non quieta movere—“to
stand by decisions and not to disturb matters
once settled”). A phrase employed to describe a
doctrine prevailing in most judicial systems of
modern times, which, briefly expressed, is that
the courts will follow the principles of law de-
clared in former decisions where they are not con-
trary to the ordinary principles of justice. The
theory on which this doctrine was established is
that when a point of law is once decided it will be
followed by the public as a guide. The doctrine
of stare decisis does not apply to a decision until
the time for appeal has elapsed; and a superior
court may at any time overrule or repudiate
the principles. of a case previously decided in an
inferior court and never appealed. Under such
circumstances the original case erroneously de-
cided would not be affected, and would remain
res judicata between the parties thereto, but
would no longer be cited as an authority. Courts
of equal jurisdiction in the same State are not
bound by each other’s decisions, and one United
States circuit court is not bound by the decisions
of another. The United States courts will usu-
ally follow the decisions of the courts of the vari-
ous States where an interpretation or applica-
tion of their laws is involved. The courts of one
State are not bound by the decisions of the courts
of another, nor by those of a foreign country.
The courts are especially averse to disturbing
the principles of law involving titles to and in-
terests in real estate. The policy seems to be
not to do so where it is only a question of expedi-
ency, and to do so with caution where the prin-
ciples of a decision are erroneous and will tend
to work injustice in the future. Consult: Wells,
The Doctrines of Res Adjudicata and Stare De-
ci'sis' (Des Moines) .
STARFISH. Echinoderms with a star-like
or pentagonal body, with two or four rows of
ambulacral feet or tentacles on the oral side.
The body is covered with small, short spines,
often arranged in groups. The nervous system
is pentagonal, with nerves extending into the
STARFISH.
STARLING.
144
arms. Most of the species are bisexual; the
young usually pass through a metamorphosis,
the starfish budding out from the water-vascular
system of the pluteus, bipinnaria, or brachio-
laria form, which previously passes through a




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A PALEOZOIC STARFISH.
a, Ventral aspect of Aspidosoma petaloides (Lower De-
vonian); b, ambulacral surface of an arm, in detail; 0,
dorsal plates of an arm.
morula, gastrula, and cephalula stage. Star-
fishes are covered with scattered pedicellariae,
pincer-like spines consisting of two prongs. Sense
organs (sphzeridia) are also present. Starfish
have the sense of smell, which is supposed to be
localized in the suckers at the back of the eye-
plate.
Starfish crawl or glide by means of from two
to four rows of slender tubular processes or
‘feet,’ with a sucker at the end. These ambula-
cral feet are thrust out, fastened to the bottom,
and by means of them the body is warped or
pulled along over mussel or oyster beds, rocks, or
weeds, the arms being capable of slightly bending.
At the end of each arm is the red eye, terminat-
ing the radial nerve. Starfish are very destruc-
tive to oysters, clams, mussels, barnacles, snails,
worms, and small crustacea. To devour an oyster
or clam the starfish grasps both valves of the
shell, and by persistently exerting a constant
Steady strain, finally fatigues the adductor mus-
cles closing the valves so that they slightly gap
open. Then the stomach is protruded between
the shells or valves and the soft body of the
mollusk is digested. The injury to the oyster
beds of Rhode Island caused by starfish in one
year was estimated at $100,000. See ECHINODEB-
MATA (and Plate) ; OYSTER.
Fossil starfish are found first in the Ordovician
rocks, and they occur sparingly in later forma-
tions, with some increase in the Devonian and
Carboniferous, but they are never of geological
importance. Some Mesozoic sandstone forma-
tions of Middle Europe have furnished abundant
casts, and they are found also in a few Tertiary
localities. The Paleozoic species are grouped in
the subclass Encrinasteriae, in which the ambu-
lacral ossicles alternate with each other along
the middle line of the ambulacra ; while the Mes-
ozoic and Tertiary species, and also the recent,
are included in the Euasteriae, which have the
ambulacral ossicles opposite each other.
Consult: Romanes, Jellyfish, Starfish, and- Sea
Urchins (New York, 1885) ; Mead, 29th Report
Rhode Island Commissioners of Inland Fisheries
(Providence, 1899).
- STARGARD, st'eir’giirt. A town in the Prov-
ince of Pome'rania, Prussia, situated on the navi-
gable Ihna, 22 miles east-southeast of Stettin
(Map: Prussia, F 2) . It is the most important
town in the eastern part‘ of the province. The
Marienkirche and town hall are noteworthy. The
town manufactures railway supplies and other
machinery, has foundries, and is a woolen and
cotton market. It belonged to the Hanseatic
League and was strongly fortified. Population,
in 1900, 26,858.
STAR GRASS. A popular name for several
grass-like plants whose flowers or other parts re-
semble stars in outline. Among them are species
of Hypoxis, Chelone, Callitriche, Aletris, and
Rhinchospora. See Colored Plate of AMABYL-
LIDACEZE.
STARHEMBE-RG, st-a’re1n-berK, ERNST Rii-
DIGER, Graf (1638-1701). An Austrian general,
born at Gratz and educated for the army by
Montecuccoli. He took part in the last cam-
paigns of the Thirty Years’ War, was present at
Saint Gotthard in 1664, and gained especial glory
by his brave defense of the city of Vienna for
nine weeks in 1683, against the Turkish army.
The Emperor Leopold made him a field-marshal
and a Minister of State. Three years afterwards
he was wounded at Bude and forced to retire
from active service. He ‘settled in Vienna and
became president of the Council of War. Con-
sult Thurheim, Feldmarschall Ernst Rildiger,
Graf Sta-rhemberg (Weimar, 1882).
STARK, JOHN (1728-1822). An American
soldier, born at Londonderry, N. H. In early
life he worked on his father’s farm. During the
French and Indian War he served with Rogers’
Rangers first as a lieutenant, and later as a cap-
tain. Reporting at Cambridge early in 1775, he
was commissioned colonel, and, with a regiment
raised in one day by himself, took part in the
battle of Bunker Hill. Later he served in the
Canada expedition and then under Washington
in New Jersey, distinguishing himself at Trenton
and Princeton; but, resenting the promotion over
himself of a number of officers, he resigned in
April, 1777, and returned to his home. On the
approach of Burgoyne, he accepted an independ-
ent command from New Hampshire, and defeated
a force of Hessians in the battle of Bennington
(q.v.), August 16, 1777. For this he was made
a brigadier-general, and was formally thanked
by Congress. VVith a force of New Hampshire re-
cruits he took an active part in the Saratoga cam-
paign, and in 1778 and again in 1781 he com-
manded the Northern Department. Consult his
biography by Edward Everett in Sparks’s Ameri-
can Biography, and his Life and Official Corre-
spondence by Caleb Stark, his grandson.
STARLIN G (diminutive of stare, AS. steer,
OHG. stara, Ger. Star, Staar, Stahr, starling;
connected with Lat. stnrnas, starling) . A Euro-
pean bird (Starnns mdgaris) of the family Stur-
nidae, famous for its song and powers of mimicry.
It is rather smaller than the American meadow-
lark, its nearest analogue in the New World, and
is brown finely glossed with black, with a pale tip
to each feather. It has been introduced into
America and seems to have become established in
and around New York City.
The starling family is a large one, containing
about 200 species, mostly living in the tropics of
Africa and Asia. They fall between the Corvidae
and Icteridae, and are divisible into two sections:
one containing the more typical terrestrial star-
lings, the oxpeckers, the pastors, the mynas, pied
STARLING.
STAR ROUTE FRAUDS.
145
-species are grown in flower gardens.
starlings (Sturnopastor), and wattled starlings
(Dilophus) . In the second group, often regarded
as a separate family (Eulabetidae), distinguished
by the absence of rictal bristles and by the fact
that they lay spotted eggs, whereas the
‘true’ starlings lay blue unspotted eggs, are the
African glossy starlings (Lamprotornis) with
richly colored plumage and the grakles or hill-
mynas. Consult writers upon African and East
Indian ornithology, summarized in Lydekker,
Standard Natural History (London, 1895). See
Plate of LARKS AND STABLINGS.
STARNIBERGER (stiirn’ber-g5r) LAKE. A
lake south of Starnberg, in Southern Bavaria.
Its length from south to north is about 18 miles;
its altitude nearly 2000 feet. The Wiirm flows
through the lake. The shores are picturesque
and covered by lordly villas affording splendid
views.
STARNINA, stiir-ne’na, GHERARDO (c.1354-
c.l410). A Tuscan painter, born at Florence.
After painting the histories of Saint Nicholas and
Saint Anthony on the ceiling of the Castellani
Chapel in” Santa Croce, he was involved in
the .Ciompi intriuges and fled in 1384 to Spain.
There he enjoyed royal favor, which enabled him
to return to Florence in 1387. Frescoes in Santo
Maria del Carmine have been attributed to this
period—scenes from the life of Saint Jerome, of
which only the “Death” remains. Starnina was
commissioned to paint a Saint Denis on the
facade of the Guelph palace at Pisa, the city
having surrendered on the day of that saint.
The last work of the artist is to be seen in the
right choir chapel of the Duome at Prato——the
“Birth of the Virgin,” the “Presentation of the
Virgin,” and the “Preaching of Saint Stephen.”
This series was finished by his pupil Antonio
Vite, by whom and by his more famous pupils,
Antonio da Pistoia, Masolino, and Masaccio, he
is chiefly remembered.
STAR-NOSED MOLE. See MOLE.
STAR OF BETHLEHEM (so called from its
star-shaped flowers, which are white within),
Ornithogalum. A genus of about seventy species
of bulbous-rooted plants of the natural order
Liliaceae. The species are natives almost exclu-
sively of the Eastern Hemisphere. Only a few
The com-
mon star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum umbella-
tum) , a native of France, Switzerland, Germany,
the Levant, etc., has racemes of six to nine large
white fragrant flowers, which open about eleven
o’clock in the morning and close again about
three or four in the afternoon. The plant is
very hardy and may be grown three or four
years without being disturbed. Ornithoga-
lum arabicum is a tender species often
grown in glasses like hyacinths. It produces
large creamy white flowers, with a fragrance not
agreeable to all persons. The hardy species flour-
ish in ordinary well-drained garden soil. Propa-
gation is effected by offsets from the bulbs, which
are planted in the fall about nine inches deep in
sheltered places.
STAR OF INDIA, ORDER or THE. A British
order with three classes founded by Queen Vic-
toria in 1861, consisting of the sovereign, the
Viceroy of India, and 246 members, in addition to
an unrestricted honorary membership. The deco-
ration is an oval medallion bearing a bust of
Victoria in onyx, surrounded by a blue band with
the device Heaven’s Light our Guide, and sur-
mounted by a diamond-studded crown.
STAROKONSTANTINOV, stii’ro-k5n’stan-
tye’nof. A district town in the Government of
Volhynia, Russia, 86 miles southwest of Zhito-
m1r.
soap; mineral waters are marketed. Population,
in 1897, 16,527.
STARR, ELIZA ALLEN (1824-1901) . An Amer-
ican poet and lecturer on art. She was born of
Puritan ancestry at Deerfield, Mass., and was
educated at Deerfield Academy. In 1854 she left
the Unitarian Church, in which she had been
reared, and became a convert to Catholicism. In
1856 she settled in Chicago, where she became a
teacher of drawing and painting. In 1877 she
began the series _of lectures on Christian art for
which she is best known. She published Poems
(1867); Pa-tron Saints (1st series 1871, 2d
series 1881) ; Pilgrims and Shrines (2 vols.,
1883); Isabella the Catholic (1889); Christian
Art in Our Own Age (1891) ; Three Keys to the
Camera della Signatura (1895) ; and The Seven
Dolors of the Blessed Virgin Mary (1898). Her
works on Christian art are elaborately illus-
trated.
STARR, FREDERICK (1858—). An American
anthropologist, born in Auburn, N. Y. He stud-
ied at the University of Rocliester and at La-
fayette, where he graduated in 1882. He was
registrar of Chautauqua University in 1888-89,
and after two years in charge of the American
Museum of Natural History in New York City
(1889-91) in 1893 became professor of anthropol-
ogy in the University of Chicago. His publica-
tions include: a Catalogue of Collections of Ob-
jects Illustrating Mexican Folklore (1899) ; Some
First Steps in Hu/man Progress (1895) ; and In-
dians of Southern Mexico (1900).
STARR, Mosns ALLEN ( 1854- ). An Ameri-
can neurologist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He
graduated from Princeton College in 1876; from
the‘ College of Physicians and Surgeons, New
York City, 1880; served as interne in Bellevue
Hospital, 1880-82 ; was professor of nervous dis-
eases, New York Polyclinic, 1886-88; clinical
professor of nervous diseases, College of Physi-
cians and Surgeons, New York City, 1888-89;
and professor of the same since 1889. He is
the author of many articles contributed to medi-
cal journals, as well as of Familiar Forms of
Nervous Disease ( 1891) ; Brain Surgery (1893) ;
Atlas of Nerve Cells, with Dr. Strong (1899);
Organic Nervous Diseases (1903); and other
works.
STAR ROUTE FRAUDS. Certain frauds
connected with the management of the star
route postal service during the administration of
President Hayes. The term ‘star routes’ was
applied to those routes over which, owing to the
lack of railroads and steamboats, the mail was
carried on horseback or in wagons, such routes
being commonly marked, in the books of the Post
Office Department, with an asterisk or ‘star.’ A
‘ring,’ including Brady, the Second Assistant
Postmaster-General, and Senator S. W. Dorsey, of
Arkansas, on the one hand, and certain mail con-
tractors on the Other, was alleged to have been
The chief manufactures are tobacco and,
STAR ROUTE FRAUDS.
STATANT.
146
formed for the purpose of defrauding the Govern-
ment by increasing unduly the remuneration of
certain mail contractors. The sphere of opera-
tions of the combination included 135 mail
routes on which the compensation for carrying
the mail was increased from $143,169 to $622,-
808. This increase was accomplished by securing
numerously signed petitions from the localities
interested praying for an increase in the number
of trips, after which the schedule time for each
trip was shortened. Estimates from the con-
tractors largely in excess of the actual cost were
allowed, and the profits were alleged to have been
divided between the contractors and the members
of the ring at Washington. The frauds were
brought to light early in Garfield’s administra-
tion, and the chief participants were prosecuted.
Dorsey was tried, but the jury failed to reach a
decision. Upon a second trial in 1883 he was
acquitted. Brady was also tried, but was not
convicted. Of all those prosecuted only one was
ever punished. The ring was eventually broken
up, but not until a number of those interested
had acquired fortunes.
STARS AND BARS. The popular name ap-
.plied to the flag adopted by the Confederate
States of America early in 1861. See FLAG.
STAR SPANGLED BANNER, THE. The
national hymn of the United States, written by
Francis Scott Key (q.v.) on board the frigate
Surprise during the bombardment of Fort Mc-
Henry, Md., by.the British, in 1814. He di-
rected that the words should be sung to the tune
of “Anacreon in Heaven,” composed in England
by John Stafford Smith between 1770 and 1775.
“The Star Spangled Banner” was first sung ina
tavern near the Holiday Street Theatre, Balti-
more, by Ferdinand Durang. Consult Johnson,
Our Familiar Songs (New York, 1881); Fitz-
Gerald, Sto-ries of Famous Songs (London, 1898).
STARVATION (from starve, AS. steorfan,
OHG. sterban, Ger. sterben, to die, Icel. starf,
trouble, toil, work), or INANITION. Emaciation,
enfeeblement, lowered vitality, and finally death,
resulting from insufficiency of or total depriva-
tion of food. The fact is stated, as quoted from
Chossat, that death from starvation occurs after
the loss of four-tenths of the body weight. The
same observer recounts the most prominent phe-
nomena during or after the death of animals who
were starved, as follows: (1) Dropsical effusion.
(2) Softening and destruction of the mucous mem-
brane. (3) Blackening of the viscera, especially
of the liver. (4) Bluish, livid, yellow, and red-
dish stains during life in the transparent parts
of the skin. (5) Hectic fever, and a continuous
decrease in the power of the body to resist cold.
(6) At first a scanty excretion of dry, bilious,
grass-green faeces, and afterwards diarrhoea of
liquid saline matter. (7) Convulsions similar to
those in death by hemorrhage. (8) Death by
starvation seems to be in reality death by cold;
since the temperature of the body is not much
diminished until the fat is nearly consumed,
when it rapidly falls, unless it be kept up by
heat applied externally. (9) Young animals suc-
cumbed far sooner than adults. (10) The results
of insufficient food were in the end the same as
those of total deprivation, the total amount of
loss being almost the same, but the rate being
less, so that a longer time was required to pro-
duce it.
Chossat did not find that much influence was
exerted on the duration of life by permitting or
withdrawing the supply of water; but there is no
doubt that in man, and probably in mammals
generally, death supervenes much earlier when
liquids as well as solid food are withheld. Dur-
ing the famine of 1847 in Ireland, the following
were the most striking symptoms observed in the
starving: Pain in the stomach, relieved by pres-
sure; pallor and emaciation; bright and wild
eyes; hot breath; parched mouth, thick and
scanty saliva; intolerable thirst; foetor from the
skin, which becomes covered with a dark-brown
secretion; tottering gait, weak and whining
voice, the tears starting easily; imbecility.
The time during which life can be supported
under entire abstinence from food and drink varies
much. In one case, reported by Sloan, a healthy
man, aged 65 years, survived 23 days’ imprison-'
ment without food in a coal mine, having impure
water for the first ten days of this period. He
died three days after rescue. The average healthy
individual will survive a week or ten days of
complete abstinence from food and water. Con-
sult: Fernet, “Amaigrissement extreme et mort
par inanition,” in Bulletin et mémoire, Société
médicale de l’h6pital de Paris (1901); Leeson,
“Death from Starvation,” in Dublin Medical
Press (1847) ; Davies, “Starvation,” in Popular
Science Monthly, vol.- xxvi. (New York, 1884-85) .
STARWORT. See CHIOKWEED.
STARY-OSKOL, st'zi’re 6s-kol’. A district
town in the Government of Kursk, Russia, on the
river Oskol, 92 miles east-southeast of Kursk.
It has tanneries and tobacco factories. Popula-
tion, in 1897, 16,662.
STAS, stas, JEAN SERvA1s (1813-91). A Bel-
gian chemist. He was born in Louvain, studied
under and later assisted Dumas, and was for
many years professor of the Military Acad-
emy in Brussels. He was one of the earliest
investigators of the constitution of organic com-
pounds, such as acetal. Subsequently he de-
voted a number of years to the determination of
the atomic weights of the elements, and it is
princip'ally for these classic researches that he
is celebrated in the history of science. The im-
pulse to these researches was given by the dis-
cussion as to whether the atomic weights are or
are not exact multiples of the atomic weight of
hydrogen—a question connected with Prout’s
hypothesis, according to which the several chem-
ical elements are derived from hydrogen and are
not essentially different substances. But the re-
sults of Stas’s work have been of much further-
reaching importance, and its precision has hardly
as yet been surpassed. His collected works ap-
peared in three volumes (Brussels, 1894). Con-
sult Spring, Notice sur la vie et les traueauw de
J. S. Stas (Brussels, 1893).
STASSFURT, stiis’f6'6rt. A town in the
Province of Saxony, Prussia, on the Bode River,
20 miles south of Magdeburg (Map: Prussia,
D 3). There are iron mills, and the important
royal salt works, which mine potash and rock
salts. Extensive chemical works are also found
here. Population, in 1900, 20,031. The town
has been known since 806.
STATANT (heraldic Fr., standing). In
heraldry, a term applied to an animal standing
still, with all the feet touching the ground. If
STATANT.
STATE.
147
the face be turned to the spectator, it is said to
be statant gardant, or in the case of a stag, at
gaze. See HEBALDRY.
STATE (OF. estat, Fr. état, from Lat. status,
state, condition, from stare, to stand; connected
with Gk. Zcrcivai, h-istanai, Skt. sth/a, OChurch
Slav, stati, -OHG. stcin, sten, stantan, Ger. stehen, _
Goth., AS. standan, Eng. stand), THE. The
theory of the State in its broadest sense may be
taken to cover the whole field of political philos-
ophy, involving the comprehensive examination
of the laws underlying political phenomena. (See
POLITICAL SCIENCE.) In a narrower sense, the
theory of the State is concerned primarily with
the essential nature of the State, its origin and
basis, its various forms, and proper function or
purpose. '
The essential elements of the State, together
distinguishing it from other social groups, are
generally considered to be the following: a ter-
ritorial basis serving as the physical foundation
of the State, a population constituting its citi-
zenship, and a more or less complete form of
political organization exercising the power of
life and death. Finally, the State is a sovereign
body, being supreme over all persons o_n its terri-
tory and independent internationally. It is also
held by some authorities that the State is an
organism or a person.
The origin and basis of the State have been
explained in various ways for the purpose of
justifying or condemning various political sys-
tems. It has been held that the State owes its
genesis and continuance to the will or command
of God, a doctrine that has been used in the de-
fense of all forms of government, including de-
mocracy. The origin of the State has been traced
by others to the family, and explained as a devel-
opment of the power of the early patriarchs.
Others have maintained that the State was
created by and exists in virtue of a voluntary
contract to which the parties were either (1) the
government on the one hand and the people on
the other; or (2) separate individuals who
agreed to form a political society and a govern-
ment by a contractual process. Again it is
argued that the foundation and support of the
State is superior force, which in its first and last
analysis is the essential fact in a political sys-
tem. The modern theory is that the State owes
its being to an historical process in which many
or all of the foregoing factors may have played
a part as the varying conditions required. The
explanation of the present existence of a coercive
power over individuals is generally found In a
variety of motives for obedience. Of these the
principal ones are custom or habit, fear, utility
or the calculation of accruing advantages and dis-
advantages, and the element of conscious and
rational consent. -The general tendency of politi-
cal development is toward a State based on gen-
eral perception of its utility, and consequent
consent to its laws. It may be added that the
anarchistic school denies the existence of any
rational justification for the State, demanding
its complete abolition, and the substitution of
some such principle as that of ‘justice’ or ‘hu-
manity’ for that of coercive power.
The forms of the State are three, monarchy,
aristocracy, and democracy, according as political
power rests with one, the few, or the many.
All other forms of government may be resolved
into the three forms enumerated. Thus, theoc-
racy is any one of these three forms in which
the rulers are supposed to possess a special di-
vine sanction for their government. The so-
called federal State may be resolved either (1)
into a union of many States for certain general
purposes; or (2) one State with a dual form of
government and with sovereignty vested in the
group as a whole. Plutocracy and oligarchy are
perverted forms of aristocracy. ‘Constitutional,’
‘despotic,’ ‘free,’ when applied to States, have
reference to the method in which the govern-
ment is organized or administered, rather than
to the form of the State, and might be applied
to any of the three types. In recent years con-
siderable attention has been given to the classi-
fication of various forms of State associations
or groups. Of these the most important are
the Personal-Union, the Real-Union, the Con-
federacy, the Protectorate, and the Federal or
Composite State- (G. Jellinek, Die Lehre von
den Staatenverbindungen; H. Rehm, Allgemeine
S taats lehre) .
The function or purpose of the State has been
variously interpreted. It has been held that the
proper function of the State is the development
of the moral or religious nature of its subjects,
and that this should be the controlling purpose
of its activity. Again it has been maintained
that the function of the State is merely to. pre-
serve order among its citizens and to protect
them from external attack, leaving all else to
the domain of individual initiative. It is also
held that the function of the State is to further
the general welfare of its subjects, including in
this all sides of their life. In modern times the
contest lies between the advocates of the ‘legal’
State and those of the ‘paternal’ State, holding
respectively the individualistic and the social-
istic conceptions of the function of organized
political society. One of these theories has been
carried to the extreme of a demand for anarchy,
and the other to the opposite pole of a demand
for the extension of the functions of government
to the immediate control of industrial activity.
At present the most widely accepted doctrine
is that no general principle governing the activ-
ity of the State can be laid down, but that each
case of proposed State action must be decided
in accordance with what appears to be the great-
est good to the greatest number. .
The theory of the State has passed through
several important stages in the course of the de-
velopment that has brought it up to its present
position. A philosophy of politics wasfirst de-
veloped by the classical school of which Plato,
Aristotle, and Cicero were the leading exponents.
The most marked characteristics of the political
thinking of this time were the development of
political theory from the city as a basis—the
city State——the complete subordination of the in-
dividual to the State in the discussion of politi-
cal problems, and the constant confusion of po-
litical and ethical theory. In the next great
period, that of the Middle Ages, political theory
was interpreted in the light of Christian theology.
A system of politics was deduced from the joint
authority of the Scriptures, the writings of the
Fathers, the philosophy of Aristotle, and the
Roman law——all analyzed and presented with
the subtlest refinement of which Scholasticism
was capable. The point around which political
STATE.
STATE.
148
speculation centred was the true and proper re-
lation between Church and State. Thomas
Aquinas (Summa Theologica and De Regimine
Principum) was the most successful champion of
the Church; Marsilius of Padua (Defensor
Pacis) and Dante (De Monarchia) of the State.
During the Renaissance and the Reformation
political theory made important advances. By
the work of Machiavelli (I l principe, Discorsi)
politics was divorced from theology and
ethics, and elevated to the position of an in-
dependent science. Jean Bodin, reviving the
method and spirit of Aristotle, laid the founda-
tions of modern systematic politics in his epoch-
making treatise, De Republica. In the revolu-
tionary period of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries the so-called natural law philosophy
was dominant. The fundamental premise of this
system was the universal prevalence of an im-
mutable law of natural justice, under which and
independently of any government all men hold
certain natural rights; e.g. life, liberty, and
property. From this premise followed the theory
of a contract as the basis of all legitimate gov-
ernment, the administration of government for
the good of the parties to the contract, and the
right of revolution whenever government is per-
verted to selfish ends by the rulers. Of these
doctrines John Locke (Two Treatises of Civil
Government) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (Le
contrat social) were the most influential ex-
pounders. During the same period the opposing
doctrines of the divine right of kings and gov-
ernmental absolutism were developed by Robert
Filmer (Patriarcha) and Bossuet (Politique
tirée dc l’ecriture Sainte) , while Thomas Hobbes
turned the natural law theory to the defense of
absolutism (The Leviathan). As opposed to the
a priori conception of these writers, Montesquieu
(Esprit des lois) placed the study of political
science upon an historical basis.
The modern theory of politics, dating from the
reaction against the excesses of the French Revo-
lution, is based on the historical-scientific
premise that all institutions are the product of
an evolutionary movement in which the con-
scious will of individuals plays a comparatively
unimportant part. The method followed is his-
torical and comparative, in contrast to the de-
ductive style of the preceding school. The
numerous problems arising out of the develop-
ment of modern democracy, those involved in
Nationalism, Federalism, and Imperialism, and
the determination of the proper function of gov-
ernment, are the questions upon which general
attention is fixed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most important works on
the history of political theory are: Dunning, A
History of Political Theories (New York, 1902) ;
Janet, Histoire cle la science politique dans scs
rapports avec la morale (Paris, 1850, 1872);
Bluntschli, Geschichte der neueren Staatswissen-
schaft (Munich, 1864); Mohl, Geschichte und
Litteratur cler Staatswissenschaften (Erlangen,
1855-58) ; Pollock, Introduction to the Study of
the Science of Politics (London, 1890). Consult
also: Lieber, Manual of Political Ethics (Bos-
ton, 1838-39) ; id., Legal and Political Hermeneu-
tics (ib., 1839) ; Woolsey, Political Science; or
the State Theoretically and Practically Consid-
ered (New York, 1877) ; Wilson, The State
(Boston, 1889) ; Sidgwick, Elements of Politics
(London, 1896) ; Willoughby, The Nature of the
State.(New York, 1896) ; Bosanquet, The Phil-
osophncal Theory of the State (London, 1899) .
STATE, DEPARTMENT or. One of the nine
executive departments of the Government of the
United States, presided over by a Secretary who
is a member of the Cabinet and first in the line of
succession to the Presidency after the Vice-Presi-
dent. In rank the Department of State stands
first among the other departments and is also the
oldest in point of origin. It was in fact the
logical successor of the old Department of For-
eign Affairs created in 1781 and presided over first
by Robert R. Livingston and afterwards by
John Jay. The Department of State is the organ
of communication between the Government of the
United States and all foreign governments, as
well as with the Governors of the individual
States. The Secretary of State conducts all
such correspondence; as charge of the nego-
tiation of all treaties and conventions; he
preserves the originals of all treaties, public
documents, and correspondence with foreign gov-
ernments as well as of the laws of the United
States; he publishes all statutes and resolutions
of Congress and proclamations of the President;
he is the custodian of the great seal which is
affixed to all commissions of appointment re-
quiring the consent of the Senate, proclamations,
warrants for extradition, pardons, etc., ema-
nating from the President; he issues and keeps a
record of passports granted to American citizens
traveling abroad; issues warrants for the extra-
dition of criminals to be delivered to foreign
governments; presents foreign ministers to the
President, etc. He makes an annual report of
the conduct of foreign affairs for the year, pub-
lishes the consular reports and the ‘foreign re-
lations’ of the United States, and performs such
other duties relative to the conduct of foreign
affairs as the President may direct.
To aid the Secretary of State, an Assistant
Secretary was provided for in 1853; in 1866 a
second assistant was created, and in 1874 a third,
each charged with the supervision of a particu-
lar branch of the department. The business of
the department is distributed among seven
bureaus, namely, a diplomatic bureau, a consular
bureau, a bureau of indexes and archives, a
bureau of accounts, a bureau of rolls and li-
brary, a bureau of foreign commerce, created in
1897 (formerly the bureau of statistics), and a
bureau of appointments, created in 1898. The
name of each bureau indicates broadly the nature
of the business assigned to it. Besides the Sec-
retary and the three assistant secretaries there is
a solicitor, detailed from the Department of
Justice, an assistant solicitor, created in 1900,
seven chiefs of bureaus, two translators, sixty-
three clerks, and a number of messengers, making
a total force of about one hundred employees.
The following is a list of the Secretaries of
State from the organization of the department
in 1789 to the present, with the dates of their
appointment: Thomas Jefferson, September,
1789; Edmund Randolph, January, 1794; Tim-
othy Pickering, December, 1795; John Marshall,
May, 1800; James Madison, March, 1801; Robert
Smith, March, 1809; James Monroe, April, 1811;
John Q. Adams, March, 1817; Henry Clay,
March, 1825; Martin Van Buren, March, 1829;
Edward Livingstone, May, 1831; Louis McLane,
STATE.
STATE S.
149
May, 1833; John Forsyth, June, 1834; Daniel
Webster, March, 1841; Hugh Legaré, May, 1843 ;
Abel Upshur, July, 1843; John Nelson, February,
1844; John C. Calhoun, March, 1844; James
Buchanan, March, 1845; John M. Clayton,
March, 1849; Daniel Webster, July, 1850; Ed-
ward Everett, November, 1852; William L.
Marcy, March, 1853; Lewis Cass, March, 1857;
Jeremiah Black, December, 1860; William H.
Seward, March, 1861; Elihu Washburne, March,
1869; Hamilton Fish, March, 1869; William M.
Evarts, March, 1877; James G. Blaine, March,
1881; Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, December,
1881 ; Thomas F. Bayard, March, 1885; James G.
Blaine, March, 1889; John W. Foster, June,
1892; Walter Q. Gresham, March, 1893; Richard
Olney, June, 1895; John Sherman, March, 1897;
William R. Day, April 1898; John Hay, Septem-
ber, 1898. Consult: History of the Department
of State (Washington, 1901) ; Schuyler, Ameri-
can Diplomacy (New York, 1886).
STATEN (stat’en) ISLAND. An island of
New York constituting Richmond County, and
since 1898 the Borough of Richmond, New York
City (q.v.). It is distant a little more than
five miles from the southern extremity of Man-
hattan Island, and is separated from Long Isl-
and on the east by the Narrows, which connect
the Upper New York Bay with the Lower Bay.
STATE PUBLIC SCHOOL. A model insti-
tution at Coldwater, Mich., for the education and
support of dependent and ill-treated children of
the State. It was established by an act of the
State Legislature in 1871, but was not formally
opened until 1874. It is the object of this institu-
tion to receive, care for, educate, and place when-
ever possible in family homes all the dependent
children of the State of sound mind and body be-
tween the ages of two and twelve. The board of
control, however, has the discretionary power
vested in it of admitting children under two,
where circumstances warrant such an exception.
Since its foundation it has received over 5000 chil-
drcn, and in 1902 there were in the school 155 in-
mates. The school is located on a farm of 160
acres, covered partly by orchards, ornamental
trees, and gardens. The buildings consist of an
administration building, school house proper,
and nine cottages among which the inmates are
distributed. This system of cottages, under the
superintendence of matrons who are specially
qualified for that work, has the tendency to foster
a love for home life. The State of Michigan was
first in establishing this type of school. Similar
institutions have since been established in Iowa,
Minnesota, Kansas, Montana, Colorado, Wiscon-
sin, Texas, Nebraska, Alabama, Rhode Island,
and Nevada.
STATES, PDPULAR NAMES on.
Badger State. Wisconsin, from the animal.
Bay, or Old Bay, State.’ Massachusetts. The
name Massachusetts Bay, though later used in a
more extended sense, was originally restricted
to Boston Harbor, and as early as 1622 persons
from Plymouth spoke of ‘the Bay.’ Under the
first charter, the government was called the Col-
ony of the Massachusetts Bay; and under the
second charter, the Province of the Massachusetts
Bay. Hence the nicknames Bay Colony, Bay
Province, and Bay, or Old Bay, State.
Bayou State. Mississippi, from the number
of its bayous, a word derived from the Indian
bayouc(lc) , meaning a rivulet.
Bear State. Arkansas, from the animal.
Blackwater State. Nebraska, from the dark
color of its rivers, owing to the black vegetable
mold which covers large areas.
Blizzard State. South Dakota. The word
‘blizzard,’ of obscure origin, was used as early
as 1829 in the sense of a blow or a discharge
from a gun. In its present sense the word was
recorded in 1876, and is said to have been current
in Dakota for a decade previous.
Blue Grass State. Kentucky, from its cele-
brated blue grass.
Blue Hen State. Delaware. The term is said
to have originated in the Revolutionary War,
when an oflicer in a Delaware regiment raised
famous gamecocks from a breed of blue hens;
hence the members of his regiment were called
‘Blue Hen’s Chickens,’ and so the name came to
be applied to the State; but the story lacks roof.
Blue Law State. Connecticut. See BLUE Aws.
Bread and Butter State. Minnesota, from its
wheat and dairy products.
Buckeye State. Ohio, because of the horse
chestnut, which grows there in great profusion
and which for more than a century has been
popularly called buckeye.
Bullion State. Missouri, from the sobriquet
‘Old Bullion,’ applied to Senator Thomas Hart
Benton of that State on account of his advocacy
of gold and silver currency.
Centennial State. Colorado, because it was ad-
mitted into the Union in the Centennial year,
1876.
Central State. Kansas, from its location with
reference to the other States of the Union.
Corn Cracker State. Kentucky, perhaps be-
cause the poor whites subsist chiefly on corn.
Cotton State. Alabama, because the central
State of the cotton belt.
Cracker State. Georgia, from the poor whites,
who for more than a century have been called
Crackers.
Creole State. Louisiana, from its many inhab-
itants descended from the French and Spanish
settlers.
Dark and Bloody Ground. Kentucky, because
in its early days it was the scene of frequent
Indian wars. The name has been known for
more than a century.
Diamond State. Delaware, from its diminu-
tive size.
Dominion, Ancient or Old. Virginia. In early
documents we read of ‘the Colony’ or ‘the Plan-
tation’ or ‘the Colony and Plantation’ of Vir-
ginia; while later, about 1674, there are allu-
sions to ‘the Colony and Dominion’ of Virginia,
about 1682 to ‘the Dominion’ of Virginia, and
about 1697 to ‘the Ancient Colony and Dominion’
of Virginia. Hence, in time, came the nick-
names Ancient Dominion and Old Dominion
merely. According to some, the name is due to
Virginia’s loyalty to the Stuarts during the
Civil War. _
Egypt. Southern Illinois, either from its al-
leged intellectual darkness or from the fertility
of its soil.
El Dorado. California. El Dorado (q.v.) was
the name of a fictitious region or city, abounding
in gold, supposed to exist in South America.
Hence it was sometimes, after the discovery of
gold in California in 1849, applied to that State.
STATE S.
STATE S-GENERAL.
150
Empire State. New York, from its size,
wealth, and number of its inhabitants.
Empire State of the South. Georgia, from its
enterprise.
Evergreen State. Washington.
Excelsior State. New York, from the motto
on its seal (adopted 1778).
Freestone State. Connecticut, from its free-
stone quarries.
Golden State.
Gopher State.
Granite State.
granite hills.
Green Mountain State.
Green Mountains.
Hawkeye State. Iowa. The name arose about
1839, apparently in allusion to J. G. Edwards,
familiarly known as ‘Old Hawkeye,’ editor of
the Burlington Patriot, the name of which paper
was changed September 5, 1839, to the H a-wkeye
and Patriot.
Hoosier. Indiana. In use as early as 1833,
but its origin is obscure.
Jayhawker State. Kansas. The word, of ob-
scure derivation, appears to have originated with
a party on its way to California in 1849, but no
instance of its use is recorded prior to 1858, when
it was used in Kansas, where it was derisively ap-
plied to James Montgomery and his men, who, in
retaliation for the atrocities committed on Free-
State settlers by the ‘border ruffians,’ raided the
pro-slavery settlers and their abettors from Mis-
souri. Later it was applied to marauders on
California, from its gold mines.
Minnesota, from the animal.
New Hampshire, from its
Vermont, from the
-both sides during the Civil lVar, and finally was
applied to the people of Kansas.
Keystone State. Pennsylvania, probably be-
cause it was the central State of the Union at
the time of the formation of the Constitution.
Lake State. Michigan.
Land of Steady Habits.
BLUE LAWS.
Little Rhody. Rhode Island, from its dimin-
utive size.
Lone Star State. Texas, from the single star
in the flag of the Texas Republic (1836-1845).
Lumber State. Maine.
Mormon State. Utah.
Mother of Presidents. Virginia, because the
birthplace of six Presidents.
Mother of States. Virginia, because the first
settled of the States.
New England of the WVest.. Minnesota.
Nutmeg State. Connecticut, in allusion to the
alleged manufacture of wooden nutmegs in that
State.
Old Colony. That part of Massachusetts
which from 1620 to 1692 was the Plymouth Col-
ony.
Old Line State. Maryland, probably from the
‘Maryland Line’ which won distinction in the
Revolutionary War.
Old North State.
Palmetto State.
vice on its seal.
Panhandle State. West Virginia, from the
irregular section of the State projecting north-
ward between Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Pelican State. Louisiana, from the device on
its seal.
Peninsula State.- Florida, from its location.
Pine Tree State. Maine, from the device on
its seal, adopted in 1820.
Prairie State. Illinois, from its prairies.
Connecticut. See
North Carolina.
South Carolina, from the de-
Sage-Brush State. Nevada, from the plant.
Silver State. Nevada, from its silver mines.
Sucker State. Illinois, probably from the fish
of that name, because in the early days the men
went up the Illinois River to the mines and re-
turned at the season when the sucker made its
migrations. The term was first ‘used about 1833.
Turpentine State. North Carolina, from the
turpentine produced in it.
Web-Foot State. Oregon, from the quantity
of rain which falls there.
Wolverine State.
STATE’S EVIDENCE (or,
KING’S or QUEEN’S EVIDENCE).
phrase used to denote the testimony given by
an accomplice in the commission of a crime
against the other accomplices on their trial, un-
der an agreement or understanding with the
prosecuting officer that the witness shall not be
brought to trial for his part in the crime, in con-
sideration of his aid to the State. Such an agree-
ment or understanding on the part of the prose-
cution is not valid and enforceable as a matter of
law, but in practice such agreements are usually
adhered to by the prosecutor as a matter of
good faith and are countenanced by courts as a
justifiable and proper means of securing convic-
tions for crime. In several States there are stat-
utes providing that there shall be no conviction
for crime upon the uncorrohorated testimony of
an accomplice. In applying this statute, whether
a witness is an accomplice whose testimony re-
quires corroboration is a question for the jury,
unless the facts are undisputed or the question
rests upon some rule of law, where it must be
passed upon by the court. See ACCOMPLIOE;
PRINCIPAL; ACCESSORY.
STATES-GENERAL (Fr. états générauaa).
The name given to the convocation of the repre-
sentative body of the three orders of the French
kingdom, representing the nobility, clergy, and
bourgeoisie or tiers état (Third Estate). As far
back as the time of Charlemagne, there were as-
semblies of clergy and nobles held twice a year
to deliberate on matters of public importance,
and in these assemblies the extensive body of
laws bearing the “name of the Capitularies of
Charlemagne was enacted. These national con-
vocations seem to have ceased to be held at the
time of the final disruption of the Carlovingian
realm, about seventy years after Charlemagne’s
death. From that time forward there is no
trace of any national assembly in France till
1302, when the états générauw, including the
three orders of clergy, nobles, and citizens, were
in England,
convoked by Philip the Fair, with the view of --
giving greater weight to the course adopted by
the King in his quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII.
In 1308 Philip obtained from the states-general
a condemnation of the Knights Templars. Dur-
ing the period of the Hundred Years’ War (1337-
1453) the states-general were frequently con-
voked, and the exigencies of the Court enabled
them to play an important role in connection
with the revenue and taxation. But they were
not a law-making body, although they enabled
the voice of the nation to assert itself against
abuses of the royal power. As the royal author-
ity became more and more absolute, and a stand-
ing army made the sovereign less dependent upon
financial grants made by his subjects, the sum-
monirig of the states-general gradually ceased to
Michigan, from the animal.,
A popular _
STATE S-GE NERAL.
STATIONERS’ HALL.
151
be regarded as indispensable. The advisers
of Louis XIII. convoked the states-general,
after a long interval, in 1614, but the body
was soon dismissed for looking too closely into
the finances; and from that time there was
no convocation of the states-general till the
memorable meeting in 1789, which initiated the
French Revolution. The states-general voted by
orders, but in 1789 the Third Estate refused to
abide by a regulation which enabled the other two
orders to combine against it and to thwart its
purposes. They insisted that the vote should be
by members in a single body (with the Third Es-
tate as numerous as the other two orders com-
bined) , and they achieved their object by consti-
tuting themselves the National Assembly. See
FRENCH REVOLUTION.
The name States-General is also applied to the
existing legislative body of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands (q.v.), as was formerly the case in
the Republic of the Netherlands from 1593 to
1795.
STATES OF THE CHURCH. The territory
in Central Italy formerly under the temporal
sovereignty of the Holy See. For their history,
see PAPAL STATES; and for the theory involved,
TEMPORAL SCVEREICNTY.
STATES’ RIGHTS. A political term having
reference to the rights of the individual States
as compared with the central Government in coun-
tries having a federal form of government. In
the history of the United States, the term is
used to denote the view prevailing in the South
prior to the Civil War with regard to the nature
of the Union. According to this view the Union
was a compact of sovereign and independent
States; the central or Federal Government was
the mere agent of the States, which were re-
garded as the principals; and the primary alle-
giance of the individual We to his State rather
than to the United States. In effect this view
upheld the right of a State to interpose its au-
thority when the central Government enacted op-
pressive or unconstitutional laws. (See N ULLI-
FICATION.) Southern statesmen and political
leaders contended for this view with particular
insistence in connection with the long controversy
over slavery. Prior to the Civil War. a large
proportion of the people of the Southern States
held to the States’ rights view of the Constitu-
tion, although many of them were not nullifiers.
In the early part of the nineteenth century, par-
ticularly at the time of the War of 1812, the
States’ rights view was also strong in the North
and East, and was not abandoned until it be-
came the view and support of the slavery inter-
est. The Civil War settled the issue adversely
to the States’ rights view, and it is no longer
a constitutional question in the old sense of the
term. In the German Empire, States’ Rights, or
Particularism, as the Germans call it, is very
strong, and has been at the bottom of many
great constitutional struggles in that country.
The Imperial Constitution recognizes a large
sphere of autonomy of the individual States, and
some of those in South Germany enjoy rights
which are survivals of the Confederation.
STATESVILLE. The county-seat of Iredell
County, N. C., 156 miles west of Raleigh, on the
Southern Railway (Map: North Carolina, B 2) .
It is in the centre of a rich grain and tobacco
_ was published.
growing section, with some mineral deposits.
One of the State experiment farms is just outside
the city limits. There are furniture factories,
flour mills, cotton mills, tanneries, foundries, and
iron works. The water works and the electric
ligl1t plant are owned by the municipality. Pop-
ulation, in 1900, 3141.
STATE TRIALS. In English law, a phrase
employed to denote trials involving offenses
against the State, or which determine questions
concerning the duties and privileges, etc., of
important officers of the Crown. The first col-
lection of State Trials appeared in 1719; a second
in 1730; a third in 1742; Hamgrave’s edition in
ten volumes i11 1776-81; and between 1809 and
1826, the fifth edition in thirty-three volumes
This edition is the one now
used, and is known as “Howells’ State Trials,”
after the real editor, Thomas Bayley Howell,
who compiled the work, although the name of
one Cobbett appears as editor on the title page
of volume i. These reports contain much learn-
ing in criminal and constitutional law. A new
series is being prepared under the supervision
of a Parliamentary Committee, and all impor-
tant cases in constitutional and international
law will be included.
STATIC ELECTRICITY. See ELECTRICITY.
STATICS (from Gk. 0'70/rucos, statllcos, relat-
ing to standing, from o"ra'r6s, statos, placed,
standing, from la-rdvm, histanai, to stand).
That branch of dynamics which treats of the
properties of material bodies when, under the
action of forces. their motion is not changing.
They are then said to be in equilibrium. See
MECHANICS and EQUILIBRIUM.
STATIC SENSE. In close anatomical con-
nection with the cochlea of the inner ear there
are in man and most other vertebrates, three
bent tubes of bone inclosing three membranous
tubes, filled with and floating in a fluid, the en-
dolymph and perilymph. These tubes, known as
the semicircular canals, lie approximately in the
three planes of space. At the termination of
each canal is a flask-like swelling (ampulla),
within which are to be found certain specialized
nervous end-organs. The ingoing fibres from the
three ampullae constitute the main portion of the
vestibular branch of the eighth or auditory nerve.
Arguing from these anatomical features, it was
long supposed that the canals served some audi-
tory function such as the sensation of noise or
the perception of localization of sounds. But we
now have abundant evidence for regarding them
as the organ of the ‘static sense’--by which is
meant (1) that they constitute a physiological
apparatus for the maintenance of equilibrium
(and some would add, for the maintenance of
muscular tonicity); (2) that any irregularity
in their operation makes itself felt mentally as
giddiness or dizziness; and more doubtfully (3)
that an acceleration or a diminution of the rate
of movement of the body as a whole so affects
them as to set up sensations which are inter-
preted as what has very loosely been termed a *-
‘sense of translation.’
STATIONERS’ HALL. The guildhouse of
the ‘Master and Keepers or Wardens and Com-
monalty of the Mystery or Art of Stationers of
the City of London,’ now situated near Ludgate
Hill in London. This company, which had been
STATIONERS’ HALL.
STATISTICS.
152
preceded by a voluntary association as early as
1403, was incorporated in 1556. For nearly three
hundred years it regulated the publication of
all books in England. Since the passage of the
copyright law (1842), registration is no longer
compulsory, but it is necessary for securing copy-
right. For a history of the company, consult the
first volume of E. A. Arber’s valuable Transcript
of the Stationers’ Registers, 1554-1640 (5 vols.,
London, 1875-94).
STATIONS (Lat. static, from stare, to
stand). A name applied in the Roman Catholic
Church to certain places reputed of special sanc-
tity, which are appointed to be visited as places
of prayer. The name is particularly applied in
this sense to certain churches in the city of
Rome. The word is employed in reference to a
popular devotional practice of the Roman Catho-
lie Church, known as that of ‘the stations of the
cross.’ Carved or painted representations, the
subjects of which are supplied by scenes
from the passion of Christ, are called stations
of the cross, and are found in every church. The
origin of this devotional exercise, like that of
local pilgrimages, is traceable to the difficulty of
access to the holy places of Palestine, consequent
on the Turkish occupation of that country; the
number of the stations is commonly fourteen; the
subject of all is a sort of pictorial narrative of the
passion. The devotional exercise is performed
by kneeling at the several stations in succession,
and reciting certain prayers at each, or joining
in their recitation by the priest.
STATISTICAL CONGRESS, INTERNATIONAL
An organization of the most eminent statisticians
of all countries, which convenes from time to
time to define and systematize investigations.
The first meeting was held at Brussels in 1853.
STATISTICS. Etymologically, the science of
States. The word seems to have been introduced
into England about the beginning of the nine-
teenth century. It came into use in Germany
about half a century earlier and was there ap-
plied to lectures or books upon descriptive politi-
cal science, of which the Statesman’s Year Book
and the Almanach de Gotha are typical modern
representatives. If either of these annual publi-
cations be imagined stripped of the numerical
statements so frequent in them, a very fair notion
is left of Achenwall’s Outlines of Modern Politi-
cal Science (“Abriss der neuesten Staatswissen-
schaft,” etc., 1749), which opens with the state-
ment: “The notion of statistics so called, that is,
the political science of the several kingdoms, is
very differently understood, and among the many
books on the subject it is not easy to find any
one that agrees with the rest in the number and
the arrangement of its parts,” a complaint which
might be made to-day with almost equal correct-
ness. The title Statistics thus adopted by Ach-
enwall established itself as the prevailing name
for a sort of descriptive political science, which
had existed long before as the Elzevir Republics
and the writings of Conring illustrate, and which
maintained itself at the universities and before
the public in Germany until into the nineteenth
century.
Meantime in England a difi'erent line of
work had begun about the middle of the seven-
teenth century, after the recurrent and disastrous
visitations of the plague had roused interest
enough in the mortality it did so much to swell
to cause weekly reports of the burials and later
of the christenings in London to be made and
published. The keen interest in the meth-
ods of observation and measurement which
culminated in and were reinforced by the Royal
Society, chartered in 1662, induced Captain John
Graunt to apply methods of observation, induc-
tion, and measurement to the births and deaths
of London. He presented to the Royal Society
in 1662 his “Observations on the Bills of Mortal-
ity,” the foundation of statistics as that word is
now understood. But at that time the new study
was baptized by his friend and collaborator, Sir
William Petty, ‘Political Arithmetic.’ Interest
in this line of work grew and spread gradually
to the Continent, where Achenwall’s contemporary
.Siissmilch in 1741 hailed Graunt as a scientific
Columbus who had discovered a new continent
and confessed himself Graunt’s disciple, but
showed no knowledge of Achenwall’s work and
made no use of the name statistics. Gradually
the word statistics spread to Great Britain,
where, in 1798, Sir John Sinclair published his
Statistical Account of Scotland. The word was
taken up by Malthus in editions of his Principle
of Population after the first, and in such con-
nection as to indicate that he borrowed it from
Sinclair. Malthus’s subject-matter was in the
line of previous writers on political arithmetic,
and his adoption of the term statistics may have
been instrumental in leading to its gradual
displacement of the lengthier phrase in English
writing. Meantime the study of political arith-
metic, born in England, extended to the Conti-
nent, gradually displacing the older statistics of
Achenwall, sometimes called ‘university statis-
tics,’ from its prevalence as a subject of univer-
sity lectures, and, to add insult to injury, usurped
its name. Perhaps the most striking difference
between the two notions of statistics, the older
and the newer, is that the former is purely de-
scriptive and takes no account of the underlying
notion of modern science, the notion of causation,
while the latter subordinates description to ex-
planation, or an attempt at explanation. At the
same time it would be inconsistent with present
usage to limit the word statistics any further
than to say that it refers to the results obtained
in any field of reality by methods of counting
and that these methods are mainly employed in
tl;e study of societies politically organized into
S ates.
Methods of counting apply especially to the
study of human societies, because in them the
individual units are widely different, and it is
with the differences almost as much as with the
resemblances between individuals that science is
concerned. In the inorganic sciences and to a
less extent in the sciences of plant and animal
life, the units taken for purposes of investigation
resemble one another far more closely than hu-
man individuals do, or at least their resem-
blances are far more obvious and for man’s pur-
poses more important than their differences. In
other than the social sciences, therefore, the ob-
servation of one or a few units may serve as a
basis for general statements about the group, but
in human societies it is frequently necessary to
ascertain the existence, or non-existence, of a
particular characteristic in every member of the
group. This involves counting, and results in a
STATISTICS.
STATIUS.
153
statement in some numerical form, as a percent-
age, an average, or a series of figures- showing
the distribution of the characteristic among the
members of the group. This indicates a funda-
mental reason for the imperfect development of
methods of measurement in the social sciences
and a reason that statistics or the science of
measuring aggregates of units, as distinct from
individual units, is more necessary and has a
wider range of applications in the study of social
sciences than it has in the study of natural sci-
ences. There is, therefore, much ground for the
opinion of those who define statistics as the nu-
merical study of social facts, or the numeri-
cal investigation of man’s social life. But
it seems more correct to hold that, for example,
an enumeration through the century of the num-
ber of auroras observed each year and an obser-
vation through the same period of the extent of
spots on the sun, and an arrangement of these
two measurements in such a way as to show that
they have fluctuated in close conformity, is to
be included in statistics. '
THEORY. The United States Census reported in
1890 22,329,990 persons in the country over 15
years of age and married; in 1900 this class
of the population numbered 27,765,707. On
computing the ratios it is found that among each
1000 adults 553 were married in 1890 and 557
in 1900. The same authority reported at the
Eleventh Census 875,521 deaths during the pre-
ceding year, of which 6756 were caused by rail-
road accidents, and at the Twelfth Census 1,039,-
094 deaths, of which 6930 were due to the same
cause, so that railroad accidents caused in 1890
657 deaths and in 1900 667 deaths out of each
100,000 reported. The foregoing will serve to
illustrate a regularity or uniformity often, but
not always, traceable in the distribution of con-
ditions or the recurrence of events in society.
Upon this uniformity in the characteristics of,
and this regularity in the events occurring in, so-
cial groups, which has been not very felicitously
called ‘the law of large numbers,’ the statistical
method rests. These uniformities and regulari-
ties do not exist in the individual or even in the
small group, and if they could not be traced in
the large group the laborious and uninviting
statistical method would add nothing to the in-
formation obtainable from examination of a few
individuals or instances, and therefore, however
important for political ends, would have no sig-
nificance for science. It is this ‘law of large
numbers,’ or the permanence of numerical rela-
tions in social life, that makes it possible to de-
scribe human societies with accuracy in quantita-
tive terms, to frame inductions from their past,
which are found to hold for their future, to fore-
cast the influence of a given change upon their
life and so in multitudinous ways to control that
life. Perhaps the best illustration of the im-
portance of the ‘law of large numbers’ is found
in the business of insurance, which could not
exist were it not for that law as a foundation.
This principle stands in somewhat the same rela-
tion to the possibility of a science of society that
the principle of the uniformity of nature does to
the possibility of natural science. In social phe-
nomena it is seldom if ever possible to carry the
isolation of causes to the degree of perfection it
has reached in the natural world. The presence
of a few drops of hydrochloric acid is practically
the only difference between a transparent solu-
tion of nitrate of silver and a turbid white fluid,
so the acid is said to cause the precipitate. But
the marriage of an individual man or woman is
influenced by so~ many complex considerations
that it is impossible to perceive in the vast ma-
jority of marriages taken separately any effect
of so subsidiary a cause as the price of bread
or the spread of business depression. What this
subsidiary cause loses, however, in power over
each individual instance it gains by the number
of individuals it'reaches and the fact that its
effect is uniformly in the same direction, while
the influence of age, of example, of personal af-
fection, of gain or loss of property, etc., though
in many individual cases far more powerful, is
felt sometimes in one direction and sometimes in
another. Such causes, therefore, are as power-
less on the aggregate as they are potent on the
individual, and, on the contrary, the society as a
whole betrays the undeniable effects of slight
causes, which perhaps few individuals therein
would admit to have swayed their action. The
‘law of large numbers’ thus assumes that the
causes of any social phenomenon may be divided
into two groups, the individual, accidental, or
disturbing causes, and the essential or pri-
mary causes, and that causes of the former sort
have no constant tendency to act in one direc-
tion rather than another, and, accordingly, no
tendency to move the group as a whole in any
one direction. If a sufficiently large number of
instances be taken, the disturbing or individual
causes cancel and allow the influence of the essen-
_tial or group causes to be traced. How large a
number of instances must be enumerated to elim-
inate these individual causes with any specified
degree of completeness is a mathematical prob-
lem dealt with by the calculus of probabilities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the only survey of the his-
tory in English, see Falkner’s translation of Meit-
zen’s Gesch-ichte, Theorie und Teohnilc der Statis-
tik, published by the American Academy of P0-
litical and Social Science in 1891. For the theory
of the subject, see the latter part of the foregoing
book; Bowley, Elements of Statistics (London,
1901), strong in English methods, in wage statis-
tics, and in the mathematical basis of the subject ;
and Westergaard, Theorie der Statistilc (Jena,
1890). See also Mayo-Smith, Statistics and So-
ciology and Statistics and Economics.
STATIUS, sta’shi-fis, Ponuos PAPINIUS
(c.40-c.96 A.D.) . A Roman poet, born at Naples.
He became famous for his poetic gifts, espe-
cially for his skill in extemporaneous verse, and
three times gained the prize in the Alban con-
tests. But finally, having been vanquished in
the quinquennial games, he retired with his wife,
Claudia, to his birthplace, Naples, where he died
about A.D. 96. He is polished and correct, but one
often feels the note of artificiality in his verse.
He wrote a very dull and laborious epic entitled
Thebais; the Siloce, five books of miscellaneous
poems; and an epic of the Trojan cycle, Achil-
leid, of which only a portion has survived. The
best modern editions are: of the Siluaz, by
Baehrens (Leipzig, 1876), Vollmer (with ex-
tensive German connnentary, Leipzig, 1898), and
Klotz (Leipzig, 1900) ; of the Achilleis and
Thebais, by Kohlmann (Leipzig, 1879). There
are English translations, in whole or in part, by
Pope, Howard, Stephens, and Lewis.
STATUTE.
STATUTE.
154.-
STATUTE (Lat. statutum, statute, neu. sg. of
statutus, p.p. of atatuere, to set up, establish,
from statum, supine of stare, to stand). A law
enacted or promulgated in writing by the su-
preme legislative body of a government, or by
its authority. Statute law is sometimes spoken
of as written law to distinguish it from the
common or unwritten law, which is established
exclusively by judicial decision. All statutes
have their source in the ofiicial action of the
legislative body, the form of which may vary
according to the particular form of government
under which it acts. The validity of a statute
in any given case depends not only upon the
legislative body’s being lawfully constituted, but
upon its constitutional authority to act. (See
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.) Statutes may be en-
acted by indirect legislation, that is, by some
subordinate legislative body whose acts derive
their validity from the sanction of the supreme
legislative body. Thus, in England Orders in
Council and the various rules of court adopted
under the judicature acts, and in the United States
the ordinances of Boards of Aldermen, and the
ordinances of Boards of Health under the various
public health acts, are examples of statutes en-
acted by indirect legislation.
The procedure by which statutes are created
by legislative enactment has been fully discussed
under the topics PARLIAMENT; CONGRESS; LEGIS-
LATION, etc., to which reference is here made. In
England the acts of Parliament have the full force
of statutory law without the approval of the sov-
ereign, although it is the established custom
for the sovereign to promulgate all statutes “by
and with the advice and consent of the Lords
Spiritual and Temporal in this present Parlia-
ment assembled.” In the United States the acts
of Congress require the assent of the President
of the United States, and the acts of the various
legislatures require the assent of the Governors
of their respective States to give them validity
as statutes. See VETO.
Statute laws may be classified with reference
to the purpose for which they are enacted, with
reference to the subject matter of the statutes,
and with reference to the compliance with the
statute required. With reference to their pur-
pose, statutes are said to be (a) Declaratory,
when passed for the purpose of aflirming a rule
of the common law which is uncertain or in-
definite, or a statute of doubtful meaning; (b)
Remedial, when passed for the purpose of reme-
dying defects or supplying omissions in the
statute or common law; (c) Penal, when passed
for the purpose of prohibiting acts specified in
the statute and imposing a penalty for its vio-
lation; and with reference to their subject mat-
ter, they are said to be (a) Public, when ap-
plicable to the entire community, and (b) Pri-
vate (see the explanation of these terms un-
der the titles LAW; LEGISLATION; Pnemo
LAW, ETC.), as distinguished from public when
applicable to a single individual or corpora-
tion, or to a limited number of individuals. The
distinction between public and private statutes,
first made as early as the reign of Richard
II., now has considerable importance, owing to
various statutory and constitutional provisions
requiring the publication of public and private
statutes separately. Statutes have also been
classified with reference to the extent of terri-
tory in which they are applicable. Those stat-
utes are said to be (a) General, when they ap-
ply to the entire territory subject to the legis-
lative jurisdiction of the law-making body, and
(b) Local, when they extend only to a single
or limited political division of such territory,
as statutes enacted by State legislatures which
apply only to a single town, city, or county.
With reference to the subject matter also,
statutes are classified as Enabling acts, which
confer rights or privileges, as the Married
VVomen’s Enabling Acts; and Disabling acts,
which take away rights or privileges hitherto en-
joyed, as statutes requiring legal voters to have
new or additional qualifications.
With reference to the compliance required
statutes are said to be (a) Mandatory, when
they direct an act to be done with the conse-
quence that if it is not done all acts or pro-
ceedings taken under the statute are invalid.
Thus statutes formulating the procedure for
organizing corporations, or authorizing civil ar-
rest, are mandatory, since they must be strictly
complied with, or all acts done under them
have no validity.
(b) Directory, when failure to comply with
the statute does not affect the validity of acts
done under it or entail the imposition of any
penalty for failure to comply with the statute.
Thus many statutes specifying the time and
manner of filing ofiicial reports are directory
only. There is no penalty for failure to comply
with the statute, and compliance with it can be
compelled only by mandamus (q.v.).
(c) Prohibitory, when they forbid the doing
of any act either with or without penalty for
failure to comply with the statute.
(d) Permissive, when they allow acts to be
done not before permitted, or give to them some
additional legal effect, although such acts are
not required to be done, as the various statutes
permitting the disposition of property by will.
A statute may contain four distinct parts—
the title, the preamble, the enacting clause,
and the purview. The title is a short form of
description of the statute, as for example, ‘An
Act Prohibiting Sabbath-Breaking.’ In some
States the title is of great importance, because
of constitutional provisions requiring statutes
to have titles descriptive of the subject matter of
the statute. In the absence of such provision,
it is now the usual practice to omit the title.
The preamble is an introductory and explana-
tory statement setting forth the reason and pur-
pose of the statute. It is of service only as an
aid in interpreting the purview of the statute
which follows. All the early English statutes
included the preamble, but it is now seldom
used.
The enacting clause is a brief direction that
the statute be enacted by the legislative body;
as, “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
Representatives of the United States of America
in Congress assembled.”
The purview is that portion of the statute
following the enacting clause, and is the only
part of the statute which has the effect of law.
It may contain various subdivisions or clauses
known as provisos, exceptions, the saving clause,
the repealing clause, terms which are self-ex-
planatory.
At common law a statute was deemed to take
effect as upon the first day of the session in
which it was enacted. This was modified by
STATUTE. - 155 STAURO SCOPE.
Statute 33, Geo. III., e. 13, which provided ennially, and a unicameral council. The water-
that all statutes should become operative works and the electric-light plant are owned and
from the date of their receiving the royal ope1*ated by _the n1111pc1pal1ty- Population, in
assent. It is now generally the rule in the 1890, 5975; In 1900, 1289- '
United States that statutes shall become opera- STAUN']_‘()1\T', Sir GEORGE THOMAS (1781-
tive from the date of their receiving the assent 1859)_ An English t1-aveler and Orientalist’
of the Executive, unless a different date is other- born at Salisbury. In 17 92 he went with his
wise specified in the statute itself. father, Sir George Leonard Staunton (1737-
Courts will take judicial notice of all public 1801), to China, where he learned to speak and
statutes operative within their jurisdiction, and write the language, After two terms at Cam-
it is therefore not necessary generally to plead bridge he was appointed Writer in Canton for
a public statute upon which a litigant founds the East India, (jomp-,my’S fa,C{-,01~y_ He intro-
an action or defense. Some rule of public policy duced vaccination into China in 1804, by trans-'
may, however, require a public statute to be lating George Pearson’s treatise. He translated
pleaded in special cases, as the Statute of Limi- from Chinese; La Tsing lew lee, being the
tations (q.v.) and Statute of Frauds (q.v.). Fundamental Laws of China (1810), the first
Private statutes, however, are required to be book translated from Chinese into English; the
' pleaded, and the statutes of foreign States and Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan
‘countries, being regarded as matters of fact, are of the Tourgouth Tartars (1821), and wrote
required to be pleaded and proved like other Miscellaneous Notices Relating to China (1822),
matters of fact. Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences During the
For discussion of the amendment and repeal British Embassy to Peking (1824), Observations
of statutes, consult those topics respectively; and on Our Chinese Commerce (1850), and Memoir
for a discussion of the interpretation of stat- of Sir J. Barrow, Ba-rt. (1852).
utes, see INTERPRETATION; CoNsTITUTIoNAL LAW; STAUNTQN’ HOWARD (1810-74), An Eng-
LAW, etc. . . lish chess master and Shakespearean scholar.
Consult the authorities referred to under In 1843 he defeated St. Amant, then the chess
LEGISLATION; LAW. champion of Europe, and three years afterwards
STATUTE OF FRAUDS. See FRAUDS, won from the German experts dHaI1'rwi(t1z and
S ATUTE 0F. Horwitz. His plans at all times isp aye great
I TSTATUTE OF LIMITATIONS. See LIMI_ originality in attack, fertility in defense, and
TATION OF ACTION. untiring patience. He founded the Chess Play-
er’s Chronicle in 1840, which he edited until
STATUTE OF PARLIAMENT‘ see ACT 1854, and from 1844 until his death conducted
OF PARLIAMENT' . the chess column of the Illustrated London News.
STATUTES 0F JE0FAILS- English stat- His Shakespearean researches resulted in an edi-
utes permitting amendments to pleadings or cur- tion of the plays, and poems (1857-60), edited
ing certain mistakes or omissions in the pro- and analyzed with shrewdness and good taste,
ceedings in an action. The name was derived a facsimile of the 1623 folio, and a series of arti-
from the old phrase 7'60 fdile (I have failed), by cles contributed to the Athenoeum, on “Unsus-
which the pleader acknowledged an error in his pected Corruptions of Shakespeare’s Text”
pleadings or proceeding, after which he could (1872). His other writings include: Chess
take advantage of the provisions of these stat- Player’s Hand-Boole (1847); Chess Player’s
utes. The procedure acts in practically all of Companion (1849); Chess Pra.vis (1860); Great”
the United States provide for the amendment of Schools of England (1865). "
pleadings and the arbitrary waiver of defects and STAUPITZ-, stou/pits, JOHANN VON. A
i1‘1‘e8'u1a-lities in certain Cases, but the term I60‘ friend and spiritual guide of Martin Luther
fails is not commonly applied to such acts. Con- (q,-v_) ,
sult Chitty on Pleading; Stevens on Pleading. STA-U-ROLITE ( f 1, Om Gk. a_Tav/36$, “auras,
STAUBBACH, stou’bi-is. A celebrated water- cross + macs, Ztthos, stone), or FAIRY STONE,
fall in the Soutllerll part Of the Canton Of Bern, A mineral hydrated iron-aluminum silicate crys-
Switzerland, 8 miles south of Interlaken. It is tallized in the orthorhombic system. It has a
one of the highest in Europe, having a descent sub-vitreous to resinous lustre and is dark
Of bellweell 800 and 900 feet Long before it brown to black in color. The crystalline varie-
reaches the bottom it is blown into a dust Of ties are frequently cruciform, owing to twinning.
spray, Wllence its 11211116 Sitaullbach (duSl3'$l5I'BaI11) - On account of their resemblance to a cross these
STAU-NTON’ Stan/ton The countvseat of forms are popularly believed to have fallen from
Augusta County, Va., 135 miles northwest of heaven, and are used to some extent not only
Richmond, on the Baltimore and Ohio and the as 0I'name¥1tS: but also as eharn1S- They Qccur
Chesapeake and Ohio railroads (Map: Virginia, 1n_ Clystalllne SCh1§tS, and are usuaily assoclated
E 3). It is the seat of the VVestern State Hos- ‘f"1th_ gt-11'I1<’-13, ,Syen1J_Ee, and t011Tma11I1e- StauT0'
pital for the Insane’ and of the State Deaf, lite IS found In Sw1tzerland,tl1e Tyrol, Moravia,
Dumb, and Blind Institution; and has the Ireland, and in the United States at various
Mary Baldwin Seminary, Virginia Female In- 10ca'11§1es in N?W England, New York, North
stitute, and Kable’s Military Academy. Other Car0111_1a, Georsla, and elseivhere along the AP-
prominent features are the City Hall, Court P3-13-Chlan range of mountalns-
House, Masonic Temple, Columbian Hall, and STAUROSCOPE (from Gk. aravpbs, sta/uros,
Gypsy Hill and Highland Parks. Staunton cross + mcmreiv, shopein, to view). A variety
manufactures organs, flour, overalls, wagons, of polariscope (q_.v.) ' adapted to the study of
machine-shop products, and agricultural imple- crystals, and consisting essentially of a mirror,
ments. The government, under the revised char- two Nicol’s prisms, and a revolving stage. By
ter of 1879, is vested in a mayor, chosen bi- it sections cut from crystals along any desired
VOL. XVI.—11. >
STAURO SCOPE.
STEAM.
156
direction are examined by use of parallel rays
of plane polarized light. See CONOSCOPE;
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
STAVANGER, sta’vang-er. A seaport of
Southwestern Norway, on the south shore of the
wide entrance to the Stavanger or Bukken
Fiord, 190 miles southwest of Christiania (Map:
Norway, A 7). It has a Gothic cathedral, one
of the finest in Norway. The town produces
woolen, linen, and cotton goods, soap, preserves,
oleomargarine, hardware, pottery, and bricks.
There are iron foundries, and the harbor is
provided with shipyards. Fisheries and the cur-
ing of fish are important industries. The ship-
ping at the harbor amounts to about 325,000
tons annually, and the trade in 1899 was valued
at $3,867,100, the principal exports being fish,
preserved foods, butter and margarine, marble,
and manure. Population, in 1891, 23,899; in
1901, 30,541.
STAVROPOL, stav'ro-pol-y’. A government
of Ciscaucasia, bounded by the Province
of the Don Cossacks and the Government of As-
trakhan on the north, the Territory of Terek on
the east and south, and the Territory of Kuban
on the west (Map: Russia, F 5). Area, 23,430
square miles. The surface is largely steppe-like
in character, and only the southwestern part is
mountainous, the highest point being about 2200
feet. The principal rivers are the Kuma and the
Great Egorlyk. Agriculture and stock-raising
are the principal occupations. The chief cereals
are wheat, oats, and barley. In 1898 there were
in the government over 3,800.000 head of live
stock, including over 2,600,000 sheep. Popula-
tion, in 1898, 912,639, of whom the Russians con-
stituted 90 per cent.
STAVROPOL. The capital of the Russian
government of the same name, situated about
700 miles south-southeast of Moscow (Map:
Russia, F 5). Farming and gardening are the
main occupations. Population, in 1897 , 41,621,
chiefly Russians.
STAWELL, sta’el. .A town of Borung County,
Victoria, Australia, 179 miles northwest of Mel-
bourne, in the centre of the richest gold-mining
region of the province (Map: Victoria, B 4).
There are important freestone quarries. Popu-
lation, in 1901, 5296.
STAY (OF. estaie, estaye, Fr. étai, from
MDutch staeye, a stay). In law, a suspension
of legal proceedings by order of a court. A
stay is usually granted by the court in which
an action or proceedings are pending, and is
commonly ordered for the purpose of compelling
a party to an action to comply with some con-
dition or order of the court, as to pay costs on
some interlocutory motion, or to give security
for costs, etc. In a few instances the courts may
grant absolute stays, as, for example, where
an unfounded action is commenced merely to
harass or annoy the defendant. It is custom-
ary for the United States courts to stay the
proceedings in all actions pending against a
bankrupt in State courts during the pendency of
the bankruptcy proceedings. A temporary stay
of execution may usually be obtained, especially
where the defeated party desires to appeal. No
rights are destroyed by a stay, as it only oper-
ates to suspend proceedings and does not involve
their merits. See Chitty, On Pleading; New
York Code of Civil Procedure.
STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849—). An
English journalist, born at Embleton, Northum-
berland. After a brief schooling he went into
business, but in 1891 was appointed editor of the
Northern Echo (Darlington) . Here he remained
until 1880, when he was called to be assistant
editor, under John Morley, of the Pall Mall Ga-
zette. He was editor of this paper from 1883 to
1889 and in the next year founded the Review of
Reviews (monthly). He established similar pub-
lications in the United States (1891) and Aus-
tralia (1894). As editor of the Pall Mall Ga-
zette, a daily, he introduced American journal-
ism into England, in the way of the interview,
illustrations, and ‘extras.’ Though regarded as
thoroughly sincere and intensely earnest in his
treatment of public affairs, he aroused criticism
by these methods and by injudicious conclusions.
He became known as a vigorous opponent of so-
cial evils, a steadfast advocate of international
peace, and, though patriotic, an apologist of Rus-
sia. His The Truth About the Navy (1884) led
to the laying down of more ships in the following
year. In 1885 his The Maiden Tribute of Modern
Babylon, an exposure of legally permissible out-
rages upon women and children, landed him for a
three months’ term in Holloway Gaol, but it was
followed by the enactment of the Criminal Law-
Amendment Bill. In 1898 he started War
Against War, a weekly devoted to the opposition
of the Anglo-Boer War. His publications in-
clude: The Truth About Russia (1888); The
Pope and the New Era (1889) ; The Story that
Transformed the World (1890) ; If Christ Came
to Chicago (1893) ; The Labor War in the
United States (1894) ; Satan’s Invisible World:
A Study of Despairing Democracy (1897) ; Mr.
Carnegie’s Conundrum (1900); The American-
ieation of the World (1902) ; The Last Will and
Testament of Cecil John Rhodes (1902).
STEALING. See LARCENY.
STEAM (AS. steam, Fris. stoame, Dutch
stoom, steam; of unknown etymology). Water
in a gaseous condition. It is a dry, colorless gas
with a specific gravity of 0.625 as compared with
air at the same pressure. The white cloud of
vapor which rises from boiling water and which
is commonly called steam is a vapor composed of
minute particles of water suspended in the air
and formed by the condensation of the steam
coming in contact with the cool air. When water
is subjected to the action of heat, it is converted
into steam. Though a change takes place in the
physical condition of the substance, the chemical
composition of the steam is in no way different
from that of the water from which it was gen-
erated. If heat be applied to the bottom of a
vessel containing water, the air contained in the
water will first appear as little bubbles which
rise to the surface. Then the water in imme-
diate contact with the heated portion of the ves-
sel will be converted into steam, which will
form as bubbles on the bottom of the vessel and
these will rise through the liquid, but at the
commencement of the operation they will be at
once condensed by the cold upper layers of water.
Finally, however, the water becomes heated
through when the bubbles rise to the surface and
the steam exudes upon the air, and we have the
phenomenon known as boiling. As the steam
STEAM.
STEAM.
157
passes into the air, it is cooled and collects into
small particles of water which are visible as a
white cloud above the surface, and the phenome-
non is called condensation. If all the particles
of this white cloud were collected into one mass,
there would be a volume of water equal to the
volume of water in the original vessel which had
been converted into the steam forming the cloud.
Boiling occurs only when the water in the vessel
has reached a certain temperature. This tem-
perature varies with the pressure. At the atmos-
pheric pressure of 14.7 pounds at mean sea level,
it is 212° F., but it would be somewhat less on
the top of a high mountain and somewhat great-
er at the bottom of a deep mine. See HYPSO-
METER; HYPSOMETRY.
The boiling temperature or boiling point of
water thus varies with the pressure upon it. At
a pressure of 5 pounds per square inch, it is as
low as 162.3° F., and at a pressure of 100 pounds
per square inch, it is as high as 327.58° F. Con-
densation takes place at any temperature lower
than the boiling temperature.
To explain more fully the action of heat in the
formation of steam, reference will be made to the
accompanying diagrams. In Fig. 1, let the cyl-
inder contain one pound of water at 32° F., and
let the pressure of the atmosphere be represented
by the weighted piston. Then if heat be applied
to the bottom of the cylinder, the temperature of
the water will rise higher and higher until it
reaches 212° F. ; the piston will up to this point
remain stationary except for the small expansion
of the water. On continuing the heat, the water
shows no further rise in temperature, but steam
begins to form and to force the piston upward
as shown by Fig. 2, and this continues until the
last drop of water is converted into steam and
we have the condition illustrated by Fig. 3.








Fig.1. Fig.2. Fig.5. Fig.4-.-
Before proceeding further, we must note first
that no steam began to form until the water
reached a temperature of 212° F., hence this is
evidently the lowest temperature at which steam
will form under normal atmospheric pressure.
Second, we must note that in the condition il-
lustrated by Fig. 3 we have one pound of steam
occupying the least possible volume at atmos-
pheric pressure. In actual figures this volume
is 26.36 cubic feet. Steam in this condition is
known as saturated steam. If now we continue
to heat the steam in the cylinder Fig. 3, its tem-
perature will rise above that of saturated steam,
and the piston will move upward, and we will
have superheated stea/m. If now we take the
cylinder Fig. 3 and plunge it into a vessel of
cold water, as shown by Fig. 4, the heat will be
taken away from the steam and it will con-
dense to water. When this water has cooled to
32° F., the whole heat taken away is exactly
equal to the whole heat added during the opera-
tions illustrated by Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
The amount of this added and abstracted heat
may now be considered. First, let us assume
that the cylinder Fig. 1 has an area of 1 square
foot and that it contains 1 pound of water. The
height to which the water rises in the cylinder
is 0.016 foot. The pressure on the piston from
the air is 14.7 pounds X 144 square inches :
2116.8 pounds. Now on applying heat to the
water it will at first gradually rise in tem-
perature from 32° F. to 212° F. before evapo-
ration commences. Then 212° -— 32° : 180
are the number of heat units required to raise
water from 32° F. to the boiling point at
atmospheric pressure. Steam now begins to
form and the piston to rise until all the water is
converted into steam at a temperature of 212°
F. This steam, as before stated, occupies a
space of 26.36 cubic feet. The heat required to
perform this operation is 966 units. Hence the
total heat required first to raise the water from
32° F. to 212° F. and then to convert it into
steam is 180+ 966:: 1146 units. It is quite
clear how the heat required to raise the water
from 32° F. to 212° F. has been expended, but it
is not so clear how the 966° F. required to con-
vert the water at 212° F. into steam at 212° F.
has been expended. It will be observed that two
things have happened in this last operation.
First, the water has been converted into steam,
which occupies 1644 times the space occupied by
the water from which it was generated. Second,
the piston has been raised from the surface of
the water in Fig. 1 to the surface of the steam in
Fig. 3. Therefore, the heat has been expended
in two ways: First, in overcoming the internal
molecular resistance of the water in changing
its condition from water to steam, and, second,
in overcoming the external resistance of the pis-
ton to the increasing volume of the steam dur-
ing formation. The first task performed is called
the internal work of the steam and the second
task is called the external work. Now the share
of the heat expended in each operation may be
calculated as follows: The total heat expended
is, as already stated, 1146 units. To raise the
piston with a pressure on it of 2116.8 pounds
through a height of 26.36 feet requires 55,799
foot-pounds of energy. As the energy of one
heat unit is 772 foot-pounds, then 55,-
799 -2- 772 = 72.3 heat units expended in raising
the piston. Adding this to 180, the number of
heat units required to raise water from 32° F.
to 212° F., we have 252.3 units consumed in
heating the water and raising the piston. This
amount subtracted from the total heat expend-
ed gives 1146 - 252.3 : 893.7, which is the num-
ber of heat units expended in internal work. We
can now summarize the distribution of the heat
as follows:
In raising temperature of water ...................... .. 180 units
In doing internal work ..... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 893.7 units
In doing external work .. . ................. .. 72.3 units
Total ..................................................... ..1146.0 units
Having gone through the phenomenon of steam
generation in detail. we can summarize some of
the general facts that have been brought out.
The temperature of the water gradually rises
until it reaches the temperature at which steam
STEAM.
STEAM.
158
is formed. This temperature will depend upon
the pressure or the load on the piston. If this
pressure is the normal atmospheric pressure of
14.7 pounds per square inch, steam begins to
form at a temperature of 212° F.
As soon as 212° F. is reached, steam will begin
to form and the piston will steadily rise, but no
matter how hot the fire may be, the temperature
of both water and steam will remain at 212° F.
until all the water is evaporated. We had one
pound of water at 32° F. and at 14.7 pounds ab-
solute pressure, and found that steam formed
at a temperature of 212° F. and remained at
that temperature. We added 180.9 B. T. U.
(British Thermal Units), the heat of the liquid,
to bring the water from 32° to the boiling point.
To convert water at 212° into steam at 212°, we
added 965.7 B. T. U. more. This quantity,
known as the latent heat, or heat of vaporization,
makes the total heat 1146.6 B. T. U. If we
should measure the volume carefully after all
the water was evaporated, we should find that
there was just 26.36 cubic feet of dry saturated
steam. We had one pound of water, and therefore
must have one pound of steam, for none of it
could escape; hence one cubic foot will weigh
density of steam at 14.7 pounds absolute pressure
or 212° F. In the table of properties of satu-
rated steam all these quantities are found in
the order given and at the pressure of 14.7
pounds above vacuum.
Suppose now we place a weight of 85.3 pounds
on the piston. The pressure is 85.3 pounds plus
14.7 pounds, or 100 pounds absolute. We shall
now find that no steam will form until a tem-
perature of 327.58° is reached. Starting with
water at 32°, it will be necessary to add 297.9
B. T. U. before a temperature of 327.58° is
reached, and also we must add 884 B. T. U.
more to vaporize it, making a total heat of
1181.9 B. T. U. Under this greater pressure the
steam occupies a volume of only 4.403 cubic feet,
or one cubic .foot of it weighs 1,46,: 0.2271
pound.
, We have already seen that any change in the
temperature of saturated steam produces a
change -of pressure, and that every change of
pressure corresponds to a certain change in tem-
perature. There are several properties of sat-
urated steam that depend upon the temperature
and pressure; and the values of all these differ-
ent properties when arranged for all tempera-

Tgn : 0.03794 pound, which is known as the tures and pressures are called steam tables. The
TABLE or PROPERTHE on SATURATED STEAM
PRESSURE Heat of . , I
IN POUNDS Temperature .'.§‘l."..°Z.l1.’.‘.‘i."%‘€. Heat in uvoriza~ ‘£13333? 0f"{’l.‘.‘.’I.‘.“1d 531331.31 TOW pres-
PER SQUARE 1n degrees, from water llq)u_1d from tion, or _ cubic foot in in cubic 'e1va‘pOI_aJ_ sure above
inqyiigtptphvgn Fahrenheit at 32° 32 in units lalpggp 81n pounds feet tion at 212° vacuum
1 101.99 1113.1 70.0 1043.0 0.00299 334.5 .9661 1
2 126.27 1120.5 94.4 1026.1 0.00576 173.6 .9738 2
3 141.62 1125.1 109.8 1015.3 0.00844 118.5 .9786 3
4 153.09 1128.6 121.4 1007.2 0.01107 90.33 .9822 I 4
5 162.34 1131.5 130.7 1000.8 0.01366 73.21 .9852 5
6 170.14 1133.8 138.6 995.2 0.01622 61.65 .9876 6
7 176.90 1135.9 145.4 990.5 0.01874 53.39 .9897 7
8 182.92 1137.7 151.5 986.2 0.02125 47.06 .9916 8
9 188.33 1139.4 156.9 982.5 0.02374 42.12 .9934 9
10 193.25 1140.9 161.9 979.0 0.02621 38.15 .9949 10
15 213.03 1146.9 181.8 965.1 0.03826 26.14 1.0003 15
20 227.95 1151.5 196.9 954.6 0.05023 19.91 1.0051 20
25 240.04 1155.1 209.1 946.0 0.06199 16.13 1.0099 25
30 250.27 1158.3 219.4 938.9 0.07360 13.59 1.0129 30
35 259.19 1161.0 228.4 932.6 0.08508 11.75 1.0157 35
40 267.13 1163.4 236.4 927.0 0.09644 10.37 1.0182 40
45 274.29 1165.6 243.6 922.0 0.1077 9.285 1.0205 45
50 280.85 1167.6 250.2 917.4 0.1188 8.418 1.0225 50
55 286.89 1169.4 256.3 913.1 0.1299 7.698 1.0245 55
60 292.51 1171.2 261.9 909.3 0.1409 7.097 1.0263 60
65 297.77 1172.7 267.2 905.5 0.1519 6.583 1.0280 65
70 302.71 1174.3 272.2 902.1 0.1628 6.143 1.0295 70
75 307.38 1175.7 276.9 898.8 0.1736 5.760 1.0309 75
80 311.80 1177.0 281.4 895.6 0.1843 5.426 1.0323 80
85 316.02 1178.3 285.8 892.5 0.1951 5.126 1.0337 85
90 320.04 1179.6 290.0 889.6 0.2058 4.859 1.0350 90
95 . 323.89 1180.7 294.0 886.7 0.2165 4.619 1.0362 95
100 327.58 1181.9 297.9 884.0 0.2271 4.403 1.0374 100
105 331.13 1182.9 301.6 881.3 0.2378 4.205 1.0385 105
110 334.56 1174.0 305.2 878.8 0.2484 4.026 1.0396 110
115 337.86 1185.0 308.7 876.3 0.2589 3.862 1.0406 115
120 341.05 1186.0 312.0 874.0 0.2695 3.711 - 1.0416 120
125 344.13 1186.9 315.2 871.7 0.2800 3.571 1.0426 125
130 347.12 1187.8 318.4 869.4 0.2904 3.444 1.0435 130
140 352.85 1189.5 324.4 865.1 0.3113 3.212 1.0453 140
150 358.26 1191.2 330.0 861.2 0.3321 3.011 1.0470 150
.160 363.40 1192.8 335.4 857.4 0.3530 2.833 1.0486 160
170 368.29 1194 3 340.5 853.8 0.3737 2.676 1.0502 170
180 372.97 1195 7 345.4 850.3 0.3945 2.535 1.0517 180
190 377.44 1197.1 350.1 847.0 0.4153 2.408 1.0531 190
200 381.73 1198.4 354.6 843.8 0.4359 2.294 1.0545 200
225 391.79 1201.4 365.1 836.3 0.4876 2.051 1.0576 225
250 400.99 1204.2 374.7 829.5 0.5393 1.854 1.0605 250
275 409.50 1206.8 ,383.6 823.2 0.5913 1.691 1.0632 275
300 417.42 1209.3 391.9 817.4 0.644 1.553 1.0657 300
325 424.82 1211.5 399.6 811.9 0.696 1.437 1.0680 325
350 431.90 1213.7 406.9 806.8 0.748 1.337 1.0703 350
375 438.40 1215.7 414.2 801.5 0.800 1.250 1.0724 375
400 445.15 1217.7 421.4 796.3 0.853 1.172 1 0745 400
500 466.57 1224.2 444.3 779.9 1.065 . .939 _ 1.0812 500



STEAM.
STEAM ENGINE.
159
following are th_e principal items that are found
in the tables:
(1) The absolute pressure in pounds per
square inch; it is equal to the gauge pressure
plus the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds.
(2) The temperature of the steam, or boiling
water, at the corresponding pressure.
(3) The heat of the liquid; or the number of
B. T. U. necessary to raise one pound of water
from 32° F. to the boiling point corresponding to
the given pressure.
(4) The heat of vaporization, or the latent
heat; this is the number of B. T. U. necessary
to change one pound of water, at the boiling
point, into dry saturated steam at the -same tem-
perature and pressure.
(5) The total heat; or the number of B. T. U.
necessary to change one pound of water from 32°
F. into steam at the given temperature or pres-
sure. The total heat is evidently equal to the
sum of the heat of the liquid and the heat of
vaporization.
(6) The density of the steam; that is, the
weight in pounds of one cubic foot of steam at
the given temperature or pressure. .
(7) The specific volume; or volume in cubic
feet of one pound of steam at the required tem-
perature or pressure. Evidently the specific vol-
1
ume is equal to ME-
All these properties have been calculated by
means of various formulas which have been de-
duced from the results of actual experiment.
VVe have seen that a saturated vapor contains
just enough heat to keep it in the form of a
vapor; if it loses heat it will condense. A super-
heated vapor is one that has been heated after
vaporization; it can lose this extra heat before
any condensation will take place. A vapor in
contact with its liquid is saturated; one heated
after removal from the liquid is superheated.
For saturated steam there is a fixed tempera-
ture for every pressure. If we know either the
pressure or the temperature, we can find the
other in the steam tables. For instance, if the
gauge pressure of a boiler is 60.3 pounds and we
wish to know the temperature, we simply add
atmospheric pressure and turn to our tables and
find it to be 307° (approximately).
VVith superheated steam the case is entirely
difi"erent, for there is no longer the same direct
relation between the temperature and pressure.
In fact, the relation between temperature and
pressure of superheated steam depends upon the
amount of superheating. Superheated steam at
60.3 pounds gauge pressure may have a tempera-
ture considerably above 307° F. At a given
pressure the temperature and volume of a given
weight of superheated steam are always greater
than the temperature and volume of the same
weight of saturated steam. The properties of
superheated steam at given pressure are not con-'
stant a.s is the case with saturated steam.
If superheated steam were a perfect gas, we
could determine the relation of p, 11, and t by the
equation pv : ct; but superheated steam is not
a perfect gas, hence we must modify our equa-
tion. By experiment it has been determined that
the following equation is nearly correct:
pv : 93.5 t— 971 p 14,
in which p : absolute pressure in pounds per
square inch,
t : absolute temperature, and
'0 I volume of 1 pound in cubic feet.
STEAM CARRIAGE. See Arrromonrnn.
STEAM ENGINE. A motor in which the ex-
pansive force of steam is employed as the medium
for transforming the energy of heat into useful
work. Ordinarily the steam acts upon a piston
inclosed within a cylinder in such a manner as to
be capable only of reciprocating motion, but in
certain rare forms of engines it acts upon an in-
closed piston or vane, which rotates around an
axis. The rotary engine has the advantages of
compactness and of being capable of applying its
power directly, while the reciprocating engine
has to have the rectilinear motion of the piston
transformed into the rotary motion of a fly wheel
or shaft by a cumbersome intermediate mechan-
ism. These advantages of the rotary engine are,
however, more than counterbalanced by its de-
cided lack of economy in steam consumption,
which prevents it from successfully competing
commercially with the reciprocating engine. Only
the latter is here treated. _
EARLY HISTORY. The first instance of the use
of steam as a motive power is generally as-
sumed to have been the acolipile of Hero of
Alexandria (q.v.). As early as 1543 a Span-
ish captain, named Blasco de Garay, is reputed
to have shown in the harbor of Barcelona a
steamboat of his own invention. A French en-
gineer, Salomon de Cans, describes in 1615 a
steam machine, which was merely a contrivance
for forcing the water contained in a copper ball
through a tube by applying heat. An Italian
engineer, Giovanni Branca, invented, in 1629, a
sort of steam windmill; the steam, being gener-
ated in a boiler, was directed by a spout against
the fiat vanes of a wheel, which was thus set in
motion. See STEAM TURBINE. _
In England the first successful effort was that
of the Marquis of Worcester, who, in 1663, de-
scribes a -steam apparatus by which he raised a
column of water to the height of 40 feet. The
first patent for the application of steam power to
various kinds of machines was taken out in 1698
by Thomas Savery. His engines were the first
used and seem to have been employed for some
years in the drainage of mines in Cornwall and
Devonshire. The essential improvement in them
over the older ones was the use of a boiler sep-
arate from the vessel in which the steam did its
work.
To Denis Papin, a celebrated Frenchman, is
due the idea of the piston.
The next great step in advance was made
about 1705 in the ‘atmospheric’ engine, conjointly
invented by Newcomen, C‘-alley, and Savery. In
this engine, which is shown in Fig. 1, the pre-
vious inventions of the separate boiler and of
the cylinder with its movable steam-tight pis-
ton are utilized, although in a new form. The
‘beam,’ which has ever since been in use in pump-
ing engines, was used for the first time, and for
the first time also the condensation of the steam
was made an instantaneous process, instead of a
slow and gradual one. To one end of a beam
moving on an axis, I, Was attached the rod, N,
of the pump to be worked; to the other, the rod,
M, of a piston moving in a cylinder, C, below.
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
160
The cylinder was placed over a boiler, B, and
was connected with it by a pipe provided with
a stop-cock, V, to cut off or admit the steam.
Suppose the pump-rod depressed, and the piston
raised to the top of the cylinder——which was ef-
fected by weights suspended at the pump end of
the beam—the steam cock was then turned to
cut off the steam, and a dash of cold water was
thrown into the cylinder by turning a cock, R,
was used as a condenser. The principal im rove-
ments since have been either in matters re ating
to the boiler or in details of construction conse-
quent on increased facilities, improved machin-
cry, and greater knowledge of the strength of
materials.
ANALYSIS. The motor element of the engine
is the cylinder and piston (Fig. 2). The cylin-
der, C, is a hollow cylinder of metal closed at





FIG. 1. NEWCOMEN’8 ENGINE.
on a water pipe, A, connected with a cistern, C’.
This condensed the steam in the cylinder, and
caused a vacuum below the piston, which was
then forced down by the pressure of the atmos-
phere, bringing with it the end of the beam to
which it was attached, and raising the other
along with the pump-rod. The cock -was then
turned to admit fresh steam below the piston,
which was raised by the counterpoise; and thus
the motion began anew. The opening and shut-
ting of the cooks was at first performed by an
attendant, but in 1713 a boy named Humphrey
Potter devised a system of strings and levers
by which the engine was made to work its own
valves. In 1717 Henry Beighton invented a
simpler and more scientific system of ‘hand-
gear,’ which rendered the engine completely self-
acting.
The next essential improvements on the steam
engine were those of Watt. The first and most
important improvement made by Watt was the
separate condenser, patented in 1769. He had
observed that the jet of cold water thrown into
the cylinder to condense the steam necessarily
reduced the temperature of the cylinder so much
that a great deal of the steam flowing in at each
upward stroke of the piston was condensed be-
fore the cylinder got back the heat abstracted
from it by the spurt of cold water used for con-
densing the steam in the cylinder. The loss of
steam arising from this was so great that only
about one-fourth of what was admitted into the
cylinder was actually available as motive power.
Watt, therefore, provided a separate vessel in
which to condense the steam, and which could
be kept constantly in a state of vacuum, with-
out the loss which arose when the cylinder itself




Fm. 2.
both ends, except for small openings for the en-
trance and escape of steam and for the passage
of the piston rod. Inside the cylinder is the
piston, P, a circular disk of metal fitting steam-
tight and capable of movement lengthwise of
the cylinder. The openings S, and S2 provide
for the admission of steam into the cylinder, and
the openings E, and E2 provide for the exhaust
of steam from the cylinder. These passages are
opened and closed by valves. These valves oper-
ate in pairs; when valves S, and E, are open
valves S2 and E, are closed and vice versa. If
steam be admitted by opening valve S, its pres-
sure forces the piston P to the opposite end of
the cylinder. Valves S, and E, now close and
valves S2 and E2 open, and steam entering at
S2 forces the piston to return and press, as it
advances, the previous cylinderful of steam out
of the exhaust port 111,. The repeated and alter-
nate opening and closing of the two pairs of
valves, as described, causes the piston to recip-
rocate back and forth in the cylinder. This
motion is carried outside of the cylinder by
means of the piston rod R. This is a cylindrical
rod attached rigidly to the piston and passing
out of the cylinder through a steam-tight orifice
in the cylinder head. At its outer end the pis-
ton rod is attached to a rectangular piece I-I,
called the crosshead, which slides between two
guides GG. To the opposite end of the cross-
head is hinged the rod S, called the connecting
rod, the forward end of which is journaled to a
crank K, which operates the fly-wheel W.
In the steam engine, as actually constructed,
these different parts and their movements are
variously modified, but the essential operating
parts of all reciprocating steam engines are: The
cylinder and piston; the valves and valve gear;
the piston rod; the crosshead and guides; the
connecting rod; the crank and crank-shaft or
fly-wheel.
The ordinary unit of measure of the work done
by a steam engine is the horse power, and it
was originated by Watt. As defined by Watt a
horse power is the work done in lifting 33,000
pounds one foot high in one minute. Now if the
area of the piston P, Fig. 2, is w square inches
and the pressure of the steam admitted to the
cylinder is y pounds per square inch, then the
pressure exerted by the steam against the pis-
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
161
ton is w X 3/. If now the total travel or stroke
of the piston is s feet, then the foot pounds of
work for such stroke is represented by w X y X
s, and if the piston makes n strokes per minute,
the foot pounds of work of the piston per min-
ute are represented by w X y X s X n. This
amount, divided by 33,000, gives the horse power
of the engine. Assuming all of the other factors
to remain the same or to be constant, the
horse power of an engine may be varied by vary-
ing either the area of the piston, the length of
the stroke, the pressure of the steam, or the
number of strokes per minute. The whole of the
theoretical horse power, however, is never avail-
able for useful work, owing to the friction of
the moving parts and other causes.
CLASSIFICATION. Steam engines may be cla-ssi-
fied (1.) according to the nature of their mecha-
nism, (II.) according to the manner in which
the steam is used, and (III.) according to the
use to which the engine is put.
I. Reciprocating engines may be grouped ac-
cording to the position of the axis of the piston
into horizontal engines, vertical engines, and in-
clined or diagonal engines. Fig. 2 shows the posi-
tion of the parts of a horizontal engine, that is, an
engine with the axis of the cylinder and piston
horizontal. The advantages of such an engine
are convenient access from the ground to all parts
of the mechanism, distribution of the weight over
a large area, and the location of the centre
of gravity of the machine close to the founda-
tion; its disadvantages are greater friction and
wear of the cylinder owing to the fact that the
piston is supported upon the bottom of the cyl-
inder.
In the vertical engine the axis of the cylinder
and piston is vertical; if the cylinder is carried
by a frame above the crank shaft so that the pis-
ton rod extends downward, the engine is called
an inverted vertical engine; and if the cylinder
is below, with the piston rod extending upward
to a crank shaft above, the engine is called a
direct vertical engine. The advantages of the
vertical engine are that the cylinder friction and
consequent cylinder wear of the horizontal en-
gine are largely avoided and that a comparatively
small area of ground is occupied by the engine.
Its disadvantages are that the weight of the
piston, piston rod, crosshead, and connecting rod
acts with the steam in one direction and a ainst
the steam in the other direction, thus pro ucing
unequal effort on the crank on alternate strokes,
which has to be counteracted by special construc-
tions; that the different parts of the mechanism
are at different heights, requiring more attend-
ants; that the centre of gravity of the machine
is high, reducing its stability. The limited foun-
dation area required for the vertical engine espe-
cially adapts it to places where room is scarce or
expensive, as in steamships and city power
houses. See STEAM NAVIGATION.
Inclined engines possess in a measure the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of both the horizontal
and the vertical engine. In such engines the axis
of the cylinder is at an inclination between the
vertical and horizontal, and the cylinder is usu-
ally set below with the piston rod projecting diag-
onally upward to the crank shaft. They are used
chiefly in side-wheel steamboats of shallow
draught and in ferry-boats.
An engine in which the motion of the piston
is transmitted by a connecting rod direct to the
crank, as shown by Fig. 2, is called a direct-
acting engine. As applied to pumps this term
has a somewhat different meaning. (See PUMPS
AND PUMPING MACHINERY.) In contradistinction
to direct-acting engines we have beam engines,
of which the engine shown by Fig. 1 is an early
example. In the beam engine the connecting rod
is journaled to one end of a beam rocking on a
horizontal axis. To the other end of the beam
is journaled a pitman rod which connects with
the crank shaft. The engines for side-wheel steam-
boats are usually beam engines; and they are
also used for pumping engines.
Besides the forms of engines mentioned there
are various special form-s, a few of which are
sufficiently important to merit mention. The
oscillating engine dispenses with the connecting
rod, the piston rod connecting directly to the
crank, and the cylinder is mounted upon suitable
trunion-s so that it can oscillate in conformation
to the swaying of the piston rod in operating the
crank. The trunk engine dispenses with the pis-
ton rod, the connecting rod being attached direct
to the piston, which takes the form of a hollow
cylinder closed at one end. The back-acting
engine has the connecting rod extending back
from the crosshead to a crank shaft back of the
engine instead of extending forward as shown by
Fig. 2.
II. The method in which the steam is used in
the engine is also a basis for a scheme of classifi-
cation. The fact that the same number of foot
pounds of energy per minute may be secured by
a small piston working at high speed or a larger
piston working at a slower speed gives us our first
classification, viz., high-speed and low-speed en-
gines. The high-speed engine has the advantage
of small dimensions and small weight for a given
power, and, because the strokes are so frequent,
of meeting variations in resistance more quickly
than a slow-speed engine. Its disadvantages are
its comparatively greater waste of steam, the
greater wear of the moving parts, the greater
danger of heating, and consequently the higher
cost of construction and operation. Altogether,
experience shows the slow or moderate speed en-
gine to be superior to the high-speed engine
where circumstances permit its use. Between 600
and 800 feet per minute is regarded as a moderate
piston speed, and over 900 feet per minute as a
high piston speed. Referring to Fig. 2, it will be
observed that the steam acts first against one
side of the piston and then against the other side.
Such an engine is called a double-acting engine.
When the pressure of the steam is exerted against
one side of the piston only the engine is called
a single-acting engine. The single-acting prin-
ciple is utilized in the well-known Cornish engine
for pumping and in certain high-speed rotative
engines for electric light and power service. In
the latter form of engine two cylinders are used
which are coupled to separate cranks on the
same shaft in order to secure continuous action.
Two familiar forms are the Westinghouse and
the Winans, and both are inverted vertical trunk
engines. Owing to their single action and the
omission of the connecting rod, these engines
escape many of the disadvantages of the double-
acting high-speed engine.
The Cornish single-acting pumping engine de-
serves particular notice because of its essentially
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
162
peculiar steam-cylinder mechanism. It appears
in two forms, the beam form and the direct-acting
form. The beam Cornish engine has a vertical
cylinder from whose top the piston rod extends,
and has the usual connecting-rod connection with
one end of a beam pivoted at the centre, to whose
other end are attached the pump rods. The direct-
acting Cornish engine has the cylinder located
directly over the mouth
of the shaft and the pis-
ton rod passing out of its
bottom connects directly
with the pump rods. This
form of Cornish engine
is usually called the Bull
Cornish, from the name
of its first adopter. In
both forms of Cornish
engine the action of the
steam is simply to raise
the heavy pump rods,
whose weight in falling
_LE- displaces the water to be
pumped. The cylinder of
the Cornish engine has
three valves, one for the
admission of steam, one
for the exhaust of the
steam, and an equilib-
rium valve, these being shown in Fig. 3 at S,
D, and E, respectively.
The cycle of operations is as follows: The
pump rods being at the bottom of their stroke,
the piston P of a beam Cornish engine will be
at the top of the cylinder. The steam valve S
and the exhaust valve D will be opened and the
equilibrium valve E will be closed. The pressure
of the steam drives the piston to the bottom of
the cylinder, lifting the pump rods. VVhen this
operation has been completed, valves S and D
are closed and valve E is opened. The opening
of valve E permits the steam above the piston to
flow freely beneath it, equalizing the pressure on
the two -sides of the piston and leaving it free
to return to the top of the cylinder under the
pull of the heavy pump rods. The valves of the
Cornish engine are worked by a special device
called a cataract. This consists of a weighted
piston working in a cylinder, having a large in-
take valve and a small discharge valve, whose
opening can be adjusted to various dimensions.
During the working stroke of the pump this
weighted plunger is lifted, drawing water into
its cylinder through the large inlet valve. When
the pump makes its return stroke the weighted
plunger is released and gradually descends as
it-s weight presses the water out of its cylinder
through the small discharge valve. The return
stroke of the weighted plunger actuates the
valves of the steam cylinder of the pump so as
to cause another working stroke.
The third subdivision of engines according to
the method of using the steam comprises expan-
sive and non-expansive working engines. To
understand the nature of this subdivision it will
be found convenient to refer to the diagram
Fig. 4. In this diagram the full lines represent
the cylinder, piston, and piston rod. Now if
steam be admitted behind the piston it will force
it forward to the position which it occupies in the
diagram. The steam may be made to perform
this operation in two ways, non-expansively and




FIG. 3.
expansively. When used non-expansively the
steam enters the steam port at boiler pressure,
and as this port remains open until the piston
has completed its stroke, boiler pressure is main-
tained behind the piston during the whole stroke.
If we assume the broken line ad to represent the
steam pressure and the broken line dc to repre-
sent the stroke, then the work done by the steam
is represented by the dotted rectangle abcd; the
pressure be at the end of the stroke is the same



FIG. 4.
as the pressure ad at the beginning of the stroke
and a cylinderful of steam at full pressure has
to be exhausted in order to make the return
stroke. When using the steam expansively the
steam valve is closed when the piston has reached
some intermediate point, as e, called the point
of cut-off, in its forward stroke, and no more
steam is admitted into the cylinder. Full steam
pressure is, therefore, maintained against the
piston for the portion ae of its stroke, but after-
wards this pressure gradually decreases as the
steam expands until at the end of the stroke it
is represented by the line of. The work done by
the steam is represented by the area aefcd, which,
as will be readily seen, is less than the area
abcd, representing the work done when using the
steam non-expansively. In using the steam ex-
pansively, however, the amount at boiler pressure
which is consumed at each stroke is represented
by the rectangle whose base is ae, and whose
height is ad,‘ as compared with the rec-
tangle abcd, representing the amount of steam
at boiler pressure consumed at each stroke in
non-expansive working. Evidently from the dia-
gram, the amount of steam used in proportion
to the work done is less i11 expansive working
than in non-expansive working. This advan-
tage has made the expansive working engine
practically universal where circumstances will
permit.
The fourth subdivision of steam engines, ac-
cording to the method of using the steam, com-
prises condensing and non-condensing engines. In
a non-condensing engine the waste steam from the
cylinder is exhausted into the air at air pressure,
or 14.7 pounds per square inch. In the condens-
ing engine it exhausts into a vacuum and is con-
densed into water. Thus, in a non-condensing
engine the steam has to force the piston against
a back pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch,
while in a condensing engine‘ this back pressure
is obliterated, with a consequent gain of 14.7
pounds per square inch in the effective working
pressure of the steam. The practical advantage
of the condensing engine may, therefore, be ex-
pressed by saying that it will receive the same
power with a smaller cylinder and greater power
with the same cylinder, as compared with a non-
condensing engine. (See CONDENSER.) A fifth
subdivision of steam engines according to the
method in which steam is used comprises simple
engines, compound engines, and multiple expan-
sion engines. In a simple engine the steam, after
having done its work in forcing the piston through
its stroke, is exhausted into the air or into a
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
163
condenser. In a compound or multiple-expansion
engine the steam, after having done its work in
one cylinder, is exhausted into a succeeding cylin-
der of larger size, where it continues to perform
work. The operation may be explained by the
diagram Fig. 5. Steam enters the cylinder HP,
which is connected with cylinder LP by two
passages a and I) closed by valves, and here per-
forms the work of driving piston P1 to the front
end of the cylinder. This steam, instead of being
exhausted into the air or into a condenser to
allow the return stroke of the piston P1, is ex-
hausted through the passage a into cylinder LP,
where it acts to drive forward piston P2. Were
the size of the cylinder LP the same as that of
the cylinder HP, it is evident that the propulsive
effect of the steam on piston P2 would be exactly
counterbalanced by the back pressure on piston
P1, and, therefore, that there would be no in-
crease, but rather a loss, in the work done. If,
however, cylinder LP is made twice the diameter
of cylinder HP, then the forward pressure on
piston P2 is greater than the back pressure on
piston P, and a position or working effect is ob-
tained by the second use of the steam. A two-
cylinder engine like Fig. 5 using steam as de-
scribed is called a compound engine. Were the
exhaust steam from the second cylinder to enter
a third and larger cylinder and continue working
we should have a triple eazpansion engine. If a
fourth cylinder were added to the set we should
have a quadruple expansion engine. The expan-

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FIG. 5.
sive working of -steam has not been successfully
carried beyond four expansions. The cylinders
of compound engines are generally arranged
parallel to each other or side by side, or else
one behind the other, or tandem. A tandem com-
pound with the cylinders set vertical is called a
steeple engine. VVhen the cylinders are placed
side by side, but some distance apart so as to
allow space for a fly wheel between them, the
engine is commonly called a cross-compound en-
gine. Modern marine engines for screw vessels
are nearly always inverted vertical compound or
multiple expansion engines. (See Plates un-
der STEAM NAVIGATION.) The arrangement of
the cylinders of triple and quadruple expansion
engines varies considerably. The great practical
advantage of the compound or multiple expansion
engine is the economy resulting from the expan-
sive use of steam, as indicated in discussing ex-
pansive and non-expansive working engines. It
is obviously possible to use the steam according
to any of the methods discussed with any of
the arrangements of mechanism previously dis-
cussed and thus make a great number of com-
binations.
III. A very usual classification of steam en-
gines is based upon the service or use to which
the engine is to be put. It includes the following
groups: Stationary engines, locomotive engines,
and portable engines. The first group or station-
ary engines include mill engines, power-house en-
gines, pumping engines, blowing engines, air com-
pressors, hoisting engines, and others. Locomo-
tive engines include locomotives, marine engines,
traction engines, steam road rollers, self-propelled
fire engines, and others. Portable engines in-
clude a wide variety of engines, such as agricul-
tural engines, so designed that the engine and
boiler are self-contained and do not require a
foundation or permanent structure of any kind.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS. Structurally the steam
engine consists of the working parts and the
fixed structure or frame by which the working
parts are supported and maintained in their
relative positions. The supporting frame is
usually a structure of cast or forged iron or steel
varying in shape to suit the form of engine
of which it is a part. The working parts of an
engine comprise the cylinder and piston, the
valves and valve gear, the governor, the piston
rod, crosshead, and connecting rod, and the crank
shaft and fly wheel. The function of the engine
frame is to constitute a fixed link in a kinetic
chain, and to perform this function it must be
essentially rigid and strong. In a horizontal
engine, as shown in Fig. 2, it will be evident
that the duties of the frame are to support the
cylinder 0 at one end, and the fl wheel \V at
the other end, and to steady and a ign the trans-
forming mechanism connecting these two parts.
The frame of a vertical engine performs an ex-
actly similar duty, but of course differs in con-
struction to suit the different arrangement of
the moving parts. Thus in an inverted vertical
engine there is a broad base plate, on which the
crank shaft‘ is directly supported. From this
base plate rises a columnar structure support-
ing the cylinders and guiding the reciprocating
parts. Cast iron and cast steel are particularly
adapted to furnish the rigidity and massiveness
desired and are, therefore, the materials com-
monly employed for engine frames. In certain
classes of engines, such as the locomotive and
the marine engine, where lightness combined with
great strength is an essential, forged steel frames
are used.
Turning now to the working parts, the cyl-
inder and piston as the motor elements naturally
call first for consideration. The engine cylinder
is a‘ barrel-shaped or box-shaped casting, with
its interior bored out into the form of a perfect
cylinder. The ends of this cylinder are closed
by cover-like castings fastened by studs or bolts
to the body. The front head has a circular ori-
fice at the centre to allow for the exit of the
piston rod, and where a tail rod is used a simi-
lar orifice is necessary in the back head. The
barrel or body of the piston has one or more
orifices for the admission and exhaust of the
steam, and these orifices are covered by a box-
like chamber called the steam chest, inside of
which works the valves, as will be described
immediately. The body and often the ends of
the cylinder casting are usually covered with a
lagging or envelope of some material which is
a poor conductor of heat and whose purpose is
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
164
to prevent the condensation of steam in the cyl-
inder by the loss of heat due to radiation from
its outer walls. The piston is a circular disk of
metal of sufficient strength to resist distortion
by the steam pressure. In the edge of this disk
are set rings of metal so arranged that they
are constantly pressed outward against the walls
of the cylinder, either by their own elasticity or
by the elasticity of springs pressing against them
from behind. These rings are called packing
rings, and their function is to make the piston
fit steam-tight in the cylinder and at the same
time render its movement as free from friction
as possible.
The function of the valves and valve gear is
to control the admission and exhaust of the
steam. The functions of the value are both
primary and secondary. The primary function
is to admit the steam from the boiler to one side
Of the piston, while the exhaust steam filling the
other end of the cylinder is permitted to escape
with the least possible resistance. The secondary
functions are to close the admission of steam at
the point necessary to give the expansion de-
sired and to close the exhaust orifice at such a
point in the return stroke that a certain vol-
ume of steam shall be caught and compressed
behind the piston to serve as an elastic cushion.
It is necessary also that the opening ofthe in-
lets and outlets of the cylinder should be so
timed with respect to the stroke of the piston
that pressure may not be brought too soon
against the piston head, nor the exhaust opened
until the expanding steam has done its entire
work for that stroke. The valves for admitting
and distributing steam in an engine cylinder
may open the parts which they control, either
by lifting from their seats or by sliding upon
their seats. When the engine is a double-acting
one there must be provision to connect each end
of the cylinder with the boiler and each end
with the exhaust pipe. When the engine is single-
acting it is only necessary to connect one end
to the boiler and exhaust pipe alternately. Ap-
parently the simplest arrangement would be to
have four valves, as shown by Fig. 2, one at
each end for steam, and one at each end for ex-
haust. This is the arrangement in the Corliss
engine. An important type of engines makes use
of a separate valve for admitting steam at each
end, while the exhaust is controlled by a single
valve for both ends. Such engines are called
three-oaloe engines. Another arrangement is to
have one valve for admitting steam to both ends
and another controlling the exhaust for both
ends. Such engines are called two-oaloe en-
gines. A fourth class has one single paloe, so
designed as to perform the inlet and outlet func-
tions for both ends. Such are the great majority
of stationary engines and all locomotive and
marine engines.
The simplest form and also the most common
form of single valve is the D-shaped slide valve.
In the diagram, Fig. 6, W represents a por-
tion of the top wall of the cylinder, S and S1
being the steam ports to the two ends of the
cylinder. At the top these steam ports open into
the inclosed space A, B, C, D, which represents
the steam chest. The valve proper is represented
by V, which is operated by the rod R passing out
through a suitable orifice in the forward end of
the steam chest. The steam from the boiler is
admitted into the space above the valve VS. It
will be observed that in the position shown the
valve exactly covers the ports S and S1, and
steam from the steam chest cannot enter the
cylinder, nor can any steam contained in the




- el
'l m.
/51 ’ E 5
FIG. 6.
cylinder escape. If the valve is moved either
to the right or left of the position shown, both
ports are immediately uncovered. If the move-
ment be toward the right, port S1 is opened to
the live steam space above valve V, and port S
is opened to the exhaust'space E, beneath the
valve V. A reverse movement of the valve opens
port S to the live steam space, and port S1 to
the exhaust space. The movement of the valve
from ‘centre’ to the right and back again to
‘centre’ accomplishes the right-hand stroke of
the piston; its movement from ‘centre’ to the
left and back again to ‘centre’ accomplishes the
left-hand stroke of the piston. These alternate
right and left movements of the valve are ac-
complished by means of the rod R, and are ec-
centric. (See ECCENTRIC.) VVhen the valve
is at ‘centre’ the axis of the eccentric is at right
angles to the fly-wheel crank, providing the valve
is constructed, as shown, to cover exactly the
steam ports, which is the construction for non-
expansive working of the steam. This is the
simplest form of slide valve. To provide for the
expansive working of the steam, its use as a
compression cushion and other desirable varia-
tions in admission and exhaust, the construction
of the valve and the position of the eccentric
have to be modified in various ways, an analysis
of which is a matter of considerable mechanical
intricacy.
The train of mechanism by which the opening
and closing movements of the valves are effected
is called the valve gear. This varies in con-
struction and operation. The precise character
of the gear adopted in any case is determined
partly by the form of valve and partly by the
nature of the general problem presented for solu-
tion. In some cases it is merely required that
a fairly good steam distribution shall be se-




cured; in other instances a good method of ex-
pansion must be obtained; in still other cases
the system must be capable of adjustment with
a view to wise regulation of speed, and in all
locomotive and marine engines easy and prompt
reversal of the direction of motion is required.
Different inventors have invented different forms
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
165
of valve gear designed particularly to meet one
or the other of these conditions. Of these the
link motion invented by Howe in 1843, and first
used on Stephenson’s engines, is perhaps the most
familiar, it being the gear very generally used,
either as originally designed or in some modified
form, on locomotives and marine engines. Fig.
7 shows the Howe link, or, as it is more com-
monly called, the Stephenson reversing link valve
gear. The two eccentrics E and E1 are set on
the crank shaft, S, at right angles to the crank,
C. These eccentrics carry two rods r and r1
diverging from each other at a slight angle and
with their forward ends connected by the slotted,
curved link, L. The valve stem, V, has a block
or pin which connects it to the link by means of
a sliding fit in the slot. If the link be lifted so
that the rod r lies nearly in line with V, then
the valve receives its motion merely as if driven
directly by the single eccentric E ; if the link be
lowered so that rod r1 lies nearly in line with V,
then the valve acts practically as if driven by
the single eccentric E1. Now eccentric E1 being
set for forward motion of the engine and eccen-
tric E being set for backward motion, it will be
seen that the movement of the link gives a ready
means for reversing the engine. It does more
than this, however, since by putting the link in
intermediate positions between full forward and
full backward gear the cut-off of the valve can
be adjusted for expansive working of the steam.
The train of levers v, w, w, y, and z in Fig. 7
shows the means of operating this link in an
ordinary locomotive engine.
The governor of a steam engine is a device
whose function is to regulate the energy de-
veloped in accordance with the load propelled.
If the admission and pressure of the steam be
constant, the speed will vary as the load varies;
with a light load the speed will be high and with
a heavy load it will be slow. These fluctuations
in speed are always undesirable and may easily
become dangerous, as, for example, when the
engine ‘races’ or ‘runs away,’ causing the fly
wheel to burst from centrifugal force. Gov-
ernors act to regulate the energy in two ways,
first by cutting off steam from the boiler as the
speed increases, which amounts to a reduction
in boiler pressure,
ci and second by re-
ducing the quantity
of steam admitted
into the cylinder.
The first are called
throttling govern-
ors and the second
d d, are called out-off
governors. Govern-
6* ors are also classi-
fied according to
Y their method of ac-
iI - 2 tion and according
FIG. 8_ to their form. The
most common form
of governor is the fly-ball or pendulum governor,
which may operate either by throttling or by
cut-off action. The diagram (Fig. 8) shows
a form of pendulum governor. The stem or
shaft, S, is given rotary motion by means of
a belt embracing the pulley, P. Keyed to the
top of the shaft is the plate a, carrying, by means
of the arms 1‘) and b,, the heavy balls c and c1,
and hung to the arms b and b1 are the arms d



and d1 which connect with the plate e, which is
free to slide up and down the shaft S. The balls
and their connecting arms revolve with the shaft,
and because of the familiar law of centrifugal
force they tend to fly apart as the speed of ro-
tation increases and to come closer together as
this speed decreases. As the balls fly apart, due
to increased speed, they lift the plate e, and this
operates the train of levers w, y, and e in such a
way as either to shut off steam from the boiler
or from the cylinders. That is, as the speed in-
creases the energy is decreased, and conversely
as the speed decreases the energy is increased. In
this way the energy is proportioned to the load
at every instant, the exactness with which this
proportion is maintained depending upon the
sensitiveness of the governor.
The transmission mechanism of a steam en-
gine consists of the piston rod, the crosshead,
and the connecting rod. The duty of the piston
rod is to convey the energy developed by the
piston outside of the cylinder so that it may be
transmitted to the crank shaft or fly wheel. At
its inner end the piston rod is attached rigidly
to the piston at its centre and at its outer end
it is rigidly attached to the crosshead. The rod
passes out of the cylinder through an orifice in
its front end, this orifice being so constructed
that it is steam-tight. It is due largely to the
fact that a circular orifice is more easily made
steam-tight than any other form that the piston
rod is universally cylindrical in form. The cross-
head is the connecting link which permits the
rectilinear motion of the piston rod to be trans-
formed into the swaying motion of the connect-
ing rod. The manner in which it accomplishes
this is clearly shown by Fig. 9, which is a section
through a familiar make of crosshead. The pis-
ton rod coming from the right is rigidly at-
tached to the crosshead by a threaded connec-
tion, while the connecting rod is connected by
means of a horizontal pin, so that it can swing
up and down. The top and bottom of the cross-
/.’,T'i‘l‘t,‘\~\ in
M W
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\Q\\
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FIG. 9. snorron or onossnnxn.
head are planed smooth and fit a groove or
track in the upper and lower guides. These
guides are a part of the engine frame, and serve
to prevent any vibration of the outer end of the
piston rod due to the swaying motion of the
connecting rod. The connecting rod is com-
monly a rectangular or cylindrical bar having at
each end a circular bearing, one to embrace the
crosshead pin and the other to embrace the
crank pin. Fig, 10 shows the construction de-
scribed. The articles CRANK and FLY WHEEL de-
scribe the construction and functions of these
parts of the engine’s mechanism, and they will
not be mentioned further. In concluding this
section reference may be made to Fig. 11 as
showing in a very plain manner the character
and relation of the several structural details
which have been described individually. In this
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM ENGINE.
166
engraving the different parts are designated by
letters as follows: The engine frame, A; the
cylinder, B; the piston rod, C; the crosshead,
D; the connecting rod, S; the crank, F; the fly
wheel, G; and the governor, H.
The first practical use of importance to which





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FIG. 10. CONNECTING non.
steam engines were put was the pumping of
water, and the pumping engine still remains
one of the principal forms of the steam engine.
The various types of pumping engines are de-
scribed in the article of PUMPS AND PUMPING
MACIIINERY. The next important use of the
stationary steam engine was for driving the
machinery of factories, mills, and workshops,
and such establishments still consume an enor-
mous aggregate of steam-engine power. The
mllllIIIIHIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIII | 1
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FIG. 11.
modern form of mill engine is the horizontal di-
rcct-acting fly wheel engine, in which the power
is taken from the fly wheel and transmitted to
shafting by means of belts. (See BELTS and
POWER TRANSMISSION.) For mill engines of
large size present practice favors compound en-
gines; simple engines are used when the unit
of power which is required is small. Generally
tandem compound and cross compound engines
are preferred to engines using steam with three
or four expansions, although multiple-expansion





Top and side views.
i,_,.;='-——‘ 'hLn‘]'I|lL 1
I i . lllllllllllllllllll um //::/:é;:g;;’///
’/d/’="’//
mill engines are not infrequent. A horizontal
simple engine of comparatively small size
which can be used for dynamo driving or
other high-speed work, is shown by Fig ll.
A third type of stationary engine is the hoz'sz‘z'ng
engine, which in its smaller sizes combines a
vertical steam boiler
and a duplex hori-
zontal or vertical en-
gine i11 one machine.
Such engines do not
have a fly wheel, but
connect directly with
a crank shaft which
drives the drum
upon w hich the hoist-
ing rope is wound.
Hoisting engines of
larger size have sep-
arate boilers and
often operate as many as eight separate drums.
The largest sizes of hoisting engines are those
used in raising ore from deep mine shafts. These
mine hoists have capacities of from 2000 to 5000
horse power. Like the smaller sizes, they are
either duplex vertical or duplex horizontal engines.
A duplex engine consists of a right-hand and a
left-hand engine, both of uhich couple to the
same crank shaft. They are to be distinguished
from cross-compound engines, which have a


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SMALL HIGH-SPEED HORIZONTAL ENGINE.
similar appearance structurally, by the impor-
tant fact that each half of the machine is dis-
tinct from the other half so far as the use of the
steam is concerned. In direct-acting mine hoists
the drum or drums are mounted directly on the
crank shaft; in general hoists the crank shaft
drives a separate drum shaft by means of gear-
ing. A fourth form of stationary engine is_the
rolling-mill engine, used for driving the trains
of rolls in rolling mills. (See ROLLING MILL.)
This is usually a horizontal simple engine of
STEAM ENGINE

VERTICAL STEAM ENGINES DIRECT CONNECTED TO ELECTRIC GENERATORS
1. 6,000 Horse-power Poppet Valve Westinghouse Cross-compound Engine. 2. 5,000 Horse-power Westinghouse-Corliss Cross-compound Englne.
STEAM ENGINE.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
167
large size and especially sturdy construction.
The largest stationary steam engines now used
in any form are those employed for driving the
generators of electric power plants. These large
machines are almost universally of the inverted
vertical direct-acting type, illustrated in the ac-
companying plate. A sixth important form of
steam engine is the steam-driven air compressor
described in the article AIR CoMPREssoRs.
Engines other than stationary fall into one of
two great classes, viz., locomotive engines for
railways and marine engines for ship propulsion.
The traction engine is essentially a locomotive
engine designed to run on common roads, and the
portable engine is practically a stationary en-
gine and boiler plant of small size mounted on
wheels so that it may be hauled from place to
place. The growth and construction of the
locomotive engine are described in the article
LOOOMOTIVE. Marine engines fall into two sepa-
rate classes. For paddle-wheel boats the beam
engine and the inclined engine are universally
employed. For screw- ropelled vessels the in-
verted vertical direct-ac ing engine is almost uni-
versal. (See STEAM NAVIGATION.) For a dis-
cussion of the theory of steam engines and heat
engines in general, see STEAM and THERMODY-
NAMICS. For descriptions of special applications
of steam engines, see AUTOMOBILES; FIRE EN-
GINES; BLOWING MACHINES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For an account of the de-
velopment of the steam engine, see Thurston,
Growth of the Steam Engine (New York, 1879).
Among the best theoretical and descriptive works
are: Clark, The Steam Engine (London, 1890);
Thurston, Manual of the Steam Engine (New
York, 1892) ; Hutton, The Mechanical Engineer-
ing of Power Plants (ib., 1897) ; Seaton, A Man-
ual of Marine Engineering (ib., 1895) ; Peabody,
Valve Gears for Steam Engines (ib., 1892) .
STEAMER DUCK, LOGGERHEAD, or RACE-
HORSE. A very large duck (Tachyeres cinerus),
numerous about the southern extremity of South
America, so called on account of its peculiarity
of rowing itself along the surface of the water
at great speed. This is said to be due to the re-
markable fact that this bird loses its power of
flight when it reaches maturity.
STEAM HAMMER. See HAMMER.
STEAM HEATING.
VENTILATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION. The Spaniards
assert that as early as 1543 Blasco de Garay made
an attempt to propel a vessel by steam in the
harbor of Barcelona. In the absence of direct
proof of the fact this may well be doubted. At
the time mentioned the most advanced scientists
in Europe had not yet begun seriously to consider
steam as a source of power. The assertion
is also made that Denis Papin (q.v.) in
1707 propelled a boat by steam on the River
Fulda. Papin invented the safety valve and a
single-acting steam cylinder pump, and made
various improvements in steam pumps, but it
does not appear that he ever built what might be
called a steam engine. The boat which has been
mentioned and which is frequently referred to
had some sort of paddle wheels, but they were
operated by the crew and not driven by steam
power. In 1729 Dr. John Allen took out a
patent in England for a method of propelling a
See HEATING AND
boat by means of forcing water out of the stern
with steam or other pressure. In 1736 the rather
vague ideas of Allen were improved upon by
Jonathan Hulls, a clockmaker of Campden, Eng-



BULLS’ BOAT
(From an old drawing).
land, and he was granted a patent for mechanism
to propel a boat by steam power. Like Allen, he
apparently made no serious attempts to put his
ideas into practice. In 1752 the French Acad-
emy of Sciences awarded a prize to the distin-
guished physicist Daniel Bernoulli for an essay
on the manner of propelling boats without wind.
In addition to other suggestions he proposed the
use of the screw propeller.
Up to this time successful steam navigation
was impossible because a practical steam engine
did not exist. This deficiency was supplied by
\Vatt, who took out his first patent in 1769, but
the engines contemplated were really single-
acting pumps. In 1782, however, Watt brought
out the double-acting engine, and developed the
principle of expansive working by cutting off
the steam at a suitable point instead of allowing
it to follow full stroke. All the conditions for
the propulsion of vessels by steam were now in
existence and experimental boats rapidly ap-
peared. In 1783 the Marquis de Jouffroy built
one which was tried at Lyons, and it is said to
have been successful; but before it could be de-
veloped into a form for practical use the Revo-
lution overtook and ruined him. At the same
time John Fitch, James Rumsey, and Oliver
Evans were experimenting in America. Rum-
sey’s boats, like the proposed vessel of Dr. Allen,
were fitted with jet propellers, whereby a stream
of water was discharged by a stearn-driven
pump. His first boat was tried in Virginia in
1784 and a second, which attained a speed of 4
knots, was completed in 1786. He died in Lon-
don in 1792, just previous to the trial of a new
boat built from his plans. Fitch’s boats were
fitted with various types of propelling machinery
-—with paddle wheels in 17 85 and afterwards with
long paddles which were given motion similar to
that of the paddle of an Indian canoe. In 1790
one of Fitch’s boats attained a speed of 7 knots,
and afterwards was used on the Delaware to
carry passengers. In 1793 Fitch 'went to France;
in 1796, after returning to America, he built a
small screw steamboat, but the exact measure of
success that he attained is uncertain. Evans ex-
perimented with various peculiar types of steam-
boats, one of which was fitted with a rude screw
and wheels with which to run on shore. In Eng-
land Joseph Bramah obtained a patent in 1785
for propelling vessels by means of “a wheel with
inclined Fans or Wings similar to the fly of a
Smoke-jack or the vertical sails of a windmill.”
A patent for a similar invention was issued to
William Lyttleton in 1784 and to Edward Shorter
in 1800. In 1791 John Stevens of Hoboken,
N. J ., patented a multitubular steam boiler, and
he soon after began experiments with steam pro-
pulsion of boats, in which he was assisted by the
STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
168
celebrated engineer Mark Isambard Brunel, then
an exile. Brunel left the United States in 1799,
however, and it was not till three years later that
Stevens completed a small screw-propelled boat
which he used for his own pleasure. This little
boat, only twenty-five feet in length, was the
first successful screw-propelled craft built. En-
gines suitable for large screw steamboats were
not yet invented, so that commercial success in
this direction was not yet aimed at. Patrick Mil-
ler, a retired banker of Edinburgh, for several
years experimented with boats of various types in
a lake on his estate of Dalswinton in Dumfries-
shire. These boats had two or three hulls con-




MILLER’B BOAT.
nected by a flying deck and driven, by paddle
wheels placed in the space between the hulls. In
the earlier experiments men were employed to
turn the wheels, but in 1788, partly at the in-
stance of James Taylor, a tutor in his family,
Miller engaged a Scotch engineer by the name of
Symmington to fit the boats with steam power.
A small boat was tried and gave such promises
of success that a larger one was built in
1789. In October of that year this boat ob-
tained a s d of seven miles an hour on
the Forth and Clyde Canal. Either because of
lack of interest or of means, Miller ceased there-
' after to interest himself in the matter and noth-
ing further was attempted. But in 1801 Sym-
mington was commissioned by Lord Dundas of
Kerse to build a steamer for towing barges on
the Forth and Clyde Canal. This was the cele-
brated Charlotte Dundas. She was a success in


CHARLOTTE DUN DAB.
all essential respects, but the proprietors of the
canal refused to use her because they feared the
effect of the wash from her paddles on the banks
of the canal. She was therefore broken up and
her disappointed designer turned his attention
to land machinery.
The next development was Robert Fulton’s
Clermont, and her advent marks the beginning
of steam navigation as a commercial success. In
1797 Fulton (q.v.) went to Paris from England
and soon afterwards began experiments with sub-
marine torpedoes and torpedo boats. About the
year 1801 he secured the assistance of Robert Liv-
ingston, then the United States Minister to
France, and they built a small steamboat. Her
engines proved to be too heavy for the poorly
constructed hull, which collapsed and sank. The
engines were recovered, however, and placed in
a larger boat 66 feet long and 8 feet broad, and
on August 9, 1803, this boat was tried on the
Seine, but the speed obtained was unsatisfactory.
In 1804, as the agent of Livingston, Fulton went
to England, where he ordered of Boulton and
Watt the machinery for a much larger vessel
which was to be built in the United States. In
the autumn of 1806 Fulton returned to America,
and the new engine followed him almost imme-
diately. A hull, built in New York, was launched
early in 1807, the engines were placed on board,
and on August 7, 1807, the Clermont started
on her trial trip. She proceeded without stop-
ping to Clermont, the home of Livingston, on the
Hudson, 110 miles away, and twenty hours later
went on to Albany. The next day she started to
New York and made the trip in thirty hours at
an average speed of 5 miles an hour. Within a
month she began to run regularly between A1-
bany and New York.
The success of paddle steamers for sheltered
waters was now assured, and they multiplied
rapidly, particularly in the United States, where
the conditions were particularly suitable. In
Great Britain the use of steamers was less im-
mediate. The first commercially successful one
to be completed there was the Comet, built
by Henry Bell in 1811-12. She went into service
on the Clyde and was soon followed by others.
In the meantime the use of steamers for ocean
navigation was being tried. In 1813 Fulton be- _
gan the war steamer Demologos (see UNITED
STATES, section on Navy), which was the first
steam war vessel as well as the first ocean-
going steamer. Several steamers began to make
regular trips along the British coast in 1818-19,
but the voyages were all short. In 1819 a vessel
fitted with steam power crossed the Atlantic.
This was the Savannah, of 350 tons, with a length
of 100 feet, which crossed from Savannah to
Liverpool in 25 days. In her, however, the en-
gines were purely auxiliary; she was fitted with
full sail power, and when the wind was fair or
the seas too boisterous for steaming the paddle
wheels were unrigged and taken in on deck. The
beginning of real transatlantic voyages under
steam was made by the Sirius and the Great
Western. The latter was built for transatlantic
service and was the larger and more powerful,
While the former was taken from the London and
Cork line. The Sirius started on April 4, 1838,
and the Great Western four days later. They
arrived in New York within twenty-four hours of
each other, the Sirius at 10 P. M. on the even-
ing of April 22d and the Great Western the next
_afternoon at three o’clock. The average speed of
the Sirius was 161 miles per day——the highest
220 miles and the lowest 85 (half day only);
the amount of coal consumed was 450 tons. The
Great Western averaged 208 miles per day and
her highest run was 247 miles. Neither vessel
carried much sail.
For two or three years the transatlantic
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
169
steamer, service was rather irregular. The Sirius
was withdrawn after making a few trips, and
though the Great Western continued running, she
lost money for the company that owned her. Other
steamers made a few trips, but they also, like the
Sirius, were withdrawn. In 1839 Samuel Cu-
nard, of Halifax, N. S., went to England and suc-
ceeded in forming the celebrated Cunard Com-
pany. Assisted by a liberal Government mail
subsidy, it Was commercially successful from the
start. The first vessels put in service were the
paddle steamers Britannia, Acadia, Columbia,
and Caledonia. They were of 1154 tons burden
and their machinery was of 740 horse power.
The Britannia, the first to sail, left Liverpool on
July 4, 1840, and made the passage to Halifax
in 12 days 10 hours; on her return voyage she
did better, the time being but little over ten
days. The Cunard Company enjoyed a practical
monopoly of the transatlantic service until 1850,
when the Collins (American) and Inman lines
were started. The Collins Line lost two of its
four steamers and was discontinued in 1858.
Two other American steamship lines were started
in 1850, the New York and Havre Steamship
Company and the Vanderbilt Line. Both ceased
running at the beginning of the Civil War.
The Inman Line was more successful. It be-
gan its career with steamers built of iron and
propelled by screws. Though no faster than the
wooden paddle-wheel Cunarders, they were cheaper
to operate. The screw propeller (q.v.) now be-
gan rapidly to displace the paddle wheel, though
the Cunard Company launched the Scotia, their
last and finest paddle steamer, in 1861. Therapid
increase in size of ocean steamships led to the
production of the Great Eastern (q.v.), but she
was half a century ahead of the demands of ocean
traffic and the adequate development of marine
steam engineering. She was fitted with both
screw and paddle engines, as it was thought im-
possible for either separately to deliver sufficient
propulsive effect. The combination was not an
economical one, and was a leading cause
of her failure as a commercial venture.
By 1860, in the fight for supremacy, the screw
had become the unquestioned victor over the
paddle wheel so far as ocean navigation was con-
cerned, both in the merchant marine and in naval
construction. Its advantages for war vessels
were numerous, but‘ the greatest of these was
the possibility of placing all the propelling ma-
chinery of a screw steamer below the water line;
and this alone was decisive. In merchant steam-
ers the advantages of the screw were of a differ-
ent kind. The efliciency of the paddle wheel de-
pends upon the depth of immersion of the pad-
dles; if too great or too little, the losses from
slip, drag, and churning of the water are serious.
The variation of draught consistent with eco-
nomical propulsion was therefore very small—too
small to admit of heavy loading. Very large
wheels and feathering wheels reduced the losses
somewhat, but introduced troubles of another
type, while the rolling of paddle steamers in
heavy seas greatly interfered with their speed
and economy no matter what the character of
the wheels. The draught and condition of lading
of screw steamers was of much less importance
and could be varied within much wider limits
without perceptible loss of efficiency; rolling
produced little effect, and though pitching might
be serious in short vessels in which the screw
was not deeply immersed, yet, owing to the small
ordinary angle of pitch, the screw rarely rose
high enough above the surface to give trouble.
Up to this time boilers were of the box type
and the pressure of steam carried rarely ex-
ceeded 25 pounds per square inch——in many of
the early steamers 10 pounds or less was the
common practice. But the displacing of box
boilers by cylindrical permitted a higher steam
pressure, and this in turn demanded another form
of engine to utilize it economically. The com-
pound engine, which was built and patented by
Hornblower in 1781 and revived by Woolf in 1804,
had not been much used, because the conditions
had not demanded it; but now it became a neces-
sity. It consisted at first of two cylinders—'—and
many compound engines are still so built——in
which the steam was expanded in two stages,
the first expansion taking place in the high-pres-
sure cylinder, by which the pressure was reduced
_one-half, more or less, and the second expansion
in the low-pressure cylinder, where the pressure
was carried down to the atmospheric line or be-
low it.
The demand for increased speed led to higher
steam pressure and greater engine speed. The
range of economical expansion in one cylinder
being limited, the tri-compound or triple-ex-
pansion engine was designed to utilize the in-
creased boiler pressures. The gain was two-
fold. The new engines, using a higher pressure
of steam, were lighter than their predecessors of
equal power and they were also more economical.
The first large vessel to be fitted with them was
probably the Propontis, which, in 1874, was sup-
plied with engines designed by Mr. A. C. Kirk.
By 1880 the use of triple-expansion engines be-
came common, though compound engines were
largely used for another decade and they are still
fitted in certain steamers where the conditions
favor their economical working.
The continued demand for increased power,
particularly in small vessels (torpedo boats and
the like), naturally pushed up the steam pres-
sure again, and, although the locomotive boiler
was used to some extent, the advantages of the
water-tube boiler soon became apparent. (See
section on Boilers below.) Its capability
to furnish very high pressure steam reacted
upon engine design and produced the quadruple-
expansion engine. The water-tube boiler is not
yet much used in the mercantile marine, but is
rapidly displacing the cylindrical boiler in naval
construction. It has not yet brought about the
extended use of quadruple-expansion engines in
large vessels, but this may follow in the course
of time.
The length of the voyage and the vast amount
of traffic has caused the transatlantic trade to
be the principal field of steamship development.
While the gain in size and speed of the vessels in
this trade has been continuous from the start, a
great impulse was given by the building of the
Britannic and Germanic for the White Star Line
in 1874. They at once reduced the average pas-
sage from Queenstown to New York to about eight
days. They were followed in 187 9 by the Arizona
of the Guion Line, confessedly built to outstrip
all competitors, and her success was the begin-
STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
170
ning of a race for speed supremacy that has
brought out a new ‘record-breaker’ almost every
year since. As the vessels are increased in size
it takes less horse power per ton to drive them
at a given speed, and this has tended to augment
the tonnage of the great liners so that the dimen-
sions of the Great Eastern are now exceeded by
nearly a dozen yessels, built and building. The
accompanying table gives the principal features
of the largest ships belonging to the great steam-
ship companies, transatlantic and transpacific.
MARINE ENGINES. Marine engines have dur-
ing recent years tended to one general type. For
special services on inland waters a great num-
TABLE Grvme PA:a'I'IoULAEs on THE LARGEST AND Mosr IMPORTANT STEAMEBB IN THE Wonm


0 I _p-4-D I I 3-1 A 49 PO 34 Q
5 13> 3 5 G 3 55 E *5 % 2 3; 5’ .. gfg
NAMEs or VESSELS AND or Q ,, 3 are ,, Q ._, ‘=1 ,, -6 2 ,3 O E ,,
OWNERS “'5 0 mo 6;:-2 600:5 -P-$3 “ ,1: b0-C-3 --§i=1 Cl “
.33 *’ °8 "-‘~s= was 9- 5 as i=2 -22 S5
4'6 as :3 3 5 5.96 as
AMERICAN LINE:
St. Paul ................................. .. 1395 5,374 11,629 16,000 535.8 554.2 63.0 42.0 26.0 20,000 21
St. Louis ............................... -- 1895 5,894 11,629 16,600 535.8 554.2 63.0 42.0 26.0 20,000 21
New York .............................. -- 1888 6,318 10,675 ....... .. 560.0 63.3 42.0 .... .. 20,000 21
Philadelphia .......................... -. 1901 6,289 10,787 .............. .. 500.0 63.3 42.0 .... .. 20,000 21
(Built, 1888; rebuilt, 1901)
ANCHOR LINE:
Columbia .............................. .. 1901 ....... .. 8,900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503 . 0 56.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - .-
ATLANTIC TRANSPORT LINE:
Minneapolis .......................... .. 1900 ....... .. 13,401 ....... .. 600. 7 65 . 5 39. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Minnesota ............................. .. 1900 ....... .. 13,403 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 600.7 65 . 5 39. 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Minnetonka .......................... .. 1902 ....... .. 13,398 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 600.7 65.5 39. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
New ship.. .............................. .. b’1d’g ....... .. 13,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 615.0 65. 0 51 . 0 .... .. 12,000 15
1903
New ship ................................ .. b.ld'g ....... .. 13,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 615.0 65.0 51.0 .... .. 12,000 15
1903
Missouri ................................ .. b’ld;3g ....... .. 10,425 ....... .. 490.0 58.0 43.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
190
Maine .................................... .. b’ld’g ....... .. 10,425 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 490.0 58.0 43.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
1903
CUNARD LINE:
Campanla .............................. .. 1892 5,000 12,950 ....... .. 600 622. 0 65. 3 41. 5 25.0 30,000 22
Lucania ................................. .. 1892 5,000 12,950 ....... .. 600 622.0 _ 65.3 41.5 25. 0 30,000 22
New ship ................................ .. b’ld'g ................................ .. 700.0 78.0 .... .. 29.0 60,000 25
1903
New ship ................................ .. b’ld'g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 760.0 78.0 .... .. 29.0 60,000 25
1903
COMPAGNIE GENERALE TRANs-
ATLANTIQUE:
Touraine .............................. .. 1890 ....... .. 9,778 13,000 ..... .. 536.0 55 .0 38.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Aquitaine .............................. .. 1890 ....... .. 10,000 13,000 ..... . . 520.0 58. 0 38.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Lorraine ................................ .. 1899 ....... .. 11,869 15,400 557. 7 582 . 3 60. 5 39.4 25. 5 22,000 21. 5
Savoie .......... .. . ...................... .. 1900 ....... .. 11,869 15,400 557 . 7 582. 3 60. 5 39. 4 25. 5 22,000 21.5
HAMBURG-AMER cAN LINE: _
Deutschland .......................... .. 1900 ....... .. 16,502 23,620 662. 8 686. 6 67 . 0 44.0 29 . 0 36,000 23. 5
Fiirst Bismarck .................... .. 1890 ....... .. 8,430 ....... .. 520.0 ..... .. 58.0 40.0 . 18,000 .... ..
Augusta Victoria ................. ..-. 1889 ....... .. 8,470 ....... .. 520.0 ..... .. 56.0 38.0 .... .. 15,000 .... ..
Columbia .............................. .. 1889 ....... .. 7,241 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 465.0 56.0 38. 0 .... .. 15,000 .... ..
Nonrn GERMAN LLOYD LINE: .
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse..... 1898 5,521 14,349 20,880 625.0 648.6 66.0 43.0 28.0 30,000 23.0
Kaiserin Maria Theresa ........ .. 1899 3,769 800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 546.0 52.0 37 .0 .... .. 17,000 21.0
Kronprlnz Wilhelm ............... .. 1901 ....... .. 15,000 21,300 ..... .. 663.0 66.0 43.0 28.5 36,000 23.5
Kaiser Wilhelm II ................. .. 1902 ....... .. 19,500 26,000 ..... .. 706.5 72.0 52.5 29.0 39,000 23.5
Grosser Kuriiirst .................. .. 1900 ....... .. 12,200 22,000 ..... .. 581.5 62.0 39.0 .... .. 16,000 20.0
RED STAB LINE:
Vaderland ............................. .. 1900 7 .490 11,899 ....... .. 560.0 580.0 60.0 42 . 0 27. 9 12,000 17.5
7.05.1 and . 1901 7,511 11,905 ....... .. 560. 0 580.0 60. 0 42.0 27. 9 12,000 17.5
Finland ................................. .. 1902 ....... .. 12,300 ....... .. 560.0 580. 7 60.0 42.0 28.0 10,400 17 .0
KI-oonland ............................ .. 1902 ....... .. 12,300 ....... .. 560.0 580.7 60.0 42. 0 28. 0 10,400 17. 0
WIIITE STAB LINE: '
Teutonic.... ............................ .. 1889 4,269 9,984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585.0 57 .0 42.0 .... .. 16,000 20.5
Majestic ................................. .. 1890 4,269 9,965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 585. 0 57 .0 42.0 .... .. 16,000 20.5
Oceanic .................................. .. 1899 6,917 17,274 28,500 685.0 704.0 68.4 49.0 32.5 27,000 - 20.7
Celtic ..................................... .. 1901 13,449 20,880 37,770 680.8 699.0 75.4 49.3 36.5 13,000 17.0
Cedric .................................... .. 1902 13,500 20,970 37,870 680. 8 699-. 0 75.4 49. 3 36. 5 13,000 17.0
GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY
COMPANY (Transpacific):
Dakota .................................. .. 1903 ....... .. 21,000 33,000 ..... .. 630 . 0 73 . 5 55. 7 83. 0 9,600 14.0
Minnesota ............................. .. 1903 ....... .. 21,000 33,000 ..... .. 630.0 73.5 55.7 33.0 9,600 14.0
PAcIFIc MAIL COMPANY (Trans- ‘
pacific):
Korea 1902 ....... .. 11,300 18,400 550.0 572.4 63. 0 40. 7 29. 0 17,900 18.0-
Siberia 1902 ....... .. 11,300 18,400 550.0 572 . 4 63. 0 40. 7 29 . 0 17,900 18.0


N.B.—'1‘he names of vessels which fly the American flag are printed in italics.
STEAM NAVIGATION

ONE OF THE TWO SETS OF MAIN ENGINES OF THE “KAISER WILHELM ll."
Each eat of engines develops 20,000 horsrpower, and conelets of two fourcylinder, three-crank, quadruple-expanelon engines.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
171
.' quadruple) expansion engine.
ber of various specialties are found, but in sea-
going steamers the type in almost universal use
is the vertical (i.e., the piston moves vertically),
inverted (i.e. the cylinder is above the crank),
direct-acting (i.e. the connecting rod joins the
crosshead directly to the crank), triple (or
Engines differ as
regards fittings and attachments, length of stroke
and revolutions, weight, speed, etc., but a de-
scription of the general type will give the es-
sential features of all.
Naval engines are built lighter, have a shorter
stroke, and run at higher speeds than those in the
merchant service. In a triple-expansion engine
the steam works expansively in three successive
stages, in a quadruple in four. The reason for
the introduction of the multiple-expansion en-
gine is the greater economy obtained when steam
is used expansively over a greater range. This
cannot be efficiently accomplished in a single
cylinder owing to various causes chiefly due to
liquefaction, hence compound (two stage) en-
gines were introduced, then the triple and quad-
ruple. The economy gained by the compound
over the simple is about 50 per cent'., by triple over
compound about 25 per cent., and by quadruple
over triple about 10 per cent. In the quadruple
the gain in economy is obtained by considerable
increase in weight, so that for most services the
real gain of the quadruple is questionable. The
type of engines will depend largely on the steam
pressure employed. For a pressure of 40 to 90
pounds a compound; up to 190 pounds the triple ;
above 190, the quadruple may be used if space
and weight are not very important. At present
the pressure used is ordinarily between 140 and
250 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere.
A great advantage of multiple-expansion engines,
and a cause for their adoption, is the more
even turning effect and better balancing obtained.
The triple-expansion engine has either three or
four cylinders, more often three, arranged in suc-
cessive order, H.P. (high pressure), I.P. (inter-
mediate pressure), L.P. (low pressure), each cyl-
inder being attached by means of its piston and
connecting rod to its own crank on the crank
shaft, which is usually made in interchangeable
sections, one for each crank. Cranks are usually
set at 120° from each other to obtain even turn-
ing efl'ect. Four cylinders are used when the
L. P. cylinder would be too large to be con-
veniently fitted or built, or to obtain a better
balancing of the engine and reduce vibrations.
The sequence of the cylinders is then high pres-
sure, intermediate pressure, low pressure, low
pressure; or, on what is known as the Yarrow-
Schlick-Tweedy system, low pressure, high pres-
sure, intermediate pressure, low pressure, with
cranks set at right angles. Here the crank shaft
is generally in two sections.
The course of steam in a triple-expansion en-
gine would be as follows: Leaves main steam
pipe, passes through separator, then throttle,
and into high-pressure valve chest. The movement
of the valve opens and closes the steam ports at
pressure cylinder for 0.6 to 0.75 of the stroke and
then cuts off. The steam in the cylinder then
expands, continuing to move the piston. Just
before the end of the stroke the valve opens to ex-.
haust and at about the same time begins to allow
steam to enter on the other side of the piston;
this results in cushioning at the end of the stroke.
Von. XVI.—12. ,_
The steam having been reduced about 50 to 60 per
cent. in pressure and correspondingly in tem-
perature, leaves the high pressure cylinder, and
passes to the intermediate pressure receiver,
which is really the intermediate pressure valve
chest. From here it enters through the intermedi-
ate pressurevalve and does its work in the inter-
mediate pressure cylinder, being again reduced
in temperature and pressure. On leaving the
intermediate pressure cylinder the steam is gen-
erally at about atmospheric pressure. Then
it is conducted to the low pressure receiver and
goes through its third stage of working and ex-
pansion. On leaving the low pressure it goes
through the exhaust pipe to the main condenser
where it is condensed, and then as water and
vapor it is pumped by the air pump to the hot
well or feed tank, and thence to the boiler, where
it is reévaporated.
A plate illustrating a four-cylinder triple-ex-
pansion engine of a modern second-class cruiser
for the United States Navy is shown with various
parts indicated. The engine framing is sup-
ported on a bed plate made in sections and bolted
by holding-down bolts to structural parts of the
vessel. The engine framing is made of steel col-
umns braced by various cross rods. A more gen-
eral practice is to have cast or wrought steel in-
verted Y frames on one side which support the
guides, and in the merchant service the con-
denser is generally cast in one piece with lower
portions of the Y frames. The cylinders are
supported on top‘ of framing and bolted to it by
various fastenings. In large engines each cylin-
der is a separate casting; generally the valve
chest is cast with the cylinder, making the whole
a rather intricate casting. Cast iron is generally
used for cylinders. {Cylinders are fitted with
liners, a, which form the bearing surface for the
piston. The liners are bolted at the lower end
to the bottom of the cylinder and the joint at the
top is packed. Liners are of cast steel or cast
iron; steel is stronger, but cast iron gives a bet-
ter wearing surface. The space between the cyl-
inder and liner is commonly used as a steam
jacket. Lately the economy of steam jacketing,
especially for fast-moving engines, has been ques-
tioned. All cylinders are fitted with covers, c,
of cast iron or steel, and these are secured to the
cylinders by bolts and nuts and the joints
packed by gaskets. For large cylinders, smaller
openings called bull’s-eyes, d, are fitted for pur-
poses of examination. The pistons are cone-
shaped, made of forged or cast steel or cast iron,
and fitted with cast iron spring packing rings,
e. The piston rod is secured to the piston by
its taper and the piston rod nut, f, on top. The
opening in the bottom of the cylinder for the
piston rod is fitted with a stuffing box, g, sup-
plied with some form of metallic packing. The
lower end of the piston is secured to the cross-
head h, made of forged steel, which has a slip-
per, i, sliding on the crosshead guide, 7'. The
crosshead also has journals, Is, for the upper end
of the connecting rod. The lower end of the con-
necting rod is, attached to the crank pin, l, by
means of the crank pin brasses, m. The crank
shaft is supported by the main bearings, n,
which are supported by a bed-plate. All large
bearings are lined with anti-friction metal.
The valves 0 for the H. P. and I. P. cylin-
ders are piston valves, either single or double
ported, hollow or solid. For the L. P., the
STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
172
double-ported flat slide valve, p, fitted with a
relief ring is used. Piston valves are employed
with high pressure because in them the pressure
is on all sides and there is no force holding the
valve against its seat. They are fitted with
spring rings to make them tight. Valves are
made of cast iron, cast steel, or forged steel.
The valve seats are generally liners of cast iron.
The valve stem is secured to the valve by its
taper or shoulder and the nut q and the upper
end /1" of the rod is fitted as a guide. The lower
end of the valve rod is connected by means of a
bearing to the link block 8, which works in the
link t. To the ends of the link are attached
the eccentric rod u, and the lower ends of these
rods are bolted to the eccentric straps '0, which
move around eccentrics w. The eccentrics are
secured to the shaft and fitted so that the posi-
tion can be slightly changed. There are two ec-
centrics, one to give go-ahead motion and the
other backing. The link is moved by an arm
attached to the reversing shaft m, which is
operated by the reversing engine 3/, and this en-
gine is controlled by the reversing lever.
The link arm is attached to the adjustable cut-
off block, by means of which the cut-ofi‘ can be
varied from .5 to .75 of stroke. This is the
Stephenson gear, which is most generally used;
others are Marshall’s, Joy’s, Morton’s, etc.
In the cut shown, the air pump A is operated
by a cross beam B attached to the L. P. cross-
head. In many merchant vessels the circulat-
ing, bilge, and feed pumps are operated from
such a beam. For large installments these
pumps are as a rule independent and of the
Blake, Worthington, Snow, or other patent type.
The office of the air pump is to pump the con-
densed water and vapor from the condenser to
the feed tank and produce a vacuum. Surface
condensers are now always fitted, and the steam
and condensed fresh water are kept separate from
the circulating sea water. This keeps salt out
of the system. The condenser consists of an
approximately cylindrical vessel, having a water
chamber and a tube sheet at each end. Brass
tubes connect the two tube sheets and cold sea
water is pumped through the tubes by means of
the circulating pump, thus cooling and condens-
ing the exhaust steam surrounding the tubes.
Condensers are made of bronze or cast steel and
the tubes of brass. Circulating pumps are cen-
trifugal and operated by a vertical simple or
compound engine.
The feed tank is generally fitted with a filter
chamber for purifying the water. Feed heaters,
using auxiliary exhaust steam to heat the water
before reaching the boilers, are fitted for pur-
poses of economy and make the service less hard
on boilers. The feed pumps are vertical, single,
or duplex plunger pumps. Cylinders are lagged
(i.e. covered with non-heat-conducting material)
to prevent loss of heat. All cylinders are fitted
with relief valves set at appropriate pressures,
drains for conducting off any water that may ac-
cumulate, and indicator pipes, cocks, and reduc-
ing motion for taking ,indicator cards. Pres-
sure gauges are supplied to indicate the pressure
in the steam pipe, the various receivers, and the
vacuum in the condenser. Revolution counters
are attached, which automatically record the
number of revolutions of the engines. A water ser-
vice is supplied, consisting of a system of piping
by means of which sea water can be circulated
through such parts as the thrust bearing and
crosshead guides, or sprayed on various other
bearings where heating is likely.
The oil services on a modern engine are very
elaborate, as all working bearings must be sup-
phed with a lubricant. The best practice is the
manifold system, where each bearing has a
small pipe leading up to one of the several mani-
folds where it is fed by means of a wick. The
manifold can be filled from a reservoir placed
above the level of the engine. Besides oil, graph-
Ite and various preparations of tallow and grease
are used for lubrication.
The steam pressures now used are 150‘-300
pounds. It is not likely that much higher pres-
sures than 250 will be soon used, on account of
the great strength of parts necessary to with-
stand the pressure, the difficulty of keeping tight
joints, and the high temperature of steam, which
heats the working surfaces and prevents proper
lubrication.
Steam is expanded in triple-expansion engines
6 to 9 times; in quadruple, 8 to 12 times. The
ratio of the area of the H. P. to that of L. P.
cylinder varies from 1 to 5 to 1 to 10, there be-
ing a greater ratio with increased pressures.
The revolutions vary from 80 or 100 per
minute in very long stroke engines to 400 to
500 in high-speed torpedo boats. The piston
speed is limited to about 1000 feet per minute.
The length of stroke for large merchant vessels
is four to six feet; for naval engines not over
four feet; with smaller engines the stroke is
less. A relatively long stroke results in greater
economy. .
Of late the steam turbine is beginning to be in-
troduced in place of the reciprocating engine
for fast vessels. See STEAM TURBINE.
BOILERS. Modern marine practice is either to
use the cylindrical fire-tube boiler carrying
pressures of 150 to 200 pounds per square inch,
or some form of water-tube boiler using pres-
sures of 160 to 300 pounds. W.T. (water-tube)
boilers are more largely used for naval pur-
poses and fast passenger vessels and cargo ves-
sels in fresh water, cylindrical boilers for gen-
eral merchant service.
The substantial advantages of the cylindrical
boiler are: reliability, simplicity; it is well made
and generally understood; it can use salty or
dirty water, and it will stand hard usage with-
out serious loss or injury. The disadvantages
are: great weight; steam cannot be gotten up
or taken off quickly; it does not readily adjust
itself to change of output; and heavy forced
draught cannot be used.
The advantages of the water-tube boiler are:
lightness; adaptability to high pressure; rapid-
ity of raising steam or taking it off; it is readily
adjusted to sudden change of output; heavy
forced draught can be used (in nearly all types) ;
repairs or removals are more easily made. Its
disadvantages: it requires great care and atten-
tion; it cannot use salty or dirty water or ex-
perience hard usage; corrosion takes place very
readily; it is complicated and many types re-
quire a large number of mechanical attachments;
and being new, it is not well understood by
men who handle it and best results are not ob-
tained. The economy of fuel is about the same
in the best of each type. For average running
the cylindrical is probably the most economical.
The general form of a cylindrical boiler is the
STEAM NAVIGATION

M I i I"!
|\ I
._.-
After Low Pressure Cylinder Interrnediat Preure Cyfinder
(LOC-king Forward) (Looking Aft)

SECTIONS OF ENGINE OF UNITED STATES TWIN-SCREW PROTECTED CRUISER.
Dlsplacgrnont of Vessel, 3200 tons. Diameter of cyllnders, 18, 29, and (2) 351-2 inches.
Indicated Horsrpower, 4500. Stroke, 30 Inches.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
173
single or double ended return-tube boiler fitted
with two, three, or four corrugated furnaces.
Boilers vary from 9 to 20 feet in diameter, and
9 to 18 feet in length for single-ended, and 17
to 21 feet for double-ended. A cut of a single-
ended boiler is shown; aa are the shell plates,
made in two courses of three sections each, with
butt joints; bb, corrugated furnaces, either of
Fox, Purves, or Morrison patent, into which the
grate and bridge wall are fitted; c, stays sup-
porting boiler front and combustion chamber;
\\
Weight per 1. H. P. including water, 90 to 120
pounds. Maximum coal burnt per square foot
grate to smoke stack is rather short, most types
narily 15 to 20 pounds. The efficiency of the
boiler is about 70 to 75 per cent. in best con-
dition.
In water-tube boilers the water is contained
within the tubes, and as these are relatively small
great pressures can be carried and the boiler may
be considerably lighter. Most types of water-
tube boilers have a number of steam and water
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BIN GLE-ENDED CYLINDBIOAL BOILER.
DD, tube sheets with tubes, e, expanded into
them; some of these are stay tubes screwed into
tube sheets which they help to support. F is the
combustion chamber where the gases of com-
bustion are finally mixed and burnt. The prod-
ucts of combustion pass through the tubes to the
uptake and then to the smoke pipe. The heating
surface is composed of the crown sheets (top of
furnaces), top and sides of combustion chamber,
and tube surface, the tube surface being by far
the larger portion. H, H, H are steam space stays
supporting the boiler ends. The back and sides
of the combustion chamber are supported by
short stay bolts, 1, and the top by girder stays,
J. The steam space is fitted witha dry pipe
which collects the steam and discharges through
the stop valve to the steam pipe.
The furnace front is fitted with furnace and
ash-pit doors, the ash pit being the part of the
furnace below the grate. Manholes, K, are fitted
to obtain access to boiler for cleaning, etc. The
coverings for manholes are called manhole plates.
Practically all parts of a boiler, except the
grate, furnace doors, and bridge wall, are built
of mild steel.
The attachments of a boiler like the one
shown are: main and auxiliary stop valves in the
steam pipe; check valves through which feed
water enters; surface and bottom blow valves,
by means of which boiler is blown- down or
pumped out; two water columns to show the
height of the water; pressure gauge; spring
safety valve; and circulating apparatus (general-
ly a hydrokineter).
The grate surface of such a boiler develops
13 to 16 indicated horse power per square foot.
Ratio of heating to grate surface, 30-35 to 1.
chambers connected by a system of tubes either
straight or bent. The feed water usually enters
the upper or steam drum and is conducted by


Feed Outlet
from Economlser
Feed Inlet
to ec0nomiser

from fconomisu‘
Automatic
Feed
Regulator
BELLVILLE BOILER—ECO NO MIZ ER '1‘ Y P E .
down tubes to a lower or water drum; from here
the water, becoming heated, rises and passes up
through steam-collecting tubes to the steam
STEAM NAVIGATION. - '
STEAM SHOVEL.
174
drum. Thus a circulation is set up. The efii-
ciency of a water-tube boiler depends in a large
measure on proper circulation. As the distance of
grate to smoke stack is rather short, most types
of water-tube boilers have a system of baffle plates
for conducting the gases among the tubes to in-
crease the distance of travel. The economy de-
pends in large measure on efficient baffling.
The boilers are fitted with a casing made of
fire brick, asbestos, or other non-conducting ma-
terial held in place by thin sheet metal.
Water-tube boilers have all the attachments
enumerated for the cylindrical fire-tube boiler.
In addition nearly all except Babcock & Wil-
cox boilers have automatic feeding apparatus.
Bellville boilers are fitted with reducing valves.
- Some types, especially Bellville, are fitted with
feed heaters or economizers placed above the boil-
er proper, where the feed water is heated before
entering the boiler. Others are fitted with super-
heaters. Most types have an arrangement of
steam or air service for the removal of soot.
Down-tube boilers are those in which the
steam-generating tubes discharge into a steam
drum below the water line. Priming boilers are
those where these tubes discharge at or above
the water line. Such a boiler as the Schultz ap-
pears to be neither one nor the other.
Large-tube boilers use tubes varying from
three to five inches in diameter. Small-tube
boilers use tubes one to two inches in diameter.
Express boiler is a term applied- to rapid
steaming small-tube boilers, capable of large
power on small weight and using heavy forced
draught. This type is rather less economical and
is chiefly used for very fast vessels such as tor-
pedo boats.
Up to the present time the Babcock & Wilcox
and Diirr of large-tube type, and the Thorney-
croft, Yarrow, and Normand of express type,
have given the greatest satisfaction in service.

\
:.
P L .,_ \\





THORNEYCROFT BOILER—DARING TYPE.
The Niclausse and Bellville appear to give satis-
faction in some services and dissatisfaction in
others.
The Babcock & Wilcox and Bellville are
straight-tube priming boilers. The former is
shown in section on the plate accompanying the
article on BOILERS (q.v.).. The Niclausse, Diir,
.Yarrow, and D’Allest are straight-tube ‘drowned’
tube boilers. The Thorneycroft and the Schultz
are express bent-tube priming boilers. The
Norman is an express bent-tube ‘drowned’ tube
boiler. Of these the Yarrow, D’Allest, and Bab-
cock & Wilcox are simplest and the Bellville
most complicated. ~

YARBOW BOILER.
The systems of forced draught in use are the
closed ash pit and closed fire room. Of induced
systems generally fitted with air heaters we
have various patent forms. Superheating is
somewhat used, but does not meet with great sat-
isfaction, owing to increased cost and weight and
the rapid deterioration of such attachments.
The economic results and other data of water-
tube boilers varies so much with different types
and conditions that no average results can fairly
be taken. As a rule there is a larger ratio of
heating surface than in Scotch and a decrease in
weight, so that among some of the best types the
weight per indicated horse power, including
water, is 50 to 90 pounds. See SHIPBUILDING;
STEAM; STEAM ENGINE; SHIP, ARMOR-ED; NA-
vIEs ; TRANSPORTATION.
STEAM PUMP. See PUMPS AND PUMPING
MACHINERY.
STEAMSHIP. See STEAM NAVIGATION.
STEAM SHOVEL. A modified form of
dredge adapted for excavating material on dry
land. The steam shovel was invented in 1840
by an American named Otis, but it did not come
into general use until about 1865. The large in-
crease in railway construction in the United
States created an active demand for a rapid ex-
cavating machine. As will be seen from the ac-
companying outline drawing, the steam shovel
consists essentially of a strong frame mounted
on wheels to form a base to which the working
parts are attached. The digging mechanism con-
sists of a crane hinged to a mast or support
at‘ the front end of the car, and a dip-
per handle and dipper carried by the crane.
The operating machinery consists of a main
engine, which hoists the dipper and swings
the crane, and of a thrusting mechanism for
forcing the dipper into the earth. The operation
begins with the dipper at the position shown by
the dotted lines in the illustration. The engine
man begins to hoist and thus swing the dipper
STEAM SHOVEL.
STEAM TURBINE.
175
upward along a curved path; at the same time
the crane man by means of the thrusting mechan-
ism forces the dipper into the earth so that a
layer is scooped off the face of the bank and falls
into the dipper. The depth of the cut is so regu-

piston; in the case of the steam turbine the work
is developed by the kinetic energy of particles of
steam which are given a high velocity by reason
of the steam expanding from one pressure to a
lower pressure. In the ecolipile (q.v.) or
‘Hero’s steam engine,’ invented by Hero of
Alexandria (q.v.), we have the germ of the
steam turbine. The next steam turbine was in-


SECTION SHOWING MECHANISM OF STEAM BHOVEL.
lated by the crane man that the dipper is just
filled when at its topmost position. The dipper
is then hauled back and the crane is swung so
as to carry the dipper over the car set along-
side the shovel, and the latch is pulled, setting
free the swinging bottom of the dipper, which
falls open and permits the contents of the dipper
to fall into the car. In actual operation these
several movements are com-
bined to a greater or less ex-
tent, and are accomplished by
various devices which will be
found described in Hermann,
Steam Shovels and Steam
Shovel Work (New York,
1894). The various parts of
the shovel, body, mast, crane,
and dipper handles, are con-
structed either of wood or
steel, the latter material being
most generally used for the
heavier types of shovels. The
dipper is always made of steel
or iron plates, and its size or
capacity varies from one to
five cubic yards, but capaci-
ties of 1, 11/2, 2, and 2%
yards are the ones most com-
mon. For digging blasted rock
the front edge or lip of the dipper has steel teeth.
The excavating capacity of steam shovels varies
from 2400 cubic yards of sand to 600 cubic yards
of loose rock per ten hours, with a 2% cubic yard
dipper. For extensive records of actual op-
eration in various kinds of material, consult
Hill, The Chicago Main Drainage Channel (New
York, 1896).
STEAM TURBINE. A form of prime motor
in which the kinetic energy of expanding steam
acts upon a wheel provided with vanes so as to
cause rotation. The ordinary method of using
steam to obtain power is to admit it into a
closed cylinder, where it acts upon a movable
piston. (See STEAM and STEAM ENGINE.) In
this case work is performed by the static ex-
pansive force of the steam pressing against the
vented by Branca in 1629 and consisted simply of
a jet of steam impinging upon the vanes of a
paddle wheel and blowing it around. Branca’s
device was the first impulse steam turbine. Prac-
tically no attention was given to the steam tur-
bine from this time until the last quarter of
the nineteenth century, when several inventors
began experimenting, among whom G. A. Par-

OT D





sncrron on PARSONS’8 STEAM TURBINE.
sons of England and Dr. de Laval of Sweden
deserve particularly to be noted. Mr. Parsons
built his first turbine in 1884, and Dr. de Laval
recorded his first patent in 1889. The first Par-
sons turbine developed 10 horse power at 18,000
llll
Fixed Blades Moving Blades l'_).‘pfifi1D;929)fi)Q""
Fixed Blades Moving Blades l
ACTION OF STEAM ON BLADES OF PAB.80NS’S TURBINE.
revolutions per minute, and proved entirely prac-
tical. The Parsons turbine consists of several
successive turbine wheels, or rows of blades, on
STEAM TURBINE.
STEARIC ACID.
176
one drum or shaft within a concentric case hav-
ing interior blades; the moving vanes or blades
on the shaft are in circumferential rows project-
ing outwardly from the shaft and nearly touch-
ing the case, and the fixed blades on the casing
are in similar rows, projecting inwardly from
the case and nearly touching the spindle or shaft.
This construction constitutes what practically
amounts to a series of turbine wheels on one
shaft, each one complete in itself like a parallel
flow or Jonval water turbine, through which the
steam is forced to pass. Each successive turbine
is also slightly larger in passageway than its
predecessor, to allow for the increasing bulk of
the elastic steam as it exerts its force on each
turbine successively and expands with a conse-
quent reduction of pressure. The steam in pass-
ing through the successive turbines transmits to
each a rotative impulse partly by reaction and
partly by impulse, and thus the Parsons turbine
involves the germinal principles of both the
Branca turbine and Hero’s engine. The notable
feature of the Parsons turbine is the ‘compound-
ing’ of the steam, or its expansion in successive


snomon OF NOZZLE or DE LA-
vxrfs STEAM TURBINE.
ACTION or STEAM IN DE
LAVAL’S TURBINE.
stages, losing a few pounds in pressure at each
Stage. This quality of the machine permits a slow
enough speed of rotation without serious loss of
efficiency to allow the turbine to be coupled direct
to a dynamo or even a screw propeller without
the necessity of reduction gearing. It has been
successfully employed in both these capacities.
The De Laval turbine is simply a highly im-
proved form of Branca’s impulse turbine. It con-
sists of a divergent nozzle which directs the jet
of steam upon suitably formed buckets which
are attached to the periphery of a revolving
wheel. The outer edge of the buckets is shrouded
by a steel ring which prevents the centrifugal
V I
4 /Vozzle
Steam the.”
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ACTION OF STEAM BLADES OF OURTIB’S TURBINE.




escape of the steam. These turbines, especially
in the larger sizes, are equipped with several
nozzles. They are essentially of very high speed,
the smaller sizes running at 30,000 revolutions
per minute and the larger sizes at 10,000 revo-
lutions per minute. A train of gearing reduces
the speed to reasonable working velocities.
Two other turbines which have gained some
prominence are the Seger turbine, a Swedish in-
vention, which is similar in principle to the De
Laval, but which employs two revolving vane
wheels, instead of one, upon which the steam acts
successively, and the turbine invented by J. H.
Dow of Cleveland, 0., which is notable as hav-





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Ll“;_*—:*-_'sn\_.







CURTIS TURBINE OPERATING DYNAMO.
ing the same principle of ‘compounding’ the
steam as does the Parsons turbine, but which
differs materially in construction from the Par-
sons machine.
STEARIC ACID (from Gk. aréap, stear, tal-
low), C,8H,,,O,. One of the solid fatty acids. It
exists as a glyceride (stearin) in most fats, and
is especially abundant in the more solid kinds,
such as mutton-suet. The stearic acid of com-
merce is in reality a mixture of stearic and
palmitic acids. Pure stearic acid may readily be
separated from this mixture by dissolving in hot
alcohol and precipitating with a hot alcoholic
solution of magnesium acetate, the precipitate
being composed of practically pure stearate of
magnesium; in this reaction, one part, by weight,
of magnesium acetate should be employed for
every four parts of commercial stearic acid
treated. The magnesium stearate thus obtained
is decomposed by boiling with hydrochloric acid,
and the stearic acid set free is further purified by
recrystallization from alcohol. Pure stearic acid
is a colorless crystalline substance having neither
taste nor odor; it melts at 692° C. (157° F.).
It is insoluble in water, on which it floats, but
dissolves in alcohol and ether, its solution redden-
ing litmus powerfully. It may be distilled under
diminished pressure. The only stearates soluble
in water are the stearates of the alkalies, whose
solutions are frothy and form a lather, but on
STEARIC ACID.
STEEDMAN.
177
the addition of an excess of water separate into
an acid salt which is deposited in silky crystalline
plates, and the free alkali, or more probably a
basin -salt, which remains in solution. (See SOAP.)
The stearates of the alkalies are soluble also in
alcohol. Chloride of sodium (common salt) has
the property of separating the alkaline stearates
from their aqueous solution.
Free stearic acid has been found in decom-
posing pus and in the caseous deposits of tuber-
culosis. In adipocere and in faeces stearic acid
occurs in the form of its calcium salt; in blood,
chyle, and in serous fluids, in the form of sodium
salts. See CANDLE; FATS; OILS; SoAP.
STEARIN (from Gk. o-réap, stear, tallow),
or TRI-STEARIN, C,H,(C,,H,,,CO2),. One of the
chief constituents of fats. It is considerably
harder than palmitin (q.v.) and is less soluble
than both palmitin and olein, the other char-
acteristic constituents of natural fats. It may be
obtained in a tolerably pure state from mutton-
suet, by repeated crystallization from ether. The
only way in which it may be obtained chemically
pure is by synthesis: first, anhydrous glycerin
is heated with an equal weight of stearic acid,
the product being a compound called mono-
stearin; the mono-stearin, freed from the excess
of glycerin, is then heated with a further excess
of stearic acid, and the product, tri-stearin, is
carefully freed from the excess of stearic acid.
Like palmitin and certain other tri-glycerides, it
presents a remarkable peculiarity in melting: it
melts first if heated to 55° C.; on further heat-
ing, however, it resolidifies and then melts again
when the temperature of 72° C. is reached.
STEARNS, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1805-76).
An American clergyman and educator, born at
Bedford, Mass. He was educated at Harvard
and at Andover, and was ordained in the Con-
gregational Church in 1831. In 1854 he became
president of Amherst College, his term being
marked by extensive improvements of the institu-
tion and by the establishment of more than fifty
scholarships. His publications include Dis-
courses and Addresses (1855), and A Plea for
the Nation (1876).
STEATITE. See SoAPsToNE.
STEB’BI1\TG, THOMAS Roscon REDE (1835— ).
An English naturalist. He was born in London
and was educated at King’s College, London, be-
coming a fellow of Worcester College in Oxford.
In 1858-84 he was engaged in teaching, and there-
after devoted himself to literary and scientific
pursuits. He made a special study of crustacea,
and besides being a large contributor to various
reviews wrote Essays on Darwinism (1871), The
Naturalist of Cumbrae, a True Story, Being the
Life of David Robertson by His Friend (1891),
- and A History of Crustacea (1893).
STECCHETTI, ste-két’te, LORENZO. The
pseudonym of the Italian poet Olindo Guerrini
(q.v.) . -
STED'MAN, CHARLES (1753-1812). An Eng-
lish military historian, born at Philadelphia. He
was educated at William and Mary College and
studied law. At the outbreak of the Revolution-
ary War he adhered to the Crown. He served in
the British Army at Lexington and Bunker Hill
and the subsequent operations about Boston, later
became commissary to the army of Sir William
Howe, and during the latter part of the war was
with Cornwallis in the South. In 1783 he settled
in England. He published a History of the Origin,
Progress, and Termination of the American War
(1794), which remains the best contemporary
account of the Revolution from a British stand-
point, and is of particular value for its military
maps. It called forth from Sir Henry Clinton a
reply, Some Observations upon Mr. Sted/man’s
History (1794).
STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENGE (1833—).
An American poet, critic, and essayist, born at
Hartford, Conn., and educated at Yale. In 1852
he entered journalism as editor of the Norwich
(Conn.) Tribune and the following year he be-
came editor of the Winsted (Conn.) Herald,
where he remained till 1855. He then went to
New York and in 1859-61 was on the staff of
the New York Tribune. At the outbreak of the
Civil War he was sent to the front by the New
York World as war correspondent, and there con-
tinued till 1863. In the meantime he studied
law and was for a time private secretary to At-
torney-General Bates in Washington, D. C. In
1864 he was interested in constructing and
financiering the first Pacific railroad. The fol-
lowing year he entered Wall Street, New York,
as a broker and banker, becoming a member of
the Stock Exchange and holding his seat till
1900. His chief volumes of verse are: Poems,
Lyrical and Idyllic (1860) ; Alice of Monmouth,
An Idyll of the Great War (1864) ; The Blame-
less Prince (1869) ; Hawthorne and Other Poems
(1877); Lyrics and Idylls (1879); and Poems
Now First Collected (1897). His prose works
include The Victorian Poets (1875) and The
Poets of America (1885) and The Nature and
Elements of Poetry (1892), a work of sound ap-
preciation and technical knowledge. These vol-
umes of critical writing he supplemented by A
Victorian Anthology (1895) and An American
Anthology (1900). He was also editor, with
Ellen M. Hutchinson, of A Library of American
Literature (1888-90, 11 vo1s.), and, with George
E. Woodberry, of the Works of Edgar Allan Poe
(1895, 10 vols.). Upon the death of Lowell
many accorded to Mr. Stedman the primacy
among living American poets and critics.
STEED’MA1\T, CHARLES (1811-90). An
American naval officer, born at Charleston, S. C.
He was appointed a midshipman in the navy in
1828. He distinguished himself in the Mexican
War at Vera Cruz and at Tampico. From 1847
to 1855, with slight interruptions, he was at-
tached to the United States Naval Observatory
at \Vashington, attaining the rank of commander
in the latter year; and in 1859 he commanded the
Dolphin in the Paraguay expedition. He was
loyal to the Union during the Civil War. He
took part in DuPont’s attack and capture of
Port Royal, and in the capture of the Savannah
forts and of Fort McAllister. In October, 1862,
he captured the Confederate batteries at the
mouth of the Saint John’s River, Florida. In
1865 he was placed in command of the Mediter-
ranean Squadron, and in 1866 was made a com-
modore. He commanded the Boston Navy Yard
from 1869 to 1872, became a rear-admiral in
1871, and was retired in 1873.
STEEDMAN, JAMES BARRETT (1818-83). An
American soldier, born in Northumberland
STEEDMAN.
STEELE.
178
County, Pa. In 1837 he settled in Ohio, where
he became interested in the \Vabash and Erie
Canal. In 1856-60 he was printer to Congress.
He led the Fourth Ohio Volunteers at the battle
of Philippi, was promoted to the rank of bri a-
dier-general, and at the battle of Perryvi le
brought his troops on the field just in time to
fill a dangerous gap in the Federal battle line.
At Chickamauga he led the vanguard of Gran-
ger’s reserve corps to Thomas’s aid on the after-
noon of the second day. He served under Gen-
eral Sherman during the Atlanta campaign and
then rejoined Thomas at Nashville, where he was
given command of a provisional division of negro
troops, with which on December 15, 1864, he
opened the battle of Nashville. He resigned from
the service in 1866 with the rank of major-gen-
eral of volunteers. During President Johnson’s
administration he was collector of internal rev-
enue at New Orleans, and in 1879 he was elected
to the Ohio State Senate.
STEEL. See IRON AND STEEL
STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (Wnnsrnn) (1847—).
An English novelist, born at Harrow. In
1867 she married a Bengal civilian and went to
India, where she lived till 1889. She was for
some time inspectress for the Government and
aided schools in the Punjab. While in India she
published, in conjunction with Lieut.-Col. Richard
Temple, a. collection of Punjab folk-tales, under
the title Wide-Awake Stories (1884). After her
return to England she began a series of novels
and short stories illustrative of native and Anglo-
Indian life. Among them are: Miss 8’tuart’s
Legacy (1893) ; Tales from the Punjab (1894) ;
Flower of Forgiveness (1894); On the Face of
the TVaters (1896) ; Voices in the Night (1900) ;
The Hosts of the Lord (1900) ; and In the Guard-
ianship of God (1903).
STEEL, Sir JOHN (1804-91). A Scottish
sculptor, born in Aberdeen. He first gained prom-
inence by the bronze group of “Alexander Taming
Bucephalus,” in Saint Andrew’s Square, Edin-
burgh, and his colossal statue of the Queen,
surmounting the Royal Institute, brought the ap-
pointment as sculptor to her Majesty in Scotland
(1838). Among other works by him in Edin-
burgh are the seated marble figure of Sir Walter
Scott, the equestrian statue of the Duke of Wel-
lington (1852), and the memorial statue of
Prince Albert. In the United States are a bronze
statue of Robert Burns and one of Walter Scott,
in Central Park, New York City. He executed
many portrait busts. Steel was the first to
introduce bronze-casting into Scotland.
STEELE, sta’le. A town in the district of
Essen, Prussia, four miles east of Essen, on the
Ruhr River. In the town are sandstone quarries,
coal mines, grist-mills, brick-kilns, distilleries,
breweries, gas-works, and water-works. Popula-
tion, in 1900, 12,243.
STEELE, stel, ANNE (1717-78). An English
hymn-writer. She was the daughter of a lay Bap-
tist preacher living at Broughton in Hampshire.
Her life mainly passed quietly in her native shire.
In 1760 appeared her devotional Poems, which
were reissued after her death with additions, and
a memoir by Dr. Caleb Evans (3 vols., Bristol,
1780). Many of her hymns are in common use.
Among them are “Far from These Narrow Scenes
of Night” and “Dear Refuge of My Weary Soul.”
Consult her Hymns, Paslms, and Poems, ed. with
memoir by J . Sheppard (London, 1863).
STEELE, JOEL DORMAN (1836-86). An
American educator and author, born at Lima,
N. Y., and educated at Genesee College. From
1862 until 1866 he was principal of the Newark,
N. Y., High School, and from 1866 until 1872 of
the Elmira Academy. In 1866 he published a
popular text-book entitled Fourteen Weeks in
Chemistry. Its success led him to publish a series
of books, likewise intended for terms of fourteen
weeks, upon Astronomy (1867), Natural Philoso-
phy (1869), Geology (1870), Human Physiology
(1873), and Zoiilogy (1875). With his wife,
Esther B. Steele, he also wrote an even more
successful series of school histories, known, from
the name of the publisher, as Barnes’ Brief His-
tories. He bequeathed $50,000 to Syracuse Uni-
versity to found the Steele chair of theistical
science.
STEELE, Sir RICHARD (1672-1729). An Eng-
lish essayist, playwright, and politician, born in
Dublin. In 1684 he was sent to the Charter
House School, where he formed a memorable
friendship with Addison. In 1690 he was enrolled
at Christ Church, Oxford, but he passed to Mer-
ton College (1691). In 1694 he left Oxford with-
out a degree, and enlisted in the Life-Guards.
An elegy which he wrote on the death of Queen
Mary (December, 1694), wisely dedicated to
Lord Cutts, Colonel of the Coldstream Guards,
led eventually to a captaincy in the regiment.
“Finding the military life exposed to much ir-
regularity,” Steele wrote The Christian Hero
(1701), a moral treatise for his own guidance.
It was not taken seriously by his associates,
and seems to have had little effect on its volatile
author. He now wrote three comedies: The
Funeral (1701); The Lying Lover (1703); and
The Tender Husband (1703). Though rather too
deliberate in their moral purpose, they contain
much delightful wit. After some vain searches,
it was said, for the philosopher’s stone, he mar-
ried (1705) a Mrs. Stretch, who owned an en-
cumbered estate in Barbadoes. She died about
a year after the marriage. In 1706 Steele be-
came gentleman waiter to Prince George; in 1707
he was appointed gazetteer, and seems to have
left the army. The two positions brought him
£400 a year. He now secretly married (Septem-
ber 9, 1707) Miss Mary Scurlock, of Llangunnor,
in Wales, who figures as ‘Prue’ in his curious let-
ters. He took a house in Bury Street, and lived
far beyond his means. The death of Prince
George in 1708 put an end to his place at Court,
and three years later he lost his gazetteership.
But he was appointed commissioner of stamps in
1710, a post with £300 a year. Meanwhile (April
12, 1709) had appeared the Tatler, a tri-weekly
containing sketches and short essays on manners,
written under the pseudonym of Isaac Bicker-
staff. The periodical came to an end on January
2, 1711, and was succeeded on March 1 by the
more famous Spectator. Though the plan of these
papers was Stee1e’s, Addison had contributed to
the Tatler, and Addison now became the more
important figure. When the Spectator suspended
publication on December 6, 1712, Steele had writ-
ten 236 papers and Addison 274. The Guardian,
started March 17, 1713, was followed by several
other short-lived periodicals, of which the most
noteworthy is the Englishman. In these later
STEELE.
STEEN.
179
undertakings Steele, a strong Whig, involved
himself in political controversy, and was handled
without mercy by Swift. He resigned his com-
missionership of stamps and entered Parliament,
but he was expelled (March, 1714) for seditious
libel contained in The Crisis, a pamphlet in favor
of the Hanoverian succession. On the accession of
George 1. Steele was again elected to Parlia-
ment (1715). He also secured the patent of
Drury Lane Theatre (worth £1000 a year), for
which he wrote his last comedy, The Conscious
Loner (1722). Broken in health, he passed his
last years at Carmarthen, in Wales, where he died
September 1, 1729. He was buried there in Saint
Peter’s Church.
As a man Steele possessed no dark vices. He
was improvident, generous, and light-hearted.
As a poet he won no place. His political pam-
phlets, though of interest, are not convincing.
His comedies, notwithstanding their aim to purge
the stage of immorality, are still read for the
wit and gayety in special scenes. As an essayist
he has often been compared with Addison to his
disparagement. Addison was indeed his superior
in taste and humor. But Steele possessed the
kindlier heart. Of his generation he stands al-
most alone in the respect he everywhere shows to
women. Anent Lady Elizabeth Hastings he wrote
that “to love her was a liberal education.” The
same sincere heart spoke out in his affection for
children. Addison was a stylist. Steele com-
posed off-hand with little attention to form. But
he preceded Addison and thus became the father
of the essay and sketch dealing with contem-
porary manners, which, under the hand of Field-
ing, was transformed into the novel. See ADDI-
son, Josnrrr.
Consult the excellent biographies of Steele by
Aitkin (London, 1889) and by Dobson (“English
Worthies,” ib., 1886); Thackeray, English Ha-
monrists (ib., 1853) ; The Spectator (ib., 1898) ;
The Tatler (ib., 1899); and Plays (“Mermaid”
series, ib., 1893), all admirably edited by Ait-
ken.
STEEL-ENGRAVING. See ENGBAVING.
STEELHEAD (from the color and hardness
of the head), or HARDHEAD. The large sea-trout or
salmon-trout of the Pacific Slope (Salmo Giartl-
neri). It is found in coastwise streams from
Santa Barbara County, Cal., northward nearly
to Alaska. It reaches a length of 30 inches. See
SALMoN.
STEEL SHAPES. Structural steel produced
by a rolling mill in certain fixed shapes such as
angles, 1 bars, tees, bulbs, etc. _ See illustrations
of typical shapes and description of process of
manufacture under ROLLING MILL. See also
BEAM.
STEEL’TON. A borough in Dauphin County,
Pa., 3 miles southeast of Harrisburg; on the
Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia and Reading
railroads (Map :. Pennsylvania, E 3). It has a
public library. It is known for its steel in-
terests, the extensive works of the Pennsylvania
Steel Company being here. Other establishments
are shirt and hose factories, brick-yards, and a
fiouring mill. The government is vested in a
chief burgess, elected every three years, and a
unicameral council. The water-work-s are owned
by the municipality. Steelton was settled in
1865 and was incorporated in 1880. Population,
in 1890, 9250; in 1900, 12,086.
STEEL WOOL. An abrading material used
as a substitute for sand, glass, or emery paper
for polishing wood or metal work. It is composed
of -sharp-edged threads of steel, which curl up like
wool or excelsior.
STEEN, Stan, JAN (c.1626-79). A celebrated
STEELYARD. See BALANCE. '
Dutch genre painter, foremost among the de-
lineators of low life, which he illustrated with
rare mastery. Born at Leyden, he is said to
have been instructed first at Utrechtby Nicolas
Knupfer (1603-60), then at The Hague by Jan
van Goyen, whose daughter he married in 164.9.
He lived at Haarlem from 1661 to 1669, in con-
stant pecuniary difficulties, varying his ursuit
of art by renting a brewery at Delft and Eeeping
a tavern at Leyden. With regard to his artistic
training it seems likely that he received im-
pressions from Frans and Dirk Hals_. The influ-
ence of the latter is plainly traceable in Steen’s
early productions, notably in the “Wedding Par-
ty” (Ducal Palace, Dessau) , the most character-
istic specimen, but also in the humorous “Bridal
Procession” (1653, Six Gallery, Amsterdam),in
“After the Carousal” and “Revelry” (both in Am-
sterdam Museum), and in “Dissolute Company”
(Berlin Museum) . All these transplant us to the -
sphere in which so many scenes depicted by Steen
are enacted, the atmosphere of low taverns,
where the changes on the theme “Wine, Woman,
and Song” are rung in all imaginable varia-
tions. Indubitably Jan Steen is the, most genial
among the masters of the genre in the entire
Dutch school. His dated pictures belong, with a
few exceptions, to the decade from 1660 to
1671, his Haarlem period, the most bril-
liant of his artistic activity. Its -beginning
is marked by the ingenious domestic scene
known as “The Menagerie” (1660, Hague Gal-
lery) , and in strong contrast to it “Prince’s Day”
(Amsterdam Museum), with numerous figures.
Other noteworthy examples at The Hague are:
“The Painter’s Family” (c.1663), “Oyster Party
in Steen’s Brewery,” and “Doctor’s Visit,” and
in Amsterdam: ‘,‘Eve of Saint Nicholas,” a favor-
ite and often repeated subject of the master,
“Family Scene” (2), “The Parrot’s Cage,” “Cat’s
Dancing Lesson,” “Rural Wedding,” and “Love-
sick,” one of his mo-st perfect works. The Brus-
sels Museum contains “A Gallant Offer” and “The
Rhetoricians;” the Louvre. “Evil Association,”
“Family Repast,” and “A Village Festival” ( 167 4) ,
with many figures. Besides similar subjects in
the galleries of Berlin, Munich, and Vienna, there
are to be mentioned “The Feast of Beans” (1668,
Cassel Gallery) and “The Marriage Contract” .
(Brunswick Museum), perhaps his most remark-
able work for size, dramatic feeling, and equably
carried out execution. A cabinet piece in the
manner of Terborch is the “Music Lesson” ( 1671),
in the National Gallery, London, and several fine
interiors may be seen in Buckingham Palace,
London, while over ninety of his works ‘ are
in private collections in England. Consult:
Van Westrheene, Jan Steen, Etude snr l’art
en Hollancle (The Hague, 1856); Lemcke, in
Dohme, Knnst and Kiinstler, etc. (Lipzig, 1878) ;
21u81£()17)Rosenberg, Terborch and Jan Steen (ib.,
STEENKERKE.
STEFFAN I.
180
STEENKERKE, stan’kér-ke, or STEEN-
KERKEN. A village in the Province of Hai-
nault, Belgium, on the Senne, 19 miles southwest
of Brussels. It is noted for the disastrous defeat
of the Dutch and English troops under William of
Orange, who here attacked the French army com-
manded by Malrshal Luxembourg, August 3,
1692.
STEENSTRUP, stan’strup, JOHANNES JA-
PETUS SMITH (1813-97). A Danish zoiilogist
and archaeologist, born at Vang. In 1845 he was
elected adjunct professor of zoology of the Uni-
versity of Copenhagen. In this year appeared the
work in which he established the fact of the
alternation of generations in the hydroids, and
more especally in trematode worms, entitled On
the Alternations of Generations, or the Propaga-
tion and Development of Animals Th/rough Al-
ternate Generations. He was also an authority
upon the kitchen-middens (q.v.) of Denmark.
STEENWIJCK, st?m’vik, STEENWYCK,
or STEINWICK, Hnrrnnrox VAN, the Elder
(c.1550-c.1605). A Dutch architectural painter,
born at Steenwijck. He painted many interiors
of churches, and was the first to attempt the
effect of artificial light on architectural forms.
His works include: “Interior of Aix Cathedral”
(1573, Schleissheim Gallery); “The Courtyard
of a Palace” (1588, Dessau Gallery) ; and “The
Liberation of St. Peter” (1604, Vienna Museum).
His son, HEINDRIK, the Younger (c.1580-c.1650),
was born in Frankfort and went early to
Antwerp and Amsterdam, settling finally in
London (1629). He, too, painted architec-
tural subjects. Many of Van Dyck’s backgrounds
were executed by him, and Brueghel and Thulden
put figures upon his own canvases. Examples of
his work are: “A Church Interior” (1605, Vi-
enna); “View of a Public Square” (1614, The
Hague); and “Jesus with Mary and Martha”
(1620, Louvre).
STEEPLECHASING. Flat racing over a
course selected by reason of the obstacles, such
as fences, hedges, hurdles, and ditches. It is
popularly supposed to have originated in the hila-
rious spirit of excited fox-hunters, taking a bee
line from the point where they were to a distant
village church steeple. The Grand National
Steeplechase of Liverpool, established in 1839,
is the great event of the steeplechase year. In
the United States the Meadowbrook Club has been
the pioneer organization for steeplechasing.
STEERTORTH. In Dickens’s David Copper-
field, a friend of the hero, and the seducer of
Little Em’ly. He is drowned in a shipwreck,
with Ham Peggotty, who attempts to rescue him.
STEERING. That branch of practical navi-
gation which involves the actual control of the
direction of a moving vessel. Steering usually
involves the manipulation of the helm, or rud-
der, tiller, and necessary adjuncts, as described
under HELM. In addition the effect of sails,
paddle-wheels, screws, etc., must be considered,
and sea, currents, winds, and other conditions
taken into account, these varying from time to
time and different types of vessels requiring
different methods. A double-screw steamer, for
example, will steer differently from one with a
single screw, having a greater power of manoeu-
vring. The steering of a vessel depends upon
the course followed. (See SAILINGS AND NAVIGA-
TION), and also upon the rules of the road (q.v.) .
An interesting practical discussion of the sub-
ject will be found in Knight, Modern Seaman-
ship (3d ed., New York, 1903).
STEIEYVENS, GEORGE (1736-1800). An Eng-
lish Shakespeare commentator, born at Poplar.
He was educated at Eton and at King’s Col-
lege, Cambridge, but left the university
without a degree (1756). Inheriting a.
small fortune from his father, a director of the
East India Company, he was able to give his time
to the study of Shakespeare. He reprinted 20
plays from the quartos (4 vols., 1766), collabo-
rated with Dr. Johnson on an edition of Shake-
speare (1773), which was revised by Isaac Reed
(1785), and, in conjunction with Reed, brought
out a new edition (15 vols., 1793). Stcevens
mutilated the text, but his notes are still valu-
able.
STEEVENS, GEORGE WARRINGTON (1869-
1900). An English journalist, born at Sydenham.
He was educated at the City of London School
and at Balliol College, Oxford. In 1893 he left
Oxford for London, where he joined the editorial
staff of the Pall Mall Gazette. In 1897 he be-
came a special correspondent of the Daily Mail,
for which he visited in succession the United
States, Greece, Egypt, India, Rennes (the scene
of the trial of Dreyfus), and South Africa. His
letters to the Daily Mail were republished under
the titles: The Land of the Dollar (1897), With
the Conquering Turk (1897), Egypt in 1898
(1898), With Kitchener to Khartnm (1898), In
India (1899), The Tragedy of Dreyfus (1899),
and From Cape Town to Ladysmith (1900). The
last volume, left incomplete, was edited by Ver-
non Blackburn. All this journalistic work has
a distinct literary value from the author’s re-
markable perceptive and descriptive powers. Be-
fore his connection with the Daily Mail he had
published Naval Policy (1896) and the clever
Monologues of the Dead (1896). He died of
enteric fever at Ladysmith, then besieged by the
Boers.
STEFFANI, sta-f‘ei'né, Acosrmo, Abbate
(1655-1730). An Italian composer and states-
man, born at Castelfranco, Venetia. He studied
music in Venice and under Ercole Bernabei (c.
1620-87) in Munich, where he became organist in
1675 and director of the Elector’s chamber music
in 1681. He took holy orders in 1680, was ap-
pointed Court kapellmeister at Hanover in 1688,
and brought out his Italian operas with great
splendor in the garden of Schloss Herrenhausen.
They were also produced in German at Hamburg,
in 1690-1700. He is, however, chiefly remembered
for his numerous chamber duets, set to Italian
texts, which rank as models of their kind. His
compositions are preserved in manuscript in the
royal library, London; of the few that appeared in
print, may be mentioned: Psalmodia Vespertina,
for eight voices (1674) ; Sonate da camera a due
violini, alto e continno (1679) ; Duetti da camera
a soprano e contralto (1683) ; and Janus Quadri-
fons, m'otets with basso continuo for three
voices. In 1710 he resigned his post in favor of
Handel, and, being made Privy Councilor by the
Elector Palatine and bishop in partibus of Spizza,
Dalmatia, by the Pope, devoted himself princi-
pally to diplomatic and ecclesiastical affairs and
died at Frankfort.
STEFFECK.
STEGOCEPHALIA.
181
_painter of horses.
STEFFECK, sta’fek, KARL (1818-90). AGer-
man animal and portrait painter, born in Berlin,
where he studied under Kriiger and Begas. In
1839 a pupil of Delaroche and of Horace Vernet
in Paris, he continued his studies in Italy in
1840-42, and after his return to Berlin attracted
attention first with historical, then with sport-
ing subjects, and soon was reputed the foremost
In 1880 he became director
of the Academy at Kiinigsberg. His principal
paintings include: “Margrave Albrecht Achilles
Fighting the Nurembergers, 1450” (1848) ; “Two
Spaniels at Play” (1850), “Mare with Colt”
(1877), all in the National Gallery, Berlin;
“King William at Koniggratz” (1867), Royal
Palace, Berlin; “Capitulation at Sedan” (fresco,
1884), Arsenal, Berlin; “Queen Louise with Two
Sons” (1886), Breslau Museum; besides many
portraits, especially equestrian.
STEGANOPODES (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Gk. o"re'yav61r0vs, steganopous, web-footed, from
areyavds, steganos, covered + irons, pous, foot).
A group of birds within the Ciconiiformes, char-
acterized by having all four toes ‘totipalmate,’ or
connected by a common web, also a more or less
developed gular pouch. The skull is desmogna-
thous and the wing is aquinto-cubital. The neck
is without apteria; the tongue is rudimentary.
The Steganopodes are cosmopolitan, aquatic pis-
civorous birds of large size. About 60 species
are known, of which half are cormorants (q.v.) .
These constitute one of the six families, the other
five being the pelicans, darters, tropic-birds,
gannets, and frigate-birds (qq.v.).
STEG’OCEPHA’LIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl.,
from Gk. o'Té')/cw, stegein, to cover + :ce¢a7\fi,
kephale‘, head). The name proposed by Cope to
designate a well-defined order of fossil amphibia,
found in strata from the Lower Carboniferous
to the Upper Trias. They are distinguished from
other amphibians by a dermal armor of overlap-
ping bony scales which usually protects the ven-
tral, and in some cases the dorsal surface. The
group is important as representing the earliest
and most primitive tetrapoda or four-footed
vertebrates adapted to at least partial land-liv-


SKULL OF A STEGOCEPHALIAN.
1, Plates of roof of skull (Capitosaurus) ; 2, Palatal view
(Cyclotosaurus).
ing habits, and breathing by means of lungs. The
majority of stegocephalians are salamander-
like or lizard-like in form, with a long tail,
flattened head, and two pairs of limbs. The
presence of gills in the young and grooves for
sensory mucous canals on the skull-bones of some
forms proves an aquatic habit. A carnivorous
diet is indicated by the conical pointed teeth.
The dermal armor, the most distinctive fea-
ture of the group, consists chiefly of bony scales,
arranged in regular rows on the ventral surface,
but scattered or wanting on other portions of
the body. Three large plates, one median and
two paired, on the pectoral region, represent the
interclavicle and the clavicles. The skull, of
flattened triangular form, is characterized by a
solid roof of paired plates of dermal bone, and
the cranial roof is always pierced by five open-
ings--the paired
nares and orbits, and
the median opening
for the pineal body,
which may have
served as a light-
perceivingorgan. The
teeth are simple hol-
low cones in the
smaller Paleozoic
genera, but in many
of the later types the
dentine and cement
exhibit a system of
extremely compli-
cated folds-hence
the name Lab rin-
thodontia ofteny ap- structure'
plied to these forms. The vertebral column
presents widely divergent conditions in dif-
ferent types, as regards the nature and degree
of ossification of the centra. As a rule the
Paleozoic genera have the notochord largely
persistent, the vertebral column thus remain-
ing permanently in the larval condition, while
the large Triassic labyrinthodonts have well-
developed centra. The limbs are known for but
few forms, and in these they do not differ
remarkably from those of modern urodeles. The
hind foot is always pentadactyl, but in the fore-
foot (except in Keraterpeton, Melanerpeton, and
a few related forms) the number is reduced to


LABYRINTHODONT TOOTH-STRUW
TURE.
Gross-section of labyrintho-
dont tooth, showing the folded


BTEGOCEPHALIAN TEETH.
four, the fifth or outer digit probably being the
one lacking. In any attempt to trace the phylo-
genetic relationships of vertebrate classes the
Stegocephalia are of the greatest importance,
since it is in this group‘ only, with its solid skull-
roof, that we find on the one hand a close ap-
proximation to the Paleozoic bony fishes, and on
the other to the most generalized Permian rep-
tiles, the Cotylosauria. See REPTILE.
LIMB-GIBDLES IN BTEGOCEPHALIA.
1, Pectoral arch; 2, Pelvic arch of Discosa-urus.
The classification is as follows: A.——Suborder
Leptospondyli. Small animals, usually salaman-
driform, occurring in the Carboniferous and Per-
mian. The suborder is divided into three fam-


STEGOCEPHALIA.
STEIN.
182
ilies: (1) Branchiosauridae; (2) Microsauridee;
(3) Aistopodidae, the serpent-like footless forms.
Dolichosoma, which attained a length of three
feet, and Ophiderpeton are the best known forms.
B.-—Suborder Ganocephala or Temnospondyli.
The most familiar type is Archegosaaras Decheni
from the Lower Permian of Germany, a species
which attained a length of four feet. Cricotus
and Eryops, from the North American Permian,
measure ten feet, and are the largest American
amphibia. -
C.—-Suborder Labyrinthodontia or Stereo-
spondyli. The true labyrinthodonts are clearly
differentiated by the form of the teeth, which
have the dentine infolded in a more or less com--
plicated manner, and by the vertebrae, which are
completely ossified, with biconcave centra some-
times perforated for the passage of the con-
stricted notochord. A few genera occur in the
Carboniferous and Permian, but the maximum
development of the group is attained in the
Trias, chiefly of Europe. The genera Labyrin-
thodon, Oapitosaurus, Trematosaurus, and Mas-
todonsaurus, from the European Trias, are all
enormous animals, the last-named, with a skull
four feet in length, being the largest amphibian
known. Consult: Woodward, Vertebrate Palae-
ontology (London, 1898); Zittel, Text-book of
Palaeontology (ib., 1902).
STEG'OSAU!RUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. o"ré-
1/cw, stege-in, to cover + 0'ai)p0s, sauros, lizard).
A Jurassic dinosaur of most peculiar appearance.
Fossil skeletons are found in Vvyoming and
Colorado. It was from 25 to 30 feet long, had
a very small head, highly arched back, short
fore and long hind legs, and heavy long tail.
The great bulk of the hinder part of the body
depended for its nervous control upon a ganglion
in the neural cavity of the sacrum, and this
ganglion was of a size several times greater than
the brain in the head, which latter is by com-
parison very small. See DINOSAURIA.
STEIER, sti'er.
See STEYE.
STEIN, stin, CHARLOTTE voN (1742-1827). A
friend of Goethe. She was platonically intimate
with him from 1775 to the time of his Italian
journey (1786), by which he won emancipation.
To her he addressed the Briefe aus der Schweiz
(1779), which are among the classics of travel.
and a multitude of letters, first published in
1848, and best edited in the Weimar edition of
his Works (1886). Her letters to Goethe were
long supposed destroyed, but they have recently
been recovered in part. After Goethe’s union
with Christiane Vulpius there was an estrange-
ment between him and Frau von Stein, gradually
overcome later on. Consult: Hiifer, Goethe and
Charlotte eon Stein (Stuttgart, 1878) ; Diintzer,
Charlotte non Stein (ib., 1874).
STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, Baron
VOM (1757-1831). A Prussian statesman. He
belonged to an old Franconian family, and
was born at Nassau. He studied at Giittingen,
entered the Prussian civil service, and in 1784
was at the head of the Department of Mines for
Westphalia. In 1786 he visited England and
made a study of its institutions, and his experi-
ences bore fruit at a later period in his guidance
of Prussian affairs. In October, 1804, he entered
the Prussian Ministry as chief of indirect im-
A town of Upper Austria.
posts, taxes, manufactures, and commerce. He
introduced useful reforms in his department, par-
ticularly by abolishing various restrictions on the
internal trade of the nation; but he was ham-
pered in his endeavors by the spirit of Prussian
conservatism. In 1807 he was dismissed from
office by the King, but the Peace of Tilsit opened
the eyes of the sovereign to the wisdom of Stein’s
policy, and he was recalled, with the approbation
of Napoleon, who had as yet no idea of the deep
and earnest patriotism of the Minister. Seeing
clearly that, from a military point of view,
Prussia was powerless for the moment, he set
about developing her internal resources by initiat-
ing a series of administrative and political re-
forms, the principal of which were the abolition
of serfdom, with indemnification to the territorial
lords; the subjection of the nobles to manorial
imposts ; promotion in the State service by merit
alone, without distinctionof caste; and the es-
tablishment of a modern municipal system.
While he was paving the way for German unity,
the Prussian army was being reorganized by
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau (qq.v.) As the result
of a letter criticising Napoleon’s policy, which
was brought to the knowledge of the French Em-
peror, Stein was obliged to resign (November 24,
1808), and retired to Austria. In danger of be-
ing surrendered by Austria to Napoleon, Stein
was summoned in 1812 to Russia by the Emperor
Alexander, and contributed by his counsels to the
formation of the coalition of the German States
against Napoleon. After the battle of Leipzig,
in 1813, Stein became head of the council for the
administration of the reconquered German coun-
tries, as well as of the territory which France
had annexed west of the Rhine. He was a leader
in all the military diplomacy of that stirring
time up to the Congresses of Vienna and Aix-la-
Chapelle. After his retirement fro1n political
life he devoted himself to the promotion of Ger-
man science and art and formed the society for
the study of early German history whose publi-
cations are celebrated as the M onumenta Ger-
mania; Historica. He died at Kappenberg (West-
phalia) June 29, 1831. Consult: Seeley, Life and
Times of Stein (London, 1879) ; Pertz, Leben des
Freiherrn com Stein (1885).
STEIN, LoRENz voN (1815-90). A distin-
guished German political scientist, born at
Eckernftirde, in Schleswig. He studied law and
philosophy at Kiel and Jena; became a professor
in Kiel in 1846; and from 1855 till 1885 was pro-
fessor of political science at Vienna. He pub-
lished: Fra/nz6sische Staats- and Rechtsgeschichte
(1846-48) ; System der Staatswissenschaft (1852-
56); Lehrbach der Volhswirtschaft (1858, 1878,
1887) ; Lehrbuch der Finanawissenschaft (1885-
86).
STEIN, MARK AUREL (1862—). An English
Orientalist, archaeologist, and educator. He was
born at Budapest, Hungary. He studied at Vi-
enna and Tiibingen, and in England at Oxford
and London. In 1888 he was appointed registrar
of the Punjab University and principal of the
Oriental College at Lahore, and in 1899 principal
of the Calcutta Madrasah. He was deputed by
the Indian Government to conduct archaeological
and topographical explorations in Chinese Tur-
kestan. The first results of his discoveries on
this journey are published in his Preliminary
Report (London, 1901). On his return from
STEIN.
STEINLE.
183
Turkestan he became inspector of schools in the
Punjab. Among the more important of his pub-
lications are a critical edition of Kalhana’s
Rrijatarangini, or Sanskrit Chronicle of the Kings
of Kashmir (1892), together with an English
translation and commentary on the same (2 vols.
1901) ; A Classified Catalogue of Sanskrit MSS.
in the Raghunath Temple Library, Jammu
(1894) ; and The Sand-buried Cities of Khotan
(1903).
STEINAMANGER, stin’am-'ang’ér (Hung.
Szombathely). The capital of the County of
Eisenburg (Vas), Hungary, 68 miles south of
Pressburg (Map: Hungary, E 3). It has a beau-
tiful modern cathedral, a fine county building,
and a theological seminary. Important State
railway workshops are located here, and two fac-
tories for agricultural machinery. Steinamanger
is on the site of the Roman Sabaria, and has
ruins of a triumphal arch, amphitheatre, and
aqueduct in the vicinity, with many remains in
the local museum. Population, in 1900, 24,751.
STEINBOK (Ger., stone-goat), or STEIN-
BUCK. (1) The European ibex (q.v.). (2) In
South Africa,-by transference, the Dutch name
(also ‘steenbok’) for the small antelopes of the
genus Nanotragus, specifically the widespread
Nanotragus campestris, which abounds in open
or thinly wooded and hilly places from the Cape
to the Zambezi River. It is of an indeterminate
reddish hue, about 24 inches tall, long-necked,
with short, erect, forward-curving ringed horns,
and exceedingly swift and active, and skillful in
hiding. Other species of the genus are the oribi,
grysbok, and royal antelope (qq.v.), with still
others in Zanzibar and Abyssinia. Consult Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society of London
for 1900.
STEINER, sti’n<"er, JAKOB (1796-1863). A
Swiss mathematician, born at Utzenstorf, near
Solothurn. He studied at Heidelberg, gave
private instruction in Berlin, and in 1834 w'as
made assistant professor in the university and
member of the Academy of Sciences. Steiner’s
chief work is the Systematische Entwicklung
der Abhr'ingig7ceit geometrischer Gestalten (1832;
in the Ostwald Classics, 1896). He also wrote:
Die geometrischen Konstruhtionen ausgefilhrt
mittels der geraden Lin-ie und eines festen
Kreises (1833; in the Ostwald Classics, 1895).
His Vorlesungen iiber synthetische Geometric
(3d ed. 1887) and his Gesammelte Werke (1881-
82) appeared posthumously. Consult Graf, Der
Mathematiicer Jakob Steiner con Utzenstorf
(Bern, 1897).
STEINHEIL, stin’hil, KARL AUGUST (1801-
70). A German physicist and astronomer,
born in Rappoltsweiler, Alsace. He studied law
at the University of Erlangen, and astronomy at
Giittingen and Kiinigsberg. He became professor
of physics and mathematics in the University of
Munich; later entered the Austrian Government
service, organized and perfected the telegraph
system in that country, and brought about the
Austrian-German Telegraph Association; per-
formed a similar service for Switzerland; and in
1852 returned to Munich. In 1854 he founded an
establishment for making superior optical and
astronomical instruments, where the great tele-
scopes of the observatories of Upsala, Mannheim,
Leipzig, Utrecht, etc., were made, and where he
began the making of the photograph objectives
since known by his name.
Steinheil devised an electric-magnetic tele-
graph, in 1836 constructed the first printing
telegraph, and in 1838 discovered the possibility
of leading back the current through the ground.
He invented the electrical clock, constructed an
excellent pyroscope, and made the first daguerre-
otype picture in Germany. He also completed
the laws of electrotype, and constructed several
optical instruments. Consult Marggraff, Karl
August Steinheil und sein Wirken (Munich,
1888).
STEINITZ, sti’nits, WILHELM (1836-1900).
A German chess master, born in Prague, Bo-
hemia, and educated at the Vienna Institute of
Technology. In 1866 he defeated Anderssen in a
contest for the world’s championship. At the
London tournament of 1872 he won every game,
and in 1873, at Vienna, he secured the Kaiser-
pries of 2000 florins. After defeating Blackburne
in England, he withdrew from active tourna-
ment play, but the increasing success of Zuker-
tort, whom he had defeated in 1872, forced him
back into the field. At a tournament in London
(1883) Zukertort defeated him for first place,
but at a second match in 1886 Steinitz won from
his great rival with 10 to 5 games won and 5
drawn. He defended his title in 1889 at Havana
against Tchigorin, but lost the championship in
1894 to Lasker, who again defeated him in 1897.
Steinitz was the first to see the value of a
steady development of position with an accumu-
lation of minute advantages over the more dash-
ing and open game. After 1883 he lived in
the United States, and from 1885 to 1891
he was the editor of the International Chess
Magazine. His published works were Book of
the Siwth Chess Congress of 1889 and The Mod-
ern Chess Instructor (1889).
STE-INLE, stin’le, EDUARD VON (1810-86). A
German historical painter, born in Vienna,
the son of an engraver. First instructed at
the Academy, he then became a pupil of Kupel-
wieser, and from 1828 to 1834 worked in Rome
under the influence of Veit and Overbeck. In
1843 he settled at Frankfort, where he had been
commissioned to paint “The Judgment of S010-
mon” (1844), and the portraits of Albrecht I.
and Ferdinand III. for the Kaisersaal in the
Riimer, and in 1850 was appointed professor at
the Stiidel Institute. There Frederick Leighton
was among his pupils. Steinle’s creative sphere
embraces with equal command subjects of pro-
foundly religious aspect and scenes of the mer-
riest playful humor. His works are distinguished
by finished grace and beauty of form, masterly
technique in drawing, and inexhaustible power of
invention. After executing, at Cologne, the
“Angel Choirs” (1844), in the cathedral,
and the frescoes illustrative of “The Ar-
tistic and Cultural Development of the City”
(1860-63), in the staircase of the museum,
he painted in seven scenes the “Immacu-
late Conception” (1865-66), in Saint Mary’s
at Aix-la-Chapelle, designed mural decorations
for Saint ]Egidius at Miinster, and frescoed the
apsis of Strassburg Cathedral (1877-80). In
Frankfort he designed and in part executed the
entire decoration of the cathedral, also the car-
toons for some of the stained-glass windows, be-
sides many others for churches in Cologne,
sTEINLE.
STELVIO.
184
Treves, Fiirth, and Vienna. His oil paintings, of
rare coloristic charm, include “The Visit of Mary
to Elizabeth” (1848) and “Saint Luke Painting
the Virgin,” both in the Karlsruhe Gallery; “Sib-
ylla Tiburtina” (1848, Stiidel Institute, Frank-
fort); “Madonna,” altar-piece (Saint Boniface,
Wiesbaden); “The Warder” (1858); “Loreley,”
“Adam and Eve,” and “Tartini Playing on a
Tower at Padua” (all in the Schack Gallery,
Munich); and “Madonna in a Garden” (1884,
National Gallery, Berlin). He also composed
many cycles in water colors and sepia, such as
the “Legend of Saint Euphrosine,” Brentano’s
“Rheinmiirchen,” several from Shakespeare’s
plays, and “Parsifal” (Pinakothek, Munich).
Consult: Wurzbach, Ein M adonnenmaler unserer
Zeit (Vienna, 187 9); Valentin, Eduard von
Steinle (Leipzig, 1887); and Reichensperger,
Erinnerungen (Frankfort, 1887) .
STEINLEN, staN'laN’, THEoPHILE ALExAN-
DRE (1859—) . A French draughtsman and illus-
trator, born in Lausanne, Switzerland. He first
became known by his drawings in the newspapers,
especially those done in color for the Gil Blas
Illustrée. Afterwards he became a successful
poster designer. He was also successful in por-
traying Paris street life, particularly about
Montmartre. Some of the best of his later work
is included in Pelletan’s L’Almanach du Biblio-
phile. His publications include the album Les
Chats.
STEINMETZ, stin'mets, KARL FRIEDRICH VON
(1796-1877). A Prussian field-marshal, born at
Eisenach. He fought in the wars against Napo-
leon, and against Denmark in 1848; became
lieutenant-general in 1858, and in the campaign
against Austria of 1866 won great distinction as
commander-in-chief of the Fifth Army Corps,
by his victories at Nachod, Skalitz, and Schwein-
schtldel. At the beginning of the Franco-German
War he was made commander-in-chief of the First
Army. Owing to his surpassing self-confidence,
he engaged in disputes with other commanders
and the general staff. After his rashness had
almost caused a disaster at Gravelotte (q.v.), he
was deprived of his command. In September,
1870, Steinmetz was appointed Governor-General
of Posen and Silesia, and in April, 1871, he was
made general field-marshal.
STEINSCHNEIDER,
(18l6—). A distinguished bibliographer and
Orientalist, born at Prossnitz, Moravia. He
studied at Prague, Vienna, Leipzig, and Berlin,
and taught in Prague and Berlin. The most im-
portant of his glublications are his catalogues, and
among them t e chief are Catalogus Librorum
Hebrworum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana (1852-60),
Katalog der hebriiischen Handschriften zu Ley-
den (1857), and lists of the Semitic manuscripts
in the Royal Library of Munich (1875; 2d ed.
1895), in the Hamburg Library (1878), and in
the Berlin Royal Library (1878). He wrote
Hebr-aische Ueberseteungen des Mittelalters
(crowned by the French Academy, 1893); an
article on Jewish literature in Ersch and Gruber’s
Encyhlopiidie, translated by Spottiswoode as
Jewish Literature from the Eighth to the Eight-
eenth Centuries (1857) ; Uebersetzungen aus dem
Griechischen (1891-96) ; and Die arabische Lit-
teratur der Juden (1902). Consult the Fest-
schrift sum 80. Geburtstage M. Steinschneiders
stin'shni'dér, MoRITz
(Leipzig, 1896), with a full bibliography by
George Kohut.
STEINTHAL, stin’t'zil, HEYMANN (1823-99).
A German philologist, born at Griibzig, in Anhalt,
and educated at Berlin, where he became privat-
docent in 1850 and extraordinary professor in
1863, lecturing on language and mythology.
After 1872 he also lectured on criticism of the
Old Testament, ethics, and the history of religion
at the school for the science of Judaism. With
Lazarus he edited from 1860 to 1890 the Zeit-
schrift fiir Viilker-psychologie und Sprachwissen-
sohaft, and his works include: Der Ursprung der
Sprache (1851 ; 4th ed. 1888) ; Die Entwickelu/ng
der Schrift (1852); Geschichte der Sprachwis-
senschaft bei den Griechen und R'o'mern (1863;
2d ed. 1889-91) ; Die mande-Negersprachen, psy-
chologisch und phonetisoh betrachtet (1867) ;
Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft (1871 et seq.);
Allegemeine Ethilc (1885) ; Zur Bibel und Reli-
gieons-philosophie (1890-95). Consult Achelis,
H eymann Steinthal (Hamburg, 1898).
STEINWAY, stin’w-3., HEINRICH ENGELHARD
(1797-1871). A German-American piano manu-
facturer, originally named Steinweg, born at
Wolfshagen, Harz Mountains. He began to
manufacture guitars and zithers in Bruns-
wick, and finally undertook the making of piano-
fortes. In 1850 he went to New York City with
his four sons——Char1es, Henry, William, and
Albert—-leaving the German business to his old-
est son, Theodor. In 1853 they established the
firm of Steinway & Sons.
STEJNEGER, sti’ne-gér, LEONHARD (185l—).
An American naturalist. He was born in Ber-
gen, Norway, and graduated at the Univer-
sity of Christiania in 1871. Ten years later he
came to the United States, and became connected
with the United States National Museum, of
which he became curator of reptiles and
batrachians in 1889. He prepared the greater
part of the fourth volume of the Standard Nat-
ural History, Birds (1885); the Poisonous
Snakes of North America (1893) ; Report of the
Rookeries of the Commander Islands (1897);
The Asiatic Fur Seal Islands and Fur Seal In-
dustry (1898); and The Herpetology of Porto
Rico (1903).
STEI/LA. See SWIFT, JoNATHAN.
STEI/LA. (1) The name applied by Sir
Philip Sidney, in his splendid collection of son-
nets, entitled Astrophel and Stella, to Penelope
Devereux, Lady Rich. (2) The name given by
Swift to Esther Johnson, who is generally known
as Stella.
STELLENBOSCH, stel’len-bos. A town of
Cape Colony, 25 miles east of Cape Town, with
which it has railway connection (Map: Cape
Colony, E 9). After Cape Town it is the oldest
settlement of the colony, having been founded
by Huguenot refugees near the close of the sev-
enteenth century. Population, about 6000.
STELVIO (stél’vé-5) PASS (Ger. Stilfser
Joch). A lofty Alpine pass leading across the
Ortler group of Tyrolese Alps on the boundary
between Tyrol and Italy, 68 miles southwest of
Innsbruck (Map: Austria, B 3). The carriage
road passing through it is the highest in Europe,
being 9055 feet above the sea. It forms part of
the great road between Milan and Innsbruck, and
STELVIO.
STEM.
185
was completed by the Austrian Government in
1820-24, at an expense of 3,000,000 florins.
STEM (AS. stemn, OHG. stam, Ger. Stamm,
stem; connected with O1r. tamon, stem, and ulti-
mately with Eng. stand). In general, stems of
plants are axes distinguished from roots by hear-
ing leaves or leaf-like organs. Although there are
stem-like structures among the thallophytes and
bryophytes, it is only among vascular plants
(pteridophytes and spermatophytes) that real
stems appear.
Stems may be variously classified. By duration,
they are annual or perennial; by structure, her-
baceous or woody; by direction, erect, decumbent,
prostrate, climbing, etc. Perhaps one of the
most important classifications is upon the basis
of character of foliage organs produced, as fol-
lows: Foliage-bearing stems, which generally
give style to the whole plant body, are the most
conspicuous, since they display green leaves, and
are necessarily aerial. As a consequence, they
are inclined to branch, and the leaf-bearing joints
are well separated. Scale-bearing stems, which
bear the comparatively small and colorless (not
green) leaf-like bodies (scales), may be subter-


FIG. 1. UNDERGROUND STEM or SOLOMON'S-SEAL.
ranean or aerial, and the joints may be so near
together that the scales overlap, as in the aerial
scale bud of shrubs and trees, or the subterranean
bud-like structures called bulbs, whose scales
and stem become gorged with reserve food.
Other prominent subterranean types are tubers
(potato), comparatively short, thick stems, with
much reduced and not overlap ing scales, and
the more slender rootstocks an rhizomes (Fig.


PIG. 2. LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH APEX OF STEM.
Showing dermatogen (d), plerome (p), and between them
the periblem.
1). Stems bearing flower parts are very much
modified, and constitute the so-called flowers of
angiosperms (q.v.). The most essential classi-
fication of stems is on the basis of their anatom-
ical structure (see below). The bracing (q.v.)
of stems, especially those bearing foliage and
flowers, is a conspicuous feature. (For structural
details of stems, see ANATOMY on PLANTS; Hrs-
TOLOGY.) Certain broad outlines must be pre-
sented here as a basis of the most fundamental
classification. At the tip of the stem there is a
single apical cell (some teridophytes) or a
group of apical cells, whic by their power of
continuous division increase the stem in length
and give rise to all the tissues. Just behind this
growing tip the three great regions be-
gin to be defined (Fig. 2). On the
outside is a layer of cells (dermatogen) that
gives rise to the epidermis. In perennial stems



FIG. 3. CROSS-SECTION OF A DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM.
Showing pith, three growth rings, and cortex.
sloughed off on the older parts, and the region
beneath develops a cork tissue of greater or less
thickness, which constitutes the bulk of the bark
(q.v.). Within the dermatogen is a zone con-
sisting of several layers of cells (periblem) that
gives rise to the cortex. VVithin the periblem is
a central solid cylinder of cells (plerome) that


-p:-_-_- -
mt‘ ‘
- _ ‘
. .. -
. - -


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. .
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- " '
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, . . . _- _
. o-: ' ' in D
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-1...‘ ‘ . .-.
I .\ . , '- . -. _ "I.-
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___’____-- ',_ , _ _.. 0 .. 0.‘ 0 - -. I .
-‘-—— __’____-_--———- . I -\ 09
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.r " - ~ ~\., ' , ~ ' ' .‘ ' ‘ .
_ __-.-; , . IQ‘. -_ - .
....- ,2‘. _ ",. -: ‘I ,__ . 1.,-
_~\-_ *' -'- -. I I ~.‘- I III.‘ I,"
=:.--:;~'-'-_'I , .- -,-. - -. -'. -. .-
. Q. ' I a
* ' - . - ~ _~"r '.- '. - ..'- "_ - J
0 . - - .. ' . _ . \'
, , 5 u i ’ 9 ' \'
0. ‘ 7- a
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0 0‘ I .-
.-., -_ ¢'-_ .
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I: I
:
. '5:
,":== . I
,- I‘ n I ‘ 0:: \‘ l
'1': ‘.
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' . 1
FIG. 4. crzoss AND LONGITUDINAL sncrron or CORN STEM.
Showing the monocotyledonous structure.
"S,
0..-
gives rise to the stele, characterized by developing
the vascular or woody bundles. The arrangement
and character of the woody bundles developed in
STEM.
STENDHAL.
186
the stele determines the three general and most
fundamental types of vascular stems. In the
dicotyledon and conifer types (Fig. 3) the woody
bundles are arranged in a hollow cylinder sur-
rounding a central pith. Around the woody
tissue of perennial stems there is developed a
layer of actively dividing cells, the cambium,
that adds a new outer zone of woody bundles each
growing season, in cross-section giving the ap-
pearance of concentric annual rings. This power
of in'creasing in diameter is one of the prominent
features of these stems. In the monocotyledon
type (Fig. 4) the woody bundles are scattered
irregularly through the stele, as in the corn-
stalk and palm, so that there is no defined cen-

FIF.5. RRANGH or cAcTUs (Opuntia arborescens), GROWN
IN THE DARK.
The stem form above differs from the normal stem below
in general shape, in the loss of protuberances and spines,
and in the gain of leaves.
tral pith region. Such stems show no annual
increase in diameter. In the pteridophyte type
usually a single large woody bundle of peculiar
structure appears in the stele, in such a way
that there can be no annual increase in diameter.
The primary function of the stem is to develop
foliage leaves and display them to the air and
sunlight, and also to act as a great conducting
- region between the root system and the leaves.
(See CONDUGTION.) Subsidiary functions are
vegetative propagation ( as in horizontal
ground stems); the storage of foods (as
in bulbs and tubers); and the manu-
facture of foods, as in leafless stems, such as
Equisetum and the cacti. Among the external
factors which influence stem development, light
and moisture are perhaps most important. In
general, light is thought to retard stem develop-
ment, as seen when stems grown in full light are
compared with those grown in weak light and in
the case of tubers. In some cases, however, as

FIG. 6. BRANCHES or GoRsE (Ulex Europwus).
Showing the influence of moisture; the spiny branch. at
the right grew in dry air, the other branch in moist air.
in the cacti, light has been found to favor stem
development. Experiments seem to show that
much of the so-called influence of light is due to
a moisture influence (Fig. 6).
STEM—GIRDLER. A horn-tail fly (Phylloe-,_
cus flaviventris) which with its ovipositor girdles
the twigs of currant bushes and deposits an egg
below the cut. The resulting larva bores down-
ward into the pith, which it devours, with the
adjacent woody portion of the stern. In the
autumn it spins its cocoon in the burrow, trans-
forms to a pupa in the following spring, and
shortly after emerges. An allied species (Phylloe-
cus integer) works similarly in willows. See
WILLOW INSECTS.
STEN DAL, stén'diil. A town in the Province
of Saxony, Prussia, on the Uchte, 36 miles north-
northeast of Magdeburg (Map: Prussia, D 2).
It has a fifteenth-century late-Gothic cathedral
restored in 1893. There are railway repair shops,
and factories for iron furniture, cloth, gilt cor-
nices, agricultural implements, and sugar. Sten-
dal, founded in the twelfth century, was the
capital of the Altmark of Brandenburg. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 22,081.
STENDHAL, staN’dal’. The name assumed
by MARIE HENRI BEYLE (1783-1842). A French
novelist remarkable for the keenness of his
analysis of character. Though never popular,
Stendhal has been much read and admired by
STENDHAL.
STEPHAN US.
187
Flaubert and the naturalistic school, and by the
later psychologic novelist Bourget. Stendhal
was born at Grenoble. At seventeen he entered
the service of Bonaparte, for whom he conceived
great admiration. After Napoleon’s downfall he
resided in Italy. In 1821 he was expelled by
the Austrians and returned to Paris. In 1831 he
became French Consul-General at Civitavecchia.
In the age of Chateaubriand Stendhal sympa-
thized with Voltaire, in the day of the
Romantic carnival he was practicing the
restless dissection of character that marks
the work of Taine and Bourget. Hardly one of
his books could have paid the expense of print-
ing, and of his now admired essay on love (De
l’a/monr) it is said that seventeen copies were
sold in eleven years. Nisard, the great literary
historian of his time, does not name him. To-
day he takes his place among the ‘great
French writers.’ His works are collected
in twenty-four volumes, of which five
are posthumous. They begin with a book of
Italian travel and an essay De la petntare en
Italie (1817) ; De l’amoar follows in 1822, with
a striking essay on Racine et Shakespeare, par-
ticipating much in the contention of the Roman-
ticists. His first novel, Armance (1827), was
followed by Le rouge et le noir (1831) and La
chartrease de Pa/rme (1839). In all these he
analyzes the various forms of restlessness
into which the fall of Napoleon had
thrown a generation trained to expect a life filled
with violent emotion. All the novels are realistic
studies of social types, but of types of energy
and passion. The greatest of his creations is
Julien Sorel, the criminal hero of Le rouge et
le notr, whose career, founded on fact, is a
veritable breviary of hypocrisy, though the Fab-
rice of La chartreuse de Parme is hardly inferior.
But, though skillful in the dissection of motive,
Stendhal’s novels are careless in style, slovenly
in construction, much inferior in this to his
posthumously published Vie de N a-poléon (1876).
Consult: Sainte-Beuve, Oansertes dn lnndi, vol.
ix. (Paris, 1857-62) ; Zola, Les romancters nat-
nraltstes (ib., 1881); Bourget, Essais de psy-
chologic contemporaine (ib., 1883); Rod, Sten-
dhal, in “Les grands écrivains francais” (ib.,
1892); Farges, Stendhal dtplomate (ib., 1892);
Brun, Stendhal (ib., 1900).
STE1\T’1\TIS, THE STANDING STONES or. A
name applied to two circles of stone pillars on
two headlands in the Loch of Stennis, Scotland.
STE’1\T0, Nrononxs, or, in Danish form, NIELS
STENSEN (1639-86). A distinguished anatomist
and Roman Catholic bishop. He was born and
educated as a Protestant at Copenhagen. In
1660-63 he lived at Amsterdam and Leyden and
won renown for his discoveries in anatomy. In
1666 he became head of a hospital in Florence and
body physician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In
1667 he accepted the Roman Catholic faith. From
1672 to 1674 he was professor of anatomy at the
University of Copenhagen. In 1675 he becamea
priest and gave up his scientific studies. In
1677 he was made a titular bishop and thence-
forth he labored zealously among the northern
missions as vicar apostolic. He wrote several
religious works, including Prllfang der Reforma-
toren (1678). Consult his Life by Plenkers
(Freiburg, 1884).
VOL. X.VI.—13.
STENOGRAPHY. See SHORTHAND.
S'1‘EN’SEN, NIEI.s. See SrENo, Nronoms.
STENTOR (Lat., from Gk. Zrévrwp). In
Homer’s Iliad, a Grecian herald in the Trojan
War. His voice was as loud as that of fifty men
together. His name is preserved in the adjective
stentorian.
STENZLER, sténts’ler, ADOLF FRIEDRICH
(1807-87). A German Sanskrit scholar, born at
Wolgast‘. He studied at Greifswald, Berlin, and
Bonn, and in Paris and London. In 1833 he be-
came professor of Oriental languages at Breslau.
He edited, with Latin versions, the Raghwvainca
(1832) and the Kunnira Saonbhaca (1838) of
Kalidasa ; with German translations, Yak-
navalkya’s Book of Laws (1849), and In-
dische Hansregeln (1864-78; containing the
Acoaldyana and the Paraskara); Kalidasa’s
M eghadzlta, with commentary and glossary
(187 4) ; and The Institutes of Gantama (187 6) ;
as well as a very valuable Elementarbueh der
Sansleritsprache (1868; 6th ed. 1892).
STE]-PHAN, sté’fiin, HEINRICH voN (1831-97).
A German administrator. He was born at Stolp,
in Pomerania; entered the Prussian postal service
in 1848 and was rapidly promoted until in 1875
he became Postmaster-General of the German
Empire, having under his control the telegraph
lines as well as the mails. In 1877 he assumed
charge of the national printing offices. He in-
troduced many internal reforms, invented the
postal card, and brought about the forma-
tion of the Postal Union. He published Ge-
sch/lchte der preusstschen Post (1859) and Das
heuttge Aegypten (1872).
STEIPHANITE (named in honor of Archduke
Stephan). A mineral silver sulphantimonite
crystallized in the orthorhombic system. It has
a metallic lustre and is iron-black in color. It
occurs in veins with other silver ores, especially
in Freiberg, Bohemia, in Hungary, Mexico, Peru,
and in the United States at the Comstock lode
in Nevada, and at various localities in Idaho.
STEPH'A1\TUS, or ETIENNE, 'a’tyén’. A
famous French family of printers and scholars.
HENRICUS (c.1460-1520), the founder of the es-
' tablishment with which the family is identified,
set up a press in Paris in 1501. His publications,
about 120 in number, of which only one Was in
French, were mostly scientific.—His second son,
Ronnnrus (1503-59), had a good classical train-
ing and on his father’s death carried
on the business. In 1531 his Thesaurus
Linguce Latince began to appear, and in
1539 he was appointed royal printer to Fran-
cis I. In 1551, after the King’s death, he was
forced to leave Paris for Geneva, where in the
same year he published the Greek New Testa-
ment, with his verse divisions, which are still in
use. His various editions of the Bible, in He-
brew, Greek, Latin, and French, several works
of the Genevan reformers, a Dicttonnatre fran-
cais-latin (1539-40 and 1549), French and Latin
grammars, and a work on pedagogy, the first
book from his press (1526), are the more impor-
tant titles in a list of neary 400, all of which are
marked by wonderful typographical clearness
and accuracy.—His son HENRICUS, the younger
(1528-98), after three years in his father’s es-
tablishment in Geneva, in 1554 became independ-
ent. From his extensive travels he brought
STEPHAN US.
STEPHEN.
188
back valuable collections of classical manu-
scripts. But his scholarly enthusiasm in launch-
ing the editions of Plato (1578), and the The-
saurus Linguce Greece: (1572), which were so
long the source of all Greek lexicons, out-
ran his business prudence. The great printing
house was nearly ruined and his later works
were printed by others. Thirty first editions of
Greek authors constitute a claim to renown sec-
ond only to that won by the Thesaurus.-—His son
PAULUS (1566-c.1627) succeeded him, edited
Euripides (1602) and Sophocles (1603), and in
1602, implicated in the Escalade (see GENEVA),
had- to leave Geneva.-——His eldest son, ANTO-
NIUS (1592-1674), momentarily renewed the
glories of the house of Paris, but event-
ually died in the Hotel Dieu, old, blind, and
poor. Consult: Renouard, Annales de Pimprimerie
des Etienne (2d ed., Paris, 1843); Feugere,
Essai sur la vie ct les oeuvres ale Henri Etienne
(ib., 1853). For Robert’s work in connection
with the Greek New Testament, Scrivener, In-
troduction to the Textual Criticism of the New
Testament (3d ed., London, 1883).
STEPHEN, sté’ven. The first Christian mar-
tyr. He was chosen first among the seven deacons
whose selection is related in Acts vi., and the ac-
count of his martyrdom is given in the following
chapter. His execution does not seem to have had
the sanction of the Roman authorities, and there-
fore was illegal. The authenticity of the speech
in chapter vii. has been questioned, but, on the
whole, there does not seem to be valid reason for
doubting that the account is trustworthy. Saint
Stephen’s festival is celebrated in the Roman
Catholic and Anglican churches on December
26th. His relics were believed to have been dis-
covered at Jerusalem in 415 and a minor festival
on August 3d commemorates this event. Con-
sult the commentaries on Acts vi. and vii.; also
McGifi'ert, The Apostolic Age (New York, 1897),
and for the discovery of the relics, Lagrange,
Saint Etienne et son sanctuaire a Jerusalem
(Paris, 1894).
STEPHEN. The name of nine popes.~STE1>HEN
I., Pope 254-257. The chief interest of his pon-
tificate lies in the controversy over the validity
of baptism by heretics, in which Ste hen declared
definitely that baptism, no matter y whom ad-
ministered, was valid so long as the proper mat-
ter and form were employed. (See HEBETIC
BAPTISM.) He is called a martyr in the Liber
Pontificalis, but the tradition cannot be traced
further back than the sixth century.—STEPHEN
II., Pope 752-757. During his pontificate oc-
curred the epoch-making Donation of Pepin
(q.v.), which was the real foundation of the
Papal States in the modern sense. Consult
Schniiren, Die Entstehung des Kirchenstaates
(Cologne, 1894).—-STEPHEN III., Pope 768-772,
a Sicilian by birth. He held a synod at the
Lateran in 769, supported by the sons of Pepin, at
which an attempt was made to exclude secular
influence in Papal elections, and a decree passed
against the Eastern Iconoclasts. The relations
between the Franks and Lombards troubled the
latter years of his reign, and Desiderius, King
of the Lombards, had the chief influence in Rome
until after Stephen’s (lQS.tl1.——STEPHEN IV., Pope
816-817. He was closely allied with the Em-
peror Louis the Pious, whom he crowned at
Rheims.—STEP1~IEN V., Pope 885-891.-STEPHEN
VI., Pope 896-897. The most striking event of
his pontificate is characteristic of the darkness
of the times. Urged on by the faction to whom
he owed his elevation, Stephen had the body of
his predecessor Formosus disinterred, and after the
formality of a trial and condemnation stripped
of its sacerdotal robes and thrown into the Tiber.
Stephen himself was soon imprisoned by a popu-
lar uprising, and died in prison.—STEPHEN VIII.,
Pope 929-931, during the period when Theodora
and Marozia held sway in Rome.——STEPHEN
VIII., Pope 939-942, while Marozia’s son Alberic
II. held the temporal power and restricted the
Pope to purely spiritual functions. He was able,
however, by threats of excommunication to re-
duce to obedience the rebellious vassals of Louis
l.V. of France.—STEPHEN IX., Pope 1057-58,
Frederick by baptism, brother of Gozelo, Duke of
Lorraine. He was made a cardinal and chancel-
lor of the Roman Church by Leo IX. On his
return from an embassy to Constantinople he en-
tered the Monastery of Monte Cassino, and be-
came its abbot in 1057. As Pope he followed his
German predecessors in their zeal for reform, but
died in less than a year. Consult Will, Die
Anfiiinge der Restauration der Kirche im 11.
Jahrhundert (Marburg, 1864). Some lists of
popes enumerate ten Stephens. The confusion
arises from the fact that another of the name
was elected immediately before Stephen II., but
died four days after, before he had received epis-
copal consecration, and is therefore not properly
called Pope.
STEPHEN (c.1097-1154). King of England
from 1135 to 1154. He was the third son of
Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, by Adela,
daughter of William the Conqueror, and was
thus the nephew of Henry I. of England. He
was brought over to England at an early age and
became a favorite with his uncle, who bestowed
on him large estates and obtained for him in
marriage the hand of Matilda, heiress of Count
Eustace of Boulogne. Henry’s only son having
died in 1120, the King sought to secure the crown
for his daughter Matilda, widow of Henry V. of
the Holy Roman Empire, and Stephen w'as among
the first of the great barons to take the oath of
fealty to Matilda. Nevertheless, on the death of
Henry I. in 1135, Stephen hastened from Nor-
mandy to England, seized the royal treasure, and
was crowned King at Christmastide. Revolts in
the south and west occurred in 1136, and though
these were speedily suppressed, they broke out
anew in the following year. In 1138 David I.
of Scotland invaded England in support of the
claims of his niece Matilda, but he was badly
beaten in the battle of Northallerton (q.v.).
Robert, Earl of Gloucester, half brother of Ma-
tilda, also rose in rebellion, but was for the time
defeated. Stephen, however, foolishly entered
into conflict with the Church, whose cause was
espoused by his own brother, Henry of Winches-
ter, the Papal legate. While the quarrel was in
progress, Matilda and Robert of Gloucester
landed in England, toward the end of 1139, and
began a civil war which lasted for fourteen
years and plunged England into utter misery.
The nobles took advantage of the civil strife
to make themselves virtually independent, and
their castles, which Stephen had unwisely per-
mitted them to build up, became mere robber
strongholds and places of terror for the unhappy
peasantry.
The writer in the Anglo-Saxon
STEPHEN.
STEPHEN.
189
Chronicle says: “In this King’s time all was dis-
sension and evil and rapine. Thou
mightest go a whole day’s journey and not find
a man sitting in a town or an acre of land tilled.
The poor died of hunger and those who had been
men well-to-do begged for bread. . . . To
till the ground was to plow the sands of the
sea.” “Men said openly that Christ and His
saints slept.” In 1141 Stephen was taken pris-
oner at the battle of Lincoln, and was deposed by
a Church council, Matilda being chosen Queen.
She soon alienated her supporters by her harsh
government, and Stephen, who had been released
in exchange for Robert of Gloucester, was de-
clared the lawful King by a second Church coun-
cil and was crowned on Christmas Day. In 1148
Matilda left England; Robert of Gloucester was
now dead and the struggle was henceforth car-
ried on by Henry, the son of Matilda and Geof-
frey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, who in 1151
succeeded his father and by his marriage to
Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis
VII. of France, became one of the richest princes
in Europe. Stephen’s son, Eustace, died in 1153,
-and in November of the same year Stephen and
Henry concluded the Treaty of Wallingford, by
_which the former remained King, while the suc-
cession was vested in Henry. Stephen died Oc-
tober 25,' 1154. Consult: Stubbs, Constitutional
History, vol. i. (6th ed., Oxford, 1896) ; id., The
Early Plantagenets (5th ed., London, 1886).
STEPHEN, HENRY JOHN (1787-1864). An
English jurist. He was born‘ at Saint Chris-
topher’s, West Indies, studied for a time at Saint
John’s College, Cambridge, and in 1815 was
called to the bar. His legal treatises have given
him a permanent place among English jurists.
In 1824 appeared his Treatise on the Principles
of Pleading in Civil Actions, which is a model of
form and clearness, and was styled by Kent “the
best book that was ever written in explanation
of the science.” His New Commentaries on the
Laws of England (1841) enjoyed great con-
temporary popularity. He also published a
Summary of the Criminal Law at Its Present
State (1834). Consult L. Stephen, Life of Sir
James Fitejames Stephen (London, 1895).
STEPHEN, Sir JAMES FITZJAMES (1829-94).
An eminent English jurist and writer on legal
subjects, born in London. He was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, and was admitted to
the bar at the Inner Temple in 1854. He was re-
corder of Newark-on-Trent in 1859-69, and was le-
-gal member of the Legislative Council of the Gov-
-ernor-General of India in 1869-72, doing much to
consolidate, abbreviate, and simplify the Indian
law of crimes and of evidence, it being due to his
efforts that the Indian Evidence Act was passed
in 1872. He returned to England in 1872 and
employed his time until 1875 in the work of
codifying the law of evidence and criminal law
of England. He was appointed professor of
common law to the Inns of Court in 1875, and in
1879 was appointed a judge of the Queen’s Bench
Division of the High Court, which position he
held until 1891, when he was disabled by ner-
vous trouble resulting in insanity. His
greatest work was his History of the
Criminal Law of England (1883). It is the
best work upon the subject for the period it cov-
ers, although marked by a certain bias due to
his peculiar temperament; and his Digest of the
-instant success.
Law of Evidence (1876) is widely used in Eng-
land and the United States. He also published:
Essays of a Barrister (1862) ; Liberty, Equality,
and Fraternity (1873); Digest of the Criminal
Law (1877); A View of the Criminal Law in
England (1863). Consult Leslie Stephen, Life
of Sir James Fitzjames Stephen (London, 1895) .
STEPHEN, JAMES KENNETH (1859-92). An
English verse-writer, born in London. At King’s
College, Cambridge, from which he graduated
in 1882, he was elected to the Whewell
scholarship in international law, and to a
fellowship (1885) . In 1884 he was called to the
bar at the Inner Temple, and in 1888 he was ap-
pointed clerk of assize for the South Wales.Cir-
cuit. Two years later he resigned to return to
Cambridge as tutor. In the meantime he had
contributed to the Saint James Gazette and had
conducted a weekly journal called The Reflector.
The year before his death Stephen published
two slender volumes of light verse, Lapsus
Calami and Quo, Musa, Tendis? which met with
In recent verse there is noth-
ing cleverer than some of the parodies, as those on
Browning, _Wordsworth, Clough, Whitman, and '
especially Kipling. To the one on Browning
there is a noble apology. Other poems show a
keen critic of contemporary life.
STEPHEN, Sir LESLIE (l832—-—). An English
biographer and critic, son of Sir James Stephen.
He was born in London and was educated at
Eton and at King’s College, London, and Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1854
(M. A. 1857 ) and remained as fellow and tutor
until 1864. In that year he went to London and
engaged in literary work, writing much for lead-
ing periodicals. His first wife (died 187 5) was
a daughter of Thackeray. In 1865 he published
Sketches from Cambridge, reprinted from the
Pall Mall Gazette, and in 1871 became editor of
the Cornhill M agaeine, the reputation of which he
maintained by securing such contributors as
Stevenson,’ Hardy, and Henry James. He re-
signed this post in 1882 to undertake the.editor-
ship of the Dictionary of National Biography,
which, though ill health forced him to hand the
management over to Sidney ‘Lee in 1891, will
always be a monument to his scholarship and
judgment. He wrote nearly four hundred of the
articles himself, including Addison, Burns, By-
ron, Carlyle, Coleridge, Dickens, George Eliot,
Fielding, Gibbon, Hume, Johnson, Milton, Pope,
Scott, Swift, Thackeray, and Wordsworth. Prac-
tically all his work on the Dictionary was excel-
lent, but his type of mind and literary method
achieved the happier results, perhaps, with the
eighteenth-century subjects. For a year (1883)
he held the Clark lectureship in English litera-
ture at Cambridge. In addition to biography and
literature Stephen showed a keen interest in phi-
losophy and ethics. In this field he was utilitarian
and fortified his position with an irony, a subtle-
ty of thought, and a trenchantly critical method
that won him high regard among literary men
and scholars at the expense, perhaps, of popular-
ity. His works include: H ours in a Library
(three series, 1874-76-79), able and impartial
criticisms about which there plays a delightful
humor; The History of English Thought in the
Eighteenth Century (1876;_new ed. 1902); Es-
says on Freethinhing and Plain Speaking (1879)
The Science of Ethics (1882), widely used as a
STEPHEN.
STEPHENS.
190
text-book; Life of Henry Fawcett (1885); An
Agnostic’s Apology (1893); Life of Sir James
Fitejames Stephen (1895), his brother; Social
Rights and Duties (1896); Studies of a Biog-
rapher (1898) ; The English Utilitarians (1900) ;
and, in the “English Men of Letters” series, lives
of Swift, Pope, Johnson, Hobbes, and George
Eliot. Stephen was knighted in 1902.
STEPHEN IBATHORY, bans-re. See BATH-
ORY.
STEPHEN DUSHAN, d6E'shiin (c.1308-55).
Czar of Servia from 1331 to 1355. Profiting by
the disorders in the Byzantine Empire, he ob-
tained possession of a lar e part of Macedonia
and of Northern Greece. e also extended his
sway over most of Albania, while Bulgaria ac-
knowledged his overlordship, and he defied the
power of Louis the Great of Hungary. Stephen
was great as a ruler, as a soldier, and as a law-
giver. In 1346 he had himself crowned Emperor
(Czar) of the Servians and Greeks. In 1349 an
independent patriarchate was instituted for
Servia. Under Stephen there was, for a brief
period a great Slavic realm in the southeast of
Europe. His death was followed by its speedy
disruption. Stephen Dushan is regarded as a
national hero by the Servians.
STEPHENS, ste’venz, ALEXANDER HAMILTON
(1812-83). An American statesman, and the Vice-
President of the Confederate States; born in
Taliaferro County, Ga., February 11, 1812. His
boyhood was one of poverty and toil, with occa-
sional attendance at ‘old-field’ schools. A so-
ciety for the education of young men for the
Presbyterian ministry became interested in him
and provided him with the means for education
at Franklin College, now the State University,
where he graduated at the head of his class in
1832. He did not enter the ministry, but
he returned, with interest, the money advanced
for him by the society, in accordance with the
understanding upon which he had received it.
He taught school for a time, and after three
months’ study of law without a tutor was ad-
mitted to the bar at Crawfordville, his county-
town, at the age of twenty-two. At twenty-four
he was elected to the State Legislature, and after
five years’ service there was sent to the United
States House of Representatives, where he re-
mained from 1843 until he voluntarily retired in
1859.
In 1861 he became Vice-President of the Con-
federate States and remained so while that gov-
ernment lasted, though not wholly in accord with
its policy. He headed the Confederate Commis-
sion that met President Lincoln and Secretary
Seward at Hampton Roads in February, 1865, to
confer upon terms of peace. (See HAMPTON
Ronns CONFEEENCE.) There is no foundation in
fact for the story that Lincoln told Stephens
that he might write his own terms if restoration
of the Union were agreed upon as the first con-
dition of peace. After the fall of the Con-
federacy he was imprisoned in Fort VVarren, Bos-
ton Harbor, from May until October, 1865.
Elected to the United States Senate in 1866, he
was not permitted to take his seat, and he did
not reénter official public life until 1873, when
he became a member of the National House of
Representatives, from which he again voluntarily
retired in 1882. In the fall of that year he
was elected Governor of Georgia, and died in the
executive mansion, Atlanta, March 4, 1883, leav-
ing a creditable record as statesman, orator, and
writer.
His career is one of the most remarkable in
American annals. With moral as well as physi-
cal courage, he was independent of party.
Hence, until 1855, though he had never
been in thorough accord with the Whig
Party, he generally acted with it simply because
he preferred its policy, on the whole, to that of
the Democrats. When the Whig Party became
disorganized by afliliations of its Northern mem-
bers with the Free-Soilers, he acted with the
Democrats, opposed the Know-Nothing Party,
and supported Douglas for the Presidency in
1860. But as, in 1852, he would not act with
the Whig Party in support of Scott, so in
1872 he would not act with the Demo-
cratic Party in support of Greeley. While
he rejected as fallacious and inconsistent
the doctrine of nullification, he believed in the
right of secession; but he was opposed to the
policy of resorting to it in 1861 as a remedy for
the political situation at that time. He was
devoted to the Union, but believed his ultimate
allegiance due to his State, and when she seceded
he went with it; but in the conflict that ensued
his efforts were directed to a peaceful adjustment
based on the principles upon which the Union
was formed, for he held the Union itself secon-
dary in importance to those principles. Be-
sides editing the Atlanta Daily Sun from 1871 to
1873, he published: A Constitutional View of
the War Between the States (1868-70); The
Reviewers Reviewed (a reply to his critics) ; and
A School History of the United States (1872).
Consult: Cleveland, Alexander H. Stephens in
Public and Private, with Letters and Speeches
(Philadelphia, 1866) ; Johnston and Browne,
Life of Alexander H. Stephens (ib., 1878; new
ed. 1883).
STEPHENS, GEORGE (1813-95). An English
archaeologist, born in Liverpool. He was edu-
cated at University College, London. In 1834 he
settled in Stockholm, Sweden, as a teacher of
English. He translated Tegner’s Frithiof into
English verse (1841) ; was one of the founders of
the Society for the Publication of Ancient Swed-
ish Texts (1843), for which he edited several
works ; and published a Catalogue of English and
French Manuscripts in the Royal Library at
Stockholm (1847). In 1851 he moved to Copen-
hagen, and was appointed professor of English
and Anglo-Saxon in the university there (1855).
While holding this position he prepared his best
known work, The Old Northern Run/ic Monuments
of Scandinavia and England, Now First Collected
and Deciphered (vol. i., 1866; vol. ii., 1868; vol.
iii., 1884), which was abridged under the title
A Handbook to the Old Northern Runic Monu-
ments. As a collection of inscriptions, this Work
has great value; but the interpretations were
proved worthless by Wimmer and other scholars.
STEPHENS, HENRY Monsn (1857 —). A
British-American historian, born in Edinburgh.
He graduated at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1880,
became a staff lecturer on history to the Oxford
Extension Delegacy in 1891, and in 1892 was
chosen lecturer on Indian history at Cambridge
University. He was professor of modern Euro-
pean history at Cornell University from 1839 to
1903, when he became professor of history and
STEPHENS.
STEPHENSON.
191
director of university extension at the Univer-
sity of California. His published works in-
clude: History of the French Revolution (1886) ;
Portugal (1891), in the “Story of the Nations
Series;” Albuquerque and the Early Portuguese
Settlements in India (1891) ; History of Europe
1789-1815 (1899), in the “Periods of European
History Series;” Modern European History,
1600-1890 (1899). He also edited Principal
Speeches of the Statesman and Orators of the
French Revolution (1891), and, in collaboration
with G. B. Adams, Select Documents of English
Constitutional History (1901) .
STEPHENS, JAMES (1824-1901). An Irish
agitator and Fenian leader, born in Kilkenny.
After participating in the Young Ireland rising
of 1848, he fled to Paris. In 1853 he instituted
the foundation of the Irish Republican Brother-
hood, commonly known as the Fenian So-
ciety (q.v.). His system depended on complete
preparation of the people. A favorable oppor-
tunity was to be awaited when England should
be embroiled in foreign troubles. By 1863, both
in point of view of numbers enrolled and revenue
raised, the organization had assumed formidable
proportions, but from that time dates its de-
cline. The Irish People, a newspaper which he
founded in Dublin in 1863 as a Fenian organ, he
conducted on a private basis. The rising in the
autumn of 1865 was an ill-timed affair that had
hung fire from the preceding spring, and the lead-
ers were arrested. Stephens’s facile escape from
Dublin Castle was a cause of reproach on the
ground that he sacrificed his lieutenants to his
own chances instead of taking them with him.
He proceeded to the United States and devoted
his energies to pacifying and uniting the branch
of the society there, but in 1867 he was formally
deposed. He fled for his life to Paris, and in
1891 returned unnoticed to Ireland.
STEPHENS, JOHN LLOYD (1805-52). An
American traveler and author, born at Shrews-
bury, N. J. He graduated at Columbia College
in 1822; from 1825 until 1834 practiced law in
New York City, and then traveled for two years
in Southern and Eastern Europe and in Pales-
tine and Egypt, writing letters for the American
Monthly Magazine that attracted widespread at-
tention. Later he published Incidents of Travel
in Egypt, Arabia Petrcea, and the Holy La/nd
(1837) and Incidents of Travel in Greece,
Turkey, Russia, and Poland (1838). In 1839
he was sent by President Van Buren on an
unsuccessful mission to Central America. On
his return he published Incidents of Travel in
Central America-, Chiapas, and Yucatan (1841).
He again went to Central America in 1841 and
made further explorations, the results of which
appeared in Incidents of Travel in Yucatan
(1843). Both works were widely read at the
time and attracted attention to the archaeological
remains in Yucatan. In 1849 Stephens became
interested in the plan for building a railroad
across the Isthmus of Panama, and was made vice-
president and afterwards president of the com-
pany that was formed for that purpose. A monu-
ment was erected in his honor on the highest
point traversed by the railroad.
STEPHENS, WILLIAM (1671-1753). An Eng-
lish colonial Governor, born at Bowcombe, Isle
of Wight. He graduated at King’s College, Cam-
bridge, in 1684, and was admitted to the Middle
Temple. About 1736 he went to South Carolina
to survey a barony and met General Oglethorpe.
He removed to Georgia in 1737 and became sec-
retary of the trustees. In 1741 he became presi-
dent of Savannah, one of the two counties into
which the colony was divided, and in 1743 was
made president of the colony. He was requested
to resign on account of his age in 1750, and gave
up his office in April, 1751. He published Jour-
nal of the Proceedings in Georgia, Beginning
October 20, 1733 (1742). One volume was printed
separately as State of the Province (1742) . His
life was written by his son, Thomas, under the
title The Castle-Builders (2d ed., 1759).
STEPHENSON, sté'venv-son, GEORGE (1781-
1848). An English engineer and inventor and
the ‘founder of railways.’ He was born at Wy-
lam, near Newcastle, where his father was fire-
man at a colliery. After a boyhood spent in
farm work he became assistant to his father and
was steadily advanced. He got some education
while working as fireman and brakeman, and in
addition to his regular duties undertook the
cleaning and repairing of clocks. He became
acquainted with William Fairbairn at this
time and the two were in frequent confer-
ence. After serving as engineer at various col-
lieries and other establishments he was made
engine-wright of the Killingworth High Pit,
having by this time gained a thorough practical
knowledge of the operation and construction of
engines and pumping machinery. Devoting his
leisure to scientific pursuits, he invented a
miner’s safety lamp (q.v.) known as the ‘Geor-
die’ (1815), and there resulted a controversy
over the priority of the invention, as a similar
idea had been successfully worked out by Sir
Humphry Davy (q.v.). His attention was
meanwhile turned to the experiments of Black-
ett and Hedley with locomotives, then in prog-
ress at Wylam, and he induced the owners
of the Killingworth Colliery to undertake the
construction of a locomotive. (See LOCOMOTIVE.)
In 1821 he became chief engineer of the Stockton
and Darlington Railway (see RAILWAYS) , and in
1824 he was appointed engineer of the Liverpool
and Manchester Railway. In 1825 the Stockton
and Darlington road was opened, and was the
first regularly operated in the world where loco-
motives were employed to haul freight and pas-
sengers. In 1829 his Rocket won in the cele-
brated competitive trial of locomotives on the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and in 1830
the line was formally opened. Subsequent im-
provements were made in the locomotive and Ste-
phenson became chief or consulting engineer to
nearly all of the railway projects that were
soon set on foot. His success in this field made it
possible for him to become interested also in the
development of coal mines. Stephenson visited
the Continent in 1846. where he was received
with unusual honors. He was the first president
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which
he founded in 1847, but was never a candi-
date for political honors. In the latter part
of his life he devoted himself to farming at
his country place at Tapton House, where he
died. By his successful development of the
locomotive and of the railway Stephenson
ranks as one of the foremost mechanical engi-
neers of the nineteenth century. Not only was
STEPHENSON.
STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
192
his influence felt in the purely mechanical and
engineering difficulties to be overcome, but also
in the conservative organization and prosecution
of the railway enterprises of his time. Consult
Smiles, Lives of the Engineers, vol. iii. (London,
rev. ed., 1874). Read in this connection articles
on Looomorrvn and RAILWAYS.
STEPHENSON, ROBERT (1803-1859). A Brit-
ish civil engineer. He was the son of George
Stephenson (q.v.) and was born at Wallington
Quay, near Newcastle. He was educated at New-
castle and received practical engineering experi-
ence at the Killingworth Colliery and with his
father in railway surveying and the construction
of locomotives, being, in the meanwhile, a
student for six months at Edinburgh Uni-
versity. After managing his father’s loco-
motive factory in Newcastle for a few months
he went to South America on account of ill
health (1824) and engaged in mining. Com-
ing back to England in 1827, he returned to
the locomotive works and supervised the con-
struction of the Rocket (see LoooMoTIvE),
incorporating in its mechanism many original and
serviceable ideas, and assisted his father in other
work. In 1833 he became the engineer of the
London and Birmingham Railway, one of the
first in which great engineering difficulties were
encountered in the construction, but which was
completed in 1838. The firm of Robert Stephen-
son & Co. by this time had become the leading
engine builders of the world and a standard type
of locomotive was evolved which was subsequently
enlarged and improved. Robert Stephenson was
interested in every department of railway con-
struction, and particularly in the design of
bridges, where he achieved the highest reputa-
tion. Among the bridges he designed were the
high-level bridge over the Tyne at Newcastle, the
Victoria Bridge at Berwick, the famous Britan-
nia Tubular Bridge across Menai Strait, the Con-
way Bridge, and the Victoria Bridge over the
Saint Lawrence. (See BRIDGE.) In 1847
Stephenson was elected to Parliament from Whit-
by as a Conservative, and in 1856 became presi-
dent of the Institution of Civil Engineers. See
Smiles, Lives of the Engineers (London, rev. ed.,
1874) ; Jeafferson and Pole, The Life of Robert
Stephenson (ib., 1864). See LOCOMOTIVE; RAIL-
wxrs; STEAM ENGINE; BRIDGE.
STEPNIAK’ (pseudonym of Kmvronrnsxr),
SERGEI MIKHAILOVITCH (1852-95). A Russian
revolutionary exile and writer, born in Southern
Russia. He graduated at the Saint Petersburg
School of Artillery, and entered the Forestry
Institute at Saint Petersburg. In 1872 he
joined a Nihilist circle. and engaged in spread-
ing revolutionary ideas among the factory work-
men in the capital. He was arrested in 1874 in
the Government of Tver, but escaped, and hence-
forth led the life of an outlaw. He engaged in
conspiracies in Italy, took an active part
at Geneva in the publication of The Commune,
and smuggled into Russia a press and type for
illegal publications in 1878. When the revolu-
tionists resolved upon the death of General
Mezentseff, chief of the gendarmes, Stepniak,
chosen by lot for the purpose, stabbed him on
August 16, 1878. and somewhat later published
Life for Life in justification of the act. During
the years 1879-83 he lived in Switzerland and
Italy, where appeared his famous Underground
-Russia (1882) . In 1884 Stepniak settled in Lon-
don. In 1885 appeared his Russia Under the Tsars,
followed by The Russian Storm Cloud (1886),
Russian Peasantry, Career of a Nihilist (1889),
The Little Cottage on the Volga, and King Stork
and King Log (1895). He edited Free Russia
(founded in 1890), the monthly organ of the
English Society of Friends of Russian Freedom.
He died in London.
STEPPE (Russ. stepi, waste, heath, steppe).
The name given to the undulating plains of
Southeastern Europe and Northern Asia which
correspond in general to the prairies and pampas
of America, but are marked by some peculiarities
due to their elevation and dry climate. The
steppes are covered with grass in the rainy sea-
son or early summer and afford pasturage to
great herds of cattle, sheep, and horses, and are
largely occupied, Where not brought under culti-
vation, by nomadic tribes of Tatars. See GRASS-
LAND; PRAIRIE.
STERE (Fr. stere, from Gk. orepeds, stereos,
solid). Another name for a cubic meter. The
measure is much used for wood, especially fire-
wood. See METRIC SYSTEM. -
STEREO-CHEMISTRY. A branch of chem-
istry dealing with those cases of isomerism that
cannot be explained by the doctrine of the link-
ing of atoms, and explaining those cases on the
assumption that the combining forces of an atom
act in certain definite directions in space. Isomer-
ism (i.e. the existence of compounds having the
same qualitative and quantitative composition
and the same molecular weight, yet differing
more or less in their properties) and the doctrine
of the linkin of atoms (the structural theory)
have been iscussed in the article CARBON
COMPOUNDS, which should be read in connection
with the present sketch.
OPTICAL ISOMERISM. Most of the cases not
explained by the doctrine of the linking of atoms
are presented by compounds identical in all their
chemical and physical properties except the
power of rotating the plane of polarized light.
It is well known that this power is possessed by
a. number of crystalline substances in the solid
state, and that every such substance can be ob-
tained in two ‘enantiomorphous’ crystalline
forms, rotating the plane of polarized light
through equal angles but in opposite directions.
But when melted or dissolved such substances
usually lose that power completely—which shows '
that their optical property is peculiar, not to
their nature, but to the particular crystalline
form which they assume in the solid state. These
are not the substances that stereo-chemistry has
to deal with: such substances, inasmuch as they
lose their difference of optical rotatory power
with their crystalline form and are therefore
identical in the liquid, gaseous, or dissolved
state, cannot be considered as different chemical
individuals, and hence cannot form the subject
of a theory of chemical compounds. Cases of
optical isomerism proper are presented by sub-
stances retaining or acquiring their difference of
optical rotatory power in the liquid, gaseous, or
‘ dissolved state.
In 1874 Le Bel and Van ’t Hoff discovered, in-
dependently and almost simultaneously, that all
optically active compounds, and only optically ac-
tive compounds, contain one or more ‘asym-
STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
193
metr-id’ carbon atoms, i.e. carbon atoms directly
linked to four atoms or groups of atoms differ-
ent from one another. The following formulas,
containing asymmetric carbon atoms (denoted
by an italic 0), represent optically active com-
pounds:
cn n _ n /cn,coon
c
/\
on coon
Lactic acids Malic acids
c,,n5 on
O’
/\
n coon
Mandelic acids
On the contrary, formulas like that of propionic
acid,
3 O
\/
0
/\
n coon
on, n
\/
c
/ \
n coon
which contains no asymmetric carbon atom (i.e.
no atom combined with four different atoms or
groups), have in no case been found to represent
optically active compounds. The relation be-
tween the optic rotatory power and the asym-
metric carbon atom must therefore form the
cornerstone of any explanation of optical isomer-
ism that might be advanced. Altogether three
different explanations suggest themselves as pos-
sible: (1) the assumption that the four valencies
of the carbon atom are unequal and that cases of
isomerism may result from different distribu-
tions of the four atoms or groups combined with
the carbon atom, among its different valencies;
(2) the assumption that the atoms or groups
combined with the carbon atom are in constant
motion around it and that the molecules of opti-
cally different compounds may be made up of
the same atoms or groups in different motions
around the carbon atom; and (3) the assumption
that the molecules of different compounds may
be made up of the same atoms or groups, similar-
ly linked to the carbon atom, but differently ar-
ranged in space around it. The first of these
. assumptions compels us to recognize the possible
existence of isomers that are positively known
to be impossible. Foninstance, if the assump-
tion were correct, two different nitro-methanes
would be possible; yet a systematic experimental
investigation carried out by Henry showed that
nitro-methane can exist i11 one form only.
The second of the above assumptions is alto-
gether incapable of either purely theoretical
development or systematic correlation with facts,
and must therefore be abandoned. The third as-
sumption, viz. that the difference between opti-
cal isomers is due to differences in the configura-
tion of the atoms in their molecules, presents it-
self, therefore, as the only possible explanation.
Furthermore, even this explanation must first of
all discard the hypothesis of the arrangement
of atoms in a plane. Indeed, were the plane
graphical formulas, as we ordinarily write them,
true to reality, then, for instance, two methylene
chlorides would be possible, the configurations of
whose atoms would be represented by the follow-
ing formulas:
H H
H—(|J—Cl Cl-(|l—Cl
A 1'-.
Yet only one methylene chloride is possible. If
the valencies of the carbon atom were assumed to
be distributed, in the plane, not at equal angles,
but, say, as in the symbol
\/
c
/\
then the number of theoretically possible yet
really non-existing isomers would be even greater.
Considerations of this nature have led to the
conclusion that if optical isomerism is to be ex-
plained, it is necessary to assume that the four
atoms or groups held by an asymmetric carbon
atom are situated at equal distances from the
carbon atom and at equal distances from one an-
other——which is equivalent to assuming that the
asymmetric carbon atom is situated at the cen-
tre of a regular tetrahedron, and the four differ-
ent atoms or groups held by it are situated at the
four corners of the tetrahedron. This, then,-is
the fundamental hypothesis of stereo-chemistry.
Its application to the study of isomerism is very
diflicult to explain or to grasp without the use
of models. A crude but sufficient form of model
may be readily made in a few minutes from
pasteboard, by cutting out four equal equi-
lateral triangles and fastening them together to
form a regular tetrahedron, by means of strips of
gummed paper. Small slips of paper of differ-
ent colors may be used to represent the four dif-
ferent atoms or groups and may be fastened to
the corners by means of pins. With the aid of
two such models it is easy to demonstrate the
following cases: (1) With three slips of paper of
one color and one of another color, only one ar-
rangement is possible, which corresponds, for
instance, to the fact that only one nitro-methane,
CH,,(NO,) , can be obtained. (2) With two slips
of paper of one color and two of another color,
again only one arrangement is possible, which
corresponds, for instance, to the fact that only
one methylene chloride, CH,Cl,, can be obtained.
(3) With two slips of paper of one color, one
slip of another color, and one of a third color,
again only one arrangement is possible, which
corresponds, for instance, to the fact that only
one propionic acid, CH,(CH_,) (COOH), can be
obtained. (4) With four slips of different colors
two different arrangements are possible, which
corresponds to the fact that only molecules con-
taining an asymmetric carbon atom, i.e. one
linked to four different atoms or groups, can be
different in spite of being made up of the same
atoms linked together in the same manner. The
two models will, in this case, be like an object
and its image in a mirror, or like the right hand
and the left hand; turn both hands palm down-
ward and it is impossible to superpose them so
that the corresponding fingers touch—the thumb
of the right hand will touch, not the thumb, but
the little finger of the left hand, etc. Thus the
models will illustrate the difference between the
two optically active lactic acids, malic acids, or
mandelic acids (see above) ; or, in general, any
pair of optical isomers whose molecules contain
one asymmetric carbon atom. As an instructive
example it may be demonstrated, by means of the
STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
194:
models, why only one acetic acid, CH3(COOH),
is possible; why only one mono-chlor-acetic acid,
CH,(Cl) (COOH), is possible; why only one di-
chlor-acetic acid, CHCl,(COOH), is possible; why
only one tri-chlor-acetic acid, CCl3(OOOH), is
possible; why two optically isomeric chloro-
bromo-acetic acids, C(H) (Cl) (Br) (COOH), are
possible; and why two optically isomeric chloro-
bromo-fluor-acetic acids, C(01) (Br) (F) (COOH),
are possible.
As already pointed out above, optical isomers
are invariably found to possess precisely the
same chemical and physical properties and to
differ only with regard to the direction in Which
they rotate the plane of polarized light. The
question now suggests itself, How can such iso-
mers be separated from each other when mixed?
This problem is so much the more important be-
cause all reactions by which compounds with
asymmetric carbon atoms may be produced from
compounds containing no such atoms cause the
simultaneous production of both optical isomers
in precisely equal quantities; so that a separa-
tion is required whenever optically active com-
pounds are to be prepared artificially (in nature
either one or the other of a pair of optical
isomers is often found isolated). Three methods
have thus far been found for effecting the sepa-
ration. First, it is possible, in many cases, and
under certain conditions of temperature, to sepa-
rate the isomers mechanically——in those cases,
namely, in which the two crystallize from their
solutions separately. In all such cases the two
isomers are found to form enantiomorphous crys-
tals. Below, or sometimes above, the point or
interval of temperature at which this takes place,
the two isomers usually crystallize together,
forming a double compound, the so-called ‘ra-
cemic’ modification of the given compound. The
racemic modification is optically inactive be-
cause its two components tend to rotate the
plane of polarized light to the same extent in
opposite directions. The second method of
separating optical isomers is applicable only
to acids and bases. If a mixture of two optically
isomeric acids is treated with an optically active
base, two salts result differing more or less con-
siderably in solubility, and therefore capable of
being separated by fractional crystallization. The
result is similar when a mixture of two optically
active isomeric bases is treated with an optically
active acid. Finally, the third method is based
on the fact that certain processes of fermentation
often destroy one of the optical isomers and leave
the other intact. Thus, levo-glucose may be
prepared by subjecting to fermentation its mix-
ture with dewtro-glucose, the latter alone being
affected by the fermentation. The reason of such
facts is not yet understood. It has been assumed
by some that the living organisms (e.g. Penicil-
lium glaucum) causing fermentation are capable
of discriminating, by a sort of instinct, between
the isomers, and, while feeding on one, reject the
other. But the lifeless enzymes (q.v.) ob-
tained from ferments have been shown to exercise
the same action as the ferments themselves; and
hence the peculiar action of the latter may be as-
sumed to be due to the purely chemical proper-
ties of their enzymes. .
Passing now to the consideration of compounds
whose molecules contain more than one asym-
metric carbon atom, the most important case to
be mentioned is that of tartaric acid, (COOH)
C(H) (OH) -C(H) (OH) (COOH), with two
asymmetric carbons in its molecule. By the use
of models like those mentioned above, it is
easy to convince one’s self that three different ar-
rangements are possible: (1) a right-handed
arrangement of the groups around either of the
asymmetric carbons; (2) a left-handed arrange-
ment of the groups around either of the asym-
metric carbons; (3) a right-handed arrangement
around one, and a left-handed arrangement
sponding to these are the well-known dextro-
rotatory, levo-rotatory, and inactive modifications
of the acid, the last named being inactive because
one-half of its molecule rotates the plane of po-
larized light to the same extent in one direction
as the other half does in the opposite direction.
Besides these there is the racemic modification
(‘racemic acid’), which is nothing but a double
compound of the dextro-rotatory and levo-rotatory
tartaric acids. (See TARTARIC ACID.) The com-
pounds containing more than two asymmetric
carbon atoms include the sugars-—an important
class of compounds whose theory could not pos-
sibly have been developed,_ and many of which
could hardly have been discovered without the
concepts of stereo-chemistry. See SUGARS.
GECMETRICAL ISOMERISM. It may be seen
from the preceding paragraphs that the funda-
mental hypothesis of stereo-chemistry, viz. that
the valencies of a carbon atom act symmetrically
around it in space, while indispensable for cor-
relating optical isomers, also throws additional
light on the phenomena of chemical isomerism
proper. Take, for example, again the case of
methylene chloride, CH,Cl,. Were optical isomer-
ism unknown and the stereo-chemical hypothesis
non-existent, the question as to why only one
modification of this compound is possible would
be answered by pointing out that the four carbon
valencies are identical and that, hydrogen and
chlorine atoms being univalent, only one mode
of linking the atoms is possible. If it were fur-
ther asked, “But how do we know that two
methylene chlorides might not exist, in whose
molecules the atoms are linked similarly, but
arranged differently ?”—chemists would answer:
“Of course, such a state of things is not incon-
ceivable; only in all the innumerable cases thus
far discovered, the doctrine of the linking of
atoms is sufiicient, the number of known isomeric
compounds never exceeding the number of pos-
sible modes of linking; and so we deem it un-
necessary to enter into speculations as to the
arrangement of atoms in space.” From the
standpoint of stereo-chemistry the answer is
thorough: only one methylene chloride is pos-
sible, (1) because the four valencies of carbon
are identical; (2) because only one mode of link-
ing the atoms is possible; ( 3) because only one
arrangement of the atoms in space is possible,
as may be readily demonstrated by the use of
tetrahedron models.
It is, therefore, clear that stereo-chemistry not
only explains, and hence permits of foreseeing,
all possible cases of optical isomerism, but also
explains thoroughly why more cases of chemical
isomerism than are explained and foretold by
the doctrine of the linking of atoms are not pos-
sible. But stereo-chemistry has still another im-
portant application. Its fundamental hypothesis
applied to the so-called ‘unsaturated’ compounds
STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
STEREORNITHES.
195
(see CARBON COMPOUNDS) leads to a clear ex-
planation of cases of isomerism which, again,
cannot be explained by the doctrine of atomic
linking alone. In the simplest class of un-
saturated compounds one carbon atom is united
by two valencies to another carbon atom. In
stereo-chemistry this means that two carbon-
tetrahedra have an edge in common, the four
atomic groups held by the two carbons being situ-
ated at the four free corners of the tetrahedra.
Take, for example, the case of two carbon atoms
united by a double bond and holding two hydrogen
atoms and two carboxyl (COOH) groups. In this
case the doctrine of the linking of atoms recognizes
the possibility of two isomeric modifications, viz.:
H\ /(COOH)
C :
/’ \\
H (COOH)
Methylene-m alonic acid
H H
\\ //
and CZC
// \\
(coon) (coon)
Maleic and fumaric acids
Stereo-chemical doctrine recognizes that with
the second of these modes of linking two differ-
ent arrangements in space are possible, as may
be seen from the accompanying diagram, and
(coon)
(coon)
Maleic acid
better still by the use of models. As a matter of
fact, three unsaturated acids C,,(H,,) (COOH),
are known, viz. methylene-malonic acid char-
acterized by the first of the above modes of
linking, and two acids—maleic and fumaric-—
both characterized by the second mode of atomic
linking, and differentiated from each other by
the different configuration of their atoms. Opti-
cal activity is of course out of question, because
none of the molecules under consideration con-
tains an asymmetric carbon atom. But corre-
sponding to the difference in configuration are
certain differences in the chemical behavior of
maleic and fumaric acids, although the close
relationship between the two is indicated by the
great readiness with which they are transformed
into each other. The most important difference
between the two consists in the fact that maleic
acid readily forms an anhydride, its two car-
boxyl groups losing the elements of water and
becoming joined together, thus:


Fumaric acid
H H
/’ /’
C. C
\COOH CO
oooH_H2O= oo
/’ /’ \\
C C O
\\ \\ ,/
H H
Maleic acid Maleic anhydride
Fumaric acid, on the contrary, has no anhydrido
of its own. This indicates that in maleic acid
the two carboxyl groups must be nearer together
than in fumaric acid, and therefore the first of
the above two stereo-chemical formulas is as-
signed to maleic, the second to fumaric acid. See
MALEIC AND FUMABIC Acms.
As to compounds with triple bonds in their
molecules (see CARBON COMPOUNDS), the verdict
of stereo-chemistry is that no more isomers are
possible than can be foreseen by the doctrine of
atomic linking. This, too, may be best demon-
strated by means of models.
HISTORY. In conclusion it may be mentioned
that the optical rotary power of a substance in
the non-crystalline state (sugar in solution) was
first observed by Biotin 1815. The optically isomeric
tartaric acids were thoroughly investigated by
Pasteur, who in 1860 discovered the three known
methods of separating such isomers (see above).
Ten years later Wislicenus studied the isomeric
lactic acids, and in a memoir published in 1871
expressed the view that the doctrine of atomic
linking was no longer sufficient for the purposes
of organic chemistry. Wislicenus’s remark at-
tracted the attention of Van ’t Hoff, who ad-
vanced the stereo-chemical theory of optical
isomerism in 1874. Meanwhile Le Bel, in Paris,
had undertaken to continue the work of Pasteur,
and soon independently arrived at the same con-
clusions as Van ’t Hoff. Remarkably enough, Le
Bel’s and Van ’t Hoif’s memoirs appeared within
one month. The theory of geometrical isomerism
was worked out by Van ’t Hoff about 1878. At
present stereo-chemistry forms quite an exten-
sive science, and its theories, to which no ex-
ception has yet been found in the case of carbon
compounds, are being gradually extended also
to the compounds of nitrogen.
Consult: Wislicenus, Ueber die riiuimliche An-
ordnung cler Atome, etc. (Leipzig, 1887);
Hantzsch, Grundriss der Stereochemie (Breslau,
1893; French trans., Paris, 1896) ; Van ’t Hoff,
Die Lagerung der Atome im Riiume (Bruns-
wick, 1894) ; Bischoff, Handbuch der Slereoche-
mie (Frankfort-am-Main, 1893). Consult also
the works on theoretical and organic chemistry
recommended in the article CHEMISTRY. See
CHEMISTRY; CARBON CoMPoUNDs; LACTIC ACID;
TARTACIC Aorn; FUMARIC AND MALEIC Aorns;
VALENCY.
STEREOCHROMY, stér'e-5k’ro-mi’ (from
Gk. 0"‘r€pe6S, stereos, solid -|— xpéiua, chr-6ma,
color). A process of wall-painting, invented in
1896 by Prof. J. N. von Fuchs, of Munich, and
first practiced by the painter Joseph Schlott-
hauer. Upon a thin coating of mortar forming
a part of the wall, mineral water colors mixed
with soluble glass are applied, thus admitting
of any part of the picture being retouched, as in
the case of oil paintings. A coating of liquid
glass is then added to protect it from the effects
of the atmosphere. Experience has shown, how-
ever, that the surface of the painting cracks, and
the process is no longer practiced.
STEREORNITHES, st€>r’é-6/ni-thez (Neo-
Lat. nom. pl., from Gk. orepe6s, stereos, solid
+ 6pm, ornis, bird). A group of extinct ratite
birds of gigantic size whose remains are found
in the Miocene strata of Patagonia. The pro-
priety of this name as indicative of a distinct
group has been criticised, and it is believed that,
STE RE ORNITHE S.
STERILIZED FOOD.
196
on the contrary, many of the species are not
ratite at all, but carinate, one, at least, having
been determined to be a vulture. The most con-
spicuous genus is Phororhacos. See BIRD Fos-
SIL. Consult Newton, Dictionary of Birds (New
York, 1893-96).
STEREOSCOPE (from Gk. 0"repe6s, stereos,
solid + 0'K01reTv, shopein, to view). An optical
instrument that enables one to see the pictures
of objects not merely as plane representations,
but with an appearance of solidity or relief.
When a person looks at a solid body with both
eyes the pictures formed on the retina of the
two eyes are not alike, as the right eye is
able to see n1ore of the right side of the ob-
ject and vice versa. When these' two impres-
sions are blended the object is seen with an
appearance of depth or relief. It was not
until 1838 that an attempt was made to
produce this effect. This was accomplished in
the first stereoscope, which was devised by
Wheatstone (q.v.) and consisted of two plane
mirrors at an angle of 90° and two similar
clamps or supports for holding the picture. The
face of the observer was placed close to the meet-
ing point of the two mirrors and the light from
each picture was reflected into the eye by the
adjacent mirror. The pictures for use in this
instrument were drawn as they would appear to
each eye separately, and consequently were re-
flected to the eyes as they would actually be
seen. The apparatus was successful so long as
the pictures were confined to representations of
geometrical objects of three dimensions, which
could be constructed readily, but, the reproduc-
tion of more complex objects, such as natural
scenery, was beyond the skill of the artists, and
it did not occur to the inventor to use photog-
raphy, which was then being developed. The
stereoscope was brought to its present state by
Sir David Brewster, who in 1849 constructed a
lenticular stereoscope in which lenses were sub-
stituted for the reflectors used by Wheatstone.
[n this way he was able to obtain a magnified
image as well as one characterized by the stereo-
scopic effect. Instead of employirig whole lenses
he divided a double convex lens transversely into
halves, which were placed in front of the two
pictures with their thin edges adjacent. This
was done so that the rays would be deviated by
such an amount that they would apparently
originate in a common point between the two
pictures, the lens acting as a prism which always
bends the rays around its base. In this way the
two pictures, which are placed directly in front
of the two lenses at a distance equivalent to the
principal focus, are united into one image. The
growth of photography and the ease with which
pictures for the stereoscope could be produced
soon made the instrument extremely popular,
and the open form used in the United States
was devised by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the
poet. Brewster also invented a form of photo-
graphic camera with two lenses to take stereo-
scopic pictures. Instead of two lenses,
which in modern stereoscopic cameras are gen-
erally of the rapid rectilinear type, the position
of the camera can be shifted, but the results are
not as good as those obtained with two similar
lenses mounted on a camera with a vertical par-
tition which enables two pictures to be taken on
the same plate. The lenses, generally speaking,
should be about 2% inches apart‘, though a slight
increase does not make any great difference, the
relief becoming more prominent. Too great a
difl'erence, however, makes an exaggerated and
unnatural picture. In r-inting, the negative re-
verses conditions, and tie prints must be inter-
changed, as the pictures taken on the right-hand
side must always be seen with the right eye.
The opera glass furnishes a familiar instance
of the application of the bonocular principle, and
in the more modern double-tube telescopes and
field glasses, particularly for military operations,
great success has been attained in securing the
stereoscopic effect with considerable magnifying
power. Consult: Brewster, The Stereoscope
(Leipzig, 1856); Helmholtz, Physiologische Op-
tih (ib., 1856-66) ; Le Conte, Sight (New York,
1881) ; Miiller-Pouillet, Lehrbuch der Physilc
(9th ed., Brunswick, 1897).
STEREOTYPING. See PRINTING.
STERILITY (Lat. sterilitas, barrenness, from
sterilis, barren; connected with Gk. o"repe(>$,
stereos, solid, stiff, barren, o"répi¢>os, steriphos,
hard, barren). Barrenness, infecundity. In a
woman, sterility consists of an incapacity for
conception; in a man, of the inability to procre-
ate the species. T. G. Thomas, of New York, has
analyzed exhaustively the cause of sterility in a
woman as follows: (1) Causes preventing the
entrance of semen into the uterus, including ab-
sence of the uterus or vagina, obturator hymen,
vaginismus, atresia vaginae, occlusion of cervical
canal, conical shape of cervix, cervical endome-
tritis, polypi or fibroids, displacements, very
small os internum or externum. (2) Causes pre-
venting the production of a healthy ovule, in-
cluding chronic ovaritis, cystic disease of both
ovaries, cellulitis or peritonitis, absence of
ovaries. (3) Causes preventing passage of ovule
into uterus, including stricture or obliteration of
Fallopian tubes, absence of Fallopian tubes, de-
tachments and displacements of Fallopian tubes.
(4) Causes destroying the vitality of semen or
preventing fixation of impregnated ovum, in-
cluding corporeal or cervical endometritis, mem-
branous dysmenorrhoea, menorrhagia or metror-
rhagia, abnormal growths, areolar hyperplasia.
Sterility in man is organic when there is
anatomical derangement of the apparatus; atonic
when erections are wanting or feeble; anaesthetic
when there is a diminution of sensitiveness in
the nerves supplying the male organ; or psychic
when mental conditions (as of fright, repulsion,
etc.) inhibit the genital centre in the spinal cord.
The determination of which partner in mar-
riage is sterile is of great importance. In many
countries obloquy and derision attach to the
wife who fails to bear children, and her legal
status is impaired. The woman is much less often
to blame than has been supposed.
STERILIZED FOOD. Food that has been
subjected to an agent (usually heat) capable of
destroying the germs of fermentation or disease
which may be present. The articles of diet not
usually prepared by heat before ingestion, and
which are capable of conveying disease, are fresh
fruits and certain vegetables, water, and milk.
The two latter are particularly likely to act as
carriers of pathogenic microorganisms. Water
may be rendered sterile by boiling or by distilla-
tion. It is then best kept for use in sterile bot-
/
STERILIZED FOOD.
STERNIBERG.
197
tles, sealed, and maintained at a low tempera-
ture. Ice may be the means of carrying disease,
since many bacteria, although retarded in their
growth, are not killed by freezing.
Milk is the food around which the question
of sterilization centres, because it is the sole
nourishment of infants and swarms with bac-
teria, particularly during the summer months.
Although it comes sterile from the breast of the
suckling mother or the udder of the healthy cow,
milk is almost a perfect culture medium for
many varieties of bacteria, pathogenic and non-
pathogenic, which multiply with astonishing ra-
pidity. It may become contaminated during the
interval between milking and ingestion in vari-
ous ways. Unclean materials may be introduced
into the milk from the udders of the cow or the
milker’s hands. Impure water used either as an
adulterant or for cleansing containers may be a
means of contamination. Typhoid fever has been
proved to have been conveyed in this manner.
Exposure to the air alone is sufficient to intro-
duce, through dust, many different forms of bac-
terial life.
The diseases most likely to be propagated
through milk are typhoid fever, tuberculosis,
scarlet fever, cholera, suppuration, and especially
the summer diarrhoea of children. Besides pro-
ducing their specific diseases bacteria produce
poisonous elements in milk which are capable of
giving rise to ptomaine poisoning (q.v.) in indi-
viduals who drink it. It has been proposed at
various times to prevent the development of
germs in milk by the addition of non-poisonous
antiseptic substances. But it has been found
that even with Such drugs as salicylic acid and
boric acid quantities too large to be wholesome
must be employed. Formalin has been exten-
sively used of late years to keep milk sweet and
aseptic. Cold is a very imperfect means of
sterilization. A low temperature retards devel-
opment of bacteria for a time, but does not
destroy them nor their spores.
Milk is usually sterilized by boiling or by
exposure to superheated steam. Germs existing
in this fluid can be absolutely destroyed only by
heating to 212° F. or higher on two or three suc-
cessive occasions. The ordinary method of steril-
izing milk is to place it in sealed jars or bottles
containing sufficient‘ for one feeding, which are
then subjected to the action of steam. It is
then cooled rapidly, kept sealed from the air,
and placed on ice until needed. Exposure to
such high temperatures alters the character of
milk very materially, both as to its digestibility
and nutritive qualities, and it is therefore ren-
dered unfit for use except as a makeshift in very
hot weather and in cases of infantile summer
diarrhoea. Prolonged use of sterilized milk for
children dependent solely upon it for nutriment
has resulted in symptoms of scurvy. To obviate
this difficulty milk is often subjected to a process
known as pasteurization. This consists in heat-
ing'it to a temperature of 167° F. and maintain-
ing it at this point for a period of twenty min-
utes. Pasteurization has been shown to be suf-
ficient to kill the microiirganisms most common-
ly found in milk, and in particular those giving
rise to diarrhoeal diseases, which are very vul-
nerable to heat. Spores, however, are not de-
stroyed. The tubercle bacillus is more resistant,
but, as has been said before, tuberculosis is not
often conveyed by milk. Pasteurized milk will
keep two or three days at ordinary temperatures
or several days on ice, and its taste, digesti-
bility, and nutritive value are believed to be un-
changed. See ADULTERATION ; MILK.
STERLING. An epithet generally applied to
the coinage of Great Britain. Charlemagne
superseded earlier systems by a coinage in which
a pound of 12 ounces became the money weight.
The older silfer or scruple of 24 wheat-corns
being superseded by the penny of 32 wheat-corns,
the term sterling seems to have been applied to
the latter, in consequence of its being in use
among the Ripuarian or Austrasian Franks,
sometimes called the Esterlings. In England the
word ‘sterling’ came in the ‘course of time to in-
dicate the fineness of the silver. The superiority
of the English standard silver was generally
acknowledged over Europe; and hence the ad-
jective ‘sterling’ has become a synonym for ‘pure’
or ‘genuine.’
STERLING, stér’ling. A city in Whiteside
County, 111., 109 miles west of Chicago, on
Rock River, and on the Chicago and Northwestern
and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy rail-
roads (Map: Illinois, C 2) . It is of considerable
industrial importance, having good water power.
The principal manufactures are agricultural im-
plements, caskets, watches, canned goods, flour,
paper, and foundry and machine-shop products.
There is a public library with more than 9000
volumes. Population, in 1890, 5824; in 1900,
6309.
STERLING, JDIIN (1806-44). An English
author, born on the island of Bute. He was
educated at Glasgow and at Cambridge. He
went to London and began writing for the Athe-
nceum. Owing to ill health, he passed two years
in the West Indies (1830-32) . Returning to Eng-
land, he took orders and served eight months as
a curate. In 1838 he formed the Anonymous
(afterwards the Sterling) Club, which included
Lord Houghton, Carlyle, and Tennyson. Among
his writings are Arthur Ooningsby (1833),
Poems (1839), The Election, a poem (1841), and
Strafiord, a drama (1843). Sterling, a man of
many friends, out down with consumption in the
prime of life, has been immortalized by Carlyle
in a Life (Boston, 1851). Consult Essays and
Tales with a memoir by J. C. Hare (London,
1848).
STERN, stern, ADOLF (1835—). A German
literary historian, born in Leipzig. He studied
at the Universities of Leipzig and Jena, and in
1868 was appointed professor of the history of
literature in the Polytechnikum of Dresden. His
publications include the compilation F-ilnfeig
Jahre deutscher Dichtung (1871); two collec-
tions of essays, Aus dem achtcehnten Jahrhun-
dert (1874) and Zur Litteratur der Gcgenwart
(1880), and his most important work, Ge-
schichte der neuern Litteratu/r (7 vols., 1882-85) .
STERN, DANIEL. See AGOULT, Comtesse d’.
STERNBERG, stern’berK. A town in Mora-
via, Austria, 12 miles north-northeast of Olmiitz
(Map: Austria, E 2). It is the chief seat of
the Moravian cotton and linen industry, and
there is a large tobacco factory. Population, in
1900, 15,195.
STERNBERG, CONSTANTIN (1852—). A
Russian-American pianist and composer, born at
Saint Petersburg. In 1871 he became conductor
STERNBERG.
STERRETT.
198
of the Court Opera at Strelitz; in 1875 director
of the music school, and Court pianist at Schwer-
in. He settled in the United States in 1885,
becoming director of the College of Music at At-
lanta, Ga. In 1890 he became the head of the
Sternberg School of Music in Philadelphia. His
compositions include some admirable pianoforte
music.
STERNBERG, GEORGE MILLER (1838—). An
American bacteriologist and army surgeon, born
in Otsego County, N. Y. He was graduated from
the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New
York City, in 1860, and was appointed assistant
surgeon in the United States Army in 1861; he
served through the war. After close of the Civil
War he was assigned to several posts until 1875,
when he was promoted to the rank of surgeon
and major. In 1879 he was sent to Havana,
Cuba, by the National Board of Health as a
member of the yellow fever commission. In 1885
the American Public Health Association awarded
to him the Lomb prize of $500 for his es-
say on “Disinfection and Individual Prophylaxis
Against Infectious Diseases.” In 1893 Sternberg
was made surgeon-general of the United States
Army, “with the rank of brigadier-general, and
in this capacity he directed the medical affairs
of the United States Army during the Cuban
War. Among his published works are Photo-
micrographs and How to Make Them (1883)
and Malaria and M dlarial Diseases (1884) .
STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-68). An English
author. He was born at Clonmel, in Ireland.
Carried about in the regiment in which his
father was an officer, he saw many phases of life
i11 Ireland and England. From ten to eighteen
he was at school at Halifax, in Yorkshire. Later
he went to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he
took his degree in 1736. He was ordained two
years later, probably with a view to taking the
family living of Sutton, near York, which was
immediately given him, to be followed in 1741 by
the prebend in York Minster. In 1743 the living
of Stillington, which carried with it another pre-
bendal stall in the cathedral, was given to him.
He passed twenty years in his Yorkshire home,
preaching curious sermons, associating with
boisterous squires and reading Cervantes, Rabe-
lais, and the old romances. He found himself
suddenly famous when the first two volumes of
his Tristram Shandy apeared at York at the
end of 1759. He went up to London, he-
came the lion of the moment‘, and pub-
lished a collection of sermons. In 1760
he was presented to the living of Cox-
wold. There he went on with Tristram, publish-
ing the ninth and last volume in 1767. During
these years he spent much time in London and
traveled on the Continent. The outcome of his
tour in the autumn of 1765 was A Sentimental
Journey Through France and Italy (1768) . Less
than a month after its publication Sterne died
in a London lodging. In 17 7 5 appeared Letters
to His Intimate Friends, with the fragment of
an autobiography, edited by his daughter, and
Letters from Yorick to Eliza (i.e. Mrs. Elizabeth
Draper).
Sterne’s work reached a wide popularity at
once, and had a following in England, France,
and Germany for years. His sentimentality, the
deliberate self-conscious indulgence in feelings
of pathos, became the fashion of the day. His
work is curiously subjective, dependent upon the
moods and whims of the moment; and its form-
less, easy-going style, such a contrast to the
ordered regularity which had marked English
prose from Dryden to Addison, thus admirably
represents his thought. His characters are re-
markable for their genuine human quality, re-
mote as they live from the interests of the ordi-
nary people of the time, and belong to the small
class of positive creations in literature. Consult
the biographies by Fitzgerald (London, 1864; 2d
ed. 1896) and Traill (ib., 1882); Stapfer, Lau-
rence Sterne, sa personne et ses ouvrages (Paris,
1870) ; Texte, Rousseau et le cosmopolitisme lit-
téraire au XVIIIe‘me siecle (ib., 1895) ; Thack-
eray, English Humourists (London, 1853). His
works, collected in 1780, were reprinted with
newly discovered letters under the editorship of
J . P. Browne (London, 1873) . A convenient but
less complete edition was edited by G. Saints-
bury (London, 1894).
STERN’HOLD., THOMAS (c.1500-49). One
of the authors of the metrical English version of
the Psalms. He was probably born in Gloucester!
shire, England. According to Wood he studied
at Christ Church, Oxford, but did not take a
degree. He held the office of groom of the robes
to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. The first edi-
tion (undated, but about 1547) contains nineteen
psalms. A second edition (1549) with additions
by John Hopkins (d. 1570) contains 37, and in
the complete psalter (1562) 40 bear the name
of Sternhold. The rest were by Hopkins and
several others. The rendering is very literal,
but somewhat coarse and homely in phrasing. It
was used in England long after the new version
by Tate and Brady (1696). “My Shepherd is
the Living God” (Psalm xxiii.) is still current.
Consult Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology (Lon-
don and New York, 1892) .
STERN UM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rrrc-‘prov,
breast-bone), or BREAST-BONE. A narrow fiat
bone in the median line of the chest in front,
giving attachment to the first seven ribs through
their costal cartilages and thus closing anteri-
orly the thoracic cavity. In the adult it consists
of three parts, the upper or manubrium, the
middle or gladiolus, and the inferior or ensiform.
A sternum is not present in fishes, batrachians,
or serpents, but it does occur in all warm-blooded
vertebrates and reaches its highest development
in the flying birds, where a heavy ridge or keel
furnishes a joint of attachment for the powerful
muscles of the wings. In the tortoise it is rep-
resented by the lower shell or plastron.
STER/RETT, Jenn Ronnsr SITHINGTON
(185l—). An American classical scholar, born
at Rockbridge Baths, Va. He was educated at
the University of Virginia and in Europe. Later
he engaged in important archaeological expedi-
tions in Asia Minor, the results of which were
published in the papers of the American School
at Athens under the titles Wolf Ewpedit-ion to
Asia Minor (1885), Epigraphica-l Journey in
Asia M inor (1888), and also in Leaflets from the
Notebook of d Traveling Archaeologist (Texas,
1889). After holding professorships of Greek
at Miami University and the University of Texas,
he was called in 1892 to a similar position at
Amherst College; he remained there until 1901,
when he became head of the department of
Greek in Cornell University. In 1896-97 he was
STEBRETT.
STETTIN.
199
professor in the American School of Classical
Studies at Athens. Other publications by him
are Qua in re Hymni Homerici quinque rnaiores
inter se difierunt (1881) ; Inscriptions of Asses;
Inscriptions of Tralles (1885).
STEB/RY, Josnrn ASHBY-. An English critic.
See ASHBY—S'1‘ERRY, Josnrn.
STESICHORUS, ste-sik'o-r1'1s (Lat., from Gk.
Ernatxopos) (C.640—555 B.C.). A famous Greek
lyric poet, born in the Locrian Mataurus, but
considered as a Himeraean, since he spent the
greater part of his life in the city of Himera, of
which his father seems to have been one of the
early settlers. It is reported that he was at
first the friend of Phalaris, the tyrant of Agri-
gentum, but that later, recognizing the cruel
.character of that tyrant, he warned his fellow-
citizens against his schemes by telling them the
fable of the horse that gave himself up to man
in order to revenge himself on the stag. The
Himereeans did not listen to his advice and he
was compelled to flee to Catana, where he died.
The Himereeans, however, in later times honored
him with a statue which was seen by Cicero; his
figure was also stamped on their coins. A famous
story connected with Stesichorus relates that he
was struck with blindness because of his attack
on Helen, but recovered his sight after he had
published a recantation in which he declared it
was only the shade of Helen, not Helen herself,
that went to Troy.
In his hands the religious hymn, which had
been cultivated by previous lyricists, was some-
what secularized. The content also was epic,
although the form continued to be that which
had been established for melic verse. He treated
in his Destruction of Troy the story of ZEneas’s
wanderings, which thereafter was established in
literary tradition. He also employed folk-tales
and was the forerunner of the Greek romance in
that he established in Greek literature the im-
personal love poem, and he was the first to give
literary treatment to the Sicilian story of Daph-
nis, which was later handled by Theocritus and
other bucolic poets. His dialect was a com-
bination of epic with Doric. He also contributed
to the development of the strophic and epodic
structure of lyric poetry. His poems were writ-
ten in strophe, antistrophe, and epode, and this
arrangement became the norm for lyric poetry,
which was thereafter changed only in minor de-
tails. The fragments are published by Bergk,
Poetoe Lyrici Grceci (Leipzig, 1882). Consult,
also: Welcker, Stesichorus, Kleine Schriften
(Bonn, 1884) ; Rizzo, Questioni Stesichoree
(Messina, 1895).
STETHOSCOPE (from Gk. arfidos, stethos,
breast + mcoarefu, skopein, to view). An instru-
ment for examining the heart and lungs through
their sounds. In its simplest form, invented by
Leennec (q.v.), the stethoscope consists of a tube
of wood, from 10 to 12 inches long, with a flang-
ing end to be placed on the chest to receive the
sound, an open canal to conduct it, and a broad
flat ear piece at the other end for apposition to
the ear and excluding extraneous sounds. (See
Fig. B.) An improvement upon this is the bi-
naural stethoscope, introduced by Dr. Camman
of New York, in the form of a binaural or double
instrument having an ear piece for each of the
ears and flexible rubber tubes connecting them
with the chest piece. (See Fig. A.) A still
finer instrument is the phonendoscope, which con-
veys with greater minuteness and intensity. The
chest piece of the phonendoscope consists of a
shallow metal cup covered by a disk of ebonite,
with a perforation in the cup for attaching the
rubber tubes for the ears. From the centre of



srnrnosoorn.
A, stethoscope with ear tubes; B, older form.
the disk of ebonite springs a small rod ending in
a button, which is placed upon the spot to be
auscultated. This instrument is useful in the
finer phases of diagnosis, particularly to dis-
tinguish between pericardial and endocardial
sounds and to detect the foetal heart. See AUS-
CULTATION; RESPIRATORY SOUNDS.
STETTIN, stét-ten’. The capital of the
Province of Pomerania, Prussia. The city is situ-
ated on-both banks of the Oder, 17 miles south of
the Stettiner Haff, an inlet of the Baltic, and
83 miles by rail northeast of Berlin
(Map: Prussia, F 2). The district on the
right bank of the river comprises the former
suburbs of Lastadie and Silberwiese. The site
of the town is hilly, and consequently the streets
are uneven, but the houses are well built. The
extensive fortifications were demolished in 1874.
The castle, dating from 1577, formerly occupied
by the Dukes of Pomerania, is now a Government
building. The Kiinigs-Thor and the Berliner
Thor are interesting sandstone gates built by
Frederick William 1. Saint James is an impos-
ing thirteenth-century church in the centre of
the town, restored in 1897 ; Saint Peter and Saint
Paul is the oldest church in Pomerania, restored
1816-17; and the fine new Roman Catholic
church (1890) is also worthy of note.
Stettin is the most important manufacturing
town in Pomerania. Its principal industrial es-
tablishment is the Vulcan ship-building yard,
employing over 6000 men, and covering 65 acres.
There is also a large iron foundry, where all the
anchors for German ships are forged. The cloth-
ing industry ranks second in importance only to
ship-building, and employs over 10,000 men,
STETTIN.
STEVENS.
200
women, and children. There are numerous large
factories for the manufacture of chemicals and
cement, bicycles and sewing machines, soap and
candles, sugar, paper, glass, etc. A new harbor
on the east bank of the Oder was opened in 1900.
This, together with the deepening of the Oder to
the Stettiner Haff, enabling large vessels, which
formerly stopped at Swinemiinde, to reach the
city, has made Stettin the third port of Germany.
It has direct steamship communication with
' New York, London, and other foreign cities. The
port was cleared in 1900 by 4594 vessels, of
1,552,543 tons burden. The chief exports are
corn, spirits, lumber, sugar, and cement; the
imports, iron, petroleum, wine, groceries, and
coal. Population, in 1890, 116,228; in 1900
(Greater Stettin) , 210,680.
Stettin is of Slavic origin. It first came into
notice in the twelfth century. As a member of
the Hanseatic League it became a flourishing
commercial town. It belonged to Sweden from
1648 until 1720, when it passed to Prussia. It
was held by France from 1806 to 1813. Consult
VV. H. Meyer, Stettin in alter und neuer Zeit
(Stettin 1887).
STEUBEN, stf1'ben, Ger. pron. stoi’ben, FRIED-
RICH WILIIELM VON, Baron (1730-94). A German-
American soldier, born at Magdeburg, Prus-
sia. He was educated at the Jesuit col-
leges of Neisse and Breslau, and at the age of
fourteen served as a volunteer under his father
at the siege of Prague. In 1747 he was appoint-
ed cadet of infantry, and in 1758, after several
promotions, became an adjutant-general with the
rank of captain. He fought with distinction in
the Seven Years’ War, at the close of which he
was appointed grand marshal of the Prince of
Hohenzollern-Hechingen, in which position he re-
mained until about 1774. I/Vhile in Paris in 1777
he was induced by Saint Germain to go to Amer-
ica and arrived at Portsmouth, N. H., on De-
cember lst. He immediately offered his services
as a volunteer to Congress, and was directed to
join the army at Valley Forge. This he did
February 23, 1778, and in May, 1778, he was ap-
‘pointed instructor-general of the Continental
army with the rank of major-general. He de-
voted himself to the task of reorganizing the
army on the European model, drilling the awk-
ward and untrained soldiers and introducing or-
der and system. He increased enormously the
general efficiency of the army and thus contrib-
uted in no small degree to the success of ensuing
campaigns. At Monmouth he rendered valuable
service, and in 1780 he was sent with a separate
command to coiiperate with General Greene in
Virginia, where he opposed the marauding expe-
dition of Benedict Arnold, and finally took an
active part in the siege of Yorktown. In 1780 he
prepared a manual for the army entitled
Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the
Troops of the United States, which came into
general use. After the war he received grants
of land from several States, and finally Congress
voted him a tardy pension of $2400. For several
years he lived in New York City and then re-
moved to the tract of land (Steuben Township)
granted to him by New York, where he lived in
a rude log cabin (near the site of the present
Utica) until his death, November 28, 1794.
Friedrich Kapp has written the most trust-
worthy biography (New York, 1859).
STEUBENVILLE, st1‘1’ben-vil. The county-
seat of Jefferson County, Ohio, 43 miles west by
south of Pittsburg, Pa., on the Ohio River and
on the Pennsylvania, the Wheeling and Lake Erie,
and other railroads (Map: Ohio, J 5). It is
favorably situated for commerce and industry.
Noteworthy features are the Carnegie Public
Library, city hall, court house, Gill Hospital,
Stanton Park, and Altamont Park and Casino.
The surrounding section has coal deposits, natu-
ral gas, and petroleum wells. There are manu-
factures of glassware, chimneys and electric light
bulbs, paper, foundry and machine shop products.
Several plants are connected with the iron and
steel industry. The water-works are owned and
operated by the municipality. Population, in
1890, 13,394; in 1900, 14,349. A fort named in
honor of Baron Steuben was erected here in 1787
and the town was laid out in 1798. The city was
chartered in 1851 and its limits were extended in
1891. Consult Howe, Historical Collections of
Ohio (Columbus, 1890-91) .
STE’VENS,, ABEL (1815-97). A Methodist
Episcopal clerical writer. He was born at Phila-
delphia and entered the New England Conference
(1834). He was editor of Zion’s Herald (Bos-
ton, 1848-60), of the National Magazine (New
York, 1852), of the Christian Advocate (ib., 1856-
60), corresponding editor of the Methodist (ib.,
1860-74). He was the author of Memorials of
the Introduction of Methodism Into the Eastern
States (1852), Memorials of the Early Progress
of Methodism in the Eastern States ( 2d series,
1854), The History of the Religious Movement
of the Eighteenth Century Called Mcthodism
(1858-61), History of the Methodist Episcopal
Church in the United States of America (1864-
67) , Supplementary History (1899), Madame De
Stiiel, A Study of Her Life and Times (1880).
STEVENS, ALFRED (l828—). A Belgian
genre painter. He was born at Brussels, and
studied principally with Roqueplan and under
Ingres in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. He
first exhibited in Brussels, but in 1849 settled at
Paris where he has since resided. Among his
works are the “Discouragement of the Artist”
and “Love of Gold” (1853) ; “Masquerade on Ash
Wednesday” (1853, Marseilles Museum) ; “Con-
solation” (1857, Ravené Gallery, Berlin) ; “The
Lady in Pink,” “La bete a Bon Dieu” (Brussels
Museum) ; “The Japanese Robe” (Metropolitan
Museum, New York). He painted in fresco “Al-
legories of the Four Seasons” (in the Royal Pal--
ace, Brussels). His most characteristic sub-
jects depict the interiors of modern houses
as background and accessories for the
figures of piquant women and children of
fashionable life. He revels in the arrangements
of furniture and rich stuffs, by means of which
he secures remarkable effects of texture and
quality. His management of tone and light is
scientific, at the same time pure and admirable.
His type of women possess the quality of charm
with a reserve of expression and a refinement not
shown by the ultra-moderns in his genre.
STEVENS, ALFRED GEORGE (1818-75). An
English sculptor. He was born in Dorset Coun-
ty, England, and received his artistic training
in Italy (1833-42). In 1841 he studied for a
year under Thorwaldsen, after which he returned
to England, where, in 1845, he was made pro-
fessor in the Art School at Sheffield. His great-
STEVENS.
STEVENS.
201
est achievement in sculpture is the Duke of Wel-
lington monument, Saint Paul’s Cathedral, in-
cluding the powerful groups of “Truth Tearing
Out the Tongue of Falsehood” and “Valor Tri-
umphing Over Cowardice,” which decorate the
canopy above the edifice. He is also celebrated for
his designs for metal articles of daily use, executed
in exquisite classical taste, as well as for more
ambitious efforts like the vases decorating the
railing in front of the British Museum, and the
lions on the posts, since placed in the Museum;
the mantelpiece in the dining room of Dor-
chester House, Park Lane; and the mosaics de-
signed to fill the spandrels under the dome of
Saint Paul’s. He was almost unrecognized by
the British public. His Italian training, exempt
from English influence, accounts for his excel-
lence at a time when English sculpture was in
the decline. Consult Stannus, Alfred Stevens
and His ll/"ork (London, 1891).
STEVENS, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1833-
1902) . An eminent American bibliographer, born
in Barnet, Vt. He joined his brother, Henry, in
London in 1860; for many years had charge of
the Chiswick Press, acted as purchasing agent
for American libraries, and became United States
dispatch agent. For more than thirty years he
and his agents searched the archives of England,
France, Holland, and Spain for papers relating
to America. His publications include: American
Manuscripts in European Archives (1887) ; Cam-
paign in Virginia in 1781 (1888) ; Fac-
similes of Manuscripts in European Archives
Relating to America, 1773-83 (25 vols., 1889-
98) ; Gen. Sir William H owe’s Orderly Book at
Charlestown, Boston, a-nd Halifax (1890) ;
Columbus, His Own Book of Privileges, 1502
(1893) ; Introduction to Calendar of American
Papers in the Earl of Dartmouth’s Collection
(1895).
STEVENS, ERENEZER (1751-1823). An Ameri-
can soldier, born in Boston, Mass. He enlisted
as a lieutenant in a Rhode Island artillery regi-
ment in May, 1775, and by successive promotions
rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in April,
1778, serving in the expedition against Quebec
(177 5), and commanding the artillery at Ticon-
deroga, at Freeman’s Farm, and, for a time, at
Yorktown. He was one of the founders of the
Society of the Cincinnati, became prominent as a
merchant in New York, and was made a major-
general of militia.
STEVENS, EDWARD (1745-1820). An Ameri-
can soldier. He was born in Culpepper County,
Va., became colonel of Virginia militia early in
17 7 5, was in command at the skirmish at Great
Bridge (December 9, 1775), saved part of Wash-
ington’s army from capture at Brandywine (Sep-
tember 11, 1777), served with gallantry and
marked ability at Germantown, Camden, and
Guilford Court House, and became a brigadier-
general of militia in 1779.
STEVENS, EDWIN AUGUSTUS (1795-1868).
An American capitalist, railroad organizer, and
ship-builder, born at Hoboken, N. J. With his
brother Robert L. Stevens (q.v.) he succeeded
to the large shipping and railroad interests of
their father, John Stevens (q.v.), and became
one of the most prominent railroad organizers in
the United States. After his brother’s death he
tried to dispose of the famous Stevens Floating
Battery and on his own deathbequeathed it to
his native State, together with $1,000,000 to
insure its completion. This -sum proved inade-
quate, however, and the State disposed of the
vessel to the United States Government, which
finally sold it for old iron. Another vessel of
his, the N augatuck, was accepted by the Federal
Government and was used during the Civil l/Var.
He founded the Stevens Institute of Technology
(q.v.).
STEVENS, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1710-84). An
English wit, the son of a London tradesman.
He joined a company of strolling players, and
for many years followed the stage as an actor
in minor parts. He became famous for his Lec-
ture on Heads, first delivered at the Haymarket
in 1764 and repeated for many years throughout
Great Britain and in America.
humorous and extravagant series of hits on con-
temporary follies as represented by various
heads. Stevens also wrote many popular songs,
as “Cease, rude Boreas, blustering railer.”
Consult the Lecture with heads executed by
Charlton Nesbit from designs by Thurston (Lon-
don, 1799), and Songs, Comic and Satirical, with
cuts by Berwick (Oxford, 1772; and numerous
reprints).
STEVENS, GEoReE BARKER (1854—). An
American theologian, born in Spencer, N. Y.,
and educated at the University of Rochester
(class of 1877) and at Yale Divinity School,
where he graduated in 1880. He was pastor of
the First Congregational Church of Buffalo
(1880-83) and of the First Presbyterian Church
of Watertown, N.'Y. (1883-85), and then, after
a year’s study in the University of Jena, became
professor of New Testament criticism and inter-
pretation at Yale, a chair which he left in 1895
for that of systematic theology in the same uni-
versity. He wrote The Pauline Theology (1892) ;
The Johannine Theology (1894) ; A Short Com-
mentary on Ga-Zatians (1894); The Epistles of
Paul in Modern English (1898) ; The Messages
of the Apostles (1900); and The Teaching of
Jesus (1901).
STEVENS, HENRY (1819-86). An American
bibliographer, born at Barnet, Vt. He graduated
at Yale in 1843 and studied law at Harvard.
Attracted to colonial history, he visited England
in search of Americana in 1845, and remained
there till his death, acting as purchasing
agent for the British Museum and for
many libraries, public and private, note-
worthy among which was the Lenox Library of
New York, whose collection of Americana he
formed. He published many bibliographical
catalogues and pamphlets, highly prized for their
minute accuracy, and made a collection of Frank-
lin documents which was purchased by the
United States Government. Of his very nu-
merous publications the more noteworthy are:
Catalogue Raisonné of English Bibles (1854);
Catalogue of American Books in the Library of
the British Museum (1857) ; Bibliotheca Ameri-
cana (1861) ; Bibliotheca Historica (1870);
Historical Collections (1881-86); Who Spoils
Our Ne-w English Books (1885); and Recollec-
tions of James Lenoa: (1886).
STEVENS, IsAAo INGALL (1818-62). An
American soldier and administrator, born at
North Andover, Mass. He graduated at West
Point in 1839. He joined General Scott’s army
in Mexico as adjutant of engineers in 1847, and
The lecture is a '
STEVENS.
STEVENS.
202
participated in all of its important engagements.
In 184-9 he became the assistant in charge of the
United States Coast Survey office at Washing-
ton, but resigned from the army in 1852 to ac-
cept the Governorship of Washington Territory.
In 1855 the Washington Indians revolted. Ste-
vens at once sternly suppressed the insurrection,
and arrested Chief Justice Edward Lander, who
had issued writs of habeas corpus for Indian
prisoners. On the outbreak of the Civil War
he was commissioned colonel of the Seventy-ninth
New York Volunteers, and a few months later
was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general.
He participtated in the actions on Stone River
and at Secessionville. On July 4, 1862, he was
promoted to the rank of major-general, and
during August he took part in the campaign
in northern Virginia, participating in the second
battle of Bull Run and the battle of Chantilly.
While leading his men in a charge during the
latter, he was killed, September 1, 1862. He
published Campaigns of the Rio Grande and
Mexico, with Notices of the Recent Work of
Major Ripley (1851) ; and a Report of Ea:plora-
tions for a Route for the Pacific Railroad near
the ./;'7th and !;9th Parallels of North Latitude,
from Saint Paul, l1’I’l’/I/I’l., to Puget Sound, printed
by order of Congress (1855-60).
STEVENS, JOHN (1749-1838). An American
inventor, engineer, and steamboat builder. He
was born in New York City, and in 1768 gradu-
ated at King’s (now Columbia) College. He then
studied law, and in 1771 was admitted to the
bar. In 17 90 he petitioned Congress for legis-
lation for the protection of American inventors,
and through his efforts a bill was passed which
laid the foundations for the present patent sys-
tem of the country. As early as 1788 he had be-
gun experiments in the application of steam as
a motive power, and in 1792 took out two patents
for marine engines under the new law. Subse-
quently, in association with Nicholas Roosevelt
and Robert R. Livingston, he built a steamboat,
and attempted to obtain from the New York
State Legislature the exclusive right of naviga-
tion of the Hudson River, but the boat, when
completed in 1801, failed to fulfill the speed
conditions imposed, and Livingston subsequently
became associated with Fulton in his more suc-
cessful attempt. In 1804 he built a steam-ship
propelled by twin screws, and in 1807, with his
brother Robert, built the paddle-wheeled steam-
b.oat Phoenix, which was put in successful opera-
tion only a few days after Fulton’s Clermont. The
Phoeniw was shut‘ out of the waters by the
monopoly of Fulton and Livingston, but was
operated for six years on the Delaware River, to
reach which the Phoenix sailed around from New
York City, and was thus the first steamship to
navigate the ocean successfully. In October, 1811,
between Hoboken and New York City he estab-
lished the first steam ferry in the world. He
invented and designed many improvements in
steamboat and steam-engine construction, and de-
signedin 1812 a circular iron-clad floating bat-
tery for harbor defense. In 1826 he constructed
a locomotive model after his own designs, which
he exhibited in operation in Hoboken, and which
was said to have been the first locomotive ever
to run on a track in America.
STEVENS, JOHN AUSTIN (1795-1874). An
American banker and financier, born in New
York City. He graduated at Yale in 1813, and
in 1818 became a partner in the extensive mer-
cantile business of his father, Ebenezer Stevens,
in New York City. During the Civil War be was
one of the principal financial advisers of the
Government, and his greatest public service was
rendered as chairman of the famous ‘treasury
note committee’ of New York, Boston, and Phila-
delphia bankers, which played a prominent part
in placing the first 7-30 and later war loans.
STEVENS, JOHN AUSTIN (1827 -—). An
American author, born in New York City. He
graduated at Harvard in 1846; was secretary
to the New York Chamber of Commerce from
1862 to 1868; and later was for some years
librarian of the New York Historical Society.
He founded the Society of the Sons of the Revo-
lution and the Loyal League. In 1877 he estab-
lished the M agaeine of American History, of
which he was the editor until 1883. His publica-
tions include: The Valley of the Rio Grande
(1864) ; Colonial Records of the New York Cham-
ber of Commerce (1867); The Expedition of
Lafayette Against Arnold (1878); and Life of
Albert Gallatin (1884), in the “American States-
men Series.”
STEVENS, JOIIN LEAVITT (1820-95). An
American journalist and diplomat, born at Mount
Vernon, Me. In 1855 he became associate
editor of the Kennebec (Me.) Journal, and
in 1857 chief editor of the paper. He was
an advocate of the Republican Party, in whose
organization in Maine he assisted. He was
Minister Resident to Uruguay and Paraguay
from 1870 until 1873. In 1877-83 he was
Minister Resident to Sweden and Norway, and
in 1889 became Minister Resident to the Hawaiian
Islands. His title was made Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary in 1890. Upon the
outbreak of a revolution against the royal Gov-
ernment in 1893, and the establishment of a
provisional government (see HAWAIIAN ISLANDS,
History), he established a protectorate over the
islands. This action was disavowed by the Sec-
retary of State of the United States, and subse-
quently Stevens was recalled, and was exonerated
by the Senate. His publications include a scholar-
ly and valuable History of Gustavus Adolphus
(1884).
STEVENS, PHINEAS (1707-56)_. A colonial
soldier in America, born at Sudbury, Mass. About
1711 he removed with his father to Rutland, N.
H. (now in Vermont), and in 1723 was a captive
for a time among the Saint Francis Indians. He
was one ofthe pioneer settlers of “Township No.
4” (now Charlestown, N. H.), and in April,
1747, during King George’s War, as commandant
of the fort there, repelled the attack of 400
French and Indians under Niverville. He was
twice (1749 and 1752) sent to Canada to negoti-
ate an exchange of prisoners. A journal kept by
him during his first trip to Canada is printed in
the New H a/mpshire Historical Collections, vol. v.
STEVENS, ROBEET LIVINGSTON (1787-1856).
An American inventor and marine engineer, son
of John Stevens (q.v.), born in Hoboken, N. J .
He applied the wave line to shipbuilding, in-
vented a percussion shell (the rights to which
were bought by the Government), was one of the
first to use anthracite coal in steam navigation,
and introduced many improvements in the con-
STEVENS.
STEVENSON. -
203
struction of steamships and marine engines. In
1842 he was commissioned by the Government
to build the first iron-clad warship ever con-
structed, generally known as the Stevens Floating
Battery; but, owing to improvements in ordnance
and the consequent changes in specifications, he
died without completing it. See STEVENS, ED-
WIN AUGUSTUS.
STEVENS, THADDEUS (1792-1868). An
American statesman and Congressional leader,
born at Danville, Vt., April 4, 1792. He gradu-
ated at Dartmouth College in 1814; taught school
in York, Pa., and studied law; began to prac-
tice in Gettysburg, and removed to Lancaster,
Pa., in 1842. In 1833 he became a member of the
State Legislature, in which he sat for a number
of years, serving with credit. In 1836 he was a
delegate to the State Constitutional Convention,
winning notoriety by his advocacy of negro suf-
frage. Stevens afliliated with the Anti-Masonic
Party (see ANTI-MAsoNs), and was an active
member of its Baltimore convention in 1831;
but from the time of his election to the Legis-
lature he acted with the Whigs. His career in the
Legislature Was varied, but indicative of his
energy and ability, and although his business in-
terests suffered severely, he conquered the ‘ma-
chine’ in his own arty-, and in December, 1849,
took his seat in ongress. During two terms
that he filled there he opposed not only the
Fugitive Slave Law, but also every form of
concession to the South. After an interval of six
years devoted to the practice of law he returned
to Congress in 1859, and from then until his
death was the recognized leader of the House
of Representatives, being chairman of the Com-
mittee on Ways and Means throughout the
war, and later chairman of what was then
the equally important Committee on Reconstruc-
tion. He was regarded as the most radical anti-
slavery advocate in Congress. He was one of the
authors of the so-called Wade-Davis Recon-
struction Bill of 1865 and reported the Re-
construction Act of 1867 from the committee of
which he was chairman. (See RECONSTRUCTION.)
He was chairman of the House committee in
charge of the impeachment of President Johnson
(q.v.). He died at Washington, August 11,
1868. Biographies have been written by E. B.
Callender (Boston, 1882), and by S. W. McCall
(Boston, 1899), the latter being one of the
“American Statesmen Series.”
STEVENS, WALTER LE CONTE (1847—). An
American physicist. He was born in Gordon
County, Georgia, and graduated from the Uni-
versity of South Carolina in 1868. He was pro-
fessor at Oglethorpe College, Atlanta, Ga.;
Chatham Academy, Savannah, Ga.; Packer Col-
legiate Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y.; and in 1903
occupied the chair of physics at Washington and
Lee University, Lexington, Va.
STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOL-
OGY. A school of mechanical engineering, in
Hoboken, N. J., established in 1870, and named
for its founder, Edwin A. Stevens, who be-
queathed to it a block of land and $650,000. The
school was opened in 1871 with Henry Morton
as its first president. The curriculum embraces
thorough training in applied mathematics, in the
theory of machine construction with a study of
VOL. XVI,-14.
,_.—_
existing systems, mechanical drawing and de-
signing, shop practice and experimental mechan-
ics, physics, chemistry, and applied electricity,
with English branches and the modern languages.
Admission is by examination solely; the only de-
gree conferred is that of mechanical engineer.
The institute has been the recipient of many bene-
factions, the most notable being those of Henry
Morton, who, during his presidency of thirty
years, gave to the institute about $150,000, and
those of Andrew Carnegie, whose gifts amounted
to $290,000 in 1903, in which year the endowment
was $820,000, with an income of $91,000. The
grounds ‘and buildings were valued at $390,000,
with a total estimated value of $1,250,000 for the
property under its control. The Institute had in
that year an attendance of 296, with 22 instruc-
tors, and the academic department an enrollment
of 254, with 15 instructors. The library con-
tained about 8000 volumes. In 1901 Alexander
C. Humphreys became president of the Institute.
STE’VENSON, ADLAI EWING (1835—). An
American politician, Vice-President of the United
States in 1893-97. He was born in Christian
County, Ky., and was educated at Centre College,
Danville, Ky., but removed with his parents to
Bloomington, 111., before graduating. At Bloom-
ington he studied law and in 1857 was admitted
to the bar. He was a master in chancery from
1860 to 1864, became prominent in Democratic '
local politics, and was a member of the 44th
Congress (1875-77), and of the 46th Congress
(1879-81). As First Assistant Postmaster-Gen-
eral during President Cleveland’s first adminis-
tration he antagonized civil-service reformers
by his sweeping removal of Republican post-
masters. In 1892 he was chairman of the Illinois
delegation to the Democratic National Conven-
tion, by which he was nominated for Vice-Presi-
dent on the Cleveland ticket, which Was elected.
In 1897 he was appointed by President McKinley
a member of the commission sent to Europe to
inquire into the feelings of European Powers in
regard to the possible establishment of interna-
tional bimetallism. In 1900 he was again the
candidate of the Democratic party for Vice-
President.
STEVENSON, Gnonen JOHN (1818-88). An
English hymnologist, educated at Saint John’s
College, Battersea, London. In 1846 he became
head master of the Philanthropic Institute, a re-
formatory at Southwark; and in 1848, head mas-
ter of the parochial school at Lambeth Green.
Resigning his position in 1855, he started as a
London bookseller and publisher, and continued
this business until a short time before his death.
In 1831 he became a Methodist, and thereafter
gave much time to the history and the literature
of his sect. From 1861 to 1867 he edited the
Wesleyan Times. His Methodist Hymn Book and
Its Associations (1869; enlarged with slightly
changed title, 1883) is a valuable work. Among
other publications are books on Spurgeon (1857
and 1867), Memorials of the Wesley Family
(1876), and Methodist Worthies (1884). Con-
sult Julian’s Dictionary of Hymnology (London,
1892).
STEVENSON, JOHN JAMES (184l—). An
American geologist, born in New York City. He
graduated at New York University in 1863.
He became professor of chemistry at West
STEVENSON.
STEVENSON.
204:
Virginia University in 1869 and in 1871 was
appointed professor of geology in New York
University. He served as geologist on the United
States Geological Survey west of the 100th
meridian in 1873-74 and 1878-80. He was also
on the Pennsylvania Geological Survey in 1875-
78 and in 1881-82. In this work he made out
the classification of the upper coal measures of
Ohio and Pennsylvania, and also described the
coal area of New Mexico and southeastern Colo-
rado. He became corresponding member of the
more important scientific societies and academics
of foreign countries. He was president of
the New York Academy of Sciences from 1896
to 1898, and president of the Geological Society
of America in 1898. His publications include:
The Geology of a Portion of Colorado Explored
and Surveyed in 1873 (1875) ; Report of Prog-
ress in the Greene and Washington District of
the Bituminous Coal Fields of Western Pennsyl-
vania (1876) : Report upon Geological Eazamina-
tions in Southern Colorado and Northern New
Mexico During 1878 and 1879 (1881); Origin
of the Pennsylvania Anthracite (1893); Lower
Carboniferous of the Appalachian Basin (1903) ;
and more than a hundred other memoirs, many of
the greatest importance, on geological topics.
STEVENSON, Josnrn (1806-95). A Scottish
antiquary, born at Berwick-upon-Tweed. In
1831 he was appointed to a post in the manu-
script department of the British Museum, and
in 1834 became a sub-commissioner of the pub-
lic records. He was ordained a priest in the
Church of England (1839), but his studies in
the Reformation period of English history led
him to the Roman Catholic Church (1863). In
1877 he entered the Society. of J lesus. For his ser-
vices he was granted a Government pension, and
was honored by Saint Andrews with the degree of
LL.D. At the suggestion of Stevenson, the Eng-
lish Government began in 1857 the valuable
Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and
Ireland, otherwise known as the Rolls Series.
The Government also sent him to Rome to make
an exhaustive examination of the Vatican
archives. The thirteen volumes of his manu-
script were deposited in the Public Record Office,
but were not published. Stevenson edited nearly
fifty works for the leading learned societies.
STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850). A Scotch
engineer, born at Glasgow. His progress in
the study of engineering was so rapid that
in 1791 he was entrusted with the erection
of a lighthouse on Little Cumbrae. During forty-
seven years’ service as engineer and inspector of
lighthouses, he planned and constructed twenty-
three lighthouses round the Scottish coasts, em-
ploying the catoptric system of illumination,
and his valuable invention of intermittent and
flashing lights. The most remarkable of these
structures was that on the Bell Rock (q.v.) . The
enterprise was unprecedented in lighthouse en-
gineering, for the Bell Rock was never uncov-
ered except at the lowest ebb tides. Stevenson
was the author of four volumes of professional
printed reports. a large work on The Bell Rock
Lighthouse (Edinburgh, 1824), and articles in
the Encyclopoedia Britannica and in the Edin-
burgh Encyclopcedia.——His son ALAN (1807-65)
was also an engineer of prominence, and was
the author of a Treatise on Lighthouse Illumi-
nation. See LIGHTHOUSE. Consult Stevenson,
Life of Robert Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1878).
STEVENSON, RORERT ALAN MOWBBAY (1847-
1900). An English art critic, a cousin of Robert
Louis Stevenson. He was born in Edinburgh,
was educated at Sussex College, Cambridge, and
studied art in the Edinburgh School of Art, and
in Paris and Antwerp, but never attained much
success as a painter. In 1882 he began to teach
art at Cambridge and in 1889 became professor
of fine arts at University College, Liverpool.
He was one of the most gifted and just of Eng-
lish critics. His sympathies were with the im-
pressionist school, but his judgment was im-
partial, and he possessed a keen analytical
mind and an effective style. His works include:
Engraving ( 1886), from the French of Dela-
borde; Peter Paul Rubens (1898); The Art of
Velazquez (1895; revised ed. in Williamson’s
series of Great Masters, 1899); and an Essay
on Raeburn (1900).
STEVENSON, RDRERT Lours (properly Ron-
ERT LEWIS BALFOUR) (1850-94). A Scottish
romancer, essayist, and poet, born in Edinburgh,
November 13, 1850, the only son of Thomas
Stevenson, a distinguished lighthouse engineer.
After beginning his education at various schools
and under private tutors, he entered Edinburgh
University in 1867, with the intention of be-
coming an engineer. On this profession he
turned his back in 1871, and prepared for the
bar, to which he was called in 1875. He had
already written several essays and tales and
some verse, but chiefly with a view of, in his
own forcible phrase, “playing the sedulous ape”
to the great masters. His strong bent to a lit-
erary career was now encouraged by the friend-
ship of such men as Edmund Gosse, Andrew
Lang, and Sidney Colvin, whom he met in Lon-
don. A canoeing trip in Belgium and France
and a walking tour in the Cévennes furnished
material for An Inland Voyage (1878) and
Travels with a Donkey (1879), sketches in which
he gave full proof of his exquisite literary art.
VVithout attracting much attention, he was con-
tributing to the Cornhill Magazine and Temple
Bar short stories, and some of his best essays,
those which were afterwards collected under
the titles of Virginibus Puerisque (1881) and
Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882).
To this period also belong the fascinating, fan-
tastic New Arabian Nights (1882), first pub-
lished between 1876 and 1878. In 1876 he had
met, in an artistic colony near Paris, Mrs.
Osbourne, an American lady, who was after-
wards to be his wife. In 1879, hearing from
California that she was seriously ill, he made
up his mind to go there. His resources were so
limited that he made the long journey in an
emigrant ship and train, noting his curious ex-
periences and publishing them afterwards in
The Amateur Emigrant (1894) and Across the
Plains (1892). He spent two years in Cali-
fornia, often in very delicate health, and in
1880 married Mrs. Osbourne. The next few
years were spent in various health resorts-—
Davos, the Riviera, Bournemouth, and the Adi-
rondacks. Often under the most discouraging
conditions, but with that brave cheerfulness
which was the distinguishing note of his char-
acter, he worked incessantly. Success first came
to him with the publication in 1883 of Treasure
sirnvnnson.
STEVIN.
205
Island, a tale of pure adventure. Dr. J elcyll and
Mr. Hyde (1886), a striking ethical parable un-
der the guise of fiction, attracted the more
thoughtful and was recommended from many a
pulpit. In the same year appeared Kidnapped,
which, with its sequel David Balfour (1893)
and the Master of Ballantrae (1889), offered
vivid pictures of the Scottish life of the past.
In 1888, still in quest of health, he left San
Francisco with his family on a voyage to the
South Seas. Pleased with the scenery and the
people of Samoa, he made a permanent home for
himself there in 1890 and acquired a position of
commanding influence among the natives. After
an heroic struggle against consumption, he died,
through the rupture of a blood-vessel in the
brain, December 3, 1894, and was buried on the
peak of Mount Vaea, above Vailima, his Samoan
home. Activ'e to the last, he left several manu-
scripts, among which were two romances, Weir
of Hermiston (1896) and St. Ives (completed by
Quiller-Couch, 1897). The former, which no
writer was bold enough to touch, is generally
considered, even in its unfinished state, Steven-
son’s masterpiece. Others of his works which
deserve special mention are: The Silverado
Squatters (1883) ; Prince Otto (1885), a dainty
romantic tale; three books written in collabo-
ration with his stepson, Lloyd Osbourne, The
Wrong B000 (1888), The Wrecker (1892), and
The Ebb Tide (1894); a volume of exquisite
verse, Under/woods (1887); A Ohild’s Garden
of Verses (1885); The Merry Men and Other
Tales (1886), a volume of short stories in which
hismastery over the grim and terrible best shows
itself; Memoir of Fleeming Jenlcin (1887) ; and
Father Damien, an Open Letter (pamphlet,
1890), unique among Stevenson’s writings, and
one of the most powerful apologia in English.
In both fiction and essays Stevenson displays the
possession of an exquisite and finished style; his
work is that of a true artist in words, and his
example stimulated many of the younger artists
of the day to more or less conscious imitation.
His influence was also great in regard to the
subject-matter of fiction. At a time when the
novel had forgotten to tell a story and was
running into minute philosophical analysis,
Stevenson came forward with adventure as pure-
ly romantic as Scott’s, though in structure, in
method of description and narrative, and in
brilliancy of style he marks the great technical
advance which had been made since the days of
the lVaverlcy Novels. But it was not only the
many delightful qualities of his written work
which made Stevenson the best loved writer of
his time; even more, perhaps, he was endeared
to countless readers by the frank revelation of
a most engaging personality, which shines
through all his works——of a serene undaunted
cheerfulness, gained not by shutting his eyes to
the pathos and the difficulty of human conditions,
but by a brave rising to the height of their de-
mands and an unwavering sense of the compen-
sations which such an attitude offers.
The most nearly completed collection of his
works is the sumptuous Edinburgh edition,
edited by Sidney Colvin (1894-98) ; two volumes
of charming letters arranged by the same editor,
with much biographical matter, appeared in
1899, and the Vailima Letters, written from
Samoa in 1895. Consult also the biographies by
his cousin Graham Balfour (London, 1901),
Baildon (ib., 1901), Black (Edinburgh, 1898),
and Cornford (ib., 1899); also Simpson, Steven-
son’s Edinburgh Days (London, 1898); Fraser,
In Stevenson’s Samoa (ib., 1895) ; Osbourne and
Strong, Memories of Vailima (ib., 1903); and
critical studies by Raleigh (London, 1895);
James, in Partial Portraits (ib., 1888); Chap-
man, in Emerson and Other Essays (New York,
1896). See also ENGLISH LITERATURE; NovEL;
ROMANTICISM.
STEVENSON, SARA (YORKE) (1847 —). An
American archaeologist, born in Paris, France.
She was educated in Paris at the Cours Rémy
and the Institut Descauriet, resided in Mexico
in 1862-67, and later became known as an
archaeologist. In 1889 she was an organizer of
the department of archaeology of the University
of.Pennsylvania, in 1890 became curator of its
Egyptian and Mediterranean sections, and in
1894 its secretary. She also received the secre-
taryship of the American Exploration Society in
1897' and the presidency of the Pennsylvania‘
branch of the Archaeological Institute of America
in 1899; in 1898 visited Egypt for the Explora-
tion Society and the city of Philadelphia; and
in 1893 was vice-president of the jury on ethnol-
ogy at the World’s Columbian Exposition. Among
her writings are various papers and articles on
archaeology, and the volume M aazimilian in M ew-
ico (1898).
STE'VENS POINT. The county-seat of Port-
age County, Wis., 150 miles northwest of Mil-
waukee, on the Wisconsin River, and on the
Wisconsin Central Railroad (Map: Wisconsin,
D 4). It is the seat of a State normal school,
and has a Polish normal academy and a public
library. The region is one of the richest lumber-
ing sections in the State. It also has some
mineral wealth and there is excellent water
power. There are saw mills, paper mills, knit-
ting mills, a foundry, and manufactories of
sashes and doors, furniture (including tables
and desks), engines, boxes, wall paper, etc. The
manufacture of artificial flies for fishing is an
important industry. The government is vested
in a mayor, elected biennially, and a unicameral
council. Stevens Point was settled in 1836, and
received its present charter in 1897. Population,
in 1890, 7896; in 1900, 9524.
STEVIN, Smon (1548-1620). A Dutch
mathematician, physicist, and engineer born in
Bruges. After being a merchant and traveling
extensively through Europe, he enjoyed the favor
of Prince Maurice of Orange, holding under his
appointment civil and military offices, his scien-
tific qualifications making him particularly valu-
able in military engineering, where he enjoyed a
high reputation. He is best known for his mathe-
matical work which led to the introduction of
decimal fractions, and he stated that the uni-
versal use of a decimal system of coinage, meas-
ures, and weights was bound to come. He also
made valuable contributions to mechanics and
physics, demonstrating the resolution of forces,
the equilibrium of forces on an inclined plane,
showing the difference between stable and un-
stable equilibrium, and the fact that the pressure
of a liquid is independent of the shape of the
containing vessel -anddepends merely upon the
height and area of the base. He wrote on double-
entry bookkeeping and adopted it for the material
needs of Prince Maurice. Stevin’s mathematical
STEVIN.
STEWART.
206
works, a part of which were published in Dutch
in 1568 were collected and translated into French,
being published in 1634. For his work in mathe-
matics consult: Cantor, Vorlesungen ilber Ges-
chichte der lllathematilo (Leipzig, 1892) ; for his
work in physics, Gerland and Traumiiller, Ges-
chichte cler Physikalischen Ewperimentier Kunst
(Leipzig, 1899).
STEWARD (AS. stigweard, stiweard, from
stig, pen for cattle, sty + weard, guard), LORD
HIGH. The first of the great offices of State in
England. Although of ancient origin, it owes
its eminence to John of Gaunt (1340-99). It was
hereditary in various lines until the accession of
Henry IV. (1399), when it was merged with the
Crown, and has since been in abeyance except
when temporarily revived from time to time
under the great seal pro hac nice. It is now
revived only on the occasion of a coronation,
when the Steward is of great ceremonial impor-
tance, or the trial of a peer by the House of
Lords for treason or felony, when the Steward
presides. The last session of this character oc-
curred in 1901, before which the Lord High Stew-
ard’s Court had not met for sixty years. When
the proceedings are at an end, the Lord Steward
terminates his commission by breaking his wand
of office.
STEWART, st1'1’ert. A Scotch and English
royal family. See STUART.
STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-76).
An Irish-American merchant, born at Lisburn,
near Belfast, Ireland, of Scotch parentage. He
entered Trinity College, Dublin, with the inten-
tion of studying for the ministry, but left before
graduating and in 1823 emigrated to America.
Settling in New York City, he taught school for
two years, and in 1825, having fallen heir to a
small legacy from some Irish relatives, he estab-
lished himself in the dry-goods business. In
1848 he built the store at Broadway and Cham-
bers Street, which at the time was the largest
dry-goods store in the world. In 1862 he re-
moved his retail business to a new store, which
he erected at a cost of $2,750,000, at Broadway
and Ninth and Tenth Streets, retaining his old
store for wholesale trade. At the time of his
death the business of A. T. Stewart and Com-
pany comprised branches and agencies in the
principal cities of Europe, and several mills and
factories in the United States.
STEWART, ALVAN (1790-1849). An Ameri-
can abolitionist, born at South Granville, Wash-
ington County, N. Y. After teaching in the
Royal School of the seignory of Saint Armand,
Canada, in 1811-12, and practicing law at Utica,
N. Y., he devoted himself chiefly to advocating
temperance and the abolition of slavery. In 1835
he called together in Utica an anti-slavery con-
vention that was dispersed by mob violence. Ac-
cording to William Godell, Stewart was the first
to insist “on the necessity of forming a distinct
political party to promote the abolition of
slavery.” When such a party was formed, he
was its candidate for Governor, but was, of
course, defeated. Years before Lincoln made
his famous ‘house divided against itself’ speech
or Seward his ‘irrepressible conflict speech,’ Stew-
art declared that “these States must necessarily
be in eternal conflict until liberty conquers slav-
ery, or slavery overturns the liberty of all.”
A collection of his speeches, with a slight me-
moir, was published by his son-in-law, Luther R.
Marsh (New York, 1860).
STEWART, BALFOUR ( 1828-87 ) .
physicist and meteorologist. He was born
at Edinburgh, and was educated at Saint
Andrews University and Edinburgh University.
After a brief career in business in 1856 he
became connected with Kew Observatory,
later (1859) being appointed its director. He
was appointed professor of natural philosophy in
Owens College, Manchester, in 1870, where he
served until his death.
Professor Stewart’s researches in radiant heat
procured for him the Rumford medal of the
Royal Society. He also devoted himself
to the study of terrestrial magnetism and
meteorological problems, particularly those
connected with solar radiation. He was also a
devout churchman and was a member of a com-
mittee appointed to promote the interchange of
views of scientific men of orthodox religious
opinions. In The Unseen Universe, a popular
work written by Stewart in conjunction with
Professor Tait, an attempt was made to com-
bine theological doctrines with the scientific ideas
then current to demonstrate the existence of
the soul and of a transcendental universe. He
published an Elementary Treatise on Heat (1866,
5th ed. 1888); Lessons in Elementary Physics
(1871); Physics (1872); The Conservation of
Energy (1875); and Lessons in Practical
Physics, with W. H. Gee (vol. i., 1885; vol. ii.,
1887).
STEWART, CHARLES (1778-1869). An Ameri-
can naval officer, born in Philadelphia, Pa. At
the age of thirteen he shipped on board a mer-
chant vessel as cabin boy, and in a few years
rose to be captain of an Indiaman. In 1798 he
entered the United States Navy as fourth lieu-
tenant of the frigate United /States, on which he
served until 1800, after which he was given com-
mand first of the schooner Enterprise and then
of the Experiment. Soon afterwards he cap-
tured the French schooner Dear Amis, and a
few days later the schooner Diane. While on
this cruise he captured the British privateer
Louisa Bridger by a night action, but on dis-
covering her nationality made suitable repara-
tion. In 1804, in command of the Siren, he
joined the Mediterranean Squadron. He then
returned to the United States in command of the
Constellation, and in 1806 was promoted to be
captain. During the following years he was for
a time in the merchant service, but he reiéntered
the navy, and at the outbreak of the War of
1812 aided Commodore Bainbridge in persuading
the Administration to send the United States
warships to sea instead of keeping them in New
York Harbor. In 1813 he was transferred to the
Constitution, which on February 28, 1815, cap-
tured two British war vessels, the Cyane, 34
guns, and the Levant, 21 guns. Soon afterwards,
however, he was surprised by a British squad-
ron and the Levant was recaptured. He com-
manded the Mediterranean Squadron from 1817
to 1820, after which he was sent to the Pacific
Station. On his return in 1823 he was tried by
court-martial on a number of charges, but was
acquitted. He commanded the Home Squadron in
1842-43, and for several years was commandant
of the Philadelphia Navy Yard. In 1862 he was
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. During
A British
STEWART.
STEWART.
207
the last seventeen years of his service he was
senior officer of the navy.
STEWART, DAVID, Duke of Rothesay and
Earl of Carrick. See RoTHEsAY.
STEWART, Sir DONALD MARTIN (1824-
1900). A British field-marshal. He was born
near Forres, Elginshire; completed his education
at Aberdeen University, and in 1840 joined the
Bengal Army. He saw active service on the fron-
tier; served with distinction during the Indian
Mutiny at the sieges of Delhi and Lucknow; com-
manded the Bengal troops in the Abyssinian
War in 1867-68; and from 1869 to 1874 was chief
commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar Isl-
ands. During the Afghan War in 1878 he was
in command of the Kandahar field force, and in
1880 on his celebratedmarch from Kandahar to
Kabul won the battles of Ahmed Khel and Urzu.
As military and civil commander in Northern
Afghanistan, he sent Sir Frederick Roberts on
his famous march from Kabul to Kandahar,
while he withdrew with the remainder of the
army -through the Khyber Pass.
STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828). A Scottish
philosopher, born in Edinburgh. He studied at
the University of Edinburgh from 1765 to 1769.
In 17-71 he went to Glasgow, partly with a view
to one of the Snell scholarships at Balliol Col-
lege, Oxford, and partly to attend the lectures
of Dr. Reid. It was there that he wrote an es-
say on dreaming, which was his first effort in
mental philosophy and contained the germs of
many of his subsequent speculations. He lived
in the same house with Archibald Alison, the
author of the Essay on Taste, and the two became
intimate friends through life. He was at Glas-
gow only one session. In 1772, in his nineteenth
year, he was called upon by his father, whose
health was failing, to teach the mathematical
classes in the University of Edinburgh; in 1775
he was elected joint professor, and acted in that
capacity till 1785. In 1778 Adam Ferguson was
absent from his post on a political mission to
America, and Stewart taught the moral philoso-
phy class in addition to his mathematical
classes. On the resignation of Ferguson in
1785, he was appointed professor of moral phi-
losophy, and continued in the active duties of the
chair for twenty-five years. In 1792 appeared
his first volume of the Elements of the Philosophy
of the Human Mind. In 17 93 he published his
Outlines of Moral Philosophy In 1806, on the
accession of the Whig Party to power, he re-
ceived a sinecure ofiice worth £300 a year. In
1810 Stewart gave up his active teaching work
and retired to Kinneil House, Linlithgowshire,
which the Duke of Hamilton placed at his ser-
vice. In the same year he published his Philo-
sophical Essays; in 1814 the second, and in 1827
the third volume of the Elements; and in 1828
Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers. He
died in Edinburgh, June 11, 1828.
The philosophy of Stewart was the following
up of the reaction against the skeptical re-
sults that Berkeley -and Hume drew from the
principles of Locke. Both Reid and Stewart pro-
fessed the Baconian method of observation and
induction, but considered that these processes
of investigation could establish certain ultimate
truths of a higher certainty than themselves.
His collected works were edited by Sir W. Ham-
ilton, in 11 vols. (Edinburgh, 1854-59), to
which Professor Veitch contributed a biography.
STEWART, MATTHEW, Earl of Lennox (1516-
71). A Regent of Scotland. He was born in
Dumbarton Castle and was the son of John,
third Earl of Lennox. After negotiations with
Henry VIII. of England which resulted in
treason to his own country, he married Henry’s
niece, Lady Margaret Douglas, and engaged in
several fruitless expeditions in the attempt to
bring Scotland under the control of England.
When Mary Stuart came to the throne of Scot-
land, Lennox returned to his native country, was
reinstated in his forfeited estates, and arranged
the marriage between Mary and his eldest son,
Henry, Lord Darnley (q.v.). After his son’s
murder he took an active -part in the seizure
and imprisonment of Mary in Lochleven Castle,
and was provisionally appointed Regent on be-
half of his infant grandson, afterwards James
VI. He was appointed lieutenant-general of
the kingdom and confirmed in the Regency after
the assassination of Murray, in 1570; he led
his forces against and gallantly defeated the
Queen’s supporters, capturing the castles of
Donne and Dumbarton; and convened a parlia-
ment at Leith which was adjourned to be held
later at Stirling. While on his journey to the
latter town he was mortally wounded during a
skirmish with some of the Queen’s partisans-.
STEWART, ROBERT, second Marquis of Lon-
donderry, best known as VISCOUNT CASTLEREAGH
(1769-1822). An eminent English statesman.
He was the eldest surviving son of Robert, first
Marquis of Londonderry, and was educated at
Saint J ohn’s College, Cambridge. He entered the
Irish Parliament in 1790 at the age of twenty-
one. In 1796 he became Viscount Castlereagh;
and in 1798 he was made Chief Secretary for
Ireland. In suppressing the rebellion of that
year he was resolute and energetic. In helping to
bring about the Parliamentary union with Eng-
land he made free use of English money
in corrupting opponents of the plan. He
entered the Imperial Parliament, and in
1805-06 was Secretary of State for the
War and Colonial departments. Resigning on
Pitt’s death in 1806, he resumed the office of War
Minister next ‘year, and organized the disas-
trous Walcheren expedition (1809). Canning
(q.v.), then Foreign Secretary, attacked Castle-
reagh on this account with much bitterness. The
result was that both resigned, and a duel took
place between them, September 21, 1809, in which
Canning was wounded. After the assassination
of Perceval in 1812, Castlereagh became Foreign
Secretary, a post which he held during the
period famous for the achievements of_the Duke
of Wellington. By this time the general direc-
tion of British policy was unalterably fixed by
circumstances, and it was the merit of Castle-
reagh that he pursued this course with steadi-
ness and even obstinacy. His personal influence
and his untiring exertions kept together the
coalition against Napoleon. He represented Eng-
land at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, at
the Treaty of Paris in 1815, and at the Congress
of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. His foreign
policy was favorable to the principles of the
‘Holy Alliance’ abroad and he constantly recom-
mended despotic measures at home. ‘As the
leader of the Liverpool Government in the Lower
STEWART.
STIELER.
208
House, he carried the suspension of the Habeas
Corpus Act in 1817. The ‘Six Acts’ of 1819 made
him extremely unpopular. The retirement of
Canning from the Ministry (1820) threw the
whole weight of business on Castlereagh. By the
death of his father in 1821 he became Marquis
of Londonderry. The great toil and responsi-
bility of his office deranged his mind, and he died
by his own hand at his seat at North Cray Place,
Kent, August 12, 1822. Consult his Memoirs
and Correspondence (12 vols., London, 1848-53) .
STEWART ISLAND. See NEW ZEALAND.
STEYN, stin, MARTINUS THEUNIS (1857—).
A South African statesman, the last President of
the Orange Free State. He was born at Win-
bury, Orange Free State, and was educated at
Grey College, Bloemfontein, and in Holland, af-
ter which he studied law at the Inner Temple,
London, and was called to the bar in 1882. Re-
turning to South Africa, he resided at Bloem-
fontein, where he at once gained distinction as a
lawyer and in 1889 became State Attorney. In
the same year he was elevated to the bench as
second puisne judge, and in 1893 was appointed
first puisne judge. In 1896 he was chosen by
universal suffrage President of the Republic.
His policy was at once manifested in an attempt
to draw the two Boer States closer together, and
the defensive alliance agreed upon by the Orange
Free State and the Transvaal in 1897 had his
hearty support. In the summer of 1899 he rep-
resented his State in the conference at Bloem-
fontein with Sir Alfred Milner (q.v.) and Presi-
dent Kruger (q.v.) in an attempt to adjust the
difliculties existing between the British and the
Boers. Upon the failure of negotiations and the
breaking out of hostilities he at once called out
the Free State troops to act in cooperation with
those of the Transvaal. During the course of
the war he continued actively assisting and ad-
vising the generals in the field, moving his capi-
tal from place to place. In May, 1900, after the
British had annexed the Orange Free State by
proclamation, he issued a counter-proclamation
reasserting the State’s independence, and calling
on the burghers to continue their defense. Af-
ter Kruger’s departure for Europe he became the
virtual head of the Boer forces in the field. He
took part in the peace conference that led to a
cessation of hostilities in 1902 and subsequently
took up his residence in London.
STEYNE, LORD. A clever and wicked old
nobleman in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair, who is
involved in a scandal with Becky Sharp.
STEYR, stir, or STEIER. A town of Upper
Austria, at the confluence of the Steyr and the
Enns, 90 miles west by south of Vienna (Map:
Austria, D 2). Its principal structures are the
Gothic church (1443) and the palace of Count
Lamberg (tenth century). It is an important
centre of the Austrian iron and steel industry.
There is here a large Government rifle factory;
the manufactures are cutlery, leather, paper,
woolens, hosiery, etc. Population, in 1890, 21,-
499; in 1900, 17,592.
STIBNITE (from Neo-Lat. stibium, from Gk.
o-1-(Bi, stibi, o-rl,u/n, stimmi, sulphuret of anti-
mony, probably from Egypt. s_tm, stibium). A
mineral tri-sulphide of antimony crystallized in
the orthorhombic system. It has a metallic
lustre, and is red to steel-gray in color. It oc-
ours with quartz, in beds or veins, in granite or
gneiss, often with other antimony minerals and
metallic sulphides. It is found in the Harz,
Freiberg, Cornwall (England), Algeria, Borneo,
Japan, and in the United States in Maine, New
Hampshire, Maryland, Arkansas, and at various
localities in California and Utah. It was used
by the ancients for coloring the hair, eyebrows,
etc. Stibnite is an important ore of antimony.
STICKLEBACK (so called from the sharp
spines on its back). A general name for the
small active fresh-water hemibranch spiny-rayed
fishes of the family Gastrosteidae, interesting
because of their nest-building. They are natives
of Northern America, Europe, and Asia. There
are a dozen or so species, none exceeding six
inches long. The body is slender and more or
less compressed, without scales, but usually
mailed with plates. The anterior dorsal fin is
replaced by several strong, widely separated
spines. The ventral fin consists of a strong
spine and one or two rudimentary rays. The
typical form is the common European stickle-
back or ‘burnstickle’ (Gasterosteus aculeatus),
represented in Eastern North America by the
very similar or identical Gasterosteus bispino-
sus. It is four inches long, is olivaceous and
dotted on the back, and has three dorsal spines.
In the spring the male of this species builds
upon the bottom of the stream a nest composed
of bits of straw, sticks, leaves of plants, and
sand, glued together by a secretion produced by
a special gland. This secretion is drawn out
into a silk-like thread by which the materials
are entangled or woven together as the fish in
moving about trails it after him. The completed
shape is like that of a hand-muff, smooth inside,
and with its openings in the direction of the
current. \Vhen the house is completed the
male induces a female to enter and deposit her
eggs, a process lasting only a few minutes. The
female then leaves by one of the openings and
the male enters by the other to deposit milt
over the eggs. In turn other females are invited
in, until the nest contains layer after layer of
eggs and milt. These the male guards with care
against many enemies, until the young are
hatched and able to shift for themselves. Stick-
lebacks are remarkably voracious and extremely
destructive to the young fry of fishes. Con-
sult authorities cited under AQUARIUM; and
FISH. See Plate of STIoKLEBAoKs AND THEIR
NEsTs.
STIELER, ste’lér, ADOLF (1775-1836). A
German cartographer, born at Gotha, and edu-
cated at Jena and Gtittingen. He was employed
in the Government service at Gotha. His prin-
cipal cartographic work, establishing a remark-
able standard of accuracy and completeness, is
Der Handatlas (1817), and his other publica-
tions include: Schulatlas (1821); Kleiner Atlas
der deutschen Staaten (1876) ; Taschenatlas (re-
vised by Habenicht, 1885); and Deutschland,
Niederlande, Belgien, Schweie und angrenzende
Liinder (1829).
STIELER, JOSEPII (1781-1858). A prominent
German portrait painter, born at Mainz. Self-
taught, he practiced miniature painting early in
life, then studied at Wiirzburg under Christoph
Fesel (1737-1805) and at the Vienna Academy
under Fiiger. After painting portraits in Hun-
gary and Poland, he spent two years (1807 -9) in
STICKLE BACKS

1. COAST STICKLEBACK (Apelfies quadracus). 4. NEST OF EUROPEAN STICKLEBACK (Gasterosteus
2. EUROPEAN STICKLEBACK (Gasterosteus aculeatus). ac-uleatus).
8. SALMON-KILLER (Gasterosteus cataphractus). 5. SEA-ADDER (Splnach|a spinachla) and Its eggs
hidden among the seaweed.
STIELEB.
STIGMARIA.
209
Paris, a pupil of Gerard, then worked at Frank-
fort and Milan, and in 1811 went to Rome, where
he executed the large altar-piece “Liberation of
Saint Leonhard” (Saint Leonhard’s Frankfort).
Called to Munich in 1812, he portrayed all the
members of the royal family, then in Vienna,
where he remained from 1816 to 1820, the Em-
peror Francis and his consort, besides many
notables, among them Beethoven (1819). After
his return to Munich Stieler became the most
fashionable portraitist of his day, among whose
numerous paintings of royalties, statesmen,
scholars, artists, and other celebrities may be
noted the familiar portrait of Goethe (1828,
New Pinakothek, Munich), reproduced in an
earlier volume (see GOETHE), and the famous
“Gallery of Beauties” (1827-47, Royal Palace,
Munich).
STIELER, KARL (1842-85). A Bavarian
dialect poet and author, born in Munich, son of
the preceding. After studying law in his native
city he undertook extensive travels, which he
described in letters to the Allgemeine Zeitung.
Afterwards he became State archivist in Munich,
His poems, written in the dialect of Upper Ba-
varia and overflowing with fresh, delicious
humor, appeared in the following collections:
Bergbleameln (1865), Weil’s mi freut (1876;
11th ed. 1896), Habt’s a Schneid’? (1877), and
others, all of which met with great favor, as did
also his High German poems Hochlandslieder
(1879; 8th ed. 1896), Neue Hochlandslieder
(1883; 4th ed. 1892), and Wanclerzeit (1882;
3d ed. 1893). Posthumously were published
Ein Wintericlyll (21st ed. 1897), Kulturbilder
aus Bayern (2d ed. 1895), Natur- uncl Lebens-
bilder aus den Alpen (1890), Aus Fremde und
Heimat (1886),, and Durch Kriegzum Frieclen
(1895) . For his biography, consult Heigel (Bam-
berg, 1891).
STIFF-NECK. See WRYNECK.
STIFTER, stef’ter, ADALBERT (1805-68). An
Austrian poet, novelist, and painter, born at Ober-
plan, Bohemia. He studied law at the University
of Vienna, but gave the preference to history,
philosophy, and natural science, embraced the
profession of teaching, and in 1850 was ap-
pointed superintendent of public schools in Upper
Austria. His idyls and novelettes, collected under
the title Stuclien (1844-51, 13th ed. 1895-96),
rank with the best prose writings of his time, and
from their first appearance evoked unstinted ad-
miration. Their purely idyllic character, utterly
alien to all worldly problems and tendencies, the
masterly details in the author’s original concep-
tions and descriptions of nature, constituted so
gratQfU1 a contrast to the current belletristic
productions as to atone for the merely accessory
role assigned to the human element. The Studien
were followed by Bunte Steine (1852; 9th ed.
1892) ; and the novels Der Nachsommer (1857)
and Witiko (1865-67). His letters, with biogra-
phy, were published by Aprent (1869). An
edition of his complete works appeared in Prague
(1901 et seq.) . Consult: Kuh, Zwei Dichter
Oesterreichs (Pressburg, 1872) ; and the biogra-
phies by Markus (Vienna, 1877), Prtill (Prague,
1891), and Stoessl (Berlin, 1902).
STIGMA (from Gk. o~rlq/)u.a, stigma, mark,
brand, puncture). In anatomy, a spot or mark
on the skin or a small cicatrix; in botany, an
apex, as the point of a pistil ; in entomology, the
spiracle of an insect. To the psychiatrist a
stigma is an anatomical or functional deviation
from the normal in a degenerate person. Cer-
tain stigmata are so constant and so frequent
that they have been accepted as indices of de-
generation by teachers, physicians and officers
in prisons and asylums. Besides idiots, insane
persons and certain criminals, the feeble-minded
and the markedly eccentric are classed as de-
generates. (See DEGENEBACY.) The stigmata of
degeneration are anatomical, physiological or
psychical; that is, they are deviations in form
and shape, in function and faculty, from the
normal.
ANATOMICAL STIGMATA comprise irregularity
in formation of the skull-cap or of the face; de-
formity of the palate; irregularity of the teeth;
anomaly of tongue, lips or nose; spots on the
iris, crossed eyes and other ocular changes; ab-
sence of pigment in iris, hair and skin (see AL-
BINO) ; anomaly of the ears; shortening or
lengthening of part of a limb, reduction or in-
crease in the normal number of fingers; de-
formity of the thorax, dwarfing, giantism, the oc-
currence of feminine configuration in a male or of
masculinity in a female; anomalies of the skin,
including abnormal growth of hair or absence of
proper hair, etc.
The most frequently and easily observed ana-
tomical stigmata are the irregular ears and
teeth. The principal ear types are the Darwin
ear, marked by a tubercle; the Morel car, a large,
smooth organ with thin edges; the Stahl ears,
with various anomalies of the helix and crura
(see EAR) ; and the Blainville type, in which the
ears are not mates. Dental and palatal anoma-
lies are very frequent, the degenerate’s hard
palate being dome-shaped, hip-roofed or flat-
roofed, provided with a Gothic arch, or a horse-
shoe arch, or asymmetrical. Frederick Peterson
(q.v.) considers the deformed palate one of the
chief anatomical stigmata of degeneration. Tal-
bot found 43 per cent. of abriormal palates among
1605 feeble-minded persons. Charon found 82 per
cent. of abnormal palates in idiots and feeble-
minded folk, 76 per cent. in epileptics, 80 per
cent. in cases of general insanity, 70 per cent. in
hysterical insane, 35 per cent. in cases of gen-
eral paralysis, and 10 per cent. in apparently
normal people.
Pnrsronoeronn STIGMATA, to follow Peterson’s
classification, include (1) anomalies of the motor
function, such as delay in learning to walk, trem-
ors, epilepsy; (2) anomalies of sensory function,
such as deaf-mutism, migraine, blindness, defects
in sight; (3) anomalies in speech, such as stam-
mering, mutism ; (4) anomalies of genito-urinary
function; (5) anomalies of instinct or appetite,
such as desire for liquor or drugs; (6) dimin-
ished resistance to external influences and to dis-
eases; (7) delayed development of puberty.
Psrcnrenn STIGMATA. include feeble-minded-
ness, imbecility, idiocy, insanity, eccentricity,
certain moral delinquency and sexual perversion.
Consult: Morel, Traité des clégénércscenccs
(Paris, 1857); Charon, Thése de Paris (Paris,
July 2, 1891) ; Nordau, Degeneration (New
York, 1895) ; Peterson, “The Stigmata of Degen-
eration,” in State Hospitals Bulletin (Utica,
N. Y., July, 1896).
STIGMA/BIA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. artyua,
STIGMARIA.
STILICHO.
210
mark). The generic name given to fossilized
plant remains with pitted surfaces, found in
the coal measures. They were first thought to
represent a distinct species of plant, but they are
now known to be the roots of Sigillaria and other
trees that lived in Carboniferous times.
STIGMATIZATION (from ML. stigmatizare,
from Gk. rrry/.ia1-lg’ cw, stigmatizein, to mark,
brand, from arl7,ua, stigma, mark, brand, punc-
ture, from <11-£§‘ew, stizein, to mark, puncture).
The name applied to the impression on certain
individuals of the ‘stigmata’ or marks similar to
the wounds made in the body of Christ during
His torture. These stigmata comprise not only
the wounds of the hands and feet and of the side
received in the crucifixion, but also those im-
pressed by the crown of thorns and by the
scourging. In some cases the stigmata have
been only subjectively felt and could not be
seen by others. In a few cases, wherein it has been
claimed that the impression was made upon the
heart alone, special marks have been found on
that organ after. death. The impression of the
stigmata, being held in certain cases to be mi-
raculous, was regarded as a mark of signal favor.
The first and most remarkable example of stig-
matization is that of Saint Francis of Assisi
(q.v.). In his case these mysterious markings
are said to have persisted for three years,
until his death, and to have been seen by Saint
Bonaventure and by several popes, and closely ob-
served by multitudes after his death.
Since Saint Francis’s time there have been
many such cases. Dr. Imbert Gourbeyre in 1894
was able to collect 321 examples, in every century
since the thirteenth, in every European country
and in every station in life. While the great
majority were religious, mostly Dominicans or
Franciscans, many were not and some twenty
were in the married state. Nearly 100 were re-
ported during the nineteenth century. The most
noteworthy of these are Anna Katherine Em-
merich (died 1824) and Louise Lateau (1850-83)
of Bois d’Haine, Belgium. This last case attracted
great attention and provoked public discus-
sion, in which the Salpétriere school of neurology
took the position that stigmatization is only a
neurotic phenomenon in hysterical individuals.
Dr. Lefebvre, an eminent physician, professor of
medicine at the University of Louvain, who had
been for many years in attendance at two insane
asylums, after a prolonged investigation of
Louise Lateau’s case, pronounced it miraculous.
On the other hand, Theodor Schwann, the dis-
tinguished biologist, also a professor at Louvain
and himself a Catholic, refused after careful
examination to admit the preternatural char-
acter of the phenomena. There seems no doubt
that phenomena of a nearly similar, kind have
been produced by suggestion in susceptible indi-
viduals.
of Biology of Paris for July 11, 1885, there is a
report of a case in which bleeding through the
unbroken skin was produced by hypnotic sugges-
tion. Consult: Gourbeyre, Les stigmatisés
(Paris, 1873); id., La stigmatisation, l’ewtase
divine et les miracles de Lourdes (ib., 1894);
Bourneville, Le science et le miracle (ib., 1878) ;
Lefebvre, Louise Lateau (Louvain, 1870);
Bourneville, Louise Lateau (Paris, 1875);
Richer, Etudes cliniques sur l’hystéro-epilepsie
ou grande hystérie (ib., 1881).
In the Comptes Rendus of the Society .
STILES, stilz, EZRA (1725-95) . An American
clergyman and college president, born at North
Haven, Conn. He graduated at Yale in 1746,
was tutor there from 1749 to 1755, was ordained
by the Congregational Church in 1749, and
preached for a time to the Stockbridge Indians.
Transient religious doubts induced him to aban-
don the ministry and study law (1752) ; and he
was admitted to the bar in 1752, and practiced
in New Haven in 1753-55. Returning to the
ministry in 1756, he was pastor of the Second
Church in Newport, R. 1., in 1756-77, and during
this period spent a large part of his time in lit-
erary and scientific studies, learning several
European and Oriental languages and carrying
on an extensive correspondence with learned men
in many parts of the world. In 1777-78 he was
pastor of the North Church, Portsmouth, N. H.,
and in 1778 became the president of Yale, which
position he held until his death. In addition to
his presidential duties, he occupied the chair of
ecclesiastical history from 1780 to 1795, and
lectured on mathematics, astronomy, natural
philosophy, and mental and moral philosophy.
Both during and preceding the Revolution he
was an ardent patriot. Besides several orations
and sermons, he published An Account of the
Settlement of Bristol, R. I. (1785), and a ram-
bling, diffuse History of Three of the Judges of
King Charles I. (1794) ; while his Literary
Diary and bound manuscripts preserved at Yale
fill over 45 volumes. The diary edited by Dex-
ter was published in 1901. Consult Life, by his
son-in-law, Abiel Holmes (1798), and by J. L.
Kingsley in Sparles’s American Biography.
STILES, HENRY REED (1832—). An Ameri-
can physician and author, born in New York
City. He was educated at the, College of the
City of New York, and at Williams, subsequent-
ly studied medicine, and practiced for a short
time. In 1857 he began the publication of The
American Journal of Education. In 1859 he re-
sumed his medical practice, and in 1863 became
librarian of the Long Island Historical Society.
In 1873 he became superintendent of New York
Homeopathic Insane Asylum at Middletown, N.
Y., and from 1877 to 1881 was director of the
Homeopathic Dispensary at Dundee, Scotland.
From 1882 to 1885 he was professor of mental
and nervous diseases in the New York Woman’s
Medical College. His publications include: The
History and Genealogies of Ancient Windsor,
Connecticut (1859) ; Monograph on Bundling in
America (1861) ; The Wallabout Prison-Ship
Series (1865) ; and The History of the City of
Brooklyn, New York (1867-70). He edited
Illustrated History of the County of Kings and
City of Brooklyn (1884). '
STILETTO-FLY. A small, slender preda-
tory fly of the family Therevidae, frequently of
varied color and closely resembling one of the
robber-flies (Asiliidae). It does not catch its
prey on the wing as do the robber-flies, but lies
in wait upon leaves and bushes and even upon the
ground, springing on weaker insects as they ap-
proach. The larvae are very long and slender,
and live in rotten wood and in rich earth, and
seem to feed upon both decaying animal and
vegetable matter.
STILIGHO, sti'1’i-ko, FLAVIUS ('1-A.1). 408).
A Roman general, one of the ‘most notable figures
in the history of the sinking power of Rome and
STILICHO.
STILLINGIA.
211
the German invaders. He was the son of a Vandal
who served as an oflicer in the Roman Army un-
der Valens, Emperor of the East (364-378),
and himself followed a military career, earning
the special recognition of the Emperor Theodo-
sius (379-395), who, in 383, sent him at the head
of an embassy to the Court of the Persian King
Sapor III. Here, though still a young man, he
proved such a successful diplomatist that a very
advantageous peace was at once arranged; and
on his return to Constantinople, at the end of 384,
he married Serena, the Emperor’s niece, and re-
ceived the titles of comes stabuli sacri and comes
domesticorum. During the next decade he was
engaged in military operations in various parts
of the Empire, attaining the grade of commander-
in-chief (magister militum) of the army in Thrace
in 385, and directing the campaign in Britain
against the Picts, Scots, and Saxons in the same
year. In 386 he was battling with his Emperor
against the barbarians on the banks of the He-
brus. In 392 he was most successful in cam-
paigns against the Bastarnae, Goths, Alani, and
Huns, but was prevented from gaining greater
glory by the jealousy of the Consul Rufinus, who
exercised a great influence over the Emperor. In
394, however, he received a greater honor; for
Theodosius made his own son Honorius augustus,
giving him the sovereignty of Italy, Spain, Gaul,
and Africa, and appointing Stilicho and Serena
his guardians. Thus Stilicho found himself on a
footing with his hated rival Rufinus, for he be-
came the real ruler of the West, with headquar-
ters at Rome, as the young Honorius was wholly
indifferent to the cares of State. While Theodo-
sius lived, Stilicho and Rufinus were forced to
maintain a semblance of peace, but no sooner was
he dead, in 395, than their rivalry broke out
openly. Stilicho had the advantage of a stronger
personality and a close connection with the Im-
perial family, for his daughter Maria was be-
trothed to his ward, the Emperor Honorius. After
successful campaigns on the Rhine, he marched
to the East, nominally to drive back the Goths
and Huns, whom Rufinus had persuaded to in-
vade the Empire, but really with the design of
overthrowing Rufinus, and by connivance with
these same Goths Stilicho procured his assassina-
tion at the close of 395. He was now the virtual
master of the Empire, for Honorius and Arcadius,
the joint Emperors, were mere puppets in his
hands; but Stilicho never aspired to the throne
for himself, remaining as yet loyal to the worth-
less son of his old patron. His attention, indeed,
was now wholly occupied with the formidable in-
vasion of the Goth Alaric, who had forced his
way into the Peloponnesus with a great army,
and was abetted by Arcadius from jealousy of
Stilicho. Alaric was almost caught in a trap,
but managed to escape northward, where he held
his own for six years, often making predatory
incursions even into Italy. At the end of 402 the
final contest was fought out. Alaric had invaded
Northern Italy, and the cowardly Honorius fled
from Mediolanum (Milan) to Ravenna. Stilicho
gathered all the available troops from the west-
ern provinces and made a brave stand. He was
blockaded in Milan, but early in 403 he broke the
blockade and won a victory over Alaric at P01-
lentia, near Turin, and another at Verona.
Alaric withdrew from Italy, but retained his
power at the Court of Arcadius In 406 a new
if
invasion threatened Italy. A countless horde of
Germans and Celts was led down from the north
by their chief, Radagaisus, who occupied the
heights of Faesulee, above Florence, Where Stilicho,
by a brilliant movement, that was regarded as
miraculous, hemmed him in and forced him to
surrender. Radagaisus was treacherously put
to death and all his followers were sold into
slavery. This was the last great achievement of
Stilicho. His ultimate downfall was due to his
ambition to see his own son Eucherius on the
throne of Rome; and in this he might have suc-
ceeded, had it not been for the wily Olympius,
W110 gained influence over Honorius and warned
him of Stilicho’s designs. Honorius now for
the first time showed signs of energy. He aroused
the soldiers by a clever speech and won over many
partisans of Stilicho, who, deserted by his friends,
met death by assassination at Ravenna in 408.
STILL, JOHN (c.1543-1608). An English prel-
ate, born at Grantham, Lincolnshire. He was
educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge. He
became successively Margaret professor of di-
vinity at Cambridge (1570), prebendary of
Westminster (1573), master of Saint John’s
College, Cambridge (1574), Archdeacon of Sud-
bury (1576), master of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge (1577), and Bishop of Bath and Wells
(1593). To him has been ascribed on insuffi-
cient evidence A Ryght Pythy, Pleasaunt, and
M erie Comedic, intytuld Gammer Gurton’s N edle,
the second English comedy extant. It contains
the spirited drinking song beginning “Backe
and side go bare, go bare.” On the authorship of
the comedy, consult Modern Language Notes for
June, 1892 (Baltimore).
STILLIBIRTH. See ABORTION.
STII/LINGIFLEET, EDWARD (1635-99). An
Anglican prelate, born at Cranborne, in Dorset-
shire. He received his education at Cambridge.
In 1659 he published the Origines Sacrce, or Ra-
tional Account of the Christian Faith, as to the
Truth and Divine Authority of the Scriptures,
a. work which made his reputation, and is still
esteemed as one of the most masterly treatises
extant on the subject of which it treats. In
1664 appeared his Rational Account of the
Grounds of the Protestant Religion, a defense of
the Church of England from the charge of
schism in its separation from Rome, which was
received with great favor, and led to his ap-
pointment as preacher at the Rolls Chapel. In
1670 he became canon of Saint Paul’s Cathedral,
and in 1678 was made dean. After the Revolu-
tion of 1688 he received the appointment to the
Bishopric of Worcester. Stillingfleet’s chief
works, besides those mentioned, were the Ori-
gines Britannicce, or Antiquities of the British
Churches and The Doctrines and Practices of
the Church of Rome Truly Represented (1686;
3d ed. 1851), a standard work. His complete
works were published in six volumes (London,
1710, with life by Richard Bentley, supplemen-
tary vol., 1735).
STILLINGIA, stil-lin’ji-a (Neo-Lat., named
in honor of Benjamin Stillingfleet, an English
botanist of the eighteenth century). A genus of
plants belonging to the natural order Euphorbia-
ceae. The species are mostly trees or shrubs of
tropical Asia and America, and of the islands of
Bourbon and Mauritius. The leaves are alter-
nate, petiolate. One species, Stillingia sylvatica,
STILLINGIA.
STIMULAN T S.
212
queen’s delight or yaw shrub, a perennial herb
two to three feet high, is found from Virginia to
Kansas and south to the Gulf. The root of this
plant has been variously used in medicine. Stil-
lingia sebiferum or sapium, the tallow tree of
China, from the fruit of which the Chinese obtain
tallow, and which was introduced into the East
and the West Indies, has a trunk and branches
like the cherry and foliage resembling that of
the black poplar.
STILL LIFE. The name applied to that
branch of art which concerns itself with the
representation of lifeless objects such as game,
fruits, flowers, vases, and house furniture. See
PAINTING.
STILL’MAN, SAMUEL (1738-1807). An
American clergyman. He was born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., removed to Charleston in 1748, was
ordained as a Baptist minister in 1759, and
preached first at James’s Island (Va.), then at
Bordentown (N. J.), and finally at Boston. He
was one of the incorporators of Brown Uni-
versity (1764). He was an exceedingly effective
preacher, and just before and during the Revolu-
tionary War exerted a powerful influence on the
side of the Patriot Party. Among his published
sermons are A Sermon on the Repeal of the
Stamp Act (1766), Election Sermon (1779),
Masonic Discourse (1785), and a Sermon Occa-
sioned by the Death of George Washington
(1799).
STILLMAN, WILLIAM JAMES (1828-1901).
An American journalist, landscape painter, and
author. He was born in Schenectady, N. Y.,
and after graduating at Union College took up
landscape painting under Frederick Church. In
1849 he studied in England, where he was influ-
enced by the Pre-Raphaelites, becoming acquaint-
ed with Turner, whose work he admired, and
with Ruskin, whose influence upon his painting
was a baneful one. In 1852 he was commis-
sioned by Louis Kossuth to go to Hungary to
carry away the Crown jewels which Kossuth
had hidden during the Revolution. From there
he went to Paris, where he studied under Yvon,
and continued to practice painting until 1855,
when he adopted journalism as his profession,
devoting himself to political and artistic sub-
jects. Stillman was United States Consul at Rome
(1861-65) , and at Crete (1865-69) . From 1883 to
1885 he was art critic of the Evening Post, and
from 1875 to 1885 correspondent on political af-
fairs for the London Times. He lived in Italy from
1878 to 1898, after which he retired to Surrey,
England, where he died in 1901. His published
works include the Cretan Insurrection of 1866-68
(1874), On the Track of Ulysses (1888), Billy
and Hans (1897), Francesco Crispi (1899), a
biographical study, and the Autobiography of a
J ournalist, with many interesting reminiscences.
His most noted painting is the “Procession of the
Pines” (1858). Stillman was also an expert
photographer, and published series of views of
Athens, the Acropolis, and the temples of Sicily.
STILL’WATER. The county-seat of Wash-
ington County, Minn., 18 miles northeast of
Saint Paul; on the Saint Croix River and Lake,
and on the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul,
the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis and
Omaha, and the Northern Pacific railroads
(Map: Minnesota, F 5). It has a situation of
great natural beauty at the foot of the celebrated
‘dalles’ of Saint Croix, cliffs which extend for
30 miles above the city. Stillwater has the Min-
nesota State Prison, a public library, a United
States Government building, a fine city hall,
Stillwater City Hospital, and Saint J oseph’s and
Saint Mary’s convents. The city is known for
its extensive lumber interests. There are brewer-
ies, foundries and machine shops, grain elevators,
a brick yard, and manufactories of flour, wagons,
boats, farm implements, boots and shoes, boxes,
etc. The government, under the revised charter of
1891, is vested in a mayor, chosen every two
years, and a common council. Stillwater was
settled in 1843, was incorporated as a village
in 1848, and was chartered as a city in 1854.
Population, in 1890, 11,260; in 1900, 12,318.
STILLWATER, BATTLES OF. See SARATOGA,
BATTLES OF.
STI’L0, LUCIUS ZELIUS PR.EcoNINUs (called
also Philologus). A celebrated Roman gram-
marian. He was learned in both Greek and
Latin and was an instructor of Cicero in rhetoric
and of Va-rro in grammar. His sympathy with
the aristocratic party led him to accompany
Quintus Metellus Numidicus into exile at Rhodes
in 13.0. 100. His works include commentaries on
the Aazamenta, or Songs of the Salii, and the
Twelve Tables, and a volume entitled De Pro-
loquiis. The treatise Ad Herennium, generally
found in editions of Cicero, has been conjecturally
assigned to him.
STILT (Swed. stylta, OHG. stelza, Ger. Stelee,
stilt, crutch). A large, handsome, long-shanked
shore-bird of the genus Himantopus, related to
the avocets. The common Old World species
(Himantopus himantopus) is widely distributed.
The American species (Himantopus Meaicanus)
is common to both continents; and others are
known in other parts of the world along sea-
coasts. They frequent muddy flats in small
flocks, and walk with long, measured steps, seek-
ing for food among the reeds, and catching small
fishes in the pools and shallows. See Plate of
BEACH BIRDS.
STILT-BUG. A plant-bug of the family
Berytidae, which includes very slender species
with long, thin legs in which the thighs are thick-
ened at the tip. Only six species are known to
occur in the United States.
STIM'SON, FREDERIC JESUP (1855—). An
American lawyer and author, born in Dedham,
Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1876 and at
the Harvard Law School in 1878, and began
practice in Boston. In 1884-85 he was Assist-
ant Attorney-General of Massachusetts, and in
1899-1901 general counsel to the United States
Industrial Commission. He is best known as the
author of law books, including American Statute
Law (2 vols., 1886), the standard work on the
subject: Stimson’s Law Glossary (1890); Gov-
ernment by Injunction; Labor in Its Relation to
Law (1894) ; Handbook to the Labor Law of the
United States (1895) ; and Uniform State Legis-
lation (1896). Under the pen-name of “J. S.
of Dale” he also wrote several novels and short
stories.
STIMULANTS (from Lat. stimulare, to urge,
prick, from stimulus, goad, incitement; connected
STIMULANTS.
STING-RAY.
213
with Gk. 0-rlfew, stieein, to pierce, Skt. tij, to
be sharp, OHG. stehhan, Ger. stechen, Eng.
stick) . Agents which increase temporarily the
functional activity of the organism as a whole or
of the various organs of the body. These may be
cardiac, respiratory, nervous, hepatic, renal, gas-
tric, etc., depending on the organ or system affect-
ed. Stimulants embrace a wide range of thera-
peutic agents, but popularly the term is applied
to those acting especially on the circulatory, res-
piratory, and nervous systems. Alcohol is the
most generally employed, in the form of whisky,
brandy, or wines. The various preparations of
ammonia, inhaled or given as the aromatic spirits
of ammonia, are very serviceable diffusable stimu-
lants. Ether may be taken as an inhalation, a
hypodermic injection, or in solution by the mouth,
and acts rapidly. Among the other general
stimulants may be mentioned camphor, strych-
nine, lavender, ginger, peppermint oil, and the
other essential oils. This class of remedies is
useful in fainting, hysteria, shock, and similar
conditions.
STIMULUS (from Lat. stimulus, goad, in-
citement). A mechanical, molecular, chemical,
or ethereal change in the conditions external to
a plant cell or to the plant body, which pro-
duces a change (reaction) in the cell, a particular
organ, or the whole plant. Mechanical stimuli,
due to the mass movement of the external agents,
, are contact, pressure, traction, friction, torsion,
etc. (See MOVEMENT; THIGMOTROPISM ; TENDRIL.)
In the absence of knowledge as to its nature,
gravity may be included in this group, since It
depends upon the mass of the body acting (the
earth), although it is not in itself mechanical.
(See GEOTROPISM.) Molecular stimuli depend
upon molecular movements. Osmotic pressure
has been proved capable of acting as a stimulus.
The reactions of organisms to solutions of vary-
ing concentration are interpreted as due not to
the chemical nature but to the number or impact
of the solute molecules, since they are alike with
all substances of the same osmotic pressure. (See
OsMosIs.) Chemical stimuli depend not upon
the mass, but upon the chemical composition of
the body acting. They are, therefore, almost as
various as chemical compounds, although many
substances are nearly or quite inert. The most
common acting upon plants are water, organic
acids, mineral salts and other solutes in the
water. (See CHEMoTRoPIsM.) Ethereal stimuli,
are propagated in the ether, light and heat. (See
HELIOTROPISM; THERMOTROPISM.) Here also may
be included electricity, whose action in -nature is
little understood. (See IRRITABILITY.)
STINDE, stin’de, JULIUS (1841—).
man humorist. He studied and practiced
chemistry, became editor of a Hamburg
trade journal, contributed to periodicals, and
was gradually drawn wholly to literature,
wherein he won popularity by Die Buchholeen in
Italien (1883), Die Familie Buchholz (1884;
translated), a second part of this (1886), Frau
Buchholz im Orient (1888), Frau Wilhelmine
Buchholz’ M emoiren (1895), and Hotel Buchholz,
Ausstellungserlebnisse (1896). His other writ-
ing, dramatic and otherwise, is of slight worth,
but in the Buchhole series the lower middle class
Iqf Berlin is depicted with a fresh, genial, healthy
umor.
A Ger-
STING (from AS. stingan, Goth. us-stiggan, to
push out; connected with OHG. stanga, Ger.
Stange, obsolete Eng. stang, sting)-r An organ
possessed by various kinds of animals, by means
of which they not only inflict a mechanical wound
in their prey, but also insert into it an irritant
or poisonous chemical. Stinging or nettling cells
(see NEMATOCYST) occur in all the Coelenterata
except ctenophores, in some tubularian worms,
and on the cerata of the nudibranch Eolis. The
sting of scorpions (q.v.) is in the tail. The
poison, secreted by a gland, exudes through small
openings into the wound, and is powerful enough
to cause death in the small natural prey. Among
insects, several forms are provided with a sting.
This organ, which is of especial use as a means of
defense to the so-called aculeate Hymenoptera, a
group which includes the bees, wasps, many ants,
and to the Mutillidae or ‘cow-ants’ or ‘velvet
ants,’ is simply a modified ovipositor connected
with a poison gland. The sting of a bee consists
of three distinct pieces: two barbed needles and
one gouge-like piece, the ‘director;’ the needles
move up and down on the director, controlled by
muscles attached to their bases. In the anterior
part of the director there is a slight projection
on the needle which catches a bit of the poison
in the chamber and carries it to the wound. The
director itself is composed of a united pair of
stylets, and without the director is a third pair
of stylets which are thick and hairy. (See
INSECTS, section on Poisonous Insects.) The poi-
son is secreted by poison glands which pour their
poison into the chamber. The poison of the bee
is said to be secreted by two glands, one pro-
ducing an acid and the other an alkaline fluid.
Only acid poison glands are said by some in-
vestigators to be present in those wasps which
only stupefy the prey that they store up for
the nourishment of their young.
STING-RAY, or STINGAREE. A ray
(q.v.) of the family Dasyatidae, characterized by
the usual possession of a long whip-like tail, bear-



TAIL OF A STING RAY.
a, enlarged view of the base of the tail of a sting-ray,
having several spines; b, a single spine, barbed on both
sides.
ing near its base one or more long, strong, sharp
spines retroversely serrated. When broken off
the spine is replaced by the coming forward of
one of a succession growing behind it.
The family includes about fifty species,
inhabitants of the warmer seas, some
species occurring in the fresh Waters of
STING-RAY.
STIRLING.
214
Northern South America, some of which are ten
or twelve feet in length. They are generally
much dreaded because of the ugly wound they
are capable of inflicting with the spine or ‘sting.’
The sting is not poisonous, as is frequently sup-
posed, although the mucous secretions of the
skin may be responsible for the serious inflamma-
tions frequent in the wounds. See RAY and ac-
companying Plate; DEVIL-FISH.
STINK-BUG. Any one of the heteropterous
insects of‘the family Pentatomidae, very many
of which are protected frbm their natural ene-
mies by a nauseous, penetrating, and persistent
- odor which remains
with berries over
which these bugs may
have walked. The fam-
ily is a large one and
4000 species have been
described, of which
300 are found in the
United States. They
are broad, flat insects
with five-jointed an-
tennae, and are usually green, gray, or brown, al-
though some have a brilliant combination of black
and red or yellow and black. They vary strangely
in habit, some species being exclusively carnivo-
rous and others exclusively plant-feeders, while
others seem to feed indifferently upon the juices
of plans or of other insects. See SOLDIER-BUG.
STINT (from AS. styntan, to make blunt,
short, from stunt, dull, stupid). One of the
small sandpipers (q.v.) of the genus Tringa.
The American stint (Tringa minutilla) is the
smallest of the sandpipers, less than 6 inches
long, breeds only in the Arctic regions, and is
common throughout North America during the
migrations. The plumage in summer is variegated
bright bay, blackish, ashy and whitish above,
whitish beneath; in winter the color is simply
ashy above, whitish beneath.
STIPA. See FEATHER GRASS.
STIPENDS, CLERICAL (Lat. stipendium,
tax, tribute, salary, from stips, gift, donation
+ pendere, to weigh out). A general designation
of the means of support provided for the clergy.
There have developed in Western civilization five
general methods of providing clerical support, to-
gether with all sorts of combinations of those
methods. Those methods may be defined as those
of (1) voluntary offerings, (2) tithes, (3) en-
dowments, (4) State aid, and (5) contracts. No
country shows any one method prevailing to the
exclusion of the others. Without doubt the
earliest method of supporting a priesthood was
by means of voluntary contributions. Tithes
(q.v.) were commanded of Hebrews by
revelation, and the system continued in
Christian times. State aid may be con-
sidered as of two kinds, the direct and the
indirect, the latter to be considered first, as of the
greater antiquity. When the political power
under ‘the Emperor Constantine came openly to
the support of the Christian religion one of the
first results of the friendly cooperation of the
State was the legal capacity given to the
churches in a co orate character to receive
gifts inter vivos an by bequest, and to hold the
same in perpetuity. This was an indirect method


A STINK-BUG.
of State aid. Direct State support of
the clergy is a comparatively modern in-
stitution, which has developed since the Refor-
mation era. It is now in operation in those
European States of Roman Catholic allegiance
which have entered into a treaty, technically
known as a concordat, with the See of Rome
for the support of the clergy. Such treaties came
about as a return for the sequestration of the
older ecclesiastical endowments in land. France,
Spain, Portugal, and Austria give such direct
support to the Roman Catholic clergy. The Prot-
estant German and Scandinavian States furnish
a like support to the Protestant ministry. Rus-
sia supports the hierarchy of the orthodox
Church. A similar system of direct State sup-
port prevails in the Central and South American
States for the Roman Catholic clergy, and under
Spanish rule prevailed also in Cuba, Porto Rico,
and the Philippines. The fifth method, that of
contracts, is essentially American. It consists
first of a contract between a local church (in the
Protestant denominations) and its minister for
the payment of a definite sum for his support,
and then a series of contracts between the
church as a corporation and the attendants at
public worship for the rental of pews and sittings.
As a reaction from this method has developed
what is known as the ‘free church’ movement,
which seeks to abolish pew rentals and to sub-
stitute systems of voluntary contributions.
STIPPLE (from Dutch stippeln, to speckle,
from stippen, to dot, prick, from stip, point, dot),
or STIPPLING. In engraving, a process of produc-
ing light and shade, and sometimes color, by
means of points, dots, or small, short marks,
hardly to be considered lines. In water-color
work the dots of color inevitably run together,
so that the process is somewhat like cross-hatch-
ing in ordinary drawing. This is a process used
by artists who are in search of very minute de-
tail. See LINE ENGRAVING and ETCHING.
STIPULATION (Lat. stipulatio, bargain,
stipulare, to bargain, covenant). In law, a ma-
terial clause or provision in a contract. The
term is also sometimes applied to a written agree-
ment between attorneys as to some matter of
practice. In admiralty practice it is a bond or
undertaking filed with the court by one of the
parties to an action or proceeding. A libellant
must file a stipulation for costs. When a vessel
is attached under a libel, the owner must file a
‘stipulation for value’ to obtain her release. See
BoND.
STIRLING, ster’ling. A river-port and capi-
tal of Stirling County, Scotland, on the Forth,
35 miles northwest of Edinburgh (Map: Scot-
land, D 3). The rich agricultural, mining, and
manufacturing districts around it are the main
basis of its prosperity. Situated at the head of
navigation of the Forth, Stirling, strongly forti-
fied by nature, was the key to the Highlands. It
owes its origin to the strong natural fortress of
Castle Hill, crowned by the venerable castle,
which commands an extensive view of great
beauty. From this hill, covering the declivity
which slopes north and eastward to the plain’,
extends the oldest part of the town. Stirling
Bridge, Which existed in 1571, was until recent
years the only one by which wheeled darriages
could cross the Forth. Noteworthy are the East
STIRLING.
STOA.
215
and West Churches—the former erected by James
IV. about l494——and ‘Mar’s Work,’ an incom-
plete and richly ornamented structure, built in
1572. Ropes, malt, leather, soap, and mineral
oils are manufactured. Vessels of one hundred
and fifty tons can reach the port of Stirling, but
its river trade has decreased since the advent
of railroads.
Stirling (formerly Stryuelyne, or Estriuelin)
is one of the most ancient and historically im-
portant towns of Scotland. Alexander I. died in
the castle in 1124. Near by, the battle of
Stirling was fought in 1297. (See WALLACE,
WILLIAM.) The town was taken by Edward I.
after a siege of three months, in 1304. In the
vicinity, at Bannockburn (q.v.) , the famous bat-
tle of that name was fought in 1314. The castle
was the birthplace of James II. and of James V.
James III. built the Parliament House in the
castle, and otherwise improved and embellished
the fortress. James V. built the palace, the
walls of which are profusely covered with gro-
tesque ornamentation. In the older part of the
castle is the ‘Douglas Room,’ in which William,
Earl of Douglas, was assassinated by James II.
In 1651, after the battle of Dunbar, the castle
was taken by Monk; and it withstood a siege
by the Highlanders in 1745. Population, in
1891, 16,800; in 1901, 18,403. Consult: History
of the Chapel Royal of Stirling (Grampian Club,
- 1882) ; Charters of Stirling (1884).
STIRLING, EARL or (1726-83).
ANDEB, WILLIAM.
STIRLING, JAMES (1692-1770). An English
mathematician, born at Garden, Stirlingshire.
He was educated at Glasgow University and
Balliol College, Oxford. He was expelled from
Oxford (1715) on account of his relations with
the Jacobites, and went to Venice, where he took
up the study of mathematics. It was during
his residence in Venice that he wrote his work
Linece Tertii Orclinis N ewtoniance (1717), and
his paper, Methodus Difierentialis Newtoniana
Illustrata, which was communicated to the
Royal Society through Newton (Philosophical
Transactions, 30: 1050). Stirling returned to
London in 1725 and devoted himself to the teach-
ing of mathematics, enjoying the friendship of
Newton and corresponding with many of the
noted mathematicians of the day. His greatest
contribution to mathematics was his Methodus
Differentialis, sine Tractatus ole Surnmatione et
Interpolatione Serierurn Infinita/rum (1730; 2d
ed. 1764; English trans. 1749).
STIRLING, JAMES HUTCHINSON (1820—).
A Scottish philosopher, born at Glasgow, Janu-
ary 22, 1820; studied arts and medicine at the
Glasgow University. He practiced medicine for
some years, but soon gave up medicine to study
philosophy. He published The Secret of Hegel
(1897) ; a translation of Schwegler’s History of
Philosophy (1867); As Regards Protoplasm
(1869); Lectures on the Philosophy of Law
(1873) ; Text-Book to Kant (1881) ; Philosophy
and Theology (1890) ; Worhmen and Work
(1894), etc.
STIRLIN'G~MAXWELL, Sir WILLIAM
(1818-78). A Scotch author, born near Glas-
gow. He bore the name of Stirling until 1866,
when by the death of Sir John Maxwell, his
maternal uncle, he succeeded to a baronetcy and
See ALEX-
assumed the name of Maxwell. He graduated
at Cambridge in 1839, after which he visited
Spain and France, and devoted several years to
studies of the history, literature, and art of
Spain at the close of the mediaeval period. He
was elected to Parliament for Perthshire in 1852,
and represented that borough almost continuously
for more than twenty years. He was rector of
the University of Saint Andrews in 1863, of that
of Edinburgh in 1872, and in 1875 was elected
chancellor of the University of Glasgow. He
was the author of Annals of the Artists of Spain
(1848) ; The Cloister Life of Charles V. (1852) ;
and Velasquez and His Works (1855).
STIR/LINGSHIRE. A west-midland county
of Scotland, on the border between the High-
lands and the Lowlands of the country, and
bounded on the north by Perthshire, and by the
river and Firth of Forth (Map: Scotland, D 3).
Area, 451 square miles. Much of it is occupied
by the carses of Stirling and Falkirk, formerly
covered with unproductive moss, but now mostly
converted into profitable agricultural lands.
The chief elevation is Ben Lomond (q.v.). The
rivers are the Forth, the Carron, and the End-
rick. Loch Lomond is the only important lake.
Stirlingshire is noted for its minerals, especial-
ly ironstone, which is wrought on an extensive
scale at Carron. Woolen goods are manufactured
at Alva and Bannockburn, and in the neighbor-
hood of Stirling. The capital is Stirling. Popu-
lation, in 1801, 50,800; in 1851, 86,200; in 1901,
142,291.
STITCH’WORT (Stellaria). A genus of an-
nual and perennial plants of the natural order
Caryophylleee, having weak stems and white
flowers, which in some are minute, and in others
are large enough to be ornamental. To this
genus the common chickweed is generally re-
ferred.
STITH, WILLIAM (1689-1755). An American
colonial historian, born in Virginia. He went to
England, studied theology, was ordained priest in
the Established Church, and on his return (1721)
was made master of the Grammar School at Wil-
liam and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va, He won
a distinguished place among the clergymen of the
colony, was chosen chaplain of the House of
Burgesses in 1738, and rector of Henrico Parish
and president of William and Mary College
(1752-55). He is known for his scholarly but
unfinished History of Virginia from the First
Settlement to the Dissolution of the London Com-
pany (1747, reédited with a bibliography 1866).
This work is highly praised for its accuracy and
much blamed for its difiuseness, being, in the
opinion of Jefferson, “inelegant and often too
minute to be tolerable.”
STOA (Gk. o-rod, oroui, a roofed colonnade,
piazza, porch). One of the extended colonnades
surrounding the marketplace and often extending
through the principal streets of Greek cities.
The stoa was always roofed, its main purpose
being that of shelter in bad weather, and its
floor was above the level of the street. At the
back was usually an inclosed wall, and in front
a single or double colonnade facing the street.
Later, when broader spaces were to be roofed,
the stoa became an independent structure.
Sometimes a dividing wall was placed between
the two rows of columns; but the more usual
STOA.
STOCK.
216
form was the stoa diple, in which a row of
columns replaced the dividing. wall. The forms
of the stoa multiplied; two inner rows of col-
umns were often used and additional stories
were added. The stoa originated among the
Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor, whence they were
introduced into Greece. Celebrated examples
were the simple Stoa Poikile (many-colored)
upon the marketplace of Athens, the walls of
which were decorated with scenes from the bat-
tles of Marathon and (Enoe by Polygnotus; the
stoa diple of Thoricos; the three-aisled “Basili-
ca” of Paestum ; and the two-storied stoa of King
Attalus II. at Athens. Stoas were frequently
adorned with statuary and painting.
STOAT. The British name for a weasel (q.v.) .
STOBEYUS, JCANNES (Lat., from Gk.
’Iwd.wns 6 E1-o[-3a2‘os, Ioannes ho Stobaios). A
Greek writer, apparently a native of Stobi, in
Macedonia. The date at which he lived is not
certain, but was probably about A.D. 500. To
him we owe the preservation of a large number
of our fragments of over five hundred early
Greek poets and prose writers. This excerpt
work in four books bore the name Florilegium
' gAr0o7\6'y:ov), but in the course of the Middle
ges was divided into two parts, one of which
is known as the Eclogce, the other as the Flori-
legium. The best critical edition is by
Wachsmuth and H_ense (Berlin, 1884-94) .
STOCK (AS. stocc, OHG. stoc. Ger. Stock,
post, trunk; probably connected with Skt. tuj,
to thrust). ' In corporation law, the rights or
interest which the organizers of a corporation,
or persons who contribute to its capital, have in
its assets, franchises, management, and profits.
The amount fixed by the charter of a corporation
as the sum which is to be paid into its treasury
for use in its business operations is-called the
capital stock. The latter term is sometimes
inaccurately applied to the actual property
owned by a corporation, as the capital stock of
a corporation may not represent its actual
assets, even at the time of its organization. The
total capital stock of a corporation is divided
into shares, which are represented by certificates,
and the latter are distributed to subscribers
according to the amounts of their respective sub-
scriptions. Shares of stock may be made‘of any
value, the par value being fixed by dividing the
number of shares issued into the total amount
of capital stock. The usual par value is $100,
but shares representing other sums, even -so
small.as $1 each, are sometimes issued, espe-
cially in industrial enterprises.. Many States
require stock to be issued at its par value..
Treasury stock is that which is not allotted to
subscribers, but retained by the corporation
for the purpose of selling it from time to time to
raise funds.
Stock may be divided into preferred and com-
mon shares. The amount in dividends which the
former can receive in each year is usually fixed
and certain, and if more is paid as dividend it
' must be paid on the common stock. Preferred
stock may be cumulative or non-cumulative. If
the former, any deficiencies in dividends in one
year must be made up later, before a dividend
can be declared on the common. For example,
if 7 per cent. cumulative preferred stock is is-
sued, and the earnings are only sufficient to pay
5 per cent. on it in a given year, the deficiency
of 2 per cent. must be made up later. If such
stock were non-cumulative, the preferred stock
would only receive 5 per cent. for that year,
even though the earnings the next year were
sufficient to pay 15 per cent. on the amount of
the capital stock, and an 8 per cent. dividend
were declared on the common stock.
The name of each person to whom a share
_of stock is issued is entered upon the books of
the corporation.
Shares of stock are transferable by assign-
ment, and the transferee obtains a right to
have his name _entered upon the books of the
company as a stockholder in the place of his
transferror. However, shares of stock are not
negotiable instruments in the strict sense of
that term, but they are commonly indorsed in
blank and transferred from one person to an-
' other as if such transfer were protected by the
same rules of law. For this reason the courts
in the United States generally protect an inno-
cent purchaser for value, on the ground of
estoppel. The English courts do not go so far
in this respect, and the only safe course there
is for a purchaser of stock to have the transfer
entered on the books of the
immediately. Dividends are paid to the record
owner of stock irrespective of who holds the
certificates. A record owner of stock is called a
stockholder.
Stock Brokers and Stock Ewchanges (New York,
1882) ; also CORPORATIONS and authorities there
cited.
STOCK (so called from its woody stem),
GILLIELCWER, or GILLYFLCWER (M atthiola). A
genus of about thirty species of herbs or half
shrubs of the natural order Cruciferae, natives of
the Mediterranean regions. Most of the species
are thickly clothed with white or grayish stellate
.-Q1


srocx (Matthiola iizcana).
hairs; the fragrant, generally beautiful flow-
ers are in racemes; the pods are cylindrical or
compressed. M atthiola incana, indigenous in
Southern Europe, is probably the parent of the
greater number of the cultivated hoary-leaved
kinds known as Brompton stock, etc., while those
corporation
See Cook, Stock and Stockholders?
(New York, 1887); Dos Passos, The Law of _
STOCK.
STOCK EXCHANGE.
217
with smooth leaves, called ten-week stock, Ger-
man stock, etc., are referred to Matthiola fen-
estralis, which, perhaps, is a mere variety of the
one species M atthiola incana. The sandy shores of
Wales and of Cornwall produce a species (Mat-
thiola sinuata), the large purple flowers of
which are fragrant only at night, a character-
istic also of several other species. Stocks are
generally raised by gardeners from seed. The
hoary-leaved stocks are usually treated, as bien-
nials, although they may almost be reckoned
perennial. The smooth-leaved stocks are treated
as annuals.
STOCKADE. A means of defence consisting
of stakes, logs, timbers, tree trunks, etc., firmly
set in the ground and adjoining each other, and
provided with loop holes through which the fire
of the defenders may be delivered. Stockades
are one of the oldest forms of fortifications, hav-
ing done duty since the time of arrows and
javelins, and are still useful as a protection
against musketry fire under certain circum-
stances, though of course valuelyess when subject
to attack by artillery. As the logs, etc., are
usually considerably higher than a man’s head
and are sharpened on the top, stockades are also
valuable as obstacles and can be defended readily.
It is essential that the logs or timber should be
firmly planted and bound together and reinforced
by horizontal timbers or logs, earth, rails, or
other material at the engineer’s command, while
the loopholes must be advantageously placed.
Stockades may be useful where timber is plenti-
ful, but their construction involves considerable
labor and skillful working of timber. For de-
tails of construction of stockades and other field
defences, consult Beach, Manual of Military Field
Engineering (3d ed., Kansas City, 1897). See
FORTIFICATION.
STOCK’BRIDGE. A North American Indian
tribe. See MAHICAN.
STOCKBRIDGE. A town, including two
villages, in Berkshire County, Mass., 17 miles
south of Pittsfield, on the Berkshire Division of
the New York, New Haven and Hartford Rail-
road (Map: Massachusetts, A 3). It is pictur-
esquely situated in the Berkshire Hills. Note-
worthy features are the Bell Tower, commemo-
rating the early Indian Mission; a fine park, the
gift of Cyrus W. Field; the Edwards Monument,
the Indian Burial Ground, Williams Academy,
and the Jackson Library and Reading Room.
In the vicinity are Ice Glen, a narrow gorge, with
caves whose sides are coated with ice all the
year; Prospect Hill, commanding an extended
view; and Lake Mahkeenac, near which are the
remains of the house where Hawthorne wrote the
House of the Seven Gables and other works. Pop-
ulation, in 1890, 2132; in 1900, 2081.
An Indian mission was established here in
1736, and three years later the place was incor-
porated as a town under its present name (from
Stockbridge, England). Jonathan Edwards was
a missionary here from 1750 to 1758, and here
he wrote his most famous works. In 1785 the
Indians moved to New Stockbridge, N. Y.
Consult: Jones, Stochbridge Past and Present
(Springfield, 1854), and History of Berkshire
County (New York, 1885).
STOCKBRIDGE, HENRY (1822-95). All
American political leader, born at North Had-
ley, Mass. He graduated at Amherst College in
1845 and was admitted to the bar in Maryland
in 1848. He remained loyal to the Union during
the Civil War, and in 1864 became a member of
the State Legislature. He was a member of the
Constitutional Convention which met to decide
the question of the abolition of slavery in the
State, was active in securing the adoption of
the Constitution framed by its members, and
defended it before the courts. It was largely by
his exertions that the indentures of apprentice-
ship, which threatened to take the place of slav-
ery, were omitted from the statutes, and enfran-
chisement secured, without possibility of evasion,
to the negroes of Maryland.
STOCKDOVE (so called either because for-
merly regarded as the parent stock of the domes-
tic pigeons, or because it breeds in the trunks of
trees). A wild pigeon (Columba cenas) , of
Europe, gray, with a burnished metallic purple
breast, scarlet eyes, orange-colored bill, and red
legs. It is about fourteen inches in length.
STOCKER, ste’ker, ADOLF (1835—). A Ger-
man theologian and politician, born in Halber-
stadt. He studied theology and philosophy in
Halle and Berlin, entered the ministry, and in
1874 became cathedral preacher and Court
pastor in Berlin. In 1879 he was elected to
the Prussian Chamber of Deputies, and from
. 1881 till 1893 he was a member of the Reichstag.
During this period he was a leader of the agita-
tion against the Jews. In 1890, because of his
activity as a Socialist agitator, he was removed
by the Emperor from his position as pastor of
the Court. Six years afterwards, with a consid-
erable number of followers, he seceded from the
Conservative Party, to which he had hitherto
belonged, and organized the Christian Socialists.
In 1892 Dr. Stticker became the editor of the
Deutsche euangelische Kirchenzeitung. Among
his published works are: Christlich-Social (1884
and 1890) ; Wach’ auf evangelisches Volh!
(1893); and Dreizehn Jahre Hofprediger und
Politiher (1895).
STOCK EXCHANGE. An institution where
sales and purchases may be made of securities of
corporations and municipalities, and in some cases
of certificates representing commodities of trade,
such as silver bullion, petroleum, etc. In their
origin stock exchanges appear to have been free
to the use of any one whowished to buy or sell,
and it was probably with this function in view
that some of the older exchanges, notably the
Paris Bourse, were located in buildings erected
at the public expense. It was very quickly dis-
covered, however, that in order to enforce bar-
gains some formal organization was necessary. ,
Membership in stock exchanges therefore came
to be limited on the general basis used by clubs
or other associations. As the profits of the use
of the exchange became large possession of a
membership became a valuable privilege.
The London Stock Exchange has for many
generations occupied the most conspicuous place
in the history of finance, for the reason that
transactions on its floor were conducted by the
great aggregation of capital, home and interna-
tional, which made its abiding place in that city.
Originally confining its dealings to British Gov-
ernment stock, the London Exchange became
active, at the opening of the nineteenth century,
in securities of other nations which applied to
STOCK EXCHANGE.
STOCK EXCHANGE.
218
London capitalists for the placing of their public
loans. To this class of securities were later
added railway shares. After 1888 stocks of
incorporated industrial enterprises, and more
recently of mining and exploration companies,
grew into high favor, the Stock Exchange merely
acting as the medium for the transfer of such
shares from the hands of the capitalists behind
the enterprise to those of the general public.
The New York Stock Exchange devoted itself
during most of its history almost exclusively to
securities of railway enterprises, even the dealing
in United States Government bonds and in other
American public securities being chiefly conducted
outside of the Exchange. In recent years, how-
ever, along with the development of the London
movement of industrial incorporation, the New
York Stock Exchange has been largely utilized for
the exploiting of shares of American companies
of this nature. This movement, which flagged
during the hard times of the early nineties,
was renewed in énormous volume during the
great ‘boom’ in trade which followed 1897. In
the course of this time listing of industrial se-
curities on the New York Exchange attracted
an immense business to that branch of its activi-
ties. The New York Stock Exchange has never
dealt to any noteworthy extent in foreign securi-
ties, thereby reflecting the general tendency of
American investors. Even the large purchases
of British consols by American bankers during
the Exchequer’s loan issues of 1900, 1901, and
1902 were disposed of privately, and were never
allowed a place in the formal trading of the
Stock Exchange.
There has been some rather notable diversity
in the business of the New York Exchange and
other American exchanges. For example, the
Philadelphia Stock Exchange has long been
noted as the market for various street railway
securities. This was because Philadelphia cap-
italists had interested themselves particularly in
that form of investment. For similar reasons
the Boston Stock Exchange, though not an or-
ganization which commanded the resources and
capital of New York, monopolized for many
years, and largely controls now, the trading in
shares of copper-mining companies.
Stock exchanges of Continental Europe have
in general devoted themselves to transportation
enterprises of their own countries, to their own
Government’s securities, and to securities of other
European governments which came to those
markets to raise capital. More recently the
stock exchanges of Paris, Berlin, and Vienna
have followed London’s example in taking up
on a large scale shares of incorporated indus-
trial enterprises. This has been particularly
true of Berlin, where the iron industry has been
extensively exploited in this form.
HISTORY. Stock exchanges as an institution
had their origin at the time of the creation of
public debts on the modern plan, at the close
of the seventeenth century. The incorporation
of the East India Company in London further
developed the possibilities of the raising of pub-
lic capital for corporate uses through the me-
dium of stock-exchange trading. In 1720 the
enormous public speculation in the shares of the
South Sea Company in London and of the Mis-
sissippi Company in Paris brought stock-trading
to a height never before conceived of. No city
at that time, however, possessed a stock ex-
change in the sense now attached to the term.
In London transactions in stocks were conducted
through stock brokers, whose headquarters were
at Jonathan’s and Garraway’s Coffee Houses in
’Change Alley. There does not appear to have
been any formal organization among these brok-
ers. Addison in the Spectator speaks humorous-
ly of having been taken for one of their number
by the stock-jobbers at Jonathan’s. The Lon-
don Stock Exchange Building was not erected
until 1801; the Paris Bourse not until 1826.
The New York Stock Exchange membership, even
after it had become a formal organization, con-
ducted its business in hired rooms until Decem-
ber, 1865, when the building was erected on
Broad and Wall Streets, which has been replaced
by the new structure on the same site, dedicated
in April, 1903. The history of stock exchanges
is very largely a mirror of the financial history
of the community in which they are situated.
The New York Stock Exchange rose to a posi-
tion of real prominence only after the Civil War.
Even at that time the fact that it did not deal
in gold as a commodity threw a great part of
the community’s highly speculative business over
to the Gold Exchange, which was formed for
that purpose exclusively. The dramatic inci-
dent of this period was the gold panic on Black
Friday in September, 1869, when a combination
of several unscrupulous speculators, among them
James Fisk, Jr., and Jay Gould, attempted to
corner and put to extravagant figures the gold
supply of the market. Operations on the Stock
Exchange proper at that time were largely made
up of the personal struggles of rival capitalists,
notably in connection with the Erie and New
York Central railroads.
The completion of the Pacific Railway (1869)
caused extensive speculation in shares of the
two transcontinental railways, and as capital
increased and the railway mileage of the country
extended the transactions of the Exchange be-
came of a national rather than provincial char-
acter. The leading operators of that time were
Gould, Fisk, Daniel Drew, Cornelius Vanderbilt,
and their associates. None of the capitalists
named was accustomed to trade personally on the
Stock Exchange; indeed, such a practice has al-
ways been the rare exception among active
financiers.
The crisis of 1873 was felt in its full force
on the New York Stock Exchange, which was
obliged to close for two days at the height of
the panic in order to stem the tide of liquida-
tion in securities. With the great trade revival
which followed the resumption of specie pay-
ments and the profitable grain harvests of 1879
the New York Stock Exchange entered upon a pe-
riod of renewed activity. During the year 1880,
which marked the climax of the ‘boom’ of that
period, trading on the Exchange reached an enor-
mous volume, and the value of seats in the Stock
Exchange rose to an unprecedented figure. In
1881, when a reaction in the tide of prosperity
began, the New York Stock Exchange reflected
the change by a contraction in the volume of
business done and by an extensive fall in prices.
Speculation by the general public was again rife
in 1882, but was checked with great violence by
the sudden fall in railway and industrial profits
at the close of the year. The severe reaction of
1883 was followed by the panic of May, 1884,
STOCK EXCHANGE.
STOCK EXCHANGE.
219
in which half a dozen Stock Exchange houses
failed and two important banks were compelled
to close their doors.
The period from 1886 to 1888 inclusive was
chiefly marked by the large issues of securities
to provide funds for the very extensive railway
building then in progress. There were several
excited markets on the Stock Exchange, though
the tendency at the close of the period was
toward depression of values, largely because of
the enormous creation of new securities. The
year 1890 was again marked by great activity
and rising prices on the Stock Exchange. This
‘boom’ was checked by the Baring panic of No-
vember, 1890, in London, which was reflected by
a prompt recall of English capital from the
United Sates, and by a New York Stock Ex-
change panic, in the course of which two or three
broker houses failed. From then until the out-
break of the more serious panic of 1893, a shrink-
age in business was the chief characteristic of
the New York Stock Exchange’s history.
The panic of 1893 was in many respects one
of the most dramatic episodes in the Stock
Exchange history. There was, at one time dur-
ing July of that year, talk of repeating the
expedient of 1873 and closing the Exchange.
This turned out to be unnecessary, as foreign
capital came to the market’s relief in the mo-
ment of emergency. The following year, 1894,
was a period of great depression, when the vol-
ume of Stock Exchange business fell»to the lowest
point since 1878. Recovery followed in 1895,
when foreign capital was again commanded in
connection with the international syndicate to
float the United States Government’s bond issue
and protect the Treasury gold reserve. A panic
of smaller proportions swept over the Stock
Exchange at the close of this year, in connec-
tion with the collapse of the protective opera-
tions and the international clash between Amer-
ica and Great Britain over Venezuela. The two
ensuing years were chiefly characterized by the
reorganization of the great number of important
railways which had failed during 1893 and 1894,
and whose new securities, largely increased in
quantity, were placed through the medium of
the Stock Exchange in 1896 and 1897.
The financial revival which began at the close
of the last-named year introduced a new epoch
in the history of the New York Stock Exchange
——an epoch in all respects the most remarkable
of its history. Supply of American capital avail-
able for investment purposes seemed suddenly
to have become unlimited—largely because of
the country’s immensely profitable harvests at
a time of European famine, but also on account
of a wholly unprecedented increase in our general
export trade, in manufactures as Well as in agri-
cultural products, which gave to our markets a
command over foreign capital which they had
never before possessed. This increase in capital
was made use of by promoters of all kinds of
enterprises, and their shares found active re-
ception on the Stock Exchange. A highly excited
movement for the rise at the opening of 1899
converged chiefly on shares of industrial com-
panies organized to buy up independent plants.
Checked by the excess of the speculators and by
an industrial reaction during the Presidential
contest of 1900, this movement was renewed with
immense force at the opening of 1901. At that
time all precedents of every kind in Stock Ex-
Von. XVI.-15.
change history were broken. Where, a few years
before, transactions of 200,000 shares a day had
been regarded as constituting a large market
and half a million shares as a day of extreme
activity, scarcely a day now elapsed in which
the volume of business did not run from one to
two million shares, culminating on April 30,
1901, in transactions of 3,200,000 shares. Prices
in the meantime were advancing at a rate which
brought the entire financial public into the field
as a speculator. The real force underlying the
movement was the purchase of stock companies
by other companies which pledged their credit to
raise the funds requisite to provide for the pur-
chase. This movement culminated in the famous
Northern Pacific corner of May 9, 1901, when
the efforts of two rival groups of capitalists to
get hold of that railroad property forced its
shares to the price of $1000, the stock having
never touched $100 until three weeks before.
Apprehension that operators who were unable
to deliver stock which they had pledged would
be dealt with summarily, caused one of the most
violent collapses of values in the Stock Ex-
change’s history. Recovery was prompt, and
both 1901 and 1902 were characterized by nu-
merous sensational movements for the advance,
the second of those years scoring as a rule the
higher values. In general, however, it was recog-
nized that high-water mark in Stock Exchange
activity had been reached. In the autumn of
1901 and in the fall of 1902 and the early part
of 1903 severe reaction in values supervened.
The noteworthy characteristic of the period
was the employment of enormously wealthy syn-
dicates to sustain prices for the newly issued
shares on the Stock Exchange until the public
could be induced to buy. Such syndicates were
remunerated at first by large allotments of stock
and later by heavy cash payments, the syndicate
formed in March, 1901, to ‘underwrite’ the bil-
lion-dollar stock issued by the United States
Steel Corporation to take up the shares of other
steel and iron combinations, pledging itself, in
case of necessity, to advance $200,000,000 capital
for the purpose. The stock issue worked out so
successfully, however, that only a small fraction
of the guarantee was called for, and two years
later the original capital subscribed was re-
turned to subscribers, with an additional cash
allotment sufficient to raise profits to 200 per
cent. A second syndicate, formed in 1902 to
underwrite a $50,000,000 bond issue by the same
corporation and the conversion of $200,000,000
of its stock into bonds, fared less fortunately,
being obliged to perform the whole of its guar-
antee at a time of falling prices. In the spring
of 1903 it was generally recognized that the
extensive employment of the syndicate under-
writing plan had ‘tied up’ immense amounts of
capital which were usually available in the gen-
eral market. The investing public having
bought very sparingly and the syndicate bank-
ing interests being unable to support prices, a
very severe and general decline on the Stock
Exchange ensued.
VOLUME or Busmnss. Stock exchanges keep
no official record of transactions on their floor.
In New York such records are carefully kept
by unofficial chroniclers; but as this is not done
in London or on the Continent, comparison
is impossible. It is safe to say, however, that
in recent years the volume of business done
STOCK EXCHANGE.
STOCK EXCHANGE.
220
on the New York Stock Exchange has far ex-
ceeded that transacted in any other institution
of the world. Following is the unofficial record
of sales in that institution during a series of
years:
ments have, however, been allowed since 1885
to obtain a place in what was called the ‘un-
listed department.’ Since stocks in this depart-
ment enjoy all the facilities of ‘listed stocks,’
the discrimination has been entirely futile. List-



Stocks Corlgggzglon Gogeggégent State Bonds
1902 ...... .. $188,503,000 $87 9, 749,000 $1, 378,000 $3,67 5,000
1901 265,944,000 994,235,000 1, 892,000 2, 502,000
1900 ........ .. 138,380,000 569,159,000 7,012,000 2,082,000
1899 ........................ .. 176,421,000 826,711,000 10,582,000 2,013,000
1898.. ......................... .. 112,699,000 888,747,000 24,581,000 3,642,000
1897 . 77,324,000 529 ,843,000 10, 394, 000 2, 004,000
1896 54,654,000 363, 158,000 26,494,000 2, 284,000
1895 .. 66,583,000 499,758,000 7 .480,000 5,583,000
1894 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49,075,000 339,950,000 4,345,000 10,929,000
1893 ...... .. 80,977,000 351,854,450 2,143,000 3,792,000


METHOD or BUsINEss. Stock exchanges as
at present constituted are limited in member-
ship and governed by strict rules which cover
both methods of business, rates of commission
to be charged, and conduct on the floor. The
rules governing methods of business in New
York prescribe a minimum commission of one-
eighth of one per cent. on the face value of
securities purchased for outside customers, one
thirty-second of one per cent. for purchases
made on account of fellow members, and one-
fiftieth of one per cent. for purchases made on
the order of another member on the floor.
In London commissions vary from ls. per
hundred to 2s. 6d. per hundred, according to
the nature of the security. The Paris agents de
change charge one-fourth of one per cent. In
New York the Stock Exchange member may
both transact business on the floor of the Stock
Exchange and solicit business from outside cus-
tomers. In London these functions are divided
between the two functionaries known as ‘jobber’
and ‘broker,’ which correspond roughly to the
divisions in other English professions, as, for
instance, the barrister and solicitor in law.
Members of the London Stock Exchange are for-
bidden to advertise; New York Stock Exchange
houses advertise freely. Agents de change in
Paris are forbidden to solicit outside business.
Acceptance of a bid or offer of stock makes
the transaction official on a stock exchange and
binds each participant to the fulfillment of his
bargain. Stocks thus sold must be delivered to
the buyer by 2:15 P.M. of the ensuing day. The
New York Stock Exchange practices daily set-
tlement of such accounts. In London settle-
ments are made fortnightly, the bargain being
carried for the account, that is to say, on credit,
during the intervening period.
No security may be dealt in on the Stock
Exchange which has not been formally ‘listed’
by the committee. In New York a statement of
the company’s condition, with a balance-sheet,
is required before listing; also proof that proper



Stocks Bonds
1902 .................................. .. $533,519,300 $784,032,595
1901 .................................. .. 923,010,100 1,642,013, 715
1900 443,713,000 620,935,000
1899 ................................. .. 525,384,240 704,172,605
1898 .. .... .. 700,064,680 528,153,996
1895 .................................. .. 257,275,450 143,373,900

facilities for transfer and registry of shares
have been provided, and that with bonds the
mortgage has been properly drawn and recorded.
Corporations unwilling to make public state-

ings on the New York Stock Exchange in recent
years have been as shown in the preceding table,
60 to 70 per cent. being securities issued to re-
place others formerly listed.
MEMBERSHIP PRICES AND RULES. With the
limitation of stock exchange membership title
to a seat in the exchange becomes valuable prop-
erty. In New York the price of Stock Exchange
seats has fluctuated with great irregularity. In
1879 their price was $9000 ; they rose to $20,000
in 1881, and to $37,000 in 1883, but by 1893 had
declined to $15,250. From that price they grad-
ually recovered, and in the recent great activity
of business reached unprecedented figures. Dur-
ing the ‘boom’ of May, 1901, they sold for
$66,000, and subsequently, in 1902, went as high
as $84,000. The price at the opening of 1903
was $80,000. Ownership of a New York Stock
Exchange seat does not necessarily imply the
privilege of the floor; for that the owner must
apply in due form to the committee on admis-
sions. In the London Stock Exchange applicants
for admission must be recommended by three
members of at least four years’ standing, who
pledge themselves to the extent of £500 apiece
to reimburse his creditors in case of his default
within four years. If he is of foreign birth he
must have been two years naturalized. In Paris,
where the number of agents de change is limited
to sixty, an applicant must be proposed by his
predecessor or that predecessor’s heirs, and must
be approved by the governing committee and the
Minister of Finance. ‘
Sroox EXCHANGE SEAT As PRoPERTY. Owing
to the peculiar personal nature of a member’s
rights and privileges, the exact legal status of a
seat as a property right is not settled in all
jurisdictions. By the general weight of author-
ity, however, a seat may be considered as a
species of incorporeal property held subject to
such rules and regulations as may be adopted
by the exchange. This gives a seat an anomalous
position in the law of property because of the
qualified and restricted character of an owner’s
rights. As it cannot be transferred except with
the consent of the exchange, and to a person
acceptable to the latter, it is held that it cannot
be seized and sold upon an execution, but it
seems settled in most jurisdictions where the
question has arisen that a receiver appointed in
proceedings supplementary to execution may ap-
ply to the court for an order requiring the judg-
ment debtor to arrange for a transfer of his seat
to a person acceptable to the exchange, and
apply the proceeds to the satisfaction of the
judgment. This may also be done by a judgment
STOCK EXCHANGE.
STOCK EXCHANGE.
221
creditor’s bill in some jurisdictions. Thus, it
will be seen that the courts do not assume to
proceed against the seat itself, but attain the
desired end through their power over the debtor.
The United States Supreme Court has held that
the rights of a member to his seat in an ex-
change pass to his assignee in bankruptcy, and
the latter may take such steps as may be neces-
sary to compel the bankrupt to procure a transfer
of his seat subject to the rules of the exchange.
By the rules of probably all exchanges the claims
of members must be first satisfied upon the sale
of a seat. A seat cannot be bequeathed or de-
vised by will, nor is it strictly descendible, as
the person to whom it might be thus given or
descend might not be acceptable to the exchange;
but the rules generally provide for the sale of a
seat on the death of a member, an application
of the proceeds to any claims the other members
may have against the deceased, and a distribu-
tion of the proceeds to his personal representa-
tives. The courts are loth to interfere with any
reasonable rules and regulations of a stock ex-
change and with any action it may take to
maintain discipline or enforce its rules, and
their aid could probably only be invoked in cases
of gross fraud or imposition upon a member.
DISCIPLINE. Strict discipline over the conduct
of members is maintained by all the larger ex-
changes. The penalty is suspension from the
privileges of the exchange for a given period or
expulsion in the case of serious offense. On
the New York Stock Exchange these penalties
may be imposed for fictitious sales, for trifling
bids, for acceptance of smaller commissions than
those prescribed by the Exchange, and for
‘obvious fraud.’ More recently discipline has
larger total business than the Bourse itself, ex-
cept, perhaps, in Government securities. At
present the Coulisse conducts its operations on
the portico of the Bourse and is a recognized
institution. 1n New York curb trading devotes
itself exclusively to securities which have not
been admitted to the list of the Stock Exchange.
In this category are comprised many very im-
portant enterprises, including shares of the
Standard Oil Company and of the various banks.
The curb also provides a market for newly or-
ganized enterprises which have not reached a
stage where they can apply for a place on the
Stock Exchange list, and it gives an opportunity
for fixing values of a forthcoming security be-
fore the share or bond certificates are formally
issued. In the conversions of the United States
Steel Corporation stock, for instance, the shares
and bonds were bought and sold ‘when, as, and
if issued’ on the curb, and on these terms their
values fluctuated in some cases 14 or 15 points
before the security itself ever legally existed.
There is no restriction of the right to deal in
the ‘curb’ market, but in practice its privileges
are limited to regular and responsible parties,
whose position or credit is known to the other
party to a bargain. -
Sroox EXCHANGE CLEARING Housn. In recent
years the system of ‘clearing’ stock exchange
transactions, on the plan of the bank clearing
house, has been generally adopted by stock ex-
changes. As introduced on the New York Ex-
change in 1892, the system provides for the
offsetting of securities which a broker has con-
tracted to deliver by an equivalent amount of
the same securities which he may have contracted
to receive. Thus, if broker A has sold 1000
been exercised for dealing with a rival exchange ‘New York Central shares to B and bought 1000
contrary to the regulations of the member’s own
exchange, and for questionable business conduct
outside of the exchange. In London the same
penalties are made applicable on the general
ground of failure to comply with the commit-
tee’s decision or of dishonorable and disgraceful
conduct. The rules of the Paris Bourse prescribe
penalties in case the member “does not confine
himself strictly to his duties” or “introduces in-
jurious innovations.”
CURB TRADING. An institution which has
grown to considerable proportions in recent years
has been the so-called ‘curb trading,’ so named
because the transactions are usually conducted
on the street outside the entrance to the stock ,
exchange. In London, Paris, and New York
this trading has at times reached very large
proportions, though the system which it repre-
sents is radically difierent in the three cities. In
London curb trading is utilized for the sake of
dealing in foreign shares whose home market is
open after the official closing of the London
Exchange. For example, trading in American
securities is conducted in Shorter’s Court, behind
the London Stock Exchange, frequently until 6
P.M. or later, the New York Stock Exchange, on
account of the five hours’ difference in time,
being actively at work at that hour. In Paris
the curb market, under its French title of the
‘Coulisse,’ has had a longer history. It has
represented virtually a rival exchange, not sub-
ject to the numerous and rather vexatious lim-
itations of the older Bourse. The Coulisse has
frequently been suppressed by law, but has in-
variably revived, and has probably conducted a
of the same shares from C, the two transactions
are settled by the delivery of 1000 shares by C to
B. The price may be different in the two
transactions, but such differences are adjusted
by the clearing house, to which the broker is
‘debtor’ or ‘creditor’ on his daily sheet. The
same principle is followed even where the
amount's bought and sold do not agree. Thus A,
in the above case, may have sold only 500 shares
to B and bought 1000 from C. In that case C
delivers 500 shares to A and 500 to B, and pay-
ment is made accordingly. The economy consists
in the lessening of the number of individual
checks which must be drawn for settlement, and
against which bank balances must be maintained.
Supposing the price of New York Central, in the
transactions last described, to have been 100,
the old plan of individual deliveries would have
necessitated drawing of checks, for settlement,
in the total amount of $150,000. The clearing-
house plan requires only $100,000. The aggre-
gate saving in checks drawn, during an ordinary
year, has exceeded $500,000,000.
The plan was adopted by the Frankfort Stock
Exchange in 1867, at Berlin in 1869, at Ham-
burg in 1870, at Vienna in 1873, at London in
1876, and by various American stock exchanges
between 1880 and 1887.
Srocx EXCHANGE TERMS. The stock exchange
has a dialect or slang of its own, many of the
terms in which had their origin at the time
of the South Sea speculation in 1720. A ‘bull’
is a buyer of stocks which he hopes to sell at
higher prices. He may buy altogether with his
own capital; but if he is merely a stock exchange
I
STOCK EXCHANGE.
STOGKHOLM.
222
speculator, he borrows most of the requisite
funds, depositing the purchased stock as security.
He can usually borrow 80 per cent. of the cost
value of his shares the difference, 20 per cent.,
being his ‘margin.’ If the price falls, the lender
calls on him to ‘make good his margin.’ If he
fails to do so, and the margin continues ‘im-
paired,’ he is ‘closed out’ by the sale of his col-
lateral. A ‘boom’ is a successful upward move-
ment of prices; this term is of American origin.
The opposite of a ‘boom,’ in stock exchange
phraseology, is a ‘slump.’ The ‘bear’ is a seller
of stocks which he hopes to obtain, later on,
at lower prices. He may be selling his own
holdings and delivering them to the purchaser.
But if a speculator, he may borrow stocks as the
‘bull’ borrows money. Generally he obtains the
stocks by lending their equivalent in money to
the owner. He is said to be ‘short’ of stocks,
where the bull is ‘long.’ The bull ‘realizes’
when he sells to take his profits; similarly, the
bear ‘covers’ when he buys on the market the
stock in which he has been speculating, and re-
turns the shares which he has borrowed. Stocks
are said to be ‘carried’ when they are accepted
as security from a bull speculator. A ‘manipu-
lated’ market is one in which speculators have
caused an artificial appearance of real buying or
selling. A ‘rigged’ market is much the same
thing, though in a more intensified form. ‘Puts’
are contracts sold at a fixed percentage by
capitalists to bull speculators, whereby the capi-
talist undertakes to pay a set price for a given
number of shares within a stipulated time. This
insures the speculator against more than a cer-
tain amount of loss if he buys stocks. ‘Calls’ are
contracts similarly sold by capitalists, who agree
of a small number of shares aggregating less
than the majority. Among the rights of a stock-
holder are: the right to protest and invoke the
aid of the courts against a misuse of the funds of
the corporation, or against fraud by the ma-
jority stockholders or the officers; to object to a
change in the kind of business which the charter
authorizes it to carry on; the right to inspect
all or any of the books of the corporation at rea-
sonable times and places; and to receive divi-
dends out of the earnings, when a surplus has
accumulated, which is not needed for running the
business, or for improvements. In many States
a stockholder is only liable for the debts of the
corporation to the amount of his stock, that is,
he only loses what he has paid in, assuming he
has paid in the par value of his stock, in case of
insolvency of the corporation. If a subscriber to
the stock of a corporation has not paid in the
full par value of the amount of stock subscribed
for by him, creditors of the corporation may hold
him for the balance remaining unpaid. A stock-
holder is not strictly a creditor of the corpora-
tion to the amount of his stock, as he is deferred
to corporate creditors,on a final distribution of
assets; but he may become a creditor by a loan
of money or sale of goods, and thus stand on an
equal footing with the others as to such claims,
in most jurisdictions. See Conronarron; STOCK;
and consult authorities there referred to.
STOCKHOLM, st(“>k’holm. The capital of
Sweden, situated at the outlet of the Miilar Lake
into the Baltic Sea, in latitude 59° 20’ N., longi-
tude 18° 3' E. (Map: Sweden, H 7). The
situation is extremely picturesque, the city being
built partly on a number of islands, partly on
peninsulas cut off from the mainland by deep
Within a given time, and at a set Price: to ‘fiords, while the waterways both toward the
deliver the shares agreed upon to the speculator.
This is a guarantee against losses on a falling
market. Both sorts of contracts are classified as
‘privileges.’ ‘Wash sales’ are transactions in
which buyer and seller are employed by the same
person, with a view to creating a semblance of
activity. They are prohibited under severe pen-
alties by the stock exchanges, but are‘ rarely
detected and are very frequently utilized.
STOCKHOLDER. In the strict sense of the
term, a person who owns one or more shares
of stock in a corporation, and who has
been recognized by the latter as having the
rights commonly incidental to such ownership.
Entry of a person’s name on the books of a cor- ,
poration as the owner of stock is the best evi-
dence of his standing as a stockholder, and as
long as his name remains there he may gen-
erally exercise all a stockholder’s privileges.
However, a person to whom shares of stock have
been transferred, but whose name has not yet
been entered on the books, is sometimes treated
as if he were a stockholder and spoken of as
such. A corporation is protected in paying divi-
dends to a person whose name remains on its
books as a stockholder, even if he has transferred
his shares of stock, provided the purchaser has
not given notice of that fact. A stockholder of
record has the right to vote in certain meetings,
the most important of which, perhaps, is one for
the election of oflicers. Each stockholder may
vote the number of shares he owns, and thus one
person owning the majority of the stock of a cor-
poration may control its elections and policy
against the wishes of a great number of holders
Mtilar and toward the sea lead through laby-
rinths of fiords and islands. Stockholm has been
called the ‘Venice of the North,’ but its aspect is
entirely different from that of Venice. Both the
islands and the mainland are rocky and hilly,
with granite knolls exposed on all sides, while a
primeeval forest penetrates almost to the heart of
the -city. The old nucleus, known as Staden
(The City), is built on an island lying across the
mouth of the Miilar channel, and connected by
bridges with the northern and southern shores
and with the little Riddarholm (knight’s island)
on the west. It has narrow streets falling steep-
ly on all sides from the central Stortorget.
Skeppholmen, to the east of Staden, is almost
wholly occupied by military and naval depots.
The remaining parts of the city, Siidermalm on
the south shore, Norrmalm and Oestermalm on
the north shore, and Kungsholmen in the north-
west, are for the most part regularly laid out
with broad and straight streets. Here are also
a number of handsome squares, parks, and prome-
nades, such as the Gustaf Adolfs Torg, with an
equestrian statue of Gustavus Adolphus, the
Kungstrtidsgtird on the water front with a hand-
some fountain, and the Humlegéird, a large and
beautiful pleasure garden, containing a colossal
bronze statue of Linnaeus. From Oestermalm a
bridge leads to the easternmost part of the city-
an island about two miles long and three-fourths
of a mile wide, known as Djurgérrden from its
having formerly been a deer park. It is now
laid out as a city park.
The principal churches are the Storkyrka
(great church), founded in the thirteenth cen-I
STOCKHOLM.
STOCKTON.
223
tury, rebuilt in the eighteenth and restored in
1892; the Riddarholms Kyrka, a Gothic struc-
ture with a perforated iron spire 290 feet high, and
the burial place of Swedish kings; the Tyska
Kyrka (German Church), a German Renaissance
building of the seventeenth century; and the con-
spicuous Katarina Kyrka crowning the heights
of Stidermalm. The royal palace, on the north-
eastern corner of the Stadsholm, was begun in
1697 in the Italian Renaissance style, and is a
large and beautiful rectangular building with
four wings inclosing a quadrangle. At the west-
ern end of the island stands the Riddarhus
(knight’s house), containing portraits and armo-
rial bearings of Swedish nobles. Noteworthy also
are the new opera house, finished in 1898; the
handsome Renaissance building of the National
Museum, built in 1850-66, opposite the royal
palace on the Blasieholm; and the large and im-
posing new building of the Northern Museum,
begun in 1898, in the Djurgéird.
Although Stockholmn has no university, it has
numerous establishments for higher technical
and popular education and an excellent elemen-
tary school system. The Royal Library had in
1899 381,900 volumes and 11,000 manuscripts.
There are the National Museum, containing fine art
collections and a collection of Swedish antiqui-
ties; the Northern Museum (Nordiska Museet)
for Scandinavian ethnology and archaeology; a
museum'of natural history; a biological museum
showing groups of Scandinavian mammals in
their natural surroundings; an astronomical ob-
servatory; and numerous scientific and literary
associations, the principal of which are the
Swedish Academy, the Academy of Sciences, and
the Academy of Fine Arts, History, and Archae-
ology.
Stockholm is the largest industrial centre of
Sweden next to Goteborg. There are iron foun-
dries and machine shops, breweries, sugar and
cotton mills, and tobacco factories, and manu-
factures of furniture, soap, food products, and
miscellaneous articles, while shipbuilding is also
carried on. The city ranks first among Swedish
ports in the value of imports, and third in ex-
ports; the imports in 1897 amounted to $3,307,-
520, and the exports to $866,680. The chief ex-
ports are iron and timber. In 1900 the ship-
ping at the port amounted to 2255 entries and
clearings with a total of 964,367 tons, but in
the number and tonnage of its home vessels the
city is exceeded by Goteborg. The approaches to
the harbor are intricate and rendered somewhat
dangerous by rocky reefs, but the harbor itself
is good and provided with dry docks and exten-
sive wharfage accessible for large ships. Up to
1895 the harbor was closed by ice about twenty-
five days in the year, but recently a new ice-
breaker has been put into service to keep it open.
The city is, in general, very progressive in the
matter of public works. The population in-
creased slowly during the first half of the nine-
teenth century, having been 75,000 in 1780 and
93,000 in 1850. In 1890 it was 246,454, and in
1901 303,356.
Stockholm was founded in 1255 by Birger J arl,
and was for centuries confined to the Stadsholm
and Riddarholm, which were fortified. It was
several times besieged and taken by Danish
armies, and its wooden buildings were often de-
stroyed by fire until they were supplanted by
stone structures. In 1520 the city was the scene
of the ‘Stockholm Blood Bath,’ when the Danish
King Christian 11., in order to strengthen his
position in Sweden, had a large number of
Swedish nobles decapitated on the Stortorg. Con-
sult Wattenbach, Stockholm, ein Blick auf
Schwedens Hauptstadt (Berlin, 1875).
STOCKING FRAME. See KNITTING.
STOCKINGS. See HOSIERY.
STOCK’PORT. A manufacturing town in
Cheshire, England, on the Mersey, at the junc-
tion of its main feeders, 6% miles southeast of
Manchester (Map: England, D 3). Its pros-
perity is of modern date. The streets lie on the
slopes of a narrow gorge, and are irregular and
occasionally precipitous; to the south they rise
in terraces above the river. The principal build-
ings are the court-house, market hall, mechanics’
institute, infirmary, and the institution for the
blind, deaf, and dumb. The free grammar school
was founded and endowed in 1487. The town
possesses seven fine parks, the chief of which is
Vernon Park, which contains a museum. Stock-
port owns an electric lighting plant, street rail-
ways, sewage works, gas, water supply, and mar-
kets. It has extensive manufactures of
cottons, woolens, silks, machinery, brass and
iron goods, shuttles, and brushes. Population,
in 1881, 59,544; in 1891, 70,263; in 1901, 78,871.
STOCKS. An apparatus of wood, much used
in former times for the punishment of petty of-
fenders. The culprit was placed on a bench,
with his ankles fastened in holes under a movable
board, and allowed to remain there for an hour
or two. The period of the first introduction of
the stocks in England is uncertain, but in the
second statute of laborers, 25 Edward III.
(1350) , provision is made for applying the stocks
to unruly artificers. Combined with the stocks
was often a whipping-post for the flagellation of
vagrants. The use of stocks was general in the
English colonies of North America and was em-
ployed frequently for the punishment of common
scolds.
STOCK'TON. The county-seat of San Joaquin
County, Cal., 78 miles east by north of San Fran-
cisco; on an arm of the San Joaquin River, at
the head of navigation, and on the Atchison,
Topeka and Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific
railroads (Map: California, C 3). It is in a region
noted for its great natural beauty and equable cli-
mate and is very attractive. The State Hospital
for the Insane is here, and there are also a public
library with over 36,500 volumes, the San Joaquin
County Law Library, Saint Mary’s College, and
Saint Agnes Academy. The county court-house,
constructed at a cost of $300,000, the high school
($150,000), the post-oflice, county jail, opera
house, Masonic Temple, Saint Joseph’s Home,
and the County and the Pacific hospitals, are also
noteworthy features. In addition to possessing
large grain, live stock, and fruit interests, Stock-
ton has considerable industrial importance. Agri-
cultural machinery and implements, flour, foun-
dry products, window glass, lumber, leather,
beer, fuel briquettes, canned goods, and woolens
constitute the leading manufactures. The gov-
ernment, under the charter of 1889, is vested in
a mayor, chosen biennially, and a unicameral
council. Stockton was founded in 1849 by
Charles M. Weber, the owner of a large Mexi-
can grant, and was named in honor of Robert
STOCKTON.
STODDARD.
224
Field Stockton, of the United States Navy, who
took possession of California for the United
States. In its early days it was the starting
and outfitting point for miners bound for Cala-
veras, Tuolumne, and Mariposa counties. Popu-
lation, in 1890, 14,424; in 1900, 17,506.
STOCKTON, FRANGIS RIGHARD (1834-1902).
A popular American writer of humorous tales,
born in Philadelphia. In early life he was a
wood-engraver and designer, in which capacity
he contributed pictures to periodicals. Mean-
while he busied himself also with literary and
journalistic work. He was first employed on the
Philadelphia Morning Post, and in 1872 gave up
designing definitively to join the New York
Hearth and H ome. Soon he joined the staff of
the Century M agaeine (then Scribner’s Monthly)
and in 1873 was made assistant editor of the
newly founded magazine for children, the Saint
Nicholas, remaining here till about 1880. He
was a prolific writer. His books for children in-
clude: Ting-a-Ling Stories (1870); Roundabout
Rambles (1872); What Might Have Been Ew-
pected (1874); Tales Out of School (1875); A
Jolly Fellowship (1880); The Floating Prince
(1881); The Story of Viteau (1884); and Per-
sonally Conducted (1889). Even more numerous
are his longer works; they are well known for
the agreeable impossibility of the situations they
narrate. The chief are: Rudder Grange (1879),
which brought him into prominence; The Lady or
the Tiger? (1884), perhaps his most popular
story; The Late Mrs. Null (1886); The Christ-
mas Wreck (1886); The Casting Away of Mrs.
Leeks and Mrs. Aleshine (1886); The Bee-Man
of Orn (1887); The Hundredth Man (1887);
The Dusantes (1888) ; Amos Kilbright (1888);
The Great War Syndicate (1889); The Stories
of Three Burglars (1889); The Merry Chanter
(1890) ; Ardis Claverden (1890) ; The House of
Martha (1891); The Squirrel Inn (1891); The
Clocks of Rondaine (1892); The Watehmakeris
Wife (1893); The Adventures of Captain Horn
(1895) ; The Great Stone of Sardis (1897) ; The
Girl at Cobhurst (1898); Afloat and Ashore
(1900) ; and The Captain’s Toll-Gate, with
memoir by his wife (1903). In the character of
his humor Stockton stands alone. His situations
are whimsical and his characters grotesque;
usually, however, the eccentricity is not merely
superficial, and the story, quietly rather than
boisterously amusing, and told with apparent
sincerity, produces an illusion that pleasingly
conceals its absurd premises and its logical
though equally absurd conclusions.
STOCKTON, RICHARD (1730-81). An Ameri-
can lawyer, and a signer of the Declaration of
Independence. He was born near Princeton, N. J .,
graduated at the College of New Jersey
(Princeton) in 1748, was admitted to
the bar in 1754, visited England in 1766-
67, where he made the acquaintance of many
distinguished men, and in 1774 became a judge
of New J ersey’s Supreme Court. He at first ad-
vocated a reconciliation between the colonies and
England, and in December, 1774, wrote to Lord
Dartmouth, proposing a scheme of colonial self-
government; but he soon began to take an active
part in the opposition to the British Ministry
and as a member of Congress in 1776 voted for
and signed the Declaration of Independence. In
September, 1776, he was sent by Congress, with
George Clymer of Pennsylvania, to inspect the
northern army.
STOCKTON, ROBERT FIELD (1795-1866). An
American naval officer, grandson of Richard
Stockton (q.v.). He was born at Princeton, N. J .,
studied for a time at Princeton, and in 1811
became a midshipman in the United States
Navy. He joined Commodore Rodgers on the
frigate President in 1812, was for a time an aide
to the Secretary of the Navy, took part in the
defense of Baltimore, and was promoted to be
lieutenant in September, 1814. In 1815 he dis-
tinguished himself in the Algerine War on board
the Spitfire. He returned to the United States
in command of the Erie in 1821, and in the
fall of the same year sailed in the Alligator for
the African coast, where he negotiated success-
fully for the land upon which the American
Colonization Society founded Liberia (q.v.).
During the early part of the Mexican War he
commanded the Pacific Squadron. To his energy,
and that of General Frémont, with whom he co-
operated, was largely due the success of the
American operations on the coast. He captured
Los Angeles and San Diego, fought several bat-
tles, organized a civil government for California,
and installed Frémont as Governor, relinquish-
ing the command to Shubrick in 1847. He re-
signed from the navy in 1850, and was a United
States Senator from New Jersey in 1851-53.
Having resigned in 1853, he was for some time
president of the Delaware and Raritan Canal
Company. Consult Life and Speeches of Robert
Field Stockton (1856).
STOCKTON-ON-TEES. A seaport in the
County of Durham, England, 11 miles east-north-
east of Darlington, on the left bank of the Tees
(Map: England, E 2) . The broad and handsome
High Street is nearly a mile in length. A new
town known as South Stockton has sprung up on
the right bank of the river, the two being con-
nected by an iron bridge of three arches, built in
1887. Shipbuilding, chiefly in iron, is carried
on; and blast furnaces, foundries, engine works,
extensive potteries, and iron works are in opera-
tion. Sailcloth, ropes, and linen are manufac-
tured; and there are corn mills and spinning mills.
At Stockton the Tees is navigable for vessels of
large tonnage. The moated Norman castle,
long an episcopal residence, was taken for
the Parliament in 1644, and totally destroyed by
the Roundheads in 1652. At the Restoration it
had become so poor a place that it contained only
120 houses. Its growth and prosperity date from
the development of the iron and steel industry.
The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first
to commence the conveyance of passengers and
goods, was opened September 27, 1825. Popula-
tion, in 1891, 49,700; in 1901, 51,500.
STOD'DARD, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1833—).
An American Presbyterian clergyman, born in
Boston, Mass. He was educated at Williams
College, at the University of Edinburgh, at the
Seminary of the True Church of Scotland, and
at the Union Theological Seminary, where he
graduated in 1859. He was pastor of the Wash-
ington Heights Presbyterian Church, New York
City, until 1893. In 1869 he became connected
with the New York Observer, and in 1885 suc-
ceeded Samuel 1. Prime as editor. His publica-
tions include: Across Russia from the Baltic to
the Danube (*1891); Spanish Cities, with
STODDARD.
STOICS.
225
Glimpses of Gibraltar and Tangier (1892); and
other books of travel.
STODDARD, CHARLES WARREN (1843—).
An American traveler and author, born at
Rochester, N. Y. As a youth he was in business
in San Francisco, Cal., and in 1864 visited the
Hawaiian Islands, where he subsequently lived for
long periods. He traveled much about the world
from 1873 to 1878 as correspondent of the San
Francisco Chronicle. In 1885 and 1886 he was
professor of English at Notre Dame College,
Ind., then spent some time in travel, and became
lecturer on English literature in the Catholic
University at Washington, D. C. His books were
chiefly poetry and sketches of travel, and in-
clude: Poems (1867) ; South Sea Idyls (1873) ;
Summer Cruising in the South‘Sea (1874);
Mashallah! A Flight into Egypt (1880); The
Lcpers of Molokai (1885); A Troubled Heart,
and How It Was Comforted at Last (1885);
Hawaiian Life; or, Lazy Letters from Low Lati-
tudes (1894); The Wonder Worker of Padua
(1896); A Cruise Under the Crescent (1898);
Over the Rocky Mountains to Alaska (1899);
In the Footprints of the Padres (1902); Emits
and Entrances (1903).
STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY (1825-1903).
An American poet, critic, and journalist, born at
Hingham, Mass. He was educated in the public
schools of New York City, Worked in an iron
foundry, gained attention in 1849 by a privately
printed volume of verse, Footprints, obtained a
place in the Custom House (1853-70), and was
confidential clerk to George B. McClellan (1870-
73), pursuing meantime literature as an avoca-
tion as literary reviewer, especially for the
World, the Mail, and the Mail and Express.
Noteworthy among his numerous publications
are: the juvenile Adventures in Fairyland
(1853); verses collected in Songs of Summer
(1857); The King’s Bell, a poem (1862); The
Story of Little Red Riding Hood, verse (1864) ;
The Children in the Wood, verse (1865) ; Abra-
ham Lincoln, a commemoration ode (1865);
Putnam the Brave (1869) ; The Book of the East,
verse (1867 ) ; The Lion’s Cub and Other Poems
(1890); and Under the Evening Lamp (1892).
A collected edition of his verses was issued in
1880. Stoddard also edited several noteworthy
anthologies, among them Melodies and Madri-
gals (1865) ; Poets and Poetry of America
(1872); Female Poets of America (1874). For
many years he was an important figure in the
literary life of New York.——His wife, ELIZABETH
(BARSTOW) (1823-1902), collaborated with him
in editorial work and wrote three novels, The
Morgesons (1862), Two Men (1865), and Temple
House (1867). Her Poems were collected in
1895. Consult Stoddard’s Recollections Personal
and Literary, ed. by R. Hitchcock (New York,
1903). ‘
STODDARD, WILLIAM OSBORN (1835—). An
American author and journalist, born at Homer,
N. Y., and educated at the University of Roches-
ter, where he graduated in 1857. After three
years of farming and newspaper work in Illinois,
where he edited the Chicago Daily Ledger and
the Central Illinois Gazette, and three months’
service as a volunteer at the outbreak of the
Civil War, he acted from 1861 to 1864 as private
secretary to President Lincoln and then engaged
in literary work. His publications include: The
Heart of It (1880); Life of Abraham Lincoln
(1884) ; Lives of the Presidents (10 vols., 1888-
89); Table Talk of Lincoln (1892); Quirt Ten
Eyck (1893); The Swordmaker’s Inn (1896);
With the Black Prince (1898) ; Lincoln at Work
(1899) ; and Jack Morgan (1901).
STOIYDART, JAMES HENRY (1827—). An
American actor, born in Yorkshire, England.
He was the son of an actor and duririg his youth
in Glasgow he often took juvenile parts with his
father. At seventeen he began an independent
career, winning at length in Liverpool considerable
success as a comedian. He came to the United
States in 1854 and became a member of Wal-
lack’s company. Afterwards for a time he played
with Laura Keene; then with Dion Boucicault;
and subsequently for twenty years was under the
management of A. M, Palmer. Even in com-
parative youth, Stoddart was best known in ‘old
man’ parts. Among his most popular characters
were Mr. Moneypenny in The Long Strike, Colo-
nel Preston in Alabama, the curate in Saints
and Sinners, and, later, Lachlan Campbell in
The Bonnie Brier Bush (1901). Consult: Stod-
dart’s own Recollections of a Player (New York,
1902) ; McKay and Wingate, Famous American
Actors of To-day (New York, 1896).
STOD’DERT, BENJAMIN (1751-1813). An
American soldier and Cabinet officer. He was
born in Charles County,.Md., joined the Conti-
nental Army in 1776, became a captain in Janu-
ary, 1777, and was severely wounded at Brandy-
wine in September, resigning his command in
April, 1779. He then served as secretary of the
Board of War until 1781, and from 1798 to 1801
was Secretary of the Navy, being the first to
discharge the duties of this office, though George
Cabot (q.v.), who resigned within a few weeks,
was the first to be appointed. His services in
connection with the organization of the depart-
ment were very valuable.
STOHMANN, sto’man, FRIEDRICH KARL
ADCLF (1832-——). A German agricultural chem-
ist, born in Bremen, and educated at G6t-
tingen and London. He was Graham’s assist-
ant at University College from 1853 to
1855, and afterwards assisted Henneberg at Celle.
In 1862 he started the station for agricultural
experiments at Brunswick. He was called to
Halle in 1865 and to Leipzig in 1871, where he
was director of the agricultural physiological
institute of the university. His principal investi-
gations had to do with the nourishment of ani-
mals. He wrote: Beitrtige zur Begnilndung einer
rationellen Fiitterung der Wiederkiiuer (1860);
Biologische Studien (1873) ; H andbuch der tech-
nischen Chemie (1872 and 1874) ; Handbuch der
Zuckerfabrikation (1878); and Die Stdrke
fabrikation (1878).
STOIC-S (Lat. stoicus, from Gk.crwl'x6:, striikos,
o~ro'ixés, stoikos, relating to a colonnade, stoic,
from créa, stoa, colonnade). The name of the
school of ancient moralists opposed to the Epi-
cureans in their views of human life. The
stoical system dates from the end of the fourth
century B.C.; it was derived from the system of
the Cynics, whose founder, Antisthenes, was a.
disciple of Socrates. Indeed, the doctrines, but
still more the manner of life, and most of all
the death of Socrates, were the chief founda-
tions of the stoical philosophy.
The founder of the system was Zeno (q.v.),
STOICS.
STOKES.
226
from Citium in Cyprus, who opened his school
in a portico called the Stoa Poecile (‘painted
porch’) at Athens, whence the origin of the
name of the sect. Zeno had for his disciple
Cleanthes, from Assus, in the Troad (died c. 220
B.C.), whose Hymn to Zeus is the only fragment
of any length that has come down to us from
the early Stoics, and is a remarkable production,
setting forth the unity of God, His omnipotence,
and His moral government. Chrysippus, from Soli
in Cilieia (c. 280-207 B.C.), followed Cleanthes,
and, in his voluminous writings, both defended
and modified the Stoical creed. He was regarded
as a second founder of the school, and it was
a saying in antiquity that without Chrysippus
there had been no Stoa. Chrysippus was suc-
ceeded by Zeno of Tarsus and Diogenes of Baby-
lon; then followed Antipater of Tarsus, who
taught Panaetius of Rhodes (died B.O. 112).
Pa_nzetius introduced Stoicism to Rome, and also
made such modification in the system that it
is customary to regard Stoicism as entering
with him upon a second period, characterized by
a “nearer approach to the Peripatetic and Pla-
tonic teaching” (Windelband) . Among the most
prominent Stoics of this period are to be men-
tioned Boéthius of Sidon and Posidonius of Apa-
mea in Syria. The third period of Stoicism is
the Roman period, represented by L. Annaeus
Cornutus, L. ‘Annaeus Seneca, Epictetus, and the
Emperor Marcus Aurelius .Antoninus.
Stoicism was mainly an ethical theory, but it
had a logic and a physics as well. Under logic it
included both dialectic and rhetoric. Dialectic
was predominantly a theory of knowledge. The
main question here was: How can we test
truth‘? In answer to this question the Stoics
worked out a sensationalistic epistemology. The
soul is originally like a blank wax tablet. Things
cause alterations or impressions on the soul, and
those alterations or ideas which refer to par-
ticular things compel assent. These impressions
are kept in memory, and, partly without and
partly with conscious intention, concepts arise.
These are entirely subjective; thus in ancient
_times we find the germ of nominalism (q.v.).
The highest value is attached to the involuntarily
formed concepts, for these compel assent from all
men (consensus geritium). Physics included, for
the Stoics, cosmology, psychology, and theology.
All reality is corporeal, but falls into two class-
es, the active and the passive, which, however,
are inseparable. The active principle is some-
times represented as fire, sometimes as spirit.
The spirit-fire is God, and is self-conscious. Out
of it is developed air, water, earth, the whole
universe of separate beings, and all nature is
rational. Every individual soul is a part of the
universal world-soul for a time individualized,
but ultimately to be absorbed into the world-
soul again, at the time when all the differentia-
tion of the universe is consumed in all-devouring
fire. This process takes place by Fate, i.e.‘ in
accordance with irreversible laws, but is also
purposeful, i.e. mechanism is conceived of as
compatible with teleology. When one cycle of
differentiation and absorption is complete, an-
other begins.
The Stoic ethics was the ethics of apathy. The
soul or the divine principle in man should
not allow itself to be carried away by the
passions aroused in it by external things. A
man must be self-controlled. The passions are
due to false judgments and mental disturbances,
hence they can be overcome by wisdom and by 'a
refusal to assent to their dictation. A man is
not, indeed, master of his fate, but he can keep
his self-control and proud self-complacency
through all the vicissitudes of life. The Stoic
formula was a life in accordance with nature.
As we have seen that for Stocism nature is all
rational, to live in accordance with nature was
to live in accordance with reason. Such a life is
happy. Pleasure is an accessory, not an end, of
a reasonable life. The Stoics took a very rigor-
ous view of virtue, which they claimed admitted
of no degree. One may be virtuous, but if he is
not thoroughly so he is not so at all. There
may be approximation to virtue, short of virtue,
but such approximation is not virtue. Only
very few men are virtuous; the vast majority are
fools. The four cardinal virtues of the Stoic
system are insight, courage, temperance, and
justice, a classification which in essence does not
depart from the Platonic. One very distinctive
feature of Stoicism was its cosmopolitanism.
Because all men are manifestations of the one
universal Spirit, they should live in brotherly
love and readiness to help each other. Differ-
ences of rank and wealth are external, and
should not interfere with social relations. Thus,
long before Christianity taught that there is
neither Greek nor Jew, nor male nor female, nor
bond nor free, Stoicisrh had recognized and lived
up to the brotherhood of man.
Consult: Capes, Stoicism (London, 1880) ; Zel-
ler, Die Philosophie der Griechen (3d ed., Leip-
zig, 1880; Eng. trans. by Reichel, London, 1880).
STOKES, stoks, GEORGE THOMAS (1843-98).
An Irish divine and author, born in Athlone,
Westmeath, Ireland. He was educated at Queen's
College, Galway, and Trinity College, Dublin,
and, after acting as curate in Killaloe and New-
ry, he became, in 1869, vicar of All Saints,
Blackrock, which position he retained until his
death. In 1883 he was called to the chair of
ecclesiastical history in Dublin University, and
in 1893 he became canon of Saint Patrick’s in
Dublin. Among his publications are: Ireland
and the Celtic Church (1886); Sketch of Me-
dioeval History (1887) ; Ireland and the Anglo-
Norman Church (1889); Bishop Pococh’s Tour
Around Ireland in 1752 (1891) ; The Acts of the
Apostles (1891) ; and Greek in Gaul and West-
ern Europe Down to A.D. 700 (1892).
STOKES, Sir GEoRGE GABRIEL (1819-1903).
An English mathematician and physicist, born
in Skreen County, Sligo, Ireland. He was edu-
cated at Cambridge, and became fellow of Pem-
broke College in 1841, and was elected in
1849 to fill the Lucasian chair of mathematics
in Cambridge. In 1885 he was appointed presi-
dent of the Royal Society. Stokes was the first
to explain in his lectures the scientific principles
on which spectrum analysis depends, while to him
is due also the first thorough study and explana-
tion of the phenomena of fluorescence, in his
paper On the Change of the Refrangibility of
Light (Philosophical Transactions for 1852-53),
for which he received the Rumford Medal. He
greatly extended and improved the application
of mathematics to physico-mathematical treat-
ment of questions connected with the distortion
of elastic solids, the motion of waves in water,
the undulatory theory of light, the summation
STOKES.
STOLEN GOODS.
227
of series, the internal friction of fluids, and
other subjects in hydrodynamics, etc. He also
discussed the variation of gravity over the
surface of the earth and wrote an im-
portant paper on the nature of Riintgen rays.
For his work in optics Stokes stood preeminent
among the scientists of the nineteenth century,
and he did much to mold current thought and
theory in this field. He -published the Burnet
Lectures on Light (1892);Mathematical and
Physical Papers (3 vols., 1880-1902); and Gif-
ford Lectures on Natural Theology (1891-93).
He was made a baronet in 1889.
STOKES, HENRY . NEWLIN (1859—). An
American chemist. He was born in Moorestown,
N. J., and waseducated at Haverford College
and J ohns Hopkins University, after which he
studied chemistry in Munich and in Zurich. In
1889 he became an assistant chemist in the
United States Geological Survey, which office he
relinquished in 1892 to accept the place of
assistant professor in the University of Chicago,
where he remained until 1893, when he returned
to the service of the Geological Survey._ He ac-
cepted an appointment with the Bureau of
Standards in 1903. His researches include stud-
ies in organic chemistry, especially on phosphi-
mic and metaphosphimic acids. . '
STOKES, WHITLEY (1830— ) . A distinguished
Celtic (scholar and authority on Anglo-Indian
law, born in Dublin, Ireland. He was- educated
at Trinity College, and became a barrister of the
Inner Temple in 1855. In 1862 he went to India, .
where he occupied various legal positions under
the Government. He drafted.the present Code
of Civil Procedure and did other important legal
work, but became best known, and is likely to
be longest remembered, for his contributions to
Celtic scholarship, a branch of research which
he took up before he went to India, and con-
tinued during his governmental service there.
The greater part of his work deals with early
Irish, but his studies included the other Celtic
languages, investigations of Cornish and Brit-
ish monuments, and contributions to Celtic
grammar. It has been said that his researches
have done more than those of any other scholar to
make accessible the literary and historical monu-
ments of the ancient Irish language. His writ-
ings‘ are intended mainly for scholars, but his
texts usually are accompanied by translations,
and some of these possess high literary worth.
Conspicuously good are his renderings of the
“Death of the Sons of Usnach” (Irish Temte, vol.
ii.), and of the “Briden Da Derga” (Revue
celtique, vol. xxii.). His principal pub-
lications are: Irish Glosses (1860) ; Three Irish
Glossaries (1862); The Play of the Sacrament
(1862); The Passion, a Middle-Cornish Poem
(1862) ; The Creation of the World : A Cornish
Mystery (1863); Three Middle-Irish‘Ho/milies
(1871) ; Goidelica (2d ed. 1872); Beunaus
M eriaselc (1872) ; Middle-Breton Hours (1876) ;
The Calendar of Gfingus (1880) ; The Tripartite
Life of Saint Patrick (1887); The Old Irish
G-losses at Wiirzburg and Carlsruhe (1887);
Lives of Saints from the Book of Sismore
(1889); Urheltischer Sprachschatz (1894) ; The
Martyrology of Gorrnan (1895).
STOKE-UPON-TRENT. A manufacturing
town in Staffordshire, England, 15 miles north
of Stafford (Map: England, D 4) . The principal
public buildings are the town hall, New Market
hall, and Minton Memorial building. There
are statues to Wedgewood, Minton, and Colin
Minton Campbell. The town is the centre of
the ‘Potteries’ district, and owes its importance to
porcelain and earthenware manufactures, car- -
ried on in about 200 factories. It has manu-
factures of iron, engines, machinery, and bricks,
and in the vicinity are numerous coal mines.
The town, incorporated in 1874, is of modern
growth. Population, in 1891, 24,000; in 1901',
30,450. Consult Ward, Stolce-upon-Trent (Lon-
don, 1843).
STOLBERG, sto1'bérK, CHRISTIAN, Count
(1748-1821). A German poet, born at Hamburg,
of an ancient family, originally from Thuringia.
Christian studied at Giittingen (1769-74) , where
he and his brother joined the literary Hainbund,
was twenty-three years in the public service, and
lived from 1800 till death near Eckernftirde,
Schleswig. He translated Sophocles (1787), and
wrote several volumes of poems (Gedichte, 1779,
1782, 1787, 1810) noteworthy for their pictures
of family life.
STOLBERG, Fnrnnnron LEOPOLD,
(1750-1819).
Count
A German poet and translator,
brother of Christian. He was born at Bramstedt,
Schleswig, studied at Halle and -Gtittingen, and
from 1777 to 1780 was Ambassador of the Prince-
Bishop of Liibeck at Copenhagen. He became
Ambassador of the .Danish Court at Berlin in
1789, and filled other official positions until in
1800, with his whole family, he became a con-
vert to Roman Catholicism, an event which
caused much excitement throughout Protestant
Germany. During his later years he lived in
comparative retirement, devoted mainly to lit-
erary work 'of the most varied kind, ranging
from verse of great facility and boldness of
imagery, through translations of Greek authors,
prose romance, and travels, to a fifteen-volume
history of Christianity from his later standpoint
(1807-18) . He died at Sondermiihlen, near Osna-
briick. Consult biographical studies by Menge
(Gotha, 1862), Hennes (Frankfort, 1876; Mainz,
1875), and Janssen (Freiburg, 1900).
STOLE (Lat. stola, from Gk. orohfi, stole,
long robe, from eré>\)\ew, stellein, to array,
despatch) . A narrow band of silk worn over the
shoulders by the clergy of the Roman Catholic
and Anglican communions, corresponding to a
vestment known as orari-on in the Eastern
churches. See Cos'rUME, ECCLESIASTICAL.
STOLEN GOODS. In law, chattels which
have been the subject of larceny and have not
been restored to the possession of their owner.
Inasmuch as the larceny does not divest the
owner of his property in the stolen goods, a
buyer cannot acquire title to them even if the
purchase be made in good faith. In England,
however, this rule does not apply if stolen
goods were bought in market overt (q.v.), and
the owner had not prosecuted the thief, in which
case the bona fide purchaser acquires valid title.
In the United States there are no markets overt,
and any person buying stolen goods acquires
no better title to them than the thief has. That
is, the owner has a right to take them wherever
he may find them. This rule is subject to the
qualification that current money and negotiable
papers payable to bearer or indorsed in blank
may pass to and become the absolute property of
STOLEN GOODS.
STOMACH.
228
a bona fide purchaser even if they have been
stolen from their lawful owner. See NEGCTIABLE
PAPER.
To constitute the crime of receiving stolen
goods, the goods must have been stolen and not
acquired by embezzlement or false pretenses. The
receiver must either know that they have been
stolen or have reasonable grounds for believing
that they have been unlawfully taken from their
owner. The crime becomes complete when the
receiver takes them into his possession or they
are taken for him with his knowledge by a
servant or agents. If the goods after being
stolen come back into the possession of the owner
or are delivered to the receiver by the owner’s
authority, they cease to be stolen goods, and the
crime of receiving cannot be committed with
reference to them. .
In England it early became the law that if
goods were stolen in one county and carried into
another by the thief, he was deemed to have
committed larceny in both counties, and could
be indicted and placed on trial in either. As
the offense, wherever committed, was an offense
against the same sovereignty, this rule as
to larceny amounted simply to a convenient
method of determining the place of trial. The
English courts refused to apply the rule where
goods were stolen in a foreign country and
brought to England. Courts in many of the
United States have somewhat illogically applied
this rule to the several States, holding that if
goods are stolen in a sister State and then
brought within the State larceny is committed in
both States, notwithstanding the fact that the
original offense was committed against an in-
dependent sovereignty so far as the administra-
tion of the criminal law is concerned, and that
the having in possession of stolen goods is a very
different offense from the larceny of the goods.
A few States, as Ohio, have refused to follow
this rule, and one, Vermont, has applied the rule
to goods stolen in other States and brought
within the State, but has declined to follow it
in case of goods stolen in foreign countries. (See
LARCENY.) The crime of receiving stolen goods
is now generally defined by statute ‘and the
punishment imposed varies in the different
States. In most States the offense is deemed a
felony. See CRIME; JURISDICTION.
STOLP, stolp. A town in the Province of
Pomerania, Prussia, on the Stolpe, 12 miles from
the Baltic Sea, and 65 miles west by north of
Danzig (Map: Prussia, G 1)._ The fourteenth-
century Marienkirche, with its lofty tower, is
worthy of note. The town has an old castle. Its
most important industries are amber turning and
carving, and linen weaving. Machinery, furni-
ture, leather, and cigars are also manufactured.
Stolp was a member of the Hanseatic League,
and belonged to the Dukes of Pomerania until
1637, when it passed to Brandenburg. Po ula-
tion, in 1900, 27,272. At the mouth 0 the
Stolpe lies Stolpmiinde, the port of Stolp, with
a population of about 2000.
STOLTE NBERG - LERCHE, stol ' ten - berK -
lerK'e, VINCENT. See LERCHE, VINCENT STCLTEN-
BERG.
STOLZ, stolts, FRIEDRICH (1850—-). An Aus-
trian classical philologist, born at Hall, in Tyrol,
and educated at Innsbruck and Leipzig. He
established himself as decent at the University
of Innsbruck in 1879, and was appointed pro-
fessor in 1887. Besides his great work, the
first volume of the Historische Gram/matik
der lateinischen Sprache (1894-95), ‘he wrote
Zusa/Inmengesetzte Nomi-na in den homerischen
und hesiodischen Gedichten (1874); Die latei-
nische N ominalko-mp_osition (1877) ; Studien zur
lateinischen Verbalflewion (1882); Lateinische
Laut- und Formenlehre (in Miiller’s H andbuch,
3d ed. 1899) ; Homcri Odyssece Epitome (1893) ;
Entwickelung der indogermanischen Sprach-
wissenschaft (1899); and an ethnographical
study, Die Urbeviilkerung von Tirol (2d ed. 1892).
STOMACH (Lat. stomachus, from Gk.
0'76/LGXOQ, throat, gullet, stomach, from o'T6y,a,
stoma, mouth). The principal organ of digestion,
receiving the food through the oesophagus, and,
after certain digestive changes have taken place,
emptying it into the intestines, where the proc-
ess is completed. The stomach is irregularly
conical, curving somewhat upon itself so that
the lower curvature is much greater than
the upper curvature. The size varies accord-
ing to the amount of food recieved, but when
empty the walls are in apposition. It lies in
the left hypochondriac and epigastric regions,
behind and partly protected by the ribs and in
close relation with the left lobe of the liver and
the diaphragm. The stomach has an external
peritoneal coat, a muscular coat consisting of
longitudinal, circular, and oblique fibres, a sub-
mucous or areolar layer, and a lining mucous
membrane. In this mucous membrane are the so-
called pyloric and peptic glands, which secrete
the gastric juice necessary for the digestive
processes carried on here. The main blood supply
is through the gastric artery, and the nerve
supply is derived from the pneumogastric nerves
and the sympathetic system. See ALIMENTARY
SYSTEM; DIGESTION; Foon; GASTRITIS; RUMI-
NANT.
STOMAC-H, DIsEAsEs on THE. The organic
diseases of the stomach with constant lesions in-
clude gastritis (q.v.), ulcer, erosions, and can-
cer. The ‘functional’ diseases, with variable
lesions, include hyperchlorhydria, gastrosuc-
corhoea, achylia gastrica, and ischochymia.
Ulcer of the stomach is usually characterized
by a deep circumscribed loss of substance of the
mucous membrane. lining the stomach, refusing
to heal, and occasioning pain, vomiting, and
hemorrhage. The cause cannot always be as-
signed, although the affection is of so frequent
occurrence as to be found, either active or cica-
trized, in about 5 per cent. of all persons who go
to autopsy for all diseases (Brinton) . It is twice
as frequent in females as in males, and occurs
most generally during middle life. Its mortality
is most frequent between the ages of forty and
sixty. While anaemia seems to play some part in
the causation of ulcer, it is deemed more probable
that hyperacidity of the gastric juice is more
often accountable. Ulcers generally occupy the
posterior surface, the lesser curvature, and the
pyloric sac. When they heal they leave behind
depressed scars with contractile tendency, pro-
ducing, when at the pylorus, a stricture. When
they do not heal, corrosion of neighboring blood-
vessels may ensue, with hemorrhages, possibly
fatal; or there may arise adhesions to neighbor-
ing organs, or perforations. The symptoms
named increase in severity till death occurs from
STOMACH.
STONE.
229
perforation, hemorrhage, or starvation; or, they
gradually disappear and the patient recovers.
The prognosis is only fair. About half of the
cases recover, about 13 per cent. die of perfora-
tions and peritonitis, about 20 per cent. die of
tuberculosis, about 5 per cent. die of starvation,
and about 5 per cent. die of hemorrhage. The
treatment of ulcer includes rest, diet by mouth
and by rectal enemata, correction of acidity by
proper alkalies, the administration of nitrate of
silver or bismuth, and the proper management
of the accidents: hemorrhage, peritonitis, and
collapse.
Erosions of the stomach consist really of
small, superficial ulcers of the mucous lining.
They occur commonly in chronic gastritis; often
their cause is unassignable. The symptoms in-
clude pain, a feeling of weakness, and emaciation.
The emaciation is progressive to a certain point,
during the earlier part of the attack, but after
reaching a certain level the patient grows no
thinner, and does not present a cachexia.
The patient may suffer from erosions for many
years. The treatment consists of the use of
nitrate of silver, intra-gastric galvanization,
diet, general hygiene and out-of-door exercise,
condurango, nux vomica, and iron.
Cancer of the stomach is more frequent than
cancer of any other organ. It is apparently on
the increase. Gastric cancer occurs more fre-
quently at the age of fifty; it is rare before thirty.
It is probably equally divided between the sexes.
The tendency to cancer is possibly hereditary.
It follows trauma and ulcers, and it is probably
also due to primary infection with the suspected
bacillus which bacteriologists hope to discover as
the cause of cancer. The new growth may be an
epithelioma, a medullary carcinoma, a scirrhus,
or a colloid carcinoma. See TUMOR.
The general symptoms of cancer of the stomach
are pain, loss of appetite, vomiting, hemorrhage,
tumor, fever, constipation, and a decided
cachexia. Examination of the blood reveals a
leucocytosis in some cases during fasting, and
an absence of the normal leucocytosis of diges-
tion. Little can be argued from the urine, al-
though in some cases the chlorides are diminished
and indican is increased, and rarely pep-
tonuria is present. Examination of the stomach
contents after a test meal reveals decrease of the
free hydrochloric acid as well as of the total
acidity, and the presence of lactic acid. The
prognosis is hopeless for cure. If the disease _be
of slow progress, the patient may gain relief
enough from surgical interference to live along
several years. When the neoplasm invades the
pylorus, resection of this part of the stomach
may be made; or excision, if in other parts of the
organ. Among palliative operations are gas-
trotomy and gastro-enterostomy. The former is
suitable in cases of cancer of the oesophagus or
of the cardiac orifice, the latter in cases of
pyloric stenosis. The medical treatment consists
of diet, the iodides, condurango, methyl blue,
chloral, and such analgesics as may be expedient.
Of the ‘functional’ diseases, hyperchlorhydria
is a condition in which the gastric juice possesses
more acidity and ferments than it should. A test
of the stomach contents decides the diagnosis,
and the condition is met by hygiene, diet, al-
kalies, bromides, and in some cases opiates and
electricity.
Gastrosuccorrhoea is a periodical and con-
tinuous production of the normal gastric juice,
causing vomiting and intense pain, restlessness,
nausea, and a feeling of pressure in the epigas-
trium. Analysis of the contents of the stomach
is the best diagnostic test. The treatment of
this rare affection is largely by the use of atro-
pine, nitrate of silver, galvanization, and lavage.
Achylia gastrica is a condition in which there
is a constant absence of gastric juice, accom-
paniedby atrophy of the stomach, and following
severe catarrhal disease of that organ. The gas-
tric contents decide the diagnosis. Lavage, fara-
dization of the stomach, and attention to diet
constitute the treatment.
Isochymia is a distressing condition in which
food is always found in the stomach, even when
fasting. The stomach is dilated and the me-
chanical insufficiency of the organ is so great as
to fail of emptying the chyme into the intestines.
Paresis of the gastric muscular coat or contrac-
tion of the pylorus is the cause of this condition.
Indifferent appetite, thirst, dryness of the throat,
oppression, pain, and eructation of gas, together
with vomiting of chyme, are among the notable
symptoms. Constipation is present and emacia-
tion becomes pronounced. Ulcer may be the
cause of the pyloric stenosis. The course of the
condition varies with the etiology. Lavage, diet,
nitrate of silver, rectal alimentation, massage,
and the administration of alkalies may all be of
advantage, as also the galvanic current. See
CARDIALGIA; INDIGESTION; SARoINA. Consult
Einhorn’s Diseases of the Stomach (New York,
1903).
STOMACH-PUMP. An instrument used to
remove poisons from the stomach, to feed per-
sons who cannot swallow, or who attempt to
starve themselves, or to wash out the stomach
during disease. It is a syringe with a flexible
tube, inserted into the stomach through the
oesophagus, by which fluid is injected and re-
moved.
STOMATA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
oréya, stoma, Av. staman, mouth). The so-called
breathing pores especially numerous in foliage
leaves and developed in any epidermis overlying
green tissue. Each stoma consists of two cres-
centic guard cells whose concave surfaces face
one another, leaving a slit which is opened or
closed as required by the plant, hence the name
‘automatic gateway.’ See LEAF.
STOMATITIS. See MOUTH, DISEASES on
THE.
STOM’ATOP’ODA. See CRUsTAcEA; MANTIs-
SHRIMP.
STONE. See BUILDING STDNE.
STONE. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
STONE. See CALUULUS.
STONE, ARTIFICIAL. The name given to
Various artificial compositions of which the basis
is hydraulic cement, which are plastic when first
made and assume with age a stone-like hardness
and consistency. Some of these compositions
possess undeniable merit -for certain kinds of work)
and are considerably used. The chief stones of
this character are Béton-Coignet, Portland stone,
McMurtrie stone, Ransome stone, and Sorel
stone. Béton-Coignet was invented by Coignet, a
Frenchman, and as made by him was composed
of Portland cement, siliceous hydraulic cement,
and clean sand very thoroughly mixed with a.
STONE.
230
small amount of cold water. This plastic mix-
ture is then’ placed in molds to harden for use.
Portland stone is a mixture of Portland cement
and sand or sand and gravel wet to make a
plastic mixture and rammed into molds to
harden. Under various trade names Portland
stone has quite an extensive use in the United
States. It is molded into blocks of numerous
forms and sizes, with or without ornament, for
buildings and other structures. Sand bricks are
an artificial stone made by mixing sand and
lime into a moist paste, molding this paste into
bricks or blocks, and setting the molded blocks
to harden in heated chambers. McMurtrie stone
is formed by adding alum and potash soap to the
mixture for Portland stone. These ingredients
form compounds of alumina in the pores of the
stone, which reduce the capacity of the stone to
absorb water and add somewhat to its strength.
Ransome stone is made by mixing sand and sili-
cate of soda, molding the mixture into blocks or
slabs, and setting them to harden under pressure
in a hot solution of chloride of calcium. This
material is used mostly in England, where it is
applied to a variety of purposes. Sorel stone is
a French product, and is made by adding to
oxide of- magnesium a solution of chloride of
magnesium. It is used mainly in making emery
wheels. Consult Baker, Treatise on Masonry
Construction (New York). Excellent articles on
the manufacture of sand brick are contained in
the Transactions of the American Ceramic So-
ciety, vols. iv. and v. See CONCRETE; PAVEMENT.
STONE, AMASA. (1818-83). An American
railroad builder and philanthropist. He was
born at Charlton, Mass., and early engaged in
the building of railroads and bridges, being
made superintendent of the New Haven, Hartford
and Springfield Railroad in 1845. He was one
of the contractors for building the Cleveland,
Columbus and Cincinnati and the Cleveland and
Erie railroads, and during the.Civil War he was
often an adviser of the Government in matters
of transportation of men and material. Stone
gave $600,000 to Adelbert College of the Western
Reserve University at Hudson, on condition of its
removal to Cleveland, and also made many chari-
I table benefactions in the city of Cleveland.
STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1825-87). An
American soldier, born at Greenfield, Mass. He
graduated at West Point in 1845, entered the
ordnance department, and served under General
Scott during the war with Mexico. On the out-
break of the Civil “(ar he organized the District
of Columbia Volunteers, and in May, 1861, was
made brigadier-general. He participated in sev-
eral actions during June and July, 1861, took
part in General Patterson’s operations in the
Shenandoah Valley, and commanded at the disas-
trous affair at Ball’s Bluff (q.v.). Though
charges were never preferred against him, he
was arrested and confined for six months in
military prisons. In August, 1862, he was re-
leased, and in May, 1863, he was assigned to the
Department of the Gulf. He participated in the
siege of Port Hudson in 1863, and then for
nearly a year served as chief of staff to Major-
General Banks. On August 21, 1864, he was
given command of a brigade before Petersburg,
and on September 13, 1864, resigned his com-
mission. In 1870 he entered the service of the
Khedive of Egypt as chief of stafl' and with the
rank of brigadier-general. He was later ap-
pointed general aide-de-camp to the Khedive.
In 1883 he returned to the United States.
STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-97). An Eng-
lish astronomer, born in London. He. received
his education at Queen’s College, Cambridge,
and in 1859 was elected fellow of his
college. In 1860 he became chief assistant
at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. From
1866 to 1870 he was secretary of the Royal As-
tronomical Society, and its president (1882-84).
In 1870 he was appointed her Majesty’s astrono-
mer at the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1879 Rad-
cliffe observer at Oxford, which position he
retained till his death. From observations made
in 1862 Stone deduced a value of the solar paral-
lax, which fixed the solar distance as slightly
over 91,000,000 miles. The reversal of
the Fraunhofer spectrum, a confirmation of
Young’s spectroscopic discovery of the reversing
layer of the sun, was observed by him during
the solar eclipse at Klipfontein in 1874.
While at the Cape Observatory he prepared a
catalogue of 12,441 stars (1880), containing all
stars down to the seventh magnitude between the
South pole and 25° S. declination, for which
he was awarded the Lalande prize of the French
Academy in 1881. 'This survey of the southern
heavens was completed in the Radcliffe Catalogue
for 1890, in.which he gives the places of 6424
stars to the seventh magnitude between the equa-
tor and 25° S. declination. Consult Royal So-
ciety’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers.
STONE, SAMUEL JOHN (1839-1900).. An Eng-
lish hymn-writer, born at Whitmore, in Stafford-
shire. He was educated at the Charterhouse
and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He became
curate of Windsor (1862-70) and of Saint Paul’s,
Haggerston (1870-74), vicar of Saint Paul’s,
Haggerston (1874-90), and rector of All Hal-
low’s on the Wall, London (1890). He is
widely known for his many hymns, as “Round
the Sacred ‘City Gather,” “The Church’s One
Foundation,” and “Lord of Our Soul’s Salva-
tion.” Consult his Hymns (1886), also his Lyra
Fidelium (1866), The Knight of Intercession and
Other Poems (1872), Sonnets of the Sacred Year
(1875), and Lays of Iona (1897). For bibliog-
raphy of hymns, consult Julian’s Dictionary of
Hymnology (London, 1892). '
STONE, THOMAS (1743-87). A signer of the
Declaration of Independence. He was born in
Charles Cormty, Md., studied law at Annapolis,
began practice at Frederickton in 1764, and was
a delegate to _the Continental Congress in 1775-
77, and again in 1783-84, being president pro tem.
in 1784. He was a member of the Committee on
Confederation in 1776-77, and, returning to Mary-
land in 1777, urged the State Convention to
ratify the Articles of Confederation. Consult
Sanderson, Signers of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, vol. ix. (Philadelphia, 1823-27).
STONE, WILLIAM LEETE (1792-1844). An
American journalist and historical writer.
born at Newpaltz, N. Y. After editing several
provincial journals he became editor of the New
York Commercial Advertiser in 1821. He ear-
nestly furthered a plan for collecting the colonial
documents of New York, and was defendant in a
famous suit brought by the novelist Cooper for
criticisms that had appeared in his journal on
that novelist’s Home as Found and the History
STONE.
231 STONE CUTTING AND DRESSING.
of the Navy. (See COOPER, J. F.) He was
active in furthering benevolent institutions for
the deaf and dumb and for juvenile delinquents.
Among his many publications the revolutionary
Tales and Sketches (2 vols., 1834), Maria Monk
and the Nnnnery of the Hotel Dien (1836), and
a social satire Ups and Downs in the Life of a
Distressed Gentleman (1836) are still of interest.
Better known probably are his Life of Joseph
Brant (1838) ; Life of Red Jacket (1840);
and Uncas and Miantono-meh ( 1842) .
An account of his other works is given in Life
and Writings of Col. lVilliam L. Stone (1866)
by his son, WILLIAM LEETE Sronn, JR. (b. 1835),
himself the author of many works of antiquarian
research connected with the Revolutionary epoch,
among which the more noteworthy are: The Life
and Times of Sir William Johnson, Bart. ,' Revo-
lutionary Letters; Bargoyne’s Campaign; His-
tory of New York City; Reminiscences of Sara-
toga and Ballston. He edited also Ballads of
the Burgoyne Campaign and Other Revolutionary
Memorials.
STONE AGE. A term commonly used to
denote the earliest recognized stage in the de-
velopment of human culture as defined by the
materials used by man for weapons, utensils, etc.
The phrase is somewhat misleading, however,
since it is quite probable that primitive man
made use of wood and other perishable materials
to a far greater extent than of stone, and as a
consequence the stage is defined by the prevailing
material of the relics rather than by that of the
actual implements in common use.
The term Stone Age represents in no sense a
chronological division of human progress, but
is a loose equivalent for a stage of cultural de-
velopment varying widely in duration in different
parts of the world. There are, for example,
tribes still in the Stone Age, while, on the other
hand, some groups had progressed beyond it be-
fore the dawn of history. It is also worth not-
ing that some tribes commonly classed as be-
longing to the Stone Age produced objects of a
superior artistic and industrial merit to those
of peoples who had advanced to the use of metals.
The evidence for the existence of such an age in
most parts of the world is conclusive, but it is
from the prevalence and character of the relics
in certain parts of Europe rather than in Amer-
ica that the idea and the term have come into
general use.
A very common and well-recognized subdivision
of the Stone Age is into the paleolithic and neo-
lithic periods. In the paleolithic period man’s
best tools were extremely crude, and he is con-
sidered to have understood how to chip stone into
shape, but not how to grind or polish it. In the
neolithic period both these advances had been
made. -The terms protolithic and technolithic have
also been proposed to indicate the earlier and
later periods of the Stone Age, but have not come
into general use. Relics of the Stone Age abound
in practically all parts of the world, and are
found in great numbers in all archaeological mu-
seums. The most characteristic types are knives,
scrapers, arrow-points, spear-heads, celts, axes,
mortars, and pestles. See ABCHZEOLOGY, AMERI-
CAN.
STONE CUTTING AND DRESSING.
Processes employed in preparing quarried stone
for structural and ornamental purposes. These
processes range in character from the rough
shaping of the stone into squared blocks, which
is generally performed at the quarry, to the
cutting and polishing of carefully modeled and
ornamental pieces such as columns, cornices
moldings, and balustrades, and they may be
carried out either by means of hand tools or by


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Hammer.
STONE-WORKING HAMMEBS.
stone-working machines. The hand tools used
in stone cutting and dressing are various shaped
hammers and chisels and simple forms of measur-
ing instruments, templates, and gauges.
After a block is broken from its quarry bed by
one of the methods described in QUARBYING, it is
trimmed to the desired size and shape by a
variety of means according to the hardness of the
stone and the kind of finish desired. By means
of the pitching chisel the rough block is trimmed
down to a line, then the irregular surface is
worked down by the point, after which it is
finally dressed. If the stone is to be polished
it is first scoured with wet sand. Small blocks
are now usually ground with wet sand on a re-


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STONEWORKING CHIBELB.
volving iron bed, while large blocks are ground
by dragging a slab of stone back and forth
across them with wet sand as the abrading ma-
terial. For securing a finer polish emery, hones,
pumice stone, and polishing putty (oxide of tin)
are used. A high grade of polish can be secured
by skilled workmen only, and each man usually
has his own peculiar methods for securing the
result desired.
In most large establishments grinding and
polishing machines are much employed. For
flat surfaces a circular horizontally revolving
iron plate or grating, attached to the lower end
of a vertical shaft, with an elbow joint, is used,
the workman guiding the plate to various parts
of the surface, and using sand or emery as the
abrading material. By attaching felt to the plate
the same machine is used for polishing. Blocks
of such small size as can be handled by the
workmen are usually ground upon horizontally
revolving iron beds some eight or ten feet in
diameter. Pendulum machines are used for
polishing simple moldings. The molding being
first cut as smoothly as possible with the chisel,
a plate of cast iron, fitted as accurately as pos-
STONE CUTTING AND DRESSING.
STONEMAN.
232
sible, is made, by means of a long arm, to
travel back and forth along the molding, with
sand, emery, putty powder, or other abrasive.
For turning posts and pillars lathes are now
generally used. For the softer stones a simple
pointed cutting tool similar to that used in
turning metals and held and operated by a simi-
larly constructed machine is employed. In turn-
ing hard stones like granite the cutting tool is
in the form of a thin steel disk some 6 inches or
8 inches in diameter, so arranged as to revolve
with the stone when pressed against it at a sharp
angle. Lathes of this type are used, which are
capable of turning a block 25 feet long and 5
feet in diameter to a perfect column. Planers for
rough work, such as flagstone, resemble the same
machine for planing metals. See 1\/IETAL-WOBK-
ING MACHINES.
Stone-sawing machines are made in various
forms. The most familiar form consists of a
smooth flat blade of soft iron which is given a
reciprocating motion by machinery and fed with
sharp sand and water. Such saws are commonly
worked in gangs of ten or a dozen blades set
parallel the desired distances apart and operated
by a single saw frame. This method of sawing
is not applicable to cutting granite, on account
of its hardness. Frequently, in place of sand,
use is made of small globules of chilled iron or of
crushed steel as an abrasive. Circular saws set
with diamonds have proved very efficient tools,
but their use is generally prohibited by their ex-
pense. Slate is sawed by circular saws such as
are used for sawing lumber. In Europe con-
siderable use has been made of twisted cords of
steel made to run around pulleys like a band
saw. Among other machines for stone cutting
and dressing mention may be made of pneumatic
hammers and the sand blast.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature relating to
stone cutting and dressing is somewhat scattered.
Two books which may be consulted with advan-
tage, however, are: Merrill, Stones for Building
and Decoration (New York, 1891), and Baker,
Treatise on Masonry Construction (New York,
1900).
STONE-FLY. One of the aquatic insects of
the family Perlidae and order Plecoptera—flat-
bodied insects with two pairs of wings. The hind
wings are very broad and when folded lie flat
on the back of the insect. The larvae live in
water, clinging to the under sides of stones, and
in general appearance are much like the adult
insects, except in the lack of wings and ocelli;
they are carnivorous, living largely upon the
nymphs of May flies (q.v.). The well-aérated
water in which the nymphs live is correlated with
a peculiar rudimentary tracheal system for
breathing. The eggs are produced in enormous
numbers and a single female may deposit more
than 5000; they are small, and are probably
dropped during flight upon the surface of the
water as with the May flies.
STONEHAM, ston’am. A town in Middle-
sex County, Mass., 8 miles north of Boston, on
the Boston and Maine Railroad (Map: Massa-
chusetts, E 3). It has a public library with
10.000 volumes, and a high school building which
cost $50,000; also a public park, included in the
system of the Metropolitan Park District. Boots
and shoes, boxes, and automobiles are the prin-
cipal manufactures. The government is admin-
istered by town meetings. Population, in 1890,
6155; in 1900, 6197. Settled about 1670, Stone-
ham was under the jurisdiction of Charlestown
and was called Charlestown End until 1725, when
it was incorporated under its present name.
Consult Stevens, History of Stoneham (Stone-
ham, 1890).
STONEHENGE (AS. Stanhengist, hanging
stones). A celebrated stone circle, or cromlech,
the ruins of which stand on Salisbury Plain, 10
miles from Amesbury, in Wiltshire, Southern
England. When entire it consisted of two con-
centric circles of monoliths, the outer 100 feet
in diameter, inclosing two smaller rows in form
of a horseshoe, the opening to the northeast.
Within there is a block of blue marble 15 feet
long which is called the ‘Altar Stone.’ On a
northeast line from the altar is a flat stone on
the edge of the trench surrounding the whole
ruin, and the line prolonged cuts another large
stone some distance away called the ‘Friar’s
Heel.’ This arrangement, also observed in nu-
merous other stone circles, points to a means of
determining the time of the summer solstice,
and it is thought for this reason that Stone-
henge was connected with sun-worship. In any
case the monument, whether it was a temple, a
court of justice, or a battle ring, has been de-
signed with reference to the northeast. Modern
research clearly proves that the structure dates
from at least as early as the Bronze Age. The
tumuli in the vicinity of the cromlech yield
Bronze Age remains. Consult Flinders Petrie,
Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, Theories (Lon-
don, 1881).
ST01\TE'HOUSE, EAST.
HOUSE.
S'1‘ONE’MAN, Gnonen (1822-94). An Ameri-
can soldier and Governor of California. He
was born at Busti, Chautauqua County, N.
Y., and graduated at ‘Vest Point in 1846.
Just before the outbreak of the Civil War he
was in command of Fort Brown in Texas,
and was ordered by his superior oflicer, Gen-
eral Twiggs, to surrender to the Confederates,
but refused to do so, and escaped with his troops
on a steamer to New York. After some service
in West Virginia he was appointed chief of cav-
alry in the Army of the Potomac. By overtaking
the Confederate troops after the evacuation of
Yorktown in May, 1862, he brought on the battle
of Williamsburg. On November 15, 1862, he was
made commander of the Third Army Corps,
which he commanded at Fredericksburg on De-
cember 13th. During Hooker’s Chancellorsville
campaign he led a cavalry raid toward Rich-
mond. In April, 1864, he was put in command
of a cavalry corps in the Army of the Ohio, and
in the Atlanta campaign undertook a raid
against Macon and Andersonville. He was cap-
tured with a part of his force at Clinton, Ga.,
and was kept a prisoner for three months. In
December, 1864, he led a raid from East Ten-
nessee into southwestern Virginia, and destroyed
the salt works at Saltville. In the following
March he again entered southwestern Virginia,
destroyed a part of the Virginia and Tennessee
Railroad, and did much other damage. In the
following month he moved into North Carolina,
took Charlotte and other towns, and at Salisbury
captured about 1400 prisoners. In 1871 he re-
tired from the army and settled in California.
See EAST STONE-
STONEMAN.
STONES OF VENICE.
238
There he served for six years as a railroad com-
missioner, and in 1883 was elected Governor by
the Democrats.
STONE MARTEN. See MARTEN.
STONE RIVER, BATTLE OF, or MURFREES-
BOBO, BATTLE OF. An indecisive battle fought
near Stone River, in the vicinity of Murfrees-
boro, Tenn., on December 31, 1862, and Janu-
ary 2, 1863, between the Federal Army of
the Cumberland, numbering about 41,000 ef-
fective men, under General Rosecrans, and the
Confederate Army of Tennessee, numbering about
35,000 effective men, under General Bragg.
Soon after replacing General Buell on October 30,
1862, in command of the Army of the Cumber-
land, General Rosecrans occupied Nashville,
while General Bragg, after having been ma-
noeuvred out of Kentucky by General Buell, took
up a position in and near Murfreesboro, Tenn. On
December 26th Rosecrans advanced from Nash-
ville against Bragg, and on the 30th, after having
encountered considerable resistance along the
way, arrived in the immediate vicinity of Mur-
freesboro. Both generals arranged to attack on
the following morning, and by a singular coinci-
dence both adopted the same general plan of
battle, each issuing orders for an attack by his
left, heavily reiinforced, upon his opponent’s
right. As the two armies faced one another,
Crittenden, commanding the Federal left, was
opposed to Breckenridge, commanding the Con-
federate right; Thomas, commanding the Federal
centre, was opposed to Polk, commanding the Con-
federate centre; and McCook, commanding the
Federal right, was opposed to Hardee, command-
ing the Confederate left. At 6 A.M. on the 31st,




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STONE RIVER.
while Crittenden was_ preparing to cross the
river and advance against Breckenridge, Hardee
vigorously and with vastly superior numbers
attacked McCook, who seems to have made an
unwise arrangement of his line, and who, though
he had assured Rosecrans of his ability to hold
his position for three hours, soon gave way, his
three divisions under Johnson, Davis, and Sheri-
dan, after having offered a stubborn resistance,
being gradually forced back to the Nashville
Pike, in the rear of the Federal left and left
centre. The Federal centre, however, under
Thomas, successfully beat back the attacks of the
Confederate centre and parts of the Confederate
left, and, though a realignment of the troops
in this part of the field had to be made, the Fed-
erals held their position. Meanwhile the Federal
left, which, in pursuance of Rosecrans’s plan of
battle, had begun at 8 A.M. to advance against
the Confederate right, had been recalled when
the defeat of the Federal right became known,
and was instrumental in beating back the final
Confederate attacks. The fighting virtually
ceased at dark. At the close of the day the
advantage was decidedly with the Confederates,
who, besides capturing 28 guns and a large num-
ber of prisoners, had driven part of the Federal
army from its position and had forced Rosecrans
to act on the defensive instead of carrying out
his own plan of battle. On January 1st the two
armies retained their positions, and there was
little fighting, except along the skirmish lines.
Van Cleve’s division of Crittenden’s Federal
corps was, however, sent across the river to
occupy a position on high ground opposite one
of the fords of the river. On the following day,
the 2d, at 4 P.M. Breckenridge’s Confederate
division made a furious assault upon this posi-
tion, the capture of which was necessary to pre-
vent the enfilading of the Confederate line; but,
after being at first successful, it was finally
driven back with great loss. On the night of
the 3d Bragg evacuated Murfreesboro and re-
treated toward Tullahoma, 36 miles distant. For
some months thereafter the Army of the Cumber-
land remained at Murfreesboro. Throughout the
North the battle was claimed as a Federal vic-
tory, as it was strategically, though tactically
it may be considered to have been drawn. The
Federal loss in killed, wounded, and missing was
about 12,900; that of the Confederates, about
11,700. Consult: Johnson and Buel (eds.), Bat-
tles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. iii. (New
York, 1887) ; Ropes, Story of the Oioil War, vol.
ii. (ib., 1894-98) ; Cist, The Army of the Camber-
land (ib., 1882), in the “Campaigns of the Civil
VVar Series;” Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lin-
coln: A History (ib., 1890) ; Van Horne, History
of the Army of the Cumberland (Cincinnati,
1875) ; and the Ofiieial Records, vol. XX., parts i.
and ii.
STONE-ROLLER, or STONE-LUGGER. -One
of two fresh-water fishes of the Mississippi Val-
ley: (1) A small and worthless sucker (Oatos-
tomas nigrioans) , which inhabits clear streams
throughout the West. It .usually rests quietly
on the bottom, but darts swiftly away when
alarmed, scattering the pebbles. It is olive green
with brassy sides, and has a flattened, concave
head and thick lips. (2) A small brown cypri-
noid (Co/mpostoma cmomalam), remarkable for
the fact that in the nuptial season the males be-
come covered about the head and often over the
whole body with large rounded tubercles. They
frequent the deep pools of small streams.
STONES OF VENICE, THE. A treatise on
the art and architecture of Venice by John Rus-
kin (1851-53), undertaken to record the van-
ishing glories of the city. It had great influence
on the appreciation of Venetian art and on the
Gothic revival of that day, and especially on
STONES OF VENICE.
STONYHURST COLLEGE.
234
William Morris, though it was sharply criticised
from an art standpoint.
STONEWARE. A kind of pottery distin-
guished by an advanced vitrification of the whole
mass. It is for this reason that stoneware has
been employed for jugs and flagons and vessels of
all shapes and size intended to hold valuable
liquids. The decoration of these vessels was
often very elaborate. The color of this ware,
when finished, was a nearly uniform soft gray,
to which was added on many occasions a certain
amount of blue. The ware is also very strong.
The French word grés is commonly applied in
the trade and by collectors to such pieces of
stoneware as are of decorative character.
STONEWORK. Structural and decorative
work in stone, whether for buildings of an
architectural or of all engineering character; in-
cluding, therefore, all kinds of masonry (q.v.)
for foundations, piers, walls, vaults, etc., and
all kinds of stone-cutting, both constructive and
decorative. As other varieties are treated under
the appropriate titles, it remains only to treat
in this article, very briefly, of the artistic ap-
plications of stonework. These applications, as
distinguished from sculpture and carving, are
found chiefly in decorative details of works of
architecture, including such engineering works in
stone as are treated with decorative intent, like
moldings, columns, bases and caps, pilasters,
pedestals, pediments, finials, rustications, balus-
trades, parapets, and the like. On the technical
side, the treatment of these details varies with the
material and the design. All such stonework is
first ‘roughed out,’ either at the quarry or at
the stone-cutting yard, into blocks rudely ap-
proximating the intended form. If the stone is
soft and friable, and the decorative detail com-
plex or delicate, it is usually built into the
structure in this rough form, and finished after-
wards. The harder kinds of stone-blue-stone,
granite and hard marble, and all moldings and
blocks of simple form, are cut at the yard, care-
fully crated or packed and delivered finished at
the building. The carved detail of the softer
stones is executed ‘in place’ with the chisel
by carvers specially trained for this. On the
artistic side stonework is treated with greater
or less fineness of finish according to the grain
of stone, and the decorative efiect sought. The
harder granites and marbles are often highly
polished, when used as shafts or panels. In
heavy work, as on bridges, embankments and the
basements of buildings, a rough fractured sur-
face, called ‘rock-face’ or ‘quarry-face’ is often
left on each block.
STONINGTON, st€>n’ing-ton. A town, includ-
ing the borough of Stonington, in New London
County, Conn., 50 miles southwest of Provi-
dence, R. 1., on Long Island Sound, and on the
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
(Map: Connecticut, H 4). It is attractively
situated and has some reputation as a summer
resort. A good harbor makes it also of consid-
erable commercial importance. There are the
shops of the New York,’ New Haven and Hart-
ford Railroad, machine shops, printing press
works, thread mills, and manufactories of silk
machinery, cotton, woolen, and silk goods, vel-
vets, and fertilizers. The government is admin-
istered by town meetings, convening annually.
Population, in 1890, 7184; in 1900, 8540.
In 1649 William Chesebrough of Plymouth
Colony made the first permanent settlement at
Stonington and called it Poquatuck. At first
within the bounds of Massachusetts, whose Gen-
eral Court chartered it as Southertown in 1658,
it passed to Connecticut in 1662, was named
Mystic in 1665, and Stonington in 1666. In
1775 it was attacked by a British fleet under
Commodore Wallace, and in 1814 it was bom-
barded for four days by Admiral Hardy, Nelson’s
favorite ofiicer. For many years Stonington was
prominent for its participation in the seal-catch-
ing and whale-fishing industries. It was the
early home of Roger Sherman. Consult Wheeler,
History of the Town of Stonington from 164.9-
1900 (New London, 1900).
STONO FERRY, BATTLE OF. An engagement
near a ferry over the Stono River, a short dis-
tance from Charleston, S. C., on June 20, 1779,
during the Revolutionary War, between a small
force of British, strongly intrenched, under Lieu-
tenant-Colonel Maitland, and a superior Ameri-
can force under General Lincoln. General Pre-
vost, on withdrawing from his invasion of South
Carolina, left temporarily a small force of about
800 men at Stono Ferry and another small force
on John’s Island. In the early morning of
June 20th General Lincoln attacked the British
at Stono Ferry, but, owing to the failure of Gen-
eral Moultrie properly to cooperate with Lincoln,
the garrison was reinforced from John’s Island,
and the American attack was repulsed. Lincoln
then withdrew, beating off the attacks of the
British, who followed for a short distance. The
loss of the British in killed, wounded, and miss-
ing was about 130; that of the Americans was
about 200.
STO’NYH'URST COLLEGE. A leading
Catholic college, situated at Stonyhurst Lane,
England. It had its inception in the English
college at Saint Omer, in the Province of Artois,
France, founded by Robert Person, S.J., in 1592,
under the protection and patronage of Philip II.
of Spain, to which country that province then
belonged. The school, fn spite of many diffi-
culties, prospered, and when Artois was ceded to
France in 1659 a special article in the capitula-
tion insured the safety of the institution. In
1760 it obtained from Louis XV. the much-de-
sired title of ‘College Royal.’ At the expulsion of
the Jesuits from France the college with all its
movable belongings was removed to the city of
Bruges in the Austrian Netherlands. When the
Society of Jesus was suppressed by Pope Clem-
ent XIV. in 1773 an attempt was made by the
Austrian Government to conduct the school with
the aid of English Dominicans, but such was
the attachment of the pupils to their old teachers
that the college had to be closed owing to their
rebellious attitude. Some of the masters and
pupils then took refuge in Liege, where the au-
thorities were more kindly disposed toward the
Jesuits. In 1794, when the Revolutionary
armies were marching upon Liege, the college
was offered a final resting place by Thomas Weld,
who gave it his estate at Stonyhurst, England.
In 1808 the attendance outgrew the accommoda-
tion, and the construction of the first of a series
of five buildings was begun. In 1832-36 a church
was erected and in 1837 the college library was
presented with the famous Arundell collection.
The well-known observatory was erected in 1838.
STONYHURST COLLEGE.
STOPPER.
235
In 1840 it became affiliated with University of
London. Henceforth the sciences were intro-
duced and the curriculum which was based on
the Ratio Studiorium (q.v.) was generally en-
larged. The regular course of study covers a
period of seven years.
STONY POINT. A town in Rockland County,
N. Y., 35 miles north of New York City, on the
Hudson River, and on the West Shore Railroad
(Map: New York, G 4). Population, in 1890,
4614; in 1900, 4161. Stony Point was fortified
by the Americans early in the Revolutionary
War and was captured on May 31, 177 9, by Sir
Henry Clinton. On July 16th it was recaptured
by General Anthony Wayne, who, with 1200
men, stormed the works and took 543 prisoners,
the American loss being 15 killed and 83 wound-
ed, and the British 63 killed besides the pris-
oners, among whom the wounded were included.
Two days later the fortifications were dis-
mantled and the place abandoned, the British
reoccupying it soon afterwards. The site of the
Revolutionary fort and battlefield has been con-
verted into an historical reservation which was
formally opened in 1902. Consult Johnston, The
Storming of Stony Point (New York, 1900).
STOPPAGE IN TRANSITU. The stoppage
by an unpaid seller of goods while on their way
from him to the buyer, after title has passed to
the latter. The right so to stop goods is not
founded on any contract between the parties, nor
upon any principle of equity, but upon mercan-
tile usage. Its first recognition in the judicial
reports of England appears in an equity case de-
cided in 1690. Prior to this it was a well-estab-
lished rule of the law merchant (q.v.) . From
courts of equity it was adopted by the courts of
common law, and for three centuries has been a
recognized rule of English jurisprudence. The
term ‘unpaid seller’ is here employed in a broad
sense. It includes not only the ordinary seller,
but the factor of the buyer, who has paid for
goods placed to his credit for the price—any one,
indeed, whose position can be shown to be analo-
gous to that of an ordinary seller, who is unpaid
either wholly or in part.
The second requisite is that the buyer shall
have become insolvent, and that the knowledge
of this insolvency shall have come to the seller
after dispatching the goods. Insolvency, in this
connection, is used in its popular sense, meaning
the financial condition of one who cannot pay his
debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of
business; and if he lets his commercial papers
go to protest, or by other conduct affords the
ordinary opponent evidence of insolvency, the
unpaid seller is safe in treating him as insolvent.
The third requisite is that the goods shall
have left the possession of the seller, but shall
not have reached the possession of the buyer——
that they shall be in transit. The transit begins
as soon as they have left the seller’s possession
for transportation to the buyer. It continues as
long as they are in the possession of a carrier,
or other middleman, on their way to the buyer.
“Such middleman may be the buyer’s agent for
certain purposes; and yet if, by the agreement of
the parties or by the usage of trade, he is not a
mere servant of the buyer, but is a person inter-
posed between the seller and the buyer, having a
possession of his own and liable, in his capacity
as bailee, to an action by the buyer, in case the
Von. XVI.—16.
goods are carelessly lost or misdelivered, the
goods are still in transit.” Such transit may be
intercepted by a new and distinct agreement be-
tween the carrier and the buyer, under which the
carrier is thereafter to hold the goods subject to
new orders from the buyer. It is not inter-
cepted, however, by the levy of an execution or
an attachment on the goods on behalf of a cred-
itor of the buyer. Such a levy gives the creditor
only the right of the buyer; and that right is
subject to the unpaid vendor’s right to stop the
goods. If a bill of lading (q.v.) has been given
to the buyer by the seller, its transfer to a bona
fide purchaser cuts off the seller’s right. This
comes from the quasi negotiable character of the
bill of lading under the law merchant.
Although no particular form of notice is re-
quired, a valid stoppage in transitu cannot be
made without a notice of some kind to the car-
rier. If the goods are in the hands of an agent
of the carrier, notice that the seller stops the
goods may be given to either the agent or the
principal. If given to the latter it must be given
at such time and under such circumstances that
the principal, by the exercise of reasonable dili-
gence, may communicate it to the agent in time
to prevent a delivery to the buyer.
The exercise of this right restores to the seller
the possession of the goods, but does not revest
title in him. The buyer or his transferree is
entitled to the goods upon paying cash for them,
but not otherwise.
STOPPER. A short length of rope or chain
or an iron contrivance used on board ship for


STOPPER FOB ROPE.
a, Rope stopper.
b, Rope held by the stopper.
c, Point where a grips b.
d, Loose end of a. This is usually held in place by a man
until the stopper a is removed from b.
checking the running of a rope or chain, or for
holding it firmly. A stopper for ropes is a short
STOPPER.
STORAGE BATTERY.
236
length of soft manila secured at one end to the
structure of the ship; the other end is passed
around the rope to be stoppered with a jamming
hitch. It is used to keep the rope from slipping
while it is being belayed or secured. A stopper
for a chain cable is usually of wire rope and
four to six feet long. At one end it is spliced
into the eye of a hook, and at the other has an


STOPPEB FOB CHAIN CABLE.
eye formed around a short bar of iron. The hook
is placed in a ringbolt in the deck, and the body
of the stopper lashed to the chain by two ‘tails’
of soft manila rope. When ships are at anchor
the chain is held by such stoppers.
STORAGE (from store, OF. estorer, estaurer,
from Lat. instaurare, to renew, make, provide,
from in, in + *staurare, to set up; connected
with Gk. oravp6g, stauros, stake, Skt. sthavira,
firm, AS. steer, rudder, and ultimately with Eng.
stand). Since most plants absorb or produce
food in excess of their immediate needs, they
provide for temporary or long-continuedstorage.
These foods are transformed for permanent stor-
age and mobilized for subsequent translocation
by specific activities of the cell, self-regulated
through irritability (q.v.). The chief re-
gions of storage are spores, seeds, fleshy fruits,
roots, tubers, bulbs, leaves, and stems. As a rule
the regions of the higher plants specially adapted
for storage are thick, fleshy, and abundantly
supplied with thin-walled parenchyma cells. (See
HISTOLOGY.) Storage occurs only in living cells.
Occasionally the cell walls in storage regions
are thick and woody, and in some cases, e.g. in
the endosperm of seeds, the walls themselves
are made up mainly of the stored material, re-
serve cellulose. The chief forms in which reserve
food is stored are as follows:
(1) CARBOHYDRATES. Reserve carbohydrates
are either soluble, such as sugars (saccharose,
glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose) and
inulin, or insoluble, as starch and cellulose
(qq.v.). Starch is organized into granules by
the leucoplasts (q.v.) Reserve cellulose is de-
posited upon the cell walls as a complex carbo-
hydrate, whose composition is unknown, though
it seems to have somewhat the same relations
to ordinary cellulose as the most complex of the
dextrins, amylodextrin, holds to starch. It is
found especially in the endosperm, or in various
parts of the embryo,- in bud scales, etc.
(2) FATS. Fats occur in the form of minute
droplets (oil) in the protoplasm, not infrequent,-
ly accumulated by special organs of the cell, the
leucoplasts. They are found in the endosperm
or embryos of seeds (probably in the seeds of
nine-tenths of all seed plants), in spores, tubers,
and the wood of trees.
(3) PROTEIDS. Proteids are found either as
amorphous grains, the so-called aleurone, or as
crystals, which are not infrequently associated
with or imbedded in aleurone grains. These are
sometimes formed by leucoplasts, but at other
times appear to be deposited in the sap cavity
(vacuoles) of cells, where the proteid appears to
accumulate in increasing concentration until it
solidifies in the form of the vacuole, or
in one or several crystals. (See ALEURONE.)
Crystals of proteid are also found in chromato-
phores, nuclei, and even in the cytoplasm itself.
They are often distinguished as crystalloids, be-
cause they have the capacity of swelling (see
IMBIBITION), a rare quality among inorganic
crystals. 1
(4) AMIDES. Amides are nitrogenous com-
pounds intermediate in complexity between pro-
teids and carbohydrates and readily crystalliza-
ble. Most nitrogenous materials are ordinarily
translocated as amides. They are- rare in seeds,
but especially abundant in the sappy reservoirs,
such as bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, etc., where they
constitute 40 to 70 per cent. of the total food.
The different kinds of storage materials are
more or less definitely associated. Thus the re-
serve food may consist of proteids and sugar
(e.g. the pea and onion); proteids and starch
(e.g. the potato, the embryo of beans, pea, etc.) ;
proteids and oil (e.g. the endosperm of the castor
bean and the cotyledons of the soja bean); or
proteids, oil, and reserve cellulose (e.g. the endo-
sperm of the date and coffee) ; or proteids, with
oils in the cotyledons and mucilage in the endo-
sperm walls (e.g. clover). The reason for the
special association of reserve foods is not known.
Insoluble reserve foods are only transportable
after digestion (q.v.).
STORAGE BATTERY. An accumulation of
energy which is able to produce directly an elec-
tric current. The term is a misnomer, as elec-
tricity itself cannot be stored. A so-called stor-
age battery or accumulator when acted upon by
a current undergoes certain chemical changes.
The chemicals which are thus separated recom-
bine again when the circuit of the battery is
closed, and in uniting give off a current of elec-
tricity about equal to that by which they were
decomposed. Lead is the metal most commonly
used in accumulators, the positive plate having
a coating of lead peroxide, PbO,, and the negative
plate a surface of spongy lead.
The idea of the storage cell may be traced
back to 1801, at which time Gautherot showed
that platinum wires used in the electrolysis of
saline solutions developed secondary currents.
Later, in 1803, Ritter constructed a secondary
pile of copper disks separated by cloths moistened
with a solution of sal ammoniac. By charging
this a few moments with a powerful galvanic
battery the pile gave a strong shock. Volta,
Beequerel, and others discovered that platinum
and other metals——gold, silver—gave secondary
electric currents when subjected to electrolytic
action in certain solutions. In 1842 Grove pro-
duced his celebrated gas battery, which gave a
current by means of the difference in polarity of
oxygen and hydrogen, the constituents of water.
In Faraday’s Researches he mentions the high
conductivity of peroxide of lead at the negative
pole. Gaston Planté was the first to apply this
principle, and constructed in 1860 his cell with
coiled plates, the first practical storage battery,
which was afterwards developed and modified by
Faure, Metzger, Brush, and others.
' Storage batteries may be divided into two gen-
eral classes: Those in which the active material
(peroxide of lead) is formed on the surface of
the plates by chemical or electro-chemical action,
and those in which some easily reducible salt of
STORAGE BATTERY.
STORK.
237
per cent. or less.
lead is applied mechanically. The former are
known as the Planté type, and the latter as the
‘pasted’ or Faure type.
The Planté cell is the simplest form of storage
battery. The earliest cells were formed of two
lead plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid in
water. The solution should have a specific grav-
ity of 1.17 before charging, and as the charge
proceeds the specific gravity increases to 1.195
at full charge. At each successive charge the
peroxide formed on the positive plate sinks
deeper into the metal, and this -action continues
until the metal is covered to a sufficient thick-
ness to protect the lead from electrolytic action.
There is no difiiculty in forming the positive
plate in a Planté cell, but with the negative plate
the action is very slow. The latter is the great
difficulty with all Planté cells. The usual meth-
od of forming the spongy lead is to charge the
cell, allow it to rest, then reverse the charge
through the cell. At each reversal of current the
peroxide is liberated at the surface, leaving me-
tallic lead in a very finely divided state. The
voltage of a lead-sulphuric acid cell is about two
volts. The above description is applicable in a
general way to all cells of the Planté type, of
which there are a great many varieties. Most
of the modifications introduced by the different
manufacturers are mechanical changes with a
view to exposing more surface of lead to the
action of the electrolyte.- The Planté accu-
mulator is a very efiicient cell when once formed,
but the great amount of time it requires for
forming is its chief drawback. To avoid the
great loss of time consumed in forming the
Planté cells, Faure in 1880 devised the method
of pasting a layer of chemically prepared oxide
of lead to the surface of the plates. This was
done by spreading the plates with minium, or
litharge, made into a thick paste by the addition
of acidulated water. After drying these plates
were placed in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid,
and then subjected to an electric current. A
piece of felt was placed between the plates to
prevent the lead salts from disintegrating.
After charging, the salt on the positive plate
is reduced to peroxide of lead, while that on the
negative plate is converted into porous lead. The
chief fault of the early Faure cells was the dis-
integration of the active material, which would
drop away from the plate. Many methods have
been devised for holding the active material on
the plates, the most common of which is to cast
a grid, or plate with cells or perforations, into
which the active material is pressed. All the
modern cells are made with perforated plates of
this description. Besides these two types of ac-
cumulators, which are the most important ones,
there are a number of others, in which the ele-
ments are composed of lead, zinc, copper, etc.,
none of which are in very extensive use.
Storage batteries are employed in many cen-
tral stations to aid the dynamos at the time of
the maximum output and to act as equalizers or
reservoirs of electrical energy. The efficiency
varies from 80 to 85 per cent. in laboratory
tests, but in commercial practice it is about 70
The depreciation, however,
may be very rapid if the batteries are not op-
erated with care. It is very important not to
discharge accumulators faster than the rate for
which they are built, as it results in the speedy
destruction of the plates. They are not well
adapted to traction purposes, as the motion of
the car jars out the active material from the
plates, and in starting the car a high rate of
discharge is required. The weight and bulk of
accumulators is also against their use on cars.
With ligl1t vehicles, as well as with delivery
wagons and trucks, accumulators have been em-
ployed very successfully, while for telephone and
telegraph work in large cities they are rapidly
supplanting primary cells, the change being at-
tended not only with economy, but also with in-
creased cleanliness and available space. Consult:
Benjamin, Voltaic Coll (New York, 1893);
Treadwell, The Storage Battery (ib., 1898).
STORAX ( Lat. storaw, styrax, from Gk.
orvpaf, sort of fragrant resin, from Heb. séri,
heart of the mastic or of the turpentine-tree) . A
fragrant resinous substance, the styrax of the
ancients, obtained from the storax-tree (Styraw
officinale) of the natural order Styracaceae, na-
tive of the Mediterranean region. Storax, which
exudes from wounds in the bark and hardens in
the air, appears in the form of reddish-yellow,
opaque, soft, adhesive tears about the size of a
pea, or in dry, brittle masses, wrapped in the
leaves of a kind of reed. It has a fragrant odor
and an aromatic taste, and was formerly -much
used in medicine. Benzoin (q.v.) is the product
of a species of Styrax. Liquid storax is doubt-
fully regarded either as produced by Styraa: offi-
cinale or by a species of liquidambar (q.v.) . It
seems probable that there are two kinds.
STO'RER, DAVID HUMPHREYS (1804-91). An
American physician and naturalist. He was
born in Portland, Me., and graduated at
Bowdoin in 1822. After studying medicine
he settled in the practice of his profession in
Boston and continued there until his death.
In 1854 he was called to the chair of obstetrics
and medical jurisprudence in the Harvard Medi-
cal School. Storer was for many years as-
sociated with Louis Agassiz in his studies of
zoiilogy and herpetology. He published: Report
on the Ichthyology and Herpetology of Massa-
chusetts (1839) ; Synopsis of the Fishes of North
America (1846) ; and a History of the Fishes of
Massachusetts (1853-67). '
STO’REY, MOORFIELD (l845— ). An American
lawyer, born in Roxbury, Mass. He graduated
at Harvard in 1866, studied at the Harvard Law
School, and in 1869 was admitted to the bar. In
1867-69 he was private secretary to Senator
Charles Sumner, and in the latter year began
the practice of his profession in Boston. An
Independent in politics, he was prominent in the
‘Mugwump’ movement of 1884, and after the
Spanish War became an ardent Anti-Imperialist
and was defeated for Congress in 1900. He pub-
lished the Life of Charles Sumner (1900) in
“American Statesman Series.”
STORK (AS. storc, OHG. storah, Ger. Storch,
stork; connected with Gk. 1-épyog, torgos, vul-
ture). The popular name for a family of birds,
the Ciconiidsc, allied to the herons and ibises.
They are large birds, with long legs, half-webbed
toes; the bill longer than the head, straight,
strong, pointed, and without any groove; the
nostrils pierced longitudinally in the horny sub-
stance; the eyes surrounded by naked skin.: The
species are about twenty-five in number and are
of very wide geographic distribution. The common
STORK.
STORM.
238
young birds, and small mammals.
white stork (Ciconia alba), a migratory native
of the greater part of the Old World, is about
three and a half feet in lengtl1. The head, neck,
and whole body are pure white; the wings partly
black; the bill and legs red. The neck is long,
and generally carried in an arched form; the
feathers of the breast are long and pendulous,
and the bird often has its bill half hidden among
them. The stork frequents marshy places, feed-
ing on eels and other fishes, batrachians, reptiles,
It makes a
rude nest of sticks, reeds, etc., on the tops of
tall trees,“ or of ruins, spires, or disused chim-
neys. The stork has no voice. Its flight is pow-
erful and very high in the air. The flesh is rank,
and not fit for food. Another species, the black
stork (Ciconia nigra), rather smaller, the plu-
mage of the upper parts glossy black, the under
parts white, is also common in many parts of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. The South American
stork (Dissoura maquari) is very similar to the
common stork.
The only birds of this family occurring in
North America are the wood ibises of the South-
ern States and the jabiru (q.v.). They are large
birds, three and a half feet long, with the head
and neck bare, wings and tail black, and rest of
plumage white. They are found in large flocks
and nest in colonies. See ADJUTANT; MARAROU;
SHOE-BILL, etc.; and Colored Plate of WADERS.
FIG. 1.
STORM (AS. storm, OHG. sturm, Ger. Sturm,
storm; probably connected with Gk. bp;u’7, horme,
attack, Skt. sar, to flow, hasten). Any unusual,
severe, or destructive atmospheric phenomenon,
such as a windstorm, sandstorm, tornado, ty-
phoon, or hurricane, in which the wind is the
destructive agent; a rainstorm, hailstorm, or
snowstorm, monsoon, cloudburst, or ‘flood, in
which the precipitation is the prominent fea-
ture; a thunderstorm in which the thunder
is impressive and the lightning is de-
structive; a blizzard, in which the com-
bined cold wind and snow is the prominent
feature. All these storms attend the flow of air
from areas of high to those of low barometric
pressure, or so-called storm centres or ‘lows.’
In general the winds blow around and in toward
these low areas, thereby producing still lower
barometric pressures near the centre. The lower
air, being forced to rise above the earth’s surface,
expands, cools, and precipitates its excess of
moisture, thereby giving us rain, snow, or hail.
Storms are often classified as attending areas
of low pressure, namely, cyclonic storms; or as
attending areas of high pressure, namely, anti-
cyclonic. In all cases the flow of the air is pri-
marily due to differences of density; the denser
air is impelled to the earth’s surface by the force
of gravity and is also pushed by it toward the
equator. But the centrifugal force due to the
diurnal rotation of the earth also Pushes the

CHART SHOWING STORM PATHS.
STORM.
STORM.
239
the lighter moist air. For both reasons, there-
fore, the lighter is raised up by the denser air,
and overflows toward the pole. Now a body on
the earth’s surface and in motion relative to it,
while at the same time rotating with it, will
appear to an observer on the earth to be deflected
toward the right hand as it moves forward in
the Northern Hemisphere, but to the left hand
in the Southern Hemisphere. By virtue of this
deflection the winds that are- blowing toward a
region of low pressure acquire, each for itself, a
deflection toward the right or the left respec-
tively, so that instead of meeting at the centre
they whirl around it in an inflowing spiral curve.
Byreason of this circulation an outward centrif-
ugal pressure is produced, and the barometric
pressure in the central region is much smaller
than it would be if the winds flowed directly to
the centre, without any spiral circulation. In
extensive storm areas this general tendency of
the lower winds to circulate around a centre may
exist over a region a thousand miles or even
more in diameter. .
The mechanical and thermal problems con-
nected with the generation and maintenance of
storms are set forth without technical mathe-
matics by Professor William Ferrel in his Popu-
lar Treatise on the Winds (1st ed., New York,
1889). They are discussed most elaborately in a
technical manner by Prof. F. H. Bigelow in his
Report on International Cloud Work (published
as vol. ii. of the Report of the Chief of the
Weather Bureau for 18.98) . A full presentation
of the work that has been done upon this sub-
ject by all students during the past century will
be found in the Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, by
Prof. Dr. Julius Han'n (Leipzig, 1901), of which
an English translation is promised in the near
future.
As far as possible the paths pursued by storm
centres during past years are platted upon
charts, then they are classified according to their
general characteristics and studied with refer-
ence to their relations to the topography of the 1
continents and the general distribution of the
barometric pressure, temperature, and moisture,
and especially to the so-called general circula-
tion of the atmosphere. The frequency of storms
and the general types of storm paths are, of
course~, best known for the continental portions
of the Northern Hemisphere, but there is also
sufficient data for the oceanic regions to justify
an attempt at presenting the accompanying
sketch chart of the Northern Hemisphere show-
ing the general character of the storm paths and
the locations where they most frequently occur.
(See Fig. 1.) This chart shows by its numerous
lines and arrow heads the occurrence and the di-
rection of motion of storm centres along the lines
of greatest frequency, so far as now known. The
Arctic region, Northern Africa, and Central Asia
must be considered as blanks; we have no daily
maps for these regions, and only know that gen-
eral cyclonic storms are infrequent in Africa and
Asia. The chart shows that storm centres move
slowly westward when within the tropics and
also slowly toward the pole, but move more rap-
idly eastward between the tropics and the Arctic
Circle, as well as more rapidly northward. The
zone of greatest storm frequency lies between
latitudes 45° and 55°. In general the path of
any observed storm may be predicted on the
basis of a simple study of this chart of storm
tracks. But individual temporary departures
from average conditions are so great that in
actual weather forecasts it is necessary to allow
these general maps of types and averages to have
only a very slight influence upon the work. It
is, in fact, always necessary to consider what the
special individual storm has been doing during
the preceding few days, and to what extent it is
normal, and to what extent it is abnormal, as
to the direction and velocity of its motion, and




.36‘
/
4 Y//
FIG. 2. TRACKS OF CENTRES 0]’ LOW AREAS, JANUARY 1901.
STORM.
STORM.
240
the rate of its increase or decrease in intensity.
This can only be done by a careful comparison of
several successive weather maps. As these maps
are made up at least twice a day and sometimes
more frequently, the forecaster is in a position to
say how fast the storm is moving and whether it
is growing more intense or rapidly dying away.
The great irregularities in individual storm
paths may be appreciated by studying the ac-
companying chart (Fig. 2) showing the tracks of
all the centres of low pressure which passed over
the United States during January, 1901. The
storms in that month were unusually severe over
the North Atlantic Ocean. Of the thirteen tracks
that are here charted four moved with a velocity
of over one thousand miles daily; one of them
at a velocity of less than five hundred miles
daily; and one was stationary for one day. Fur-
ther details in regard to these storms are given
in the text of the Monthly Weather Review for
the month in question. More than one-half of
the cyclonic storms that pass over the United
States have been developed somewhere in the
Pacific Ocean. Perhaps one-quarter originated
within the United States. The others are first
perceived off the coasts of the VVest Indies or on
the Gulf of Mexico, The most severe storms are
the hurricanes that begin in the tropical portion
of the Atlantic, move westward and northward
into the South Atlantic or Gulf States, then turn
toward the northeast and disappear while still
moving toward Europe. The paths pursued by
general cyclonic storms are apparently deter-
mined by the so-called general circulation of the
atmosphere, but are modified considerably by the
formation of cloud and rain or snow attending
the storm.
The most extensive condensed collection of
data relative to American storms is found in the
“Contributions to Meteorology,” by Professor
Loomis, as revised and published in the Memoirs
of the National Academy of »8'cienccs-, vols. iii.,
iv., and v. (Washington, 1885, 1887, and 1889).
The details of current storm phenomena are pub-
lished regularly by the Weather Bureau in the
Monthly VVeather Review. The physical-mathe-
matical theories founded by Espy and Ferrel
have been further developed in numerous me-
moirs, some of which will be found in a collec-
tion of translations published by the Smithsonian
Institution in 1891. The current literature is
contained in the successive volumes of the Me-
teorologische Zeitschrift (Berlin) . A general sum-
mary of our knowledge of the mechanics of storms
is given by Prof. F. H. Bigelow in his Report on
International Cloud Work (Washington, 1900).
STORM, storm, GUSTAV (1845-1903). A Nor-
wegian historian, born at Lom. He stud-
ied at Christiania, where he became professor of
history in 1887. His publications, which in-
clude a large number of articles in German and
Scandinavian journals, deal chiefly with early
Scandinavian history. They include Sagnkreds-
ene om Karl den Store og Didrik af Bern
(1874), Kritiske bidrag til vikingetidens historic
( 1878), and a translation of Snorre Sturlasson’s
Kongesagaer (1897), on which he had previously
written his Snorre Sturlassiins historieskrivning
(1873). He also edited the important Monu-
menta historica norvegica (1880). In 1900 the
Norwegian Storthing appropriated twenty thou-
sand kroner for a popular edition of Storm’s
Dano-Norwegian rendering of the H eimskringla,
which had appeared in 1886-89.
STORM, THECDCR (1817-88). A German
poet and novelist, one of the great masters of
that peculiarly German creation, the short story
of character and sentiment. He was born at
Husum, Schleswig, on September 14, 1817,
studied jurisprudence at Kiel and Berlin, and,
returning to Kiel in 1839, became intimate with
the brothers Theodor and Tycho Mommsen,
poetry being the bond of union, especially their
mutual admiration for the Swabian poet Miirike.
The result was the publication of the Lieder-
buch dreier Freunde (1843), now a great rarity,
which contained Storm’s first essays in poetry.
For ten years he practiced law in his native town
and returned to it as Landvogt in 1864, having
entered the~ Prussian civil service in 1853, and
occupied judicial offices at Potsdam and Heili-
genstadt, near Giittingen. In 1880 he retired and
settled at Hademarschen, in Holstein, where he
died on July 4, 1888.
Storm began his literary work at Husum by
collecting the popular sagas and stories of
Schleswig-Holstein, then assisted Biernatzki in
editing his Volksbuch, in which, besides some
exquisite lyrics, his first three important stories,
Martha und ihre Uhr (1848), Im Saale (1849),
and Immensee (1850), saw the light. The last-
named novelette, the author’s most popular and
perhaps also his most characteristic work, was
the crowning achievement of his first period; it
is the best specimen of that retrospective type
of story with which Storm’s name is most in-
timately associated, and deservedly occupies a
place in the front rank of the short stories of
any land or age. Through various translations
it has become familiar also to English readers.
Of about a dozen stories written during the
eleven years of absence from his native soil, Im
Son-nens'che-in (1854) and Angelica (1855) are
sketches of by-gone days, tinged with the elegiac
melancholy which forms the key-note of most of
the author’s stories; Im Schloss (1861) and Von
jenseits des M eeres (1864) boast of happy end-
ings, and Auf der Universitiit (1862) is the most
ambitious story of this period, in which scenes
from Storm’s own student life are charmingly
interwoven. Die Regentrude (1864) is the best
of several delicious fairy-tales. With Storm’s
return to Husum in 1864 his work enters an
essentially new phase, in which the passive
retrospective novel gives place to a more active
and dramatic form of romance. On the one hand
is here to be considered a series of chronicle-
novels, written in an archaic style, comprising
Der Spiegel des Cyprianus (1865), a romantic
tale of the Thirty Years’ War, Aguis submersus
(1876), Renata (1878), Zur Chronik von Cries-
huus (1884), and Ein Fest auf Hadcrslevhuus
(1885); on the other hand some artist-novels,
such as Ein stiller Musikant (1874), and Psyche
(1875). On psychological lines are Viola tri-
color (1873), Carsten Curator (1878), John
Riew (1885), Ein Bekenntnis and Der Schim-
melreiter (1888). Nor should the delightful
children’s story Pole Poppenspiiler (1874) be
forgotten. Consult the biographies by Schiitze
(Berlin, 1887 ) and Wehl (Altona, 1888); also
Erich Schmidt, Charakteristiken,' 1. (Berlin,
1886) ; Stern, Studien eur Litteratur der Gegew
denser air toward the equator harder than it does
STORM.
241 STORM AND WEATHER SIGNALS.
wart (Dresden, 1895).; Robertson, in The Gentle-
man’s Magazine (London, 1895) ; and Remer,
Theodor Storm als norddeutscher Dichter (Ber-
lin, 1897) .
STORM AND STRESS (Ger. Sturm und
Drang). The name of an emancipatory move-
ment in German literature. It received the title
from that of a typical drama. by Klinger (1776),
who wrote under the influence of Rousseau, with
‘originality’ and ‘genius’ as his watchwords. To
this movement belong Goethe’s Gdtz von Berlich-
ingen, Schiller’s Die Rriuber, and countless works
of similar striving but inferior worth. See
GERMAN LITERATURE.
STORM AND WEATHER SIGNALS.
Flags, semaphores, lanterns, steam whistles, and
other devices exhibited or sounded to inform
mariners and others of storms or weather condi-
Direction of Storm
S“'V"“'¥ F E
Wind moving Wind moving
SE ¥ NE 7
from west from east
toeast to west
GERMAN STORM SIGNALS.
The symbols and signals used at the ports of
the Orient depend upon the nationality of the
port.
The arrangement of flags used in the United
States by the United States Weather Bureau
for storm warnings differs from that for weather
Cautionary
signal
tions. The display of such warnings resulted forecasts and is shown in the accompanying il-
from the personal studies in more or lustratmns.
less coiipe ration H 0
_ . urncane
about the mlddle of Storm warnings warning.
the nineteenth cen-
tury. Storm and
weather signals,
properly -so called,
began to be displayed
about 1863 in Eng-
land by Captain
Fitzroy; in France
by Leverrier; and in
Belgium by Buys-
Ballot. The Ameri-
can system of obser-
vations began in 1870 and storm signals were
first displayed in the autumn of 1871. At the
present time every civilized nation and every
port of any importance has some method of
signaling or otherwise informing navigators of
approaching storms. Among the systems that
are now in use are the following:
The semaphore is a simple vertical post having
two or more arms attached that can be set at
different angles with the vertical. The sema-
phore was introduced as a telegraphic apparatus
about 1790, and numerous semaphore stations
are still maintained in Europe and in various
colonies. See SIGNALING AND TELEGRAPHING,
MILITARY, for illustration.
The Dutch and Belgian aéroklinoscope (q.v.),
is a modified semaphore, in which the po-
sition of the arm indicates the direction of the
barometric gradient and consequently of the wind
that is nearly perpendicular to that.
The British system of storm warnings utilizes
a cone by day and three red lights, arranged as
South Cone North Gone a‘ tnangle’ ,by n1ght' If
the cone point downward
it indicates a storm wind
BRITISH sronn SIGNALS.


NE. Winds
from the southeast, veer-
ing through south to the
northwest. If the cone
point upward it indicates a northwest gale veer-
ing through the north to northeast.
The German system consists of cones and
double cones by day, and a single red lantern by
night. The accompanying diagram shows the ar-
rangement of the cones. The change in direction
of the wind is indicated by red flags. If the
wind is expected to vary from west of north to
cast, a single flag is raised; if the movement is in
the opposite direction, two flags.


SE. Winds








I) 2
))I)Ifff.IIl.
EXPLANATION or UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU STORM
AMD HURRICANE WARNINGS.
Storm Warning. A red flag with a black centre indicates
that a storm of marked violence is expected.
The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the
direction of the wind; red, easterly (from northeast to
south); white, westerly (from southwest to north). The
pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is expected
to blow from the northerly quadrants; below, from the
southerly quadrants.
By night a red light indi- cates easterly winds, and a
white light above a red light, westerly winds
Hurricane Warning. Two red flags with black centres,
displayed one above the other, indicate the expected ap-
proach of a tropical hurricane, or one of those extremely
severe and dangerous storms which occasionally move
across the lakes and northern Atlantic coast.
N 0 night hurricane warnings are displayed.
Signals for the weather forecasts are as fol-
lows:
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5.
Fair Rain Local Rain Tem- Cold
Weather. or Snow. or Snow. perature. Wave.
INTERPRETATION on DISPLAYS.
No. 1, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tempera-
ture.
I No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tempera.-
ture.
No. 3, alone, indicates local rain or snow, stationary
temperature.
No. 1, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather,
warmer.
No. 1, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather. colder.
No. 2. with No. 4 above it, indicates rain or snow,
warmer.
No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates rain or snow, colder.
No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates local rain or snow,
warmer. .
No. 3. with No. 4 below it, indicates local rain or snow,
colder.
When a steam whistle is used for weather
signals a warning blast of from 15 to 20 seconds’
k A
NW. Winds SW. Winds
STORM AN D WEATHER SIGNALS.
STORY.
242
duration is first sounded and then the longer
blasts (4 to 6 seconds), which refer to weather,
and the shorter blasts (1 to 3 seconds), which
refer to temperature, the former being sounded


first. The signals are as follows: '
BLABTB Indicate
One long. Fair weather
Two long ....Rain or snow
Three long ....... ..Local rain or snow
One short .................. .; ..................... ..Lower temperature
Two short ........................................ ..Higher temperature
Three short ...................................... ..Cold wave
These signals may be repeated to avoid error.
STORM KING. A rocky peak of the High-
lands of the Hudson, 1530 feet in height, 4 miles
north of West Point. Its Dutch name was Bo-
terberg, Butter Mountain. At its foot lies the
town of Cornwall.
STORMS, CAPE or. See CAPE or STORMS.
STORM VAN ’SGRAVESANDE, viin sgr3i'-
ve-ziin’de. A name sometimes applied to the
Dutch mathematician Willem Gravesande (q.v.) .
STOR’NOWAY. The chief town of Lewis
with Harris (q.v.) , an island of the Outer Hebri-
des, Scotland (Map: Scotland, B 1). Its chief
feature is the palatial Stornoway Castle, com-
pleted in 1870. It is an important fishing sta-
tion, exporting large quantities of fish to home
and Baltic ports, and has a fine harbor, covering
a square mile. Urban population, in 1901, 3711;
of parish, in 1901, 12,983.
STORRS, CHARLES BAoKUs (1794-1833). An
American Congregational minister. He was born
at Longmeadow, Massachusetts, and entered
Princeton College, but, owing to ill health, did
not graduate. He studied theology at Andover
and was ordained in South Carolina in 1821. He
was pastor in Ravenna, Ohio, 1822-28, was chosen
professor of divinity in Western Reserve College
in 1828, and president, 1831.
STORRS, RICHARD SALTER (1821-1900). An
American Congregational minister, born at
Braintree, Mass. He graduated at Amherst Col-
lege, 1839, and Andover Theological Seminary,
1845; was ordained pastor of the Harvard Con-
gregational Church, Brookline, Mass., the same
year; pastor of the Church of the Pilgrims,
Brooklyn, N. Y., 1846, and so remained till his
death. He was much sought after as an orator
on special occasions and as lecturer, and his best
known works were composed in answer to such
demands. But he united learning with oratorical
power, and his works have permanent elements.
Among them are_: The Wisdom, Power, and Good-
ness of God as M anifested in the Constitution of
the Human Soul (the Graham Lectures, 1857) ;
The Conditions of Success in Preaching Without
Notes (1875); The Early American Spirit and
the Genesis of It (1875); The Declaration of
Independence and the Effects of It (1876) ; John
Wyclifie and the First English Bible (1880);
The Recognition of the Supernatural in Letters
and Life (1881) ; Manliness in the Scholar
(1883) ; The Divine Origin of Christianity Indi-
cated by Its Historical Effects (1884) ; The
Puritan Spirit (1890); Bernard of Clairvauw,
the Times, the Man, and His Work (1892).
STORES, WILLIAM Lucrus (1795-1861). An
American jurist, born at Middletown, Conn. He
graduated at Yale College, 1814; studied law at
Whitestown, N. Y.; was admitted to the bar in
1817; resided and practiced law in Middletown;
and was a member of Congress 1829-33 and
1839-40. He was a Whig in politics. In the
latter year he was appointed associate judge of
the State Supreme Court of Errors; Chief Jus-
tice, 1856; and was professor of law in Yale Col-
lege, 1846-47. His decisions are printed in the
Connecticut Reports.
STORTHING, stor’ting. The legislative as-
sembly of Norway (q.v.).
STO’RY, JOSEPH (1779-1845). An eminent
American jurist and judge, born at Marblehead,
Mass. He graduated from Harvard College
in 1798, studied law, and was admitted to
the bar in 1801. For a time he gave con-
siderable attention to general literature and
poetry. In 1804 he published The Power of Soli-
tude, and other poems, which were not favorably
received. He was discouraged by this failure,
which he always felt keenly, and thereafter de-
voted himself to law and politics. He was elected
to the State Legislature in 1805 and became
a leader‘ of the Republican, or, as it was after-
wards called, the Democratic Party, and defended
the measures of Jefferson. In 1808 he was
elected to Congress, and although he was not in
sympathy with the administration, President
Madison, in 1811, appointed him associate jus-
tice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
He was then only thirty-two years of age. In
1820, as a member of the Massachusetts Con-
stitutional Convention, he advocated a property
basis for the Senate. In 1829 he was appointed
professor of law at Harvard, and taught law very
successfully for sixteen years, at the same time
serving on the Supreme Court bench. He was
opposed to slavery, and was accordingly very
unpopular in certain sections of the country.
He presided as acting Chief Justice of the Su-
preme Court for some time after the death of
Marshall, and probably only his attitude toward
the administration prevented his selection as
the permanent Chief Justice. During his long
service on the bench he decided many admiralty
and patent law cases which are authority at the
present time, and he shared with Chancellor
Kent the distinction of molding American
equity jurisprudence. He wrote the opinion in
the celebrated Dartmouth College case, which
has been the subject of much criticism, although
recognized as an able effort. He received the
degree of LL.D. from Brown in 1815, from
Harvard in 1821, and from Dartmouth in 1824.
He continued his labors on the bench and in the
law school until his death at Cambridge in 1845.
His legal writings and decisions are still frequent-
ly quoted in the highest courts of the United
States and England. He published the follow-
ing legal works: Commentaries on the Law of
Bailments (Boston, 1832) ; Commentaries on the
Constitution of the United States (1833) ; Con-
flict of Laws (1834) ; Commentaries on Equity
Jurisprudence (1835-36); and works on Bells
and Notes, Partnership, Agency, and Equity
Pleadings, at later dates. All of his works have
gone through many editions, and are still used.
See Life and Letters of Joseph Story, by W. W.
Story (Boston, 1851).
STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819-95). An
American author and sculptor. He was born at
Salem, Mass., the son of Justice Story of the
United States Supreme Court. After studying
STORY.
STO SS.
243
law at Harvard College, and under his father’s
direction, he was admitted to the bar, and prac-
ticed his profession in Boston. He published
several legal books, among them: Reports of
Cases Argued and Determined in the Circuit
Court of the United States (1842-47) ; a Treatise
on the Law of Contracts (1844) ; and a Treatise
on the Law of Sales of Personal Property (1847).
In 1848 he gave up law and went to Italy, where
he made- his home, residing principally at Rome,
and died at Vallombrosa. The list of his works
as a sculptor includes monuments, statues, ideal
figures, and portrait busts. In the Metropolitan
Museum, New York City, are the statues of
Cleopatra (1864) and Semiramis (1874); other
works by him include a statue of his father
(Mount Auburn Cemetery) ; Edward Everett
(Boston Public Gardens); a bronze statue of
George Peabody, erected in London (replica,
Baltimore, 1888) ; and the monument of Francis
Scott Keys in the Golden Gate Park, San Fran-
cisco. His last work was the “Angel of Grief,”
a monument erected to his wife, whom he sur-
vived but a year. His work is done in the
classical style, showing, however, some slight
tendency toward realism. Story was prolific in
literature as well as in art. He published The
American Question (1862) ; R0-ba di Roma
(1862) ; Proportions of the Human Figure
(1866) ; Graffiti d’Italia (1869) ; five volumes of
his poems; and the Life a-nd Letters of Joseph
Story (1851). Story was United States com-
missioner on fine arts to the VVorld’s Fair at
Paris (1879), and received decorations from
France and Italy. An admirable Life of Story
by Henry James appeared in 1903 (London and
New York) .—His son, JULIAN STQBY, a portrait
painter, was a student of Duveneck, Boulanger,
and Lefebvre. He received a gold medal in Ber-
lin in 1891, was elected a member of the Society
of American Artists in 1892, and won a silver
medal at the Paris Exposition of 1900. Among
his sitters were King Edward VII. and Emma
Eames, whom he married.
STOSCH, stosh, ALBRECHT von (1818-96). A
German general and naval administrator, born at
Coblenz. He received a military education and
was commissioned lieutenant in 1835. He en-
tered the general staff in 1855, and became chief
of -staff of the Fourth Army Corps in 1861 and
major-general in 1866. In the Seven Weeks’
War he was quartermaster-general of the Second
Army. In the same year he was appointed di-
rector of the commissary department with the
rank of lieutenant-general, and was chief of staff
with the army left in France after the conclu-
sion of peace. In 1872 he was appointed chief
of the admiralty, and in 1876 received the title
of admiral. While holding these offices he
greatly increased the power and efliciency of the
German navy. He retired in 1883 and-died Feb-
ruary 29th, 1896.
STOSS, st6s, VEIT (c.1440-1533) . A celebrated
German sculptor and engraver, the chief master
of wood-carving in Germany. Beyond the fact
' that Nuremberg was his birthplace, nothing cer-
tain is known of his parentage, his youth and
apprenticeship, but very probably he was reared
in the school of Michel Wohlgemuth. The first
definite mention of him dates from 1477, when
he removed to Cracow, where he was held in
great esteem and whence he returned in 1496, a
Well-to-do man, since in 1499 he bought a stately
mansion at Nuremberg and made other invest-
ments besides. As to his subsequent life, we are
informed that he caused much distress to the
honorable council of Nuremberg, involved the
city in litigation, and forged an obligatory bill,
a crime which was then punishable by death.
The council, however, by a special act of mercy,
commuted the sentence to having him branded
(1503), both his cheeks being pierced with a hot
iron by the executioner. For breaking his oath
not to leave the city, he subsequently had to
suffer imprisonment, and in 1533 died, it is said,
totally blind, at the age of ninety-five. This
restless and graceless citizen, this forger and
perjurer was nevertheless an artist of the most
tender and feeling conception, whose works dis-
play the youthful purity of the Madonna and
other saints as few of the masters of his time
have done.
His earliest work on record is the “High
Altar,” in Saint Mary’s at Cracow, executed in
1477-89, with the “Death of the Virgin” and
the “Assumption” in the middle shrine, a work
praised as a wonder of art by the master’s con-
temporaries and to this day reckoned among the
most perfect creations of its kind, exhibiting the
artist’s chief characteristics: vivid description,
varied and animated figures, and rich drapery.
Next followed, in 1492, the “Monument of King
Casimir IV.,” in the Cross Chapel of the Cathe-
dral, a work of solemn splendor and withal of
dignified simplicity. The earliest of his sculp-
tures executed at Nuremberg are the three stone
reliefs of the “Last Supper,” “Christ on the Mount
of Olives,” and “Taking of Christ” (1499), in
the ambulatory of Saint Sebaldus; over the high
altar in the same church rises the “Crucifix and
Figures of Mary and Saint John,” designated as
his last work (1526). Of the main altar in the
Frauenkirche, only the heroic size statue of the
“Madonna” (1504) is preserved, besides two re-
liefs. The taper-bearing angels in the choir of
this church are also by Stoss. In the Germanic
Museum may be seen the noble high-relief of the
“Crowning of the Virgin by God and Christ,”
clear in composition and executed with masterly
perfection; and the wooden paneling known as
the “Rose Garland,” in the centre reliefs of the
Last Judgment and of the Heavenly Host grouped
around a cross of Saint Anthony within a garland
of roses, the whole framed by twenty-three mi-
nute reliefs of scenes from biblical history. Seven
more reliefs, which formed part of this work, are
now in the Berlin Museum. Noteworthy is the
large “Pieta” in the Jacobskirche, which also
contains several smaller but very able Works of
the master, but his best-known and chief work
in carved wood is “The Angel’s Salutation”
(1518), in the Church of Saint Lawrence, the
central group of heroic size surrounded by a
chaplet of roses in which are set seven medallions
with the Joys of the Virgin in bas-relief, a work
unique in beauty and conception. He executed
the superbly carved altar-pieces in the parish
church at Schwabach (1506) and in the upper
parish church at Bamberg (1523). His engrav-
ings, scenes from the Passion, severe in style
and dating from his early period, are now‘ very
rare. Consult: Bergau, Der Bildschnitzer Veit
STO SS.
STOUGHTO N.
24-4
Stoss und seine Werke (Leipzig, 1877) ; Ree, in
Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xxxvi. (ib.,
1893); Bode, Geschichte der deutschen Plastilc
(Berlin, 1887) ; and Liibke, History of Sculpture,
trans. by Bunnett, ii. (London, 1872).
STOTHARD, stoTn’erd, CHARLES ALFRED
(1786-1821). An English antiquarian draughts-
man, the second son of the painter Thomas
Stothard. He was born in London, studied at
the Royal Academy Schools, and exhibited his
best painting, “The Death of Richard 11.,” in
1811. Afterwards he worked on the Magna
Britannia (1815), and became historical
draughtsman to the Society of Antiquaries. In
that -capacity he made drawings of the Bayeux
tapestry, which were published in the society’s
Vetusta M onumenta (1821-23). His most impor-
tant work was the Monumental Efligies of Great
Britain (1811-21), which was completed by
other artists, and republished in 1876. His
drawings are all of remarkable accuracy.—His
widow, ANN ELIZA KEMPE (1790-1883), who
afterwards married Edward Atkyns Bray, was a.
well-known author. She wrote Memoirs of C. A.
Stothard (1823). See BBAY, Mas. ANN ELIZA
KEMPE (STOTHABD) .
STOTHARD, THOMAS (1755-1834). An Eng-
lish illustrator and painter, born in London.
In 1777 he entered the schools of the
Royal Academy, and exhibited his first pic-
ture, the “Holy Family,” in 177 8. In 1779 he en-
tered upon his career as an illustrator of books.
More than 3000 of his designs were engraved,
the greater number of which are to be found in
the British Museum. Although lacking in tem-
perament, his illustrations are characterized by
grace and charm and -by a sympathetic touch,
especially when he depicted the loveliness of
childhood. Stothard illustrated the novels of
Fielding, Richardson, and Sterne; Don Quiaote,
Gil Blas, Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver’s Travels,
the Arabian Nights, Clarissa H arlowe, and Tris-
tram Shandy; he also made designs to Milton
(1792-93), Pope’s Rape of the Lock (1798),
and Shakespeare’s Seven Ages of Man (1790).
As a painter he is less important. He designed
decorations for the staircase at Burghley (1799),
the cupola of the upper hall of the Signet Li-
brary (1822) at Edinburgh, and the decora-
tions of the drawing-room, throne-room, and
great staircase of Buckingham Palace. Of his
easel pictures, the National Gallery possesses
“Venus and Cupid Attended by the Graces”
(1824), the ‘Woodland Dance,” and the “Myth
of Narcissus” (1793). Consult Mrs. Bray, Life
of Thomas Stothard (London, 1851).
STOUGHTON, sto'ton. A town, including
several’ villages, in Norfolk County, Mass., 18
miles south of Boston, on the New York, New
Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: Massachu-
setts, E 3). It has a public library with over
7000 volumes, and a handsome town hall. Boot
and shoe making, and the manufacture of wool-
ens, rubber goods, boxes, and wire are the chief
industries. The government is administered by
town meetings, convening annually. The water-
works are owned and operated by the town.
Population, in 1890, 4852; in 1900, 5442. Stough-
ton, named in honor of Governor William Stough-
ton, was set off from Dorchester and incorporated
in 1726. Consult Hurd, History of Norfolk
County (Philadelphia, 1884) .
STOUGHTON, ISRAEL ( ?-c.1645). An Ameri-
can colonist, born in England. He was one of
the founders of Dorchester, Mass., and in 1633
he became a freeman of the colony. Though a
member of the General Court in 1634 and 1635,‘
he wrote a pamphlet denying the right of the
assistants to act as magistrates. As a punish-
ment, the Government debarred him from holding
public office for three years, but upon his mak-
ing a humble submission revoked the sentence.
From 1637 to 1643 he himself was chosen an
assistant, and in 1637 he was appointed com,-
mander of the colony’s troops in the Pequot
VVar. In 1639 he was a commissioner in the
boundary controversy with Plymouth. Five
years later he went to England, where he en-
tered the Parliamentary forces with the rank of
lieutenant-colonel and probably fought at the
battle of N aseby. At his death he left 300 acres
of land in Dorchester to Harvard University.
Consult Quincy, History of Harvard University
(Boston, 1860).
STOUGHTON, JOHN (1807-97). An English
dissenting preacher and ecclesiastical historian.
He was born in Norwich, and after receiving
an elementary education entered a law
office. He abandoned the law for the
mmistry, and after some preparation in
Highbury College he was ordained in 1833. In
1872 he was elected professor of historical theol-
ogy in New College, Saint John’s Wood, though
he still occasionally preached. In 1862 he pub-
lished Church and State, Two Hundred Years
Ago 1660-63. His other important
works are: Ecclesiastical History of England
from the Opening of the Long Parliament to
the Death of Oliver Cromwell (1867); The
Church of the Restoration (1870) ; The Church
of the Revolution (1874) ; Religion in England
Under Queen Anne and the Georges (1878);
Religion in England from 1800 to 1850 (1884).
Though somewhat diffuse, these histories are
thorough and impartial: Consult his Recol-
lections of a Long Life (London, 1894).
STOUGHTON, WILLIAM (c.1632-1701). A
colonial Governor of Massachusetts. He was
born in England, early emigrated to America,
graduated at Harvard in 1650, and was a fellow
at New College, Oxford, from 1652 until ejected
at the time of the Restoration ( 1660). Return-
ing to Massachusetts, he was a selectman from
1671 to 1674, an assistant from 1671 to l686—-
though in 1684 he refused to serve-—and a com-
missioner of the United Colonies from 1673 to
1677, and again from 1680 to 1686. In 1677 he
went to England as the agent of his colony in a
boundary dispute with New Hampshire. He was
a member of Governor Andros’s Council, but,
nevertheless, served on the Council of Safety
that deposed him, and from 1692 until his death
was Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts, being
acting Governor from the recall (1694) of Sir
William Phipps until the arrival (1699) of
Lord Bellomont. In 1692 he was chief justice
of the special court of oyer and terminer by
which the Salem ‘witches’ were tried, and, as
such, treated the accused with relentless severity.
He was a liberal benefactor of Harvard, and
it was for him that Stoughton Hall was
named. He published New England’s True In-
terest Not to Lie, the election sermon preached
by him in Boston in 1668, and a pamphlet en.-
_ STOUGHTON.
STOWE.
245
titled A N arratine of the Proceedings of Andros
(1691).
STOUGHTON MUSICAL SOCIETY. See
CHOBAL SOCIETIES.
STOURBRIDGE, steflbrij. A town in
Worcestershire, England, 20 miles north-north-
east of Worcester, on the Stour (Map: England,
D 4). It contains iron, glass, earthenware, and
fire-brick factories. ‘Stourbridge clay,’ upon
which the action of fire has less effect than upon
most varieties of clay, is an article of export.
Conservatory pots, crucibles, etc., are made of it.
In the grammar school founded in 1552, and re-
built in 1864, Samuel Johnson received part of
his education. Population, in 1891, 14,891; in
1901, 16,302.
STOURM, st6'6rm, RENE (1837—) . A French
economist, born and educated in Paris. He
was employed in a department of the Min-
istry of Finance, became professor of finance
in the Ecole Libre des Science Politiques,
and in 1896 succeeded Léon Say as a member ‘of
the Academy of Political and Moral Sciences.
On the history of finance, and more especially of
taxation, he wrote Les finances de l’ancien régime
et de la récolution (1885) ; Le budget, son his-
toire et son mécanisme (1889) ; Syste‘mes ge'ne'-
rauac d’imp6ts (1893) ; Bibliographic historique
des finances de la France du XVIIIéme siecle
(1895) ; and Les finances du consulat (1902).
STOUT. See BEER.
STOUT, Gnonen FREDERICK (1859—). An
English psychologist, born at South Shields, and
educated at the Charlotte Terrace School in his
native town and at Saint J ohn’s College, Cam-
bridge. He was made a fellow at Saint John’s
College in 1884, and succeeded Croom Robertson
as editor of Mind in 1891. After holding various
academic positions in the field of philosophy
and psychology, he was appointed in 1903 pro-
fessor of logic and metaphysics in the University
of Saint Andrews. His chief published works
are: -Analytic Psychology (1896); Manual of
Psychology (1899) ; “Truth and Error,” in Per-
sonal Idealism (1902) ; Groundwork of Psychol-
ogy (1903). As a pupil of James Ward (q.v.),
Stout infused into the traditional English
psychology something of his teacher’s critical
spirit. His Analytic Psychology is planned,
however, as a preliminary to a larger work on
genetic psychology, in which especial attention
is to be devoted to ethnographic evidence.
STOVE. See HEATING AND VENTILATION.
STOW, JOHN (1525-1605). One of the earliest
and most diligent collectors of English antiqui-
ties. He was brought up to his father’s trade
of a tailor, but ultimately abandoned it for
antiquarian pursuits. His principal works are
his Summary of English Chronicles, first pub-
lished in 1561, and subsequently reprinted every
two or three years, with a continuation to the
date of each new publication; Annals of England,
1580, and reprinted in 1592, to which year the
annals are brought down; and A Survey of Lon-
don, the most important of his writings, pub-
lished in 1598. Besides these original works,
Stow assisted in the continuation of Holinshed’s
Chronicle, Speght’s edition of Chaucer, Leland’s
Collectanea, etc.
STOWE, sto, CALVIN ELLIS (1802-86). An
American clergyman and author, born in Natick,
Mass. He was educated at Bowdoin College and
at Andover Theological Seminary. From 1830 to,
1832 he was professor of Greek at Dartmouth
College, and in the latter year became professor
of sacred literature at Lane Theological Semi-
nary, Cincinnati, where in 1836 he married
Harriet, the daughter of Lyman Beecher, then
president of the seminary. From 1850 to 1852
he was professor of divinity at Bowdoin College,
and from 1852 until his retirement in 1864 was
professor of sacred literature in Andover Theo-
logical Seminary. Among his published works
are: The Hebrew Commonwealth (1829), from
the German of Gahn; Lectures on the Sacred
Poetry of the Hebrews (1829), from the Latin
of Lowth; Introduction to the Criticism and
Interpretation of the Bible (1835) ; Elementary
Education in Europe (1837) ; The Religious Ele-
ment in Education (1844) ; and The Origin and
History of the Books of the Bible (1867).
STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH (Bnncnnn)
(1811-96) . A famous American novelist, born in
Litchfield, Conn. She was the daughter of the
Rev. Lyman Beecher, and sister of Henry Ward
Beecher. She attended school at Litchfield Acad-
emy and later at Hartford. In 1832 her father
was called to the presidency of Lane Theological
Seminary at Cincinnati, Ohio. While living in
that city she gained a personal acquaintance with
the ways of slavery, especially in regard to the
handling of fugitive slaves and the attitude of
the South toward the abolitionists. The impres-
sion was strengthened by several journeys into
some of the slave States with her husband, the
Rev. Calvin E. Stowe, a strong anti-slavery man,
whom she married in 1836. In 1843 Mrs. Stowe
published her first book, entitled The Mayflower,
or Sketches of Scenes and Characters Among
the Descendants of the Pilgrims. In 1850 her
husband was called to Bowdoin College, Bruns-
wick, Maine, and in the interval before his trans-
fer to the chair of sacred literature at Andover
(Mass.) Theological Seminary, two years later,
she wrote the book by which she is most widely
known, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, or Life Among the
Lowly. The novel appeared in the National Era
of Washington, D. C., between June, 1851, and
April, 1852, in which latter year it was issued
in book form in Boston. As a serial it attracted
no unusual notice, but as a book its success,
after a few weeks, was unprecedented. Five hun-
dred thousand copies were sold in the United
States in five years, and many more in England,
and it has been translated into at least nineteen
foreign languages. In the following year Mrs.
Stowe, in reply to various inquiries, criticisms,
and censures, published A Key to Uncle Tom’s
Cabin. She also write, in the same year, A Peep
into Uncle Tom’s Cabin, for Children.
The health of Mrs. Stowe was impaired by the
excitement of her work, and in 1853 she went to
Europe. On her return she published (1854)
Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands, two volumes
relating her travels. She then returned to the
attack against slavery in Dred: A Tale of the
Great Dismal Swamp (1856 ; at one time entitled
Nina Gordon), but without the unction and suc-
cess of her former work. Thenceforth her writ-
ing consisted chiefly of novels of quiet New Eng-
land life, with which she was familiar,~ and ex-
cept for her polemic book, Lady Byron Vindi-
STOWE.
STBABO.
246
cat-eel‘: A History of the Byron Controversy
(1869), and her article in Macmiilan’s Maga-
zine which had occasioned that discussion, her
works were comparatively free from the didactic
spirit. The chief titles are: The Minister’s
Wooing (1859); The Pearl of Orr’s Island
(1862); Agnes of Sorrento (1862); Religious
Poems (1867) ; Oldtown Folks (1869) ; Pink and
White Tyranny (1871) ; Sam Lawson’s Fireside
Stories (1871); My Wife and I (1871); Pal-
metto Leaves (1873); We and Our Neighbors
(1875) ; and Pogannc People (1878). Of these,
the best are The M inister’s Wooing and Oldtown
Folks, which were greatly praised by such critics
as Lowell. She removed from Andover to Hart-
ford in 1864, and in 1868 became associated with
D. G. Mitchell in the editorship of Hearth and
Home.
Mrs. Stowe is remembered chiefly as the author
of probably the most potent and widely read
novel in modern literature. Though, like almost
all her novels, loose and rambling in structure,
Uncle Tom’s Cabin has abundant vitality, and
is the work of a genuine story-teller. It also
has the unusual fortune of being at once a cause
and an outcome of a heated national struggle;
no novel was ever better timed for an occasion,
and few have aroused so much admiration and
dislike. Soon after. its publication the book
was dramatized, and probably no other play has
been produced so many times or seen by so
many people. Both in its original and in its
numerous stage versions it still holds popular
favor in spite of occasional protests. The char-
acter Uncle Tom was drawn from the life of
Josiah Henson (q.v.).
Consult: the Life by Charles E. Stowe (Bos-
ton, 1889); and Life and Letters, by Mrs.
Annie Fields (Boston, 1899).
STOWELL, sto’el, WILLIAM Scorr, Baron
(1745-1836). A British admiralty and ecclesias-
tical judge and jurist‘. He was the eldest brother
of Lord Eldon (q.v.). He was born at Heworth,
Durham, was educated at Newcastle went to
Oxford in 1761, and became a college tutor. In
1779 he removed to London, was called to the
bar (1780), and admitted to the faculty of ad-
vocates at doctors’ commons. In 1788 he was
appointed judge in the Consistory Court, knight-
ed, and nominated a privy councilor. In 1798
he became judge of the Court of Admiralty.
Both as an ecclesiastical and admiralty
judge he won high distinction. He practically
created much of the admiralty law of England.
He drew on the Roman law, and the maritime
law of all nations, ancient and modern, and his
opinions, therefore, were very scholarly. He
wrote no systematic treatise or text-book, but his
judgments were admirably reported, and supply
the best evidence of his extensive legal learning,
his sagacity, and his great literary ability. He
is the highest English authority on the law of
nations, and his judgments—those especially re-
lating to the rights of belligerents and neutrals
-——have been described as the most valuable con-
tribution made by an English judge to general
jurisprudence since the time of Lord Mansfield.
He represented Oxford in the House of Commons
for twenty years, but he took no part in the busi-
ness of Parliament, although he was a zealous
supporter of the Conservative Party and the
Established Church. At the coronation of
George IV. he was raised to the peerage under
the title of Baron Stowell of Stowell Park.
STRABISMUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
yég, a squinting, from o'TpaB6g, strabos, crooked,
from o'Tp颣w, strephein, to twist, turn about), or
SQUINT. A well-known and common deformity
which may be defined as a want of parallelism in
the visual axes when the patient endeavors to
direct both eyes to an object at the same time.
The eye which is directed toward the object
looked at is called the fixing eye, the other the
squinting eye. The squint is said to be con-
vergent when the eye or eyes are directed toward
the nose, divergent when they are directed toward
the temple, and vertical when directed upward or
downward. The last is often associated with con-
vergent squint. The divergent form is compara-
tively rare, and occurs most often with myopia.
Squint is of two kinds: (1) paralytic, and
(2) concomitant. Paralytic squint is caused by
paralysis of one or more of the ocular muscles.
There is inability to move the affected eyeball
away from the side toward which it is directed.
When both eyes are turned toward the side to
which the squinting eye is directed, the squint
disappears. The head is held in a characteristic
position in every variety of paralysis of the
muscles of the eyeball, an attempt of nature to
compensate for the squint by turning the head
in such a direction that the squinting eye is
directed toward objects in front of the body.
There is diplopia, double vision, unless the
squinting eye is the one fixed on the object. By
the position of the double image, it is possible to
determine which muscle is affected. The eye
involved is often closed in order to avoid the
second image, which is confusing in walking.
For example, a person with paralysis of the su-
perior oblique muscle while descending stairs
sees two steps instead of one, and is often led to
attempt to reach the false image, with disas-
trous results. The paralysis may be due to a
lesion at any point between the cerebral cortex
and the muscle. Syphilis is the most common
cause; others are cold, rheumatism, and acute
infectious disease. The treatment is that of the
cause, exercise of the muscles, the use of prisms
to relieve the diplopia, and operation as in con-
comitant squint if necessary. In concomitant
squint there is the same deviation of the eyes in
every position, and both eyes possess a normal
range of movement. Squint may be alternating,
in which the patient fixes with either eye; finned;
or unilateral, in which the squint is confined to
one eye; in regard to permanency it may be con-
stant or periodic. In concomitant squint there
is rarely double vision, one image being disre-
garded. Uncorrected errors of refraction, con-
genital feebleness of vision, opacities of the
cornea or media, or other disease of the eye,
combined with weakness of -a muscle, leads to
concomitant squint, for, as the sight in one eye
is imperfect, there is little inducement to make
the muscular effort to keep the two parallel.
The treatment includes correction of errors of
refraction by glasses, exercise of the muscles by
prisms, and operative methods. The last may
be division of the short tendon or advancement
of that of the opposing muscle, or a combination
of these procedures.
STRA'BO (Lat., from Gk. Zrpaflwv, Strabo'n)
(c. 64 13.0.-19 A.D.). A famous Greek geographer
o’Tpa,3w-
STRABO.
STRADELLA.
247
and historian, born at Amasia, in Pontus. He
received his education first at Nysa, on the
Meander, from the gramrnarian AI-istodemus
and appears to have come to Rome with the
Peripatetic Xenarchus and the grammarian
Tyrannion, whose pupil he had also been. The
date of his arrival seems to have been about B.C.
29. In B.C. 24 he left Rome in the train of
fElius Gallus, traveled in Arabia, and, returning
to Rome in 13.0. 20, made it his home until his
death. Yet during this latter period he must
have undertaken great journeys, for he informs
us in his own work that he had traveled from
Armenia in the east to Sardinia in the west,
and from the Pontus Euxinus on the north to the
borders of Ethiopia. \Vhile we lack certain in-
formation with regard to these journeys, Strabo’s
scanty knowledge of events in Rome in the lat-
ter half of Augustus’s rule gives basis to the
conjecture that he was absent during this period,
very probably at the Court of Pythodoris, Queen
of Pontus, of whom he makes frequent mention
in his work. Strabo is most famous for his
Geographi , extant in 17 books, of which the first
two deal with physical geography, books 3 to 10
with the geography of Europe, 11 to 16 with that
of Asia, and book 17 with that of Africa. It is
quite clear from internal evidence that the au-
thor did not complete his original plan. The
sources of his knowledge were first of all his
own observations made during his long journeys,
and secondly the earlier geographers, of whom
the most famous were Eratosthenes, Artemi-
dorus, and Apollodorus of Athens. For Spain
and Gaul his chief sources were Polybius and
Posidonius.
His other work, of which we have but scanty
fragments, was his History, which comprised 43
books. It was intended as a supplement to the
work of Polybius and was divided into two parts.
The first part sketched the history down to the
period at which Polybius began; the latter treat-
ed in greater detail the history from Polybius to
B.C. 27. The fragments of this work are published
by Miiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Grazcorum,
vol. iii. Consult also Otto. “Strabonis loropucibv
im-o,uw7,uarwv Fragmenta,” in Leipeiger Stu-
dien, vol. xi. (1889). The Geography is edited
by Kramer (Berlin, 1844-52); Meineke (Leip-
zig, 1866-77). English translation by Hamil-
ton in Bohn’s Classical Library (London, 1887) ;
translation of selections, with introduction,
maps, and plans, by Tozer (Oxford, 1893).
STRACHAN, straK’an, JOHN (1778-1867).
A Canadian Anglican bishop. He was born in
Aberdeen, Scotland, was educated at King’s Col-
lege in that city and at the University of Saint
Andrews, and in 1799 emigrated to Canada. In
1812 he removed to York, now Toronto, and was
appointed rector there. In 1839 he was made
Bishop of Toronto. The chief cause of the vio-
lent opposition his policy aroused was his de-
termined effort to establish the Church of Eng-
land as a State Church. When the University
of King’s College was changed from its character
as an Anglican institution, Bishop Strachan
founded Trinity College in its stead. His per-
sonality and work as ecclesiastic and politician
did much to bring about the Rebellion of 1837.
Consult: Melville, The Rise and Progress of
Trinity College, Toronto, with a Sketch of the
Life of the Lord Bishop of Toronto, as Connected
with Church Education in Canada (Toronto,
1852) ; and Bethune, Memoir of Bishop Strachan
(1870).
STRACHEY, stra’chi, WILLIAM. A colo-
nist and historian of early Virginia. He was a
member of Gray’s Inn, London. In May, 1609,
he sailed for Virginia with Sir George Somers,
and was wrecked on the Bermudas on July 28th.
Strachey wrote one of the numerous accounts of
the colonists‘ adventures which were widely circu-
lated in manuscript before being printed in 1625,
in Purchas’s Pilgrims. In May, 1610, Strachey
reached Virginia, where he became secretary and
recorder of the colony. He edited the code of
laws drawn up by Gates and Dale, and common-
ly known by the latter’s name. Returning to
England in 1612, he began writing his Historic of
Travaile into Virginia Britannia. It was first
printed in 1849, by the Hakluyt Society of Lon-
don. It is the most reliable single narrative of
events during the period of Virginia history
with which he deals. Besides the 1849 edition
of the Historic, consult Brown, Genesis of the
United States (Boston, 1891).
STRACHWITZ, straG’vits, MORITZ, Count
(1822-47). A German poet, born in Peterwitz,
Silesia, and educated for the law in Breslau and
Berlin. His first volume, Lieder eines Erwachen-
den (1842), was mostly written while he was
still in the gymnasium. More typical is the col-
lection posthumously published, Neue Gedichte
(1847), with its sharp attack on Heine and the
other revolutionists, its protests against the
‘Everlasting No,’ and its famous and popular‘
lyrics, “Der Himmel ist blau” and “Germania.”
A complete edition of his poems appeared in
1850, and in Reclam’s Bibliothek in 1878.
STRACK, striik, HERMANN LEBERECHT (1848-
—) . A German theologian and Oriental scholar.
He was born in Berlin and was educated there
and at Leipzig. In 1877 he became professor in
the theological faculty at Berlin. Among
his more notable publications are: Prophe-
tarum Posteriorum Coder Babylonicus Pe-
tropolitanus (1875); Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (5th ed. 1898); Lehrbuch der
neuhebrii-ischen Sprache und Litteratur with
Siegfried (1884); Einleitung in den Talmud
(3d ed. 1900) ; Das Blut im Glauben und Aber-
glauben der Menschen (8th ed. 1900); Gram-
matik des biblischen Aranviiisch (3d ed. 1901);
Das Buch Jesus Sirach im hebntiischen Tewte
(1903). He also published editions of several
Mishma tracts; became editor of the Porta Lin-
guarum Orientalium (Berlin), for which he
wrote the Hebrew grammar ( 1883; 8th ed. 1902;
Eng. trans., 1886) ; and, with O. Ziickler, editor
of Kuregefasste Kommentar cu den Schriftcn Al-
ten und Neuen Testaments (Munich, 1886 et seq.).
He prepared lexicons to the Anabasis (9th ed.
1902) and Cyropaedia (2d ed. 1892) of Xeno-
phon. In 1885 he began to edit Nathanael, a
periodical devoted to Christian missionary work
among the Jews.
STRADELLA, stra-del’la, ALEssANDRo
(c.1645-c.1681). An Italian composer, born in
Naples. Trustworthy information regarding his
life and his works, the oratorios San Giovanni
Battista (1676), Susanna (1681), and the
operas Corispero (c.1665) , Oraeio Cocle sul
ponte (c.1666 ) , Trespolo tutore ( 1 667) , La
forza del amore paterno (1678), may be obtained
STRADELLA.
STRAFFORD.
248
from Richard, “Stradella et les Contarini,” in
Le Me’nestrel (Paris, 1865 and 1866). The opera
Stradella, by Flotow, is founded on Bonnet-
Bourdelot’s story of an incident in the life of
Stradella, in his Histoire de la musique et de
ses effets (1715). He is thought to have been
murdered in Genoa, about 1681.
STRADIVARI, stra’de-va’re, or STRAD'I-
VA/RIUS, ANToNIo (c.1644-1737). The most
famous violin-maker of the Cremonese School.
He was born in Cremona, and was probably ap-
prenticed at a very early age to Nicola Amati,
who at that time was regarded as the greatest
of all the Cremonese masters. His first instru-
ments were made between 1670 and 1685 and
were largely of the Amati model, in consequence
of which they are usually described as ‘Amatese
Strads.’ They are distinguished by their lack
of symmetry compared with his later works,
their plain wood, and generally squatty design.
About 1685 his originality began to assert itself,
and by the following year he had evidently ac-
quired his own peculiar style, which subsequent
makers have largely used as a model. The period
known as the ‘long Strad’ period was from 1690
to 1700, and incidentally it may be pointed out
that the instruments made during that time
were not any longer in design than those of the
following years, from which they differed only
in their treatment. For instance, the middle
bouts, edges, and corners were longer and more
graceful, and were possessed of a contour which
has been described as a mingling of the feminine
character of Nicola Amati’s work and the mascu-
line massive style of Stradivari from 17 00 to
1737. In 1684 Nicola Amati died and bequeathed
all his wood, models, and tools to Stradivari,
thus providing the latter with a large and choice
stock of tempered and seasoned wood, which was
more than anything else responsible for the im-
proved quality of his instruments dating from
1685. All the work of Stradivari was marked
by minuteness of detail; the high quality of the
wood and varnish; and the beauty of tone,
which has a sympathetic quality altogether dis-
tinct from the best work of any other maker.
His violins must have numbered fully two
thousand, although comparatively few speci-
mens are now in existence. He died at Cremona.
—FRANoESoo STRADIVARI (1671-1743), the
second son of Antonio, was born at Cremona.
He carried on his father’s business, adopting
Antonio’s model of the period of 1700-1712, and
produced instruments of a commanding style and
an invariably good tone. Like his father, he was
exceedingly careful in the artistic finish of his
work, using wood of the finest quality and a rich
red-brown varnish.—OMoBoNo STRADIVARI (1679-
1742), the fourth child of Antonio, was chiefly
remarkable for his skill in repairing valuable
instruments.
Consult: Fétis, Antoine Stradivari (Brussels,
1856) ; Niederheitmann, Cremona (Leipzig,
1897).
STRAFTORD, THOMAS WENTWOBTH, first
Earl of (1593-1641). An English statesman. He
was born April 13, 1593, in London, of an old
Yorkshire family. He was educated at Saint
John’s College, Cambridge, and later (1607) be-
came a student of the Inner Temple. He was
married in 1611 and knighted in the same year,
after which he traveled on the Continent. In
1614 his father died and he succeeded to the title
of baronet and a large estate. He was a member
of the last three Parliaments of James I. In the
Parliaments of 1621 .and 1624 he supported the
Crown against those who were trying to force
England into a war with Spain. In the first
Parliament of Charles I. he opposed Bucking-
ham, who had now adopted the same policy of
war with Spain, yet he was not in sympathy with
Eliot and the Puritans. In the Parliament
of 1628 he became the real leader of the
House of Commons, though no formal lead-
ership was recognized in those days. He intro-
duced a bill similar in tenor to the Petition of
Right (q.v.), but containing no declaration that
the law had been violated in the past. Charles,
however, refused to accept it, and Wentworth,
unwilling to resist the King further, allowed the
opposition to pass into other and more hostile
hands. He supported the Petition of Right and
was then apparently satisfied that the ‘ancient
government’ of the kingdom had been restored.
In June, 1628, he was made baron, on December
10th viscount, and on December 25th president
of the Council of the North. On November 10,
1629, he was made member of the Privy Council.
As president of the Council of the North he was
the royal executive in that region and he exer-
cised his authority vigorously and a little rough-
ly in checking insubordination. His anti-Puritan
sympathies had already drawn him into intimate
relations with Laud, which ripened into a life-
long friendship. On January 12, 1632, Went-
worth was made Lord Deputy of Ireland and he
went to Dublin in July, 1633. His administra-
tion lasted six years before events in England
drew his attention away. His task was a difficult
one and his actions were arbitrary and_often
harsh, but on the whole extremely beneficial.
Trade and industry were encouraged, disorders
and numerous abuses were suppressed, and Ire-
land enjoyed unprecedented material prosperity.
In 1639 Wentworth visited England. On Janu-
ary 12, 1640, he was created Earl of Strafford,
and thenceforth he was the King’s most influen-
tial adviser. Already the Scottish troubles had
reached an acute stage. ‘On account of his long
absence, Strafford failed to appreciate the
changed temper of the English people, and habits
of arbitrary rule had grown upon him. He ad-
vocated the strongest measures and hurried back
to Ireland to raise money and troops for Charles.
This was made the basis of his impeachment on
the meeting of the Long Parliament. Charles
promised him that if he would come to London
to meet the charges, he “should not suffer in his
person, honor, or fortune.” Inasmuch as the
charges against him, even if proved, did not con-
stitute treason as defined by the statute of Ed-
ward III., Parliament changed the impeachment
into a bill of attainder, though Strafford was still
heard in his own defense. His doom was sealed
when Parliament discovered that Charles was
plotting to rescue him by force. On May 8,
1641, the attainder bill was passed and on the
10th Charles, daring to resist no longer, signed
it with Strafford’s consent. Strafford was be-
headed two days later.
Our estimate of Strafford’s character will al-
ways rest principally upon his own recorded
words. They will be found in The Earl of Straf-
ford’s Letters and Despatehes, with an Essay
Towards His Life, ed. by Radcliffe (2 vols., Lon-
STRAFFORD.
STRAMO NIUM.
249
don, 1739). Consult also Gardiner, History of
England 1603-42 (10 vols., London and New
York, 1883-84).
STRAIGHT UNIVERSITY. A coeduca-
tional institution for negroes exclusively, at New
Orleans, La., founded by Seymour Straight and
incorporated in 1869. The institution has an
endowment of $17,000, and is sustained by volun-
tary contributions, through _the American Mis-
sionary Association. Its buildings and grounds
are valued at about $100,000. Its library con-
tains about 2500 volumes. In 1903 the faculty
numbered 28, and the students about 750 in all
departments.
STRAIN, ISAAC G. (1821-57). An American
naval officer and explorer, born in Roxbury, Pa.
He entered the navy as a midshipman in 1837,
in 1845 was in command of an exploring expe-
dition that penetrated into the interior of Brazil,
and in 1848 explored Lower California. In 1849
he made the overland journey from Valparaiso to
Buenos Ayres, publishing an account of the trip
entitled The Cordillera and Pampa: Sketches of
a Journey in Chile and the Argentine Provinces
in 1849 (1853). He became a lieutenant in 1850,
served with the commission to locate the bound-
ary line between Mexico and the United States,
and in 1854 was placed in charge of a party
sent to survey and explore the Isthmus of
Panama and report upon the best route for the
construction of an interoceanic canal. In 1856 in
the Arctic he made soundings in the North At-
lantic Ocean to ascertain the feasibility of a
submarine cable. Returning to Panama, he died
there from exposure in the following year.. Con-
sult Headley, The Darien Exploring Expedi-
tion Under command of Lieutenant Strain
(New York, 1885), in the “Franklin Square
Library.”
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. A crown colony
of Great Britain, comprising some of the British
possessions on the Malay Peninsula and a few of
the adjacent islands, viz. Singapore (q.v.), Ma-
lacca (q.v.), Dindings (q.v.), Penang (q.v.), or
Prince of Wales Island, the Province of Welles-
ley, the Keeling Islands (q.v.), and Christ-
mas Island (q.v.). The total area, excluding
Christmas Island and the Keeling group, is 1542
square miles. The colony has little natural
wealth. It is important for its extensive transit
trade, which passes almost entirely through
Singapore and Penang. The total trade amount-
ed in 1901 to nearly $288,000,000, of which the
imports ‘represented over $127,000,000. The
trade of Singapore alone amounted to about
$233,000,000. The principal imports are rice,
cotton goods, and opium; the exports consist
chiefly of tin (which is brought from the Feder-
ated Malay States), gums, and spices. All the
ports are free. The total shipping during 1901
was 16,000,000 tons. The Governor is assisted
by an executive council, and a legislative
council composed of nine official and seven un-
official members, five of the latter being nomi-
nated by the Crown and two by the chambers of
commerce at Singapore and Penang, and con-
firmed by the Crown. The Governor is also High
Commissioner for the Federated Malay States
and Borneo. The population (exclusive of Christ-
Vmas Island and the Keeling group) was 512,342
in 1891, and 572,249 in 1901. In the latter year
thepopulation was composed of 281,933 Chinese,
215,058 Malays, and 5058 Europeans and Ameri-
cans. There is an extensive immigration from
China and India, chiefly coolies, the immi-
grants from the two countries in 1901 num-
bering 178,778 and 25,357 respectively. The
crown colony was organized April 1, 1867. The
capital is Singapore.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Swettenham, Malay Sketches
(London, 1895); id., The Real Malay (ib.,
1899); Rathbone, Camping and Tramping in
Malaya (ib., 1898); Belfield, Handbook of the
Federated Malay States (ib., 1902); Skeat,
Tribes of the Malay Archipelago (ib., 1902).
STRAKOSOH, stra’kosh, MCRITZ (1825-87).
An Austrian composer and pianist, born in Lem-
berg, Galicia. He was the brother-in-law and
teacher of Adelina Patti, and was educated in
music at Vienna, coming to America in 1845,
where he _won considerable success as a teacher
and concert pianist. In 1856 he became an
impresario and introduced many great musicians
to the American public.‘ He was the composer of
several salon pieces for the pianoforte and one
opera, Giovanna di Napoli, which had its first
presentation in New York. He died in Paris.-
MAX STRAKCSCH, brother of the preceding, suc-
ceeded him in the management of the various
concerts and opera undertakings. He ‘died in
New York in 1892.
STRALSUND, strtil'zunt. A seaport in the
Province of Pomerania, Prussia, situated on the
Strelasund, which separates the mainland from
the island of Riigen, 149 miles by rail north-
northeast of Berlin (Map: Prussia, E 1). It is
entirely surrounded by water. The natural
strength of the place was greatly increased by
formidable fortifications, which, however, were
converted into promenades in 1873. Stralsund
has narrow but regular streets, and many of
the houses are finely gabled, giving the town
a quaint and ancient appearance. There are
three splendid Gothic churches erected in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The hand-
some town hall contains a picture gallery, a.
collection of antiquities, and a public library of
60,000 volumes. There is a school of navigation.
Stralsund is noted for its manufactures of play-
ing cards. Oil, machinery, arc lights, furniture,
and bricks are also produced. There is con-
siderable shipping and a large export trade,
chiefly in grain, sugar, fish, and malt. Stral-
sund, founded in 1209, was in the fourteenth
century an important member of the Hanseatic
League. The most notable event in its history
was its eleven weeks’ siege by Wallenstein during
the Thirty Years’ War (May-August, 1628). It
was a possession of Sweden from the Peace of
Westphalia (1648) to 1815, when it passed to
Prussia. Population, in 1890, 27,814; in 1900,
31,083.
STRAMONIUM (Neo-Lat., of uncertain ety-
mology), STINKWEED, JAMESTCWNWEED, JIMsoN-
WEED, THORN-APPLE (Datura Stramonium). A
common weed of the natural order Solanaceae.
De Candolle refers it to countries bordering on
the Caspian Sea; others regard it as coming
from Northern India. It is a coarse, strong,
vigorous, branching weed, from two to six feet
high, with ovate toothed or angled leaves, large
funnel-shaped flowers followed by prickly globu-
lar two-celled pods containing numerous angular
black seeds which are reputed narcotic but are
STRAMO NIUM.
STRANGULATIO N.
250
agreeable smell.
STRANAHAN, stran’a-an, JAMES SAMUEL
THOMAS (1808-98). An American contractor
and philanthropist, born in Peterboro, N. Y. He
was successively school teacher, surveyor, and
trader, and then became a railroad contractor in
Newark, N. J ., gradually acquiring large interests .
in the companies by accepting stock as payment
for construction. He removed to Brooklyn in
1844 and until his death was closely identified
with the city’s commercial expansion and public
improvement. From 1860 until 1882 he served as
president of the Brooklyn Park Commission. His
greatest achievement was the planning and build-
ing at an enormous cost of Prospect Park, one
of the largest and most beautiful civic parks in
the United States. In 1891 Brooklyn erected a
statue of him at the main entrance to Prospect
Park.
STRAND. See ROPE; KNoTTING AND SPLIC-
ING.
STRAND, THE. An important business thor-
oughfare of London, so named because it led
through the marshy land bordering the former
banks of the Thames. It extends from Charing
Cross to Temple Bar, and in the sixteenth cen-
tury was bordered by the mansions of the no-
bility, some of which survive in the names of
various streets and buildings. It contains a
number of theatres and newspaper offices, and is
at all times busy and animated.
STRANDBERG-, str'eind’b:*ar-y’, KARL WIL-
HELM AUGUST (1818-77). A Swedish poet,
born in Stidermanland, and educated at Upsala
and Lund. The greater part of his earlier writ-
ing was of a patriotic nature. His works show
great purity of form and depth of patriotism.
Under the pseudonym Talio Qualis he published
Stinger i pansar (1845) ; Vilda Rosor (1854);
and his Samlade vitterhetsar beten (187 7 ). He
translated Byron’s Don Juan and selections from
Moliere.
STRANGE, Sir RORERT (1721-92). A Scot-
tish engraver. He was born in Kirkwall, on one
of the Orkney Islands. He made an attempt at
law, but drawing claimed his chief attention,
and he became an apprentice to Richard Cooper,
at Edinburgh, for six years. To gain the hand
of Isabella Luminsden, he joined the rebel army
at the time of the Jacobite uprising, and after
its defeat he was rescued by his lady-love, who
hid him under her hooped skirt from the officers
in search of him, and continued singing over her
needlework. After their marriage, in 1847,
he went to Paris and studied dry point under
Le Bas. He made an improvement upon this
process that gave a more beautiful finish to the
engravings. He moved to London in 1751, de-
voting himself to historical engravings, but a
refusal to engrave the portraits of the Prince of
Wales and Lord Bute in 1759, supposedly for po-
litical reasons, was the cause of his departure
for Italy. There his welcome was most cordial
and he was made a member of the Academies
of Rome, Florence, and Bologna, and professor
of the Royal Academy at Parma. During a sub-
sequent stay in Paris he was made a member
of the Royal Academy of Painting. After his
return to Londonin 1780 he made his peace
with the reigning family by his engraving of
West’s “Apotheosis of the Princes Octavius and
little used. All parts of the plant havea dis- '
Alfred,” and was awarded the honor of knight-
hood in 1787. Strange’s engravings are chiefly
after the great Italian masters, including Guido
Reni, Salvator Rosa, Raphael, and Correggio,
and after Van Dyck. Though often defective in
draughtsmanship, his work is characterized by
grace of line and the excellency of his rendition
of the flesh. Consult: Dennistoun, Memoirs of
Sir Robert Strange (London, 1855); introduc-
tion to Marshal Keith’s Memoir (ib., 1843) ; and
the Life by Woodward prefixed to Twenty Mas-
terpieces of Strange (ib., 1847).
STRANGE, RoRERT (1796-1854). An Ameri-
can lawyer. He was born in Virginia; was
educated at Hampden-Sidney College; studied
law, and after his admission to practice, settled
at Fayetteville, N. C. He served as a member of
the North Carolina House of Delegates in 1822-23
and 1826, was judge of the Superior Court 1826-
-36, United States Senator 1826-40, and some time
later Solicitor of the Fifth Judicial District.
The Indian legends of the region about Fayette-
ville were attractively related in his novel, en-
titled Eonegushi; or, the Cherokee Chief.
STRANGE CASE OF DOCTOR JEKYLL
AND MR. HYDE, THE. A story by R. L.
Stevenson (1886). It illustrates the struggle
between good and evil in a human soul. Dr.
Jekyll is a physician of excellent standing, but
with concealed propensities which by secret in-
dulgence have developed his lower nature into an
almost distinct individual known as Mr. Hyde.
By a powerful drug he has learned to transform
himself at will into this terrible, debased crea-
ture, who commits hideous crimes. At last the
power of the evil side of his nature gains the
ascendency. Dr. Jeykll, without the intervention
of the powder, becomes transformed into Mr.
Hyde, and, unable'to regain his better self, kills
himself in despair.
STRANGLES (from strangle, OF. estrangler,
Fr. étrangler, from Lat. strangulare, from Gk.
orpay}/ahdv, strangalan, o"rpa)/)/a7li§sw, strangali-
zein, to strangle, from orpayyahn, strangale,
halter; connected with orpa)/7/6;‘, strange-s, twist-
ed, Lat. stringere, to draw tight), DISTEMPEB, or
COLT-ILL. An infectious disease of the horse,
ass, and mule, most frequently observed in young
animals, especially pure-bred. The animal seems
dejected, has a capricious appetite, dry, staring
coat, reddish eyes, and accelerated pulse and
breathing. After about two days a cough and a
nasal discharge are noted. A large puffy abscess
is developed under the lower jaw, which opens
later to the outside. Abscesses sometimes develop
in other parts of the body. Light cases require
little treatment except proper care and dieting,
the opening of the abscesses, and the alleviating
of fever when excessive.
STRANGULATION. The mechanical con-
striction of the neck so as to prevent the passage
of air and to suspend respiration, and conse-
quently life. Strangulation may be produced by
throttling or hanging. Death is sudden when the
obstruction to respiration is complete, but other-
wise it is gradual in its onset. In hanging, espe-
cially in judicial executions where a long drop is
used, death is probably due to fracture of the
cervical vertebrae, with compression of the me-
dulla oblongata, the seat of the nerve centre
controlling respiration. When breathing has
been interrupted for only a short time, and there
STRANGULATIO N.
STRASSBURG.
251
is no mechanical obstacle to respiration, nor
injury to the medulla, life may sometimes _be
restored by proper measures, such as artificial
respiration, stimulant applications, and a plent1-
ful supply of fresh air. To relieve cerebral con-
gestion it is advantageous to abstract blood, and
if this is replaced with normal saline solution
by transfusion (q.v.) into the veins, the addi-
tional advantage will be gained of diluting the
carbon dioxide in the blood.
When death has taken place by hanging, proofs
of this, concerning which medico-legal questions
may arise, depend upon the position of the body
when found, the presence of marks upon the
neck, and of the signs of asphyxia in the internal
organs, and the absence of any other possible
cause of death. The mark on the neck is gen-
cally a hard, dry, yellowish, horny furrow run-
ning obliquely. The face is turgid, with blood-
stained froth about the nostrils and lips; the
tongue is swollen and protruding. The right side
of the heart and the right lung are engorged with
venous blood, while the left side is empty. See
ASPHYXIA.
STRANGURY (Lat. stranguria, from Gk.
orpayyoupia, strangouria, retention of urine, from
01-pdyf, stranw, drop squeezed out; connected with
crpa)/ya2.i§,'sw, strangalieein, to strangle + otpsiv,
ourein, to urinate, from oifipov ouron, urine). A
variety of retention of urine, in which, ‘while
urine is present in the bladder and a desire to
micturate is present, spasm or painful contrac-
tion permits of the passage of but a few drops.
The spasm is usually of the urethra, but the rec-
tum may share in the condition. It occurs after
the use of cantharides or turpentine internally
(both of which are eliminated by the kidneys) or
by the use of a large Spanish-fly blister from
which a considerable amount of the drug has
been absorbed into the lymphatics, or sometimes
during gonorrhoea. Hot applications to the
genital region, a hot sitz-bath, hot enemata, and
the ingestion of bland fluids which render the
urine less irritating, will give relief. Opium is
a valuable drug in the treatment of this condi-
tion.
STRAPAROLA, stra’pa-ro’la, GIOVAN FRAN-
onsco (?-c.1557). An Italian author, who was
born at Caravaggio, near the end of the fifteenth
century. Nothing is known of his life, and
his name is only a sobriquet signifying loquacity.
He published Sonetti, strarnbotti, epistole e
capitole in 1508. He is remembered, however,
by his Tredeci piaceuoli notti, “Facetious
Nights,” which is one of the most amusing imi-
tations of the Decarneron, and was published in
two parts, in 1550 and 1554, at Venice. An
English translation of the Nights by W. G.
Waters appeared in 1894. Consult Dunlop, His-
tory of Fiction (London, 1851).
STRASCHIRIPKA, strii/she-rip’ka, J OHANN.
The correct name of the Austrian painter more
commonly known as Johann Canon (q.v.) .
STRASBURGER, stras’b'o‘o‘1'K-er, EDUARD
(1844——) . A German botanist, born at Warsaw,
and educated at Bonn and at Jena, where he
became professor in 1869 and director of the
botanical garden in 1873. With Haeckel he
visited the East, and in 1881 he accepted a
call to the University of Bonn. In his special
field of histology of plants he wrote: Die
Befruchtung bei den Koniferen (1869); Ueber
VOL. XVI.-17.
Zellbildung und Zellteilung (3d ed. 1880);
Ueber den Bau und das Wachstum der Zell-
haiite (1882); besides Das kleine botanische
Praktikum (4th ed. 1902); Histologische Bei-
tntige (1888-93); and with Noll, Schenck, and
Schimper, Lehrbuch der Botanik fur H ochschulen
(5th ed. 1902). Conjointly with Pfeffer he
edits the Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche
Botanik (Berlin, 1894 et seq.).
STRASSBURG, str£is’bo?o'rK. A city of Ger-
many, the capital of Alsace-Lorraine. It is
situated at the junction of the Breusch and the
111, two miles west of the Rhine, 28 miles east of
the French frontier, and 88 miles by rail north
of Basel (Map: Germany, B 4). The 111 divides
into five arms in the city. Strassburg is a fort-
ress of the first class, and possesses a garrison of
15,000 men. A circle of fourteen forts and an
inner rampart defend the city. The centre of the
city forms an oval, and is surrounded by two
arms of the 111. Here the streets are narrow and
crooked, and the picturesque ancient houses and
frequent specimens of pure mediseval architec-
ture, reflect a period when the city was both art-
loving and wealthy. In this section, on the south-
east, rises the structure for which Strassburg is
best known-—the cathedral, or Minster. It is
said to have been founded about 600. The pres-
ent edifice dates from 1176. The fore part of the
cathedral is Romanesque, and the rest (the nave,
435 feet long) Gothic. The remarkable facade,
the work of Erwin of Steinbach, with
its galleries and rose window, especially
commands admiration. Noteworthy also is the
late Romanesque south portal, which is embel-
lished with images. The tower is 465 feet high.
A scarcely less celebrated feature of the Minster
is its astronomical clock, the mechanism of
which was constructed in 1839-42 to replace that
of the famous clock of the sixteenth century.
(See CLOCK.) Southwest of the cathedral is the
Protestant Saint Thomas Church, a composite
edifice embracing the Gothic and Romanesque,
begun about 1200. It contains a marble monu-
ment to Marshal Saxe, executed by Pigalle. Near
the cathedral is the ancient episcopal palace,
identified with the Rohans, and now containing
the unimportant municipal art museum. In the
Grosse Metzig—the market hall—dating from
1588 is the valuable Museum of Industrial Art.
North of the 111 extend the handsome new
quarters of the city, where, in the Kaiserplatz,
may be seen the splendid Imperial Palace, in
Florentine Renaissance. It was completed in
1888, and has a cupola 115 feet high. The mod-
ern Hall of the Provincial Diet and the provin-
cial and university library are near by. The
library has some 700,000 volumes. Farther on in
a northeasterly direction is the Contades Park.
Some little distance east of the city, and reached
by the fine Ruprechtsauer Allée, lie the beauti-
ful municipal grounds of the Orangerie—a pleas-
ure garden with Oriental features and lovely
promenades. South of the town formerly stood
the important citadel, built by Vauban, and de-
stroyed during the siege of 1870. Between it
and the city is the extensive arsenal. Strass-
burg has a statue of General Kléber, who was
born there, and of Gutenberg; also a bust of
Goethe, which marks the house where the poet
lived as a student.
The university (see STRASSBURG, UNIVERSITY
STRASSIBURG.
STRATEGY.
252
OF) is situated across the Ill to the south-
east of the city. There are, in addition, the
important Protestant Gymnasium, the acad-
emy with its collections, a lyceum, a Roman
Catholic seminary, a very fine municipal con-
servatorium of music, a mechanics’ school of art,
and an industrial art school. The municipal
theatre is an admirable institution. The Frauen-
haus contains an architectural and sculptural col-
lection. The city archives are very valuable. The
numerous excellent hospitals are mostly situ-
ated in the southern part of the city.
The city government is administered by the
burgomaster, with six associates, and a council
of 36 members. The city is divided into four
cantons. Strassburg is commercially important,
having of late greatly increased its trade, a con-
siderable part of the traffic between France, Ger-
many, and Switzerland passing through the city.
The 111 is canalized; the Rhine-Marne and other
canals traverse the city; and Strassburg is a
railway centre. The new port covers upward of
300 acres, with wharves and quays on the Rhine.
Latterly manufactories have grown up to some
extent and include foundries, locomotive works,
tobacco factories, tanneries, piano factories,
chemical works, etc. Much jewelry is manu-
factured. The population in 1900 was 151,041,
of whom one-half or more were Roman Catholics.
HISTORY. Strassburg is the Argentoratum of
the Romans. A bishopric appears to have been
established before the seventh century, when the
name Stratisburgum began to be used. In 1262
its citizens threw ofl the yoke of the bishop in a
battle at Oberhausbergen. The city, free and in-
dependent, had reached a high degree of pros-
perity at the Reformation. The citizens em-
braced Protestantism at an early date—l520.
In 1681 Louis XIV. suddenly took possession of
Strassburg, which was fortified by Vauban. It
remained a French city until it became a part of
the German Empire as a result of the Franco-
Prussian War. It was an important military
point under 'the French, and in 1870 held out
against the Germans for six weeks under its gal-
lant commander Uhrich, who finally capitulated
on September 27th with over 17,000 men. Great
damage was wrought during the siege by the bom-
bardment. .
Consult: Krieger, Topographic der Stadt
Strassburg (Strassburg, 1894); Ftirstef, Strass-
burg, die Hauptstadt des Reichslandes (ib.,
1894); Euting, Beschreibung der Stadt Strass-
burg (12th ed., ib., 1901); Beitndge zur Ge-
schichte der Stadt Strassburg (ib., 1896 et seq.) ;
and Staehling, Histoire contemporaine dc Stras-
bourg (Paris, 1884).
STRASSBURG, UNIVERSITY OF. A German
university, the outgrowth of an earlier gymna-
sium, formally founded by privilege of Ferdinand
II., in 1621. It flourished greatly in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, and, though
Strassburg became French territory in 1681, the
university retained much of its German char-
acter. Goethe and Herder studied here in 1770.
It disappeared in the Revolution, rose again in
1802 as a Protestant academy, and in 1808 be-
came a part of the University of France by the
university reform of Napoleon I. After the war
of 1870 the institution once more became Ger-
man and was reorganized as a university in 1872.
It has since been greatly encouraged by the Im-
perial Government as a centre of German influ-
ence and culture in reclaiming A1sace-Lor-
raine, and is in consequence in a very flourishing
condition. Its budget is more than 1,000,000
marks, and it had in 1901 about 1200 students.
Its library contains more than 700,000 volumes.
There are various institutes connected with the
university.
STRASSER, strEis’er, ARTHUR (1854—). An
Austrian sculptor, born at Adelsberg, Carniola.
After having studied at the Vienna Academy, iI1
1871-75, he worked in the studios of Pilz and
Kundmann, but soon branched off independently
into a line of naturalistic production, first ex-
emplified by statuettes of Japanese jugglers and
actresses. The dark complexion and picturesque
costumes of the Oriental races next attracted him
to fashion terra-cotta figures, which, by skillful
coloring, he succeeded in making impressively
true to nature, as well in the racial peculiarities
of his models as in all material accessories. These
qualities are especially apparent in the “Egyptian
Snake-Charmer,” “The Secret of the Tomb,” and
the “Hindu at Prayer.” His figures in bronze
are equally lifelike, witness his “Goose-Girl” and
the “Glimpse into Eternity.” He also produced
animal figures, especially lions, on a large scale,
of which the “Triumphal Chariot of Marcus
Antonius,” in Vienna, is a sterling example.
STRATEGY (OF. strategic, Fr. stratégie,
from Gk. orparnyia, strategia, generalship, from
61-pai-17)/6;, strate'gos, general, from O'TpaT6g, strc
tos, army, encampment, from oropevviivai, storen-
nynai, Lit. sternere, Skt. star, to spread, extend,
strew + a;/wu,agein, to lead). Strategy is one
of the two great subdivisions of the art of
war, and comprises all those larger measures
which relate to the grand field of operations, the
object of which is to have the troops enter the
contest of arms, the battle, under the most favor-
able conditions, involving the direction of the
troops toward the battlefield, as well as the
measures taken to reap the rewards of success.
It has been defined as the use of battles in war,
in contradistinction to tactics (the other great
subdivision of the art of war), which is the use
of troops in battle; or, again, as the art of lead-
ing armies, while tactics is the art of leading the
smaller subdivisions of armies and is fully
treated under its own head. See TACTICS.
The scope of strategy has been greatly extended
with time. Formerly, it did not enter as a fac-
tor in war until the armies were actually in the
field but to-day national policy is also a de-
termining factor, and one of vast importance, in
view of the fact that modern wars are conducted
on a grand scale and with great rapidity, there-
fore requiring definite plans to be prepared be-
forehand, in which questions of statesmanship
and diplomacy are necessarily leading factors.
Moreover, finance and commerce must also be
considered.
Among the principles upon which strategy is
based or according to which it is directed are:
(1) National policy and strategy must be
kept in perfect agreement in War, and closely
allied at every point, to accomplish the best re-
sults.
(2) When countries are at war each will prob-
ably finally concentrate its troops in a single
army, so as to be able to strike decisive blows
with its united power; hence the principal ob-
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STRASSBURG
THE CATHEDRAL
STRATEGY.
STRATFO RD DE REDCLIFFE.
253
jective, against which all efforts should be di-
rected at the outset, is the enemy’s main army.
(3) Every effort must be made to bring to-
gether at the decisive moment all available
forces.
These relate to the general objects of the war,
the theatre of operations, and the entire field
army as a whole. Separate actions may take
place in various parts of the theatre, and they,
too, will involve strategic principles, similar in
character, but of minor importance.
(4) The offensive alone promises decisive re-
sults.
(5) The defensive can only avoid defeat; it
cannot win victory.
(6) It is impossible to be too strong for a
decisive battle.
(7) Concentration of the forces is a necessary
condition for decisive action.
(8) No alteration in the plan of operations
should be made after the campaign has definitely
opened, unless enforced by the enemy or by the
elements or unforeseen circumstances.
During the progress of military events certain
of the latter will generally have a common ob-
ject, and will be closely related in other respects.
Every such group of events, composed in general
of marches, positions, and battles, is designated
an operation. A group of closely related opera-
tions constitutes a campaign. To-day the opera-
tions of a campaign are practically continuous,
but, in order to be so, there must be a base of
supplies, where ammunition, food, forage, and so
on are accumulated for the support and main-
tenance of the army in its advance. Formerly
this base was fixed, and could be fortified and
stocked with supplies beforehand, but modern
war demands a movable base, usually a network
of railroads, but sometimes furnished by a fleet.
The lines along which the army advances from
its base toward its objective are called lines of
operation, and those by which the army obtains
its subsistence and supplies, lines of communi-
cation. The base, the lines of operation, and the
lines of communication, being of vital importance
to the operating army, are naturally the objects
of the enemy’s attacks and manoeuvres.
The strategic events of a campaign will usually
take place in the following order:
Preparation, mobilization, strategic deploy-
ment, plan of operations, and the military opera-
tions themselves.
The operations may be strategically offensive
or strategically defensive, or finally alternately
offensive and defensive. The strategical offensive
may be combined with the tactical offensive or
the tactical defensive; and the strategical de-
fensive may also be combined with either tacti-
cal form. All strategists and tacticians unite in
giving the preference to the strategical and tacti-
cal offensive combined, but circumstances may
force one of the other combinations on an army,
at least for a time, or perhaps only in a particu-
lar part of the theatre. In that case, however,
the offensive must be taken up at the earliest
opportunity, if decisive results are desired,
The great principles of strategy apply to naval
warfare as well as to wars on land, but certain
modifications result from the fact that the lines
of communication in the case of a fleet are less
clearly marked, and bases and coaling and repair
stations which are absolutely essential to suc-
cess in naval warfare can be improvised and, if
need be, changed. Again, combined naval and
land operations, the transition from the purely
naval contest to extended operations on land,
involve some new principles not set forth here:
the control of the sea by the attacker’s fleet is
one of the first conditions for the success of such
combined operations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Von der Goltz, Kriegfilhrung
(Berlin, 1895); English translation, The Con-
duct of War (Kansas City, 1901); Hohenlohe,
Letters on Strategy (London, 1898); Giinther,
Heerwesen und Kriegfilhrung in unserer Zeit
(Berlin, 1902); Loringhoven, Studien ilber
Kriegfii-hrung (ib., 1901-03); Napoleon, Com-
’ mentaries (Paris, 1867); Maillard, Eléments de
la guerre(ib., 1891) ; Bigelow, Principles of Strat-
egy (Philadelphia, 1894); Keim, Kriegslehre
und Kriegfilhrung (Berlin, 1889); Derrécagaix,
La guerre moderne (Paris, 1885); Gizycki,
S trategisch-tak tische Aufgaben (Leipzig,
1897); Pierron, Les méthodes de guerres actu-
elles et roers la fin du XIXe‘me siécle (Paris,
1903) ; Frobenius, Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele
des Festungskrieges (Berlin, 1903). See TACTICS,
MILITARY; TAoTIcs, NAVAL; BATTLE; WAR.
STRAT’FORD. A town and suburb of Lon-
don, in Essex, on the Lea, 4 miles east of Saint
Paul’s (Map: London, D 8)‘. It has a fine town
hall and is the seat of various extensive manu-
factures. There are flour mills, distilleries, and
chemical works. The prosperity of the town
has increased through its connection with the
Eastern Counties Railway and the extensive
works the company established here. Population,
in 1891, 38,612; in 1901, 44,825.
STRATFORD. A port of entry and the capi-
tal of Perth County, Ontario, Canada, on the
Avon River, and the Grand Trunk and the
Georgian Bay and Lake Erie railroads, 88 miles
west of Toronto (Map: Ontario, B 4). It has
good water power, and there are flour, salt, and
planing mills, and manufacturers of iron cast-
ings, mill machinery, boots and shoes, and
farming implements. The Grand Trunk Railroad
shops are here. The county buildings are at-
tractive. Population, in 1901, 9959.
STRATFORD DE REUCLIFFE, STRATFORD
CANNING, Viscount (1786-1880). An English
diplomat, born in London. The influence of his
famous cousin, George Canning, secured for
Stratford in 1808 the secretaryship of the Em-
bassy at Constantinople, under Adair, and on the
latter’s resignation in 1810 Canning was made
Minister Plenipotentiary. In this position at
a most critical moment in the great struggle
against Napoleon, he negotiated the Treaty of
Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, in
1812. In 1820 he was made Minister to the
United States, where he was successful in the
settlement of the difficult questions arising out
of the \Var of 1812. After performing various
diplomatic services and holding a seat in the
House of Commons he was sent in 1841 as Am-
bassador to Constantinople. The most dramatic
and important event of his service at the Turk-
ish capital was his diplomatic contest in 1853
with Prince Menshikoff, the Russian Ambassador
Extraordinary. The result of the struggle-
through which Canning obtained the name of
‘Great Eltchi.’ or ‘the great ambassador’—was
a victory for Canning. He remained at Constanti-
nople throughout the Crimean War and until
STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE.
STRATTON.
254
1858 and exerted great influence upon the Turk-
ish Government with regard to its foreign rela-
tions and the inauguration of political reforms.
He was raised to the peerage in 1852 under the
title of Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe. He was
the author of some creditable verse. In 1881
extracts from his papers and correspondence
were published, with a preface by A. P. Stanley,
under the title, The Eastern Question. Consult
also: Lane-Poole, Life of the Right Honourable
Stratford Canning, Viscount Stratford de Red-
cliffe (London, 1888).
STRATFORD-UPON-AVON, a’von. A mu-
nicipal borough and township in Warwickshire,
England, 8 miles southwest of Warwick, on the
Avon, famous as the birthplace of Shakespeare
(Map: England, E 4) . The town is neatly -built,
with wide, pleasant streets, containing numerous
quaint, half-timbered houses. The house in;
which Shakespeare was born is still preserved,
and there is a Shakespeare memorial building,
including a theatre and a gallery of Shake-
sperean paintings, and a library of rare Shake-
spereana. The poet is buried in the parish
church of the Holy Trinity; a fine cruciform
structure partly early English and Perpendicular,
dating from the twelfth century and built on the
site of a Saxon monastery which existed before
691. Other interesting remains of Shakespeare’s
time are the grammar school endowed in 1482,
in which he was educated, the guildhall, and the
town hall. In the neighborhood at \/Vilmcote
is the cottage of his mother, Mary Arden, and at
Shottery, that of his wife, Anne Hathaway.
Stratford is annually visited by 30,000 tourists,
one-fourth of whom are from the United States.
The town is an old free market borough with a
governing charter since 1553. Population, in
1891, 11,400; in 1901, 10,600. Consult: Lee,
Stratford-on-Avon (London, 1890); Savage, The
Registers of Stratford-on-Avon (London, 1898).
STRATH’CLYDE’. A British kingdom which
first appears prominently in the seventh cen-
tury as one of the strongholds of the original
Celtic inhabitants against the invading Anglo-
Saxons. It lay in the western part of the island
between the Clyde River and the Derwent in
what is now Cumberland, though the name is
sometimes applied to the entire territory be-
tween the Clyde and the Mersey. It was from
an early time closely connected with the Scot-
tish crown, to which it was united in 1124.
STRATH’C0’NA AND MOUNT ROYAL,
DONALD ALEXANDER SMITH, first Lord (1820
—). He was born at Archieston, Morayshire,
Scotland, and after receiving a common school
education entered the employ of the Hudson’s
Bay Company in 1838. After years of work on
the coast of Labrador and in the Northwestern
wilderness he was promoted to chief factor, and
from that position to resident governor and
chief commissioner of the company in Canada.
In 1870 he was elected to the first session of
the Manitoba Legislature, and to the Canadian
House of Commons, and was appointed a mem-
ber of the first executive council of the North-
west Territory. Four years afterwards he re-
signed from the Provincial Legislature, but, with
the exception of the period from 1880 to 1887,
he remained a member of the Dominion Parlia-
ment until 1896, when he was appointed High
Commissioner to London and a member of the
Queen’s Privy Council of Canada. He became
largely interested in railroads, and it was due
to him more than to any other man that the
Canadian Pacific Railway was completed. For
this service Queen Victoria knighted him in 1886,
and in 1897 raised him to the peerage as Baron
Strathcona and Mount Royal.
STRATH’MORE’. In its most comprehensive
sense, an extensive plain in Scotland (q.v.).
STRATH'NAIRN’, HUGH HENRY Rosn,
Baron (1803-85). A distinguished English gen-
eral, born at Berlin, Germany. He served in
1840-41 under General Michell with the Turkish
troops against Mehemet _Ali; from 1842 till 1851
was British agent in Syria, and became chargé
d’affaires at Constantinople in 1852. During
the Crimean \Var he distinguished himself at
Inkermann, and for his services was promoted
to the rank of major-general. In the Indian
Mutiny he commanded the Central India field
force, and gainedagreat victory on April 1,1858,
over Tantia Topi, with 20,000 men, and cap-
tured Jhansi, the strongest fortress in Central
India, April 5th; Kalpi, May 23d and Gwalior,
June 19th. For these services he received the
thanks of Parliament, was gazetted a G.C.B.,
and in 1860 was promoted to be lieutenant-gen-
eral. He returned to England in 1865, and was
soon after given command of the forces in Ire-
land, where he prevented the Fenian troubles
from becoming formidable. In 1867 he was pro-
moted to be general, and in 1877 became a field-
marshal. Consult Low, Soldiers of the Victorian
Age (London, 1880).
STRATHSPEY, strath'spa’ (so called from
Strathspey in Scotland). A rapid Scotch dance
in %time, somewhat resembling the reel (q.v.).
Its music is composed of dotted eighths and six-
teenths, and the dance itself is of a violent,
jerky character. Its history dates from the lat-
ter part of the eighteenth century.
STRATIFICATION (from stratify, from Lat.
stratum, pavement, coverlet, neu. sg. of stratus,
p.p. of sternere, to spread, extend, strew + facere,
to make, do). The term used in geology to de-
fine the arrangement of certain rocks into more
or less parallel layers. Stratification is a very
general characteristic of sedimentary deposits,
sandstone, shale, limestone, etc., which for the
most part have accumulated on the shores of the
sea and the beds of lakes and rivers. The rock
materials in each layer are of homogeneous
character, due to the uniformity of conditions
during the time of deposition, but the passage
from one layer to another may be marked by a
change in the nature and size of the materials,
indicating a variation in the process of deposi-
tion. The layers are separated by divisional
planes which mark periods of interruption in
the desposition. When the layers are very thin,
as in shale, for example, they are generally
known as laminae. A stratum is a group of one
or more layers of the same mineral substance.
See GEOLOGY.
STRAT’TON, CHARLES SHERwoon (1838-83).
An American dwarf, born in Bridgeport, Conn.
Owing to his smallness of stature at the age of
fourteen years, he was engaged by P. T. Barnum,
and was exhibited throughout Europe and else-
where, under the name of Gen. Tom Thumb; at
the time of his engagement his weight was six-
STRATTO N.
STRAUSS;
255
teen pounds, and he was less than two feet high.
In 1863 he was married to Lavinia Warren,
also a dwarf, and in company with Minnie War-
ren (q.v.) and ‘Commodore’ Nutt (q.v.), they
exhibited themselves far and wide.
STRATUM (Lat., pavement, coverlet, bed).
The term applied in geology to the smallest
subdivision of sedimentary rocks, practically
synomymous with layer, seam, and bed. The
distinctive characteristics of a stratum are
homogeneity of composition and separation from
adjacent beds or strata by well-marked divi-
sional planes called bedding planes. A stratum
represents a single uninterrupted period of ac-
cumulation, while the bedding planes are caused
by longer or shorter pauses in the process. See
GEOLOGY.
STRAUBING, strou’bing. A town of Bavaria,
Germany, 23 miles southeast of Regensburg, on
the right bank of the Danube (Map: Germany,
E 4). The late Gothic Church of Saint James
contains some notable paintings. The town has
important manufactures of brick, lime, and ce-
ment. There are breweries and tanneries. Its
population, in 1900, was 17,454, mostly Roman
Catholic. Straubing stands on the site of the
Roman colony Sorbiodurum. The present town
dates from 1208, when Louis I. erected the
Stadt-Thurm, which is still standing.
STRAUS, strous, OSCAR SOLOMON (1850—).
An American diplomat, born at Atterberg, in
Rhenish Bavaria. He came to the United States
in 1854, and lived in Georgia until the close of
the Civil War. He was educated at Columbia
University. In 1887-89 he was Minister to Tur-
key, and so distinguished himself that in 1897
he was reappointed to the same position by
President McKinley, remaining there till 1900.
On January 14, 1902, he was named a member
of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The
Hague to fill the place left vacant by the death
of ex-President Harrison. His published works
include: The Origin of the Republican Form of
Government in the United States (1886) ; Roger
I/Villiams, the Pioneer of Religious Liberty
(1894) ; The Development of Religious Liberty
in the United States (1896) ; and Reform in the
Consular Service (1897) .
STRAUSS, DAVID Fnrnnnrcn (1808-74). A
distinguished German theological and philo-
sophical writer, born at Ludwigsburg, near
Stuttgart. He was educated in the evangelical
seminary of Blaubouren (where F. C. Baur
was then teaching), whence he passed to the
University of Tiibingen. Here his religious con-
victions became disturbed. The theories of
Schelling, of Jakob B6hme, and, finally, of
Schleiermacher and Hegel successively claimed
his allegiance. He left the university in 1830
to become assistant pastor of a small church
and then taught in the seminary at Maul-
bronn. Here he remained but six months, and
then went to Berlin in order to hear Schleier-
macher and Hegel. The death of Hegel and
Schleiermacher’s apparent lack of sympathy de-
termined him to quit Berlin after a very brief
stay to take up the work of a ‘repetent’ at T6-
bingen (1832). Here his lectures on Hegelianism
attracted attention. His skepticism was now
quite pronounced, since his view of Hegelianism,
which he accepted as the final philosophy, made
a miraculous Christianity impossible. His the-
ory of the origins of Christianity was formu-
lated in the work that made him famous, Das
Leben Jesu, kritisch bea-rbeitet (1835-36; Eng.
trans. by George Eliot, 1846), in which he
sought to explain the Gospel history on the
mythical theory. The work aroused a storm of
opposition, but nevertheless had a widespread
influence. In consequence of his views, he was
removed from his position and given a subordi-
nate place in the Lyceum of Ludwigsburg. From
1836 until his death Strauss lived a somewhat
wandering life, holding no position, though he
had accepted, in 1839, an appointment in the
University of Zurich, which position, on account
of popular opposition, he had not been permitted
to fill. '
Because of his interest in the political.agita-
tions of the times he was elected a member of
the Wiirttemberg Diet in 1848. But he was not
sufficiently radical for his constituents and so
resigned. His second chief work, Die christliche
Glaubenslehre in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwiche-
lung und im Kampf mit der modernen VVisscn--
schaft dargestellt, was even more skeptical than
his Leben J esu. After the publication in 1848 of
Sechs theologisch-politische V olhsreden Strauss
turned from theological to literary criticism and
biography. He wrote critical biographies of
Schubart (1849), M'eirklin (1851), Frischlin
(1855), Ulrich von Hutten (1857, 4th ed. 1878),
Reimarus (1862), and Voltaire (1870, 5th ed.
1877), the last a work of remarkable merit.
Not until 1864 did he again turn to
theology, when he published Das Leben J esu fit-r
das deutsche Volh, following it in the next year
by Die Halben und die Ganeen and Der Christus
des Glaubens und der Jesus der Geschichte. His
last work was Der alte und der neue Glaube, ein
Bchenntnis (1872, 11th ed. 1881). In these last
works Strauss gave up entirely the faith he
once may have had in Christianity. Strauss’s
popularity was doubtless due as much to his
clear and captivating style as to any logical force
in his arguments.
His Gesammelte Schriften were edited with an
Introduction by his friend Eduard Zeller (Bonn,
1876-78, 12 vols.). For his life, consult: Zeller,
D. F. Strauss in seinem Leben u-nd seinen Schrif-
ten (Bonn, 1874) ; Hausrath, D. F. Strauss und
die Theologie seiner Zeit (Heidelberg, 1876-78).
STRAUSS, JOHANN, the Elder (1804-49). An
Austrian composer of dance music, born in Vi-
enna. He received an imperfe'ct musical educa-
tion. In 1819 he was received into Pamer’s or-
chestra, and four years later joined the celebrated
Lanner Quartet as viola-player. He subsequently
became assistant conductor of Lanner’s orchestra,
but in 1824 started an independent organization,
with which he played at various resorts, and
through which he gave to the world the waltzes
which made him famous. In 1845 he was ap-
pointed conductor of - the Court balls at
Vienna. Conspicuous among the 152 Waltzes
which he published were the “Lorelei,” “Gabri-
elen,” “Taglioni,” “Victoria,” “Kettenbriicken,”
“Bajaderen,” and the “Donau-Lieder.” Both as
conductor and as composer he succeeded in rais-
ing the dance form to an artistic plane, before
unknown.
STRAUSS, JOHANN, the Younger (1825-99).
A distinguished Austrian composer, born in
srnauss.
STRAWBERRY.
256
Vienna, son of the preceding. His father was
averse to his adopting the profession of music,
but, aided by his mother, he was enabled to
secure instruction on the violin and in composi-
tion, and at nineteen years of age severed his
home connections and secured an engagement as
conductor of an orchestra at a popular restau-
rant in Hietzing. He used the opportunity to
play his own waltz compositions and soon became
widely popular. After his father’s death he
united both orchestras and began a concert tour
through many European countries. From 1855
to 1865 he was the conductor of the Petropaul-
ovski Park summer concerts in Saint Peters-
burg, and from 1863 to 1870 was also conductor
of the Court balls. He composed nearly 500
dance pieces, which for the most part possess
the highest merit. Among the best known may
be mentioned: The Beautiful Blue Danube;
Roses from the South ; Artist’s Life; Vienna
Blood; The One Thousand and One Nights; Wine,
Women, and Song. His operettas were entitled
as follows: Indigo (1871) ; Der Carneval in Rom
(1873); Die Fledermaus (1874) Cagliostro
(1875); Prinz Methusalem (1877); Der lustige
Krieg (1881); Eine Nacht in Vened/ig (1883);
Ders Zigeunerbaron (1885); Simplicius (1887);
Ritter Pasman (1892) ; Fiirstin N inetta (1893) ;
Jabuloa, oder das Apfelfest (1894) ; Waldmeister
(1895) ; Die Gfittin der Vernunft (1897) ; and a
ballet Aschenbréidel. For his biography consult
Eisenberg (Leipzig, 1894) and Prochazka (Ber-
lin, 1900).
His brothers, JOSEPH (1827-70), who became
leader of the Vienna orchestra in 1863, and EDU-
ARD (1835——), who assumed its direction in
1870, both did creditable work as musical con-
ductors and composers of dance music.
STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864—). A German
composer, the most ingenious disciple of the
so-called school of Weimar. Born in Munich, he
mastered the technics of the violin and piano
when quite young, and in 1875-80 studied theory
and composition with kapellmeister Wilhelm
Mayer. In October, 1885, Strauss became mu-
sical director at Meiningen. In 1886-89 he was
kapellmeister at Munich and was then called to
Weimar. His radical tendencies were soon rec-
ognized, and his espousal of extremely modern
music caused his conducting of Wagner to be-
come of notable interest. On his return from a
trip to Greece, Egypt, and Sicily, his music
drama Guntram, opus 25, dedicated to his pa-
rents, was produced at Weimar, in 1894.
Strauss returned to Munich as Court kapell-
meister in 1895, and in the same capacity went
to Berlin in 1898. He wrote I talia, a symphonic
fantasia, in 1886. It is fresh,_vigorous, and
characteristic in themes and coloring. Then fol-
lowed a series of daring orchestral compositions.
The chronology of the greater symphonic works
is as follows: Don Juan( 1888) ; Macbeth(l887) ;
Death and Apotheosis (1889) ; Till Eulensgiiegel
(1895); Thus Spalw Zarathustra (1895); Don
Quixote (1897); A Hero’s Life (1898). His
later works include, besides numerous songs and
choruses, an opera, Feuersnot (1901); a tone
poem entitled Sinfonia domestica; and Taillefer,
a choral work with orchestra, based on a poem
by Uhland. Strauss’s earlier productions tell no
tale of genius; the mark of the file is upon them.
But from his twentieth opus his originality
shows itself. He invented the tone poem, in
which the line of design is as sternly unwaver-
ing as the symphony, and the possibilities for
expression almost illimitable. The Strauss
themes condition their treatment, and if his har-
monic scheme sometimes seems ugly, his melodic
curve daring, and his orchestration polyodic, it
must be remembered that the same criticisms
were made of Richard Wagner’s music. The
developing sections in his tone poems are
remarkable. Perhaps, following the trend of
the Lied writers since Schumann in his songs,
the voice is woven too closely in the dense fabric
of harmony, yet many effects of pure, rhythmetic,
and sensuous beauty are discovered. Here
Strauss has often dared to be simple in senti-
ment. Such a song as the Serenade is heard
with delight by audiences that do not realize
the cornplexity of a scheme expressing itself
so naively. It is the epical Strau-ss that appeals
especially to the imaginative.
Consult: Fuller-Maitland, Masters of German
Music, with Illustrations (London, 1894) ; Hunc-
ker, M ezzotints in Modern Music (New York,
1899); the monographs by Seidl and Klatte
(Prague, 1896), and Brecher (Leipzig, 1900);
and The Musical Times, vol. xliv., No. 719
(London, 1903).
STRAW BAIL. In old English law, the
names of two or more fictitious persons entered
on the records of a court as surcties for the
appearance of a defendant in a civil action. In
early times a defendant was first served with a
summons, and if he did not appear he was con-
sidered to be guilty of contempt of court, for
which the sheriff arrested him under a capias, and
he was obliged to give bail for his appearance.
Gradually, through the change of practice in
serving only one process and the indulgence of
the courts, this became a mere formality, and
the fictitious names of ‘John Doe’ and ‘Richard
Roe’ were entered as sureties. This was known
as common or straw bail. This practice no
longer prevails, but the name is retained to de-
note a financially irresponsible surety on a bail
bond. See BAIL.
STRAWBERRY (AS. stréawberie, strr§aw-
berige, strawberry; perhaps so called either be-
cause the long stems resemble straws, or because
of an old custom of stringing the berries on
straws). Certain perennial herbs of the natural
order Rosaceae, widely distributed mostly in tem-
perate regions throughout the world. The culti-
vated forms are all derived by the hybridization
and crossing of three principal species, Fragaria
vesca, Fragaria Virginiana, and Fragaria Chi-
lo'e'nsis, particularly the last named. The plants
are low growing, have trifoliate leaves, white
flowers either pistillate or polygamous, and nume-
rous achenes on usually red, sometimes yellowish-
white fleshy receptacles which constitute the
edible part. The plants are hardy and may be
grown in almost any region in America from
Florida to Alaska. The varieties grown almost
universally in America have a short season of
fruitfulness, but several of the European varie-
ties bear more or less continuously throughout
the summer and early autumn.
Since young plants are most productive, the
strawberry plantations are usually allowed to
fruit only once, sometimes twice. The plants
obtained from rooted runners are set in the field
STRAWBERRY.
STRAW MANUFACTURES.
257
in spring or in late summer, and are allowed to
form matted rows from their runners or are
grown in so-called hills, in which case the runners
are cut off, and the plants made to form stools.
The former method is by far the most popular,
but finer and larger individual fruits, though in
smaller number, are obtained by the latter meth-
od. The land may be any rich soil suitable for
corn or potatoes, and should have been in culti-
vation for at least one year, preferably two or
three, previous to the Planting of the strawber-
ries, in order to be free from the larvae of certain
insects that feed on the roots especially of
grasses. The plants are usually set about 18
inches asunder, in rows three feet apart, and
common WILD STRAWBERRY (Fragaria Virginiana).
given clean culture throughout the season. When
the ground has frozen hard straw, marsh hay,
or similar substance free from weeds is spread
upon the plants as a winter mulch. This is
raked between the rows when growth starts in
the spring and allowed to remain to protect the
berries from dirt during rains. Usually in the
spring of the second year complete fertilizers are
applied, but no cultivation is given. After the
crop is gathered, the plants are plowed under
and the land used for some crop such as cabbage,
which will mature before frost. Land cropped
with strawberries should be planted to other
crops for two or three years before strawberries
are again planted.
Since the introduction of refrigerator trans-
portation the strawberry industry has vastly in-
creased. Large areas in the Gulf States are de-
voted to the crop, shipments are made to the
North in early spring, and as they cease areas
farther to the north supply the demand until
midsummer, when the market is furnished from
northern localities. The whole industry has been
developed since the introduction, in 1834, of the
Hovey strawberry, a variety which originated in
Massachusetts. Since that date thousands of
varieties have been introduced, tested, and even
if they were popular for a short time have been
supplanted by superior ones. Strawberries are
cultivated to a small extent under glass to sup-
ply a demand for forced fruits in some cities.
The principal disease to which the strawberry
plant is subject is the blight or rust (Sphcerella
fragarice), which appears on the leaves as small
purple spots which increase in size and become
brown with purple margins. Serious losses may
follow severe attacks. Since the disease is car-
ried over winter in the old leaves, all such should
be collected and burned and the young foliage
protected by two or three sprayings of Bordeaux
mixture or other fungicide (q.v.). A mil-
dew (Sphcerotheca castagnei) sometimes
appears on the leaves as a delicate cobweb
which causes the crumpling of the leaves.
It seldom causes much injury and is read-
ily controlled as above indicated. Consult:
Fuller, The Stra/wberry Culturist (New
York, 1897); Terry and Root, A B C of
Strawberry Culture (Medina, Ohio, 1902).

STRAWBERRY BUSH. See SPINDLE
TREE.
STRAWBERRY INSECTS. The prin-
cipal insect enemy of the strawberry in
the Eastern United States is the straw-
berry weevil (Anthonomus signatus),
which appears just before the blossoms ex-
pand lays an egg in the bud usually of
the staminate varieties or those pistillate
varieties rich in pollen, and then punc-
tures the stem so that in a few days the
bud drops to the ground. The larva de-
velops within the severed bud and after
pupation emerges as a dull red or nearly
black beetle, about one-tenth of an inch
long. Both larvae and adults feed upon
the pollen. Covering the beds, cultivating
pistillate varieties, and clean culture are
the remedies recommended.
The larva of the strawberry leaf-roller,
a small reddish brown tortricid moth (An-
cylis comptana), rolls the leaves of the
strawberry into cylindrical cases during June,
becomes a chrysalis within the folded leaf, and
appears as a moth in July. A second generation
occurs during August. An arsenical spray is the
remedy. _
The strawberry sawfly (Harpiphorus macula-
tus), a small, black insect, lays its eggs in the
substance of the leaf early in ,May. The pale
green larvae, which feed upon the leaves, and
when full-grown are nearly three-fourths of an
inch long, burrow in the ground and form minute
cocoons. A second generation appears in the late
summer and hibernates under ground. Hellebore
is recommended as a remedy. Consult: Saunders,
Insects Injurious to Fruits (Philadelphia,
1889); Chittenden, The Strawberry Weevil
(Washington, 1897).
STRAW MANUFACTURES (AS. strea,
streaw, strew, OHG, stro, Ger. Stroh, straw;
connected with AS. streawian, stre'o-wian, Goth.
straujan, OHG. strewen, Ger. streuen, to strew,
and with Lat. sternere, Gk. aropsvvtvai, storen-
nynai, crpcovviwat, stro'nnynai, OChurch Slav.
streti, Skt. star, to scatter). Besides the use of
straw for the manufacture of paper (q.v.) , straw
is woven into a great variety of forms, as hats,
STRAW MANUFACTUBES.
STREET-
258
baskets, and shoes. The most important branch
of the straw-plaiting industry is the making of
straw hats or of straw braid to be sewed into
hats. Much of the straw braid which is used for
hats in England and America is braided in
China and Japan.
The conversion of straw into braid is a simple
process, requiring few tools but deft fingers.
Wheat straw is the material commonly used.
The straw pipes must be sufficiently long be-
tween the joints, fiexible, and of good color. The
straw is prepared for braiding by first pulling,
instead of mowing the crop. It is then cut into
lengths and permitted to dry and bleach in the
sun, after which the outer sheath is removed and
the straw is again bleached, this time in sulphur
fumes. The straw is then sorted as to diameter,
length, and color.
It is estimated that in Saxony and Bohemia
alone, from 20,000 to 30,000 persons of both sexes
and all ages are engaged in this industry. The
finest work is done in Tuscany, where the indus-
try was established in the thirteenth century.
Here a particularly fine grade of straw has been
produced since 1718, from which the famous
Leghorn braids are made. The Tuscan straws are
not split. In 1840 looms were adapted to straw-
braiding, but they have not superseded hand
labor. The plaits are known by the numbers of
bents into which they are worked as 7 or 11
bents. The production of the finer grades of
Tuscan braids is a most delicate operation, so
trying to eye and nerve that the workman cannot
engage in it for more than two hours at a time.
coloring matter of madder, to the preparation
of the mercury compounds of many alcoholic
radicles, and to several important syntheses in
organic chemistry, notably those of lactic acid,
alanin, and taurin. His publications include:
Das chemische Laboratorium der Universittit
Kristiania (1854); Theorien and Ewperimente
zur Bestimmung der Atomgewichte (1859) ; and
a German edition of Regnault’s well-known text-
book of chemistry (begun 1851).
STRECKER, ' HERMAN (1836-1901). An
American entomologist, born in Philadelphia.
He acquired considerable skill as a sculptor and
designer, but his chief claim to distinction is
due to his study of butterflies. His collection of
these insects was the largest in America and one
of the largest in the world. He published: Bat-
terflies and M oths of North America and Lepi-
doptera, Rhopalocera and H eterocera, I -ndige-
nous and Erotic. After his death in 1901 his col-
lection was bought by Dean Hoffman for $20,000
and was presented to the American Museum of
Natural History in New York City.
STBECKFUSS, strék’fo1c"Fs, KARL (1778-1844).
A German poet and translator. He was born
at Gera, studied law at Leipzig, and occupied
high positions in the Prussian civil service. His
original works include: Gedichte (1823), Nea-
ere Dichtungen (1834), and Erzrthlungen (1830),
but he is best known as the translator of Ari-
osto (1818-20), Tasso (1822 and often), and
Dante (1824-26).——His son ADOLF (1823-95), a
novelist and historian, was the author of Fried-
Srruw AND Srnnw Mnmmcrunns IMPORTED mro THE UNITED STATES
(From the U. S. Statistical Abstract for 1900)




1896 1897 1898 1899 1900
Tons Dollars Tons Dollars Tons Dollars Tons Dollars Tons I Dollars
Unmanufactured ................ .. 7,879 31,140 9,386 31,768 1,448 4,463 2,075 4,564 5,495 15,750
Manufactured .................... .. 1,199,284 1.006,201 260,437 259,185 336,287


STRAW-WORM. See WHEAT Insncrs.
STRAY. See Esrnnx.
STREATOR, stre’tor. A city in La Salle
County, Ill., 94 miles southwest of Chicago; on
the Vermilion River, and on the Chicago, Bur-
lington and Quincy, the Chicago and Alton, the
Wabash, the Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, and the
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads (Map:
Illinois, D 2) . There is an attractive park in the
heart of the city. Streator has important rail-
road interests, and is the centre of an agricul-
tural section noted also for its deposits of coal
and clay. Bottle and window glass works, foun-
dries and machine shops, and brick and tile
manufactories are some of the leading industrial
establishments. The government is vested in a
mayor, chosen every two years, a unicameral
council, and subordinate officials who are ap-
pointed by the mayor with the consent of the
council. Streator was settled in 1860, and was
laid out in 1867. It was incorporated as a vil-
lage in 1870, and organized as a city in 1882.
Population, in 1890, 11,414; in 1900, 14,079.
S'1".RECK’ER, Anour (1812-71). A German
chemist, born at Darmstadt. He taught suc-
cessively at Giéssen, Christiania, Tiibingen,_and
Wiirzburg. His extensive original work led to
interesting discoveries in connection with the
galls of various animals, to the isolation of the
rich I. and die Quitzows (1859) ; Vom Fischer-
dor;C zur Welts\ta.dt,' 500 Jahre Berliner Ge-
schichte (last ed., 1899) ; and of Weltgeschichte,
dem deutschen Vollceraiihlt (1865).
STREET (AS. street, from Lat. strata, street,
highway, fem. sg. of stratus, p.p. of sternere, Gk.
oropevvtvat, storennynai, orpwvviwat, str0'n/nynai,
OChurch Slav. streti, Skt. star, Goth. straujan,
OHG. strewen, Ger. streuen, AS. streawiart,
streowian, Eng. strew). The term as here used
denotes a way for foot and vehicular trafiic in
cities and other more or less closely inhabited
areas.
Some of the points to be observed in planning
a city’s streets are as follows: The streets
should radiate from the principal centre, and
sometimes there should be sub-radiations from
local centres. This will save time and distance
and afford an opportunity for better artistic ef-
fects in the way of commanding central features,
such as public squares, monuments, and buildings,
and pleasing vistas. Placing pipes and wires in
subways, or underground galleries, is a modern
means for relieving overhead congestion. Much
relief has been gained in a number of cities by
placing the wires in inclosed underground con-
duits accessible from manholes, or covered cham-
bers placed sufficiently near together to render
street excavations unnecessary. See SUBWAYS, etc.
STREET.
STREET RAILWAY.
259
In building sidewalks care must be taken to
secure an unyielding, well-drained foundation,
in order to prevent uneven settlement, cracks, or
breaks. Boards or planks are generally laid
crosswise of the walk, on longitudinal string-
pieces, or timbers, designed to keep theboards
off the ground and postpone the inevitable de-
cay. On account of this decay, wooden sidewalks
are, in the long run, decidedly uneconomical.
Curbstones are from four to six inches thick and
deep enough to form the necessary rise above the
gutter and to extend into the earth sufficiently to
give a firm foundation. They are often set on
broken stone, to insure good drainage, or on con-
crete, to give a solid foundation. They may be of
stone or of concrete. Where concrete is used it
sometimes extends so as to form the gutter, as
well, and has the upper and outer edge of the
curb protected with an iron bar or rod, imbedded
in the concrete.
See.B0ULEvARDs; ELECTRIC LIGHTING; ELEC-
TRIo RAILWAYS; STREET RAILWAYS; GAS; HEAT-
ING AND VENTILATIoN (paragraph Central Sta-
tions) ; PAVEMENTS; ROAD AND STREET MACHIN-
EBY; RGADS; SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE; SUB-
wAYs FOB PII>Es AND WIRES; WATER-Wonxs, etc.
STREET, ALFRED BILLINGS (1811-81). An
American author, born at Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
He studied law and began practice at Monticello,
N. Y., but in 1839 removed to Albany, where
he became editor of The Northern Light, and
was, for the latter half of his life, State librarian.
His poems deal with the sights and sounds of
the woodland and the life of the more primitive
days of the settlement of America. Among his
verses are: The Burning of Schenectady, and
Other Poems (1842); Drawings and Tintings
(1844) ; Fugitive Poems (1846) ; and Frontenac;
or, the Atotarho of the Iroquois (1849), a poet-
ical romance. His chief prose works are:
Woods and Waters (1860); The Indian Pass
(1869); Lake and Mountain; or, Autumn in
the Adirondacks (1870); Eagle Pine; or,
Sketches of a New York Frontier Village
(1871) ; and one learned work, A Digest of Tax-
ation in the United States (1863).
STREET, GEoRGE EDMUND (1824-81). An
English architect. He studied under Gilbert
Scott, from whom he got his partiality for the
Gothic style and his talent in restoring medieeval
monuments. Among his principal buildings are
the theological college at Cuddesden, and the
churches of Saint Philip and Saint James, at
Oxford, of Saint Margaret, at Liverpool, and
many well-designed minor churches. Among his
restorations are the cathedrals of York, Bristol,
and Carlisle, Jesus College Chapel, Oxford, and
Wantage church. Among his writings are The
Brick and Marble Architecture of North Italy
in the Middle Ages (1855), and Gothic Architec-
ture in Spain (1865), which are classics in their
fields.
STREET RAILWAY. A railway laid upon
the public streets of a city or a town, and
intended principally for the transportation of
passengers. The street railway had its origin in
the early tramways of Great Britain (see RAIL-
WAYS), and such roads are still denominated
tramways in all European countries. The street
railway for passenger trafiic is, however, dis-
tinctly an American development, and the mod-
ern passenger tramways of Europe owe their
inception to the United States. A street rail-
way was operated in New York City in 1831-32,
on which a horse car, much like an old English
stage coach in construction, ran from Prince
Street on the Bowery to Yorkville and Harlem,
following for some distance the route now occu-
pied by the Fourth Avenue Railway, which still
operates under the original charter granted in
1831. The road was known as the New York
and Harlem Railroad, and it continued in opera-
tion as a horse-car line until 1837, when it was
temporarily changed to a steam-car line. In 1845
the operation of the horse cars on the railway
line was resumed, and it remained the only horse-
car line in New York until 1852, when charters
were granted for the Second, Third, Sixth, and
Eighth Avenue lines. Street railways were first
built in Boston, Mass., in 1856. Philadelphia,
Pa., had its first line in 1857. The street rail-
way was introduced into England in 1860 through
the efforts of George Francis Train, the first
line being started in Birkenhead opposite Liver-
pool. Roads were laid in Liverpool in 1868, in
London in 1869-71, and afterwards in Glasgow,
Edinburgh, and Dublin. A recent authority (Du-
mont, Automobiles Sur Rails, 1898) says that the
first horse tramway in France was built in 1856
on a line extending from Paris to Saint-Cloud,
and was ‘called the ‘American’ railway; but that
the first horse-car line in Paris itself was not
built until 1875. Street railway enterprises be-
gan to be taken up by the South American coun-
tries in 1866.
The street railway rail of 1832 was a wrought-
iron bar about 5 inches wide, with a groove from
1% inches to 21/4 inches wide and from 1 inch
to 11/2 inches deep, for the wheel flange. The
wide _and deep groove in this rail gave trouble
by catching the wheel tires of ordinary vehicles
and wrenching them. To remedy this fault the
step rail was adopted. This consisted of a flat
bar having a flat surface from 3 inches to 5
inches wide flanked by a ridge or tread about
1 inch high and 1% inches wide. This form of
rail came into extensive use, especially in Amer-
ica. Another form of step rail had the tread
in the centre flanked by a flat surface on each
side. The next development was a return to the
grooved rail, but with the groove wedge-shaped
and narrow. These early forms of rails were
simply iron bars spiked to the tops of longitu-
dinal timbers. This timber was replaced by
metal longitudinals, chairs, and supports of va-
rious sorts as experience suggested improve-
ments, until finally the attempt of trying to
maintain the tread or wearing surface of the
rail separate from the supporting body was
abandoned and the modern girder rail was orig-
inated. The girder rail consists of a base and
web like the ordinary T-rail for railways, but
has a wide grooved head. VVith the advent of
the girder rail the former difficulty of insecure
and uneven joints was largely decreased and at
the same time a rail was developed which gave
the necessary stiffness for carrying the rapidly
increasing weights of cars which were made pos-
sible by the development of mechanical propul-
sion. The construction of modern street railway
tracks is more fully described in the article on
ELEGTRIG RAILWAYS.
The success of the first street railways estab-
lished, inventors and engineers turned their at-
tention to devising means of mechanical propul-
STREET RAILWAY.
STREET RAILWAY.
260
sion. These various methods fall into seven
classes as follows: Traction by steam motors,
by compressed air, by gas motors, by carbonic
acid engines, by ammonia engines, by cables,
and by electricity. ‘Steam, gas, compressed air,
and vapor motors have been employed in com-
paratively isolated instances and under special
conditions, although they have been the subject
of considerable experimentation and are to be
met with occasionally in Europe and to a less
extent in the United States. The only systems
of mechanical propulsion which have attained
extended use in America (leaving elevated rail-
ways out of account) are cable power and elec-
tric motors. The development of electric propul-
sion for street cars is described in the article on
Emornro RAILWAYS.
CABLE RAILWAYS for city passenger service
had their origin in San Francisco, and it was at
first thought that the system was only applicable
to straight lines with heavy grades in favor-
able climates, but this view was changed when
cable traction was established in Chicago on level
lines with sharp and difficult curves and was
operated despite snow and other climatic disad-
vantages. As a result an enormous impetus was
given to the construction of cable railways in
America and such lines were
built in a score or more of
American cities. In 1886 the
Tenth Avenue and 125th Street
cable road was put in operation
in New York City, and several
years later this was followed by
the Third Avenue line, 12 miles
long, and the Broadway and
Lexington Avenue lines. In
1891 there were 70 cable street
railway lines in operation in
the United States, with an ag-
gregate mileage of 57 7% miles.
The new construction and ex-
tension of the next two or three
years increased this total to
about 700 miles, which marked
the height of the cable railway
in America. Since that time
the mileage has steadily de-
creased under the competition
of electric traction, until in
1900 there were but 300 miles
of cable railway in operation
in the United States.
In construction the cable rail-
way consists of a standard
street railway track having an
underground conduit between
the rails. In this conduit there
runs an endless wire rope cable
guided by suitable pulleys. A
slot at the top of the conduit
permits a grip projecting down-
ward from the bottom of the
car to enter the conduit. This
grip is provided at its lower
end with jaws which can be so operated from the
platforms of the car as to grasp and unloose the
cable at will. Generally in modern practice dupli-
cate cables are installed in the conduit, the pur-
pose of which is to have a second cable ready for
operation in case of breakage or other accident.
Movement is given to the cable by means of a re-
60,000
CARS OPERATED
_a s
§ §
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0,000
1890
1891
volving drum around which the cable is wrapped,
these drums being operated by powerful steam
engines installed in power houses located at in-
tervals along the line. Generally speaking, it is
not desirable to operate a greater length of
cable than 25,000 feet, but cables as long as 39,-
000 feet have been successfully operated. The
prevalence of curves is perhaps the most impor-
tant factor determining the length of cable which
can be operated. As a general rule it is found
that a right angle curve puts a strain upon the
cable plant equal to that entailed upon it by
1000 feet of straight‘ road. It may be assumed
that from 40 per cent. to 60 per cent. of the
power used in operating a cable railway is con-
sumed in operating the cable itself. The size
of cable most generally used is 11/4 inches, and
the material favored is crucible steel. The life
of street railway cables averages about fourteen
months, giving from 70,000 to 80,000 miles of
service, but there are records of cables having
given 144,000 miles of service. In a few cases,
of which the New York and Brooklyn Bridge is
notable, the cable is not inclosed in a conduit,
but is carried on pulleys above ground or on an
elevated structure.
In respect to street railway transportation

N CO *1‘ In ‘D
a s s s s 5 £5 s i
YE ARS Street Ry.Journal.
generally the most notable facts are the enor-
mous growth of street railways in mileage and
capital invested, and the predominant position
held by electric traction for street railway opera-
tion. Both of these facts are graphically illus-
trated in the accompanying diagrams compiled
by the Street Railway J ournal. In the ten years
STREET RAILWAY.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
261
between 1890 and 1900 the street railway mile-
age of the United States more than doubled; the
mileage of cable railways decreased about one-
half; the mileage of horse railways decreased
from over 6000- miles to 370 miles; and the mile-
age of electric railways increased from about
2000 miles to over 19,000 miles. A similar
course of development has been recorded in the
tramway systems of England and Continental
Europe, although the totals do not reach the
aggregates recorded for the United States. For
a condensed statement of the development of
electric railways in the countries outside of the
United States and Canada, see ELECTRIC RAIL-
WAYS. ‘
20,000
18,000
116,000
14.000
MILES OF TRACK
H
9
40000
W
0,000,,
§s§§é§§.
YEARS
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Outside of the electric railway
field (see ELECTRIC RAILWAYS) there are no
books of much value relating to street railways.
There is, however, a large volume of periodical
literature of high class available. Among the
sources of information of this class the follow-
ing may be consulted with advantage: Reports
of the American Street Railway Association
(Chicago) ; Volumes of the Street Railway Jour-
nal (New York), and the Engineering News
(New York) ; Street Railway Investments (New
York).
STREET RAILWAY EMPLOYEES, AMAL-
GAMATED ASSOCIATION or. See RAILWAY BROTH-
ERHOODS.
STREITBERG, strit’bE-rx, WILIIELM (1864
--). A German philologist, born in Riidesheim,
and educated in Leipzig, where he became docent
in 1889. In the same year he was appointed
professor of Indo-Germanic philology at Frei-
burg, a chair which he left in 1899 for a pro-
fessorship in Sanskrit and comparative philology
at Miinster. In comparative grammar he ranks
close to Osthofi‘ and to Brugmann. In 1892 he be-


came editor of the Anzeiger fiir indogermanische
Sprach- und Altertumskunde, the annual bibli-
ography of the I ndogermanische Forschungen, and
of a series, entitled Germanische Elementar-
biicher, in 1896, in which he wrote “Urgerman-
ische Grammatik” (1896, revised 1903), and
“Gotisches Elementarbuch” (1897). His earlier
works on Germanics are Die germanischen Kom-
parative auf -02- (1890) ; Zur germanischen
Spraohgesohichte (1892); and Entstehung der
Dehnstufe (1894).
STRELITZ, stra’lits. A town in the Grand
Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, about two miles
south of Neustrelitz. It was formerly the capi-
tal of the country. It has
some manufactures. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 4165.
STREL’TSI, STRELTZI,
or STREL’ITZ. The Rus-
sian Imperial guard, organ-
ized by Ivan IV. in the sec-
ond half of the sixteenth
century. At that time, and
for long afterwards, they
were the only standing force
in Russia, and at times
amounted to between 40,000
and 50,000 men. They were
stationed at Moscow in time
of peace, in a quarter of the
capital which was set apart
for them, and enjoyed spe-
cial privileges. Incessant
conspiracies rendered them
in time dangerous. In 1698
a revolt of the Streltsi led
to a bloody contest in which
they were defeated with
great loss. Peter the Great
finally suppressed them
(1705). ‘
' STREMAYR, strfflmir,
KARL von (1823-—). An
Austria-n statesman, born at
Gratz, where he also studied
law, entered the Government
service, and subsequently was
Attorney-General and docent at the university. In
1868 he was appointed councilor in the Ministry
of the Interior and in 1870-79 was Minister of
Public Instruction, when he brought about the re-
peal of the concordat of 1855. President of the
Council after the going out of Auersperg Ministry
in 1879, he entered the Cabinet of Count Taafie
as Minister of Justice, but resigned in 1880, was
appointed vice-president and, after Schmerling’s
resignation in 1891, president of the Supreme
Court, from which post he retired in 1899. He
was called to a seat in the House of Lords in
1889.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. A term
which maybe defined as the resistance which
materials offer against deformation. Every
load produces in the structure an internal
resistance which balances it, and this inter-
nal resistance is called a stress. Three kinds
of direct stress may be produced by load,
viz. a stress tending to pull apart, or tensile
stress; a stress tending to push together, or
compressive stress; and a stress tending to slide
on parallel planes, or shearing stress. Complex
'8
= s s
IR!‘ ly.J0urnal
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
262
stresses such as flexure and torsion are capable
of being resolved into tension, compression, and
shearing stresses. A unit stress is the stress per
unit of area; the unit of area is the square inch
in English-speaking countries and the square
centimeter in countries where the metric system
of measures prevails. In all cases of direct
stress the total stress is supposed to be uniformly ‘
distributed over the area of the cross-section.
When a tensile or compressive force is applied
to a bar of metal it elongates or is shortened,
and up to a certain limit the elongation or short-
ening is proportional to the load. Beyond this
limit the elongation or shortening increases more
rapidly than the load. The unit stress at which
the deformations begin to increase in a faster
ratio than the stress is called the elastic limit,
or less commonly the elastic strength. When the
unit stress in a bar is less than the elastic limit,
the bar returns, when the stress is removed, to
its original dimensions. VVhen, however, the unit
stress is greater than the elastic limit, the bar
does not fully return to its original dimensions,
but a permanent distortion remains. Therefore,
if a material is strained beyond its elastic limit,
a permanent injury results to its elastic prop-
erties; and for this reason it is the universal
practice in designing engineering structures to
make certain that the unit stresses never exceed
the elastic limit of the material. VVhen a ma-
terial is under a stress exceeding its elastic limit
it is usually in an unsafe condition. If the stress
be increased the deformation rapidly increases
until finally the material ruptures.
The unit stress which occurs just before rup-
ture takes place is called the ultimate strength
of the material. The ultimate strengths of ma-
terials are from two to four times as great as
their elastic limits. The strength of materials
is determined by straining a piece of the ma-
terial to rupture and observing the elastic limit,
ultimate strength, and other coiirdinate phenom-
ena.
TENSION. In testing a material under tension
' a ‘test piece’ or ‘test specimen,’ usually eight
inches long and one square inch in section, is
broken by direct pull. The loads are gradually
applied. At first each increment of load pro-
duces a proportionate increment of elongation,
but after the load has reached a certain amount
the elongation begins to increase more rapidly
than the load. The unit load reeorded just as
this change in the rate of deformation takes
place is the elastic strength or the elastic limit
of the material. As the load continues to in-
crease the elongation increases more rapidly
than the load and is commonly accompanied by
a reduction in area of the cross-section of the
test piece. Finally the test piece breaks and its
ultimate strength is recorded. Record is also
taken of the total elongation of the Piece and of
the total reduction of area. These last two rec-
ords are indices of the ductility of the material.
The usual records of a tensile test of materials
consist, therefore, of figures showing the elastic
limit, the -ultimate strength, the percentage of
elongation, and, often, the percentage of reduc-
tion of area. These values vary greatly for dif-
ferent kinds of materials and considerably for
different qualities of the same material. In
printing figures for illustration, therefore, the
best that can be _done is to select rough average
values. The following figures are taken from
Prof. Mansfield Merriman’s The Strength of M a-
terials (New York, 1897), which will be found
an excellent discussion of the subject for the
non-technical reader:




I . .
MATERIAL Ifiglsigc 'g;1rtgIIlnga€71? 1Ummf?te
lbs. per sq. lbs. per sq. e Onga 1%n'
inch. inch. per can '
Timber...-. .................. .. 3,000 10,000 1.5
Cast Iron ................... .. 6,000 20,000 0.5
Wrought iron .......... .. 25,000 55,000 20.
Steel .......................... . . 50,000 100, 000 10.
. CoMPRESSIoN. In testing for compressive
strength the test piece used is short and thick,
a cube and a short cylinder being the common
forms of test pieces. The phenomena which oc-
cur are substantially as in tension, first a dis-
tortion proportional to the load until the elastic
limit is reached, and then a distortion increasing
more rapidly than the load increases until rup-
ture occurs. The manner in which rupture oc-
curs is quite different from the manner in which
it occurs in tension. In tension the material
draws down to a smaller diameter and finally
parts by a more or less ragged fracture at ap-
proximately right angles to the direction of the
pull; in compression the test piece first bulges to
an increased diameter and then ruptures with a
fracture oblique to the direction of the pressure.
This method of fracture occurs only when the
test piece is thick compared with its height;
when the height is great compared with the
thickness lateral flexure or bending occurs and
the conditions of rupture are no longer those of
simple compression, as it is explained in the suc-
ceeding paragraph on the strength of columns.
AS was the case with tension, only rough average
figures of comparative strength can be given,
owing to the fact that this strength varies for
different materials and with different qualities
of the same material. The following figures are
quoted from the work of Professor .Merriman
which is named above:



Ellastic Ultimate
imit, strength,
IMTERIH’ lbs. per sq. lbs. per sq.
inch inch
Timber ........................................ .. 3,000 8,000
Stone .......................................... .. —- 6,000
Cast iron .................................... .. 20,000 90,000
Wrought iron ............................ .. 25,000 55,000
Steel ............................................ .. 50,000 150,000
SHEAR. Shear is the stress produced by two
parallel forces acting on the material in opposite
directions, as, for example, do the blades of a pair
of shears. If a weight be suspended by a bar
which is composed of two shorter bars connected
at one end by a rivet or bolt passing through
them, the stress brought upon the rivet is a
shearing stress. The same stress is exerted by a
punching machine in punching holes in metal
plates. The shearing strength of materials often
differs according to the direction in which the
shearing forces are exerted. Thus the shearing
strength of timber is much less along the grain
than at right angles to the grain. The follow-
ing figures taken from Professor Merriman’s
book named above give the average ultimate
shearing strengths of the more common struc-
tural materials:
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
263

MATERIAL Pounds per sq. inch
Timber, longitudinal .............................................. .. 600
Timber, transverse ................................................. .. 3,000
Cast iron ............... .. . ............ .. 20,000
Wro ught iron ........................................................ .. 50,000
Steel
I u Q . - I Q - . - . ‘ . . . - | ~ - - Q - I ' - . I . c u - | e o Q n Q o . ’ . . - 0 o ~ - . o | - - - - - - ~ . . | - I . - I u I I - ¢ n no ,
ACTUAL VALUES. The figures given in the pre-
ceding tabular statements show rough average
values, useful chiefly to be memorized as a basis
for approximation. In careful designing the in-
gineer requires actual values as determined by
authoritative tests upon the particular material
he is using or proposes to use. These values
vary within quite narrow limits for each kind
or quality of any material and within broader
limits for all kinds and qualities of the same
material. The ultimate average strengths of six
of the most common structural timbers are as
follows:

Pounds per square inch
TIMBER Tensile Compréssive
strength strength
Hemlock ......................... .. 8,000 5,000
White pine ...................... .. 8,000 5,500
Chestnut ......................... .. 12,000 5,000
Red oak .......................... .. 9,000 6,000
Yellow pine .................... .. 15,000 9,000
White oak ....................... .. 12,000 8,000

These values have been obtained by testing
small pieces. Timbers of large size such as are
actually used in engineering structures will fall
from 20 per cent. to 50 per cent. below these
values in strength. These values are also sub-
ject to a variation of about 25 per cent. accord-
ing to time -of cutting, place of growth, and
methods of seasoning. The shearing strength of
timber is more variable than either the tensile
or the compressive strength. The values average
about as follows:



Pounds per square inch
TIMBER Along the Across the
grain grain
White pine ...................... .. 500 2,500
Chestnut ......................... .. 600 1,500
Yellow pine and oak ....... .. 600 4,000

The elastic limit of timber is not well defined;
it varies from one-third to one-half the ultimate
strength in tension. The elongation at the point
of rupture in tension is from 1 per cent. to 2 per
cent. Tensile and shearing tests of brick are
seldom made, but the compressive strength varies
from 500 pounds per square inch for soft brick
to 10,000 pounds for pressed brick, and to 15,000
pounds for the best qualities of hard burned pav-
ing brick. The crushing strengths of the prin-
cipal building stones of the United States are
about as follows:


Pounds per square inch
sronm
Minimum Maximum
Trap rock ...................... .. 20,000 24,000
Granite ........................... .. 12,000 21,000
Marble ............................ .. 8,000 20,000
Limestone ....................... .. 7,000 20,000
Sandstnnp 5,000 15,000

Cast iron is so variable in quality that similar
specimens will vary from 10 per cent. to 20 per
cent. in strength. Fair average values are 20,000
pounds per square inch in tension and 90,000
pounds per square inch in compression. The
elastic limit is poorly defined and the elongation -
is practically nil, indicating clearly the fact,
known to every one familiar with this material,
that it is a hard and brittle substance. A direct
contrast to cast iron is afforded by wrought iron
with a tensile and a compressive strength nearly
equal and ranging between 50,000 and 60,000
pounds per square inch, and with an elongation
of 20 per cent. to 30 per cent. and an elastic
limit well defined at about 25,000 pounds.
Steel is manufactured in a variety of grades
distinguished by the relative amounts of con-
tained carbon, as mild steel, medium steel, hard
steel, and extra ‘hard steel. Ordinary structural
steel for bridge and building construction has an
ultimate tensile strength of from 60,000 pounds
to 70,000 pounds per square inch and an elastic
limit of from 30,000 pounds to 40,000 pounds
per square inch. Nickel-steel, or steel containing
a small percentage of nickel, has been made with
a tensile strength of 277,000 pounds per square
inch and an elastic limit of 100,000 pounds per
square inch. The compressive strength of steel
is always greater than its tensile strength. The
maximum compressive strength recorded for
hardened steel is 392,000 pounds or 196 tons per
square inch.
The tensile strengths of some of the other
more common metals are about as follows:
MATERIAL Pounds per sq. inch
Brass, cast ...... ...................................................... .. 23,500
Brass wire ................................................................ .. 49,000
Copper, cast ............................................................ .. 24,000
Copper wire .............................................................. .. 60,000
Gold,cast ................................................................. .. 20,000
Gold, wire ............................................................... .. 27,500
Lead, cast ................................................................ .. 2,050
Lead wire ................................................................. .. 1,650
Platinum wire .......................................................... .. 56,000
Aluminum ................................................................ .. 25,000
Common mortar composed of one part lime
and five parts sand has a tensile strength of from
15 to 30 pounds and a compressive strength of
from 150 to 300 pounds per square inch at the
age of six months. Natural hydraulic cement
will test from 100 to 200 pounds per square inch
in tension when one month old, and Portland
cement will test from 600 to 800 pounds per
square inch at the same age. Mortars and pastes
of cement and lime increase in strength with
age. For a concise statement of strengths of
a great variety of other materials, see Traut—
wine, Engineers’ Pocket Book (New York, 1900).
Wosmne Srsnssns. The loads carried by a
structure should never strain the material to an
amount at all close to its ultimate strength.
Were they to do so the elastic limit of the ma-
terial would be exceeded and distortion would
ensue even though ultimate rupture did not oc-
cur. Therefore, in designing a structure'a unit
stress is adopted which is certain not to cause
distortion or rupture, and the size of each mem-
ber is determined by dividing this unit stress
into the total load on the member. This as-
sumed unit stress is called the working stress,
and it varies for any material according to the
character of the load it is to support. Thus the
safe working stress for a varying load is less
than for a steady load, and that for a sudden
load or shock is less than for a varying load; a
load producing tension and compression alter-
nately requires the use of a smaller working
stress than does a steady load or a varying load
in tension only. In all cases the Working stress
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STREPSIPTERA.
264
must be less than the elastic limit of the material.
It has long been the practice to call the ratio of
the ultimate strength to the working stress the
factor of safety. The factors of safety commonly
employed for different materials and for differ-
ent forms of load are given by Professor Merri-
man as follows:
For steady For vary- For shock!
MATERIAL stress ing stress (machin-
(buildings) (bridges) ery)
Timber ................... .. 8 10 15
Brick and stone ........ .. 15 25 35
Cast iron ................... .. 6 15 20
Wrought iron ........... .. 4 6 10
Steel .......................... .. . 5 7 15


RESILIENCE. One of the most important prop-
erties of a material is its capacity to resist the
work of external forces, or its resilience. If a
bar is placed in a testing machine and pulled by
a force gradually increasingjfrom 0 to F, and
this pull producesjan elongation equal to e, the
work done on the bar is the product of the aver-
age pull into the elongation, or one-half Fe. Since
the internal stresses in the bar resist the work
done by the external force, they must also per-
form an amount of work represented by one-half
Fe, and the measure of resilience of a material is
the product of the average force exerted upon it
multiplied by the elongation which this force
produces. Elastic resilience is that internal work
which has been performed when the internal
stress reaches the elastic limit; ultimate re-
silience is that internal work which has been per-
formed when the material is replaced. Resilience,
like work (see WORK), is measured in foot
pounds, or, more commonly, in inch pounds. The
higher the resilience of a material is the greater
is its capacity to resist the work of external
forces. Cast iron has very low resilience and
wrought iron and steel have high resilience.
BENDING STRESS. When a beam is loaded it
is bent from its original form and takes a curved
shape. The fibres on one side of a loaded beam
are, therefore, shortened or compressed and the
fibres on the opposite side are lengthened or sub-
jected to tension. Midway between the two sides
where compression ends and tension begins there
are fibres which are neither shortened nor length-
ened, and this layer or surface of fibres is called
the neutral surface. A simple beam is a bar
resting upon supports at its ends and is the
kind most commonly in use. A cantilever beam
is a bar resting on one support at the middle, or
if a part of a beam projects out from a wall or
beyond a support it is called a cantilever beam.
In a simple beam the lower part is under tension
and the upper part is under compression; in a
cantilever beam the reverse is the case. Beams
almost universally fail by tearing apart under
the horizontal tensile stress developed by bend-
ing. Mathematicians have calculated formulas
for determining the resilience of beams to bend-
ing, the safe loads to be put on beams, etc., but
a consideration of these is a matter of some in-
tricacy and the reader is referred to the books
mentioned at the close of this article for such
information. From these studies, however, the
following important laws regarding rectangular
beams have been formulated: The strength varies
directly as the breadth and directly as the square
of the depth; the strength varies inversely as the
length; a beam is twice as strong under a dis-
frilauted load as under an equal concentrated
oa .
STRENGTH or COLUMNS. A bar under com-
pression whose length is greater than about ten
times its thickness is called a column. Columns
generally fail under stresses produced by com-
bined compression and bending. The phenomena
are very complex and their investigation is a
problem of great intricacy, for whose solution
the reader must consult special treatises on the
subjects. Columns are of three kinds: Class a
includes those with hinged ends; class b includes
those with one end hinged and one end fixed (the
piston rod of a steam engine is a column of this
type); class 0 includes those having both ends
fixed, these being used in bridge and building
construction. It has been found by experiment
that class c is stronger than class I) and that
class b is stronger than class a.
TORSION. Torsion is that kind of stress which
occurs when external forces tend to twist a body
round an axis. A shaft which transmits power
is twisted by the forces applied to the pulleys
and thus all its cross-sections are brought into
stress. This stress is a kind of shearing, but the
forces acting in different parts of a section are
not parallel. Special formulas have been de-
veloped by engineers for calculating strength
against torsional stress.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides the work of Professor
Merriman which has been mentioned, the reader
may consult to advantage the following works:
Johnson, The Materials of Construction (New
York, 1897); Thurston, Materials of Engineer-
ing (ib., 1883) ; Unwin, The Testing of Materials
of Construction (ib., 1899); Mehrtens, Testing
of Materials (ib., 1901).
STRETHON. In Sidney’s Arcadia, a shepherd
in love with Mania. In literature, a stock name
for a lover.
STRE].-"SIP’TERA (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
orpéibat, strepsai, aor. of orpéq>éw, strephein,
to twist + arepév, pteron, wing). A group of
insects of rather uncertain rank and position,
comprising the curious family Stylopidie, and
now thought to fall in the Coleoptera. The
group consists of a small number of species,
very singular in structure and habits, apparently
forming a connecting link between Coleoptera
and Hymenoptera. The species are all small,
and in their larval state live parasitically in the
bodies of bees, wasps, and certain Hemiptera,
forming the genera Stylops, Colacina, and Xenos.
The first infests bees of the genus Andrena, and
Xenos occurs in a genus of wasps (Polistes) . Bees
that are carrying or have carried Strepsiptera
are said to be ‘stylopized,’ because the abdomen
of the bee is deformed. These parasites do not
cause the death of the host. When about ready
to transform the larva pushes one end of the
body out between two of the abdominal segments
of its host. The metamorphosis of the female is
very slight, while that of the male is complete.
The male leads a short and extremely active life
of a few hours only, or in some species of a day.
The female never changes position and becomes
little more than a sac filled with an enormous
number of developing young. When the young
emerge they are known as ‘triungulins.’ How the
triungulins find their way to the bee-larvae is
not known. It is supposed by some writers that
parthenogenesis occurs with the Strepsiptera,
STREPSIPTERA.
STRIEGAU.
265
but there appears to be no definite proof. The
Strepsiptera are also sometimes called Riphip-
tera.
STREPTOCOCCUS.
CJEMIA; PYAIMIA.
STRET’FORD. A manufacturing town in
Lancashire, England, 31/2 miles southwest of
Manchester. Population, in 1891, 21,756; in
1901, 30,346.
STRET’TO (It., bound). In music, a term
which signifies that the movement to which it is
prefixed is to be performed rapidly, with a grad-
ual acceleration toward the close. The term
stretto is also applied to the finale of a fugue,
where the subject and answer enter so closely to-
gether that they overlap. See FUGUE.
STRICK’LAND, AGNES (1796-1874). An
English historian, daughter of Thomas Strick-
land, of Reydon Hall, near Southwold, in Suf-
folk, born in London. She was educated mostly
at home under the direction of her father. After
writing considerable verse and several historical
tales for children, Miss Strickland planned a
series of biographies of the Queens of England.
In this undertaking she was much helped by her
sister Elizabeth (1794-1875). The Lives of the
Queens of England appeared in sections between
1840 and 1848, and filled twelve volumes (re-
vised edition, 6 vols., 1864-65). Meanwhile, be-
sides much miscellaneous work, Miss Strickland
published Letters of Mary Queen of Scots (1842-
43; complete ed., 5 vols., 1864); Lines of the
Queens of Scotland (1850-59); Bachelor Kings
of England (1861) ; and Lines of the Last Four
Stuart Princesses (1872). Consult the Life by
her sister Jane M. Strickland (Edinburgh, 1887),
and Pearls and Pebbles, by another sister, Mrs.
Catherine P. Traill (London, 1894).
STRICKLAND, HUGH EDWIN (1811-53). An
English geologist. He studied at Oxford, and in
1850 became reader in geology at that uni-
versity, succeeding Dr. Buckland, and retaining
the post till his death. He was one of the found-
ers of the Geological Society, and of the Ray
Society, which on account of his representations
undertook the publication of Agassiz’s Biblio-
graphia Zoologice ct Geologiw, three volumes of
which he edited. He was associated with Sir
Roderick O. Murchison in the recognition and
study of the Silurian system.
STRICT CONSTRUCTIONISTS. A term in
American politics applied to those who, for
various reasons, have maintained that the Fed-
eral Constitution should be construed strictly in
accordance with its letter, as opposed to those,
known as ‘broad constructionists,’ who have be-
lieved that the Constitution should be construed
liberally, and have claimed for the General Gov-
ernment more or less extensive powers, called
‘indirect powers’ or ‘implied powers,’ not granted
specifically by the Fundamental Law. Conflicts
between the adherents of the two views have re-
curred frequently in the history of the United
States, e.g. in the controversies over the charter-
ing of a United States Bank, over the question
of ‘internal improvements,’ and over the power
of the General Government with regard to the
restriction or prohibition of slavery in the Terri-
tories; and it is upon this question that, directly
or indirectly, party differences in the United
States have been largely based. In general, it
See BACTERIA; SEPTI-
may be said that the strict constructionist view
has been held, more or less consistently, by the
Anti-Federalist and Democratic parties (qq.v.) ;
and the broad constructionist view, more or less
consistently, by the Federalist, National Republi-
can, Whig, Free-Soil, and Republican parties
(qq-v-); though there has been a tendency for '
the party in power, irrespective of its platform,
to lean to the side of broad or liberal construc-
tion, and for the party in opposition, also irre-
spective of its platform, to lean to the side of
strict construction. A broad constructionist
policy has always had for its effect the strength-
ening of the Central Government as compared
with the States; and a strict constructionist
policy the strengthening of the States as com-
pared with the Central Government. See CON-
STITUTION; UNITED STATES, section on History.
STRICTURE (Lat. strictura, from stringere,
to draw tight). A contraction in the calibre of
one of the mucous-membrane-lined tubular struc-
tures of the body, such as the urethra, the
rectum, the oesophagus, or the larynx. The most
common form of stricture and the variety gen-
erally referred to when the term stricture is used
alone is stricture of the urethra. Three varieties
of stricture of themrethral canal are recognized:
(1) spasmodic; (2) inflammatory; and (3)
organic. The first form is due simply to reflex
muscular contraction caused by irritation of
some portion of the urethra, as from an ulcer-
ating spot or a sensitive organic stricture. The
second form is due to simple inflammatory swell-
ing of some portion of the urethral tract, such as
occurs in acute gonorrhma or after the internal
administration of such drugs as cantharides and
turpentine. The third, and by far the most fre-
quent a11d important variety of stricture, is
caused by permanent changes in the tissues of the
urethra andthose surrounding it. These changes
usually consist either in inflammatory thickening
of the urethral wall and periurethral tissues or
else in actual cicatrization and narrowing of the
channel from the accompanying contraction; or
both of these conditions may be present at the
same time. The initial causes in bringing these
changes about are chronic inflammation (gonor-
rhoea) or injuries by caustic or irritant sub-
stances.
The results of stricture of the urethra if al-
lowed to persist are often far-reaching and dis-
astrous. The bladder, ureters, and kidneys may
finally in turn become the seat of disease from
the continued retention of urine unable to find
free and regular exit through the natural outlet,
or rupture of the urethra from prolonged re-
tention, allowing extravasation of urine into the
surrounding tissues, with death resulting from
uraemic poisoning.
The treatment of organic stricture of the ure-
thra is mainly mechanical. It consists in di-
latation of the contracted area by means of
sounds or bougies, and where this method is in-
applicable divulsion of the stricture by means
of suitable cutting instruments is indicated.
After division of the stricture the lumen of the
urethra is kept open to the proper degree by the
subsequent periodic passage of a sound. Consult
Dennis, American Text-Book of Surgery (Phila-
delphia, 1892).
STRIEGAU, stre’gou. A town in the Prov-
ince of Silesia, Prussia, 25. miles by rail south-
STRIEG-AU.
STRIKES.
266
east of Liegnitz (Map: Germany, G 3) . Leather
products, cigars, sugar, brushes, and whips are
the principal manufactures. Basalt and granite
are mined in the vicinity. Population, in 1900,
12,858.
STRIGEL, stre’gel, BERNHARD (c.1460-1528).
A German painter of the Swabian school, born at
Memmingen and probably a pupil of Zeitblom at
Ulm. He stood in high favor with the Emperor
Maximilian I., in whose service he repeatedly
journeyed to Augsburg, Innsbruck, and Vienna.
His religious paintings, of which there are four
interesting altar wings (1515) in the Berlin
Museum and a Pieta, besides three others, in the
Karlsruhe Gallery, do not quite equal his por-
traits, notable specimens of which are that of the
Augsburg patrician Konrad Rehlinger (1517), in
the Pinakothek, Munich; “Councilor Cuspinian
and Family” (1520), in the Berlin Museum; and
“Emperor Maximilian with Family” and “King
Louis II. of Hungary” (1524), both in the Vien-
na Museum.
STRIGEL, VIKTORIN (1524-69). A theologian
of the Reformation period. He was born
at Kaufbeuren, Swabia, studied under Me-
lanchthon in Wittenberg, and became professor
at Jena in 1548. He became involved in the
synergistic controversy (see SYNERGISM) and
was imprisoned for several months in 1559.
Ultimately he was forced to leave Jena, and went
to Leipzig (1562), and later to Heidelberg
(1567). Here he was charged with holding Cal-
vinistic views. His chief work was the Loci
Theologici, published posthumously (1581-84).
Consult: Otto, De Victorino Strigelio (Jena,
1843) ; Dtillinger, Die Reformation, vol. iii. (Re-
gensburg, 1848).
STRIKE (AS. strican, to advance quickly,
OHG,strih-han, Ger. streichen, to stroke, Goth.
strihs, stroke; connected with Lat. stringere, to
draw tight, Gk. 0'7'pCI.)’)/(l.7t7], strangale', halter,
o"rpa}/)/6;‘, strangos, twisted). A term used in
geology to indicate the line of intersection of a
stratum with the plane of the horizon, the strike
thus being at right angles to the dip. The line
of strike coincides with the outcrop when the
surface of the ground is level, or when the dip
is vertical. If the dip is constant in one direc-
tion, the strike will be a straight line; but with a
gradually changing dip, as from south through
southeast to east, the strike will be a curve. In
the case of a quaquaversal fold it is a complete
circle. The strike is usually measured by plac-
ing the compass so that the north and south
line is at right angles to the dip and. then
reading the number of degrees from the north
pole of the needle to the north and south line; a
strike of N. 45° E. thus means 45° east of north
or northeast. See DIP.
STRIKES and LOCKOUTS. A strike, in
industry, occurs when there is a cessation of
work on the part of a body of employees acting
in concert to enforce some demand upon the
employer, or to resist some demand which the
employer has made. The employees are here
assumed to take the initiative in ceasing work.
When, on the other hand, the employer shuts
down his establishment in order to compel work-
men to comply with some demand, the suspension
is called a lookout. It is not always easy to dis-
tinguish the two in practice, especially as an em-
ployer may not infrequently lock out his men in
anticipation of, or on threat of, a strike.
Certain popular movements in the Middle Ages
bear resemblance to strikes, such as the dis-
turbances in England in the second half of the
fourteenth century. More like the modern
strikes were the contests between different guild
organizations, or between journeymen and guilds-
men, in both English and Continental towns. But
as a social problem, as a frequent and apparently
enduring feature of the industrial system, strikes-
belong to the nineteenth century. The strike
has usually been an essential part of the policy
of trade unions (q.v.). Misused though the
strike has sometimes been, the existence of the
union as its directing and controlling agency
has been the chief means in transforming local,
half-insurrectionary outbreaks into carefully
planned attempts to attain well-recognized ends.
The detailed causes of strikes are manifold,
but the chief causes concern the wages question.
In prosperous times strikes are likely to be made
for increase of wages; in times of depression,
against a decrease. Demand for a reduction of
hours is a relatively frequent cause. Also of
importance are strikes for the enforcement of
union rules of work, for recognition of the union
against the employment of non-union men, and
in sympathy with strikes in other trades. The
strike is often the first weapon employed by a
newly organized body of laborers to strengthen
their position. Laborers have sometimes com-
plained that they were forced into a strike by
their union, and an unsuccessful strike often
results in the dissolution of alocal union or in
the decay of a larger body. The sympathetic
strike has not generally proved advisable, and is
regarded with disfavor by the best unions. To
avoid or put down strikes employers may form
organizations or use the lookout. They have at
times been accused of instigating violence in
order to bring the strike into public disfavor
and obtain the aid of troops. On the employees’
side boycotting and ‘picketing’ of all sorts are
likely to occur in a serious strike. The bitter
feeling against men who refuse to strike or who
come to take strikers’ places often makes the
more peaceable forms of persuasion end in in-
timidation or violence. Public sympathy is an
almost-essential element in the success of any
large strike, and is likely to be alienated by vio-
lence or the destruction of property. This is well
realized by the better trade unions, but when
disorder or riots occur—often due to a semi-
criminal floating population—the public may
probably fail to lay the blame elsewhere than on
the strikers. The magnitude of some recent
strikes in important industries has emphasized
the harm done to general business, and the inter-
est which the public has in labor disputes as a
third and impartial party. Conciliation and
arbitration have come prominently forward
as remedies for strikes. In 1888 a Federal
law provided for the appointment by the
President of strike commissioners in disputes in-
volving inter-State commerce, and the Chicago
Strike Commission recommended a permanent
commission on the subject. The improved organ-
ization of trade unions, their increased responsi-
bility, and the use of the trade agreement may
lessen the waste of strikes in the future.
LEGAL ASPECT. Any combination of laborers
to raise wages was illegal in England until 1824,
STRIKES.
STRIKES.
267
and in France until 1864. In the United States
strikes as such have never been illegal, but until
after 1830 it was not definitely settled that
strikers could not be arraigned for civil and
criminal damages under the conspiracy laws.
When a strike represents a combination to injure
property or a definite person it is illegal, and
the same is true of acts of intimidation, the de-
struction of property, or the forcible prevention
of work. Some forms of sympathetic strikes and
of the boycott have been held illegal. Riots are
covered by the criminal law. In many States
there are special statutes regarding strikes. Thus
the common law of conspiracy has been expressly
repealed in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jer-
sey, and several Western States, but the statutes
usually provide for punishment of the use of
force or intimidation. Certain States have spe-
cial laws regulating strikes on railways or in
mines, a few make the municipality or county
responsible for damages due to strikes, while
Missouri and Wyoming forbid the employment
of private officers from without the State for the
protection of the employer’s property against vio-
lence on the part of the strikers. The use of
injunctions has been regulated by statute only
in Kansas. A diflicult question is often involved
in determining how far workmen may go in per-
suading others to join a strike. A leading case
is that of the Northern Pacific Railroad (Arthur
vs. Oakes, 63 F. R., 310), in which the employees
were enjoined from (1) intimidating, (2) per-
suading others to strike, or (3) combining to
strike themselves in such manner as to cripple
the railroad. On appeal, however, the second
and third clauses were abolished. Since the
passage of the Inter-State Commerce Act (1887)
and the Anti-Trust Law (1890), the courts of
equity have acquired enlarged powers. Interfer-
ence with the United States mails or with inter-
State commerce (in railroad strikes) may be a G
serious offense. The United States can obtain
an injunction against strikers, who, if they vio-
late its provisions, may be summarily punished
for contempt of court. In cases where railroads
are under receivers the receiver is regarded as
an official of the court, and a strike against the
road may be as such unlawful. The use of in-
junctions in labor disputes is by no means new,
but was brought into special prominence by the
Chicago strike of 1894. As a method of dealing
with strikes the injunction is prompt and ef-
fective, but its execution practically involves
arrest without indictment and trial without
jury; it implies very great power in the hands
of courts; and its frequent employment, not al-
ways in the wisest way, has created much bitter
feeling and distrust of courts among working-
men.
HISTORY. In the United States there are a
few records of strikes previous to 1800, such as
those of the journeymen bakers in New York
in 1741, and of the journeymen shoemakers in
Philadelphia in 1796, 1798, 1799, and 1805.
Something like a modern strike occurred in New
York in 1802 among the sailors. They paraded
the streets and compelled others to join them,
but were dispersed by constables, and their lead-
er was punished. From 1821 to 1834 there are
accounts of only a few strikes each year, the
records being doubtless very incomplete. These
were generally among the building trades, hat-
ters, tailors, shoemakers, and laborers on the
Von. XVI.—18.
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. “In 1835,” says
the report of the Commissioner of Labor (1901,
p. 721), “strikes had become so numerous as to
call forth remonstrant comments from the public
press.” A number of strikes for a ten-hour day
occurred in the thirties, while strikes for eight
hours were general in 1872-73. From 1881 to
1900, according to the Reports of the United
States Department of Labor, there have been
22,793 strikes, involving 117,509 establishments
and 6,105,694 employees thrown out of employ-
ment. Of the latter 90 per cent. were males.
The duration of strikes varies of course within
wide limits, the average for twenty years
being 23.8 days. The statistics of wage loss to
employees ($257,000,000) and to employers
($122,000,000) have very little significance.
More than $16,000,000 was contributed by labor
organizations (the figure is probably too low).
Considered by States, 28 per cent. of all strikes
occurred in New York, 12% per cent. in Penn-
sylvania, 11.6 per cent. in Illinois, 7 1A; per cent.
in Massachusetts, and 6 per cent. in Ohio. In
New York City 5090 strikes are recorded, in
Chicago 1737. Considered by industries 191/2 per
cent. of all strikes occurred in the building
trades, 11 per cent. in coal and coke, 9 per cent.
in the metal trades, 6.6 per cent. in tobacco, 5.6
per cent. in transportation. The largest strikes
usually occur in minin and railroading, as is
shown by the fact that of the total number of
striking employees 31 per cent. were in coal and
coke, 7.9 per cent. in transportation,.and only
10.9 per cent. in the building trades.
Labor organizations ordered 63.46 per cent. of
the total strikes, and of these 52.86 per cent. (of
establishments involved) were successful, 13.6 per
cent. succeeded partly, and 33.54 per cent. failed.
The corresponding figures for strikes not ordered
by organizations are 35.56 per cent., 9.05 per
cent., and 55.39 per cent., this advantage of or-
ganization appearing for each of the twenty
years. As to cause, 28.7 per cent. of the strikes
were for increase of wages, 11.23 per cent. for
the same with reduction of hours, 11.16 per cent.
for reduction of hours, 7.17 per cent. against
reduction of wages, 3.47 per cent. in sympathy
with a strike elsewhere, 2.34 per cent. against
employment of non-union men, and 2.35 per cent.
involving recognition of the union.
Among historic American strikes have been
the great strikes of 1877 on the Baltimore and
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and other railroads, in which
much damage to property was done and troops
were called out; the telegraph operators’ strike in
1883; the strike on the Gould system in 1885;
the Homestead strike at the Carnegie works in
1892, the bitterest in American history and in-
volving a sanguinary battle between Pinkerton
detectives and unionists; the Chicago strike of
1894, which grew out of an effort of the newly
organized American Railway Union to boycott
Pullman cars in order to aid strikers at the
Pullman works; the bituminous coal strike in
the summer of 1894; street railway strikes in
several large cities (1900-01); the steel strike
(1901) ; and the great anthracite coal strikes of
1900 and 1902.
In England, strikes being illegal, until 1824
participants could be and were punished for con-
spiracy. At that date the combination laws were
repealed, and since then a number of statutes
have defined the legal position and rights of
STRIKES.
STRINGHAM.
268
workmen in labor disputes. The better-developed
English unions have adopted a conservative pol-
icy in regard to strikes. Employers are more
accustomed to dealing on equal terms with their
men than is true in the United States. The
formation of unions of unskilled laborers has
been accompanied by many strikes, among which
the great Dock strike of 1889 attracted a re-
markable amount of public sympathy and assist-
ance. The engineering strike of 1896 roused
much discussion as to the effect of unionism on
English trade supremacy. In 1900 there oc-
curred in Great Britain 648 strikes and lock-
outs, involving directly 135,145 employees; 202
of the disputes resulted in favor of the employees,
211 in favor of employers, and 221 were com-
promised. In Germany (1900) there were re-
ported 1433 strikes, involving 122,803 workmen;
275 strikes succeeded and 505 succeeded partly.
In France for the same year are recorded 1229
strikes and 432,324 strikers; 371 were wholly
and 368 partly successful. In 1890 a famous
strike occurred in New South Wales, beginning
as a strike of the Shearers’ Union against non-
union men, but spreading to the railroads, and
finally to nearly all industries. The report
(Sydney, 1891) of the commission appointed to
investigate it is one of the most valuable books
upon the subject.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. GENERAL: Webb, History of
Trade Unionism (London, 1902) ; Wright, Indus-
trial Evolution of the United States (New York,
1895); Howell, Conflicts of Labor and Capital
(London, 1890); Crouzel, Les coalitions et les
gréves (Paris, 1887); McNeil, The Labor Move-
ment (Boston, 1886). ON THE CHICAGO STRIKE:
Report of the United States Strike Commission
(Washington, 1895) ; Ashley, The Railroad
Strike of 1894 (Cambridge, 1895). ON THE COAL
STRIKE OF 1902: Report of Strike Commission,
Bulletin of the Department of Labor (May,
1903). LEGAL: Stimson, Handbook to the Labor
Law of the United States (New York, 1896);
Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. v.
(Washington, 1900). STATISTICS: Report of the
United States Commissioner of Labor (1887,
1894, and 1901) ; Bulletin of the Department of
Labor (bi-monthly, digesting foreign statistics) ;
Report of Board of Mediation and Arbitration
(New York, annual since 1887 ); Report of
Board of Arbitration and Conciliation (Massa-
chusetts, annual since 1887); Report of the
Labor Correspondent to the (British) Board of
Trade on Strikes and Lockouts (annual since
1888); Statistique des greves (France, annual
since 1891); Mayo-Smith, Statistics and E00-
nomics (New York, 1899).
STRINDBERG, strind'bery’,AUCUsT ( 1849-) .
A Swedish novelist, dramatist, and miscellaneous
writer, the most prominent exponent in Swed-
ish literature of the modern realistic tendency.
He was born in Stockholm, and after some suc-
ccss as a dramatic author became at once more
widely known through his novel Riida rummet
(The Red Room, 1879), satirical sketches of the
literary and artistic world. In the same vein was
Det nya riket (The New Kingdom, 1882) , which
caused such violent discussion on the part of the
reactionary journalistic faction as to induce its
author to repair to foreign parts, principally
Paris, Germany, and Switzerland. Since 1897 he
settled again in Sweden. His other novels include
, pianoforte) .
Hemstiborna (The Natives of Hemsii, 1887),
Skiirkarlslif (Life on the Skerries, 1888), and
I Hafsbandet (Sea-girt, 1890). Worthy of notice
are also several collections of short stories, to
wit: Frdn Fjerdingen och Svartbitcken (From
Fjerdingen and Svartbiicken, 1877); Giftas
(Marriages, 1884), treating satirically of the
relation between the sexes in the present age,
and which involved him in a lawsuit for alleged
irreverent attacks on religious institutions; and
Utopier i verkligheten (Utopia-s Realized, 1885),
advocating the solution of the labor question
from the socialist point of view. Of his dramas
Miister 0101‘ (1872) constituted his first stage
success and was followed by Gillets hemlighet
(The Secret of the Guild, 1880), Herr Bengt’s
hustru (Mr. Bengt’s Wife, 1882), Fadren (The
Father, 1887), and Froken Julie (Miss Julia,
1888). Among his other works are Svenska
folket i helg och séiken (The Swedish People in
Every Walk of Life, 1882), on which was based
the series of seventeen stories Svenska 6den och
ii-fventyr (Swedish Destinies and Adventures,
1882-90), and G-amla Stockholm (Old Stock-
holm, 1882), in collaboration with Class Lundin.
He published an autobiography entitled Tjensteg-
vinnans son (The Servantmaid’s Son, 1886).
Consult Hansson, Das junge Skandinavien (Dres-
den, 1891), and B-randes, M enschen und Werke
(Frankfort, 1894).
STRING (AS. strenge, OHG. strang, Ger.
Strang, string, either from AS. strang, OHG.
strengi, Ger. streng, strong, or connected with
Lat. stringere, to draw tight, Gk. orpaj/}/6g,
strangos, twisted). The strings of musical in-
struments are made either from silk, from the
entrails of sheep, or from metal. Formerly the
metal strings were made of brass or copper, but
now they are generally made of steel (for the
For the string-instruments (violin,
guitar) gut strings are generally used. The
thinner the string the higher is the pitch. Ex-
cessive thickness for the lower strings is avoided
by winding them with thin copper or silver wire.
Recently strings, especially those which are over-
spun, have been manufactured from silk. For
the violin the highest or E string is also some-
times made of silk, but its tone quality is in-
ferior to that of a gut string. The silk strings
are chiefly used by violinists for the purpose of
practicing in warm weather, when the moisture
of the fingers causes the gut strings to snap in
a short time. See VIOLIN.
STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. See MUSICAL
Insrnounnrs.
STBINGE1\T’DO (It., drawing tight, com-
pressing). A term used in music to denote a
rather sudden acceleration in the time.
STRINGHALT (corruption of spring + halt,
lame). A peculiar catching up of the horse’s
legs, usually the hind ones. It is most notice-
able when the animal is first brought out of the
stable, when he is excited, or made to turn sud-
denly round; it is a form of chorea or Saint
Vitus’s dance. It does not interfere with useful-
ness, and is difiicult to treat. When due to local
injury the habit may be corrected by local treat-
ment.
STRINGHAM, stri'ng'am, SrLAs Honron
(1798-1876). An American naval officer, born
at Middletown, N. Y. He was appointed midship-
STRINGHAM.
STROMATOPORA.
269
man in the navy in 1809, served on the frigate
President in her conflict with the Little Belt,
and in the engagement in which she was cap-
tured by a British squadron; fought in the war
with Algiers, and served on the Hornet against
the West India pirates. In 1847, as commander
of the Ohio, he assisted in the bombardment of
Vera Cruz. When the Civil War began he was
made flag-officer of the North Atlantic blockading
squadron, and in August, 1861, cobperated with
Gen. B. F. Butler in the capture of the forts on
Hatteras Inlet. In the following month he asked
to be relieved of command, probably because of
the criticisms that had been made against
him for not following up his success. In 1862
he became a rear-admiral on the retired list.
STRIPPING.(from strip, AS. strypan, Ger.
atreifen, to strip, plunder). A term used to
designate the useless rock which overlies a bed
of ore, coal, or building stone, and which has
to be removed before the mineral or rock desired
can be quarried.
STROBOSCOPE. An instrument used for
studying the motion of a body where by means
of a rapid succession of slits or other openings,
or its illumination at regular interval the eye
receives a series of images on the retina. Where
these impressions occur with suflicient rapidity
the illusion of motion is produced, and advan-
tage of this is taken in certain toys and scientific
instruments. In its simplest form the strobo-
scope, which was first devised by Stampfer and
Plateau, consists of a disk or cylinder with a
series of slits through which the observer looks
at the pictures or moving object. As the disk
or cylinder revolves the slits come successively
before the eye and through them the observer
gets a series of glimpses of the moving object.
If each of the pictures represents a successive
stage in an action such as the motion of a
pendulum, a man or animal running, etc., the
illusion of motion is produced, provided that the
interval between the glimpses of the pictures is
less than the duration of the image on the retina
a time, which varies from 1-10 to 1-50 of a
second. A simple stroboscope or zoetrope is
illustrated in the article ILLUsIoN, while under
KINEToscoI>E will be found descriptions of some
of the more complex apparatus based on this
principle. Anschiitz (q.v.), a German photog-
rapher, who had achieved considerable success at
instantaneous photography, made an important
application of the stroboscope principle in his
“tachyscope,” by rotating transparent pictures
on a drum or disk, and having them illuminated
by the momentary glow produced by the passage
of a spark from an induction coil through a
Geissler tube. Although the'period of discharge
is very brief, yet the sparks follow with reg-
ularity, and as the successive pictures always
occupy the same position relative to the eye of
the observer, the illumination appears continu-
ous, and the effect of motion is produced. See
ILLUsIoN, KINETOSCOPE.
STRODTMANN, strot’man, ADOLF (1829-79).
A German author, born at Flensburg. He
studied at Kiel, and, while taking part in the
insurrection of 1848, was wounded and captured
by the Danes. On being set at liberty he pub-
lished Lieder eines Gefangenen auf der Dronning
Maria (1848). He resumed study at Bonn under
Kinkel, but was suspended on account of his po-
litical activity. He then published Lieder der
Nacht (1850) and a biography of Gottfried Kin-
kel (1850). He went to Paris, to London, and
in 1852 to America, where for four years he was
by turns bookseller and journalist in New York
City and Philadelphia. Returning to Germany
in 1856, he became known as a biographer of
Heine and as war correspondent for several
newspapers during the Franco-German campaign.
He translated much from English writers.
His most noteworthy volume in this field is
Amerikanische Anthologie (1870), a group of
successful renderings from American lyric poets.
STROBEL, stro’b’l, EDWARD HENRY (1855
— ) . An American diplomat, born at Charleston,
S. C. He was educated at Harvard. From 1885
to 1890 he was secretary of the United States
legation at Madrid, and for a considerable period
served also as charge d’afi'aires. In 1888-89 he
acted as a special diplomatic agent of the United
States to Morocco. Returning to the United
States, he became in April, 1893, Third Assistant
Secretary of State. In April, 1894, he was ap-
pointed United States Minister to Ecuador, but
later in the year was transferred to Chile, where
he remained until 1897. In the latter year he
acted as an arbitrator in a dispute between
'France and Chile, and in 1899 was counsel for
Chile before the United States and Chilean
Claims Commission. In 1898 he became Bemis
professor of international law in the Harvard
Law School. In 1903 he was granted leave of
absence to accept the post of general adviser to
the Government of Siam under a two years’
agreement. He published The Spanish Revolu-
tion (1898).
STROGANOFF, stro’ga-nof. A family of
Russian nobles, descended from ANIKA, a wealthy
merchant of Novgorod, who, in the beginning of
the sixteenth century, owned extensive salt pits
and iron works in the Ural Mountains. His sons
YAKOFF and GRIGORI obtained from Czar Ivan
IV. important territorial grants and trade mo-
nopolies, founded several cities and fortified
towns, and in 157 4 received a deed of gift for the
Siberian territory bordering on their possessions.
The conquest was, however, not accomplished
until after their death in 1581, by their young-
est brother, SEMEN ANIKITCH, with the co6pera-
tion of Yermak, ataman of the Don Cossacks,
when Western Siberia was subdued within two
years and annexed to the Russian crown. The
extraordinary privileges granted to the family
were taken, in 1722, from the then living repre-
sentatives, the brothers ALEXANDER, NIKOLAI, and
SERGEI, by Peter the Great, who in exchange con-
ferred upon them only the baronial title. A great-
grandson of Nikolai was SERGEI GRIGORYEVITGH
(1794-1882), the chief promoter of the archaeo-
logical excavations on the shores of the Black
Sea. He founded and endowed a school of de-
sign at Moscow, and acted as curator of the Mos-
cow educational district in 1835-47. His sound
judgment in the selection of professors, his mu-
nificence and liberal spirit, made this the most
brilliant period in the history of the University
of Moscow.
STRO’MATOP’ORA (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
m-papa, strcima, covering -1- 11-épog, poros, pore).
An extinct genus of hydroid corals, which formed
extensive coral reefs during some periods of
Paleozoic time. The colonies formed rounded or
STROMATOPORA.
STRONG.
270
incrusting and sometimes branching masses that
show a concentric lamination and an irregular,
cellular, microscopic structure. These hydroid
corals are found in fossil coral reefs in the
Chazy, Niagara, Lower Helderberg, and Onon-
daga limestones of New York State, and large
specimens, which when polished are of great
beauty, have been obtained in the Upper De-
vonian of the Central States.
STROMB (Lat. strombus, sort of spiral snail,
from Gk. crpégflog, pine-cone, snail, from o"r'p&"-
¢sw, strephein, to turn, twist). A large gas-
tropod mollusk of the family Strombidae, or more
particularly its shell. The species are numerous,
and are mostly inhabitants of tropical seas.
Strombus gigas, the ‘queen conch,’ is the largest
known univalve. It is found in the West Indies,
on reefs in shallow water, and is fished both for
the table and on account of the shell. Great
numbers of the shells are imported into Europe
and America and are sometimes called ‘fountain-
shell,’ from their aptuess as garden ornaments.
Their chief use, however, is by cameo-makers.
Pearls of a delicate pink color are sometimes
found in this shell.
STROMBOLI, strom’bo-lé. A volcanic island
belonging to the Lipari Islands (q.v.).
STRONG, AUGUSTUS Hornrus (1836—). An
American clergyman, educator, and author. He
was born at Rochester, N. Y., and graduated at
Yale in 1857 and at the Rochester Theological
Seminary three years afterwards. He became a
Baptist minister, and in 1872 was made presi-
dent of the Rochester Theological Seminary and
professor of biblical theology in that institution.
Among his published works are: Systematic The-
ology (1886; 3d ed. 1890); Philosophy and Re-
ligion (1888) ; Great Poets and Their Theology;
and Christ in Creation and Ethical Monism
(1899).
STRONG, CALEB (1745-1819). A Governor
of Massachusetts, born at Northampton in that
State. He graduated at Harvard College in
1764, and was admitted to the bar in 1772.
During the Revolution he served in the Massa-
chusetts General Court and in the Committee of
Safety of his town, and from 1779 till 1780 sat
in the Massachusetts Senate. He was a member
of the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention of
1787. From 1789 till 1796 he was a United
States Senator, and he was Governor of Massa-
chusetts from 1800 till 1807, and again from
1812 till 1816. In politics he was an ardent
Federalist, and as such was bitterly opposed to
the War of 1812. On June 26, 1812, he issued a
proclamation for a public fast on account of the
war just declared “against the nation from
which we are descended, and which for many gen-
erations has been the bulwark of the religion we
profess.” By the advice of the State Supreme
Court he refused to comply with the President’s
request to call out the State militia to help in
the prosecution of the war. In explanation of
this refusal he said that to the Governor, not to
the President, belonged the power to decide
when to call out the militia. Afterwards he
placed the militia of the State under a State
major-general; was active in other measures
looking toward the practical nullification of the
national authority; and approved the report of
the Hartford Convention (q.v.). He published
Patriotism and Piety; or Speeches and Procla-
mations of Governor Strong (1808). His Life
was written by Alden Bradford (Boston, 1820).
Consult also Dwight, The Strong Family (A1-
bany, 1871).
STRONG, GEORGE Cnooxnrr (1832-63). An
American soldier, born in Stockbridge, Vt. He
graduated at West Point in 1857; was an ord-
nance officer with the rank of lieutenant on the
stafl‘ of General McDowell in the first battle of
Bull Run, and later served successively on the
staffs of Generals McClellan and Butler. He
commanded an expedition sent from Ship Island
against Biloxi, Miss., in April, 1862, and an-
other sent against Pontchatoula, and was com-
missioned brigadier-general of volunteers in No-
vember, l862. He commanded a brigade in the
operations against Charleston, S. C., in June
and July, 1863; made a successful descent on
Morris Island on July 10th; and on the 18th of
the same month was mortally wounded while
gallantly leading the assault on Fort Wagner.
A commission as major-general of volunteers
was made out to date from the day of the battle.
He published Cadet Life at West Point (1862).
STRONG, JAMES (1822-94). An American
Methodist lay biblical scholar and educator. He
was born in New York City and studied medicine
for a time, then entered Wesleyan Universi-
ty, Middletown, Conn., graduating 1844. He
taught languages at Poultney, Vt., in 1844-
46; lived in Flushing, L. I., in 1848-57,
teaching privately and acting as president of the
Flushing Railroad and president of the village.
He was professor of biblical literature and act-
ing president of Troy University in 1858-63;
professor of exegetical theology in Drew Theo-
logical Seminary, Madison, N. J., 1868-93. He
traveled in the East in 1874, and was a member
of the Anglo-American Bible Revision Commit-
tee, 1871-81. In 1853 he became associated
with Dr. John McClintock in the preparation of
the Cyclopcedia of Biblical, Theological, and E0-
clesiastical Literature (revised edition 1890) , and
in 1870 became editor-in-chief. The best-known
of his works besides the Cyclopcedia are English
Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels (1852),
The Tabernacle of Israel in the Desert (1888),
Doctrine of a Future Life (1892), Exhaustive
Concordance of the Bible (1895), a work upon
which he was engaged for thirty-five years. The
Student’s Commentary on the Book of Psalms
(1896) was issued posthumously avith prefatory
memoir by Rev. Henry A. Buttz.
STRONG, Sir SAMUEL HENRY (l825——). A
Canadian jurist, born at Poole, England. He
went to Canada in 1836 and in 1849 was ad-
mitted to the bar._ In 1856 he was appointed
a member of the commission for consolidating the
statutes of Upper Canada and Canada; in 1863
was created Queen’s counsel, and in 1869 was
made a vice-chancellor of the Court of Chancery.
He was called to the Ontario Court of Error and
Appeal in 1874, and in 1875 was made puisne
judge in the newly constituted Canadian Supreme
Court, of which he became Chief Justice in 1892.
In 1897 he was sworn of her Majesty’s Privy
Council.
STRONG, THEODORE (1790-1869). An Ameri-
can mathematician, born in Massachusetts. He
was educated at Yale and after graduation
(1812) became tutor in mathematics at Hamil-
ton College, and in 1816 professor of mathe-
STRONG.
STROPHANTHUS.
271
matics. In 1827 he accepted the chair of mathe-
matics and natural philosophy in Rutgers Col-
lege, a position which he retained till 1862,
when he retired from active life. Strong made
many important contributions to mathematical
science. A new geometrical demonstration of
the values of the sines and cosines of the sum
and difference of two arcs was given by_him in
1818. He also gave a solution of the irreducible
case of the cubic equation, and devised a method
for the application of the binomial theorem
to the extraction of the roots of whole numbers.
His two principal systematic works are A
Treatise on Elementary and Higher Algebra
(1859) and A Treatise on the Differential and
Integral Calculus (1869).
STRONG, WILLIAM (1808-95). An American
jurist, born in Somers, Conn. He graduated at
Yale in 1828, and was admitted to the bar in
Reading, Pa., in 1832. In 1846 and again in
1848 he was elected to the national House of
Representatives as a Democrat; and from 1857
until 1868 he was a justice of the Pennsylvania
Supreme Court. From 1870 until 1880 he was
associate justice of the United States Supreme
Court. He was a member of the Electoral Com-
mission that decided the disputed Presidential
election of 1876 and in that capacity contended
that Congress had no power to canvass State
returns for Presidential electors. He was for
many years connected with societies for the ad-
vancement of Sunday schools and missionary
work.
STRONG, WILLIAM L. (1827-1900). The last
Mayor of New York previous to the formation
of Greater New York. He was born in Richland
County, Ohio; was a drygoods salesman in
VVooster and then in Manchester, Ohio; in 1853
went to New York City, where he engaged in
similar business, and in 1869 became the head
of the firm of William L. Strong & Co. In politics
he was a Republican. From 1895 to 1898 he was
Mayor of New York, having been elected on a
fusion ticket supported by Republicans and anti-
Tammany Democrats.
STRONGBOW. A surname of Richard Fitz
Gislebert, Earl of Pembroke, one of the leaders
in the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland (q.v.) .
STRONGYLUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. o"rpo'y-
yzihos, round). A genus of nematode worms,
parasitic in man and other animals. The only
true strongylus infesting man is Strongylus
bronchialis. The male usually measures rather
more than half an inch, while the female is up-
ward of an inch in length. It is apparently a
rather uncommon parasite, as few‘ cases have
been reported, though allied species occur in the
lungs and air passages of pigs, calves, and
sheep. Closely allied to Strongylus is the genus
Eus-trongglus, which contains the species Eu-
strongglus gigas, which is the largest nematode
worm at present known to infest man or any
other animal, the male measuring a foot in
length, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter,
while the female is more than three feet, its
transverse diameter being fully half an inch.
The body is cylindrical, and more or less tinged
with redness; the head obtuse, and furnished
with a simple oval aperture surrounded by six
chitinous nodules. This worm occurs in the kid-
neys and bladder, sometimes in the abdominal
cavity and the omentum, more rarely in the
lungs and liver of man and other animals. For-
tunately, it is very rare in man; it is said that
weasels are the animals in which it is most com-
monly found.
STRONTIUM (Neo-Lat., from Strontian,
Argyllshire, Scotland). ,A metallic element first
isolated by Davy in 1808, its earth having been
recognized as a distinct chemical substance after
Cruikshank (1790), Hope (1792), and Klaproth
(1793) had discovered that it gives a peculiar
coloration if introduced into a flame. Strontium
occurs as the carbonate (strontianite), as the
sulphate (eelestite), as the silicate in combina-
tion with barium and calcium (brewsterite),
also in small quantities in other minerals, such
as arragonite, calcite, and dolomite. It further
occurs‘ in mineral and sea waters, and also in
the ashes of certain plants. The metal may be
obtained by the electrolysis‘ of the moistened
hydroxide or the chloride. Strontium (symbol,
Sr; atomic weight, 87.61) is a yellow metal with
a specific gravity of 2.5; it melts at a moderate
red heat. It is both malleable and ductile, is
less electro-positive than calcium and the alkali
metals, oxidizes quickly on exposure to the air,
and burns brilliantly when heated, forming the
oxide. It combines with oxygen to form a mon-
oxide (SIO) and a dioxide (SrO,_). The former
is a gray-white, porous, infusible solid that is
usually prepared by igniting the nitrate. The
hydrate forn1ed by the action of water on the
oxide has the property of combining with crystal-
lizable sugar to form a saccharate easily decom-
posed by carbon dioxide, and hence is extensively
used for the separation of sugar from beet-root
molasses. The nitrate, whichmay be prepared
by dissolving the carbonate in warm dilute nitric
acid and evaporating to crystallization, finds use
for pyrotechnic purposes, owing torthe red flame
with which it burns.
STROPHADES, strof’a-déz (Lat., from Gk.
Zrpooédsg). Two small islands in the Ionian
Sea, now Strofadia and Strivali. The name was
given from the legend that the sons of Boreas
pursued the Harpies to the islands, thence re-
turning (o'Tpé¢sw, to turn) from their expedition.
STROPHANTHUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
orpédog, strophos, twisted, bent, from arpéoew,
strephein, to turn, twist + dvflog, anthos,
flower). A drug consisting of the seed of
Strophanthus hispidus, a climbing African plant
of the order Apoeynaceee. From the seed can be
obtained its active principle strophanthin, a
bitter glucoside. This is a white, amorphous, or
crystalline powder, soluble in water or alcohol.
The physiological action of the drug is much like
that of digitalis (q.v.). It slows the action of
the heart, increases its contractility, and increases
the arterial tension, though less than digitalis.
Its action is more rapid, less protracted, and less
certain than that of digitalis. It is also less
diuretic, less apt to disturb the stomach, and is
not cumulative. In large doses it is a direct
poison to the voluntary muscles, which become
tonically contracted and pass into a condition re-
sembling rigor mortis. Strophanthus is a valua-
ble cardiac stimulant and is used in cases in
which digitalis is indicated, but in which, for
any reason, it is necessary to substitute another
drug. It is also of use when digitalis fails to
act. The official tincture is the form generally
employed. ‘
STBOPHE.
STROZZI.
272
STROPHE, str6'fé (Lat., from Gk. orpo¢1'7, a
turning, from 01-pé¢ew,' strephein, to turn, twist).
A term which originally designated the evolutions
of the Greek chorus from one position to another
in the orchestra; then the portion of the song
which accompanied this movement. In its ordi-
nary sense, as applied to Greek and Latin lyric
poetry, it designates a combination of rhythmical
periods to which a following combination corre-
sponds exactly or very closely; these are known
respectively as strophe and antistrophe (q.v.).
The name is also often applied to the stanza of
modern poetry. See VERSIFICATION.
STRO’PHOME’NA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
arp6¢og, strophos, twisted, bent + v1’7w/, méne,
crescent). An important genus of fossil long-
hinged brachiopods of Paleozoic age, typical of
the family Strophomenidac. The primitive mem-
bers of this family are characterized by their
general semicircular outline, long hinge lines,


1. Orthothetes Cbemungensis (view from the brachia
valve) ; 2, Strophoznena filitexta (ped1cle valve).
and well-developed cardinal teeth, distinct hinge
areas, and low beaks. In the secondary derived
members of the group the hinge line shortens, the
beak lengthens, the hinge area increases in height,
and the articulating processes undergo interestmg
modifications, while correlated modifications take


1, Stroptorhynchus pelargonatus (profile); 2, Derbya
Bcnnetti (profile).
place in the interior of the shell. The simplest
and earliest member is Rafinesquina (Ordovi-
cian) , with valves normally concavo-convex dorso-
ventrally, and hinge line simple. Strophomena
(Ordovician and Silurian) in its embryonic
stages has the general form of shell seen 1n
Rafinesquina, but the “.'.111l13S have the valves
resupinate or recurved so that the dorsal valve
is convex and the ventral valve flat or concave.
From Rafinesquina arises a long line of descen-
dants reaching into Carboniferous times. These
genetically related types are Strophomena (Or-
dovician to Silurian), Orthothetes (Silunan to
Carboniferous), Derbya (Carboniferous), Strep-
torhynchus (Upper Carboniferous to Pernnan).
Consult Hall and Clarke, “An Introduction to
the Study of the Genera of Palaeozoic Brachio-
poda,” Palaeontology of New York, vol. vii1.,
part i. (Albany, 1892).
STROSSMAYER, stros'mi-er, Josnrrr Gnone
(1815—) . An Austrian Roman Catholic bishop,
born at Eszék, Slavonia. After being educated at
Diakovar, Budapest, and Vienna he became pro-
fessor in the seminary at Diakovar, afterwards
Court chaplain in Vienna, and in 1849 Bishop of
Diakoveir. A leader of the Croatian natronal
party, he promoted the cause of education in va-
rious ways, contributed largely to the establish-
ment of the academy and university at Agram,
and built the beautiful Romanesque cathedral at
Diakovar. He came most prominently into no-
tice at the time of the Vatican Council, in which
he was considered the leader of the Inoppor-
tunists, or those who considered it inadvisable to
define Papal infallibility.
STROTHER, stroTH’er, DAVID HUNTER (1816-
88). An American author and illustrator, born
at Martinsburg, W. Va. Educated as an artist,
he first became known to the public in 1852 as
‘Porte Crayon,’ the author of a series of amus-
ing papers published in Har-per’s 11/[agaz/ine, de-
scriptive of travel, scenery, and manners in the
South. Many of these were afterwards collected
in The Blaclcwater O'hrom'cle (1853) and Vir-
ginia Illustrated (1857). He entered the Union
army as captain in 1861, became colonel, resigned
in 1864, and in 1865 was brevetted brigadier-gen-
eral. After the war he continued to write and
sketch for periodicals, and from 1879 to 1885
was Consul-General to Mexico.
STROUD, stroud. A town in Gloucestershire,
England, nine miles miles south-southeast of
Gloucester, at the confluence of the Frome and
Slade (Map: England, D 5). It is the centre of
the woolen manufactures of Gloucestershire. The
water of the Frome is peculiarly adapted for use
in dyeing scarlet and other grain colors; and 011
this account cloth factories and dye works have
been built along its banks for a distance of
twenty miles. At the Domesday survey Stroud
was part of Bisley Parish, from which it sepa-
rated in 1304.
STROUDS’BURG. The county-seat of Mon-
roe County, Pa., 53 miles southeast of Scranton,
on the Analomink River, and on the New York,
Susquehanna and Western and the Delaware,
Lackawanna and Western railroads (Map: Penn-
sylvania, F 3). It is in a beautiful region. But
four miles distant is the famous Delaware Water
Gap. In East Stroudsburg is a State Normal
School. There are flour and woolen mills. Popu-
lation, in 1890, 2419; in 1900, 3450.
STROZZI, str<'5t’sé. A noble Florentine family
which first attained prominence toward the end
of the thirteenth century. From that time until
1530 they appear as the rivals of the Medici,
with whom they shared the great oflices of State.
At their most flourishing period toward the end
of the fifteenth century they numbered eighty
heads of families. Then was built from the plans
of Benedetto da Majano and Cronaca that famous
palace which has been ranked with the Farnese
at Rome and the Vendramin at Venice as one of
the three finest in Italy. Cosmo I. de’ Medici
upon his accession in 1537 brought about the
fall of the rival house. Various branches of the
family took foreign service or settled in Naples,
Mantua, and Ferrara.
STROZZI, BERNARDO (1581-1644). An Italian
painter (called 11 Prete Genovese and I1 Capuc-
cino). He was born in Genoa and began to
paint at sixteen, but gave up his art to become
a Capuchin monk. The necessities of his family
required his aid, however, and he was tempo-
rarily permitted to leave the monastery in order
to give himself again to painting. When he re-
fused to return to the cloister after the death
STROZZI.
STRUVE.
273
of his mother and the marriage of his sister he
was arrested and imprisoned in the dungeon of
his Order for three years, when he esca ed to
Venice and there worked privately and or the
State, decorating the library of Saint Mark’s and
the churches of San Benedetto and of the Incura-
bili. His best efforts were portraits.
STRUENSEE, strWen-za, J OIIANN FRIEDRICH
VON, Count (1737-72). A Danish statesman,
born August 5, 1837, at Halle, Saxony. He
studied medicine, became the physician of King
Christian VII. (q.v.) of Denmark (1768), and
rose to the highest favor. In 1771 he was made
Minister of State with unusual powers. Since
the Revolution of 1660 Denmark had been under
the domination of the nobility, who as a council
of State governed the country. Struensee dis-
solved the council, and proclaimed the estab-
lishment of the ancient royal power. These
measures amounted in reality to a revolution,
and to a declaration of war against the aristoc-
racy. The Queen and Struensee, in whose hands
the whole power now was, chose new ministers,
and excluded the feeble Christian entirely from
the management of affairs. In opposition to
the policy of his predecessors, Struensee en-
deavored to free Denmark from Russian in-
fluence, and to find a natural ally in Swe-
den. He put the finances in order, reduced
the expenditure, freed industry and trade, en-
couraged education, mitigated the penal laws,
and brought order into the administration. Serf-
dom was partially abolished. The haste with
which this revolutionary course was pursued pro-
duced a reaction, while the clergy were aroused
by Struensee’s outspoken skepticism. The Queen
and Struensee were accused of criminal relations
and the King was prevailed upon, apparently
against his will, to sign warrants for the arrest
of Struensee. The Minister was accused of hav-
ing conspired against the person and throne of
the King, and of being the lover of the Queen. He
was sentenced to death and executed April 28,
1772. Queen Carolina Matilda left Denmark in
May, 1772, and died in 1775 in the castle of Celle
in Hanover. Consult Struensee et la cour dc
Copenhague—mémoires de Reverdil (Paris,
1858). -
STRIIMRELL, strum’pel, Lcnwm (1812-99).
A German philosopher, born at Schiippenstedt.
He studied philosophy at Ktinigsberg, where he
was influenced by Herbart, and continued his
studies at Leipzig. In 1845 he became professor
of philosophy at Dorpat, and after 1872 he_ held
a similar position at the University of Leipzig.
He became known as a prominent representative
of Herbart’s philosophy and published Erldute-
rungen zu Herbarts Philosophie (1834), Die
Hauptpunkte der Herbartschen Metaphisik kri-
tisch beleuchted (1840), Gedanken iiber
Religion und religidse Probleme (1888), Ab-
handlungen zur Geschichte der M etaphysik, Psy-
chologie und Religionsphilosophie (1896), and
Vermischte Abhandlungen aus der theoretischen
und praktischen Philo-sophie (1897).
STRUTT, JOHN WILLIAM. An English physi-
cist. See RAYLEICH.
STRUTT, JOSEPH (1749-1802). An English
antiquary. He studied engraving and painting,
but devoted himself mostly to research in the
British Museum. Among his works are The
Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England
(1773); The Chronicle of England (1777-78);
Complete View of the Dress and Habits of the
People of England from the Establishment of the
Saaons in Britain to the Present Time (1796-
99) ; Sports and Pastimes of the People of Eng-
land (1801) ; and a curious historical romance,
entitled Queenhoo Hall, edited and completed by
Sir Walter Scott (1808). Strutt’s work as anti-
quary was so well done that it has not yet been
superseded. His engravings in the ‘chalk’ or
dotted style are much sought after.
STRUVE, stroo’ve, FRIEDRICII GEOBG WIL-
HELM VON (1793-1864). A Russian astronomer,
born at Altona, Germany. He was educated at
the University of Dorpat, and appointed to
a post in the observatory in 1813, and continued
with the utmost assiduity his observation and
researches respecting double and multiple stars,
adding immensely to our knowledge of these sys-
tems. In 1839 he became director of the newly
organized observatory at Pulkova, and here he
continued again his classic researches concerning
double stars. Struve also executed a number of
important geodetic operations, such as the
triangulation of Livonia, in 1816-19, and the
measurement of an arc of the meridian in 1822-
52. He published: Observationes Dorpatenses
(1817-39); Catalogus Novus Stellarum Dupli-
cium (1827); Stellaruni Duplicium Mensurce
Micrometricoe (1831); Stellar/um Fiwarum, Im-
primis Compositarum Positiones Mediw (1852).
All these works are fundamental in the history
of double-star astronomy. He published also
Arc du méridien entre le Danube et la Mer
Claciale (1857-60).
STRUVE, GUSTAV VON (1805-70). A Ger-
man revolutionist, born in Munich. He was
an ardent Liberal, and in 1848 took part
with Hecker and others in the first revolt in
Baden. After the defeat at Staufen he was cap-
tured and sentenced to five years of solitary con-
finement. Released by the Revolutionists in
1849, he became the leader of the Republican
Party in the Constituent Assembly of Baden.
Forced to flee again, he went first to Switzerland,
then to England, and finally, in 1851, to the
United States. Here he composed his Allgemeine
Weltgeschichte (1853), a history of the world
from the standpoint of radical republicanism.
When the Civil War broke out he served for a
time as an officer in the Eighth New York Regi-
ment, but in 1863 returned to Europe, where he
lived for a time in Coburg, then until his death
in Vienna. Among his numerous other works
are: Das dfientliche Recht d'es Deutschen Bundes
(1846) ; Geschichte der drei Vollkserhebungen in
I(3{l8d666l) (1848) ; and Das Revolutionseeitalter
STRUVE, OTTO WILIIELM (1819-—). A Rus-
sian astronomer, born at Dorpat. In 1837 he be-
came his father’s chief assistant at Pulkova. In
1862 he became the director of Pulkova Observa-
tory, a position which he held till 1889, when
he retired to Karlsruhe. In his examination of
the northern heavens he discovered 500 binary
stars and also determined the parallax of several
stars, and observed the variability of the light
coming from the nebula of Orion and the several
stars hidden in the nebula. He also determined
a new value of the precession constant (1841),
STRUVE.
STUART.
274
calculated the dimensions of the ring of Saturn,
determined the mass of Neptune, and made ob-
servations on solar velocity and the extent of the
corona. Struve wrote: Uebersicht der Thdtig-
lceit der Nicolai-Hauptsternwarte with/rend der
ersten 25 Jahre ihres Bestehens (1865) ; Zum 50-
jdhrigen Bestehen der Nikolai-Hauptsternwarte
(1887) ; Observations de Pulkova (1869-93).
STRYCHNINE, or STEYCHNIA (from Lat.
strychnos, from Gk o'1'pv)(v0g', strychnos, plant of
the nightshade kind). A poisonous alka-
loid resembling brucine (q.v.), obtained from
various species of plants, especially from the
seeds of the Saint Ignatius bean and from nux
vomica. It occurs in right square octahedrons or
prisms, colorless and inodorous, scarcely soluble
in water, but easily so in alcohol, ether, and
chloroform. Pure sulphuric acid forms with it a
colorless solution, which, on the addition of bi-
chromate of potash, acquires an intensely violet
hue, speedily passing through red to yellow. If,
indeed, the solution is diluted with water while it
is red and ammonia is added, it becomes a violet
purple, changing to yellow. Another test for
strychnine is its action upon animals. In nitric
acid it 'ought, if pure, to form a colorless solution;
if the solution is reddish it is a sign that brucine
is also present. Strychnine combines with nu-
merous acids, and forms well-marked salts, which
are amenable to the same tests as the base itself
and are soluble in water. Strychnine is intensely
bitter, and will impart this quality to 20,000
times its weight of water. See ANTIDOTES.
STRYCHNOS (Lat., from Gk. orpzbgvog,
strychnos, rpvxvog, trychnos, plant of the night-
shade kind). A genus of trees and shrubs of the
natural order Loganiacea. To this genus belongs
Strychnos Nua:-vomica, an East Indian tree of
medium size, whose fruit, which is produced in
great abundance, is about the size of a small
orange. Its disk-shaped seeds, which are the
nux vomica of commerce, yield the alkaloids
strychnine and brucine. The wood of the tree
is very hard and durable. The clearing-nut and
Saint Ignatius bean are produced by species of
this genus, to which also belongs the South
American tree (Strychnos towifera) from which


rmx VOMICA (Stryclznos Nux-vomica).
a, fruit; b, seed.
curare or woorali is obtained. Another species
is the upas tieute (Strychnos Tieute) of Java, a
large climbing shrub, whose bark is reputed
poisonous. The wood of a climbing species
(Strychnos colubrina), found in the north of
India, is said to cure snake bites. The bark of
Strychnos Pseudo-quina, a Brazilian species, is
used as a substitute for cinchona. The climbing
species are provided with curious hooked tendrils
by which they attach themselves to trees. De-
spite the popular ill-repute attached to many of
the species, their fruits, especially those of
Strychnos N ua;-vomica, seem to be harmless,
since they are often eaten by birds.
STRYJ, stri’y’. A town in Galicia, Austria,
40 miles south of Lemberg (Map: Austria, J 2).
It has a castle. Its industries include the manu-
facturing of leather, matches, and iron products.
Population, in 1890, 16,515; in 1900, 23,673.
STRY’KER, MELANCTHCN WCCLSEY (1851
—). An American educator, born at Vernon,
N. Y. He graduated at Hamilton College in
1872 and at the Auburn Theological Seminary
four years later. Between 1876 and 1892 he was
pastor of churches in Auburn, N. Y.; Ithaca,
N. Y.; Holyoke, Mass.; and Chicago. In the
latter year he was elected president of Hamilton
College. His publications include The Song of
Miriam (1888), a hymnal Church Song (1889),
Dies Irce (1893), Lattermath (1896), and a
number of addresses.
STRYPE, JOHN (1643-1737). A Church of
England historian and antiquary. He was born
in London, studied at Cambridge, entered the
Church, and held for many years, with other
smaller livings, the rectory of Leyton, in Essex.
His works fill 13 large folio volumes. Ecclesias-
tical Memorials, relating to religion and the
Church of England under Henry VIII., Edward
VI., and Mary, is his best work, forming, with
Burnet’s more readable History of the Reforma-
tion, a consecutive and full account of the re-
formed Anglican Church. As a writer he is
heavy, but honest and plodding, and he was a
faithful transcriber of the ancient papers he
published, which, he says, Were all copied with
his own hand. His complete works were re-
printed with general index by R. F. Laurence (28
volumes, Oxford, 1820-28). '
STU’ART, or STEWART. A Scotch and
English royal family. Its origin is traced to
Fitzflaald, a Norman, who accompanied the Con-
queror to England. His second son, Walter (d.
1117), entered the service of David I. of Scot-
land, who conferred large territorial possessions
on him, along with the dignity of Steward of
Scotland, which became hereditary in his family,-
and was assumed by his descendants as a sur-
name, some branches of the house later modify-
ing the orthography to Steuart, or the French
form Stuart. For seven generations the stew-
ardship continued unbroken from father to son.
Walter, the third steward and grandson of the
first steward, held, in addition, the office of jus-
ticiary of Scotland. Alexander, fourth steward,
was Regent of Scotland in Alexander III.’s mi-
nority. James, the fifth steward, was one of the
six Regents of Scotland after the death of Alex-
ander 111.; and Walter, the sixth steward, by
his marriage with Marjory, daughter of Robert
Bruce, eventually brought the crown of Scotland
to his family. His son, Robert, seventh high
steward, was Regent from 1338 to 1341, and after-
wards during the captivity of his uncle, David
II., from 1346 to 1357. On the death of David
11. in 1371 he ascended the throne as Robert 11.,
and died in 1390. (For the subsequent history
of the royal family see articles ROBERT II. and
STUART.
STUART.
275
in 1603, to place her on the throne.
III.; JAMEs I., II., III., IV., V.; MARY
STUART; JAMES I. (of England); CHARLEs I.
and 11.; JAMES 11.; MARY 11.; and ANNE.) In
the person of James 11. the line of Stuart was
driven from the English and Scottish thrones.
The claims of the house were upheld by James’s
son, the Old Pretender (see STUART, JAMES ED-
WARD), and by the latter’s son, known as the
Young Pretender. (See STUART, CHARLES ED-
WARD.) A brother of the latter was HENRY
BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT, Cardinal York, born
1725. After Culloden‘(l746) he went to Rome,
took orders, and was advanced to the purple by
Benedict XIV. in 1747. During his brother’s
life he was known as Cardinal York; but after
his death he assumed the regal style as Henry
IX., King of England. The expulsion of Pius
VI. from Rome, and other events follow-
ing upon the French Revolution, drove him
to Venice, aged and infirm and re-
duced to absolute poverty. George III. settled
on him an annuity of £4000. He died in 1807
at the age of eighty-two, the last direct descend-
ant in the male line of the royal Stuarts.
The female line of the Stuarts is represent-
ed by the descendants of Henrietta Maria,
daughter of Charles 1., who was mar-
ried to Philip, Duke of Orleans, brother
of Louis XIV. of France. This princess
had two daughters, of whom the elder, Mary,
was Queen of Charles II. of Spain, and died
childless; the younger, Anna Maria, married
Victor_Amadeus 11., Duke of Savoy and King of
Sardinia, and was mother of Charles Emmanuel
III., King of Sardinia, and grandmother of Vic-
tor Amadeus III. of Sardinia. See SAVOY,
Housn or.
The branch of the family which the Act of
Settlement called to the throne on the death of
Queen Anne was descended of the Electress So-
phia of Hanover, granddaughter of James 1.
(VI.) by her mother, the Princess Elizabeth Stu-
art (q.v.), Electress Palatine and Queen of B0-
hemia.
The cadets of the House of Stuart, descendants
of Robert II., are represented by some of the
most noble titles in Scotch and English history.
Consult: Stewart, Historical and Genealogical
Account of the Royal Family of Scotland, and
of the Surname of Stewart (Edinburgh, 1739) ;
Noble, Historical Genealogy of the Royal House
of Stewart (London, 1795); Thornton, The
Stuart Dynasty (ib., 1890); Gibb and Skelton,
The Royal House of Stuart (ib., 1890) .
STU'ART, Lady ARABELLA, or ARBELLA
(1575-1615). The daughter of Charles Stuart,
Earl of Lennox, a younger brother of Lord Darn-
ley (q.v.). She was the next in the line of suc-
cession to her cousin James I. of England, and
her relationship to Elizabeth gave rise to a num-
ber of plots, including one by Sir Walter Ralegh
Several
schemes to marry her were defeated by Eliza-
beth, but in 1610 it was discovered that she had
made a secret marriage with William Seymour
(q.v.), grandson of the Earl of Hertford. Sey-
mour was imprisoned in the Tower of London
and his wife put in the custody of the Bishop of
Durham, but she escaped to a French vessel, in
which her husband, who had escaped from the
Tower, was also to sail. He did not reach it,
but escaped in another vessel, while the vessel in
which Arabella sailed was captured and she
spent the last five years of her life in the Tower,
dying insane. Consult Cooper, Life and Letters
of Lady Arabella Stuart (1866).
STUART, CHARLES EDWARD, often called the
YOUNG PRETENDER (1720-88). A claimant to the
throne of Great Britain. He was the eldest son
of James Edward, known as the Old Pretender,
and was born at Rome. After some mili-
tary service on the Continent, Charles,
encouraged by the French Government, decided
to make an armed attempt to obtain the British
crown. The French aid, however, did not ma-
terialize, and Charles landed almost alone on
August 2, 1745, on an islet in the Hebrides. The
Highland clans flocked to his standard, and
Charles pressed on to Perth, where he was joined
by Lord George Murray. The troops of the Gov-
ernment were defeated at Prestonpans on Sep-
tember 2l, 1745, and Carlisle was taken in
November. Lord George Murray completely out-
manoeuvred his opponents, and soon had a clear
road to London. In the first days of December
the Highlanders were in Derby. Panic prevailed
in London. But England did not rise in behalf
of the Stuarts as had been expected, and Murray
was cut off from his base of supplies. In conse-
quence the retreat began on December 6, and the
Duke of Cumberland pursued. On April 16
(new style April 27), 1746, the rebels were
totally defeated at Culloden Moor. From April
to September Charles Edward lay concealed in
the Highlands and on the Hebrides with a price
on his head, and hunted by the soldiers, but safe
in the devoted loyalty of the clansmen. He
finally reached France after many hairbreadth
escapes. Thereafter his life was chiefly marked
by its dissoluteness. It seems that he‘ was in
London in 1750, and again in 1752 and 1754, in
the vain hope of fomenting another rising. In
1772 Charles married Louisa, Princess of Stol-
berg (see ALBANY, LOUISA MARIA CARoLINE),
but she was unable to tolerate his brutality, and
they separated in 1780. Thereafter Charles lived
chiefly at Florence in the company of a daughter
born to him by Miss Walkenshaw, his mistress.
He died at Rome. Consult: Ewald, Life and
Times of Prince Charles Stuart, Count of Albany
(London, 1875) ; Lang, The Prince Charles Ecl-
warcl (ib., 1900).
STUART, ELIZABETH (1596-1662). See
ELIZABETH STUART.
STUART, GILBERT (1755-1828). An Ameri-
can portrait painter. He was born at Narra-
gansett, R. 1., December 3, 1755. He painted his
first portraits when thirteen, having had no in-
struction. In 1770 he was taught by a Scotsman,
Cosmo Alexander, who took him to England,
but upon Alexander’s death Stuart was forced
by poverty to return to America after
a year’s absence. A maturing talent brought him
frequent commissions, and thus he was enabled
in 1775 to return for further study to England.
In London he formed the acquaintance of Ben-
jamin West, who gave him instruction and
a home in his own house. After much ad-
versity, during which he supported himself as an
organist, he attained a distinguished position.
He returned to America in 1792, his impelling
motive being to paint the portrait of VVashing-
ton. He established a studio in New York, but re-
moved to Philadelphia, where the first Washing-
STUART.
STUART.
276
ton portrait was painted in 1795; atastill later
period he lived in the city of Washington, and
finally in 1806 took up his permanent residence
at Boston, where he died. The Stuart portraits of
Washington, representing the subject in the later
years of his life, are the most famous of both
artist and sitter. The first of these, represent-
ing the right side of the face, the artist
destroyed as unsatisfactory, though six replicas
exist; after 1796 he painted the portrait known
as the ‘Athenaeum portrait’ (Boston Museum),
showing the left side. A full length was painted
for the Marquis of Lansdowne in 1796. Nearly
forty replicas of his various Washington por-
traits have been traced. The Historical Societies
of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia have
many examples of his work, as do the Metropoli-
tan Museum and other American collections.
Stuart was an entirely independent master,
who followed neither West nor any other model,
but nature alone. Though sometimes deficient
in drawing, he was a good colorist, and in his
best productions deserves to rank beside Gains-
borough. He devoted his chief attention to the
heads, which are rendered with force and truth,
but rather neglected the rest of the portrait. The
list of his sitters includes the first five Presi-
dents of the United States, Edward Everett, John
Jay, Jacob Astor, Judge Story, W. E. Channing,
Josiah and Edmund Quincy, O. H. Perry, Jerome
and Mme. Bonaparte. During his residence in
England he painted King George III., also George
IV. while Prince of Wales, Louis XVI. of France
(at Paris), Mrs. Siddons, Sir Joshua Reynolds,
Benjamin West, and a notable picture of “W.
Grant Skating in Saint James Park,” which
made his reputation in England. Consult Mason,
Life and Works of Gilbert Stuart (New York,
1879); Caffin, American Masters of Painting
(New York, 1896).
STUART, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT,
Cardinal York (1725-1807). The second son of
James Edward Stuart, the Elder Pretender. See
STUART.
STUART, JAMEs. Regent of Scotland after
the abdication of Queen Mary. See MURRAY 0R
MORAY, JAMES STUART, EARL or.
STUART, JAMES (1713-88). An English
painter, archaeologist, and architect, born in Lon-
don. Until nearly thirty years of age he was a
poor fan-painter, but in 1741 he found means
to go to Rome, where he studied Latin and Greek
and became interested in archaeology. From 1751
till 1755 be, together with Nicholas Revett,
studied antiquities in Athens. Upon their re-
turn to England they published, through the en-
couragement and aid of the Society of Dilettanti,
The Antiquities of Athens, Measured and De-
lineated by James Stuart, F.R.S. and F.S.A., and
Nicholas Reoett, Painters and Architects (1762).
The book attracted widespread attention.
Through its influence the classical style in archi-
tecture became widely popular. A second vol-
ume of the Antiquities was published posthu-
mously in 1789; a third in 1795; and a fourth
in 1814. A third edition of the first three vol-
umes was published in 1841 for Bohn’s Illus-
trated Library.
STUART, JAMES EDWARD (1688-1766). The
son of James II. of England by his second wife,
Mary Beatrice, daughter of the Duke of Modena,
known as the Chevalier Saint George, or the Old
Pretender. Prince James, who was born but
a few months before his father’s de-
thronement, was commonly but groundlessly
alleged to be a supposititious child, and was
involved in his father’s exclusion from the
crown. In 1715 the party who supported him,
known in history as the Jacobites, endeavored to
place him on the throne by force of arms. In
Scotland the Earl of Mar, with about 5000 men,
was checked by the royal forces under the Duke
of Argyll at Sheriffmuir (q.v.), and in England
the rising, headed by the Earl of Derwentwater,
ended by the unconditional surrender of the in-
surgents at Preston, when Lords Derwentwater
and Kenmure were beheaded and other persons
of note executed and attainted. James escaped
to France, and for the rest of his life resided in
obscurity, principally at Rome. In 1719 he mar-
ried one of the wealthiest heiresses in Europe,
Maria Clementina Sobieska, granddaughter of
John Sobieski, King of Poland. His son Charles
Edward was the Young Pretender.
STUART, JAMEs EWELL BRowN (1833-64).
An American soldier, prominent as a cavalry
leader in the Confederate service during the
Civil War. He was born in Virginia, attended
Emory and Henry College, and graduated at the
United States Military Academy in 1854. He
then served as lieutenant on the Texas frontier,
taking part in several actions with the Apache
Indians. In 1857 his regiment was sent to Kan-
sas to maintain peace, and later he saw service
against the Cheyenne Indians. In April, 1861,
he was promoted to the rank of captain, but re-
signed from the United States Army upon re-
ceiving notice of the secession of Virginia, and
was shortly thereafter commissioned lieutenant-
colonel of Virginia troops. At the first battle
of Bull Run he won distinction as a cavalry
commander, and was rewarded in September fol-
lowing by promotion to the rank of brigadier-
general. He made several successful raids
and took a conspicuous part in the Seven
Days’ Battle before Richmond’. In July,
1862, he was commissioned major-general
of cavalry, and shortly afterwards made a dash
upon General Pope’s headquarters, capturing his
official correspondence and making prisoners of
several of his staff. This was followed the same
night by a successful raid on Manassas Junction.
He participated with distinction in the second
battle of Bull Run and in the battle of
Antietam, made a raid into Pennsylvania,
guarded the Confederate right at Fredericks-
burg, and aided Stonewall Jackson at Chan-
cellorsville. After the death of Jackson and
the wounding of A. P. Hill, the command of
Jackson’s corps devolved temporarily upon him.
He took part in Lee’s Gettysburg campaign with-
out adding anything to his reputation as a
cavalry commander. In the campaign of the
VVilderness he won several successes; and when
Sheridan advanced upon Richmond General
Stuart confronted him at Yellow Tavern, where
the Confederates were defeated and General
Stuart mortally wounded. He died May 12,
1864. Consult his Life and Campaigns, by H. B.
McClellan, his chief of staff (Boston, 1885).
STUART, JOHN. See BUTE, third Earl of.
STUART, JOHN MCDOUALL (1815-66). A
British explorer, born at Dysart, in Fifeshire. In
1838 he emigrated to South Australia. He was
STUART.
STUBBS.
277
with Captain Sturt on an expedition to explore
Central Australia, and in 1858 began the work
of exploration on his own account. In October,
1861, he started northward, and in July, 1862,
arrived at Van Diemen’s Gulf. For this exploit
he received from South Australia the grant of
£2000, which had been offered to the first colonist
who should cross the continent.
STUART, Mosns (1780-1852). An American
scholar and teacher. He was born at Wilton,
Conn., and graduated at Yale in 1799. After
several years as a teacher, he was admitted to
the bar in 1802, but abandoned the law for the-
ology. He was pastor of a church in New
Haven (1806-09), but is best known for his ser-
vice as professor of sacred literature at Andover
Theological School (1810-48). He was an in-
spiring teacher, an indefatigable student, and
one of the first to make German scholarship
known in America. He prepared several Hebrew
grammars, the first of which was used by his
classes in manuscript because he was unable to
find type or compositors to print it; the last
was a translation of Rtidiger’s Gcscnius (1846) ;
with Edward Robinson he translated Winer’s
grammar of New Testament Greek (1825); he
also translated writings of Jahn and others on
methods of biblical study (1821), and Ernesti’s
Elements of Interpretation (1882) .
STUART, RUTI-I MCENERY (1856—-.). An
American writer of stories dealing chiefly with
Southern scenes. She was born in Avoyelles
Parish, La., and was educated at New Orleans.
Her chief publications are: A Golden Wedding
and Other Tales (1893); Carlotta’s Intended
(1894) ; The Story of Babette (1894) ; Solomon
Crow’s Christmas Pockets and Others (1896);
Sonny (1896) ; In Simkinsoille (1897) ; Moriah’s
Mourning (1898) ; Holly and Pizen (1899) ; The
Woman’s Earchangc (1899); Napoleon Jackson
(1902).
STUBBES, stubz, PHILIP (c.1555-c.1610). A
Puritan pamphleteer of the sixteenth century.
In 1753 he wrote. in denunciation of the social
follies and vices of the age, The Anatomic of
Abuses; and in the same year he published The
Rosarie of Christian Praiers and Meditations.
He wrote also A Christall C-lassc for Christian
Women (1590) and numerous pamphlets. Both
The Anatomic of Abuses and A Christall Glassc
were very popular, and were several times rc-
published. The former was reprinted in 1836 by
Trumbull, and afterwards was edited in two
parts with ‘forewords’ by Dr. Furnival, for the
Shakespeare Society (1877, 1882). Consult vol-
ume ix. of Morley’s English Writers (London,
1892).
STUBBS, CHARLES WILLIAM (18-45-). An
English divine and author, born in Liverpool.
From the Royal Institution School of Liverpool
he passed to Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
where he graduated B.A. in 1868. He became
senior curate of Saint Mary’s, Sheffield (1868-
71), vicar of Granboro in Buckinghamshire
(1871-84), of Stokenham in Devonshire (1884-
88), rector of Wavertree, Liverpool (1888-94),
and Dean of Ely (1894). Among his writings
are: Christ and Democracy (1883); God’s Eng-
lishmen (1887); The Land and the Labourers
(1890) ; Christ and Economics (1893) ; Christus
Impcrator (1894); A Creed for Christian So-
cialists (l896) ; Charles Kingsley and the Chris-
tian Social M ovement (1898) ; The Social Teach-
ing of the Lord’s Prayer (1900); Pro Patria
(1900). He is also the author of two volumes
of poems, The Conscience (1884) and Bright-
noth’s Prayer (1899).
STUBBS, GEORGE (1724-1806). An English
animal painter and anatomist. He was born in
Liverpool, where he began the study of his fa-
ther’s profession of surgery. In -1751, however, he
went to Rome to study art. Upon his return to
England he was soon receiving good prices for
paintings of horses, and after 1758 devoted most
of his time for six or seven years to the prepara-
tion of his famous Anatomy of the Horse (1766),
a work which, from the standpoint both of anat-
omy and art, is still authoritative. In 1790 he
was engaged to paint all the famous race-horses
from the time of the Godolphin Barb, but he only
completed 16 in the series. He did some notable
work in enameling on large plates. Some of his
rustic and heroic pieces were very popular as
engravings, but his paintings of horses have
never been surpassed for realism and accuracy.
Among his bestknown pictures are “The Grosve-
nor Hunt,” “Horse Affrighted by a Lion,” “The
Brick Cart,” “Warren Hastings,” and “Horse and
Jockey.” In 1800 he exhibited his largest pic-
.ture, measuring more than 13 feet by 8, which
represents “Hambletonian beating Diamond at
Newmarket.”
STUBBS, or STUBLBE, JOHN (c.1543-1591).
A Puritan zealot, born in Norfolk, England. He
was possessed of a fiery zeal against Catholicism,
and was so opposed to the Queen’s proposed mar-
riage with the Duke of Anjou that, in 1579, he
published a pamphlet entitled The Disco/vcric of
a gaping gulf wherein England is like to- be
Swallowed by Another French Marriage if the
Lord Forbid not the Banes by Letting Her
Majestic see the Sin and Punishment Thereof.
Though the pamphlet spoke of the Queen in re-
spectful and loyal terms, Stubbs, his publisher,
and the printer were found guilty on a charge of
disseminating seditious writings and were sen-
tenced to have their right hands cut off. This
cruel punishment was, in fact, inflicted upon
Stubbs and the publisher in the market-place at
Westminster. When Stubbs’s right hand was
stricken off, he waved his hat with his left, and
cried out, ‘God save the Queen!’ Nor did the
treatment he had received ever lessen his fidelity
to his sovereign.
STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901). An English
historian and prelate. He was born at Knares-
borough, in Yorkshire, and educated at Ripon
Grammar School and at Christ Church, Oxford,
being elected to a fellowship at Trinity in the
year of his graduation (1848), and ordained in
the same year. His Rcgistrum Sacrum Angli-
canum, a calendar of the English bishops from
Saint Augustine (1858), attracted the attention
of Archbishop Longley by the learning displayed
in it, and won for him the appointment of li-
brarian at Lambeth Palace. In 1866 he was ap-
pointed regius professor of modern history at Ox-
ford, and during the eighteen years of his tenure
of this chair he had an exceedingly wide influence
on historical study in England. His great
Constitutional History of England (1874-78)
at once took rank as the standard authority on
the subject, down to the times of the Tudors.
He was appointed canon of Saint Paul’s in 1879,
STUIBBS.
STUCLEY.
278
Bishop of Chester in 1884, and Bishop of Oxford
in 1889. He died in London. His historical
work was all of the careful modern type, based
on faithful study of contemporary documents,
many valuable specimens of which he edited.
His Historical Introductions to the Rolls Series
have now been rendered generally accessible by
publication in one volume (ed. Hassall, London,
1903). Other notable works are: Seventeen Lec-
tures on the Study of Mediwval and Modern
History (1886; 3d ed. 1900) ; and Councils and
Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great
Britain and Ireland, edited with A. W. Haddan
(1869-73). A volume of Ordination Addresses
appeared after his death (1901). A complete
list of his historical works may be found
in Gross, Sources and Literature of English His-
tory (New York, 1900).
STUCCO (It., from OHG. stucchi, Ger. Stitch,
AS. stycce, piece, patch; connected with OHG.
stoc, Ger. Stoclo, AS. stocc, Eng. stock, stake,
club, Skt. tuj, to thrust). A composition used
for the finer parts of plaster-work, such as
cornices and enrichments. Gypsum (q.v.), or
plaster of Paris, is used for this purpose. A
coarser kind of stucco is also used for making
floors, and for plastering the exterior of build-
ings. The Greeks used stucco to give a finer
surface to their coarse stonework, even in their
columns, before the finer marbles were used.
The Romans also in the temples they built after
the Greek manner in the late Republic stuccoed
nearly all their exterior surfaces. This stucco
was made partly of marble dust, was extremely
fine and of a hard and brilliant finish, equal to
marble. Stucco was also used for more artistic
purposes in late classic art. While wet it Was
fashioned into ornamental or figured low reliefs.
Ceilings and walls in baths (e.g. Pompeii and
Roman thermae), tombs (on the Via Latina),
and private houses have preserved these decora-
tions under the Empire, probably from Alexan-
drian models. Those found near the Farnesina in
Rome and now in the Museo delle Terme are
among the most charming decorative works of
any period. Early Christian art continued the
style, as is shown by the well-preserved internal
decoration of the baptistery of the cathedral in
Ravenna. It was not unknown to the Middle
Ages, witness the angels in the church at Hil-
desheim, and it again became popular during the
Renaissance, being profusely used in the ceil-
ings of the later period, often with Rococo de-
signs.
STUCK, stuk, FRANZ (1863—). A German
painter and sculptor, one of the leaders of the
so-called Secessionists (q.v.). Born at Tetten-
weis, Bavaria, he studied at the Munich Academy
under Lindenschmit, and became first known
through his drawings for the Fliegende Bldtter,
and the two series of art-industrial designs which
appeared in Vienna under the titles Allegorien
und Embleme and Titel und Vignetten, rugged
rather than refined, but full of vitality and bold
in treatment. His first paintings, “The Guardian
of’ Paradise,” “Innocentia,” and “Fighting Fauns,’
exhibited in Munich in 1889, were awarded the
gold medal, initiating a series of artistic successes
attendant upon his well-known landscapes enliv-
ened with centaurs, fauns, and nymphs, and his
impressive delineations of human passions, of
which the figure of “Sin” (1893), Eve enfolded by
a huge serpent, and, on a larger scale, the alle-
gory of “War” (1894), both in the Pinakothek at
Munich, have become particularly famous. In the
meanwhile he had painted “Expulsion from
Paradise,” a “Pieta” (1892), and “Crucifixion”
(1892, Stuttgart Museum), a startling deviation
from the traditional treatment of this subject.
A marked progress in the artist’s power of ex-
pression was shown in “The Sphinx” (1895, Na-
tional Museum, Budapest), “Evil Conscience”
(1896), and “Procession of Bacchants” (1897).
His plastic work, all small figures in bronze, ex-
hibits the Same powerful realism in the treat-
ment of form as do his paintings. A character-
istic example is the statuette of a “Faun” (Na-
tional Gallery, Berlin; replicas Kunsthalle, Ham-
burg, and National Museum, Budapest). Consult
the monographs by Bierbaum (Leipzig, 1899);
Meissner (Berlin, 1899), and WVeese (Vienna,
1903) ; also Schultze-Naumburg, in Magazine of
Art, vol. xx. (London, 1896-97). _
STUCKELBERG, stu’kel-berK, ERNST (1831
—- ) . A Swiss genre and landscape painter, born
in Basel. He studied under Dietler of that city,
and in Antwerp, Paris, Munich, and Italy. In
1869 he won the gold medal at Munich. Among
his pictures may be mentioned “A Procession in
the Sabine Mountains” (1859, Basel), “The Chil-
dren’s Service” (1867), and “Charcoal Burners
in the Swiss Mountains” (Zurich). In 1877
Stiickelberg Was commissioned to execute a large
symbolic fresco, “The Awakening of Art,” for
the Gallery of Basel. He also won a competition,
in the same year, for designs to fresco the Tell
Chapel on the Lake of the Four Cantons. The
work was completed in 1887.
STUCKENBERG, st1_Ik’en-berg, JOHN HENRY
WILBURN (1835-1903). An American Lutheran
clergyman and author, born at Bramsche, Hano-
ver. He emigrated to America with his parents
when a very young man and settled in the West,
was graduated from Wittenberg College, Ohio, in
1857, and studied in the universities of Halle,
Gbttingen, Berlin, and Tiibingen. Coming back
to America, he was ordained a Lutheran minister
and held pastoral charges _in Pennsylvania and
Iowa. In 1873 he was made professor of the-
ology in Wittenberg College, but in 1880 went
to Germany again, where he became pastor of
the American Chapel in Berlin. After many
years in this service he returned to America and
took up his residence in Cambridge, Mass. His
later years were largely devoted to the study
of theoretical sociology, to which he made valu-
able contributions. His chief works are: History
of the Augsburg Confession (1869); Christian
Sociology (1880) ; Life of Immanuel Kant
(1882); and Sociology (1903).
STUCLEY, stfik’li, or STUKE-LY, THOMAS
(c.1525-78). An English adventurer. He was
the third son of Sir Hugh Stucley of Devonshire.
About 1552 he went to France, and there gained
the favor of the King, Henry 11., who sent him
to England to obtain information to be used in a
projected attack on Calais. Stucley, however,
revealed the nature of his mission to the Eng-
lish Government, but, instead of being rewarded.
was imprisoned in the Tower. In 1663, with the
patronage of Queen Elizabeth, he pretended to
join Ribault’s colonization expedition to Florida,
but instead turned privateer, and seized many
French, Spanish, and Portuguese vessels. After
STUCLEY.
STUNDISTS.
279
two years of this life he was seized at Cork, but
apparently was not brought to trial. For sev-
eral years afterwards he was employed in Ire-
land, but, having intrigued with Spanish agents,
he ultimately fled to Spain. In 1571 Stucley
commanded three vessels at the battle of Le-
panto, and seven years later, while in the ser-
vice of Sebastian of Portugal, was killed in the
battle of Alcazar in Morocco. He became the
hero of numerous ballads and plays. One of
these, The Famous History of the Life and Death
of Captain Thomas Stukely, was printed “as it
hath been acted,” in London in 1605. It was re-
printed in Simpson’s School of Shakespeare
(1878), with a biography of Stucley prefixed.
STUD-BOOK. A geneaological record of
blooded stock. The British Stud-Book for horses
is the oldest in existence and was first com-
menced in 1791. All the facts that are in ex-
istence regarding the evolution through sys-
tematic breeding of the modern horse is obtained
through the British Stud-Book. There are simi-
lar records for cattle and dogs.
STUDER, stfi>"der, BERNHARD (1794-1887). A
Swiss geologist, born at Biiren, Canton of Bern.
He studied at Bern, Gtittingen, and Paris, and
in 1825 was made professor of geology in Bern,
where he labored continuously until 1873. Some
of the more important of his works are: Beitriige
zu einer M onographie der Molasse (1825) ; Geo-
logie der westlichen Schweizeralpen (1834) ;
Lehrbuch der physikalischen Geographic und
Geolo-gie (1844-47) ; Geologic der Schweiz (1851-
53) ; and Zur Geologic der Berner Alpen (1866).
STUHLMANN, st-66l’miin, FRANZ (l863—).
A German zoiilogist and African explorer, born in
Hamburg. After studying at Tiibingen and Frei-
burg, he went to East Africa in 1888, and during
the revolt of the Arabs in 1890 entered the Ger-
man corps of defense as a lieutenant, and was
severely wounded at Mlembule. After his re-
covery he joined the expedition of Emin Pasha
to the lake region, was sent ahead from Undus-
suma to Lake Victoria, and reached the coast in
July, 1892, at Bagamoyo, whence he returned
to Germany with valuable cartographic mate-
rial and rich collections, to which he added
copiously on another trip to German East Africa,
undertaken in 1893-94 by order of the Govern-
ment. He published Zoo-logische Ergebnisse
ciner in die K-iistengebiete non Ostafrika unter-
nommenen Reise 1888-90 (1893-1901), and Mit
Emin Pascha ins H ere von Afrika (1894).
STUHLWEISSENBURG, st56l’vi’sen-b'o*6rK
(Hung. Székes-Fehérrv-dr) . A royal free city, capi-
tal of the county of the same name, Hungary, 35
miles southwest of Budapest (Map: Hungary,
F 3).
are noteworthy edifices. The manufactures
of woolens, silks, and knives are extensive and
the agricultural interests prominent. Stuhl-
weissenburg is the Alba Regia of the R0-
mans. From the eleventh to the sixteenth cen-
tury the kings of Hungary were crowned there;
afterwards the ceremonial took place at Press-
burg. The city was held by the Turks from
1543 to 1688, with the exception of the period
1601-02. Population, in 1890, 28,942; in 1900,
32,167.
STUKELY, stiik'li, WILLIAM (1687-1765).
An English antiquary, born at Holbeach, Lin-
The episcopal palace and the cathedral-
colnshire. He graduated at Bennet (Corpus
Christi) College, Cambridge, in 1708. With
Roger Gales he made long antiquarian tours in
various parts of England. Among his many pub-
lished works are: An Account of a Roman
Temple and Other Antiquities, near Graham’s
Dike in Scotland (1720) ; I tinerarium Curiosum
(1724; 2d ed. 1776) ; Stonehenge(l740) ; Abury,
a Temple of the British Druids (1743); Palm-
ographia Britannica (1743-52) ; and The Medal-
lie History of M. A. V. Caurasius (1757-59).
STULER, stn’ler, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1800-
65). A German architect, born in Miihlhausen,
Thuringia. He studied first in Berlin and
afterwards in France and Italy. Appointed
Court inspector of buildings at Berlin in 1830,
he was two years later put at the head of the
architectural commission of the royal palace.
His principal buildings include the New Museum
(1843-55), the churches of Saint Bartholomew
(1854-58), Saint James (1845), Saint Mark
(1848-55) , and Saint Matthew (1846), as well as
pafls of the royal palace in Berlin, the Academy
of Sciences at Budapest, the National Museum of
Stockholm (1850-66), the Museum at Cologne‘
(1855-61), the reconstructed Winter Palace at
Saint Petersburg, the University at Kiinigsberg
(1844-63), and the reconstruction of the Stol-
zenfels Castle and the Hohenzollern Castle
(1850-67).
STUMM, stum, KARL FERDINAND, Baron von
Halberg (1836-1901). A German manufacturer
and politician, born in Saarbriicken. He studied
in Bonn and Berlin, and in 1858 became the head
of the family firm which had for many years
owned the great iron works at Neunkirchen. He
was a member of the Prussian Chamber from
1867 till 1870, and of the Reichstag from 1867
till 1881, and from 1889 till his death in 1901;
and was one of the founders of the German
Reichspartei. Over his thousands of workmen
he exercised a sort of paternalistic rule, and he
furnished them with hospitals, technical schools,
a library, model dwellings, and many other ad-
vantages. He was bitterly hostile to socialism.
STUMPF, stumpf, KARL (l848—). A Ger-
man psychologist, born at Wiesentheid, Bavaria.
He studied at Wiirzburg and Giittingen, being es-
pecially influenced by the teachings of F. Bren-
tano and R. H. Lotze. After qualifying as
privat-doeent at Giittingen, in 1870, he was ap-
pointed to the chair of philosophy successively
at Wiirzburg (1873), Prague (1879), Halle
(1884), Munich (1889), and Berlin (1894),
where he instituted the psychological seminar.
In 1895 he became a member of the Prussian
Academy of Sciences. His publications include
numerous monographs upon psychology, aesthet-
ics, ethnology, epistemology, and especially upon
physical and psychological acoustics. They com-
prise: Ueber den psychologischen Ursprung der
Raumuorstellung (1873); Tonpsychologie (1883-
90) ; Tafeln zur Geschichte der Philosophie (2d
ed. 1900); Psychologie und Erkenntnistheorie
(1891) ; Beitniige eur Akustik und Musikwissen-
schaft, I. Consonanz und Dissonane (1898). He
is best known by his contributions to the
psychological study of sensations of tone and
their use in music.
STUNDISTS (from Ger. Stunde, hour les-
son; so called from their meetings to read the
STUNDISTS.
STURGEON.
280
Bible). A Russian sect, which owes its origin
to German influences. It has gained many con-
verts among the peasants, particularly since 1870,
and has attracted the hostile attention of the
Government. The Stundists bear some resem-
blance to the Anabaptists, give to the sacrament
a purely symbolic interpretation, and hold com-
munistic views concerning property. They are
most numerous in Little Russia and Bessarabia.
STUPA. A form of Buddhist architecture in
India. See TOPE.
STURDY. A disease of sheep. See GID.
STURDZA, sto"ord’za, ALEXANDER (1791-
1854). A Moldavian publicist and diplomat,
educated in Germany and afterwards in the ser-
vice of Russia. His M émoire sur l’état actuel de
l’Allemagne, published at the Congress of Aix-
la-Chapelle in 1818, by order of Alexander 1.,
aroused great indignation in Germany because of
the unbecoming levity with which its author ar-
raigned the German national character and
branded the universities as hotbeds of the revolu-
tionary spirit and atheism. In 1819 he settled
at Dresden, married a daughter of Hufeland,
and subsequently retired to his estate of Mansyr,
Bessarabia. Of his other writings may be men-
tioned La Grece en 1821 (1822); a biography
of Hufeland (1837); and Wuvres posthumes
religieuses, historiques, philosophiques et littér-
aires (1858-61).
STURDZA, DEMETEB (1833-—). A Rumanian
statesman and author. He studied political
science at Munich, Giittingen, Bonn, and Berlin,
became Minister of Public Instruction in 1859,
and was one of the most zealous promoters of the
overthrow of Cuza and the election of Prince
Charles of Hohenzollern, in 1866. In the Cabi-
net of Bratianu, 1876-88, he held repeatedly
ministerial posts, and in 1895-96 presided over
a National-Liberal Ministry. Again in 1897-
99 and since 1901 he was at the head of the
Government as president of the Council and
Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wrote Le M arche
progressive de la Russie sur le Danube (1878) ;
Uebersicht der M‘-iinzen und M edaillen des Fiirs-
tentums Rumr'inien (1874) ; Europa, Russia,
Romania (1888); La question des portes
de fer et des cataractes du Danube
(1899); and Charles I., roi de Roumanie
(1899 et seq.).
STURE, stb'6're. A noble family of
Sweden which played a very prominent
part in the affairs of that country in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and be-
came extinct in 1616. Its chief represen-
tatives were: (1) STEN STURE the Elder
(d.l503). He was a son of Gustaf Sture
and the nephew of King Charles VIII., on whose
death, in 1470, he became Regent of Sweden, in
spite of the opposition of the Swedish nobility,
who supported the claims of Christian I. of Den-
mark. He defeated the Danish King in the battle
of Brukeberg, near Stockholm ( 1471). He intro-
duced printing, and founded the University of
Upsala (1477). In 1497 he was forced to resign
his place to John of Denmark, but regained power
in 1501 and ruled till his death (1503). He was
followed by (2) SWANTE NILLSCN STURE, a kins-
man, who also kept the Danes and the nobility
in check and died in 1512. (3) The latter’s son,
STEN STURE the Younger, aided by the peas-
antry, foiled the plan of the nobles to place
Trolle, one of their own number, in power, gained
the Regency for himself, twice defeated (1517 and
1518) Gustaf Sture, Archbishop of Upsala,
whom he had deposed in 1517, and was himself
defeated and mortally wounded in a battle
against Christian II. of Denmark at Bogesund
in 1520. His widow, Christina Gyllenstierna,
held Stockholm until the new King guaranteed
a constitutional government. His son (4)
SWANTE STURE, though a loyal partisan of the
House of Vasa, was murdered by Eric XIV.
(1567).
STURGEON (AF. sturjoun, OF., Fr. estur-
geon, Sp; esturion, It. storio-ne, from ML. sturgio,
sturio, from OHG. sturjo, sturo, Ger. Stor, AS.
styria, stiriga, sturgeon; perhaps connected with
OHG. storan, Ger. stéiren, AS. styrian, Eng. stir).
A large fresh-water fish of the ganoid family
Acipenseridee. Sturgeons have an elongated,
subcylindrical body, armed with five rows of
bony plates or bucklers, each bearing a median
keel. The head is covered by bony plates joined
by sutures. The snout is produced; the mouth
is inferior, opening on the under side of the head,


A FOSSIL STURGEON.
A long-beaked sturgeon (Belonorlzyncbus sfriolatus)
fossil in the T1-ias and Lias formations of the Old World.
protractile and without teeth. Just anterior to
the mouth there are four barbels. The tail has
the upper lobe much larger than the lower.
There is a single dorsal fin, placed like the anal
fin far back. They have a large air bladder, con-
nected by a tube with the msophagus. About 25
species, in two genera, are recognized, all in-
habitants of the fresh waters and seas of the
northern regions. Most of the species are migra-
tory and ascend streams to spawn, but some live
permanently in fresh waters. They spawn in the
spring and summer, and are very prolific, a large
female producing from two to three million
eggs, constituting from a fifth to a third of its


SKULL OF A STURGEON WITH MEMBRANE BONES REMOVED.
a, Rostrum; b, nasal capsule; 0, eye-socket; d, foramina
for spinal nerves; e, notochord; g, quadrate bone; 11, h_vo-
mandibular bone; 1', mandible; j, basibranchials; k, ribs;
1, hyoid bone; 1, II, 111, rv, v, branchial arches.
entire weight. They feed on small animals and
plants, which they suck into their mouth. The
common sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) , of the coasts
and rivers of Europe and Northeastern America,
has been known to weigh 500 pounds. The lake
or rock sturgeon (Acipenser rubicundus), once
very abundant in the Great Lakes and the Mis-
sissippi Valley, attains a weight of 200 pounds,
STURGEONS, PADDLE-FISH, AND BOWFIN


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1. SHOVEL-NOSED sruaeeon (Scaphlrhynchus platyrhynchus).
2. PADDLE-FISH lPolyod<m spathula), side view.
3. PADDLE-F'lSH, ventral vlew.
4. LAKE STURGEON (Aclpenser rublcundusl.
5. COMMON STURGEON (Aclpenaer sturlo).
6. BOWFIN (Amla calva); in proportion to the other figures much enlarged.
STURGEON.
STURM.
281
but the average is much less. Its sides are red-
dish, often with irregular blackish spots. Very
peculiar in its prolonged paddle-shaped snout is
the ‘shovelnose’ or ‘white’ sturgeon (Scaphi-
rhynchus platyrhynchus), which is pale olive in
color and about five feet long. It is a denizen of
the Western and Southern States. Similar spe-
cies occur in Asia. The largest of American
sturgeons is that of the Pacific Coast (Acipenser
transmontanus) called ‘white’ in comparison
with the rare ‘green’ sturgeon (Acipenser medi-
rostris). The former weighs 300 to 600 pounds,
and is used as food, but the latter, which is near-
ly as large, but olive green, is not eaten. A
giant beside these is the great Russian ‘bielaga’
or ‘huso’ (Acipenser huso), which has been
known to attain a length of 20 to 25 feet and a
weight of 3000 pounds. It is this species, once
extremely abundant in the Danube, Volga, and
other large rivers emptying into the Black and
Caspian seas, which has furnished mainly the
salted roe called caviar (q.v. ) , though some comes
from the diminutive sterlet (Acipenser ruthe-
nus) of the same region. The air bladder is also
utilized for making isinglass.
Fossil sturgeon remains indistinguishable from
the corresponding portions of the skeletons of
modern species have been found in rocks as old
as the Eocene. Earlier less specialized ancestral
forms are Chondrosteus of the Jurassic and per-
haps also the still older Palmoniscus of the
Permian and Cheirolepis of the Upper Devonian.
See CHIROLEPIS; CHONDROSTEUS; PALZEONISCUS.
Consult authorities cited under FISH and
FISHERIES ; and see Plate of STURGEONS.
STURGEON, stur’j1'1n, WILLIAM (1783-1850).
An English electrician, born at Whittington, in
Lancashire. As early as 1823 he constructed a
soft-iron electro-magnet, and in 1830 described
for the first time the process of amalgamating
the zinc plate of a battery with mercury. In
1832 he constructed an elect-ro-magnetic ro-
tary engine, the first contrivance by means
of which any considerable mechanical force
was developed by the electric current; and
he shares the honor of this invention with
Oersted. Five years afterwards he produced
an electro-magnetic coil for giving shocks. About
the same time he ascertained by means of kites
that in fair weather the atmosphere is positive
with regard to the earth. Later he devised and
constructed the commutator, now in universal
use. Among his works are: Experimental Re-
searches in Electro-Magnetism, Galvanism, etc.
(1830) ; Lectures on Electricity Delivered in the
Royal Victoria Gallery, Manchester (1842);
Twelve Lectures on Galvanism (1843) ; and Sci-
entific Researches (1850) .
STURGEON BAY. The county-seat of Door
County, Wis., 45 miles northeast of the city of
Green Bay, on a canal connecting Green Bay and
Lake Michigan, and on the Ahnapee and Western
Railroad (Map: Wisconsin, F 4). It has con-
siderable industrial importance. There are can-
ning establishments, ship yards, and manufac-
tories of lumber, beer, flour, foundry and ma-
chine-shop products, etc. Population, in 1890,
2195; in 1900, 3372.
STUR’GIS, RUSSELL (1836—). An Ameri-
can architect and author, born ‘in Baltimore, Md.
He studied architecture in New York and in
Europe, and practiced his profession from 1865
- country.
till 1880. In that time he designed Battell
Chapel, Farnam Hall, Durfee Hall, and Lawrence
Hall of Yale College; the Homoeopathic Medical
College and Flower Hospital in New York, and
many other buildings in various parts of the
In 1878 he became professor of archi-
tecture and the arts of design in the College of
the City of New York, but resigned in 1880 on
account of ill health, and went abroad for five
years. After 1885 he was editor of decorative
art and medieeval archaeology of the Century
Dictionary; editor of fine arts of Webster’s In-
ternational Dictionary; and editor of archaeology
and fine arts of Johnson’s (now Appleton’s)
Universal Cydopwdia (ed. of 1893-95). In
January, 1898, he began editing the “Field of
Art,” a department in Scribner’s Magazine. His
published works include: Manual of the Jarves
Collection of Early Italian Pictures (1868);
European Architecture: An Historical Study
(1895); Annotated Bibliography of Fine Art
(1897) ; and How to Judge Architecture (1903).
He contributed articles on art subjects to the
New International Encyclopcedia, and he was
the editor and chief author of the Dictionary
of Architecture and Building (1901-02).
STURGIS, SAMUEL DAVIS (1822-89). An
American soldier, born at Shippensburg, Pa. He
graduated at West Point in 1846, served through
the Mexican War, and was taken prisoner during
the operations before Buena Vista. At the out-
break of the Civil War he was obliged to abandon
Fort Smith, Ark., of which he was commandant,
but succeeded in saving his command. As major
of the Fourth Cavalry he served in 1861 under
General Lyon, and succeeded to his command at
Wilson’s Creek (q.v.) . He was prominent at South
Mountain, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and in the
operations in Kentucky and Ohio in 1863-64, in
January of the latter year capturing General
Vance and his command and routing General
Martin’s Confederate cavalry. Later he took
an important part in an expedition against
General Forrest. In 1869 hewas promoted to
be colonel of the Seventh,Cavalry. From 1881
to 1885 he was governor of. the Soldier’s Home
near Washington, and the next year he retired
from active service.
STURLUSON, SNORRI.
SON.
STURM, sturm, JACQUES CHARLES FRAN-
QOIS (1803-55). A French mathematician, born
at Geneva. He was educated at the Acad-
emy of Geneva, and in 1827, with his friend
Colladou, took the Grand pria: de mathé-
matiques for the best memoir on the
compression of liquids.
that bears his name was discovered in 1829. A
statement of the results secured by this theorem
requires the definition of Sturm’s functions:
If f(a:) 1.-Obe freed from equal roots, and f(w)
be divided by f’(m) (the derivative of f (00)),
and the last divisor by the last remainder,
changing the sign of each remainder before di-
See SNORRI STURLU-
'viding by it, until a remainder independent of
at is obtained, or else a remainder which cannot
change its sign, then f (as), f'(ac), and the suc-
cessive remainders, constitute Sturm’s functions.
The theorem asserts that if, as :1: increases,
f(:r) passes through the value zero, Sturm’s
functions lose one change of sign; if any other
of Sturm’s functions vanishes, there is neither
The famous theorem -
STURM.
STUTTGABT.
282
loss nor gain in the number of changes of sign;
the number of roots of f(a:)=0 between a
and b is equal to the difference in the number
of changes of sign in Sturm’s functions, when
a::a and when m = b. In 1838 Sturm began
teaching in the Ecole Polyteclmique, and two
years later was elected to the chair made vacant
by the death of Poisson.
°STURM, or STUB/MIUS, JOHANNES (1507-
89). A prominent educator of the sixteenth cen-
tury. He was born near Cologne, and was edu-
cated at Leyden and Louvain. In 1537, at the
instance of the magistrates of Strassburg, he
organized the Strassburg Gymnasium, which he
directed for forty-three years. He was relieved‘
from his position in 1581 on account of religious
disputes and differences. Through his system of
gradation of classes, practically the same that
still prevails in all German gymnasia, the
classification of literary material for use in
schools, the writing of textbooks, and the
organization of school management, he shaped
the practice of secondary education not only in
the German schools, but also in the great second-
ary schools of England and France.
STURM, sttfirm, JULIUS (1816-96). A Ger-
man poet, born at Kiistritz, Reuss. After study-
ing theology at Jena (1837-41), he was private
tutor to the hereditary prince Henry XIV. of
Reuss, then pastor at Giischitz, near Schleiz, in
1851-57, and at Kiistritz from 1857 to 1885. He
died at Leipzig. All his lyrics reveal him as a
poet of deep religious sentiment and genuine
national spirit‘. The religious poems are in-
corporated in the collections F-romme Lieder,
three parts (1852, 1858, 1892) ; Zwei Rosen oder
das Hohe Lied der Liebe (1854) ;Von der Pil-
gerfahrt (1868); Gott grdsse dich (1876); Dem
Herrn mein Lied (1884); Palmen und Krone
(1888); and others; while the volumes with
secular contents include: Filr das H aus (1861) ;
Lieder /and Bilder (1870); Kampf-and Sieges-
gediehte (1870); Spiegel der Zeit in Fabeln
( 1872) ; Kinderleben (1877), illustrated by Lud-
wig Richter; Im/mergriln (1880); Natur, Liebe,
Vaterland (1884); In Freud und Leid (1896).
For his biography consult Hepding (Giessen,
1896), and Hoffmann (Hamburg, l898),.—His
son AUGUST (1852——) , born at Gtischitz, also won
reputation as a poet. He studied at Jena, Leip-
zig, and Berlin, first theolom , afterwards law,
which he practiced at Naumburg, since 1884,
having in the meanwhile lived as assessor at
Rudolstadt ( 1880-82) and, given to literary pur-
suits, in Berlin (1882-84). Besides the epic
poems, Merlin (1892), Kaiser Friedrich der
Edle (1896), K'o‘uig Laurins Rosengarteu
(1897), and Der Kdnig /eon Babel (1902), he
published Hohenzollernsagen, Balladen (1898);
the lyrics Auf Flilgeln des Gesanges (1883);
Lied and Lebeu (1889) ; Auf der Hdhe (1902);
and others; several dramas and the sketches in
rose, Sylter Slciezen (1887); also a series of
juridical works, notably Revision der gem.ein-
rechtlichen Lehre oom Gewohnheitsreeht (1900).
STURT, Sir CHARLES (1806-69). An Aus-
tralian explorer. He was born in Bengal, India,
of English parents; was educated in England;
entered the British Army; and in 1825 went to
New South Wales. In 1828 he headed an explor-
ing expedition which penetrated the interior of
Australia and discovered the Macquarie, Castle-
reagh, and Darling rivers, and in 1830 the
Murray River, which he descended to Lake Alex-
andrina. Another expedition in 1844 reached
the desert in the centre of the continent. He
subsequently held high colonial positions. He
became totally blind as a result of the hard-
ships he had undergone, and returned to Eng-
land in 1853; he was knighted shortly before
his death. He published Two Ezvpeditions into
the Interior of Southern Australia, 1828-31 (2
vols., 1833), and Narrative of an Expedition into
Central Australia in 1841; (2 vols., 1849).
STURZ, sto‘o‘rtz, HELFERICH PETER (1736-79).
A German author, born at Darmstadt. He
studied law (1753-58) at Jena, Giessen, and
Giittingen, was appointed secretary in the de-
partment of foreign affairs at Copenhagen in
1764, soon after private secretary to Count Bern-
storfi‘, and in 1768 accompanied King Christian
VII. to England and France. Involved in
Struensee’s downfall in 1772, he was imprisoned
and banished from Copenhagen, but appointed
again to a position at Oldenburg in 1773, and
died at Bremen. His title to the reputation as
one of the most tasteful German prose writers
is amply demonstrated by the exquisite Briefe
eines Reisenden (1777), and his Erirmerungeu
aus dem Leben des Grafeu eon Bernstorfi. Con-
sult the biography by Max Koch (Munich, 1879).
STUTTEBING-. Imperfect action of the or-
gans of articulation resulting in. defective speech.
See STAMMERING.
STUTTGART, stut’giirt. The capital of the
Kingdom of Wiirttemberg, Germany, situated at
an elevation of 890 feet, about 2 miles south
of the Neckar, and 45 miles north of Tiibingen
(Map: Germany, C 4). Stuttgart occupies a
delightful site surrounded by attractive suburbs
and amid lovely vine-clad heights. The pro-
nounced adherence of its many fine architects
to the Renaissance types explains the stately
appearance of the city. '
The spacious Kiinigstrasse extends diagonally
from southwest to northeast through the old
or inner city and borders the majestic Schloss-
platz——the centre of interest. Here rises the
impressive King William column (93 feet) em-
bellished with allegorical figures. Here too are
the splendid Ktinigsbau, the palace of the Crown
Prince, the Residenz-Schloss (palace), the
royal theatre, and the royal stables. The fine
statue of Schiller by Thorwaldsen, erected in
1839 by national subscription, is near b . Ad-
jacent also is the striking Gothic Stiftskirche,
begun in 1436. Southeast of the Old Palace is
the palace of King William II., where the fine
modern Neckarstrasse begins its course north-
eastward. In the immediate vicinity are housed
the Wiirttemberg archives and also the extensive
and valuable natural history collections of Stutt-
gart. The royal public library near ‘at hand con-
tains upward of 500,000 volumes, 4000 manu-
scripts, and many specimens of early printing.
‘The library building holds also the museum of
Wiirttemberg antiquities, among which may be
seen ceramics, weapons, and articles taken from
ancient tumuli and lake dwellings. In the rear
of the library is the large modern Palace of
Justice. Between the library and the Residenz-
Schloss stands a spacious and famous academy
—the Karlsschule. Extending northeast from
STUTTGART.
STYLONU RUS.
283
this vicinity and along the Neckarstrasse is
the beautiful Schlossgarten. It embraces 200
acres, is 2 miles long, and is embellished with
ponds, flower designs, and sculptures. Here are
found the botanic garden, the mint, and the
notable Stuttgart museum of art with its col-
lections of sculpture and painting. In the north-
west section of the city stands the Polytechnic
Institute (over 1000 pupils) building facing the
delightful Stadtgarten-—one of the popular re-
sorts. In the eastern part of Stuttgart is the
immense new Liederhalle. In the vicinity of
the Schlossplatz is found the modern Renais-
sance edifice of the Landesgewerbe Museum.
Among the prominent new buildings in Stutt-
gart are the Queen Olga buildings, the new
Town Hall, the Catholic Church of Saint Nicho-
las, and the Peace Church. The Uhlandshtihe
and the Jiigerhaus may be especially noted
among the delightful resorts in the environs, as
well as the royal country seat Wilhelma——a fine
Moorish structure begun in 1842. Stuttgart has
an art academy, the Wiirttemberg Art Union
with a permanent exposition of modern masters,
an architectural school, an exposition of export
products, the provincial industrial museum,
a famous conservatory of music, an in-
dustrial and commercial library, and a
chemical laboratory. It is the leading print-
ing and book-publishing city of Southern Ger-
many. Among its prominent manufactures are
furniture, carriages, pianos, paper, leather,
chemicals, colors, jewelry, bells, cigars, portman-
teaux, chocolate, and especially cottons. Hops,
cloth, and horses form special items in the trade.
The city-—the seat of all the important adminis-
trative offices of the kingdom—is under the gen-
eral supervision of the royal Government. There
are an over-burgomaster, two advisers, and a
council of some 24 members. The population, in
1900, was 176,699, mainly Protestants.
HISTORY. Stuttgart is first mentioned in 1229.
It became the official capital of Wiirttem-
berg in 1482; but it did not begin to improve
and assume its present splendid proportions until
about 1800. Consult: Klaiber, “Stuttgart,” in
Europitiische Wanderbilder (Zurich, 1892) ; Wid-
mann, Wanderung durch Stuttgart und Umge-
bung (Stuttgart, 1896).
STUYVESANT, sti’ve-sant, PETER (1592-
1672). A Dutch Governor of New York. He
was born in Holland; early entered the military
service of the Dutch in the West Indies, and in
1634 was made Director of the Colony of Cura-
cao. In 1646 the Dutch West India Company
appointed him Director-General of their colony
in North America, New Netherland, where he
soon gained the confidence of the colonists by his
efficient administration and public improvements.
He reconciled the Indian tribes who had been
made hostile by former unjust treatment, and
succeeded in arranging with the New England
commissioners, in 1650, the boundaries between
the English and Dutch territories, but this was
not entirely satisfactory to the Dutch colonists,
who claimed that the Governor had ceded con-
siderable territory to which they were rightfully
entitled. A convention of delegated colonists in
1653 demanded for the people, amongr other things
a share in the appointment of local officers, but
Stuyvesant ordered them to disperse forthwith,
claiming that his authority was not from the
Von XVI.-19.
people, but from God and the Dutch West India
Company. The protracted contentions of the
Dutch and the Swedes dwelling near the Dela-
ware River about governmental jurisdiction
became more critical in 1654, when the Swedish
Governor seized the fort built by the Dutch
where Newcastle now stands. To end this
trouble, Stuyvesant in 1655 with 600 men sailed
up the Delaware, recaptured the fort, and estab-
lished the Dutch authority over the entire terri-
tory. Aften nine years of undisturbed quiet, in
1664 a force of English soldiers arrived under
Colonel Nicolle, who demanded a surrender of
the Government, on the ground that the whole
territory had been given by royal charter to the
Duke of York. The town at the time contained
1500 inhabitants and was defended by a stone
fort and twenty cannon. Stuyvesant at first re-
fused, but finding the people anxious to exchange
rulers, he yielded to the English demand. Stuy-
vesant, in 1665, reported personally to the au-
thorities in Holland, but soon returned to New
York, where he spent the remainder of his life,
cultivating an extensive farm called the Bou-
werij (Bowery). He was buried where Saint
Mark’s Church now stands, and the elaborately
inscribed stone that covered his grave is built
into the eastern wall of the church. Consult the
brief biography by Tuckerman (New York,
1893); and O’Callaghan, The History of New
Netherland (ib., 1848) .
STYE, or STY (formerly also stian, from AS.
stigend, stye, pres. part. of stigan, Goth. steigan,
OHG. stigan, Ger. steigen, to rise; connected with
OIr. tidgaim, I go, Lat. ve-stigium, footprint,
Lett. stiga, path, OChurch Slav. stignanti, to
hasten, Gk. o'TeiXet'u, steichein, to go). The
popular name for an acute inflammation occur-
ring around the follicle of an eyelash. It gen-
erally goes on to suppuration. It is known to
surgeons under the term hordeolum. It begins
as a small, red, tense swelling, accompanied with
considerable itching, and a feeling of stiffness
As the inflammation goes on, the lid may become
so swollen as to keep the eye closed. In a few
days pus forms; a yellowish point appears at the
apex of the swelling; and when the cuticle gives
way, pus and a small slough of connective tissue
escape, after which there is a general remission
of the symptoms, and the eyelid soon resumes its
natural state.
The treatment includes the use of cold com-
presses to abort the stye, hot ones to hasten
suppuration, and evacuation of pus when it
appears. Errors of refraction should be cor-
rected and the general health improved in order
to prevent recurrence. The stye should never
be rubbed (notwithstanding the common preju-
dice in favor of rubbing it with a gold ring).
STYLITES. See PILLAR SAINTS.
STYLOBATE (Lat. Stylobata, stylobates,
from Gk. arvho,8c’m-ng, base of a pillar, from
orbhog, stulos, pillar + ,/iaivsw, bainein, to go).
The topmost step of the crepidoma (xpnnidwua)
or substructure of a Greek temple. This consists
of the foundations, or stereobate, and the sur-
rounding steps, usually three in number. On
the topmost step, the true stylobate, rest the
columns. The term is sometimes extended to
apply to the whole series of steps.
STY’LONU'RUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. orifilov,
stylon, acc. sg. of orbhog, stylos, pillar + obpci,
STYLONURUS.
SUAKIM.
284
cum, tail) . A gigantic extinct arthropod, allied
to Eurypterus, with a body about 6 feet in length
and with five pairs of legs, of which the posterior
pair is much elongated, and a long spine on the
tail. It is found in the Silurian and Devonian of
Scotland and in the Upper Devonian of New.
York and Pennsylvania. Consult Beecher-,
“Restoration of Stylonurus lacoanus, a Giant
Arthropod from the Upper Devonian of the
United States,” American_ Journal of Science,
4th series, vol. x. (New Haven, 1900). See
Anrnnoropx; EUBYPTERUS ; Mnnosromam.
STYIPTIC. An agent employed in surgery for
the purpose of checking the flow of blood by
application to the bleeding orifice or surface.
See BLEEDING.
STYRAX. See STORAX.
STYRIA, st-ir’i-£1 (Ger. Steierma/rk). A
duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded by
Lower and Upper Austria on the north, Hun-
gary on the east, Carniola and Carinthia on the
south, and Carinthia and Salzburg on the west
(Map: Austria, D 3). Its area is 8670 square
miles. Styria is very mountainous. Its north-
ern part belongs to the region of the central
Alps, of which Styria takes in the Niedere Tau-
ern, Rottenmanner Tauern, Dachstein, Totes
Gebirge, and the Erzberg, the last named famous
for its abundance of iron. The southern part is
occupied by the Styrian Alps. The plains are
generally small, but there are a large number of
fruitful valleys along the Mur, Enns, and other
rivers. Styria is watered chiefly by the Enns,
Mur, Drave, and Save. There are many moun-
tain lakes and mineral springs. Styria has a
large proportion of productive land; the for-
ests cover nearly one-half of the surface.
Wheat, rye, corn, oats, and barley are the prin-
cipal cereals. Hay is grown in large quan-
tities, and cattle-raising is very important, espe-
cially in Upper Styria. G-rapes and fruits are
cultivated to a lesser extent. In mineral produc-
tion Styria is one of the most important crown-
lands of Austria. In the output of lignite it
ranks next to Bohemia, while in regard to iron
it occupies the first place, supplying about 60
per cent. of the total output of Austria. It has
also lead, zinc, sulphur, graphite, salt, and a
great variety of useful earths and stones. The
value of the mineral output of 1899 was about
$5,000,000. The manufacturing industries are
chiefly connected with the mineral products.
There are large mills for the production of rails,
sheet iron, wire, and smaller iron and steel arti-
cles. There are also several extensive machine
shops, glass works, distilleries, breweries, tobacco
factories, and paper mills. The principal domestic
exports are fruits, timber, cattle, and metal prod-
ucts. The Diet of Styria is composed of 60 mem-
bers, of whom 12 represent the landed aristocracy,
19 the towns and industrial centres, 23 the
rural communities, and 6 the chambers of com-
merce and trades of Gratz and Leoben. In the
Lower House of Austria Styria is represented
by 27 delegates. In 1898 Styria had 903 public
schools, attended by 182,000 children, or 95 per
cent. of the total school population. The popu-
lation was 1,282,708 in 1890, and 1,356,058 in
1900. About 68 per cent. are Germans and the
remainder Slovenians. The population is Roman
Catholic. Capital, Gratz (q.v.).
HISTORY. Under Roman control the territory
of Styria formed a portion of both Pannonia and
Noricum, and was even then famous for its iron
and steel. During the period of the great mi-
gration of nations the various invaders of the
Italian peninsula swept through or settled in
this district and at the close its population was
essentially Slavic. It was _a portion of the em-
pire of Charles the Great, and was later included
in the Carinthian mark erected against the Hun-
garians. Soon after the middle of the eleventh
century the Margrave Ottokar styled himself
Margrave of Steier, whence the region came to be
known as Steiermark (Styria) . In 1192 the region
that is now the Duchy of Styria became a por-
tion of the possessions of the dukes of Austria,
and after belonging for a time to Ottokar II. of
Bohemia, passed i11 1276 into the possession of
the Hapsburgs. The Reformation was welcomed
by the people, but the intolerance of the Austrian '
rulers drove many of the inhabitants into exile.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Die Oesterreichisch-ungarische
M onarch-ie in Wort and Bild, vol. vii. (Vienna,
1890); Gsell-Fels, Die Stezerma-rlc (ib., 1898);
Imendiirfer, Landeslmmde I220-n Steiermarla (ib.,
1903) ; Rosegger, Das Vollcsleben in Steicrmark
(Gratz, 1895); Zalm, Sig/rliaca, (ib., 1894); new
series, 1896) ; Mayer, Geschichte der Steiermark
(ib., 1898).
STYX (Lat., from Gk. Z1--1'15, from orvyeiv,
sz‘ygcin, to hate, loathe). In Greek legend, one
of the rivers of the lower world. Probably orig-
inally the only stream which separated the re-
gion of the dead from the living. It was said
that one-tenth of Oceanus streamed down to
form the Styx, while the other nine-tenths sur-
rounded the earth. As the goddess of this
stream, Styx was the eldest daughter of Oceanus,
and by the Titan Pallas mother of Zelos, Nike,
Cratos, and Bia (Emulation, Victory, Might, and
Force), with whom she joined Zeus at the be-
ginning of the struggle with the Titans. For
this she was made the guardian of the sacred
oaths which bound the gods. She was described
as living in the far west, in a house with silver
pillars, where the water streamed from above.
Thence Iris brought the water by which the gods
swore, and terrible suffering awaited the divinity
who committed perjury. With the development
of the conceptions of the lower world, the rivers
received various names, and Charon was intro-
duced as the ferryman of souls across the Styx.
The name was also given to a waterfall in
northeastern Arcadia near Nonacris. The water
descends over a cliff some 600 feet high on the
side of Mount Chelmos into a wild and rugged
glen, and the surroundings suggested to the
Greeks the gloomy entrance to the lower world.
SUABIA. See SWABIA.
SUAHELI, swa-he'li.
See SWAI-IILI.
SUAKIM, swii’kim, or SUAKIN. A seaport
A people of Africa.
of Egyptian Sudan, on a small island in the '
Red Sea in about latitude 19° N., and longitude '
37° E. (Map: Africa, H 3) . It is connected with
the desert mainland by a railroad bridge. The
town consists of “two main parts. The Govern-
ment buildings and the residences of the ofiicial
class in the one section present an imposing ap-
pearance in direct contrast to the wretched
dwellings of the natives in the other section.
Suakim is conspicuous as the embarking place
SUAKIM.
SUBJECT.
285
~ (Paris,
for African pilgrims traveling to Mecca. It has a
well-protected harbor and is an important ship-
ping point for the products of the interior. These
include ivory, tobacco, and gums. The imports
for 1899 were valued at $900,000. The trade is
increasing. The domestic manufactures are
lance-heads, cutlery, and leather cases. Suakim
was founded by the Turks, and was a leading
slave port until the traffic was suppressed. The
vicinity of Suakim was a battle-ground between
the Anglo-Egyptians and Osman Digna in 1884
and 1890.
SUANITIANS, or SWANS. One of the
Georgian peoples of the Caucasus, dwelling in
the Transcaucasian Government of Kutais be-
tween the Imeritians and the Mingrelians.
SUAREZ, swaeatll, FRANCISCO (1548-1617).
A Spanish theologian and scholastic philosopher.
He was born at Granada, entered the Jesuit
Order in 1564, and‘ came under the direction of
the great ascetic Rodriguez during his novitiate
at Medina del Campo. The general of the society,
Aquaviva, called him in 1578 to teach in Rome,
where he remained seven years. Returning to
Spain for reasons of health, he taught at Alcala,
Salamanca, and Coimbra. Besides his thorough
knowledge of the Schoolmen, and especially of
Thomas Aquinas, whom he-usually follows, he
displays remarkable familiarity with the writ-
ings of the first Christian centuries. His
complete works were reprinted in 28 volumes
1856-61). Consult Werner, Franz
Suarez and die Scholastih der letzten Jahr-
hnnderte (Regensburg, 1861) .
SUBANDHU, s'66-b=and'h'o6. A Sanskrit
novelist, who lived probably in the seventh cen-
tury A.D. Apart from a few verses he is known
only as the author of the Viisavadatta, a highly
artificial romance dealing with the love of Prince
Kandarpaketu for the Princess Vasavadatta.
The action of the novel is very slight, and the
style abounds in long compounds, puns, and as-
sonances. The novel is important in Sanskrit lit-
erary history as being the first of the romantic
school, and thus being the acknowledged model
for the Ifadambari and the Hans-a-carita of Bana
(q.v.). It has been edited, with an admirable
introduction, by Hall (Calcutta, 1859) and
Vidyasagara (ib., 1874) , and in Telugu script at
Madras (1862). See NOVEL.
SUBANO, s%-b3i'n<‘>. A Malay people in
Sibuguey Peninsula, Zamboanga Province, Min-
danao. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
SUBCONSCIOUSNESS. A term used some-
What indefinitely to cover weak and obscure men-
tal processes which lie just above the limen of
consciousness. Common instances are the sound
of a clock and the roar of a stream which pass
out of attention if long continued; or the over-
tones which determine the ‘color’ or timbre of a
a musical note, although they are not ordinarily
recognized as distinct tonal qualities. Many
psychologists hold that subconscious processes,
even though they do not attract the attention,
do nevertheless exert a determinate influence
upon the course of mental events. It is, however,
important to distinguish between mind consid-
ered for itself alone, without external reference,
i.e. consciousness that is properly anoetic, and
the vague background against which the more
luminous parts of mind are focalized. (See AT-
TENTION.) The factual existence of obscure proc-
esses which elude direct introspection and analy-
sis by the attention is not to be confused with
the hypothesis of the subconscious, which asserts
that all past experience is conserved, not physi-
ologically merely, but in a weakened form of con-
sciousness. Consult: James, Principles of Psy-
chology (New York, l890) ; Stout, Analytic
Psychology (ib., 1896). See NoETIo CONSCIOUS-
NESS.
SUBDEACON. A member of an order in the
ministry of the early Church and of the Roman
Catholic and Eastern churches at the present
day. The subdiaconate apparently originated
later than the episcopate, presbyterate, and dia-
conate, and probably developed from the last
named as deacons rose in importance. The func-
tion of the office is to assist the deacon, in mod-
ern times especially in the celebration of the
Eucharist. In the Roman Catholic Church the
subdeacon of the mass, who sings the epistle and
in other ways assists in the service, is usually a
priest. Consult Renter, Das S'ubdiaconat (Augs-
burg, 1890), and see ORDERS, HOLY; DEACON.
SUBDOMINANT. The interval one-fifth
below the tonic, and the fourth degree of the
scale.
SUBIACO, s66’bé-2i’ko (Lat. Sublaqueum). A
city in the Province of Rome, Italy, in the Sabine
Mountains, 50 miles (of which 36 is by rail,
14 by diligence) east of the city of Rome,
on the Teverone (ancient Anio) (Map: Italy, H
6). Here are to be seen walls and terraces of
one of Nero’s villas, and the famous monasteries
of Santa Scolastica (founded in 530) and of San
Benedetto. Here in 1465 the Germans Arnold
Pannartz and Conrad Schweinheim published the
first book printed in Italy, and copies of their
editions of Lactantius, Cicero, and Augustine are
still in the monastery library, which has lost,
however, most of its precious manuscripts. San
Benedetto contains thirteenth-century frescoes
and paintings. Population (commune), in 1881,
7017; in 1901, 8005.
SUBINFEUDATION (from Lat. sub, under
+ ML. infeudatio, infeudation, from infeudare,
infe0dare,, to confer in fee, from in, in + feudmn,
feud, fee, from OHG. fihu, AS. feoh, cattle, Lat.
pecu, Skt. paén, cattle). The act by which a
feudal lord granted a portion of his lands to a
tenant upon condition that the latter hold of
the former subject to the incidents of feudal
tenure. This was accompanied with the feudal
ceremonies usual in those times. It was by
this means that the feudal manors of England
were created. As this practice tended to evade
the feudal rules against alienation it was forbid-
den by the famous statute of Quia Emptores.
See FEUDAL SYSTEM; MANOR.
SUBJECT (OF. subject, snject, snjet, snget,
Fr. sujet, from Lat. snbjeetus, subject, inferior,
p.p. of subjicere, to place under, from sub, un-
der + jacere, to throw). A person who by rea-
son of birth in a country or naturalization under
its laws owes allegiance to its sovereign power.
The term is almost exclusively employed to de-
note such a person under a monarchical form of
government; whereas, the word citizen is applied
to a member of a republic. The rights, privi-
leges and duties of subjects, of course, depend
upon the form of government, and they may
SUBJECT.
SUBMARIN E GUN.
286
differ in political rank and station; thus a duke
or an earl is as much a subject of the crown of
England as a peasant, although the former is
entitled to certain dignities and honors which
the latter does not possess. Until comparatively
recent times (until 1870 in England) the gov-
ernments of Europe almost universally refused
to recognize the right of a subject to change his
allegiance, but they now generally concede this
privilege. The policy of the United States in
permitting aliens to become citizens by naturali-
zation has probably influenced such nations in
changing their arbitrary and despotic attitude
on this question,- as, of course, it would lead to
international difliculties if a naturalized citizen
of the United States were to be treated as a sub-
ject of the nation whose sovereignty he had re-
nounced in order to become a citizen of the Re-
public. See ALIEN; ALLEGIANCE; CITIZEN; NAT-
URALIZATION, and the authorities referred to
under these titles. Consult Morse, on Citizen-
ship.
SUBKINGDOMS, ANIMAL. See CLAssIrIcA-
TION or ANIMALS.
SUBLAPSARIAN. See INFBALAPSARIAN.
SUBLICIAN BRIDGE (Lat. Pons Sublicius).
The most ancient of the bridges over the Tiber at
Rome, ascribed by tradition to Ancus Marcius.
The Sublician remained the only bridge at Rome
until the second century B.C. It was twice car-
ried away and restored and its piers remained
through the Middle Ages. The last remnants
were destroyed in 1877.
SUBLIMATION (Lat. sublimatio, an uplift-
ing, from sublimare, to uplift, from sublimis,
lofty, from sub, under + lime-n, threshold). A
term applied to the distillation of those volatile
solids that, when heated, pass into the gaseous
state without melting. Such substances, includ-
ing iodine, arsenic (i.e. arsenious acid), the
chlorides of iron and aluminus, certain organic
compounds, etc., may be readily freed by sub-
limation from non-volatile impurities. It may be
observed that all solids, theoretically without
exception, give off more or less vapor, i.e. sub-
lime, even at extremely low temperatures, and
of course the evaporation (q.v.) is accompanied
by absorption of heat. Ordinarily the rate of
evaporation of solids is too small to prevent the
temperature from rising to the melting-point
on the application of heat. But in the case of
solids that are very volatile and have a some-
what high melting-point the heat applied may
be largely used up by the rapid evapora-
tion, and so the temperature cannot rise high
enough for the substances to melt. Of course, by
placing such substances in a closed vessel and
thus preventing free evaporation, they may be
readily caused to melt.
SUBLIME (from Lat. sublimis, lofty). A
term applied either to objects arousing a certain
aesthetic emotion, or to the emotion itself. The
treatise “On Sublimity” ascribed to Longinus
(q.v.), but probably belonging to the first
century of our era. represents the first attempt
to deal with the differentiating characteristics
of the sublime. See ZESTHETICS.
SUBLIMEPORTE. See PORTE.
SUBLIMINAL CONSCIOUSNESS (from
Lat. sub, under + limen, threshold). Literally
a degree of consciousness below a certain theo-
retical limit of intensity and clearness.
Such a consciousness cannot be proved to exist
by direct introspection, but has been assumed to
account especially for four groups of facts. (1)
People often execute blind, impulsive actions or
feel curious likes and dislikes (e.g. shivering at
grating sounds), for which no adequate reason
can be found in consciousness. Hence they may
be the product of subconscious processes. (2)
Many complicated movements, like piano-play-
ing, which at first necessitate highly attentive
conscious control, become, with time, decreasing-
ly conscious and finally automatic, yet they seem
too complex ever to be purely mechanical. (3)
Ideas sometimes appear in consciousness from
no assignable source, i.e. neither connected with
previous thoughts nor traceable to sense-percep-
tion. These may have originated subliminally
and thence risen to clear consciousness. (4) A
mass of ‘borderland’ and pathological phe-
nomena, such as automatic writing, trance, post-
hypnotic suggestion, double personality, reveals
many instances in which complex, seemingly
quite intelligent, and hence apparently conscious,
actions are executed by individuals who are,
nevertheless, entirely ignorant of what they say
or do. In the phenomenon of alternating per-
sonality such experiences are so frequent and so
well organized as tobecome aggregated into a
so-called subconscious ‘mind’ or ‘personality,’
which, under certain conditions, e.g. trance, hys-
teria, and the like, becomes the conscious, domi-
nating personality.
If, with the best authorities, we deny a sub-
liminal consciousness, all four groups of facts
must obviously be explained in terms of nervous
action without consciousness. Organic tenden-
cies, constitutional dispositions, and various
hereditary instincts will then account for the
‘first group of facts, secondary reflexes for the
second, inaccurate introspection and unconscious
(or marginally conscious) association for the
third, and similar principles, supplemented per-
haps by neuropathic conditions, for the fourth.
The most elaborate argument in favor of a sub-
liminal self is that of F. W. H. Myers.
See ATTENTION; NoETIo CoNsoIoUsNEss; SUB-
CONSCIOUSNESS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Carpenter, Principles of Men-
tal Physiology (6th ed., London, 1891) ; Pierce,
in Proceedings of the Society of Psychical Re-
search, vol. xi. (ib., 1892) ; Morgan, Introduction
to Comparative Psychology (ib., 1894); Stout,
Analytic Psychology, vol. i, (ib., 1896); Myers,
Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily
Death (ib., 1903) ; and Flournoy, From India to
the Planet Mars (New York, 1900).
SUBMARINE BOAT. See ToRPEDo BoAT,
SUBMARINE.
SUBMARINE GUN (from Lat. sub, under
+ marinus, pertaining to the sea, from mare,
sea). A gun which discharges its projectile
beneath the surface of the water. In 1797 a
Frenchman, M. Reveroni Saint-Cyr, proposed to
arm a catamaran with a submarine gun, but it
does not appear that any attempts were-made to
do so. Robert Fulton and several other Americans
attempted the actual construction of effective
submarine guns, but with no practical results.
Ericsson was the most successful, and his ex-
periments with a submarine gun mounted in
SUBMARINE GUN.
SUBROGATION.
287
the bow of the specially built vessel the De-
stroyer extended over several years. The dif-
ficulty of securing accuracy, the shortness of
range, and the improvement of the automobile
torpedo have tended to discredit the gun. The
Destroyer was sold to the Brazilian Government
in 1892, but it was never thereafter used, and no
subsequent attempts to employ a submarine gun
have been made. Torpedoes are now discharged
from submerged tubes, but these are not properly
guns, as the projectile force is merely sufficient
to force the torpedoes clear of the ship’s side.
See ToRPEDo.
SUBMARINE MINES. See TORPEDO.
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. See TELE-
GRAPH, SURMARINE.
SUBMAXILLARY GANGLION (from Lat.
sub, under + maxilla, jaw, jaw-bone). One of
the four sympathetic ganglia lying in the
cephalic region, sometimes called cranial ganglia.
The latter term is rather misleading, as none of
the ganglia are within the cranial cavity. The
- submaxillary ganglion is situated above the deep
portion of the submaxillary gland. (See SAL-
IVARY GLAND.) It is connected by filaments
with the lower border of the gustatory nerve
(nerve of taste, supplying the tongue). It also
receives motor filaments from the chorda tym-
pani nerve, a branch of the facial. It is small,
rounded, and of a reddish-gray color; its fila-
ments of distribution, five or six in number, arise
from the lower part of the ganglion, and supply
the mucous membrane of the mouth and Whar-
ton’s duct, some being lost in the submaxillary
gland. The other three ganglia are Meckel’s,'
the ophthalmic, and the otic (qq.v.) .
SUBORDINARY. A class of charges in
heraldry (q.v.).
SUBORNATION OF PERJURY. The of-
fense of procuring a person to commit perjury.
Although only a misdemeanor at common law, in
most jurisdictions to-day it is punished with
the same severity as perjury. See PERJURY.
SUBPCEINA (Lat. sub poena, under penalty,
the initial words of the writ in its original
form). A mandatory writ or process issued by
a court, a quasi-judicial body, or an official hav-
ing judicial powers, commanding a person or per-
sons named therein to appear at a certain time
and place and testify or furnish documentary
evidence in an action or judicial proceeding.
Originally a subpoena was used only to compel
attendance of witnesses in court, but by statute
in most States many officials and bodies having
judicial powers, such as boards of commissioners,
coroners, etc., are authorized to compel the at-
tendance of witnesses by this process.
A subpoena intended only to compel the attend-
ance of a witness for the purpose of giving testi-
mony is known as a subpoena ad testificandum.
Where it is necessary to put in evidence docu-
ments which are in.the possession of a witness,
he may be compelled to appear and produce them
by a subpoena duccs tecum. This form of sub-
poena is substantially like the one above men-
tioned, except that it specifically enumerates as
far as possible the books, papers, and documents
desired. In some code States a ‘notice to pro-
duce’ served by one attorney in an action on his
opponent serves the same purpose.
In most States a subpoena may be served by
any person of discretion, who usually must be
eighteen years of age or upward, and service is
made by delivering a copy of the subpoena to the
witness personally, at the same time showing
him the original, and paying or tendering his
legal fees and expenses, which are fixed by
statute.
Failure to appear in obedience to a subpoena
is a contempt of court. It is usual for the party
who caused the service of the subpoena to apply
to the court for an order directing the witness to
show cause why he should not be punished for
contempt. Such a witness is also liable in a
civil action for all damages which may have been
caused by his non-appearance to the party call-
ing him. A witness may be excused, in the dis- >
cretion of the court, upon showing a reasonable
cause for his absence, such as illness, death in
family, etc.
Prior to 1852 a defendant was summoned to
answer an action in a court of chancery in Eng-
land by a subpoena ad rcspondcndum. This prac-
tice has been superseded there by service of a
copy of the bill instead, but still obtains in some
jurisdictions in the United States. Such a sub-
poena corresponds more nearly in its purposes to
a summons than a subpoena as above described.
See SUMMoNs; WITNESS; EVIDENCE. Consult
the authorities referred to under PROCESS.
SUBROGATION (ML. subrogatio, from Lat.
subrogare, surrogarc,. to substitute, from sub,
under + rogare, to ask). The treatment of one
who has paid the debt of another, which as be-
tween himself and that other should have been
paid by the latter, as though he were the as-
signee of the creditor’s claim. The payer is
then said to be subrogated to all the rights and
remedies of the creditor against the primary
debtor. The doctrine upon which this subroga-
tion is based was originally applied by courts of
equity, but is now generally applied by courts of
law to all cases where one pays a debt on which
he is secondarily liable, although the debt may
be legally discharged by the payment. Equity,
for the purpose of working out justice
between the parties by repaying the ad-
vances made, deals with the case as
though the debt were still in existence, and
gives to the person paying the debt precisely the
same rights and remedies as belonged to the
original creditor, but in no case does one by
subrogation acquire any higher or different
rights. It will thus be seen that the analogy
between subrogation and assignment is complete,
one who is entitled to be subrogated to a
claim or demand being treated as though he were
an assignee of the claim or demand. The only
difference between them is the source and not the
character of the right, the right to subrogation
arising by operation of law and the right of an
assignee arising by voluntary act of the parties.
Some of the more important cases in which the
doctrine is applied are: (1) Where a junior
mortgagor pays off a mortgage prior to his own,
when equity will compel an actual assignment of
the mortgage by the prior mortgagee. (2) When
one pays a debt to the payment of which he is
entitled to contribution by others, or for which
others are primarily liable and he only second-
arily, as in the case of a surety. In these cases,
since the sole relief sought is payment of money,
courts of law apply the doctrine, and give a com-
plete remedy. (See CONTRIBUTION; SURETY-
SHIP; QUAsI CoNTRAcT.) (3) In some jurisdic-
SUBROGATION.
SUBSTANCE.
288
. under + scribere, to write).
tions, particularly in England, when one
paying money to a corporation under an
ultra vires contract cannot recover in
quasi contract, although it is used by a
corporation in paying its corporate indebted-
ness, in Wl1lCl1 case the person so advancmg
,money is subrogated to the rights of the original
creditor. (4) In the case of insurance contracts
and contracts of indemnity generally whenever
the insurer or indemnitor pays the indemnity due
under his contract, when he is entitled to be sub-
rogated to the rights of the person indemnified
against third parties which may in any manner
reduce the loss or obligation indemnified against.
See INSURANCE; INDEMNITY; also CHANUERY;
EQUITY.
SUBSCRIPTION (Lat. subscriptio, from
subscribere, to subscribe, write under, from sub,
A popular rather
than a technical term in law signifying a writ-
ten contract by which a person agrees to con-
tribute a sum of money for a specified purpose.
The subscription may be made either as a gift,
or it may be made as an offer to pay the money
subscribed in exchange for property to be de-
livered to the subscriber. Whenever the person
or corporation in whose favor the subscriptions
are made has performed work or incurred ex-
pense or liability, relying upon such subscrip-
tions, the courts have generally held that such
expense or liability is a sufficient consideration
for the subscription to make it a legally en-
forceable contract, entitling such persons or cor-
poration to sue upon it. It has also been held
that when there are several subscribers and each
subscriber has fair notice that others are ex-
pected to subscribe to the same object or pur-
pose, the promise of each subscriber is considera-
tion for the promises of all the others. The
soundness of such a doctrine may well be
doubted and the authorities upon this point are
in conflict. A subscription for stock of an
existing corporation is generally deemed to be a
mere offer which may be withdrawn at any time
before acceptance, but which may be accepted at
any time before withdrawal of the subscription
by an allotm'ent of the stock to the subscriber.
Upon such acceptance the subscription becomes
a valid contract which may be enforced by the
corporation. See CoNTRAoT; CoNSIDERATIoN.
SUBSIDIES (Lat. subsidium, relief, aid,
auxiliary force, from subsidere, to sit down, re-
main, subside, from sub, under + sedere, to sit).
A term in English history having reference to
special tax assessments upon persons and not
directly upon real property; in general European
politics it has reference to grants of money to
an ally to aid in the prosecution of war; while
as a current economic term it applies to grants
of money made by the State in aid of individual
enterprises.
SUBSIDY AS A TAX. The subsidy was an income
tax of 4s. in the pound upon theannual value
of lands and a property tax of 2s. 8d. in the
pound upon the actual value of goods. In this
sense it was first used in the later part of the
fifteenth century, but did not come into promi-
nence until the reign of Henry VIII. Fromthen
until the Commonwealth it was the most impor-
tantof the Parliamentary levies. The amount
of the subsidy varied. In the eighth year of
Elizabeth it brought £120,000 ; in t e fortieth It
was not above £78,000; it afterwards fell to
£70,000. The subsidy finally became so unequal
and uncertain that Parliament changed it into a
land tax. This was first done under the Com-
monwealth, and, owing to its popularity, Charles
11. continued it, though he did get one or two
grants of subsidy.
SUBSIDIES To ALLIES. Examples of subsidies
of this kind are numerous in English history.
Thus during the Seven Years’ War England
granted large sums to Prussia, one of her allies,
as a means of enabling Frederick the Great to
cope with his enemies, which included France.
Again during the Napoleonic wars Eng-
land furmshed subsidies to several foreign
powers.
GRANTS TO INDIVIDUALS. With regard to this
class of subsidies, which is by far the most
important at present, it may be said that almost
the only enterprises that are the direct benefi-
ciaries from Government aid are transportation
companies, although it sometimes happens that
other enterprises receive indire_ct benefit on ac-
count of Government patronage. Certain boun-
ties, too, very nearly approach the idea of a
subsidy. This is especially true of those on
beet sugar, which, beginning in the days of Na-
poleon, have steadily increased in amount, until
to-day the question of bounties on sugar has
become one of great international importance.
RAILWAY SUBSIDIES. In most of the States of
Continental Europe a large part of the original
cost of railway construction was defrayed by
Government aid. In Great Britain no railroads
were subsidized, though some in Ireland were.
In Canada the Canadian Pacific received large
subsidies in the form of land grants from the
Government. In the United States it has been
a common practice to encourage and aid railway
construction by State and municipal grants,
chiefly in the form of subscriptions to their stock.
The national Government has also contributed
considerable toward the construction of certain
railroads, and with one exception this has been in
the form of land grants. (See LANDS, PUBLIC.)
During the Civil War the importance of attach-
ing the Far VVest to the Union by means of more
direct railroads was seen, and in 1862 Congress
passed an act grantin to the Union and Central
Pacific railroads a su sidy of more than $25,000
per mile in the form of a loan, which it was
practically understood would never be repaid,
together with 30,000,000 acres of land.‘
STEAMSI-IIP SUBSIDIES. See the article SHIP-
PING SUBSIDIES. -
SUBSOILING. See PLow, PLowINe.
SUBSTANCE (OF. substance, substaunce, Fr.
substance, from Lat. substantia, being, essence,
material, from substare, to stand under or
among, from sub, under + store, to stand). A
term frequently used in logic and metaphysics.
Substance is correlative with quality or at-
tribute. Every substance must have attributes,
and every attribute must be the attribute of
some -substance. The substance gold has the
attributes weight, color, etc. . But as every
power or property of a thing, every way that the
thing affects us, may be called an attribute or
quality, if all the attributes are counted 011",
there is nothing left except the relations in
which they stand to each other. But popular
thought and popular philosophy assume that
SUBSTANCE.
SUBSTANTIVE LAW.
289
everything whatsoever possesses, besides its at-
tributes, an unknown substratum; that they rest
upon or inhere in a mystical and inscrutable
thing, that holds the attributes together, without
being itself an attribute. ‘
This view appears at the very dawn of phil-
osophical speculation, having been doubtless an
inheritance from pre-scientific and pre-critical
thinkers, and has persisted through all the cen-
turies up to the present. It appears in the doc-
trine of the Ionic philosophers (see IONIC
SCHOOL) as air or earth or water, in Heraclitus
(q.v.) as fire, and in Parmenides (q.v.) as pure
being. In Aristotle we have a more critical
view, according to which the individual realities
of experience are substances, while species are
second substances. But Aristotle did not answer
the question what it is in the individual reali-
ties of experience that constitutes their sub-
stantiality. The Stoics returned to the idea of a
substrate as the bearer of attributes, and this
view persisted through the Middle Ages as the
only one advocated, except by the Nominalists
(q.v.). In modern philosophy Descartes and
Spinoza share this substrate theory. Leibnitz
moved away from this static conception and re-
garded substance as a being capable of action
or ‘primitive force,’ but it was his great oppo-
nent Locke who put definitely away the old
substrate theory. “All our ideas of the several
sorts of substances are nothing but collections
of simple ideas, with a supposition of something
to which they belong, and on which they subsist,
though of this supposed something we have no
clear distinct idea at all.” “All the simple ideas,
that thus united i11 one substratum make up
our complex ideas of several sorts of substances,
are no others but such as we have received from
sensation or reflection,” while “most of the
simple ideas that make up our complex ideas
of substances, when truly considered, are only
powers.” -
Berkeley went further. Locke had accepted
the existence of material as well as spiritual
‘powers;’ Berkeley maintained that “the suppo-
sition of external bodies is not necessary for
producing our ideas; since it is granted they
are produced sometimes, and might possibly be
produced always in the same order we see them
in at present, without their concurrence.”
Hence “there is not any other substance than
Spirit, or that which perceives.” About this
substance, however, Berkeley could give no con-
sistent account. At one time we are told that
thing or being “comprehends under it two kinds
entirely distinct and heterogeneous, and which
have nothing in common but the name, viz.
Spirits and Ideas. The former are active, in-
visible substances—-the latter are inert, fleeting,
or independent beings, which subsist not by
themselves, but are supported by or exist in
minds or spiritual substances.” But in another
place we are told that “the soul always thinks;
and in truth whoever shall go about to divide
in his thoughts, or abstract the existence of a
spirit from its cogitation, will, I believe, find it
no easy task.” Hume developed the idea con-
tained in the last quotation and arrived at the
.result that all substance is an ‘unintelligible
chimaera.’
Kant emphasized these ‘relations’ which united
perceptions, and found in them the essence of
substance. Substance with him is a category
of relation, which when schematized, i.e.
brought into relation with time and space, be-
comes “the permanence of the real in time, or
the idea of the real as presupposed in the em-
pirical determination of time, and as persisting
while all else changes.” But this view has a de-
fect. There is too much absoluteness in the
conception. It is not necessary that there
should be anything which persists through all
changes. It is only necessary that there should
be some quality which remains relatively un-
changing, while other qualities change. The
quality forms then the nucleus around which
the changes gather as variations of a thing. The
same thing does not always remain unchanged
in the same quality. Now it may be -this qual-
ity, now that. Were it necessary that some one
quality should remain unchanged, that quality
would come to be considered the substance of the
thing. But the fact that the relatively perma-
nent quality of one stage of change becomes the
relatively changing quality of another stage
makes it impossible to identify the substance
with any one quality. On this account some
philosophers prefer to regard substantiality as
shifting from time to time.
But perhaps a more satisfactory definition of
substance can be obtained from the true theory
of judgment. Going back to Aristot1e’s concep-
tion of substance (oicia) as that of which predi-
cation is made,. we find (see JUDGMENT) that
predication is always made of a synthesis of at-
tributes. The orange of which yellowness is
predicated is an object which is yellow, grows
on a tree, developed from a flower, is going to
be eaten by me next minute, etc. The orange is
the synthesis of all these quantities or attri-
butes, some of which may be past and some not
yet existent. The only object of which all the
qualities of an orange are predicable is the
totality of the predicable qualities. This totality
exists at any one time, not as a whole, but in
part. At no one moment is it consummated as
a whole. All the stages of its history are neces-
sary to its totality, but it is not necessary that
these stages should be taken out of the real order
of succession in which they stand and made to
exist contemporaneously before the totality of
the process can exist. A temporal whole is from
its very nature not a whole at any one time
shorter than the whole time of its existence, and
the whole time of its existence has within it the
distinctions of priority and subsequence which
make it impossible to summate the whole into
one moment. Now the synthesis of all the quali-
ties which appear to common sense as the quali-
ties of a thing is itself the substance of that
thing. Used in this sense substance is no longer
what its etymology indicates, viz. a something
standing behind phenomena, but it is what the
- Greek term obcia .1neans, viz. the being of which
attributes are predicable. See PHILOSOPHY;
METAPHYsIos; SCI-IOLASTICISM.
SUBSTANTIVE LAW ( Lat. substanticus,
self-existant, substantial, real, from substantia,
being, essence, material). That branch or divi-
sion of the whole law which defines and estab-
lishes human rights and privileges with reference
to property and prescribes rules of conduct to be
observed by mankind in the various relations of
life. All other law may be classed as adjective
or remedial, that is, as dealing with the methods
of enforcement and maintenance of the normal
SUBSTANTIVE LAW.
SUBTRACTIO N.
290
conditions established by the substantive law,
and the rectification of such abnormal social
conditions as may arise. For convenience, the
substantive law is subdivided into various
branches according to the subject matter to which
it relates. For example, we speak of the law of
real property, of personal property, the law of
domestic relations or persons, etc. It is to be
found both in legislative enactments and in the
rules and precedents of the common law. See
LAW and the authorities there referred to.
SUBSTITUTION (Lat. substitutio, a putting
in the place of another, from substituere, to put
in the place of another, from sub, under +
statuere, to place, from stare, to stand). A
mathematical operation by which one expression
is replaced by another. The term has, however,
come to have a technical meaning in modern
mathematics, and this has led to an important
branch known as the theory of substitutions.
If n elements, a1, a2, a3, an are given, and
a1, a2, a3, . . . an and a2, a,, a.,, . . . an are two ar-
rangements of these elements, the operation of
passing from the first of these arrangements to
the second is called a substitution of the n ele-
ments. It follows that there are no substitutions
of n elements, including the identical substitu-
tion, which leaves the order of the letters un-
changed. A substitution which in place of the
arrangement a,, a2, a3, a,1 gives a'1, a’,, a/,,
. . . a.',,, is represented by the symbol
0/} Ct; (lg ....a,,
a1ar2a8..--an
If, however, a1 is replaced by a2, a, by a3, .. .
a,,_1 by an, and a,1 by a,, the substitution is
said to be cyclic, and is more conveniently repre-
sented by (a1, a2, a3. . . .a,,), or even by (1, 2, 3,
. n), than by the more elaborate symbol
a1a2....an_1an
a2a3--.,aIn a1
d .
Similarly a substitution like (gggaig
may be written (acd) (bef), meaning that while
a changes to c, c to d, and d to a-, b at the same
time changes to e, e to f, and f to b. This sym-
bolism is further extended thus: Consider (ab)
(ac); this means that a changes to b, b to a,
and a to c, and 0 back to a, a result which evi-
dently may also be indicated by (abc), so that
(ab) (ac) = (abc). But the same reasoning
shows that (ac) (ab) : (acb). Hence if s,:
(ab) and s2: (ac), s,s,i s2s1. For conveni-
ence, sls2 is called the product of s1 and s, in
the order given, from which it appears that the
commutative law of multiplication does not hold
true in the theory of substitution. If in the
product s,s,,s8 . . . s,n we have s1 = s2 = . . . sn, the
product is called the power of each substitution.
If a substitution leaves all the elements un-
changed in order it is called an identical substi-
tution and is represented by 1. If the product
of two substitutions, like -
(a, a, . . .a,/1 ) and (a'1a’2. ..a’,,)
a1a2...an a1a2...an
is 1, each is called the inverse of the other, and
if the first is represented by s, the second is
represented by s'1, ss"1 equaling 1.
A collection of substitutions is said to form
a group, if the product of any two is another of
the same collection. This may be illustrated
outside the field of substitutions by the three
cube roots of unity 1,-5,-+%-1/___§,_ %_ .1,‘/_'__3,
the product of any two being another of the
same collection. The six substitutions s0 :: 1,
81 = (was), 82 = (way), 83 == w(yz). 8. = .7/(aw).
s5 = 2 (my) also form a group. The number of
substitutions of a group is its order, and this is
always a factor of n!. Thus in the group given
the order is 6, and this is a factor of 3!. If all
substitutions of a group H are contained in
another group G, H is called a sub-group of G
and the order of H is a factor of that of G. A
group whose operations are all permutable with
one another is called an Abelian group.
Lagrange ( 1770) was one of the first to under-
take a scientific treatment of substitutions in
connection with the theory of the quintic equa-
tion. He invented a ‘calcul des combinaisons,’
the first real step toward the theory of substi-
tutions. Ruflini (1799) was the next to under-
take a serious study of the subject, again in the
attempt to show the impossibility of solving the
quintic. To Galois (q.v.), however, the honor
of establishing the theory is usually ascribed.
He found that if r,, r2, r8, . . . rn are the n roots
of an equation, there is always a group of per-
mutations of the r’s such that (1) every func-
tion of the roots invariable by the substitutions
of the group is rationally known, and (2), re-
ciprocally, every rationally determinable func-
tion of the roots is invariable by the substitu-
tions of the group, a discovery that eventually
led to the proof of the insolubility of the
quintic. Liouville’s Journal, vol. xi. Consult
also (Euvres mathématiques de Galois (Paris,
1897). Cauchy was the first of the well-
known French mathematicians to recognize the
importance of the theory, and numerous im-
portant propositions are due to him (Journal de
l’e'cole polytechnique, 1815; Eazercices d’analyse
et de physique mathématique, vol. iii., Paris,
1844). Serret was the first to give a connected
account of the theory (Cours d’algebre superi-
éure, in the 3d ed., Paris, 1866). This was
followed by Jordan’s Traité des substitutions et
des équations algébriques (Paris, 1870). Sylow
(1872) was the first to treat the subject apart
from its applications to equations (Math. An-
nalen, vol. v.). He was followed by Netto,
whose Substitutionstheorie (Leipzig, 1882) was
translated by Cole (Ann Arbor, 1892), thus
making the theory accessible to English readers.
Burnside, Theory of Groups of Finite Order
(Cambridge, 1897), has brought the theory even
more prominently before English and American
scholars. The first to attempt to simplify the
applications of the theory to the subject of equa-
tions in an elementary text-book was Petersen,
Theorie der algebraischen Gleichungen (Copen-
" hagen, 1878) .
SUBSTITUTION, THECRY OF. See CHEMIS-
TBY (historical section) .
SUBTRACTION (Lat. subtractio, a taking
away, from subtrahere, to take away, from sub,
under + trahere, to draw, drag). The inverse
of addition, and one of the fundamental processes
of arithmetic and algebra.
which has for its object, given the sum of two
expressions and one of them, to find the other.
The given sum is called the minuend, the given
addend is called the subtrahend, and the addend
It is the operation‘
SUBTRACTIO N.
SUBWAYS.
291
to be found is called the difference or the re-
mainder.
SUBUR’RA. A district of ancient Rome in
the valley between the Esquiline, Quirinal, and
Viminal Hills. It was thickly populated and
bore an evil reputation as the resort of peddlers,
footpads, and prostitutes.
SUBWAYS (ron PIPES AND WIRES). Under-
ground galleries which contain and render ac-
cessible at any point the multitudinous pipes
and wires beneath city pavements; or else ducts‘
for inclosing underground wires only, in such a
way as to make them accessible at intervals.
Subterranean passages for the accommodation
of street traffic are either nothing more than
streets or footpaths placed in tunnels, which need
no description, or they are underground rail-
ways, which are described under TUNNEL; RAIL-
WAYS.
The chief advantages of subways for pipes and
wires are: (1) They increase the life and general
tingham, England. Subsequently a number of
subways were added to the first ones built in
London and Nottingham. The London subways
range in size from 14 feet wide and 7 feet high
to 8X7 feet. The walls are of brick, laid in
cement. The roofs are formed by semicircular
brick arches, with ventilators extending to the
streets at intervals of 100 feet. The London
subways contain gas, water, electric light, hy-
draulic power supply, telephone, and telegraph
mains. The placing of wires and a great variety
of pipes in the sewers of Paris is one of the no-
table features of that city.
In the United States the nearest approach to
subways like those of Europe is at Saint Paul,
where a number of miles of sewers have been
constructed in the form of tunnels in the soft
sand-rock which underlies the city, and water
mains have also been placed, separately, in simi-
lar tunnels. Branch tunnels connect with the
houses, in the same general way as branches




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serviceability of pavements and prevent the in-
terruption to traffic caused by street excava-
tions to gain access to pipes when simply buried
in the ground. (2) They facilitate both the in-
spection and repair of all classes of underground
furniture, and thus lessen the number of trouble-
some and dangerous leaks from water and gas
mains; they also aid in the prevention of elec-
trolysis, or the electrical decomposition of iron
and lead conduits through stray electrical cur-
rents from overhead trolley systems. (3) Ven-
tilated and relatively dry subways may greatly
lengthen the life of pipes and wires through
better protection against corrosion than is pos-
sible when such furniture is laid directly in the
earth. ‘
One of the earliest attempts to avoid the dis-
turbance of pavements was carried out in Liver-
pool, where a gallery 2% feet wide was built
under the sidewalk and in it were placed an oval
pipe sewer 27><18 inches, a 10-inch water main,
and a 10-inch gas main. The bottom of the
trench was 13 feet below the surface of the
sidewalk. Little or no provision for repairs was
made. The London subways date from 1861 or
1862, when one was built in a new street from
Covent Garden Market to Saint Martin’s Lane.
A few months later a subway was built at Not-
lead to the buildings along the line of the Euro-
pean subways. Besides the sewers and water
mains at Saint Paul some private companies
have placed telephone lines in like tunnels. Tun-
nels for telephone cables have been constructed
in Chicago.
ELECTRICAL SUBWAYS. Although there are no
instances of subways for both pipes and wires in
the United States, the practice of putting wires
underground is rapidly growing. It is getting
to be a comparatively common practice, even in
small towns, for telephone companies to bury
their wires; and though the work is often done
cheaply and rather crudely, the wires are never-
theless removed from overhead and at the same
time are so arranged that little subsequent dis-.
turbance of the street is necessary. In a grow-
ing number of the larger cities electrical wires
for light and power, together with the ordinary
and the police and fire alarm telegraph lines, are
also placed underground. Electrical subways con-
sist of a single pipe or tube, or a group of such,
designed to protect underground wires from in-
jury due to settlement of the earth or the picks
and shovels of workmen. At the same time these
subways afford access to the wires through man-
holes placed at intervals, for repairs, connec-
tions, or the drawing in of new wires. Some
SUBWAYS.
snconssron AB INTESTATO.
292
of the underground systems have the conductors
built in the tubes before the latter are laid, in
which case new wires cannot be added without
laying additional tubes, but provision is made
for service connections without digging up the
street. The most common materials used for the
conduits or ducts are wrought iron, earthen-
ware, and wood, but sometimes cast iron, and
again ordinary or more rarely bituminous ce-
ment concrete is used. In place of tubes troughs
of cast iron, earthenware, or wood, covered with
the same material, are sometimes employed. The
diameters of the various ducts are about three
inches, and if one is not sufiicient for the various
wires to be buried any desired number may be
placed in the same trench. YVrought iron pipes
similar to gas pipes are commonly imbedded
in concrete, and they may be laid in trenches
lined with cement or wood. Earthenware or
terra-cotta ducts are generally surrounded with
concrete, but the latter sometimes _ gives
place to boards at the top. Each piece of
conduit is eighteen inches long. If a group
of. ducts is desired they are laid up one
on another, breaking joints, much like brick-
work; or multiple ducts may be bought from
the manufacturers. Concrete ducts are formed
in place. Wooden ducts are in the form of
square timber, with holes bored through the
centre, or constructed more cheaply from boards
Wood-fibre pipes are also used. (See PIPES.)
In the Edison three-conductor tube system three
copper rods are so wound, separately and col-
lectively, with rope, as to insulate them from
wrought iron pipe, some twenty feet long, in
which they are- placed. These sections are filled
with a fluid insulating compound before being
shipped from the factory. Special insulated
joints are made in the trenches, both for ordinary
joints and for branch lines. Edison tubes of a
simpler type but embodying the same principles
are also made. The various classes of electrical
wires and cables are generally insulated before
being placed in subways. (See ELECTRIC LIGHT-
ING; ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; TELEGRAPH; TELE-
PHONE, etc.) The wires and cables are drawn
into the closed electrical subways through man-
holes at intervals of 200 to 300 feet by means
of ropes or rods. If ropes are used a steel wire
with a round metal head is first pushed through,
and by means of this a rope sufficiently large to
haul the electric cable is drawn in. The rods
are pushed through from manhole to manhole,
one short rod after another being jointed onto
the line. Ordinarily electrical subways need be
placed but three feet or so underground.
Consult: Mason, -“Street Subways for Large
Towns,” and discussion thereon, in Transactions
of the Society of Engineers (London, 1895);
article in Engineering News on “Street Subways
for Pipes and I/Vires” (New York, March 15,
1900), describes all subways for both pipes and
wires known to be in use up to early in 1900;
also chapter on underground electrical construc-
tion in vol. ii. of Crocker, Electric Lighting
(New York, 1901), and similar chapters in
Hopkins, Telephone Lines and Their Properties
(ib., new ed., 1901).
SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere,
to follow, succeed, from sub, under + cedere, to
yield). At civil law (q.v.) succession signifies
in general the substitution of one person for
another in an existing legal relation. Acquisi-
tion of a right previously ‘held by another is
termed active succession; subjection to a duty
previously resting upon another, passive succes-
sion. When single rights or duties are thus
transferred the succession is said to be singular.
When a person receives all the rights and duties
of another that are capable of transfer the suc-
cession is said to be universal. The most im-
portant case of universal succession is inheri-
tance, which at civil law signifies the transfer
to one or more heirs of the rights and obliga-
tions of a person deceased. Heirs may be desig-
nated by a last will or testament (q.v.) ; in the
absence of a valid testament they are designated
by general laws. In the 1a.tter case civilians
speak of inheritance or succession ab intestato
(q.v.). Inheritance may also be determined, in
part, by laws which give certain persons rights
of succession of which they cannot be deprived by
a testator except on legally defined grounds. For
such limitations upon the power of testation at
civil law, see TESTAMENT.
SUCCESSION AB INTESTATO (Lat., from
one intestate). I. ROMAN LAW. In early Ro-
man law, as in early law in general, succession
was governed by the organization of the family.
According to the Twelve Tables the inheritance
vested (1) in the sui, i.e. the members of the
decedent’s family, who were under his household
authority. (See PATRIA PoTEsTAs.) The sons
and the unmarried daughters and the widow who
had been in manu (see MARRIAGE) had equal
shares. Children of .a pre-deceased son received
their father’s share. Failing sui, the inheritance
passed (2) to the nearest agnate (i.e. the nearest
collateral relative in the male line). If there
was no agnate the inheritance went (3) to the
gens or clan. Under this system kinship gave
no right except in so far a-s it coincided with the
family organization. Emancipated sons and
daughters, married daughters and their descend-
ants, and all cognates (relatives in the female
line) were excluded from succession. On the
other hand, adopted children and the wife in
manu had the same rights as the other sui. In
the subsequent development of the law there was
a steady movement toward fuller recognition of
kinship. This movement began with the pree-
torian reforms at the close of the Republican
period. Emancipated sons and daughters and
married daughters were admitted to inherit with
the sui, on condition of ‘collating’ (i.e. putting
into hotch-pot) their separate property. Fail-
ing agnatic relatives, cognates were admitted;
and failing cognates, the husband and wife who
had established a free or ‘consistent’ marriage
succeeded one to the other’s estate. Later Im-
perial legislation placed cognates and agnates on
the same footing, as far as the direct line was
concerned (ascendants ‘and descendants). Jus-
tinian in his 118th novel abolished all preference
of agnates. Under Justinian’s rules the inheri-
tance went (1) to descendants; (2) to ascend-
ants, brothers and sisters of the_full blood and
their children; (3) to brothers and sisters of
the half blood and their children; ( 4) to the
nearest collateral relative; (5) to the surviving
spouse; and (6) to the fiscus. Illegitimate chil-
dren had no rights of succession_ except from
the mother.
II. MEDLEVAL EUROPEAN LAW. The early
SUCCESSION AB INTESTATO.
SUCCE SSION WARS.
293
German law of inheritance, with the Roman,
was based on the family, but it gave no such
preference to kinship in the male line, except
as regarded succession to real property. As re-
garded such property, however, a preference not
only of the male line over the female, but of
male heirs over female, is visible in the earliest
written laws; and this preference was empha-
sized and made general in mediaeval Europe by
the development of the feudal system. In Ger-
man law there appeared also a distinction be-
tween sword-goods and spindle-goods, i.e. between
things used by men and things used by women,
and a tendency to prefer male heirs as regarded
sword-goods and female as regarded spindle-
goods. Another German idea was that, when
the nearest heirs were of the half blood, property
that had come to the decedent from the father’s
side should go to the paternal relatives, while
property that had come from the mother’s side
should go to the maternal relatives (‘paterna
paternis, materna maternis;’ in Spanish law,
‘troncalidad’). Sporadically manifested, more-
over, was a disinclination to allow property to
ascend, with resultant rules preferring brothers
and sisters and their descendants to parents.
As between collaterals rights of succession at
German law did not depend wholly on nearness
of kinship. Descendants of a nearer common
ancestor were regularly preferred to descendants
of a more remote common ancestor. Inheritance
vested (1) in descendants of the decedent; (2)
in descendants of his parents; (3) in descendants
of his grandparents; (4) in descendants of his
great-grandparents, and so on. Within each
such group the nearest of kin took the inheri-
tance. This is described by modern writers as
the ‘lineal-gradual’ or ‘parentela’ system. Coupled
with a preference of the male- line and of males
within that line it became the (original) feudal
law of succession, and (with preference of the
eldest male added) it determined the English
law of inheritance of real property.
111. MODERN CIVIL CODES. In modern Eu-
ropean legislation the Roman principle of uni-
versal succession has generally reasserted itself:
the same rules generally govern inheritance of
realty and of personalty. In all the codes the
inheritance vests primarily in descendants. Fail-
ing these different rules prevail. At French law
the inheritance passes, in second instances, to
parents, brothers, and sisters and the children of
brothers and sisters, all of whom take precedence
of grandparents. The Spanish code prefers all
ascendants, and the German code prefers parents,
to brothers and sisters. In the absence of de-
scendants, ascendants, and of brothers and sisters
and their descendants, the French, Italian, and
Spanish codes confer the inheritance upon the
nearest collateral; but the French code provides
that if there be collaterals both on the paternal
and the maternal side the inheritance shall be
divided. The Austrian and the German codes
follow the parentela system.
The surviving spouse is better treated than
at Roman law. Under the Code Napoléon, in-
deed, the surviving spouse had no right except
by ante-nuptial contract or, in the absence of
such contract, by operation of the general law
of matrimonial property; but -by the law of
March 9, 1891, he or she has a life interest in
a portion of the property, which is at most one-
fourth if there are children, but rises to one-
half if there are no children. There are similar
provisions in the Italian and Spanish codes; but
at Spanish law if the decedent has neither de-
scendants, ascendants, nor brothers or sisters or
nephews, the surviving spouse takes the whole
estate absolutely; and at Italian law, if there are .
no legitimate children, the surviving spouse takes
from one-fourth to one-third absolutely as against
parents and illegitimate children, two-thirds as
against collaterals, and the whole estate if there
is no collateral within the sixth degree (e.g. a
second cousin). The German law is even more
liberal: the surviving spouse takes one-fourth
absolutely as against children; one-half to three-
fourths as against parents, brothers and sisters,
and grandparents; and the whole as against the
decedent’s other relatives.
As to illegitimate children different rules pre-
vail. The French, Italian, and Spanish codes
give no rights of inheritance to such children
unless they have been ‘recognized.’ Such a recog-
nized child inherits in concurrence with legiti-
mate children, taking, however, only half the
share of a legitimate child. When there are no
legitimate children the rights of recognized ille-
gitimate children are greater. By the French
law of March 25, 1816, they take the whole
estate as against all collaterals, except brothers
and sisters and their children. In the German
code the illegitimate child, although ‘recognized,’
has no right of succession in the estate of his
father or in those of his father’s relatives; but
in the mother’s estate and in those of her rela-
tives such a child has the same rights as if born
in wedlock. For a treatment of subjects in Eng-
lish and American law, see DESCENT; DISTRIBU-
TIDN; HEIR; and INHERITANCE.
SUCCESSION WARS. The name given to
wars arising out of conflicting claims of suc-
cession to the throne. Among such wars that
have been waged in Europe the following deserve
special notice: (1) The \Nar of the Spanish Suc-
cession, 1701-14; (2) that of the Polish Suc-
cession, 1733-35; (3) that of the Austrian Suc-
cession, 1740-48; and (4) that of the Bavarian
Succession, 1778-79. '
THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUcoEssIoN arose
on the death without male heirs of Charles II.
(q.v.) , King of Spain, of the House of Hapsburg,
November 1, 1700. The nearest natural heir to
the throne was of the royal Bourbon line of
France, Charles’s elder sister having married
Louis XIV. ; but, to prevent any possible union of
the two crowns, a solemn renunciation had been
exacted both from Louis and his Queen, for them-
selves and their heirs. Failing the Bourbons,
the next heirs were the descendants of the young-
er sister of Charles, who had married the Ger-
man Emperor Leopold I., ruler of the Austrian
realm, and from whom no renunciation had been
exacted; and the only issue being a daughter,
who had married the Elector of Bavaria, and
borne a son, Joseph Ferdinand, this prince was
during his lifetime regarded both by Charles II.
and the Spanish people as the rightful heir. As
he died in 1699, the question of succession was
reopened. Louis XIV. claimed the throne for
himself, as the son of Philip IV.’s eldest sister,
being, however, again legally barred here by an-
other solemn renunciation. The Emperor Leo-
pold maintained that the Bourbons had by these
two renunciations lost all rights of succession,
SUCCESSION WARS.
SUCCESSION WARS.
294
and he claimed the throne as the son of Philip
IV.’s younger sister. (See genealogical table,
The Ha-psburg Family, under HAPSBUBG.) Leo-
pold handed over his claim to his second son,
the Archduke Charles. The Austrian party at
first preponderated in Spain; but Louis succeed-
ed in undermining the Austrian influence, and
his grandson, Philip of Anjou, was declared the
heir (October 2, 1700). On the death of King
Charles, Philip appeared in Spain and was rec-
ognized as monarch. The Emperor Leopold at
once took up arms and sent an army into Italy
under Prince Eugene, who defeated the French
general Villeroi at Chiari on September 1, 1701,
William III., regarding the union of France and
Spain under the Bourbons as a menace to the
naval interests of England and Holland, and
stirred up by the action of Louis XIV. in recog-
nizing the Pretender, James Edward Stuart, de-
termined to revive the Grand Alliance against
France, and entered into a coalition with Austria
and her allies in the German Empire, including
Prussia. Savoy, Bavaria, and some of the other
German States joined the Bourbons. William’s
policy was continued by Queen Anne, who suc-
ceeded to the English throne in March, 1702, and
immediately declared war.
In 1702 Churchill (the future Marlborough),
at the head of an English-Dutch-German army,
made a victor-ious advance against the French in
the Spanish Netherlands. While a German
army under the Margrave of Baden crossed
the Rhine and encountered Villars, who proved
too powerful for him. In Italy, Prince Eu-
gene, after taking Villeroi prisoner at Cremona
(January, 1702), was checked by Vendome. In
1703 Marlborough gained fresh successes and the
Duke of Savoy joined the Grand Alliance. The
first great blow was struck on August 13, 1704,
when the combined Austrian-German-British
army under Marlborough and Prince Eugene to-
tally defeated the French and the Bavarians under
Tallard at Blenheim (q.v.). A few days before
Gibraltar had fallen into the hands of the
English. The campaigns of Marlborough in
Germany and of Eugene in Italy in 1705, while
successful, were not very important. In 1706
Marlborough suddenly attacked the French and
Bavarians under Villeroi at Ramillies (q.v.),
and routed them with great slaughter. The
victory of Eugene over Marsin at Turin in the
same year shattered the French power in Italy.
In the meanwhile in 1704 the Archduke
Charles landed at Lisbon with a British and
Dutch army and invaded Spain. In the follow-
ing year the Earl of Peterborough and Sir
Clowdisley Shovell landed with a small body of
troops in Catalonia. Then, attacked from both
east and west, the Bourbon forces were beaten
and driven across the Pyrenees. After the de-
parture of Peterborough, however, the Bourbon
commander, the Duke of Berwick (q.v.), made
head against his antagonists, and by his victory
at Almanza (April 25, 1707) he recovered the
whole of Spain except Catalonia. In the Nether-
lands Marlborough and Prince Eugene fell upon
Vend6me’s army at Oudenarde (1708) and in-
flicted upon it a severe defeat. The capture of
Lille, Ghent, and Bruges followed. France now
began to show symptoms of exhaustion, and
made overtures of peace, but the demands of the
allies were of so exorbitant a character that
, “Der
Louis XIV. preferred to continue the war. The
French under Villars suffered another great de-
feat in September, 1709, at the hands of Marl-
borough and Prince Eugene at Malplaquet (q.v.) .
The death of the Emperor, Joseph 1., the suc-
cessor of Leopold 1. (April 17, 1711), and the ac-
cession in the Austrian dominions and in the
German Empire of his brother, Charles VI.,
came to the rescue of France, for England be-
came immediately lukewarm in support of a
cause the success of which would result in the
union of Austria and Spain; and the English
Tories having come into ower, England con-
cluded an armistice wit France in 1712.
Prince Eugene still carried on the war, aided by
Holland, but was compelled to give way; and in
the following spring (1713) Holland, Prussia,
and Savoy joined England as parties to the
Peace of Utrecht (q.v.). The Emperor Charles
VI.-found himself forced to conclude a treaty of
peace at Rastadt, March 7, 1714, and later on the
more formal treaty of Baden (in Aaragau) , Sep-
tember 7, 1714, ended the struggle, leaving Philip
in possession of the Spanish throne, but wit
the provision that the crowns of France and
Spain should never be united in the same per-
son, while Austria obtained the Spanish Nether-
lands, the former Duchy of Milan, Naples, and
Sardinia. Sicily was awarded to Savoy, which
exchanged it for Sardinia. Gibraltar and Mi-
norca were ceded to England, which acquired
Arcadia from France. The conflict waged between
the English and French in America as part of
the War of the Spanish Succession is known as
Queen Anne’s War. -
Consult: Stanhope (Lord Mahon), History of
the War of the Succession in Spain (London,
1836) ; Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of
the House of Bourbon (ib., 1813) ; Von Noorden,
Europdische Geschichte im 18ten Jah/rhundert,
spanische Erbfolgekrieg” (Diisseldorf,
1874-83), perhaps the best work on the subject.
See LOUIS XIV.
THE WAR or THE Pomsn Suocnssron. In 1733
Augustus II. of Poland and Saxony died and Stan-
islas Leszczynski (q.v.), whose daughter had
married Louis -XV. of France, was elected King
by the Diet through French influence. Some of
the nobles, however, were determined that‘ the
crown should pass to Augustus (Fredérick Au-
gustus II. of Saxony), son of the late King. Russia
and Austria supported Augustus and a Russian
army placed him on the throne. Stanislas with-
drew to the fortress of Danzig, where he held
out until June, 1734. France, in retaliation for
Austria’s support of Augustus III., declared war
on the Emperor. The French forces invaded
Lorraine and fought successfully on the Rhine
(1733-34). Charles Emmanuel III. of Sardinia
took up arms against Austria, and in 1734 Don
Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, seized the op-
portunity to undertake the conquest of the Two
Sicilies, which had been wrested from Spain in
the War of the Spanish Succession. The Austri-
ans were overthrown at Bitonto on May 25, 1734,
and in 1735 Don Carlos was crowned King of
the Two Sicilies. By the preliminaries of Vi-
enna (October 3, 1735), Austria relinquished
the possession of these regions. Augustus III.
was recognized as King of Poland, though Stan-
islas retained the royal title and was given for
his life the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which
SUCCESSION WARS.
SUCCE SSION WARS.
295
were afterwards to revert to France. Francis
Stephen, the dispossessed Duke of Lorraine, re-
ceived the Grand Duchy of Tuscany as compensa-
tion. France lent its guarantee to the Prag-
matic Sanction (q.v.) and Parma and Piacenza
were handed over to the Emperor by Don Carlos.
The definitive Peace of Vienna was not signed
till 1738.
THE WAR on THE AUSTRIAN SUCCEssIoN. This
struggle arose after the death of the Emperor
Charles VI. (q.v.), in 1740. In accordance with
the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.) Charles VI.’s
daughter and heiress, Maria Theresa, had re-
ceived assurances of support from most of the
European powers, but hardly had she ascended
the Austrian throne when she found her domin-
ion contested on every side. Frederick the Great
of Prussia reasserted an old claim and invaded
and seized Silesia. Charles Albert, Elector of
Bavaria, claimed to be the rightful heir to the
Hapsburg possessions as a descendant through
the female line of Ferdinand I., and in virtue
of old arrangements. Augustus III. of Saxony
and Poland put forward his claims as the hus-
band of the eldest daughter of the Emperor
Joseph I. The Bourbon courts of France and
Spain seized the opportunity to make war upon
Austria. England thereupon entered into an
alliance with Maria Theresa. Charles Emmanuel
III. of Sardinia was also among the princes who
sought the dismemberment of the Austrian
realm. Holland joined the Anglo-Austrian Alli- '
ance, and the Bourbon King of Naples joined
the enemies of Maria Theresa. Some of the
minor German princes engaged in the struggle,
as allies of Prussia and France. On April 10,
1741, Frederick 11. defeated the Austrians at
Mollwitz. The Bavarians, the French, under
Belleisle, and the Saxons poured into the Aus-
trian dominions. Maria Theresa appealed for
support to her Hun arian subjects at the Diet
assembled at Press urg and they responded
chivalrously to her call. She was, however, un-
able to save Prague, which surendered to Belle-
isle on November 26, 1741, but at the beginning
of 1742 her forces entered upon a victorious
campaign against Charles Albert. General Khe-
venhiiller overran Bavaria, and on the very day
of the Elector Charles Albert’s coronation as
Emperor Charles VII. took Munich (February
12, 1742). On May 17, 1742, Frederick won a
victory over the Austrians at Chotusitz, which
was followed by the Treaty of Breslau (terminat-
ing the first Silesian War), which provided for
the cession of most of Silesia to Prussia. The
French General Belleisle effected a masterly re-
treat from Prague.
In May, 1743, Bavaria again fell into the
hands of the Austrians. In June the English,
under George II., defeated the French at Dettin-
gen. In the same year Saxony and Sardinia
were won over to the side of Austria. France
and Spain now remained the sole representatives
of the coalition. Seeing the tide turn so
strongly in favor of Austria, Frederick became
alarmed and renewed hostilities in 1744 by an
invasion of Bohemia (second Silesian War). In
January, 1745, Charles VII. died and his son,
Maximilian Joseph, made peace with Austria.
On June 4, 1745, Frederick won a victory over
the Austrians at Hohenfriedberg, and on De-
cember l5th the Prussians defeated the Saxons
at Kesselsdorf. Frederick, displeased with the
overbearing conduct of France, was willing to
make terms with Austria, and the Peace of
Dresden (December 25, 1745) between Austria,
Saxony, and Prussia terminated the second Si-
lesian VVar.| On September 13, 1745, the hus-
band of Maria Theresa had been elected Emperor
as Francis 1. In the meanwhile the French
were being~ led to victory in the Austrian Neth-
erlands by Marshal Saxe, who, on May 11, 1745,
defeated the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and
Austrians at Fontenoy. One after another the
principal towns of the region fell before his at-
tacks, and on October 11, 1746, he won a splen-
did victory over the allies under Charles of Lor-
raine at Raucoux. In Italy the war was waged
with varying fortune. In 1745 the French were
successful. In 1746 the Austrians and Sar-
dinians made a victorious advance, and Genoa,
which had joined the enemies of Austria, was
occupied. The city, however, had soon to be
evacuated, and an attempt to recapture it in
1747 was frustrated by the French. In 1747
Saxe routed the Duke of Cumberland at Laf-
feld, near Aix-la-Chapelle (July 2d), while his
celebrated chief of engineers, Count Ltiwendal,
after a two months’ siege, took Bergen-op-Zoom,
a fortress believed by the Dutch to be impreg-
nable. On the sea, however, the English gained
victories in 1747 under Admirals Anson and
Hawke. At this juncture the Empress Elizabeth
of Russia came to the aid of Maria Theresa and
sent her forces into the field. France was now
Willing to listen to proposals of peace. On Oc-
tober 18, 1784, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
put an end to the war. It left the Hapsburgs
in possession of their hereditary dominions, with
the exception of Silesia. Parma and Piacenza
(acquired in 1735) were handed over by Austria
to Don Philip, brother of Ferdinand VI. of
Spain. The principal event of the contest waged
by the British and French in America (King
George’s War) was the taking of Louisburg in
1745. The French held their ground in India.
THE WAR on THE BAVARIAN SUCCESSICN. The
Elector Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria died
without issue on December 30, 1777. The natural
heir was Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, head
of the elder line of the House of Wittelsbach.
This prince had no legitimate heirs, and with a
view of furthering the interests of his illegiti-
mate children, he had, in January, 1778, entered
into a convention with the Emperor Joseph 11.
(the son of Maria Theresa, sovereign of Austria
and Queen of Hungary) by which he agreed to
transfer Lower Bavaria to Austria, which put
forward an antiquated claim to a part of the
Bavarian dominions. Frederick the Great would
not consent to such an aggrandizement of Aus-
tria in South Germany, the more so as he felt
that it might interfere with the claim of Prussia
to the succession in the principalities of Ansbach
and Bayreuth. As Austria refused to withdraw
her pretensions, Frederick proceeded to make
war on her, and in the summer of 1778 he in-
vaded Bohemia. He was joined by the Elector of
Saxony, who, as the husband of the only daugh-
ter of Maximilian Joseph, claimed a portion of
the Bavarian inheritance. Maria Theresa and
Joseph II. were in no haste to plunge into
a war with Prussia, and the Austrian forces
confronted the enemy without coming to an en-
SUCCESSION WARS.
SU-CHOW.
296
gagement. The hostile attitude of Catharine II.
of Russia toward Austria induced her to give
way, and in the Treaty of Teschen, signed on
May 13, 1779, she had to content herself with the
acquisition of the Innviertel, a district on the
east side of the Inn, with the exception of which
the whole of the Bavarian inheritance passed to
Charles Theodore. The Elector of Saxony re-
ceived a money indemnity.
SUCCINIC ACID (from Lat. succinum, suci-
num, amber), COOH.CH,.CH,,,.COOH. A di-basic
organic acid found in amber, in unripe fruits, in
brown coal, etc. In the animal organism it oc-
curs in the spleen, the hydrocephalic and hydro-
cele fluids, and, according to- some authors, also
in normal urine. It has been known to chemists
since the sixteenth century, and its acid char-
acter was discovered by Lemery in 1679. It may
be obtained by a variety of synthetic chemical
methods. Usually, however, it is prepared by
the fermentation of a solution of ammonium tar-
trate. It is a crystalline substance melting at
180° C. and boiling at 235° C., though when
distilled it loses the elements of- water and is
partly converted into its anhydride. Succinic
acid is almost insoluble in ether; it is moder-
ately soluble in cold and very soluble in hot
water and alcohol.
SUCCORY. Another name for chicory (q.v.).
SUC’C-OTH (Heb. suklmith, booths, thickets).
A place name occurring several times in the Old
Testament. In Joshua xiii. 27 a Succoth is de-
scribed as situated in the territory of Gad, ‘in
the valley,’ and within the ancient bounds of
Sihon, King -of Heshbon. A location east of the
Jordan is indicated here and also in Genesis
xxxiii. 17 and Judges viii. 5-16 (cf. Psalms 1x. 6,
cviii. 7). In I. Kings vii. 46 (II. Chron. iv. 17)
it is stated that the metal work for Solomon’s
temple was cast “in the plain of Jordan between
Succoth and Zarthan.” It has been thought that
this Succoth was in the west Jordan country._
No satisfactory identifications, however, have
been proposed. Succoth was also the name of the
second station in the Exodus from Egypt (Ex.
xii. 37, xiii. 20, Num. xxxiii. 5-6). -
SUC’COTH-BECNOTH. According to 11.
Kings xvii. 30, the name of a deity whose wor-
ship was carried on at Samaria by the colonists
from Babylon settled there by Shalmaneser IV.
No such god has been found in Babylonian in-
scriptions, and it is reasonable to conclude that
the form is corrupt. In Amos v. 26 a deity (or
a star), Sikkut, is mentioned by the side of
Chiun (perhaps the planet-god Saturn-Ninib),
and a deity Sakkut occurs in Babylonian litera-
ture. The bad state of the text in the passage
from Amos, however, requires caution in draw-
ing conclusions, and there is no necessary con-
nection between Succoth and Sikkut.
SUCHER, s'o'6"Ker, JOSEF ( 1844-—) . A promi-
nent Austrian musical conductor and composer,
born at Dfibiil‘, Eisenburg County, Hungary. First
instructed in music as a chorister in the Imperial
chapel at Vienna, he afterwards studied law at
the university and composition under Sechter,
became conductor of the Akademische Gesang-
verein and assistant conductor at the opera, and
in 1876 went to Leipzig as kapellmeister at the
Stadtheatre, where his rehearsals of Wagner’s
music dramas, especially of the Ring of the Nibe-
hm/9, Placed him in the front rank of modern
conductors. In 1879 he was called to Hamburg
and in 1888 to the Royal Opera in Berlin. As
a composer he has earned reputation through
choral and orchestral works, church music, and
many lofty and spirited songs.—His wife, Rosa
(l849—), born (Hasselbeck) at Velburg, Upper
Palatinate, is a highly gifted dramatic singer,
widely known as an interpreter of Wagner roles.
She appeared first in Munich, was subsequently
connected with the stages at Treves, Kiinigsberg,
and Danzig, then at Leipzig, where she was mar-
ried, and went with her husband to Hamburg and
Berlin. Since 1898 she confined herself to star-
ring engagements, notably for the Festspiele at
Bayreuth, her impersonations of Isolde, Sieg-
linde, and Brunhilda being most highly com-
mended.
SUCHET, su’she‘r’, LOUIS GABRIEL, Duke of
Albufera (1770-1826). A marshal of France,
born at Lyons, March 2, 1770. He began his
military career by volunteering as a private in
the Lyons National Guard in 1792. His in-
telligence and valor at Lodi, Rivoli, Castigli-
one, Arcole, and in battles of less note, laid
the foundation of his military reputation. In
1797 he became a general of brigade and in the
following year general of division, serving in
Switzerland and Italy. In 1800 he kept Melas
in check, with a force far inferior to that of
the Austrian commander, and prevented the in-
vasion of France. He took part in the campaigns
against Austria (1805) and Prussia (1806-07),
was sent to Spain in 1808, and in 1809 was ap-
pointed to the command of the French army in
Aragon. He won the battle of Belchite (June 16-
18, 1809) and took Lérida (May, 1810), and
Tortosa and Tarragona (1811), earning the mar-
shal’s baton for his achievements. In January,
1812, he conquered Valencia, and was made Duke
of Albufera. The misfortunes of the other French
armies in Spain compelled Suchct gradually to
relinquish his conquests. He was created a peer
by Louis XVIII., but took service under Napoleon
after his return from Elba, and was charged with
the defense of the southwestern frontier. De-
prived of his peerage at the Second Restoration,
hedid not return to Court till 1819. He diedat
the Chateau of Saint-Jose h, near Marseilles,
January 3, 1826. Consult Shchet, Mémoires sur
ses campagnes en Espa/gne (Paris, 1829-34) .
SUCHIER, su’shy€r’, HEBMANN (18-18-). A
German Romance philologist, born at Karlshafen,
Hesse-Nassau, of a family of French refugées.
After studying at Marburg and Leipzig, he quali-
fied at Marburg in 1873 and became successively
professor at Zurich (1875), Miinster, and Halle
(1876). Of his publications in the field of
French and Provincial philology may be noted:
“Ueber die franztisiche Sprache,” in Gr6ber’s
Grundriss der romawischen Philogie (1888) , also
separate in French, Le Frangza-is et Ze Pmoengal
(1891) ; Altfranmisische Grammatilo (1893).
He edited Aucassin et Nicolette (4th ed., 1899) ;
Bibliotheca Normanml'ca (1879) ; Denkmiiiler
provemgalischer Litteratur and Sprache (1883) ;
(Emrres poétiques cle Philippe de R-emi (1884-
85). In collaboration with Birch-Hirschfeld he
wrote a Geschichte der frarne6sz'schen Littemtur
(1900).
SU-CHOW, s'o‘o"chou’, or S00-CHOW. A fa
or departmental city of the Province of Kiang-su,
SUCKERS

1. RAZOR-BACKED SUCKER (Xyrauchen cypho). 4. MAY SUCKER, or CUTLIPS (Lagochlle lacera).
2. CHUB SUCKER (Erimyzon sucetta). 5. MOUTH OF CUTLIPS (No. 4).
3. MISSOURI SUCKER (Qycleptus elongatus). 6. CARP SUCKER (Carph_:>des cyprlnusl.
7. BUFFALO FISH (ictiobus cypl-inellal.
SU-CHOW.
SUCZAWA.
297
China (Map: China, F 5) ; the residence of the
provincial judge, the ohih-fu or head of the de-
partment of the same name, and three district
magistrates. It is situated on the Grand Canal,
80 miles west of Shanghai and 40 south of'the
Yang-tse. Its walls are 30 feet high, are pierced
with 6 gates and 5 water-gates, and have a cir-
cuit of 12 miles. Outside of five of these gates
are large suburbs, the largest and busiest being
that outside of the northwest gate or Ch’ang-men,
within which is the chief business quarter of the
city. Su-chow was founded about 13.0. 500. It
is a great commercial and manufacturing place,
and is the centre of a great silk and satin indus-
try in which thousands of looms are employed.
‘It has also steam factories, two cotton mills, a
flour mill, and thousands of workers in wood,
gold, silver, brass, iron, tin, ivory, glass, lac-
quer, etc. It has long been noted for its
wealth and luxury, and the gayety and elegance
of its life and manners. In 1860 it was captured
. by the Taiping rebels and reduced almost to a
heap of ruins. Among the buildings that escaped
destruction is a pagoda 240 feet in height, said to
be the highest in China. There are several others
both within and without the city. The streets are
not wide enough for much trafiic, but a great
network of canals ramifies through the city and
the surrounding country and supplies easy means
of transportation. Population, estimated at
about 500,000.
In September, 1896, Su-chow was opened by
treaty as a place of foreign residence and trade.
SUCKER (from such, AS. sflcan, sflgan, OHG.
szigan, Ger. saugen, to suck; connected with OIr.
sugim, Lett. siilct, OChurch Slav. siistai, Lat.
sugere, to suck). A fresh-water fish of the
catfish family and belonging to the genus Catos-
tomus and its allies, characterized by having
the mouth inferior, and the lips thick and
fleshy, the lower usually deeply divided. There
are many species, all of moderate size and na-
tives of the United States, except one in Siberia.
Their general form is shown in the Plate of
SUCKERS; in color they are dull, and with little
tendency to markings, except that breeding males
in most species acquire a rosy or orange lateral
band. They inhabit rivers, lakes, and bayous,
and obtain their food mostly by sucking up the
mud and soft organic matter from the bottom.
The mostwidely distributed species is the North-
ern or red sucker (Catostomus catostomus) ; the
best known one, the common white sucker (Cato-s-
tomns Oommiersonii), which is excessively abun-
dant from Massachusetts to Kansas.
SUCKER STATE. Illinois. See STATES,
POPULAR NAMES or.
SUCK’LING, Sir JOHN (1609-42). An Eng-
lish poet, born at Whitton, in Middlesex, where
he was baptized February 10, 1609. His father,
Sir John Suckling (knighted 1616), held high
posts at the courts of King James and King
Charles. In 1623 the poet entered Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, but left without a degree. On
the death of his father in 1627 he became heir to
large estates. In 1628 he set out on extensive
travels on the Continent and is said to have
fought under Gustavus Adolphus. Returning to
Englandin 1632, he soon became noted for wit,
gallantry, and prodigality. Suckling took an
active part in the plot to rescue Straiford from
the Tower, and found it convenient to flee to the
-and gained the victories of Pichincha
Continent. Impoverished and in despair, he seems
to have poisoned himself in Paris in the summer
of 1642. He was buried, says Aubrey, in the
cemetery attached to the Protestant Church in
Paris. Suckling’s writings, few of which were
published during his lifetime, were collected un-
der the title, Fragmenta Anrea (1646). The vol-
ume contains three plays, Aglanra, The Goblins,
and Brennoralt; Letters to Divers Eminent Per-
sonages; a Socinian tract called An Account of
Religion by Reason; and Poems. In a later edition
(1658) appeared an unfinished tragedy, The Sad
One. The fame of Suckling rests wholly upon
his lyrics, inimitable for grace and gayety. Among
the most beautiful are “Upon My Lord Brohall’s
Wedding,” and the songs beginning “Why so pale
and wan, fond lover?” and “I prithee send me‘
back my heart.” Consult Selections, with a
memoir, by A. I. Suckling (1836; revised and
enlarged by W. C. Hazlitt, London, 1874), and
see the articles on the group of Cavalier or
Court poets to which Suckling belongs: THOMAS
CAREW, ROBERT HERRICK, and RICHARD LOVELACE.
SUCRE, sW’krei.
See CHUQUISACA.
SUCRE. The oflicial capital of the Republic
of Bolivia, known also as Chuquisaca (Map:
Bolivia, -D 7). It is 8840 feet above the sea on
a plateau of the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes,
to the left of the upper valley of the Cachimayo,
a branch of the Pilcomayo, and is 250 miles
southeast of La Paz. It has the Supreme
Tribunal of Justice. It contains the oldest uni-
versity of South America, a fine cathedral, and
the President’s palace. Its industries are min-
ing and agriculture, the latter being the more
important; its population is about 26,000.
Sucre was founded in 1536. The Spaniards
first gave it the name La Plata, from the rich
silver mines of the vicinity. Later as the seat
of the aurliencia of Charcas it served as the capi-
tal of Upper Peru. The city was the scene of
the declaration of Bolivian independence from
Spain, August 6, 1825, and later took the name
of Sucre in honor of the Repub1ic’s first President.
Though it has continued to be the official capital
of Bolivia, the sessions of Congress, during the
civil wars, have often been held at La -Paz.
SUCRE, ANTONIO JosE DE (1793-1830). A
Venezuelan general, born 'at Cumana, and edu-
cated at Caracas. He served in the various wars
of independence in South America, from 1811 to
1824, was one of Bolivar’s most valuable ofiicers,
(May
24, 1822), which3 freed Ecuador, and Ayaci-
cho (December 9, 1824), which drove the
Spaniards from Peru. He was elected first
President of Bolivia in 1826, but resigned in
1828 to prevent a war with Peru, his resignation
having been demanded by that country. The ex-
President retired to Colombia, then at war with
Peru, and gained for the Colombians the battle
of Giron (February 26, 1829), which ended the
war. He was elected President of the first Con-
gress of the Republic of Colombia, and sent as
commissioner to Venezuela. Upon his return
from the Congress he was assassinated, it is sup-
posed by political enemies, June 4, 1830.
SUCZAWA, s66-clis/va. A town of Bukowina,
Austria, on the right bank of the Suczawa, 47
miles south of Czernowitz (Map: Austria, K
A department of Bolivia.
SUCZAWA.
SUDAN.
298
3). The chief manufactures are linens, cottons,
and fine leather goods; there are breweries, petro-
leum refineries, and potteries. The population,
in 1900, was 10,946, of whom four-fifths were
Germans.
SUDAMINA. See MILIARIA.
SUDAN, s'66-dtin’, or SOUDAN. A term
now designating the vast region in Northern
Africa lying between the Atlantic and the Red
Sea, and between the Sahara Desert, on the
north, and the Gulf of Guinea and the watersheds
between Lake Chad and the Congo and between
the Nile and the Congo, on the south. The
northern line is about latitude 18° N., the south-
ern about 4° N. The Sudan has been known as
the ‘Black Zone’—the home of the true negro
race. The term is of somewhat confused signifi-
cation both geographically and ethnically. Ex-
cept Portuguese Guinea, Togo, and Kamerun,
which belong to Germany, and the independent
Liberia, all of the region of the Sudan is now
virtually divided up between Great Britain and
France. To Great Britain belong Gambia, Sierra
Leone, the Gold Coast, Lagos, and Nigeria (both
Northern and Southern) ; the government of the
Egyptian Sudan (q.v.) is shared by England and
Egypt; and Darfur is within the British sphere
of influence. Under French control are Sene-
gal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey,
French Congo, Bagirmi, and Wadai. The French
Sudan (q.v.) was formerly the name of the
territory in WVestern Africa lying between
longitude 12° W. and Lake Chad and between
the Sahara on the north and the countries (in-
cluding Nigeria) along the north coast of the
Gulf of Guinea. By the French decree of Oc-
tober I7, 1899, this region—generally known as
West Sudan—was divided up. The western por-
tion fell to Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory
Coast, and Dahomey. The remainder was formed
into the three military territories of French
Sudan (q.v.), the third of which reaches to
Wadai on the extreme east. All the above
French possessions, except French Congo, Ba-
girmi, and Wadai, are under a French Gover-
nor-General, whose seat is at Saint-Louis,
Senegal. The third military territory above
referred to connects on the southeast with
French Congo, and thus forms the link uniting
all the French possessions in Africa. This Gov-
ernor-Generalship embraces also practically all
of the Sahara (q.v.) in accordance with the
French decree above named; for Great Britain
has recognized the claims of France to all the
region west of the Nile basin, thus embracing
substantially all of the Sahara Desert (includ-
ing the Libyan Desert).
For particulars as to topography, climate,
commerce, races, etc., see articles on the differ-
ent countries mentioned.
ETHNOLOGY. Within this broadest belt of
Africa lying south of the Sahara, the following
races and peoples are to be discriminated:
(1) Semites, consisting of Arabs, who under
many names live in Kanem and Bornu about
Lake Chad and eastward to Khartum and
Kordofan. -
(2) Hamites, whose main divisions are the
Tibus, in many subdivisions, about Lake Chad;
the Tuaregs, within the Niger bend and on
the left bank of the Senegal; and the Fulah,
Futa-Toro, and Futa-Jallon, scattered from Sene-
gambia to Darfur and south to Adamawa.
(3) Negroes, who are divided into several
groups. The west coast Negroes, including the
Wolof, Serer, Sarakole, Toucouleur, Man-
dingo, Felup, and innumerable other tribes
from the Senegal River to Sierra Leone;
the Sierra Leone Negroes, comprising the
Temne family and a multitude of pagan
tribes; the Liberian Negroes, or Colonials,
Kru, and many pagan tribes; the Ivory Coast
Negroes, from Cape Palmas eastward, akin
to the Kru; the Gold Coast Negroes, composed
of the Tshi group, including the Fanti,
Ashanti, and others, and the Ga groups, all
pagans; the Slave Coast Negroes, making up the
Ewe group, including the Dahomans (see
DAHOMEY), and the Yoruba group; Niger Basin
Negroes, including the Bambarra, Sonrhay,
and Hausa (see HAUSA STATES); the Benue
Negroes, composed of Moslem and pagan tribes
in the region of the Benue River; the Lower
Niger Negroes, or the Ibos (Niger delta), the
Igbara (above the Benue confluence), and a
multitude of pagan and Moslem tribes; the
Chad Basin Negroes, comprising the Kanuris,
the Baghirmi, the Mosgu, and many thou-
sands of others chiefly pagan and mixed
with Semites and Hamites; the Wadai Negroes,
including the Maba and many other tribes
all of more or less mixed blood, with a large
pprcentage of Moslems; the Darfur and Kordofan
egroes, or Furs (Moslems), and Nuba
(pagans); the Upper Nile Negroes, extending
from Lake Victoria northward, and including
the Madi, the Mittu, and a host of others,
nearly all pagan; the Welle Negroes, comprising
the Mombottu, the Momfu, the Niam Niam,
the Akka, and a number of other tribes.
HISTORY. THE EGYPTIAN SUDAN. The Sudan
has been apportioned by the events of the last
few years into British and French spheres of
influence. The Egyptian Sudan, now under
British control, is practically coincident with
the ancient Nubia (q.v.). It embraces the mod-
ern Egyptian mudirias, or provinces, of Khar-
tum, Dongola, Berber, Kassala, Sennar, and
Kordofan; and the muhafzas, or administrative
districts, of Wadi Halfa, Suakim, and Fashoda.
(See EGYPTIAN SUDAN.) The Eastern Sudan
was brought under Egyptian control by
Mehemet Ali (q.v.) in 1820-22 and so
remained until in 187 0 Ismail Pasha
found it necessary to ask for assistance in restor-
ing the waning authority of the Khedival govern-
ment in the interior. The Englishman Sir Samuel
Baker was made Governor-General of the Su-
danese provinces and began their reduction and
the suppression of the slave trade. He estab-
lished his capital at Gondokoro, which he re-
named Ismailia. Supposing that his work was
accomplished, Baker returned to England. After
his departure the slave trade was immediately
revived and the administration of the provinces
was intrusted to Charles George Gordon (q.v.),
who with an able staff began the organization
and development of this rich but little known re-
gion. Gordon continued his work in the face of
all manner of discouragements and ditficulties
until his recall in 1879 upon the deposition of
Ismail, and, though Gordon’s organization was
continued under his successor, Rauf Pasha,
SUDAN.
SUDERMANN.
299
there was a gradual reversion to earlier condi-
tions. In 1882 the Sudanese tribesmen, for a
long time restless under the greed and misgovern-
ment of the Egyptian oificials, took advantage of
the difficulties in Lower Egypt and revolted.
This, like the rising under Arabi Pasha (q.v.),
with which it coincided in point of time, was
primarily a revolt against foreign influence, but,
unlike the latter, which was a political move-
ment, it had its immediate origin in religious
fanaticism. The incitement came from one of
the alleged messiahs, known as mahdis (see
MAHDI), who have been so common in Moham-
medan countries. This man, Mohammed Ahmed,
had some political genius and united the tribes
in great numbers under his banner. For fifteen
years he and his successor held the country un-
der a religious and military tyranny. England
had become so deeply involved in Egyptian af-
fairs that she was compelled to take part in this
struggle for the control of the Upper Nile coun-
try. A force of 11,000 English and Egyptian
troops was dispatched to the Sudan under Hicks
Pasha. This force was annihilated in a battle
with the tribesmen at El-Obeid (November 3-4,
1883). England then determined to abandon the
Sudan, but several posts were held by British
garrisons and it was necessary to withdraw these
troops. For this difficult task and for the set-
tlement of the troubled affairs of the country,
Gordon, because of his former success and his
knowledge of the tribesmen, was given a new
commission as Governor-General, and on Febru-
ary 18, 1884, he arrived at Khartum. In the
meanwhile Osman Digna (q.v.) was makin his
power felt in the vicinity of Suakim, whic be-
came the scene of bloody fighting, Osman Digna
being finally defeated (February-March, 1884).
Gordon was surrounded at Khartum by the
Mahdi’s forces and cut off’ from all of his com-
munications. After many delays, in part due to
the fatal hesitation of the Gladstone Govern-
ment, a relief force was sent out under Lord
VVolseley, which after severe fighting arrived at
Khartum, January 28, 1885. Two days before
the city had been captured and Gordon killed.
The English then retired and until 1894 gave up
the attempt to reconquer the revolted provinces;
but the growing British interest in East and
Central Africa ,made it inevitable that Eng-
land should seek to control a position of
so great strategic importance. Upon the death
of the Mahdi in 1885 his power passed to his
chief lieutenant, the Khalifah Abdallah. In the
interval of peace the Egyptian Army was reor-
ganized and brought to an admirable state of
discipline under its English officers, and in 1894,
under the Sirdar, Sir Herbert Kitchener (q.v.),
the struggle for the possession of the Sudan was
resumed. This movement was stimulated by
the threatened movement of Osman Digna (q.v.),
the ablest Dervish leader, upon the Italian post
at Kassala, where a victory might throw the
Dervishes again upon the Egyptian frontier.
After slow and patient preparation the advance
up the Nile was made and Dongola was
captured, September 23, 1896. Pushing forward
his railway across the desert at the rate of about
two miles a day, General Kitchener advanced
steadily, always maintaining communication
with his base on the Nile. The Khalifah was
gradually hemmed in and on September 2, 1898,
at Omdurman, opposite Khartum, he was de-
VOL. XVI.—20.
feated, his army annihilated, and his power com-
pletely broken. He himself was killed near Gedid
in November, 1899.
The French had sent out a tentative expedition
under Major l\/larchand (q.v.) to Fashoda, with
a view to entering a wedge of French influence in
the Eastern Sudan, but the French were them-
selves threatened by the tribesmen and were
rescued by General Kitchener a few days after
the victory at Omdurman. The aggressive attitude
of England forced France to enter a diplomatic
disclaimer. This led to the recognition by France
in the supplementary treaty of 1899 of the Eng-
lish sphere of influence in the Sudan from Darfur
and the Bahr-el-Ghazal eastward. By the Anglo-
Egyptian convention signed January 19, 1899, the
government of the Sudanese provinces was to be
intrusted to a Governor-General appointed by the
Egyptian Government with the approval of the
British Government, the slave trade was pro-
hibited, as well as the importation of arms and
ammunition, and the British and Egyptian flags
were to be used conjointly. The first Governor-
General was General Kitchener. When he was
called to South Africa, Col. Sir Reginald Wingate,
his successor as Sirdar of the Egyptian Army,
succeeded to the post.
FRENCH SUDAN. French exploration of the Su-
dan began in 1860, when Maze and Quintin
penetrated east of Senegal as far as Segu Sikoro,
which was again visited by Soleillet in 1878.
The next year Bafoulabe was founded and a rail-
way survey begun. The conquest of the country
- as begun in 1880 and pushed for fifteen years.
Forts were erected, telegraph lines constructed,
and acknowledgments of the French protecto-
rate were gradually obtained from the native
rulers. In 1894 Timbuktu was taken. On Au-
gust 5, 1890, an Anglo-French agreement laid
down the southern line of the French Sudan from
Say on the Niger to Barrawa on Lake Chad.
A further convention delimiting the French ter-
ritory on the side of British Nigeria was
framed June 14, 1898.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mardon, Geography of Egypt
and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (London, 1902) ;
Alfors and Sword, The Egyptian Sudan, Its Loss
‘and Recovery (ib., 1898) ; Burleigh, Sirdar
and Khalifa (ib., 1898); id., The Khartum
Campaign, 1898 (ib., 1899) ; Churchill, The
River War (ib., 1898) ; Steevens, With
Kitchener to Khartum (Edinburgh, 1898) ;
Wingate, M ahdiism and the Sudan, 1881-.90
(London, 1891) ; Schweinfufth, The Heart of
Africa (New York, 1874) ; Bois, Senegal and
Soudan (Paris, 1886) ; Gaifarel, Le Sénégal et le
Sou-dan frangais (ib., 1890) ; Junker, Travels in
Africa During 1875-86, translated by Keane
(London, 1890-92) ; Parke, My Personal Experi-
ences in Equatorial Africa (New York, 1891) ;
Gessi, Seven Years in the Soudan (London,
1892); Stanley, In Darkest Africa (ib., 1893);
Robinson, H ausaland; or Fifteen Hundred Miles
Through the Central Soudan (ib., 1896).
SUDERMANN, zoo"der-m‘an, HERMANN
(1857—). A German dramatist and novelist,
born at Matzicken. East Prussia. September 30,
1857. He studied history. philology, and litera-
ture at Kbnigsberg and Berlin, and after some
obscure years as tutor and journalist he won
European fame and assured literary position by
a drama Die Ehre (1888), and the novel Frau
SUDERMANN.
SUECA.
300
Sorge (1888 ; trans. as Dame Care, 1892). He
followed these up with the novel Der Katzensteg
(1889; trans. as Regina, 1898) ; the stories Im
Zwielicht and a sensational drama, Sodoms Ende
(1890); the humorous novel Iolanthes Hock-
eeit (1893); and his greatest drama, Heimat
(1893; trans. as Magda, 1895); a fine novel of
moral psychology, Es war (1894); an inferior
drama, Die Sch/metterlingsschlacht (1894); and
Das Gliick im Winkel (1896), a strong but
unpleasant play. Then came three one-act dra-
matic scenes in verse collected under the appro-
priate title Morituri (1896); Johannes (1897),
a realistic dramatic presentation of the story of
John the Baptist; Die drei Reiherfedern (1898),
an ethical and literary mystery in dramatic
form. ‘Es lebe das Leben (1902, translated The
Joy of Living, 1902), is a powerful drama
of the struggle between soul affinity and
marital obligation. His work since 1894 shows
failing power and has been much interrupted
by sickness, but that for the six years pre-
ceding is, with the dramas of I-lauptmann,
the most significant in contemporary Germany,
powerful in conception, admirable in technique,
virile in its grasp of humanity in the more som-
bre aspects, and with occasional touches of deli-
cate humor, though Sudermann is more skilled
with the sterner weapons of satire. Frau Sorge
is a pathetic Odyssey of duty with some romantic
aberrations; Katzensteg is a declaration of
‘naturalism;’ Iolanthes Hocheeit breathes the
serener realism of common life; Es war is a
protest against the fruitlessness of brooding re-
pentance. The dramas Die Ehre, Sodoms Ende,
and Heimat are all social satires and militant
democratic protests. By comparison the later
dramas are increasingly out of touch with mod-
ern life. In Die drei Reiherfedern the evolution
has become complete transformation. To some it
seems a deepening, to others a sinking of his
dramatic power. All Sudermann’s greater works
are translated into English. Consult: Brandes,
M enschen und Werke (2d ed., Frankfort, 1895) ;
Litzmann, Das deutsche Drama (Hamburg,
1896).
SUDET’IC MOUNTAINS (Ger. Sudeten).
A mountain system on the southwestern border
of Silesia, Germany, which some of its ranges
separate from Bohemia and Moravia (Map:
Germany, G 3). It extends in a south-
east direction from the water gap of the
Elbe to the Moravian depression through which
the Oder passes, and which separates the system
from the Carpathian Mountains. The system is
composed of a number of short, broken, more or
less isolated and partly parallel ranges, consist-
ing chiefly of crystalline slate, serpentine, and
granite. These ranges inclose a number of large
valleys. The best defined as well as the highest
of the ranges, the Riesengebirge, lies near the
centre of the system, and attains an average
altitude of about 4000 feet, culminating in the
Schneekoppe, 5266 feet above the sea. The
higher ridges have an alpine flora, appearing
above the large pine forests which cover the
slopes. Many of the slopes afford fine pastur-
age and the foothills are. well eultivated. The
Sudetic Mountains are very rich in minerals,
especially iron, zinc, lead, and copper, and in
the southeastern portion there are large coal
deposits.
SUDRA, sho'o"dra (Skt. s'udra; possibly con-
nected with Lith. szudas, excrement). The name
of the fourth caste of the Hindus. See CASTE.
SUDRAKA (sh'Co"dra-ka) . A Hindu king to
whom tradition attributes the Sanskrit drama
Mriechakatika (q.v.), which was probably com-
posed in reality by Dandin (q.v.). The name
Sudraka is not found in the history of India,
and he seems to have been altogether mythical.
He was, however, the centre of a number of
legends, according to which he reigned either at
Vidisa, or obhavati, or Vardhamana. He is
said to have been saved from death by a Brah-
man who killed himself to insure the king a life
of a hundred years. According to another tra-
dition he was the minister of a king named
Satavahana, who gave him half of his kingdom.
udraka was the hero of two poems, the _udra-
kakathrt of Ramila and Soimla, and the Sudra-
kavadha, as well as of a drama, the Vikr-anta-
sudraka, all of which have been lost. Consult
Lévi, Theatre Indien (Paris, 1890).
SUE, su, MARIE JOSEPH (known as EUGENE)
(1804-57). A French novelist, born in Paris. He
studied medicine, became an army surgeon, was
transferred to the navy, cruised in the East, re-
signed in 1829, having inherited wealth, and
gave himself successively to literature, dissipa-
tion, and socialistic agitation, writing feuille-
tons that rivaled those of Dumas in rapidity of
production, fertility of imagination, and care-
lessness of execution. In 1831 he published Plick
et Plock, the success of which led to Atar Gull
(1831), a novel of the sea, suggested by his own
experience and by the American novels of Cooper.
It revealed a gift of story-telling, but showed
a reckless mingling of tragic and comic, pathetic
and grotesque. Debts and disgust at his equivo-
cal social position turned him into a socialist
and convert to the propagandism of Fourier
and Proudhon. His work in this spirit con-
sists of long novels printed in cheap news-
papers, but winning such hold on the masses
and so swaying democratic opinion that the
Government actually sought to check or di-
vert his activity. As a critic of that day said,
Sue was entering on an unexplored path when he
began the Mysteres de Paris (1842). As the
novelist of the people he was undertaking to
paint the sufferings, the needs, the possibilities
of the working class with the intent of influenc-
ing their political action, and in doing this he
won for the novel a new audience and a new
interest. He entered on the task with an enthu-
siasm that fired his genius to the creation of
types of character that still have power to hor-
rify or charm. Both the Myste‘res de Paris and
Le Juif err'ant (1844-45) were dramatized by
Sue, and both have attained world-wide circula-
tion. He wrote an Histoire de la marine fran-
gzaise (1835-37) and two historical novels, La-
‘tréaumont (1837), and Jean Cavalier (1840).
The later work of Sue is vast. He was elected to
the Assembly in 1850, and was exiled in Decem-
ber, 1851. He died at Annecy in Savoy. Consult
Mirecourt, Eugene Sue (Paris, 1858).
SUECA, swa'ka. A town of Spain, in the
Province of Valencia, 23 miles south of the city
of that name, on the left bank of the Jucar
(Map: Spain, E 3). It is in a fertile valley.
Population, in 1900, 14,422.
sunim.
SUEZ.
301
SUERA, swa’ra.
Momxnon.
SUESS, sus, EDUARD (1831—). An Austrian
geologist. He was born in London, studied the
natural sciences at Prague and Vienna, and
from 1857 to 1891 was professor of geology at the
University of Vienna. From 1873 to 1896 he was
a member of the Austrian Lower House. In 1897
he became president of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences. His more important contributions
to geology, which have opened up a new path in
geological inquiry, and laid the foundation for
what is now frequently termed the ‘new geology,’
deal with the construction and relations of con-
tinents and mountain ranges, the dynamics of
volcanoes and earthquakes, ‘and the general
movements of the earth’s crust. His Antlitz der
Erde (begun in 1885 and not yet completed) is
a masterful exposition of the relations of the
dominant features of the earth’s surface, and
the first luminous effort to correlate their multi-
form aspects and give to them their true geo-
graphic expression. His other works include:
B5im1/ische Graptolichten (1852); Brachiopoden
der K<'issener Sch/iehten (1854); Brachiopoden
cler Kallstiitter Sehichten (1855); Ueber den
L683 (1860); Die tertitiren Landfaunen Mittel-
ital-iens (1871); Die Entstehung der Alpen
(1875).
SUETO’NIUS TRANQUII/LUS, GAIUS. A
Roman historian, born probably a few years
after the death of Nero. Pliny procured him the
dignity of military tribune, which, by Suetonius’s
desire, was transferred to another. He was after-
wards secretary of the Emperor Hadrian, whose
favor he had secured. The date of his death
is unknown, but it probably occurred about A.D.
160. All his works (among which, as we learn
from Suidas, there were several on topics usually
treated by grammarians) have been lost, except
his Lives of the Caesars, his Lives of Eminent
Grammarians, and (in part only) his Lives of
Eminent Rhetoricians. It is by the first of these
works that he is most favorably known, contain-
ing information about the twelve Caesars, from
Julius Caesar to Domitian, which is to be had
nowhere else, and abounding with anecdotes
which, while they too often prove the profiigacy
of his heroes, testify to the impartiality of their
A seaport of Morocco. See
chronicler. The best editions are by Baumgar-
ten-Crusius (Leipzig, 1816-18) , Reifferscheid
(ib., 1860), and Roth (ib., 1886). There are
English translations of the Lives by Clark (Lon-
don, 1732), and by Thomson and Forrester (ib.,
1855).
SUF/VI. The collective designation of a great
number of Germanic peoples, as mentioned in
Caesar, De Bello Gallico, iv. 1. They occupied
a district of indefinite extent on the eastern side
of the Rhine, and may have been the same tribes
as those subsequently known as Chatti, Longo-
bardi, etc. Caesar states that their territory
comprised 100 cantons, and was densely wooded,
that they had towns (oppida), but no strong-
holds, and that every year a part of the popula-
tion left their homes to seek employment in
war. The Suevi of whom Tacitus speaks
(Ger-mavfia, 38, etc.) seem to have dwelt north
and east of the country of the Suevi of Caesar,
extending as far as the Elbe and the Baltic,
which Tacitus calls the ‘Suevic sea.’ The peo-
ples united under the rule of Maroboduus, the
Marcomannic chief, were Suevic, and hence the
Marcomanni and Quadi who figure in the reigns
of Marius Aurelius and Aurelian are often
called Suevi. After the name had fallen into
disuse as a collective designation, it reappeared
in Ammianus Marcellinus, an historian of the
third century A.D., as the name of a people
occupying the same territory as the Suevi of
Caesar. We find them in alliance with the
Burgundians, Alemanni, Alani, Vandals, etc.
They are among the most notable of the barbaric
peoples that broke up the Roman Empire in the
northwest and west. Bursting through the
passes of the Pyrenees (A.D. 409), they, along
with the Vandals, overran and wasted Spain
(q.v.). Those who remained at home in Ger-
many seem to have spread during the fifth cen-
tury east of the Neckar and the Rauhe Alb,
and south as far as Switzerland. The mediaeval
Swabians were their direct descendants. /
SUEZ, s66-éz’. A town cf Egypt, situated on
the south coast of the Isthmus of Suez, at the
northern extremity of the Gulf of that name, and
near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal
(Map: Egypt, F 3). It is built on a desert
peninsula, and consists chiefly of unpretentious-
looking houses. The European quarter, however,
is regularly laid out, and contains the large
warehouses of the Peninsular and Oriental
Steamship Company. There are also a large Eng-
lish and a French hospital, and the town is sup-
plied with water from a long distance through
a fresh-water canal. To the south a large stone
causeway, carrying a railroad, runs to the im-
mense harbor of Port Ibrahim, at the entrance to
the canal, 2 miles south of the town. Suez has
railroad connection with Cairo and Ismailia, but
its commerce is not very large, as only a small
portion of the transit trade passing through the
canal affects the town. Population, in 1882, 10,-
909; in 1897, 17,457. Previous to the discovery
of the sea route to India around the Cape of
Good Hope Suez was a flourishing emporium
for the trade between Europe and the East. It
subsequently fell into decay, and before the
opening of the canal it was a wretched village of
1500 inhabitants.
SUEZ, GULF OF. One of the two arms in
which the Red Sea terminates, and which inclose
the Sinai Peninsula (Map: Egypt, F 3). It is
the western and larger of the two, and its head
is the extreme northern end of the Red Sea.
It lies between the peninsula and the main portion
of Egypt, and has an extreme length of 187
miles with a breadth of from 14 to 39 miles.
It is artificially connected with the Mediter-
ranean Sea by the Suez Canal.
SUEZ, ISTHMUS OF. The neck of land con-
necting Africa with Asia, and separating the
Mediterranean from the Red Sea (Map: Africa,
H 1). The shortest straight-line distance across
it, between the site of the ancient Pelusium
and the head of the Gulf of Suez, is 72
miles. The isthmus consists of a low, sandy, and
stony desert, the lowest depressions being occu-
pied by salt lakes and marshes, and it is almost
wholly destitute of fresh water. A series of such
depressions extends across the isthmus from the
great coast lagoon in the north to the Gulf of
Suez, and affords the route for the Suez Canal
(q.v.).
SUEZ CANAL.
SUEZ CANAL.
302
SUEZ CANAL. A canalabout 100 miles in
length, which crosses the Isthmus of Suez and
connects Port Said on the Mediterranean Sea
with Port '1‘-hewfik on the Red Sea, by an arti-
ficial channel about 120 feet wide at the bot-
tom, about twice as wide at the surface, and
about 28 feet deep. In 1854 Ferdinand de Les-
seps (q.v.) obtained permission from Said Pasha
to form a company to construct a waterway
from sea to sea without locks, and in 1855 an
‘International Consultative Commission’ selected
from among the most celebrated civil engi-
neers of Europe was appointed to report upon
the scheme. The final report of this Commis-
sion was submitted to and accepted by the Vice-
roy in June, 1856. Its conclusions were in effect
as follows: The system of indirect routes
through the Delta of the Nile was rejected and a
direct route through the isthmus from Suez to the
Mediterranean was adopted. The dimensions of
the channel were to be as follows: From the Red
Sea to the Bitter Lakes, depth 261/4, feet, bottom
width 210 feet, top width 320 feet; from the
Bitter Lakes to the Mediterranean Sea, depth
26%, feet, bottom width, 144 feet, top width
262 feet. At Port Said the plan of extending
jetties directly seaward to protect the entrance
was adopted. (See JETTY.) Basing his efforts
on these conclusions, M. de Lesseps succeeded, in
1858, in forming a company, with a capital stock
of £8,000,000, to build the canal.
TOPOGRAPHY. The construction of the canal
was greatly facilitated by the existence along
the route of four dried-up depressions which
were formerly and have again become lakes of
considerable area, namely, the two BullalrLakes,
the Great and Small Bitter Lakes, and Lake
Timsah. (See Map of EGYPT.) These low-lying
basins have an aggregate length of 27 miles.
Excavation was required, however, through the
Bullah Lakes, Lake Timsah, and the Small
Bitter Lake, and also through a portion of the
Great Bitter Lake. Consequently it‘ was only
for a length of eight miles of the Great Bitter
Lake, where the natural depth exceeded that of
the canal, that no excavation was necessary. The
total distance from Port Said to Suez, Port
Thewfik, is 88 nautical miles, or 100 English
miles. The only serious obstacles to be overcome
in the line of the canal were at El-Gisr, the
summit of the work, situated between the Bullah
Lakes and Lake Timsah, where the hills crossing
the canal vary from 30 to 60 feet above sea-level
over a length of 6 miles, and at the deep cutting
of Serapeum, between Lake Timsah and the Great
Bitter Lake. From Port Said to Kantara, a dis-
tance of 24 miles, the canal passes through Lake
Manzaleh, a shallow lagoon which covers an
area of nearly 1000 square miles. The soil en-
countered along the route was sand, sandy clay,
and hard clay, with rare stretches of rock, and
thus favorable to rapid and easy excavation. No
serious engineering difficulties were presented by
the harbor works at Port Said and Suez. In
short, the canal works in general were of a very
simple nature, but of vast magnitude, involving
as originally proposed, the removal of 60.000,000
cubic meters of dry earth and 56,000,000 cubic
meters of earth under water; and as they were
situated in a country destitute of fresh water,
a well-conceived organization was required to
bring the colossal work to a successful issue.
Pnoennss or THE Wonx. Work on the canal
was begun on April 25, 1859. The work pro-
gressed slowly at first, but the installation of a
large fleet of dredges by means of which the
dredged material carried by long and high pro-
jecting chutes was rapidly delivered on either
bank of the canal at some distance from the
slopes of the cuttings without the intervention
of barges, and other mechanical appliances, had
the effect of reducing by three-fourths the num-
ber of workmen needed to open the canal by the
time originally estimated. More important than
these, however, was the completion, in 1863, of a
fresh-water canal and pipe line from Cairo by
the way of Ismailia to Port Said. Financial
difiiculties were overcome, first, by decreasing the
width of the bottom of the canal to 72 feet, and,
second, by virtually increasing the capital of
the company to £17,l00,000. To compensate for
the greatly reduced width of the canal, sidings
were provided at every five or six miles between
Port Said and Lake Timsah to allow vessels to
bring up either for the purpose of passing each
other or to moor for the night. In April, 1867 ,
water from the Mediterranean was let into the
marshy bed of Lake Timsah, and in March, 1869,
it was allowed to flow into a near-by dry salt-
incrusted basin of the Bitter Lakes. On Novem-
ber 17 , 1869, the canal was opened to traflic with
great pomp and ceremony. According to the ex-
pense account the canal had cost up to Decem-
' ber 31, 1869, a sum of £l6,632,953.
ENLABGEMENT or THE CANAL. In 1883 it be-
came evident that, owing to the great increase of
trafiic, a radical plan of improvement was de-
manded. In 1884, therefore, a second Inter-
national Consultation Commission was appointed
to consider the whole question and to report
plans. This commission made its report in
1885, and shortly thereafter the enlargement
works were begun according to the general plan
recommended by the commission. The first stage
of these enlargement works was completed in
1898; it consisted in an increase of the bottom
width of the canal to 1211/3 feet, and of an in-
crease of the navigable depth to 27 feet 10 inches.
In addition to this uniform enlargement of sec-
tion there were completed in 1899 nine new
sidings, each 49 feet wide and 2460 feet long. In
1900 the average time of passage was 18 hours
and 32 minutes for vessels navigating by night
as well as day.
LIGHTING FOR NIGHT NAvIGATIoN. At the
close of 1885 it was decided to make use of
electric light in such a manner as to insure a
safe passage by night through the canal, the
company hoping in this way to diminish the
traffic by day and thus to render the navigation
less difficult until the full enlargement of the
waterway was accomplished. After some ex-
perimenting with a system of landing marks,
supplemented by Pintsch light buoys, it was de-
cided that every vessel in motion during the
night should itself be provided with the neces-
sary apparatus to illuminate its passage through
the canal. Accordingly it was arranged that every
vessel passing by night should carry four lights,
one astern, one on each side, and one ahead, to
the last of which should be applied a powerful
reflector capable of spreading light 4000 feet
ahead of the vessel. The Mangin reflector is gen-
erally used. Men-of-war and large postal steam-
ers carry their own apparatus. Smaller vessels
SUEZ CANAL.
SUFFOLK.
303
generally use portable apparatus which they hire
upon entering and return upon leaving the canal.
The effect of this system of lighting so as to
permit night navigation has been virtually to
double the carrying capacity of the canal.
TRAFFIC AND REVENUE. The toll charged for the
passage of the canal was 10 francs per ton and
10 francs per passenger when the canal was first ‘
opened. Various changes were made in succeeding
years, and in 1903 the toll was 8% francs per net
ton for loaded vessels, 7 francs for empty ships,
and 10 francs per passenger. The accompanying
table shows the traffic of the canal from 1869 to
1900, inclusive:
Gross Net Transit
YEARS vessels tonnage tonnage receipts
Francs
1869 ............ .. 10 10,558 6,576 54,460
1870 ............ .. 486 654,915 436,609 5,159,327
1875 ............ .. 1,494 2,940,708 2,009,984 28,886,302
1880 ............ .. 2 .026 4,344,520 3, 057,422 39,840,484
1885 ............ .. 3,624 8,985,412 6,335,753 ' 62,207,439
1890. ........... .. 3.389 9,749,129 6,890,094 66,984,000
1895 ............ .. 3,434 11,833,637 8,448,383 78,103,718
1900 ............ .. 3,441 13,699,238 9,738,157 90,623,608

In 1899, according to the United States Con-
sular Reports, the tonnage passing the canal was
9,893,022, and the revenue was $17,510,142; In
1900 the corresponding figures were 9,738,152
tons and $17,480,356. .
HISTORY. The plan of awater connection between
the Mediterranean and the Red Sea goes back
to early Egyptian history. Such a canal seems
to have been constructed in the reigns of Seti I.
, and Rameses II. (about 13.0. 1350-1300), extend-
ing from the Nile to Lake Timsah and thence to
the Red Sea. When this had been choked up
by the sands in the course of ages, a new canal
was begun by Necho, a son of Psammetmhus
I. (about B.C. 600), between Bubastis on the
Nile and the Red Sea, but was left unfin-
ished till the time of Darius Hystaspis (B.C.
521-486), who completed the work. About the
beginning of the Christian Era the canal was no
longer navigable, but it was probably restored
under Trajan. The last restoration was made In
the seventh century by An1ru, the Mohammedan
conqueror of Egypt, who connected Cairo with the
Red Sea. During Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt
(1798-99) the project of piercing the Isthmus
was carried to the extent of preliminary surveys
being made, but, owing to a miscalculation on
the part of the engineers which seemed greatly to
enhance the difficulties of the work, the execution
of the plan was delayed till the French were
forced to abandon Egypt. An international com-
mission of engineers made a preliminary survey
in 1846 to ascertain the practicability of a level-
water canal. The English engineer on the commis-
sion, George Stephenson, strongly opposed a canal
and recommended to his Government a railroad
from Cairo to Suez, and this was constructed by
British capital in 1858. By the terms of the Les-
seps concession (see above) the canal was to
be constructed without expense to Egypt, which
was to receive 15 per cent. of the gross receipts
for ninety-nine years, at the expiration of which
period the canal was to revert to the Egyptian
Government. When, however, De Lesseps found
it impossible to enlist the large amount of capr-
tal necessary, he turned to Said Pasha, secured
from him a large loan for preliminary work and
promoting, and later a subscription for nearly
half of the stock, which was about £l7,000,000.
Said was not able to pay his subscription and
his warrants had to be cashed in London. The
Egyptian Government had agreed to furnish
labor at a nominal price, the fellaheen to be well
treated and their health to be cared for. The
violation of the latter condition on the part of
the canal company aroused a protest in the name
of humanity, especially from England, which had
never looked with favor on the canal and sug-
gested to the Sultan that the work be stopped.
His approval of the concession, as Suzerain, which
had been provided for in the original contract
with Egypt, had never been obtained. He now
approved the concession, but decided that the
fellaheen must not be forced to do the work. The
company complained of the Egyptian Govern-
ment’s compliance with this order from Constan-
tinople as a breach of contract, made heavy
claims for damages, induced the Khedive to ac-
cept Napoleon III. as arbitrator, and on this and
a later claim wnmg from the exhausted resources
of Egypt over eighty million francs. The direct
and indirect cost of the canal to Egypt is esti-
mated at about $85,000,000. In 1875 Ismail Pa-
sha (q.v.) appealed to Europe for aid in his
financial difficulties. Among other measures that
were taken was the sale of his canal stock to
England, 176,602 shares, for £4,000,000. This
made England, -which had originally opposed the
canal project, the heaviest owner in it, and com-
bined with the general financial assistance ren-
dered to Egypt gave that power a direct interest
in Egyptian affairs. A very short time sufficed
to show that the canal was of the utmost value
as the passageway between England and her
Oriental possessions. England and France at
first exercised together that tutelage over Egypt
which the financial situation rendered necessary.
Later events led England to assume this respon-
sibility alone. The Suez Canal was the key to
this political development, as it has become in
part to the complicated situation in the near
East. See EASTERN QUESTION; EGYPT.
SUFFOLK, sf1f’ok. A southeastern maritime
county of England, bounded on the east by the
North Sea, on the north by Norfolk, and on the
south by Essex (Map: England, G 4). Area,
1489 square miles. Population, in 1891, 371,235;
in 1901, 384,198. The surface is for the most
part flat, falling away into marshes on the north-
western and northeastern borders. The tribu-
taries of the Waveney and of the Stour,
together with the river Lark, an affluent of the
Great Ouse, and the Gipping, with its estuary,
the Orwell, are the chief streams. The soil is of
various kinds, some of Which are very productive
for the ordinary crops. Capital, Ipswich.
SUFFOLK. A town and the county-seat of
Nansemond County, Va., 22 miles south-
west of Norfolk; on the Nansemond River, and
on the Norfolk and Western, the Seaboard Air
Line, the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, and
the Suffolk and Carolina railroads (Map: Vir-
ginia, H 5). It is an important railroad centre,
and one of the largest peanut-cleaning markets
in the State. There are car works, a stove foun-
dry, various wood-working mills, iron works,
hosiery mills, and brick plants. The surround-
ing region is fertile and is well adapted to farm-
ing. - Population, in 1890, 3354; in 1,900, 3827.
SUFFOLK.
SUFFRAGE.
304
SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF. Dignities
held by several noted English families. The title
Earl of Suffolk was conferred on ROBERT DE
UEFORD (1298-1369), who held high office under
Edward 111. He was made admiral of the north-
ern fleet in 1344, fought at Crecy and Poitiers
and was repeatedly intrusted with diplomatic
missions. He was succeeded by his son WILLIAM
DE UFEOBD, who was one of the most popular
statesmen of the later part of Edward 1II.’s
reign, took a share in the suppression of the
peasant revolt of 1381, and died in 1382, leaving
no male heirs. A new line of Suffolk was found-
ed by M101-IAEL DE LA POLE (1335 ?-89), who
fought in the French wars, became in 1376 ad-
miral of the northern fleet, negotiated the mar-
riage of the young Richard II. with Anne of
Bohemia, and in 1383 was made chancellor. By
marriage he acquired extensive possessions in
Suffolk and these were added to by royal grants.
In 1385 he was created Earl of Suffolk. His
rapid elevation and the great influence which he
exercised over the King aroused the hostility of
the nobles and in 1386 he was dismissed from
office on the demand of Parliament, which pro-
ceeded to impeach him of treason and malfea-
sance. The King’s favor could not protect him
and in 1387 he fled the country. In his absence -
he was condemned to be hanged. He died at
Paris. His son MICHAEL DE LA POLE (1361-1415)
was restored to his father’s dignities in 1397 and
fell at Harfleu-r in 1415. He was followed by
his eldest son, who was killed soon after at Agin-
court, being succeeded by his younger brother
WILLIAM DE LA POLE (1396-1450), best known
of all that have born the title. He served in the
French wars under Henry V., the Duke of Bed-
ford, and the Earl of Salisbury, upon whose
death in 1428 he became head of the English
forces in France. He failed to capture Orleans,
which was relieved by Joan of Arc in 1429, and
in the same year was taken prisoner. Ransomed
at a heavy cost he took little part in military
affairs, but for twenty years played a most im-
portant role in the government. As a member
of the King’s council he sought to bring about
, peace with France and was one of the English
representatives at the abortive congress of Arras
in 1435. The death of the Duke of Bedford in
the same year left him one of the two most
powerful men in the kingdom, his great rival
being Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, uncle of
the young Henry VI. In 1844 Suffolk was at
the head of an embassy which arranged a truce
with France and brought about the marriage of
Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou. This alli-
ance gained him tremendous though temporary
popularity. The government fell entirely into
his hands and after the death of Gloucester in
1447 he was master in the kingdom. He be-
came in rapid succession chamberlain, lord war-
den of the Clinque Ports, admiral, governor of
Calais, and Duke of Suffolk. He was hated,
however, by a large faction of the nobility, at
whose head stood Richard, Duke of York. He
lost his popularity owing to the surrender of
Anjou and Maine, to which he had assented as
one of the conditions of the King’s (marriage,
and the feeling of hostility was intensified by the
renewal of war with France in 1349, in the course
of which Normandy was lost to the English.
Popular opinion accused him also of having en-
compassed the death of the ‘good Duke Humph-
rey.’ In 1450 the Commons accused him of hav-
ing betrayed the King to the French and brought
articles of impeachment against him. The King
whose favor he never lost sentenced Suffolk to
five years’ exile. On May 1, 1450, the Duke set
sail for France, but the ship On which he em-
barked was intercepted by a royal man-of-war,
Suffolk was compelled to go on board, and on
the following day was taken into a small boat
and beheaded. His body was cast upon the beach
at Dover. The sanguinary deed was probably
due to Richard of York, his mortal enemy.-
JOHN DE LA POLE (1442-91) second Duke of Suf-
folk, only son of the preceding, regained the
ducal title in 1455. He joined the York party,
married a sister of Edward IV., and was in
favor under the rulers of that family and under
Henry VII. His eldest son John took part in
Lambert Simnel’s rebellion and fell at Stoke in
1487. He was attainted and the greater portion
of the family estates was lost.—EDMUND DE LA
POLE, a younger brother, received a pa-rt of the
confiscated estates with the title of earl. He
plotted to seize the throne with the aid of Ger-
man troops but the plan miscarried and he fell
into the hands of Henry VII., who, however,
spared his life and sent him to the Tower. He
was beheaded with his brother Richard in 1513,
and left no male issue. The title Duke of Suffolk
was subsequently borne by CHARLES BRANDON
(died 1545), the favorite of Henry V 111. and
husband of his sister Mary Tudor. He was suc-
ceeded by his two young sons, who died in 1551,
on the same day.——HENRY GREY, third Marquis
of Dorset, who had married a daughter of Charles
Grandon, was next made Duke of Suffolk. He
was the father of the unhappy Lady Jane Grey
(q.v.). In 1553 he attempted to raise the north,
was betrayed and beheaded. In 1603 THOMAS
HOWARD, second son of Thomas, fourth Duke of
Norfolk, was created Earl of Suffolk. His second
son was created Earl of Berkshire in 1626 and
in 1645 the two titles merged. The present
bearer of the title is Henry, 19th Earl of Suffolk
and Berkshire, born in 1877.
SUFFRAG-AN (ML. suffraganus, sufraganus,
from Lat. sufiragari, to assist, to vote for, from
sufiragium, vote, originally probably a broken
potsherd used in voting, from suffringere, sub-
fringere, to break, from sub, under + frangere,
to break). The name given to a bishop to ex-
press his relation, in a province, to the arch-
bishop or metropolitan (q.v.) . The name is also
applied to coadjutor or assistant bishops, espe-
cially in the Church of England, where suffragan .
bishops are usually known by territorial titles,
although they have no independent jurisdiction,
and their local commission, given by the bishop
of the diocese, terminates with his death. In the
Roman Catholic Church similar assistant bishops
are usually designated by the titles of extinct
sees. See TITULAR Brsnors.
SUFFRAGE (Lat. sufiragium, vote). In a
representative government, the act of a qualified
voter in participating in the choice of govern-
ment officials or in voting on laws or constitutions
submitted to the electorate. There are two views
as to the basis of suffrage. One holds that it is
a privilege bestowed by the State upon such of
its citizens as are capable of exercising it intel-
ligently and for the public Welfare. The other
SUFFRAGE.
SUFIISM.
305
view regards it as the natural right of all adult
male citizens. This was the doctrine of the eight-
eenth-century philosophy, but has been rejected
by most States, suffrage having been restricted
by them on some of the following bases: owner-
ship of property, payment of taxes, educational
attainments, moral character, residence, religious
profession, etc. An almost universal rule has
been to exclude women, children, lunatics, idiots,
convicted criminals, and aliens from the exercise
of the suffrage, although there have been and are
still exceptions.
In the American colonies the qualifications for
suffrage varied greatly. Thus in Virginia the
suffrage was restricted to ‘freeholders and house-
keepers;’ in Massachusetts until 1664 it was re-
stricted to church members; in the New Haven
Colony it was the same; under the Massachusetts
charter of 1692 it was restricted to freeholders of
a certain amount of property. The religious tests
were the first to be abolished, the last survival of
the kind existing in South Carolina from 1778 to
1790. The right of each State to regulate the
whole matter of the suffrage within its limits
was recognized by the Federal Constitution and
in hardly any two States were the requirements
the same. During the early part of the nine-
teenth century a freehold qualification was re-
quired in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti-
cut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland,
North Carolina, and South Carolina, the amount
ranging from £20 in New York to £60 in Massa-
chusetts or from 25 acres of improved land in
Virginia to 50 acres in Maryland and South
Carolina. The payment of taxes alone w'as re-
quired in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Georgia.
During the first three decades of the nineteenth
century the freehold requirement was abolished
in nearly every State. Likewise the tax and
ownership of personalty qualifications disappeared
in most of the States, so that adult male sufirage
became the general rule long before the outbreak
of the Civil War. Free riegroes were almost
everywhere excluded.
A readjustment of the suffrage followed the
Civil War. The Reconstruction Acts of 1867
conferred the right of suffrage on the freedmen.
In all the States that had rebelled the negroes
voted for the first time in 1867 in the
elections for delegates to the reconstruc-
tion constitutional conventions, and in the
following year on the question of adopting
or rejecting the new constitutions. The States
having once been readmitted to the Union, how-
ever, there was nothing to prevent them from
withdrawing the right temporarily bestowed on
the freedmen by Congress. The Fourteenth Amend-
ment was intended to guard against such action
on the part of the reconstructed States. On ac-
count of the difficulty of enforcing this amend-
ment and the inadequacy of protection which it
afforded the negro population, the reconstruction-
ists advanced another step. In the first place, it
was made a condition precedent to the readmis-
sion to the Union of the remaining unrecon-
structed States that they adopt constitutions
with una.mendable provisions guaranteeing the
right of suffrage to negroes. At the same time
the Fifteenth Amendment to the Federal Consti-
tution was carried. But the Constitution con-
fers the right of suffrage directly on no one, so
that there are no United States voters. This is a
prerogative of the individual States, and they
may exclude any number of persons on other
grounds than race or color, such as illiteracy,
lack of citizenship, non-payment of taxes, etc.,
subject to the penalty of a reduction of repre-
sentation in Congress.
The attainment of the twenty-first year of age
is a qualification in every State. In a number
of States women are allowed to vote in school
elections and in several Western States they vote
in State elections. The States may and gen-
erally do require voters to register within certain
periods as a means of preventing frauds at the
election, and this requirement indirectly excludes
some. Residence within the State and district
for a certain period previous to the election is
an almost universal requirement. Educational
tests have long existed in Massachusetts and
Connecticut and have been introduced in a num-
ber of the Southern States, as a result of which
the suffrage has been practically restricted to
the whites in Mississippi, South Carolina, Louisi-
ana, North Carolina, Alabama, and Virginia. In
Louisiana and North Carolina the hereditary
principle has also been introduced into the suf-
frage by the so-called ‘grandfather’ provision,
which extends the right to vote to all adult
males, without regard to intelligence or property,
whose fathers or grandfathers possessed the right
to vote on January 1, 1867. See the sections on
government of the various countries and States
for suffrage requirements.
SUFFEREN DE SAINT-TROPEZ, s1,1'£raN'
de saN tr6’pa’, PIERRE ANDRE DE (1726-88). A
French naval hero, born at Saint-Cannat, near
Lambesc. He was captured by Hawke in 1747
and after his exchange served for years with the
Knights Hospitalers of Malta. From 1767 to
1771 he was again in the service of Malta.
He was created Baillie - in the order of the >
Knights and was thereafter popularly known
as the Baillie de Suffren. In 1772 he was
commissioned captain in the French Navy.
His most noteworthy services were rendered
at the very close of his career, against the
English, in the Indian Ocean, where he went in
command of a squadron in 1781.
SUFIISM, s66’fe-iz’m (from Ar. sufi, mystic,
clad in woolen, from sin‘, wool; less plausibly de-
rived from Gk. ao¢6s, sophos, wise). A coherent
and organized system of Mohammedan mysticism.
Formerly Sufis were called Urafa, ‘Gnostics’ or
‘theosophists.’ To-day the most common name is
Fakirs, or Dervishes, ‘the poor,’ but it must be
understood that not all the poor in Persia, Egypt,
or Turkey, the main homes of Sufiism, are Der-
vishes, and that not all who are called or pretend
to be Dervishes are Sufis. Aship Pasha (A.D.
1332) aptly said: “He who forsakes the world
is a Dervish; he Whom the world forsakes is a
beggar.” ~
The origin of Sufiism is disputed. Some Sufis
say that “The seeds of Sufiism were sown in the
time of Adam, germed in that of Nuh (Noah),
budded in that of Ibrahim (Abraham), and began
to develop in the time of Musa (Moses) ; reached
maturity in Isa (Jesus), and produced pure wine
in Mohammed.” The word Sufiism seems to
have been first adopted by Abu Hashim, a Sy-
rian (A.D. 780). Abul Said Abul Khair (about
820) is mentioned as founder, while Al-
Ushairi (1073) states that the name was in
common use about 815. Mythical tales give
SUFIISM. 306 SUFIISM.
the origin to Rabia al Adawiyya (752), a Hafix (q.v.), Anvari, Jami (q.v.), and Hatifi
pious woman much spoken of in Sufiism. There (q.v.) are sub-poets of renown. Jami (d.
seems to be historic evidence to prove that, in 1492) has been called the last Sufi, and
spite of Mohammed’s precautions against mysti-
cism, it originated in his own family, with his
favorite Ali. Those who maintain that Sufi-
ism has its origin in the Vedanta (q.v.)
place it, of course, much further back in
time. Despite certain analogues, as the Per-
sian pir, or sage, who corresponds to the gum,
or teacher, of India, who initiates the neophyte
into the esoteric mysteries, there are many fun-
damental differences between the two systems.
Both overlook the fundamental difference be-
tween the two. Sufiism is radically theistic and
seldom swerves far from the Koran’s intense be-
lief in the One. The Vedanta is pantheistic with
occasional theistic phra-seology. The Sufis are
so completely absorbed in their devotion to the
Beloved (viz. God) that they look for Divinity
everywhere and see Divinity anywhere; the su-
perficial observer therefore easily comes to
regard the Sufis’ love in a pantheistic way,
and compares it with the Vedantic doc-
trine of absolute pantheism, summed up in
the phrase tat t/cam asi, ‘That (the Univer-
sal Spirit) thou art.’ It may, however, be ad-
mitted that later Sufiism shows forms of ex-
pression very similar to Vedanta, but also that
no historic connection has been proved by any-
body. It cannot be denied that the intellectual
forms given to most of the Sufi doctrines in
Persia, where Sufiism always was most powerful,
are from foreign sources. Among historic forces
which thus have molded Sufiism must be men-
tioned especially the Peripatetic philosophy, Neo-
Platonism, and Zoroastrianism. The latter’s for-
malism lent itself admirably to the Arabic intel-
lect, and its doctrines of Light harmonized well
with Sufiistic ascetic notions of the One. From
Greek sources came dialectics and cosmological
notions. The latter, though common in Sufiism,
are alien to its primitive nature. The Greek in-
fluence is traceable to the seven philosophers,
Diogenes, Hermias, Eulalius, Priscian, Damas-
cius, Isidore, and Simplicius, whom Justinian’s
intolerance drove into exile and who came to re-
side at Nushirwan’s court. The rich symbolism
of Sufiism is either of Zoroastrian origin or indig-
enous, with the exception of its Alexander
legends.
A few really great Sufis lived before the close
of the second century of the Hejira (815).
Among them and those immediately after are
to be mentioned the Egyptian Dhun-Nun (859),
who introduced the doctrine of ecstasy and
mystical stages; Sirri Sagvati (867), who
introduced unification; Junaid (910), who
reduced Sufiism to writing; and Al-Nallaj, who
became famous because he went about crying
“I am the true One,” for which he was put to
death by torture (921). The Fihrist (987)
represents him as a ‘wily conjurer,’ but Sufis
consider his death the result of the workings of
the occult law which brings death upon him who
divulges divine secrets. Ghazali (q.v.) (d.
1111) and Jalal-ud-Din Rumi (q.v.) (d. 1273)
were the two most famous Doctors in Sufiism.
Omar Khayyam (d. 1123), reckoned by some as
a Sufi, became known to the West through Fitz-
G-erald’s brilliant quatrains. Nizami (q.v.),
Farid-ud-Din Attar (q.v.), Sadi (q.v.), Shamsi,
with some justice. After him Sufiism slowly
declined, but the nineteenth century saw its
powerful revival in Turkey, though its Turkish
representative names are almost unknown out-
side of Turkey. From Turkey and Egypt comes
what may be called a Neo-Sufiism.
Primitive Sufiism is not doctrinal; it is an
‘experience,’ a ‘feeling of God,’ a ‘mystery of
godliness,’ and does not primarily have anything
to do with the notions of the intellect. Within
two hundred years from its origin, however, it
assumed doctrinal forms and it remained set-
tled in them, though it never gave up the
main characteristics of its beginning. The
two chief doctrines of Sufiism are that of the
One (Ahacl) and that of ‘the Way to the One’
(tar-iqat). A Sufi first of all endeavors to
realize that ‘the One’ is the only existence, that
there is not only ‘no god but God,’ but that there
is nothing but God. Next, he enters upon ‘the
journey to the rose-garden of Union.’ The Sufi’s
belief is not pantheism in the Greek sense; he
does not ‘make everything God except God him-
self;’ on the contrary, everything is na.ught ex-
cept Divinity and it is Divinity that gives life to
the dead Non-Being. The world is a phantas-
magory, and the time will come when it shall
pass away. God’s reason for creating the world
is found in this saying: “I was a Hidden Treas-
ure and I wished to be known, so I created Crea-
tion that I might be known.” The form of crea-
tion is not only truth and goodness, but also and
essentially beauty. Sufis lay more stress upon
the conception of Divinity as beauty than other
mystics or religions.
The Sufi ‘way to God’ is similar to the well-
known ideas on that subject among Western
mystics. VVith the help of a guide, ‘the traveler’
ascends step by step to union with God or
through awakening to regeneration and sanctifi-
cation to union. The ‘Way’ is ascetic and full of
occult practices, such as dances, silences, etc. All
men.may reach union. Every man is essentially
both a microtheos and a microcosmos, or, as
Shamsi of Tabriz sings in echo of numerous other
Sufis: “My place is in the Placeless; my trace
is in the Traceless.” “I gazed into my own
heart; there I saw One.”
Sufi symbolism is a mystery and permeates
the entire system of Sufiism. A symbol to a
Sufi is not merely an object which stands for some
other object or idea. For him every object has
besides its own immediate signification also an
ideal content, and it is this latter which is the
real object of the Sufi’s search. He finds it by
means of Love (isq). The object is to the
ecstatic a vivid, instantaneous revelation of the
inscrutable. Objects are therefore ‘veils,’ not
veils that hide, but ‘veils’ that reveal the One.
All Sufi poetry is written with a double sense
and the initiates can read five others besides.
The now comparatively well-known ghazels of
Hafiz, Sadi, Jami, and others abound in ‘veils,’
which the Occidental calls voluptuous and bac-
chanalian, but to the Sufi, Oriental as he is, they
are notlow or degraded, but simply descriptive
of emotions or soul-life. As such they suggest
to him deeper and more universal states of life.
The embrace means discovery of the mysteries of
Godhead; wine divine love and wisdom; a tavern
SUFIISM.
SUGAR.
307
signifies what we call a church, because through
I the rapture of the wine and the wonder of the
embrace the Sufi is filled with thoughts of the
Beloved; a red rose is the beloved damsel and the
nightingale is the lover; but the Beloved is al-
ways God.
There are many sects among the Sufis, but
their differences are not strictly Sufiistic; they
have arisen on external and unessential ground
and are of little interest outside of Sufiism.
Sufiism has exerted a powerful influence where
Mohammedanism rules, especially in Arabia,
Persia, and Egypt, and it is flourishing to-day in
Turkey. India also has a large number of Sufis.
Persian literature, more than any other, bears
strong impress of it.
Consult: J alal ud-Din Rumi, M athnawi, trans-
lated by Redhouse (London, 1881) and by Whin-
field (ib., 1887); Farid ud-Din Attar, Manti-q
at-Tair, edited and translated by Garcin de Tassy
(Paris, 1857-63); Mahmud Shabistari, Gul.§a-n-
i-Rrtz, edited and translated by Whinfield (Lon-
don, 1880) ; Tholuck, Ssufismus, sine Theoso-phia
Persarum Pantheistica (Berlin, 1821); id.,
Bliltensammlung aus der morgenliindischen
Mystilc (ib., 1825) ; Palmer, Oriental Mysticism
(Cambridge, 1867); Brown, The Dernishes, or
Oriental Spiritualism (London, 1868) ;
Kremer, Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des
Islam (Leipzig, 1868) ; Ethé, “Der Cufismus und
seine drei Hauptvertreter in der persischen
Poesie,” in his Morgenléindische Studien (ib.,
1870) ; id., Die mystische, didahtische und
lyrische Poesie und das sptitere Schrifttum der
Perser (Hamburg, 1888); id., “Neupersische
Literatur,” in Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss der
iranischen Ph-ilologie, vol. ii. (Strassburg, 1896-
97); Frank, Beitrag sur Erkenntnis des Sufis-
mus (Leipzig, 1884) ; Pizzi, Storia della Poesia
persiana (Turin, 1894) ; Gibbs, History of Otto-
man Poetry (London, 1900) ; Browne, “Sufiism,”
in Religious Systems of the World (ib., 1892);
id., Literary History of Persia (ib., 1902) ;
Bjerregaard, Sufi Interpretations of the Quat-
rains of Omar Khayyam and Fitzgerald (New
York, 1902) ; Macdonald, Development of Muslim
Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional The-
ory, (ib., 1903).
SUGAR, MANUFACTURE or. Cane sugar is
found in varying quantities in many plants, but
sugar-cane (Saccharum oflicinarum), the sugar
beet (Beta vulgaris), the sugar maple (Acer
saccharinum), and various species of palms
are its only commercially important sources.
(See table below.) At one time the United
States Department of Agriculture experiment-
ed with sorghum (Sorghum uulgare), which
seemed a promising source of cane sugar,
but though several varieties containing from
10 to 20 per cent. of cane sugar were pro-
duced by seed selection, sorghum has never
been more than locally important as a source
of syrup, because great difiiculty has been experi-
enced in purifying the juice by any known proc-
ess except that recommended by the department,
a process which failed to attract investors, be-
cause alcohol, its principal factor, was subject
to unfavorable revenue regulations. Several
sorghum sugar factories were erected in Kansas
and elsewhere about 1890, but development
failed to pass the experimental stage. In 1889
the production of syrup was 24,235,219 gallons;
in 1899, 16,972,783 gallons. (See SOBGHUM.) Ex-
perimentally, small quantities of cane sugar have
been made from corn stalks and from melons.
Owing to the presence of impurities, including
saccharine substances other than cane sugar, raw
sugars obtained from the various plants men-
tioned differ greatly in flavor, but, contrary to
popular belief, the granulated or refined sugar
derived from them differs not at all in sweeten-
ing power, since it consists of more than 99 per
cent. of cane sugar and less than 1 per cent. of
impurities including mineral matter, water, etc.
CANE SUGAR. During the middle of the eight-
eenth century sugar-cane (q.v.) was introduced
from Southern Europe into Louisiana, where the
successful manufacture of sugar began during
the last decade of that century. Formerly the
juice obtained by more or less crude processes
was evaporated in open pans (‘kettles’) and the
molasses allowed to drain in barrels or other
forms of coolers. The molasses, which was gener-
ally not reboiled, was superior in flavor and
lighter in color than that remaining after the re-
moval of several crops of crystals in a modern
sugar factory, because of its smaller proportion
of impurities.
The modern sugar factory is equipped with
every apparatus suggested by scientific research.
The juice of the cane is extracted in
‘mills’ consisting mainly of a system of rollers,
often eight, arranged in three sets, through which
the cane successively passes; first, two corru-
gated rolls, which break and prepare the cane
for the heavier pressures applied by the suc-
ceeding sets of three rolls each. Between the
second and third set the crushed cane is sprayed
with water to facilitate the removal of sugar
by the last set. This process removes from 50
to 85 per cent. of the sugar, according to the effi-
ciency of the apparatus and the care with which
it is operated. The crushed cane, called ‘bagasse,’
is used for fuel to furnish steam for the engines
and pumps, and for the evaporation of the juice.
The diffusion process, which is used in relatively
few cane-sugar factories (see BEET SUGAR, be-
low), secures from 90 to 97 per cent. of the
sugar, but the bagasse is unfit for fuel.
Aside from the minor details the process of
manufacture is essentially the same in each case.
For white sugar the juice is bleached with the
fumes of burning sulphur. Lime is next added
to neutralize it or to leave it faintly acid. In
the subsequent heating the insoluble compounds
of lime formed with the organic acids, the al-
buminous bodies, and other impurities rise to
the surface and are removed by skimming or are
precipitated. Since the quality of the sugar
produced depends upon this process of clarifica-
tion, considerable skill and care are bestowed
upon it. The skimmings and stillings, which
were formerly thrown away, are now filtered and
saved, and in many factories the clear juice is
often filtered also to remove all traces of in-
soluble matter.
In a new and efficient process adopted by many
factories during the closing decade of the last
century the limed juice is pumped continuously
under high pressure through pipes surrounded
by steam in a chamber (‘superheater’); thence
it passes through a cooler in which the same
pipes, extended, are surrounded by the cold juice,
which absorbs the surplus heat; and lastly it
passes direct to the filter presses and settling
SUGAR.
SUGAR.
308
tanks. The process is continuous, accomplishes
a high degree of purification, eliminates the
labor of skimming, and is conducted in a closed
apparatus.
The clarified juice containing from 10 to 18
per cent. of sugar is evaporated in multiple-
efiect vacuum evaporators, so called because
the heating effect of the steam is utilized in
vacuo as many times as there are pans in the
series, steam being applied to the first pan and
the vapor from the boiling juice to the second
pan, and so on. From the last pan the vapor
passes to a condenser, kept in constant vacuum by
a continuously acting pump from‘ which it flows
away. The juice is pumped continuously through
the pans, from the last of which it issues as a
syrup containing about 50 per cent. of dissolved
matter, including from 40 to 45 per cent. of
sugar and 5 to 10 per cent. of impurities.
The syrup is then admitted to the ‘strike’ pan,
a cylindrical cast-iron vessel provided with a
vacuum pump, condenser, and several coils of
copper tubing, to which steam may be admitted
as desired. After further condensation, and when
about one-fourth or one-third full of thick liquor,
a fresh charge of cool syrup is admitted to cause
the formation of minute sugar crystals (‘grain’),
the size of which can be controlled by the sugar-
boiler, who regulates the boiling and the admis~
sion of fresh syrup so as to avoid the formation
of new crystals, ‘false grain.’ The pan is emptied
when it becomes filled with a dense mass of sugar
crystals and syrup, ‘massecuite,’ which is con-
veyed to cylindrical metal vessels (centrifugal
machines) with perforated walls and supported
upon vertical shafts making from 1000 to 1500
revolutions a minute, the'force throwing the
syrup out through the walls. After the sugar is
sprayed with water in which a little ultramarine
or other harmless blue is added to correct the
yellow tint, it is removed, and in the case of
granulated sugar is dried in revolving drums
(granulators) through which a current of warm
air passes.
The molasses may be reboiled even three times
for a ‘second,’ ‘third,’ and, if exceptionally pure,
even a ‘fourth’ sugar. In these cases the masse-
cuites, which contain no crystals when they leave
the vacuum pan, are placed in ‘sugar wa ons,’
tanks, or metal boxes on wheels, for a few ours
or days until crystals form. These second and
third massecuites are frequently granulated in
cylindrical ‘crystallizers’ while constantly stirred
by revolving paddles, a method (‘crystallization
in movement’) very generally adopted in modern
beet-sugar factories.
BEET SUGAR. The manufacture of sugar
from beet roots is a comparatively modern in-
dustry, having its inception in the investiga-
tions of Margrafl‘, who in 17 47 announced to the
Berlin Academy of Sciences the analyses of sev-
eral sugar-containing plants and predicted that
the sugar beet (q.v.), being the most saccharine
of the plants examined, would become the basis
of a great industry. Nearly half a century later
the problem was solved by a pupil of Margraff,
Achard, who mad.e a considerable quantity of
beet sugar and announced his methods to the
Berlin Academy of Sciences and to the Institute
of France in 1797 and 1799, respectively. In
Germany several beet-sugar factories were built
within the next decade, and beginning with 1810
the industry, being stimulated by governmental
aid in both countries, developed steadily. Ast0n—
ishing improvements have been wrought in all _
branches. The percentage of sugar in the roots
has been increased by selection from less than
7 per cent. at the beginning to an average in
1900 exceeding 14 per cent. and a maximum of
more than 20 per cent.; the quality of the roots,
the yield in tons per acre, and the improved proc-
esses of manufacture, which according to German
statistics have reduced the weight of roots
necessary to yield a pound of sugar from 18
pounds in 1837 to 7.02 pounds in 1899, have
combined to make the industry profitable both in
Europe, with its cheap labor, and in America,
with its cheap lands.
In the manufacture of beet sugar the roots,
already trimmed of leaves, are conveyed by
water in little canals which extend through the
bottoms of the V~shaped storage ‘sheds, to the
washing machine, where every particle of soil is
removed by revolving brushes, the roots con-
stantly progressing against a current of water
toward the automatic weighing machine. After
the weight has been recorded the roots go to the
slicer. Here they are cut by corrugated knives
into little V-shaped slices (cossettes) that drop
into large iron tanks (cells), a series of 12 to 14
of which constitute a ‘diffusion battery,’ so called
because the sugar is removed from the cossettes
by water into which the sugar diffuses and which
passes by a complicated system of pipes and
valves through all the charged cells of the series,
always from the longest filled cell, containing
nearly exhausted cossettes, to the most recently
filled, thus removing the largest possible quantity
of sugar with the smallest quantity of water.
One of the two uncharged cells is always being
filled with fresh cossettes, the other being
emptied, its cossettes containing less than 0.5 per
cent. of sugar. Thus the process is continuous.
The exhausted cossettes, which are used as stock
food, are pressed to remove the excess of water
and in some cases are dried to enhance their
transporting and storing qualities.






NUMBER AND Nomnan DAILY CAPACITY or ESTABLISH-
MENTS IN 1900, 1899, AND 1889
[From the Twelfth Census]
1900 1899 1889
sg gag sg gag sg gag
srarns AND ‘.3 egg ,_,: .§,,g M: ggg
rnnarromns 9;‘ 753% can -§:3~— <1>,Q -H3‘...
'°c+°§ c133 nag =:§,,°,, nag 2”’
SP5‘, Ems! E+=§§ Ema E+=§ ‘E38
=‘?3a 038 S338 038 =28 63°
Z z Z z Z 2: ‘°
The United
States ...... .. 37* 22,310 311- 19,110 15 7,560
California. . ...... 8 9,900 81' 9,900 5 4,400
Colorado ....... .. 3 1,850 1 350 ....... ..
Illinois ........... .. 1 700 1 700 ....... ..
Michigan ....... .. 10 4,450 9 4,100 1 400
Minnesota. .... .. 1 400 1 400 1 400
Nebraska ....... .. 3 1,260 3 1,260 2 660
New Mexico. 1 1 200 1 200
New York........ 3 1,000 2 400 2 400
Ohio .............. .. 1 400 ....... .. ....... ..
Oregon ......... .. 1 350 1 350 1 350
Utah .............. .. 4 1,4501 3 1,100§ 2 750
Washington. ... 1 350 1 350 . . . ....... . .
* Includes two idle establishments. 1- Includes one idle
establishment. I Includes two auxiliary factories. § In-
eludes one auxiliary factory at which no sugar is manu-
iactured, but juice is extracted from the beets and pumped
to acentral factory for treatment. In November, 1903, other
factories not mentioned in the above table were opened 3,5
follows : Michigan, 6; Utah, 2; Colorado, 1.
SUGAR.
SUGAR.
309
When the ‘diffusion juice’ leaves the battery
the coarse particles of beet pulp are filtered out
and from two to three pounds of lime added for
each hundred pounds of beets used. Carbon diox-
ide is then forced through the liquid to precipi-
tate the lime, together with certain impurities,
after the removal of which the operations of lim-
ing, carbonizing, and filtering are repeated. If
the final product is to be a white sugar, the clear
juice is then bleached with sulphurous acid and
again filtered. The subsequent treatment cor-
responds more or less closely with that employed
in the factories using sugar-cane.
The United States Department of Agriculture
and various experiment stations, by means of
special appropriations, have assisted greatly in
the development of the beet-sugar industry,
which is established on a firm footing in Amer-
ica. Especially since 1897 (see table) has the
growth been rapid, the capital invested being, in
1900, more than $25,000,000.
MAPLE SUGAR. The manufacture of maple
sugar is carried on more or less wherever sugar-
maple trees are abundant, especially in the
Northern Atlantic and Northern Central States,
the leading producers, according to census re-
turns, being Vermont and New York. In some
cases the natural groves have been extended by
planting. The busy period depends upon the
locality and upon the season, sometimes com-
mencing in February and sometimes lasting until
the middle of May, the best flow of sap being
when there is a diurnal alternation of thawing
and slight freezing. See MAPLE.
The most popular modern method of tapping
the trees is to bore a one-half inch hole not more
than 1% inches into the tree near the ground
and to drive in a metal or wooden ‘spile.’ This
conducts the sap and also serves to support the
bucket, from which the sap is collected once or
oftener each day and taken to a central plant to
be boiled as soon after it arrives as possible, to
avoid deterioration. All sorts of apparatus, in-
cluding culinary utensils, are used for boiling the
sap, but the most approved is a steam-heated
evaporator, of which several makes are upon the
market. In these the sap flows through a wind-
ing channel, emerging as the finished product,
which, owing to its freedom from molasses,
quickly solidifies if sufficiently evaporated.
On an average the sap contains about 3 per
cent. of sugar, but occasionally exceeds 6 per
cent., and at this average a yield of three
pounds a year is considered profitable. Large
trees and trees with rich sap often yield far more.
The impurities of the sap as found in the sugar
rarely exceed 5 per cent. There is, however, a
small amount of insoluble material which is re-
moved by skimming. Sometimes milk or white
of egg is used as a clarifier, but usually no puri-
fying agents are employed, reliance being placed
on quick boiling and skimming to produce a light-
colored and otherwise satisfactory sugar. The
only impurity that causes trouble is the so-called
‘sugar sand,’ composed mainly of acid malate of
lime, which collects on the bottom of the pans,
interferes with the boiling, and makes the syrup
cloudy and the sugar gritty.
PALM-TREE SUGAR. The ‘jaggery,’ made prin-
cipally in the East Indies from various species
of palms (Phoenix, Borassus, Coccos, and other
genera), is a dark-colored raw sugar made in a
crude way by methods not essentially different
from those described, except that a little lime is
added as a clarifying agent. It plays a minor
part in the world’s markets.
SUGAR REFINING. Since all of the raw beet
sugar and much of the raw cane sugar are un-
suitable for table use, and since even the lighter
grades of unrefined sugar are in small demand
when compared to the snow-white granulated,
loaf, and powdered sugars, the refining of raw
sugars has become an important branch of the
sugar industry. As usually conducted the proc-
ess consists in dissolving the raw sugar in
water, filtering through cloth to remove sus-
pended matter, decolorizing by filtration through
bone black (bone charcoal), and granulating in a
vacuum pan as above described for sugar-cane
sugar. For the manufacture of high-grade
sugars with large, hard crystals, the process is
sometimes modified, the raw sugar being washed
with a dense syrup that removes the adhering
molasses without perceptibly dissolving the crys-
tals, which, when dissolved, form a syrup so
light-colored as greatly to reduce or entirely
obviate the necessity of filtering through bone
black before the solution is placed in the strike
pan for granulation.
STATISTICS OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. The
world’s production of sugar in 1902-3, excepting
that obtained from maple trees, is quoted below
from the estimates given in Willett and Gray’s
Weekly Statistical Sugar Trade Journal, for
September 17, 1903:
SUGAR Cnor on THE Woann



Cane Sugar Tons
Louisiana .............................................................. .. 300,000
Porto Rico .......................................................... .. 85,000
Hawaiian Islands ................................................. .. 349,000
uba ..... .......................................................... .. 975,000
West Indies (exports) ........................................... .. 256,772
Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115,000
Central America ................................................... .. 23,500
British Guiana (exports) ....................................... .. 105,000
Dutch Guiana ...................................................... .. 13,000
Venezuela .............................................................. .. 3,000
Peru ...................................................................... .. 140,000
Argentina .............................................................. .. 130,000
Brazil ................................ .. .. ... 187,500
British India .......................................................... .. 15,000
Siam ..................................................................... .. 7,000
J ava...._ ................................................................ .. 842,812
Philippine Islands (exports) .................................. .. 80,000
Queensland ............................................................ .. 76,626
New South Wales ................................................... .. 21,000
Fiji Islands (exports) ........................................ .. 35,500
Egypt ................................................................... .. 90,000
Mauritius .. ....... .. 135,000
Reunion... ............ .. 5,000
Spain ............................. .. 28,000
Total cane-sugar production (Willett & G/ray).......4,048,710
European beet-sugar production (Licht) .............. ..5,605,000
United States beet-sugar production (Willett &
Gray).. 195,463
Grand total cane and beet-sugar production .. . 9,849,173
According to the reports of the Twelfth Census
the maple sugar made on farms in the United
States during the year 1899 amounted to 11,928,-
770 pounds and the maple syrup 2,056,611
gallons.
The annual per capita consumption of sugar
in various countries is given in Willett, and
Gray’s Weekly Statistical Sugar Trade Journal,
for March 14, 1901, as follows:
Consumption per capita,
1899-1900
Germany ..................................................... .. 33.9 in
Austria ....................................................... .. 17.6 p01“ (18
France ........................................................... .. 36.9 "
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14.0 “
Holland .................................... .. 32.4 “
Belgium... ................................................... .. 23.3 “
SUGAR.
SUGAR.
310
Consumption per capita.
1899-1900
Denmark ........................................................ .. 54.8 pounds
Sweden and Norway ....................................... .. 38.2 “
Italy ............................................................... .. 6.1 “
Rumania. ...................................................... .. 7.8 “
Spain .............................................................. .. 10.6 “
Portugal ........................................................ .. 14.7 “
England ......................................................... .. 91.6 “
Bulgaria ......................................................... .. 7.7 “
Greece ............................................................. .. 7.2 “
Servia ............................................................. .. 5.2 “
Turkey ........................................................... .. 8.0 “
Switzerland .................................................... .. 60.3 “
All Europe (Licht) ..................... ............. .. 27.1 pounds
United States (W. and G.) ....................... .. 66.6 “
MOLASSES. Molasses is a viscid, usually dark-
colored uncrystallizable liquid which seeps from
the massecuite of sugar-cane or is thrown out by
the centrifugal machine. The latter kind is re-
boiled as noted above; the former, however, being
highly valued for its flavor and sweetness, is used
as _a food and for cooking. Since the introduc-
tion of the vacuum pan and the centrifugal ma-
chine it has become annually less plentiful in
the market, the small quantities made being used
in the regions where cane sugar is manufactured.
Most of the so-called New Orleans molasses is
composed of glucose flavored with some molasses
from the sugar factories. Spurious maple syrup
and sugar (see above) are made of cane sugar‘
and glucose often flavored with an extract of
hickory bark. No table molasses is made from
the sugar beet, because the impurities cannot be
removed by any known process. Processes have
been patented for the manufacture of table syrup
from beet roots, but they have hitherto been of
little commercial importance.
Normally, cane molasses made by the open-
kettle process contains about 30 per cent. cane
sugar, 23 per cent. reducing sugar, and 47 per
cent. water, ash, and impurities; that made in a
large modern factory, 20 per cent. cane sugar,
25 per cent, reducing sugar, and 51 per cent.
water, etc. Beet molasses contains 47 per cent.
cane sugar, 5 per cent. reducing sugar, 20 per
cent. water, 22 per cent. organic matter other
than sugars, and 6 per cent. ash, etc. In sugar-
manufacturing regions molasses is mixed with
such bulky materials as cottonseed meal, cotton-
seed hulls, etc., to be easily handled and fed to
stock as a cheap source of carbohydrate food.
In Europe several ‘molasses feeds’ have been
proposed and one has been manufactured in com-
mercial quantities from four parts bran, three
parts beet-sugar molasses, and one part palm-
nut cake. Another preparation composed of
dried blood, peat, extracted beef pulp, and mo-
lasses has also been tried with favorable results.
MILK SUGAR on LACTOSE. Sugar of milk, oc-
curring only in the milk of mammals, is found to
the extent of 4 or 5 per cent. in the milk of
herbivorous animals. It is obtained by first
curdling the milk with rennet or other agent to
remove the casein and the fat, and then drawing
off and evaporating the clear whey to a syrup
in which, when cold and still, the milk sugar
crystallizes and sinks. The deposit is recrystal-
lized, after being dissolved in hot water, some-
times as hard cylindrical masses on strings.
Sugar of milk is employed very largely for modi-
fying cow’s milk for the use of infants, in phar-
. macy, and as a food. See MILK; F001).
F001) VALUE OF SUGAR. Since milk sugar and
dextrose are used for human food to a far less ex-
tent than cane sugar, which they resemble some-
what closely in-action, the statements in the fol-
lowing paragraphs are confined to cane sugar.
In its food value sugar resembles starch,
being considered a fat-former and a source of
energy with a fuel value of 1860 calories a pound.
Thus it is ranked as a more readily available
heat-producer and force-conserver than starch
(q.v.). From dietary statistics the conclusion is
drawn that persons in well-to-do families
in the United States consume about two pounds
of sugar weekly, an amount that seems to be
well utilized. The consumption of larger amounts
is considered questionable economy both with re-
spect to the purse and to the system. But ex-
cessive indulgence in food of any other sort is
also wasteful and unwise. Thus the wholesome-
ness and utilization of sweetened foods is largely
a matter of quantity or concentration, a simple
dish flavored with sugar being considered easy to
digest, but a heavily sweetened one eaten singly,
more or less diflicult because of its concentra-
tion. The bad effects popularly charged to sugar
are misapplied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Literature—Roth, Guide to the
Literature of Sugar (London, 1890); Barnett,
“References to the Literature of Sugar Beet,”
in Library Bulletin, No. 16, United States
Department of Agriculture (Washington, 1897).
History—Lippmann, Geschichte des Zuclcers
(Leipzig, 1890) ; id., Entwiclolung der deutschen
Zuclcerindustrie /uon 1-850 bis 1900 (ib., 1900) ;
Boizard and Tardieu, Histoire de la législation
des sucres, 1664-1891 (Paris, 1891); Helot, Le
sucre de bettera/ve en France de 1800 a 1900
(Cambrai, 1900). Culture of Sugar-Producing
Plants, Manufacture of Sugar—Myrick, Ameri-
can Sugar Industry (New York, 1899); Stoh-
mann, Handbuch der Zuckerfabrilcation (Berlin,
1878, rev. ed. 1899); Horsin-Deon, Traité theo-
rique et pratique de la fabrication du sucre
(Paris, 1882, rev. ed. 1900); Beaudet, Pellet,
and Saillard, Traité de la fabrication du sucre
de betteraoe et de canne (ib., 1894); Stubbs,
Sugar-cane: A Treatise on the History, Botany,
and Agriculture of Sugar-cane (Louisiana Bu-
reau of Agriculture, 1897 ) ; Kriiger, Das Zucker-
rohr und seine Kultur (Magdeburg, 1899) ;
Riimpler, Die Nichtzuckerstoffe den R-iiben in
ihrer Beeiehung sur Zucherfabrilcation (Bruns-
wick, 1898); Bivort, Etude sur la législation
des sucres dans les divers pays d’Europe et aua:
Etats-Unis (Paris, 1880) ; Lippmann, Die Ohemie
der Zucloerarten (2d ed., Brunswick, 1895) ;
Maquenne, Les sucres et leurs principauaa dérivés
(Paris, 1900) ; Passche, Zuekerindustrie und
Zuckerhandel der Welt (Jena, 1891); Spencer,
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and Their
Chemists (New York, 1897) ; Tollens, Handbuch
der Kohlenhydrate (Breslau, 1895).
Numerous bulletins on the sugar industry and
sugar manufacture have- been published by the
Division of Chemistry, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Some of the more recent of.
these are as follows: Sugar-cane Oulture—Bulle-
tins 70 and 75; Sugar from Sorghum—Bulletins
26, 29, 34, 37, and 40; Sugar Beet Oulture—Bul-
letins 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 52, 64, and 74. A series
of publications on the progress of the beet-sugar
industry in the United States has also been pub-
lished. Those for 1900, 1901, and 1902 are
issued as Reports Nos. 69, 72, and 74 respectively.
See SUGARs.
SUGAR BEET.
SUGAR-CANE.
311
, sugar beets in Colorado.
SUGAR BEET (Beta vulgar-is). A vegetable
of the natural order Chenopodiaceae, botanically
the same species as the garden beet, important
commercially as the source of a very large part
of the world’s supply of sugar. (See SUGARS,
section on BEET SUGAR. The sugar beet flourishes
upon a rich, deep, loamy soil in a climate having
a temperature of about 70° during the growing
season. The seed is planted and the crop culti-
vated and harvested by the finest machinery.
The rotation of the crop with others is carefully
planned and the proper fertilization of the fields
has been a subject of much study by the experi-
ment stations; Since the‘ sugar content and
yield are influenced by many factors, the sugar
companies employ field experts to instruct the
farmers how to grow beets in the proper way.
Being a product of intensive cultivation, the
sugar beet is especially suited to a thickly settled
population. The average cost of growing an
acre of sugar beets in the United States is about
$30. The average yield in the best districts is
about 12 tons, with an average sugar content of
14.5 per cent. This represents a yield of about
3900 pounds of sugar per acre, though higher
yields have been reported up to 4800 pounds.
SUGAR-BEET INSECTS. The recent intro-
duction and rapid spread of the sugar beet have
resulted in the attacks of several insects not be-
fore known as injurious and have given a new
food to others. A leaf-miner (Pegomyia vicina) ,
30 or 40 larvae of which may be found in a single
leaf, has produced serious damage in California.
Many leaf-hoppers (q.v.) feed upon the leaves;
also several plant and leaf bugs, and plant-lice,
notably the common melon aphis (Aphis gos-
sipii). Various cutworms (q.v.) are trouble-
some while the beets are young. Considerable
damage has been done by the greenhouse leaf-
roller (Phlyctcenia ferrugalis). The so-called
garden webworms, however, especially in the
West, have done the greatest damage of all. Cer-
tain leaf-beetles injure the leaves, and the larvae
of some of them feed upon the roots. Much
damage has been done by grasshoppers, non-mi-
gratory locusts, and blister beetles (q.v.), the
imbricated snout beetle, and the army' worm
( .v.).
thle so-called beet army worm (Laphyg-ma
flavimaculata) defoliated thousands of acres of
The purslane cater-
pillar (Copidryas Gloveri), the purslane sphinx
(Deilephila lineata), and several of the woolly-
bear caterpillars also feed upon the leaves. Great
damage has been done in the State of Washing-
ton by a root-louse known as the beet aphis
(Pemphigus betce), and a root mealy-bug has
been found on the crown of the plant in Colo-
rado. Several of the wireworms (q.v.) and
white grubs (q.v.) also damage the roots.
Consult: Forbes, Twenty-first Annual Report
State Entomologist of Illinois (Chicago, 1900) ;
Forbes and Hart, Bulletin No. 60 Illinois Agri-
cultural Emperiment Station (Urbana, 1900).
SUGAR-CANE (Saccharum o/ficinarum). A
tropical and subtropical grass, 'originally a na-
tive of the East Indies. It was brought to
Europe by the Crusaders, and in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries found its way into all
the European colonies in the tropics. In Europe
the cultivation of the sugar-cane has always been
limited almost wholly to Sicily and Andalusia.
Toward the close of the last century.
In China it extends to latitude 30° N ., and in
North America to 32°; in the Southern Hemi-
sphere only to latitude 22° S. The plant is a
perennial with a creeping root, sending up a
number of many-jointed diversely colored stems,
generally 8 to 12 feet high, 1 to 2 inches thick,
and filled for about two-thirds of their length
with a loose, sweet, juicy pith. The leaves are
ribbon-shaped, 4 to 5 feet long, with a strong
midrib. The flowers are in great diffuse pyram-
idal panicles a yard long. '
Sugar-cane requires a deep rich soil and abun-
dant moisture during the growing season. Low
alluvial soils near the sea are preferable. The
land is prepared with very large plows. The plants
are propagated by cuttings. For this purpose the
top joints are planted in rows 5 to 7 feet apart.
Usually two continuous lines of canes are planted
in the row. The largest varieties, in rich, moist
soils, attain a height of twenty feet; but in dry,
poor soils the height is sometimes scarcely more
than six feet. The plant tillers like wheat, but
not to the same degree. The cane ground is kept
clean by shallow cultivation. The best varieties
are ready for cutting in about eight or ten
months from thetime of planting, but other
varieties require from twelve to twenty months.
VVhen the canes are fully ripe they are cut a
little above the ground, stripped of their leaves,

SUGAR~CANE.
and tied in bundles. Fresh canes, called rattoons,
spring from the root, so that the plantation does
not require to be‘ renewed for several years; but
the canes of the first crop are the largest, and
a gradual decrease of size takes place. The
ordinary practice on sugar estates is to renew a
part of the plantation every year. The sugar
content of the cane ordinarily grown has for
some time averaged about 10 per cent. Sugar-
cane production is usually carried on by large
plantations. It is a business of great risks, but
large profits. It requires a large and sure source
SUGAR-CANE.
SUGARS.
312
of labor, especially at harvest. The yield of sugar
varies greatly. In regions with a fertile soil,
irrigation, and improved methods of culture
about five tons of sugar per acre is produced.
Yields of over ten tons per acre are authenti-
cated. In Hawaii, where sugar-cane production
has reached its highest perfection, yields of even
fourteen tons of sugar per acre are known. This
is obtained only by frequent plantings and scien-
tific fertilization and irrigation of the crop. The
leaves are sometimes used for feeding cattle.
Efforts made by -the Louisiana Experiment Sta-
tion to make silage from sugar-cane refuse were
unsuccessful, owing to the alcoholic and acetic
fermentation induced by the residual sugar. The
pressed residue from the mill, known as bagasse,
is used for fuel. It is also employed as a fer-
tilizer. See SUGAR, NIANUFAOTUBE or.
SUGAR-CANE INSECTS. The principal
enemies of the sugar-cane in the United States
are the sugar-cane beetle (Ligyms rugiceps) and
the sugar-cane borer (Diatrcea sacchamlis) . The
former belongs to the family Scarabzeidae, and
breeds in the ground. The adult beetles make
their appearance in early spring, bore into the
stubble or into the young cane, and also work
into the seed cane; the top leaves wither and the
stalk is finally destroyed. The borer is the larva
of a crambid moth which lays its eggs upon the
leaves of the young cane near the axils, and the
young borer, hatching in the course of a few
days, penetrates the stalk at or near the joint
and tunnels, usually upward, through the soft
pith. It matures in thirty days or less, and
there are several generations each year. It hiber-
nates-in the larval state in the lower part of
the stalk or in the tap root. Burning the tops
and volunteer cane, and laying down the seed
cane in trenches beneath the surface of the
ground, keep this insect in check.
In Hawaii there is a weevil borer (S'phen0-
phorus obscurus) which does considerable dam-
age. Stalks of the cane are frequently riddled
with the galleries of the larvae, and the galleries
are filled with macerated fibre which the larva
apparently pushes behind itself. When ready to
pupate the tunnel is somewhat enlarged and a
cocoon is formed of coarse fibre in which trans-
formation takes place. In Australia there is a
noctuid larva which bores downward from the
tips' of the plants. Certain scarabaeid larva
feed upon the roots, and the young plants are
destroyed by wireworms. In the West Indies a
bark-boring beetle (Xyleborus piceus) sometimes
riddles the canes by its minute burrows, the
larva working into the young sprouts from the
stumps of previously cut canes. In Java there
are three lepidopterous borers and a mealy bug
which do some damage, and in Mauritius a some-
what troublesome scale insect known as Icerya
sacchanl. Consult various volumes of Insect Life
(Washington, 1888 to 1895); Comstock, Report
on Insects I7tj’LlT’iO1l51 to Sugar-Cane (ib., 1881) ;
Morgan, “Sugar-Cane Borer,” in Bulletin 9, Lou-
isiana Agricultural Ewpenlment Station (Baton
Rouge, 1891).
SUGAR-HOUSE, THE. A brick building on
Liberty Street, New York, used by the British
as a military prison during the Revolution.
SUGAR OF LEAD. The common name for
acetate of lead. See LEAD.
SUGARS (OF., Fr. sucre, from ML. succarum,
saccharum, from Gk. orixxap, salochar, odxxapov,
saldharon, sugar, from Ar. sa-Icloar, from Pers.
shakar, Eind. shalckar, from Prak. salelcara, sugar,
from Skt. éarlcant, candied sugar, gravel, grit).
A term applied to various substances composed
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (see CARBO-
HYDRATES) which are more or less sweet, are
readily soluble in water, are colorless and odor-
less, and are usually crystallizable. They are
widely distributed in nature as original products
of vital processes in plants. They have an un-
paralleled importance in the organic world. In
green plants they are formed from carbon diox-
ide and water by the chloroplasts (see PHOTO-
SYNTHESIS), and are transferred by diffusion to
all parts of the plant body to be used directly in
the metabolism of the plant for the manufacture
of proteid substances, or to be stored for future
use, sometimes as glucose (e.g. in the onion
bulb), sometimes as saccharose (e.g. in the beet),
and sometimes as other widely different substan-
ces into which they have been converted. (See
STORAGE.) If formed more rapidly than they can
diffuse away, sugars may be condensed into
starch in the chloroplasts themselves. At times
of renewed growth, as in the germination of seeds
and the sprouting of tubers and bulbs, the plant
draws upon these stores of carbohydrate. If the
storage has been in the form of cellulose, starch,
inulin, or cane sugar, the stored food must be
converted by means of enzymes into a hexose
sugar before it can be utilized. The stored
sugars of plant tissues form one of the most
valuable sources of animal food.
Sugars found in the bodies of animals or in
the excreta therefrom are believed to be derived
from substances of vegetable origin. The sugars
have been variously classified according to their
chemical and physical properties as fermentable
and non-fermentable ; reducing and ‘non-reducing;
and dextro-rotary, laevo-rotary, and inactive, ac-
cording to their effect on polarized light.
FERMENTABLE AND UNFERMENTABLE SUGABS.
These include the sugars that undergo change or
decomposition under the influence of microorgan-
isms; glucose, for example, and certain other
sugars are thus changed into alcohol (q.v.) by
the action of yeast. This term and method of
classification have become unsatisfactory because
of greatly increased knowledge of the action of
the lower forms of life and enzymes on sugars,
and other substances. (See FERMENTATION;
ENZYME.) Many sugars, however, that are not
acted upon by one organism are readily decom-
posed by another, and so the subdivision of
sugars into fermentable and unfermentable is of
at least doubtful value. For example, milk
sugar does not yield alcohol with yeast without
first being hydrolyzed, but undergoes the lactic
acid fermentation immediately.
REDUCING SUGARS. Certain sugars possess the
property of reducing compounds of copper, silver,
and other easily reducible metals in alkaline
solution, the reduction being generally more rapid
at the boiling point of the liquid. In some cases
the compounds are reduced to lower oxides, which
are precipitated, as in the case of copper; in
other cases the reduction is complete, the free
metal being precipitated. An alkaline solution
of copper (see FEHLING’S SOLUTION) is the one
usually employed for testing the _reducing power
of sugars. The amount of reduction depends
SUGARS.
SUGARS.
313
upon the amount of a given sugar present; the
process is therefore used for the quantitative de-
termination of reducing‘sugars. Among the im-
portant reducing sugars are d-glucose (dextrose
or grape sugar), d-fructose (laevulose or fruit
sugar), maltose, lactose (milk sugar), and ‘in-
vert sugar’ (see below). Sucrose (cane sugar),
raffinose, melicitose, and stachyose are the prin-
cipal non-reducing sugars known.
OPTICALLY ACTIVE SUGARS. The property pos-
sessed by sugars of rotating the plane of polar-
ized light to the right or left when passed
through their solutions has long served as a basis
for classification. Sugars possessing this prop-
erty are said to be optically active, and those which
do not are said to be inactive. Those that turn
the plane of polarization to the right are called
dextro-rotatory; those to the left, leevo-rotatory.
The amount of rotation is proportional to the
amount of the sugar in a given volume of the
solution, and this is taken advantage of for the
quantitative determination of sugars. A special
form of the polariscope (q.v.), called a sacchari-
meter, is in common use for this purpose. For
the polarimetric determination of sucrose (cane
sugar), a weighed quantity of the sugar, syrup,
or other material is dissolved in water ; the
solution is treated with lead acetate or other
clarifying agent, diluted to 100 cubic centi-
meters, filtered, and placed in the observation
tube of the polariscope. The observer then ascer-
tains the percentage of sugar contained in the
material under investigation by simply looking
into the instrument, adjusting it to compensate
for the change in the field of vision caused by
the presence of the sugar solution, and by read-
ing the percentage of sucrose directly from the
scale of the instrument.
Since 1880 the sugars have formed the subject
of numerous brilliant researches, notably those
of H. Kiliani and Emil Fischer. In the early
eighties Kiliani demonstrated that d-glucose
(dextrose or grape sugar) and d-fructose (laevu-
lose or fruit sugar) are aldehyde and ketone de-
rivatives, respectively, of hexahydric alcohols,
the former containing one aldehyde group and
the latter one ketone group. (See ALCOHOLS;
ALDEHYDES; K1-rronns.) He also showed that
arabinose is an aldehyde of the pentahydric al-
cohol, arabite, and has the formula C,,H,0O5. The
molecules of all carbohydrates had been believed
to contain six carbon atoms or some multiple
thereof. But sugars containing three, four, five,
six, seven, eight, and nine atoms of carbon in
their molecules are now known; these are desig-
nated respectively by the class names trioses,
tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses, octoses, and
nonoses. According as the individual members
of each of these classes contain aldehyde or ke-
tone groups (see ALDEHYDES; Knronns), they
are designated as aldoses or ketoses ; for example,
aldohexoses and ketohexoses. These classes to-
gether constitute the group of carbohydrates
known as monosaccharides. Their molecules con-
tain as many atoms of oxygen as atoms of car-
bon, except in the case of certain of their syn-
thetic derivatives.
There are other groups of sugars, in the mole-
cules of which there are fewer atoms of oxygen
than of carbon. When the latter are treated
with acids or enzymes they are hydrolyzed, i.e.
each one of their molecules combines with one or
more molecules of water and simultaneously
splits up into two or more monosaccharide mole-
cules. These more complex sugars are called
disaccharides when each of their molecules yields.
two monosaccharide molecules; trisaccharides
when one molecule yields three monosaccharide
molecules; and polysaccharides when one mole-
cule yields several monosaccharide molecules on
hydrolysis; for examples, see descriptions of in-
dividual sugars below.
In the course of his work, Emil Fischer pre-
pared a number of hitherto unknown sugars by
purely synthetic processes. He showed that the
monosaccharides furnish excellent examples of
the necessity for the chemist to consider the
space relations of the atoms in the molecule.
(See STEREO-CHEMISTRY.) According to the the-
ory of Le Bel and Van ’t Hoff sixteen isomeric
aldohexoses are possible, since their molecules
contain each four asymmetric carbon atoms.
Three of these occur in nature or are obtainable
from natural carbohydrates by hydrolysis. Eight
others have been produced in the laboratory.
The aldopentose and ketohexose molecules each
contain three asymmetric carbon atoms, there-
fore but eight stereo-isomers are possible in each
case. No ketopentoses are known with certainty.
Two aldopentoses are readily obtainable from
natural sources; three or more others have been
prepared in the laboratory. Only two natural
ketohexoses are known; one or more others have
been prepared in the laboratory. The character
of the differences between the hexoses is illus-
trated by the following stereo-chemical formulae:
d-glucose 1-glucose d-m annose d-galactose
CH O (.‘-HO CH 0 CH0
H--(fJ—OH HO—(:)-H HO—(:J—H H——OI—OH
HO—(|3—-H H—(?—OH HO—(|3—H HO-—(|3—H
H-G—OH - HO—(|3—H H—C|1—OH HO-—C—H
H—(€—OH HO-(|J—H H-—(i—-OH H-(i—OH
GHQOH CHZOH CH,OH CH2OH
Formic aldehyde and glycerin, both of which
have been produced synthetically, are the
substances from which certain sugars have been
synthesized by Fischer and others. Formic alde-
hyde, CH2O or H-COH, may be regarded as the
simplest of the monosaccharides and be desig-
nated as 1nonose. Bayer (1870) suggested that
this substance is the first product of the reduc-
tion of carbon dioxide in the green parts of
plants, and that starch and other carbohydrates
are formed by its polymerization. Its formation
in plants has never been satisfactorily demon-
strated, but it is known readily to undergo poly-
merization or condensation to form paraform
(CILO)n and trioxymethylene (CH2O)3. In
1861 Butleroff obtained by condensation of tri-
oxymethylene a sweet, sugar-like body which he
called ‘methylenitan.’ Loew (1885) obtained in
a similar manner ‘formose’ from oxymethylene,
and la.ter ‘methose.’ The last named is more
sugar-like than ‘formose’ in that it is fermented
with yeast. Fischer regards these substances as
mixtures of different hexoses, including among
others d-acrose, which he also obtained from
glyoerose, which is a mixture of glyceraldehyde
and dioxyacetone. obtained by the careful oxida-
tion of glycerol (glycerin). From d-acrose
[(d+ 1) fructose] Fischer prepared d-fructose,
d-glucose, d-mannose, and the 1- modifications,
or optical antimeres, of each of these bodies.
SUGARS. I
SUGARS.
314
The synthesis of each one of these bodies was
accomplished by a series of complicated reactions
which are fully described in text-books on chem-
istry. Fischer’s work was greatly facilitated by
the use of phenylhydrazine, which forms readily
crystallizable compounds with the hexoses, called
osazones. These compounds are insoluble in
water and eminently suited for the separation
and identification of the different sugars. By
means of the cyanhydrine reaction he changed
hexose sugars into heptoses, and these in turn
into octoses and nonoses. The combination of
monosaccharides to form disaccharides has only
recently been accomplished by Fischer. Among
a number of his synthetic disaccharides is one
which he designates galactosidoglucose (because
it is made by the union of one molecule of
d-galactose with one molecule of d-glucose), and
which closely resembles the natural sugar meli-
biose. In an article published in September,
1902, he says that if further investigations con-
firm his conclusion that the two sugars are iden-
tical, “melibiose is the first natural disaccharide
to be produced synthetically.”
The more important sugars are mentioned in
the following table with brief descriptions of
their success:
I. MoNosAocHARu)Es
Formic aldehyde.
Glycollic aldehyde.
Glycerose, obtained by oxidation
of glycerin.
Erythrose, obtained by oxidation
of erythrin, a tetrahydric alco-
hol found in lichens and algae.
1-arabinose (arabinose, arabose.
pectino se, pectin-sugar) and
xylose (wood-sugar), obtained
alone or mixed with other
sugars by hydrolysis of gums
and other vegetable substances.
d-arabinose, I-xylose, and ribose,
obtained synthetically.
None known with certainty.
Monose. CH,O.
Biose, (J,H,,O2 .
Triose. C,,H6O3.
Tetrose, C,H,,O.,.
2“ .¢°!°!"‘
5. Pentoses,C;H,°O5.
A. Aldopentoses.
B. Ketopentoses.
0. Methyl pentoses, Fucose, from seaweed; rhamnose,'
CH3C,H,,O,,. widely distributed in the vege-
table kingdom in the form of
glucosides : chinovose, obtained
by the decomposition of chino-
vite, a constituent of cinchona
bark.
d-glucose (dextrose, grape sugar
or starch sugar), see GLUoosE;
d-mannose (mannose, isoman-
nose or seminose), obtained by
the oxidation of mannite and by
the hydrolysis of various vege-
table materials; d-galactose
(see below).
1-glucose, 1-mannose, l-galactose,
d-gulose, 1-gulose, d-idose, l-id-
ose, d-talose, and 1-talose, ob-
tained synthetically.
d-fructose (levulose or fruit sugar;
see below); sorbinose, from
mountain ash berries.
1-fructose, obtained synthetically.
Chondroglucose, crocose, eucalyn,
h e d e r o s e , indiglucin, locaose,
paraglucose, phlorose, scammo-
nose, skimminose, solanose, tew-
fikose (forms 5 to 6% of the milk
of the Egyptian buffalo), and
wme sugar.
a-rhamno-hexose and B -rhamno-
hexose, obtained synthetically.
Six heptoses and a methyl deriva-
tive have been prepared synthet-
ically.
Four octoses and a methyl deriva-
tive have been prepared in the
laboratory.
Two have been produced artifici-
ally.
II. DISACCHARIDES
1. Derivatives of pen- Di-arabinose or arabinon, ob-
. toses, C,,,H 1,,O,,. tained from arablnic acid (meta-
pectic acid).
6. Hexoses. C,,H,,O,,.
A. Aldohexoses.
B. Ketohexoses.
C. Hexoses of natu-
ral origin and of
unknown nature.
D. Methyl hexoses,
7.) Heptoses,C-,H,.,O,.
8. Octoses, C,,H,,O,,.
9. Nonoses, C,,H,,,0,,.
2. Derivatives of hex- Sucrose (cane sugar, saceharose,
oses,C,2H22O,,. saccharon, or saccharobiose),
lactose (milk sugar, la-ctobiose,
or lactou), and maltose (malto-
biose, malt sugar, amylon, di-
glucon, ptyalose, or cerealose);
see below).
Trehalose (mycuse, trehabiose)
from ergot and other fungi;
isomaltose from malted grain;
melibiose, formed together with
d-fructose by careful hydrolysis
of rafiinose; turanose, formed
together with d-glucose by
hydrolysis of melecitose; eyela-
mose, from cyclamen tubers;
agavose, from the juice of the
agava; and several produced
synthetically by Fischer.
III. TRIsAccRARu)Es
All are derivatives of Raflinose (melitriose, m elitose,
the hexoses, gossypose, or cotton sugar; see
C,8H,,O ,6. below); melecitose (melecitriose),
from the manna of Pin us Iarix;
stachyose, from the tubers of
Stachys tuberife1'a; gentianose,
from the roots of Gen tiana Iut-ea;
lactosinose (lactosln), from the
roots of certain plants of the
order Garyophyllaceae; and sec-
alose, from unripe rye.
SUCROSE, CANE SUGAR, on SACCI-IARosE. This
is commercially the most important sugar. It
and the products of its hydrolysis, ‘invert sugar,’
and the sugars that compose ‘invert sugar’
(d-glucose and d-fructose) are the most impor-
tant sugars, considered from the point of
their wide distribution in fruits and vegetables
used for food by man and the lower animals.
(For the commercial sources of cane sugar, see
SUGAR, MANUFACTURE OF.) White granulated
sugar, whether made from sugar-cane or beet
roots, contains between 99 and 100 per cent. of
pure sucrose or cane sugar. In many plants~ it
is found associated with ‘invert sugar,’ which
seems to be changed to cane sugar during the
process of ripening. When cane sugar is hydro-
lyzed by the action of acids or enzymes, each
molecule yields one molecule of d-glucose and one
molecule of d-fructose, a mixture called ‘invert
sugar,’ as explained above.
Cane sugar is readily crystallized in the form
of monoclinic hemihedral tables which contain
no water of crystallization. These crystals are
well exemplified in loaf sugar, rock candy, and
granulated sugar, the coarseness of which de-
pends upon the size of the crystals. It dissolves
in about one-half of its weight of water and is
much more soluble in hot water; it is dissolved
with difficulty in strong alcohol. Its specific
gravity is 1.606. It melts at 160° C. (320° F.),
and with care may be cooled to a colorless glass-
like mass; if the temperature is somewhat higher
the solidified mass is colored and constitutes the
so-called ‘barley sugar.’ At 200° C. (392° F.)
decomposition and marked coloration begin, cara-
mel is formed, and as the heat is continued gases
are evolved and finally only a black char re-
mains. Sucrose unites with the oxides of cal-
cium and other metals to form saccharates,
which are of importance as a means of separating
sugar from beet-root molasses. While cane and
other sugars in dilute solutions are very prone
to undergo fermentation and change, they pos-
sess considerable antiseptic power in concentrated
solution, which is utilized in dried fruits, pre-
serves, etc.
LEVULCSE, (1-FRUCTOSE, on FRUIT SUGAR. This
occurs in almost all sweet fruits with d-glucose.
SUGARS.
SUGGESTION.
315
It is crystallized with difficulty, and melts at
95° C. (203° F.). It is readily obtained by
hydrolysis of inulin, a polysaccharide which oc-
curs in many plants. It is less soluble than d-
glucose, and is as sweet as cane sugar. Levulose
is used as a substitute for sugar in the food of
diabetic patients. Some of the commercial forms
of levulose for this purpose are called ‘diabetine.’
RAEEINGSE, MELITRIUSE, MELITOSE, 0R CoTToN
SUGAR. This occurs in rather large quantity in
Australian manna (from varieties of Eucalyp-
tus), in cottonseed meal, and in small quan-
tities in sugar beets, the manufactured sugar
from which sometimes contains small amounts,
but the molasses much the greater proportion.
It forms characteristic crystals and is strongly
dextro-rotatory. When hydrolyzed by acids each
molecule yields one molecule of d-glucose, one of
d-fructose, and one of d-galactose.
MALTOSE, MALTOBIOSE, MALT SUGAR, 0R AMY-
LON. This is formed, together with dextrin and
dextrose, when starch is hydrolyzed with enzymes
or acids. It is present in malted grain, in com-
mercial glucose, and in the mash of beer and
whisky. It is usually obtained in the form of
crystalline crusts. When hydrolyzed it is con-
verted into d-glucose.
MILK SUGAR, 0R LACTOSE. This occurs in the
milk of mammals. It crystallizes in white hard
rhombic prisms, with one molecule of water of
crystallization, which is dissipated at 140° C.
(284° F.); at 205° C. (400° F.) it melts with
decomposition. It dissolves in six parts of water
at the ordinary temperature and in 2% parts of
hot water; is insoluble in alcohol, and has a
faint, sweet taste. When hydrolyzed by the
action of acids it is converted into equal parts
of d-glucose and d-galactose. See SUGAR, MANU-
FACTURE OF.
GALAoToSE. This is of interest as one of the
inversion or hydrolysis products of raffinose and
milk sugar. It is also obtained by the hydrolysis
of a number of polysaccharides occurring in
vegetable substances and called ‘galactans.’
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Tollens, Kurees Handbuch der
Kohlenhydrate (Breslau, 1895); Lippmann, Die
Chemie der Zuckeraten (Brunswick, 1895) ;
Pavy, Physiology of the Garbohydrates (London,
1895).
SUG’DE1\T, EDWARD BURTENSHAW. A cele-
brated English jurist and author. See SAINT
LEONARDS, EDWARD BURTENSHAW SUGDEN,
BARON.
SUGER, s1_1'zha', ABBE DE SAINT DENIS (1081-
1151). A French churchman, statesman, and
historian. He spent a large part of his youth
in the Abbey of Saint Denis, and was for a time
a student with Prince Louis, afterwards Louis
the Fat, with Whom he always remained on
terms of close friendship. In 1122 he became
abbé of Saint Denis, and he carried out many
reforms and greatly increased the prosperity of
his charge. He was frequently engaged in affairs
of State, and when Louis VII. went on the Second
Crusade Suger acted as Regent in his absence and
administered the affairs of the kingdom with
great ability. Shortly afterwards, although he
had opposed the previous one. Suger preached
another crusade, but died in 1151 before it could
be carried out. He wrote in Latin a Life of
Louis VI. (c.1140), which is one of the
chief sources upon the history of the period.
VoL. XVI.—21.
His complete works were published at Paris in
1867. Consult Meanult, Suger (Paris, 1884),
and Cartellieri, Abt Suger von Saint-Denis (Ber-
lin, 1898).
SUGGESTION (Lat. suggestio, intimation,
suggestion, from suggerere, to suggest, supply,
from sub, under + gerere, to carry). A term
used in four different senses in psychology. (1)
In its broadest significance suggestion is a hint,
a prompting, the insinuation of an idea into
consciousness. An orator may suggest, e.g. im-
patience to his audience by a shrug of his shoul-
ders. ( 2) Suggestion is used more narrowly as
a synonym for association (q.v.). The idea of
Spain suggests (or ‘associates with’) war, war
suggests Cuba, Cuba suggests sugar, etc. (3)
Still more specifically, suggestion implies a pc-
culiar mode of creating belief. One may, e.g.
create by suggestion the belief that a piece of
metal is hot by handling it as if it were burning
one. (4) Finally, suggestion indicates a means
of directing the consciousness and the movements
of a hypnotized subject. The operator is said to
‘suggest’ to his subject that he see an object
which is not in reality present, or that he react
to an imaginary situation. The first two defini-
tions contemplate suggestion simply as an in-
centive to ‘reproduction’ (q.v.) ; the last two as
a determinant of belief, under usual or ‘normal’
and under unusual or ‘abnormal’ conditions. Be-
tween the third and the fourth uses of the word
no strict line of demarcation can be drawn.
(See HYPNOTISM.) The term is most accurately
employed in one of these narrower senses, as an
influence upon belief. Belief (q.v.) may appear
either as a mood of acquiescence (one believes,
e.g. when one is told that 2 +3 -: 5), or as a
conviction following upon deliberation (one be-
lieves the conclusion reached by a series of
‘sound’ arguments). Just how suggestion may
occasion belief under unusual circumstances, as
in hypnosis, psychologists are not entirely
agreed, but two theories have been worked out in
detail. (1) The first (Wundt’s) maintains that
in hypnotic suggestion there is a ‘constriction’
of consciousness. Few ideas enter at once; only
those that are aroused directly by association.
‘Foreign’ ideas are barred out. The narrowing
of the field of consciousness implies, according
to the theory, an increased clearness and in-
tensity in the ideas attended to. This fact is
explained physiologically by hypereesthesia of a
limited cortical area and a corresponding anaes-
thesia in the other areas. The result is that
whatever comes to mind is peculiarly vivid and
forcible and stands free from contradicting ideas.
This is synonymous with belief. ( 2) The other
theory (Lipps’s) sees the essence of suggestion
in an unusual inhibition of experience which, if
it could come before the mind, would destroy
belief (e.g. a hypnotized person believes the
operator’s statement that he is a king or a cat,
because his past experience is in abevance: it is
beyond his control; he is unable to criticise or to
oppose any statement made). The theorv rejects
phvsiological explanations and substitutes ‘un-
conscious ideas.’ Both theories agree that lack
of conflicting ideas is essential. There is no
room in hvpnotic suggestion for deliberation and
choice. To this we must add a feeling element,
in the mood of acquiescence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Baldwin, Story of the Mind
SUGGESTION.
SUICIDE.
316
(New York, 1898); M011, Hypnotism (London,
1891) ; Wundt, Philosophische Studien viii.
(1893) ; Lipps, Zur Psychologie der Suggestion
(Leipzig, 1897).
SUHL, zO_o'l. A town of the Prussian Province
of Saxony, Germany, on the Lauter, 121/2 miles
north by e-ast of Meiningen (Map: Prussia, D
3). Important for its manufactures of firearms
since the fifteenth century, Suhl has been called
the ‘armory of Germany.’ Population, in 1900,
affords ground for forfeiture of a policy of life
insurance (q.v.).
The statistics of suicide are by no means satis-
factory, as motives always exist for the conceal-
ment of the cause of death, and published figures
are likely to be too low. This trouble is partly
overcome when figures are used comparatively, as
in the following table, showing the average an-
nual number of suicides per million of popula-
tion in various countries during the nineteenth



12,617. century: ‘ -
' 1831-35 1841-45 1851-55 1861-65 1871-75 1887-91 Recent
England and Wales .................. ......................................... .. 62.8* 64 64 66 66 81 90
Ireland ................................................................................. .. 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 24 .... ..
Prussia ................................................................................ .. 96 110 130 122 134 197 193
Saxony ................................................................................ .. 158% 198 248 264 299 322 305
France ................................................................................. .. 64 85 100 124 150 218 236
Belgium ............................................................................... .. 39 62 .... .. 55$ 68 120 116
Italy ...................................................................................................... .. 28 35 52 .... ..
Denmark .............................................................................. . . 2131- 232 272 288 258 253 258
Sweden ................................................................................ .. ' 69 66 '71 76 81 ' 119 .... ..
Norway ................................................................................ .. 97 107 107 85 73 66 .... ..
* 1831-1840. -t 1836-40. 1: 1856-65.
SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of one’s self + -05-
dium, a killing, from ccedere, to kill). The in-
tentional taking of One’s own life. Among
uncivilized peoples suicide is by no means un-
known, though it has generally been regarded
as uncommon. It is favored by the teaching of
some Oriental religions, but expressly forbidden
by the Koran. Aristotle condemned sui-
cide as unmanly, and early Greek custom
accorded dishonorable burial to the perpetrator;
but later practice, especially under influence of
the Stoics, was much less severe. The Romans,
also affected by Stoic doctrine, recognized many
legitimate reasons for suicide and punished with
confiscation of property only suicides committed
to escape punishment for a grave crime. The
Justinian code admitted seven excuses for sui-
cide, ranging from madness to mere life-weari-
ness. Under Christianity the spirit of law and
custom was radically modified. To Saint Augus-
tine suicide was essentially a sin, and several
Church councils, from the fifth century, deprived
the corpse of the ordinary rites of the Church.
Mediaeval law usually provided confiscation of
the suicide’s property, while custom decreed in-
dignities to the corpse, such as dragging by the
heels face downward, as in France, or burying
at the cross-roads with a stake through the body,
as in England. Later English law compelled for-
feiture of lands and goods in all cases of ‘suicide,
but the requirement came to be frequently evaded
through the granting of a coroner’s verdict of
insanity, and the law itself was abolished in
1870. A statute of 1823 made it legal to bury
suicides in consecrated ground, but it was not
till 1882 that religious services were expressly
permitted. In France at the present time neither
suicide nor attempt at suicide is punishable. In
the United States suicide is not a crime, but it
is unlawful, and an unintentional killing of an-
other during an attempt at self-destruction is
homicide. An attempt at suicide is a common-
law misdemeanor, and in some States a felony
by statute. Thus in New York, aiding a suicide
is manslaughter in the first degree, aiding an
attempt at suicide is felony, and the attempt
itself by a sane person is felony, punishable by
not over two years in State prison. or a fine of
not over $1000, or by both.' Suicide generally
The remarkable differences which appear be-
tween countries are due rather to race and
national characteristics than to climate. This
is well shown by suicide rates in the United
States. In 1900 in the registration area persons
with mothers born in France had a suicide rate
(per million) of 220; Germany, 193; England
and Wales, 104; Ireland, 61; Russia and Poland,
58; Italy, 51. In the registration area as a
whole the rate was 103 in 1890 and 118 in 1900,_
being very much higher for white persons than
for colored. The most notable difference of rate
is that occasioned by sex, males usually consti-
tuting from four-fifths to three-quarters of the
total suicides. Statistics of several States and
of foreign countries indicate that the preponder-
ance of males has been increasing during recent
decades. When age is considered together with
sex, it appears that while suicide in general in-
creases with age, the ages at which women most
tend to self-destruction are much under the cor-
responding ones for men. Thus in the United
States (1900) there were out of 1000 suicides
at known ages, 1.2 committed by males under
15 years, but 7.8 by females; for the age period
15 to 19 the rate was 18.8 for men, 100.5 for
women; for 30 to 34 years it ‘was 103.4 and
109.7 respectively; while for 40 to 44 the male
rate was in excess, 117.3 to 90.1; and the men
then continue to preponderate up to 85 years.
Married people show a lower suicide rate than
single, and single than widowed or divorced per-
sons. Large cities have an unfavorable influence.
The rate in Dresden is more than 500 per
1,000,000; in Paris, more than 400; in London,
about 230; in Berlin, 260; in Saint Petersburg
and Rome, less than 100. In 1890 the rate in
Massachusetts was 84, but in Boston it was
more than 120; in New York State (1890) it
was 95, but 97 in Brooklyn and 150 in Man-
hattan (New York City).
Suicides among the young are especially prev-
alent in the great centres. The professional and
commercial classes are more prone to suicide
than are others; artisans evince higher rates
than do laborers; while among soldiers and
criminals the rates are extremely high. The
rates for summer or late spring are always much
above those for the other seasons, the maximum
SUICIDE.
SUKASAPTATI.
317
usually occurring between April and July, the
minimum in January or December. The early
part of each n1onth and the early days of the
week show a relative prepondenance. Other in-
teresting correlations appear in the methods by
which suicide is accomplished. In the aggre-
gate the order of preference in method is: Hang-
ing, drowning, shooting, cutting or stabbing, fall-
ing from a height, and asphyxiation or poison.
In cold countries drowning is naturally less
favored than in the south; the use of firearms
is specially prominent in Italy; of cutting or
stabbing in Prussia; of poison in England. As
would be expected, female suicides employ fire-
arms less than male. In England drowning is
the recorded means for more than a quarter of
the women committing suicide, and poison for
about a seventh; but only 15 per cent. of male
suicides drown themselves, and only a twelfth
use poison.
The study of the motives to suicide can be
more successfully pursued by psychologists and
physicians than by the statistician. Definite
mental disorders usually appear as the direct
cause of a third of all suicides, but a very much
larger proportion of cases show evidence of
mental or physical abnormality. Suicidal ten-
dency, like insanity, has, been observed to be
inherited. Alcoholism is a frequent cause. Em-
phasis upon biological influences has led some
writers to regard suicide as always being, like
certain diseases, a specific tendency of the indi-
vidual. But the social causes of suicide are not
to be underestimated. Imitation and the desire
for notoriety undoubtedly affect suicides, and
though perhaps too much stress has been laid
upon the influence and the hurry and
strain of modern business, there can be no doubt
that many contemporary conditions which stimu-
late suicide, especially in great cities, are, like
the predisposing causes of alcoholism, largely
under social control.
Consult: Morselli, Suicide, International Sci-
entific Series (New York, 1882), a standard
work ; Legoyt, Le suicide ancien ct moderne
(Paris, 1881) ; Geiger, Der Seilbstmord im klas-
sischen Alterthum (Augsburg, 1888); Motta,
Bibliografia del suieido (Bellinzona, 1890);
Durkheim, Le suicide (Paris, 1897); Twelfth
United States Census (vol. iii.); Registration
Reports issued by all New England States
and by several other States and cities; Ameri-
can Statistical Association Publications; Re-
ports of the Registrar-General of the United
Kingdom; Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das
Deutsche Reich (annual); Annuaire statistique
de la France.
SUIDJE. The swine family. See SWINE.
SU'IDAS (Lat., from Gk. 2ovi6as, Souidas).
The author of a great Greek lexicon, which was
compiled probably in the middle of the tenth
century. The work which is current under his
name is a compilation giving the result of gram-
matical, lexicographical, historical, and literary
studies. It is especially valuable for its articles
touching the latter field, and the information
which they contain is indispensable for our
knowledge of the writers of antiquity. It is
clear that the lexicographical portions were
drawn from the lexica of Harpocration and
Helladius, and certain other lexica and gram-
matical works which cannot be absolutely deter-
mined. He further employed excellent scholia
to Aristophanes, scholia to Sophocles similar to
those now found in the codex Laurentianus,
Homeric scholia similar to those found in the
codex Venetus B, and the older scholia to Thucy-
dides. In his historical and theological articles
it is more difficult to determine his sources, but
his chief authority seems to have been the work
of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus and the
chronicle of Georgius Monachos. His literary
articles were probably drawn in large measure
from the Onomatologos of Hesychius Milesius,
which he possessed in an abridged form. He
employed also the notices of the comic poets
preserved in Atheneeus ; but he added much from
his independent reading. The work is best ed-
ited by Bernhardy (1834-53). The edition by
Bekker (1854) is far inferior.
SUI JURIS, s56’i j‘66’ris (Lat., of his own
right). A Latin phrase employed to describe a
person competent to perform legal acts. (See
CIVIL LAW; PATRA PoFEsTAs.) The meaning of
the phrase has been extended in modern times to
denote a person who is capable of taking care of
himself.
SUIR, sh'66r.
County Tipperary, it forms, in part, the boundary
between that county and County Waterford and
then the boundary between VVaterford and Coun-
ty Kilkenny. It u'nites with the Barrow to
form Waterford Harbor, after a course of about
100 miles. For boats of about 55 tons it is
navigable to Clonmel in Tipperary.
SUITE (Fr., succession, following), or PAR-
TITA. In music, one of the oldest of cyclical
forms. It had its origin in the sixteenth cen-
tury, when the Stadtpfeifer began to per-
form several national dances in succession, which
were of contrasting tempi, but all in the same
key. During the seventeenth century German
composers for the pianoforte applied the name
partita to their doubles (a series of variations).
(See VARIATION.) The form reached its cul-
mination in the suites of J . S. Bach. The style
of the suite is not so much contrapuntal as ‘ele-
gant.’ The four obligatory movements are: (1)
allemande, (2) courante, (3) sarabande, (4)
gigue. As a rule, however, there were more
movements, which were inserted after the sara-
bande. Such additional movements were known
as inter-mezzo (q.v.). In modern times com-
posers have also written suites for orchestra,
which, however, but slightly resemble their pro-
totypes. Some of the movements are not dance
forms, and the principle of contrasting keys is
also introduced. See DANCING; SCNATA; SYM-
PHONY.
SUITS AT LAW AND EQUITY. See AC-
TION; EQUITY.
SUKASAPTATI, sho'o‘/ka-sap’ta-te (Skt.,
seventy [stories] of a parrot). A collection of
Sanskrit prose stories. These tales, seventy in
number, are told by a parrot to the wife of a
merchant who is away on his travels.
inclined to be unfaithful to her husband, and
consults the parrot regarding her plans. The
bird cleverly pretends to approve of her inten-
tions, but points out to her the dangers of de-
tection, and induces her to promise not to meet
any lover unless she can extricate herself as
such and such a person did. This 'rouses her
She is-
A river of Ireland. Rising in i
SUKASAPTATI.
SULLA. '
318
curiosity, and the parrot tells the story as far
as the dilemma, which he asks her to solve.
Unable to do this, she promises to remain at
home that night on condition that the parrot
will tell her the answer the following evening.
In this way she is kept faithful until her hus-
band returns. The story is very popular in
India and has been translated into Persian as
the T/Mindmah. The Sukasaptati exists in two
recensions. The shorter one was edited (Leip-
zig, 1893) and translated (Kiel, 1894) by
Schmidt, who also edited (Munich, 1898) and
translated (Stuttgart, 1899) the longer version.
Consult Schmidt, Ueber die Sukasaptati (Halle,
1898).
SUKHAVATI, seek-ha’va-te' (Skt., blissful).
The ‘Land of Bliss’ into which those Buddhists
are reborn who put their trust for salvation in
Amitabha Buddha, the Buddha of boundless
light, life, and mercy, invented by the founders
of the Northern or Mahayana (q.v.) School. It
is situated i11 some far distant world in the west-
ern quarter of the universe, separated from this
world by tens of millions of Buddha worlds, and
is presided over by Amitabha. Here there is no
difference between gods and men, and sexual dis-
tinctions are unknown. There is no more toil, no
hunger, nor pain of any kind, no thirst, and
neither summer nor winter, no day, no night;
no heat to scorch, no cold to chill; no sin, no
suffering, no distress of any kind; no torments,
and no prisons for punishment. To at-
tain to rebirth in this paradise the per-
formance of good works in this life is not neces-
sary. Simple trust in the mercy of Amitabha
is sufficient. It may even be attained by repeat-
ing the name of Amitabha two, three, four, five,
six, or more nights before death. Among the
common people this doctrine of a pure land of
practically unending bliss has superseded the
doctrine of Nirvana (q.v.) .
“SULEIMAN (sol6’la-man) I. See SOLY-
MAN I.
SULEIMANIEH, su-la’ma-ne’ye. A town
of the Vilayet of Mosul, Turkey in Asia, 93
miles south of Bagdad, east of the Euphrates
River. It commands several trade routes to
Persia. Population, about 15,000.
SULEIMAN PASHA,
(c.1840-92). A Turkish general, born at Con-
stantinople. He was trained at the military
school in Constantinople, entered the army, and at-
tained the rank of major in 1867, when he served
in Crete. In 1873 he was a colonel and instruc-
tor in the military school, of which he later
became sub-director, with the rank of general of
brigade, in 1874. He took part in the deposition
of Abdul Aziz, May 30, 1876, and was made
general of division by Amurath V. In 1877 he
was made marshal. In the early part of the
Russo-Turkish War (q.v.) he fought against Gen-
eral Gurko, whom he defeated at Eski-Zaghra
(July 31-August 1, 1877) and forced to retreat
into the Balkans, failing, however, in his desper-
ate attempts to make himself master of the
Shipka Pass. From October to December he
commanded the Turkish Army of the Danube and
was then intrusted with the command of the
Turkish forces south of the Balkans. At Philip-
popolis, January 15-17,1878, he was decisively
defeated. This misfortune led to a heavy sen-
s'o_o’l"a-man’ pa-shlei’
tence of imprisonment, but he was afterwards
pardoned.
SULFONAL. See SULPHONAL.
SULIMAN (s'<fi'l<‘e-miin') MOUNTAINS. A
range of mountains in the northeastern part of
Baluchistan, near the borders of the Punjab,
India (Map: India, A 2). It forms part of the
eastern boundary of the great Iranian Plateau,
toward which it sends numerous spurs, while
on the east it falls steeply into the Indus Valley.
Its highest point, the Kaisargarh, has an alti-
tude of 11,320 feet.
SULINA, s®-le/na. The central arm of the
delta of the Danube (Map: Balkan Peninsula, G
2) . Though not the largest in volume, it is the
principal channel for navigation and has been
made navigable for the largest vessels by means
of large jetties and other engineering works con-
ducted since 1858 by the International Danube
Commission. At the mouth of the channel lies
the little town of Sulina, whose harbor is a free
port from which 11,411 vessels, aggregating
1,830,000 tons, cleared in 1901.
SULIOTES, so'o’le-ots. A tribe of Turkish
subjects of mixed Greek and Albanian blood, who
derived their name from the Suli Mountains, near
Parga, in Epirus, to which they fled from the
Turks in the seventeenth century. Their per-
sistent opposition to Turkish rule brought them
into constant trouble and won for them a
reputation for bravery and patriotism. Over-
come in 1803 by Ali Pasha of Janina,
they left their mountains and fled to the
islands off their native shore. In 1820 Ali
Pasha invoked their aid in his fight for the inde-
pendence of Albania. The forces of the Sultan
were victorious and drove some of the Suliotes
to their old mountain retreats, but more to the
island of Cephalonia. Later they are found war-
ring on the side of Greek independence, their
most celebrated leader being Marco Bozzaris
(q.v.). Many of them have migrated into
Greece. Consult: Perrhaebos, History of Suli
and Parga (London, 1823) ; Liidemann, Der Suli-
otenkrieg (Leipzig, 1825) .
SULLA (Hedg/scrum coronarinm). A peren-
nial leguminous fodder plant, native of Southern
Italy and similar Mediterranean regions, where
it has been in cultivation since about 1766. It
is a leafy plant four to six feet tall, bearing
numerous clusters of showy flowers. In the
United States the seed is usually sown with fall
wheat or oats in well-prepared soil, and after the
removal of the cereal crop in the spring the sulla
develops rapidly and by June is ready to cut.
Sulla ranks with alfalfa as a forage crop, but
does not seem as well adapted to the South as
alfalfa. It is said to be preferred to alfalfa in
more tropical regions, since it is better adapted
to tropical conditions, but because it is sus-
ceptible to frost it is adapted to few regions of
the United States.
SUL/LA, Looms CORNELIUS (surnamed FE-
LIX) ( 13.0. 138-78). A celebrated Roman general
and statesman, born at Rome of a family belong-
ing to the clan Cornelia. In no. 107 he was
elected quaestor, and sent to Africa with cavalry
that the consul Marius (q.v.) required for prose-
cuting the Jugurthine war. He rapidly acquired a
series of important services by inducing Boc-
chus, the Mauretanian King, to surrender Ju-
SULLA.
SULLIVAN.
319
gurtha (B.C. 106). In the campaigns that followed
(13.0. 104-101) against the Cimbri and Teutones,
Sulla’s reputation continued to rise. For several
years after the destruction of the barbarians
Sulla lived quietly, taking no part in public
affairs; but in 13.0. 93 he stood for the praetor-
ship, and won it by a liberal distribution of
money among the people. Next year he was sent
to Cilicia as propraetor, to replace Ariobarzanes
on the throne of Cappadocia, from which he had
been driven by Mithridates. In the Social 1/Var
(q.v.) the successes of Sulla threw those of
Marius into the shade, and the mortification of
the latter was deep and bitter. In B.O. 88 Sulla
was elected consul along with Q. Pompeius
Rufus, and the senate conferred on him the
command of the Mithridatic War. At this
Marius, who desired the command for himself,
precipitated a civil war. Allying himself with
the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, a political ad-
venturer in difficulties, Marius placed himself
at the head of the new Italian party, on whom
the rights of Roman citizenship had been con-
ferred, and Sulla was compelled to flee to his
camp at Nola in Campania. There, finding the
soldiers full of enthusiasm, he resolved to lead
them against the pseudo-government at Rome.
The Marian party was overthrown and Marius
fled to Africa. Sulla embarked for the East B.C.
87 and was away four years, but finally forced
Mithridates to sue for peace, and returned to
Italy 13.0. 83. Marius was now dead, but his
party was strong in numbers and again in re-
volt; yet before the close of B.C. 82 the Marian
party in Italy was utterly crushed. In Spain,
however, it held out under Sertorius (q.v.).
Sulla caused himself to be appointed dictator, an
office which he held until B.C. 79. Then followed
the fearful period of the proscriptions (B.C.
8l)——a virtual ‘reign of terror’ throughout
Italy, the object of which was to extirpate the
Marian party. His dictatorship was signalized
by the framing of a series of laws the design of
which was to restore the ancient power of the
senate and the aristocracy. Sulla spent his last
years at his estate at Puteoli, his death being
hastened by debaucheries. Consult: Beesly, The
Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla (New York, 1878).
SUL'LIVAN, ALEXANDER MARTIN (1830-84).
An Irish nationalist, born at Bantry. In 1853
he went to Dublin to become an artist and after-
wards took up journalism. As editor of the
Nation, the exponent of constitutional agitation,
he became a formidable opponent of the Fenian
conspiracy. In 1874 he was returned to Parlia-
ment as a Home-Ruler from the County of Louth,
and from Meath in 1880. He was called to the
Irish bar in 1876, and to the English bar in the
following year, whereupon he discontinued his
work for the Nation and went to England to
practice law. He published The Story of Ireland
(1870), New Ireland (1877), A Nutshell History
of Ireland (1883).
SULLIVAN, Sir ARTHUR SEYMOUR (1842-
1900). A distinguished English composer. He
was born in London of Irish parents. Sir George
Smart accepted him as one of the children of
the Chapel Royal, and during the choristership
he wrote several anthems. His earliest pub-
lished composition was a song “O Israel” (1855).
In 1856, at the age of fourteen, Sullivan suc-
ceeded in obtaining the Mendelssohn scholarship,
then recently established, and while still holding
this scholarship he entered the Royal Academy
of Music. In 1858 he went to Leipzig, where
he studied at the Conservatory. His famous in-
cidental music to Shakespeare’s Tempest was his
last work at the Conservatory, and was first
heard in England in 1862, a few days after his
arrival in the country. After holding organ
appointments at Saint Michael’s and at Saint
Peter’s he was appointed professor of the piano-
forte and ballad-singing at the Crystal Palace
School of Art, after which he gave a course of
lectures on the theory and practice of music at
the South Kensington Museum. His first great
success in composition was his “Orpheus with
His Lute,” which was soon followed by “The Lost
Chord.” He was meanwhile engaged on more
serious work, and in 1864 the cantata Kenil-
worth was produced. Then came the Symphony
in E (1866), the Overture In Memoriam (1866),
The Prodigal Son (1869), Light of the World
(1873), The Martyr of Antioch (1880), The
Golden Legend (1886), and the grand opera
Ivanhoe (1891). He is held in greatest repute,
however, for his light opera compositions, a
form of writing into which he stumbled by the
merest accident. The financial difficulties of
the widow and family of a well-known artist on
the staff of Punch caused the friends of the de-
ceased to organize a ‘benefit’ for which F. C.
Burnand and Sullivan promised to collaborate
in a musical piece. Bow and Goa: was the result,
and in seven days it was written, learned, re-
hearsed, and performed. The genre thus created
became the field in which he achieved greatest
success in collaboration with W. S. Gilbert. Be-
sides those mentioned his dramatic works are:
The Oontrabandista (1867), afterwards enlarged
as The Chieftain (1894), Thespis (1871), Trial
by Jury and The Zoo (1875), The Sorcerer
(1877), H. M. S. Pinafore (1878), Pirates of
Penzance (1880), Patience (1881), Iolanthe
(1882), Princess Ida (1884), The Mikado
(1885), Ruddigore (1887), The Yeomen of the
Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889), Haddon
Hall (1892), Utopia (1893), The Grand Duke
(1896), The Beauty Stone (1898), The Rose
of Persia (1899), and The Emerald Isle (1901).
In 1883 he was knighted by Queen Victoria. His
music is essentially lyric in quality, and he was
exceptionally fluent in melody as well as a mas-
ter of dainty orchestration, in which latter re-
spect he perhaps has never been excelled. His
early training in the school of English church
music left its imprint on all his sacred composi-
tions. His anthems are distinguished by their
pure melody and dignified harmony. His hymn-
tunes are sung universally, and of these not the
least important is his fine martial setting of
“Onward, Christian Soldiers.” He died in London.
SULLIVAN, Fnanors STOUGHTON (1719-76).
An Irish jurist, born at Galway. He was edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained
a fellowship at the very early age of nineteen.
He remained at Dublin until in 1750 he was
made regius professor of law in the university
and in 1761 professor of feudal and English law.
He was a jurist of great distinction and his one
important work, An Historical Treatise on the
Feudal Law '( 1772), was long held in high favor.
SULLIVAN, JAMES (1744-1808). An Ameri-
can jurist and politician, born in Berwick, Me.
SULLIVAN.
SULLY.
320
He was admitted to the bar, and in 1770 was
appointed King’s attorney. In 1775 he was a
member of the Massachusetts Provincial Con-
gress,..and was one of three commissioners dis-
patched on a secret mission to Ticonderoga. From
1776 to 1782 he was a judge of the Superior
Court, and in 1784-85 a Massachusetts delegate
to the Continental Congress. For many terms
he was a member of the State Legislature, in
1787 was a member of the executive council, a
probate judge, and from 1790 to 1807 was At-
torney-General. In 1807 and 1808 he was elected
Republican Governor of Massachusetts. He pub-
lished Observations on the Government of the
United States (1791), The Altar of Baal Thrown
Down (1795), Impartial Review of the Causes
of the French Revolution (1795). Consult the
Life by T. O. Amory (Boston, 1859).
SULLIVAN, JOHN (1740-95). An Ameri-
can soldier, prominent in the Revolutionary War.
He was born at Berwick, Me., removed to Dur-
ham, N. H., and there practiced law. In June,
1775, he was appointed brigadier-general by Con-
gress. During the siege of Boston, with General
Greene, he commanded the left wing under Gen-
eral Lee, and on June 4, 1776, was placed in
command of the army in Canada, whence, after
being badly defeated at Three Rivers, he re-
treated with great skill to New York. On
August 10th he became a major-general, and on
the 27th served with distinction at the battle of
Long Island (q.v.), during which he was taken
prisoner. He was exchanged and served in the
battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, and
Germantown. In 177 8 he was sent with a large
force to act with D’Estaing against Newport,
but the plan being abandoned, after decisively
defeating the English at Butt’s Hill on August
29th, he withdrew from Rhode Island. In 1779
he marched into western New York, and effectu-
ally chastised the Iroquois, defeating them and
their Tory allies at Newton (Elmira) on August
29th. Resigning from active duty late in 1779, he
served in Congress in 1780-81, was Attorney-
General of New Hampshire from 1782 to 1786,
was President of the State from 1786 to 1789,
and was United States district judge from 1789
to 1795. Consult his Life by Peabody in Sparks,
American Biography (series 2, vol. iii.) ; Amory,
The Military Services and Public Life of General
John Sullivan (Boston, 1868) ; and Journals of
the Military Ewpedition Against the Sim Na-
tions (Auburn, N. Y., 1887). ‘ .
SULLIVAN, J01-IN LAWRENCE (1858-). An
American prize-fighter, born in Boston, Mass.
In 1880 he defeated George Rooke, and two years
afterwards he beat Ryan in nine rounds. In
1887 he fought a draw with Cardiff ; in 1888, de-
feated Mitchell at Chantilly, near Paris; and in
the next year, in Mississippi, in a seventy-five
round fight, defeated Kilrain, winning the world’s
championship and a diamond belt offered by a
sporting paper. In 1892 he met Corbett at New
Orleans and was defeated in the twenty-first
round, thereby losing the championship title.
In 1896 he was defeated by Sharkey in three
rounds.
SULLIVAN, THOMAS BARRY (1820 ?-91). A
British tragedian, born in Birmingham. He
was brought up in Cork, where he made his ap-
pearance on the stage before 1840. He joined the
company of the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, and re-
mained there several seasons, advancing rapidly
in his profession. In 1852 he appeared at the
Haymarket Theatre, London, in Hamlet, the part
in which he was on the whole most successful,
though his Beverley in The Gamester was very
highly praised. Consult Lawrence, Barry Sulli-
van: A Biographical Sketch (1893).
SULLIVAN, THOMAS RUSSELL (1849—). An
American novelist and dramatist, born in Boston.
He was educated at the Boston Latin School,
passed the years 1870-73 in Europe, was then for
fifteen years connected with a firm of Boston
bankers as clerk and cashier, and after 1888 de-
voted himself to literature. He_wrote Roses of
Shadow (1885) ; Day and Night Stories (two se-
ries, 1890 and 1893); Tom Sylvester (1893);
Ars et Vita (1898) ; The Courage of Conviction
(1902); and several plays, of which the more
noteworthy are The Catspaw (1881), a drama-
tization of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886), and
Merely Players (1886).
SULLIVAN’S ISLAND. An island at the
entrance to Charleston Harbor, the site of Fort
Moultrie (q.v.).
SUL’LIVAN'1‘, WILLIAM STARLING (1803-73).
An American botanist, the founder of American
bryology. He was born in Franklinton, Ohio,
near Columbus, studied in Kentucky and in
Ohio University, and in 1823 graduated at Yale.
In 1840 he published a Catalogue of Plants in
the Vicinity of Columbus, Ohio, and thereafter
specialized in the cryptogamous plants.
Alleghanienses (1845) was followed in 1846 and
1849 by contributions to the Memoirs of the
American Academy of Sciences “On the Bryology
and Hepaticology of North America,” and by a
valuable addition to Gray’s Manual on the
mosses of the Northern United States, published
separately in 1856 as The Musci and Hepaticce
of the United States East of the Mississippi
River. In the same year, with the help of Les-
quereux, he published Musci Boreali-Americani
Ewsiccati. Icones M uscorum, containing 129 val-
uable copper plates, is probably Sullivant’s great-
est work. At the time of his death he was at
work on a Manual of M osses.
SUL’LY, JAMES (1842—). An English psy-
chologist, born at Bridgewater, Somersetshire.
He was educated at Independent College, Taun-
ton, Regent’s Park College, London, and at the
universities of Gtittingen and Berlin. Until 1892
he served as lecturer in the College of Preceptors,
London, and in that year became professor of the
philosophy of mind and logic in University Col-
lege, London. Sully published both general treat-
ises and special studies in psychology, the most
important being: Outlines of Psychology, with
Special Reference to the Theory of Education
(1884; 2d ed. 1885); Elements of Psychology
(1886) ; The Human Mind: A Tewt-Boole of Psy-
chology (1892); Studies of Childhood (1895);
and Essay on Laughter: Its Forms, Its Causes,
Its Development, and Its Value (1902).
Sully became- known as one of the most eminent
of modern English psychologists; his work car-
ries on the besttraditions of the English school,
‘ but is characterized by its breadth and careful
recognition of the development of psycholog-
ical science on the Continent.
SULLY, s1_1'le’, MAXIMILIEN DE BETHUNE,
Duke de (1560-1641). The great Minister of
M usci ~
SULLY.
SULPHOCYANIC ACID.
321
Henry IV. of France. He was born at Rosny,
’ near Mantes, the second son of Frangois, Baron
de Rosny,’ He belonged to a Protestant family
and was educated with the young Henry at the
Court of Navarre. This was the beginning of a
friendship and a loyal service that continued
until Henry’s death. He escaped the Massacre
of Saint Bartholomew, accompanied Henry in
his flight from the French Court (1576), shared
in the campaigns against the Catholic League,
distinguishing himself especially at Coutras
(1587), and became Henry’s wisest and most
trusted adviser. He urged Henry’s acceptance of
Catholicism to save the crown. The misgovern-
ment of the preceding years and the anarchy of
the wars of religion had almost ruined France,
and Sully, made Minister of Finance in 1597,
and chiefly intendant in 1599, set himself
thoroughly to reform the administration.
He made a tour through the chief provin-
cial districts, armed with absolute authority,
personally examined the accounts, dismissed or
suspended delinquents, and largely replenished
the treasury with the ill-gotten wealth which be
compelled them to disgorge. Little by little he
brought the affairs of the country into an orderly
state. From 1597 to 1609 he trebled the in-
come of the State. His indefatigable activity
was not confined to the department of finance;
he practically was in supreme charge of the vari-
ous other branches of the administration, pro-
moted agriculture, encouraged export trade, and
constructed roads, bridges, and causeways. He
was made grand master of artillery in 1601, and
in 1606 was created Duke de Sully. Sully was
not popular. His single-minded service of the
King made him disliked by the people for his
supposed severity. The Catholics hated him for
his religion; the Protestants for his invariable
refusals to sacrifice the smallest jot of his mas-
ter’s or the country’s interest for their sake. At
Henry’s death he was forced to resign his offices
and lived in comparative retirement. Sully
wrote Mémoires ales sages et royales économies
cl’etat, clomestiques, politiques et militaires, de
Henri le Grand, a wearisome and disorderly
collection of writings in the form of a narrative
addressed to himself by his secretaries. It is
through these volumes that we are made ac-
quainted with the ‘great design’ of Henry for
the federation of Europe, a design the genuine-
ness of which has been the subject of much con-
troversy. The edition in Michaud and Poujoulat,
Nouuelle collection des mémoires pour servir a
l’histoire de France, is from the original. Consult
Lavisse, Sully (Paris, 1880).
SUL'LY, THOMAS (1783-1872). A portrait
painter of the early American school. Born at
Horncastle, Lincolnshire, England; he was
brought by his parents, who were actors, to
Charleston, S. C., in 1792. In 1806 he removed
to New York, and in 1809 he went to London,
where he completed his studies begun in Amer-
ica under Benjamin I/Vest. Two years later he
returned to America and settled in Philadelphia.
Among his best known portraits are those of
Commodore Decatur in the City Hall, New York;
General Lafayette at Independence Hall, and
George Frederick Cooke at the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia; Thomas
Jefferson (1821) at the Military Academy, West
Point; and portraits of Charles Kemble, Frances
Anne Kemble, and Rembrandt Peale, James
Madison, Andrew Jackson, and John Marshall,
in the Corcoran Gallery, Washington. Consult
his “Recollections of an Old Painter,” in Hours
at Home (1869).
SULLY -PRUDHOMME, su’lé’ pru’d6m',
RENE FRANQOIS ARMAND (l839—). A French
poet, born in Paris. He was educated for the law,
and was a student of science and philosophy.
In 1865 he published Stances et poémes, which
won the praise of Sainte-Beuve for their delicate
elegiac sentiment. Encouraged by this success,
he devoted himself wholly to poetry. In 1866 ap-
peared Les épreuoes, a work in which the sad-
ness of unbelief is poignantly expressed. Les
solitudes (1869) and a rhymed translation of the
first book of Lucretius (1869) foreshadow by
their depth his great philosophical poems La
justice (1878) and Le bonheur (1888). These
two last-mentioned poems are among the greatest
efforts of French poetry since Victor Hugo and
Lamartine. Impressions dc guerre (1870) deal
with some of the phases of the Franco-German
War. Les destins (1872), Vaines tendresses
(1875), and Le prisme (1886) are less philo-
sophic and more personal. Sully-Prudhomme
entered the Academy in 1881, and in 1901 re-
ceived one of the Nobel prizes in recognition of
the lofty qualities of his poetry. He devoted a
portion of this to establishing an annual award
for excellence among the younger French poets.
His verses are thoughtful and often melancholy.
Sensitively open to all impressions, he is -singu-
larly temperate in expression. This quality of
reserve is particularly noticeable in his expres-
sion of the sadness which is his usual mood.
Consult: Brunetiere, Poésie lyrique,vol. ii. (ib.,
1894); id., Littérature contemporaine (2d ed.,
ib., 1895) ; Lemaitre, Les contemporains, vols. i.,
iv. (ib., 1896) ; Gaston Paris, Penseurs et poétes
(ib., 1897).
SULPHOCYANIC ACID, or THIOCYANIC
ACID, HCNS. A powerful organic acid analogous
in its composition to the well-known cyanic acid
(q.v.), HCNO, from which it differs in contain-
ing sulphur instead of oxygen. Sulphocyanates,
i.e. salts of sulphocyanic acid, may be obtained
by the direct action of sulphur on cyanides (i.e.
salts of hydrocyanic acid). Thus, potassium
sulphocyanate may be obtained by boiling a
solution of potassium cyanide with sulphur. Free
sulphocyanic acid may be prepared by decom-
posing barium sulphocyanate with sulphuric
acid, and distilling the aqueous acid thus ob-
tained over warm anhydrous chloride of calcium.
The acid is thus obtained in the form of a vola-
tile liquid with a characteristic pungent odor.
Pure sulphocyanic acid may be preserved for
some time if kept in the cold. At ordinary tem-
peratures it rapidly polymerizes, forming an
amorphous yellow substance. Several of the
sulphocyanates are extensively used as mordants
in certain dyeing processes. The principal com-
mercial source of the salts is found in the manu-
facture of coal gas. The products formed during
the destructive distillation of coal include am-
monia, cyanogen, a certain amount of ammonium
cyanide, and certain compounds of sulphur. In
course of the purification of the gas, these by-
products are brought into contact with moist
ferric oxide for the purpose of freeing the gas
from deleterious sulphur compounds. The sul-
SULPHOCYANIC ACID.
SULPHUR.
322
phur is thus retained partly in the free state,
partly as iron sulphide, and by combination with
the ammonium cyanide present yields ammo-
nium sulphocyanate, which may be dissolved out
of the reacting mixture with water. Ammonium
sulphocyanate itself may be used for the prepara-
tion of hydrazine. Usually it is transformed
into the sulphocyanate of copper, from which,
in turn, the useful sulphocyanate of barium is
obtained by the action of baryta. The sulpho-
cyanate of aluminum, another useful salt of
sulphocyanic acid, may be obtained by the action
of aluminum sulphate on the sulphocyanate of
barium. Most of the sulphocyanates are soluble
in water. Sulphocyanate of mercury may be
obtained by the action of mercuric nitrate on
the sulphocyanate of ammonium. It decomposes
on moderate heating, the resulting mass, ex-
ternally yellow, but black within, assuming a
large size and often a most fantastic shape.
This sulphocyanate is the principal ingredient
of the well-known toy known as ‘Pharaoh’s ser-
pents.’ Each serpent consists of a little cone of
tinfoil, filled with the salt. On lighting the cone
at the apex, there begins to issue from it a thick
serpent-like coil, which continues twisting and
increasing in length to an extraordinary degree.
Like cyanic acid (q.v.) , sulphocyanic acid fur-
nishes a simple example of the phenomenon
known as tautomerism. The two constitutional
formulas corresponding to the acid, as deduced
from a study of its two different series of deriva-
tives, are as follows:
N=C—S—H and H-N=C=S
The two imaginary compounds corresponding
to these formulas, but in reality represented by
only one acid, are called, respectively, sulpho-
cyanic acid and iso-sulphocyanic acid (or thic-
cyanic acid and iso-thiocyanic acid).
SULPHONAL (CH3),C(SO,,C2H5),. A white
crystalline compound used as a hypnotic. It is
prepared by the action of acetone on mercaptan
(q.v.) and the oxidation of the resulting product
by permanganate of potassium. It is sparingly
soluble in water and alcohol and is best ad-
ministered with hot milk. It is employed as a
substitute for chloral, over which it has the ad-
vantage of exercising no depressing action on
the heart. It is, however, a poisonous substance
and has been known to produce serious functional
disturbances and eruptions on the skin. It is
sometimes administered in conjunction with a
similar‘ compound, known as trional (q.v.) .
SULPHOVINIC ACID. Same as Ethyl
hydrogen sulphate, or ethyl sulphuric acid.
C,H,.H.SO,. See ALCOHOL.
SULPHUR (Lat. sulphur, sulfur, sulphur;
possibly connected with Goth. swibls, OHG.
swebal,' Ger. Schwefel, AS. swefl, sulphur). A
non-metallic element that has been known since
ancient times. Owing to the fact that it burns
readily, it was called brennestone or brimstone,
and was regarded by the alchemists as the prin-
ciple of combustibility, representing the altera-
bility of metals by fire. It occurs in the uncom-
bined state, though usually contaminated with
clay, bitumen, and other impurities, and some-
times with traces of arsenic,- selenium, tellurium,
etc., usually in the vicinity of volcanoes and hot
springs. Its compounds, especially those with
metals (sulphides), are of common occurrence,
and include chalcopyrite or copper-iron sulphide,
cinnabar or mercury sulphide, galena or lead
sulphide, pyrite or iron sulphide, the arsenic
sulphides or realgar and orpiment, sphalerite or
zinc sulphide, stibnite or antimony sulphide. In
combination with metals and oxygen (sulphates),
sulphur occurs in such minerals as anglesite or
lead sulphate, barite or barium sulphate, celes-
tite or strontium sulphate, chalcanthite or cop-
per sulphate, gypsum or calcium sulphate, and
lcieserite or magnesium sulphate. Volcanic gases
generally contain sulphur in the forms of sulphur
dioxide and sulphureted hydrogen, and com-
pounds containing sulphur are found in cert. in
organic materials, such as the volatile oils
of mustard and garlic, hair, wool, bile, and
albuminous substances. It is generally be-
lieved that native sulphur has been formed
by the action of sulphur dioxide on hydro-
gen disulphide. Sulphur may also be ob-
tained by decomposing certain mineral sul-
phides, such as pyrite. The commercial ar-
ticle is usually obtained by purifying native
sulphur by fusion, or by distillation, and is
produced largely in Sicily, where it occurs mixed
with celestite, gypsum, limestone, and marl. The
ore, after being carefully hand-picked, was for-
merly heated in heaps from which the liquid sul-
phur collected in a trough at the bottom, whence
it was ladled out; but as this process was very
wasteful, kilns came into use, in which the sul-
phur ore was piled and ignited at the bottom;
the heat penetrated slowly into the mass, and as
the sulphur gradually melted it ran to the bot-
tom of the kiln, where it was collected and then
cast into molds. Sulphur may also be extracted
from ores by using a solvent such as carbon di-
sulphide, from which it is then separated by dis-
tillation. Crude commercial sulphur usually
contains about 3 per cent. of earthy impurities,
which may be removed by distillation, in which
case the sulphur is first melted and then heated
to the boiling-point, the vapor of sulphur then
passing into a large chamber, where it condenses
and falls to the floor in the form of a light yel-
low crystalline powder commonly known as
flowers of sulphur. This is cast into slightly
conical wooden molds, when it is known as roll
sulphur or brimstone, and sometimes it is al-
lowed to cool in the chamber, when it is obtained
in large crystalline masses called block sulphur.
Sulphur (symbol, S; atomic weight, 32.07)
occurs in several allotropic modifications. One
of these is a brittle solid that crystallizes in the
rhombic system, but that on heating passes into
transparent yellowish-brown needles of the mono- -
clinic system. Both of these forms are soluble
in carbon disulphide. The modifications of sul-
phur that are insoluble in carbon disulphide in-
clude plastic, amorphous, yellow, and black sul-
phur. There is a variety of sulphur that is
soluble in water. This is known as colloidal sul-
phur and is obtained by passing hydrogen disul-
phide into an aqueous solution of sulphur di-
oxide. Sulphur has a specific gravity of about
2.03, and melts variously from 111° to 115° C.
It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
The element itself is extensively used in the arts
and manufactures, as in making gunpowder and
matches, and in medicine.
Sulphur combines with oxygen to form a di-
oxide (SO,) and a trioxide (S0,), which in turn
combine with water to form sulphurous and sul-
phuric acids (H,SO3 and H,SO,, respectively).
SULPHUR.
SULPHURETED HYDROGEN.
323
It also forms a sesquioxide (S,O,) and a heptox-
ide (S207) ; but these are unimportant. Sulphur
dioxide, or sulphurous anhydride, was known to
the ancients, and Homer mentions the fact that
the fumes from burning sulphur were used for
fumigation, while Pliny says that such fumes
were employed for purifying cloth. It is readily
formed by burning sulphur in the air, and also
by the action of certain metals, such as copper,
on sulphuric acid. It is a colorless gas with a
suffocating odor and is freely soluble in water,
forming sulphurous acid. The gas is used as a
bleaching agent, as a disinfectant, and as an
antiseptic, serving to prevent the putrefaction of
meat and to stop fermentation. It is also used
in the sulphuring of wine. Its compound with
water, known as sulphurous acid (HZSO3), com-
bines with bases to form a series of salts which
are known as sulphites. Sulphur trioazide, or
sulphuric anhydride, is formed when a mixture of
sulphur dioxide and oxygen is passed over plati-
num sponge, or by the distillation of fuming
sulphuric acid. It is a colorless mobile liquid
that solidifies in the form of long transparent
prismatic crystals which melt at 14.8° C. The
liquid boils at 46° C. It i's very acrid and chars
paper, wood, and organic matter generally. When
thrown into water it dissolves with a hissing
sound and evolves a large amount of heat, form-
ing sulphuric acid (q.v.). Under the name of
crystallizable sulphuric acid, it is used in the
manufacture of coal-tar colors, such as alizarin,
and in the purification of ozokerite. .,With hydro-
gen and oxygen sulphur forms a series of acids
including, besides those already mentioned, the
following: thiosu-lphuric or hyposulphurous acid
(H,S2O,,) , which is described elsewhere; hydrosul-
phurous acid (H,SO,) , a powerful reducing agent
discovered by Schiitzenberger and prepared by
‘ the action of metallic zinc on acid sodium sul-
phite; persulphuric acid (HSO,), obtained in a
combined form by the electrolysis of a strong so-
lution of acid potassium sulphate; pyrosulphur-
ous acid (H,S,O,), whose potassium salt is
formed when sulphur dioxide gas is passed into
a hot aqueous solution of potassium carbonate;
pyrosulphuric acid (H2S2O7), formed by the di-
rect union of sulphur trioxide and sulphuric acid;
dithionic acid (H,S2O,), whose manganese salt is
formed by the action of sulphur dioxide on man-
ganese dioxide; trithionic acid (H,S_.,O6), whose
potassium salt is formed by the action of flowers
of sulphur on a warm solution of acid potassium
sulphite; tetrathionic acid (H,S,O.,), whose so-
dium salt is formed by the action of iodine on
sodium hyposulphite; pentathionic acid (H,S,O.,) ,
formed, along with free sulphur, by the action of
sulphur dioxide on aqueous sulphureted hy-
drogen.
Sulphur combines with hydrogen to form a
disulphide (sulphureted hydrogen, q.v.) and a
persulphide, of which the former is well known.
The persulphide (probably H,S;,) is an oily yel-
low liquid which is prepared by pouring an
aqueous solution of an alkaline polysulphide into
excess of a solution of about equal parts of con-
centrated hydrochloric acid and water. It has
the property of bleaching organic coloring mat-
ters, and reduces the oxides of gold and silver
with great rapidity. With carbon sulphur com-
bines to form a disulphide (CS._.), which is de-
scribed in a special article. (See CARBON DI-
SULPHIDE). With chlorine sulphur combines to
form a monochloride(S,Cl,), a dichloride (SC1,),
and a tetrachloride (SCl,), of which the most
important is the monochloride. This is prepared
by passing dry chlorine gas over melted sulphur
and distilling off the chloride from the excess of
sulphur. It is an amber-colored liquid that
fumes strongly in the air, and possesses a pene-
trating odor. A saturated solution of sulphur
in the monochloride is used in vulcanizing rub-
be: goods.
SULPHUR, MEDICAL Usns or. Sulphur is
used in medicine both internally and externally.
It is prepared from crude sulphur by sublima-
tion, washing, and precipitation. Taken by
the mouth sulphur is in medicinal doses a
mild laxative, producing a soft stool, which
slips by strictures of the rectum, piles, and
fissures with little discomfort. It is, there-
fore, used in these conditions. Sulphur is
particularly valuable for chronic rheumatism,
either taken in the form of mineral waters
containing this element, or externally by
means of sulphur baths. The latter are employed
in various chronic skin diseases, of obstinate
type, such as psoriasis, lichen, and eczema. (See
BATHS and MINERAL WATERS.) Calcium sul-
phide is of value in all cases where pus is about
to form, as when successive crops of boils ap-
pear, or in acne pustulosa.
The external uses of sulphur are mostly con-
fined to affections of the skin and as a parasiti-
cide. It is only active when used in the form of
an ointment. For the itch (q.v.) sulphur oint-
ment is a specific. It is also a favorite remedy
for ringworm (tinea, q.v.).
SULPHURETED HYDROGEN, HYDROGEN
SULPHIDE, or HYDRCSULPHURIC ACID, H,S. A
gaseous acid compound of sulphur and hydrogen,
known since the sixteenth century, but first care-
fully investigated by Scheele in 1777. It occurs
uncombined in certain mineral waters and is
formed in the decomposition of albuminous sub-
stances containing sulphur. It also occurs as a
product of transformation of gypsum (calcium
sulphate) and other metallic sulphates and is a
constituent of volcanic exhalations. But what-
ever its origin, it does not long remain un-
changed in the air, being oxidized with the great-
est ease. The usual method of preparing the gas
consists in causing sulphuric or preferably hy-
drochloric acid to act ~on ferrous sulphide. The
following rule usually holds good: Sulphureted
hydrogen is formed by the action of acids on the
sulphides of those metals (e.g. iron, zinc, man-
ganese, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
etc.) which can directly decompose the acids
with liberation of hydrogen. Sulphureted hy-
drogen is a colorless gas, somewhat heavier than
air, soluble in water and more so in alcohol, the
solutions reddening blue litmus paper. Mixed
with 1%, volumes of oxygen and ignited, it ex-
plodes, the products of the reaction being water
vapor and sulphur dioxide (S0,). Under the
influence of cold and pressure, sulphureted hy-
drogen condenses to a colorless mobile liquid.
Sulphureted hydrogen is very poisonous, and
even small proportions of it in the air are dan-
gerous. The presence of free sulphureted hydro-
gen may be demonstrated by means of a strip of
filter-paper soaked with a solution of lead
acetate, the paper turning brown or black, owing
to the formation of lead sulphide. Chlorine and
SULPHURETED HYDROGEN.
SULPHURIC ACID.
324
-iodine decompose sulphureted hydrogen, and
this is why the odor of the latter is readily de-
stroyed by bleaching powder. Sulphureted hy-
drogen is used in the manufacture of certain
metallic sulphides, for the purification of sul-
phuric acid, and extensively in analytical chem-
istry. The sulphureted hydrogen produced in
certain industrial processes is utilized by burn-
ing it and transforming the resulting sulphur di-
oxide either into sulphuric acid or into free sul-
phur.
SULPHURIC ACID, H2SO,. A well-known
acid compound of hydrogen, sulphur, and oxygen.
When pure and free from water, it is a colorless,
oily liquid of specific gravity 1.84 (approximate-
ly) at 0° C. While it may readily be under-
cooled, it solidifies normally at 6.79° C. (44-.3°
F.). At about 290° C. (554° F.) it begins to
boil, breaking up into sulphur trioxide and water
vapor, and as some of the latter is retained by
the boiling acid, the temperature rapidly rises
to about 338° C. (640° F.). It is highly hygro-
scopic, absorbing about 30 per cent. of its weight
of water. It readily chars organic matter, and
is poisonous, not only on account of its power-
ful corrosive action, but also on account of a
specific effect on the blood. Chemically it is a
dibasic acid, either one or both of its hydrogen
atoms being replaced by metals, with the forma-
tion, respectively, of either acid or neutral salts
(sulphates). Its chemical constitution is gen-
erally assumed to be represented by the formula
H—O—-S——-O——O—O——H. By adding to it
a little water, it may be caused to form the
hydrate H2SO,.H._,O, which crystallizes out when
the mixture is cooled and may then be readily
isolated from the mother-liquor by suction.
another well-defined hydrate is formed, having
the composition H2SO,.2H2O. -
The term ‘sulphuric acid,’ however, as tech-
nically and commercially understood, seldom if
ever refers to the actual monohydrate or to any
of the other recognized hydrates of sulphur tri-
oxide.
It refers either to a. series of solutions of the
monohydrate in water or to a series of solutions
of sulphur trioxide in the monohydrate.
(H,,SO_, -1- S0,.) The first series are known c_om-
mercially as ‘chamber acid’—-‘oil of vitriol’—
‘concentrated acid’ or in terms of their specific
gravity as indicated by a hydrometer scale, as
60° Beaume acid, 144° Twaddell acid and so
forth. The second series are termed ‘fuming’ or
Wloodhausen acids and are always estimated al-
kali-metrically according to the percentage of
free sulphur trioxide contained.
Technically, threfore, ‘sulphuric acid’ might
be considered to be the generic name of a series
of solutions of sulphur trioxide (S03) in water,
some of which solutions are distinguished by
variations of properties which occur uniformly
with uniform percentage mixtures of sulphur
trioxide and water and are therefore chemical
hydrates of sulphur trioxide-—most of which
are, however, merely solutions of convenient
strength for use in the arts.
The manufacture of sulphuric acid is one of
the greatest chemical industries. The processes
involved include the production of sulphur di-
oxide, the transformation of this into sulphur
trioxide, and the transformation of the trioxide
into sulphuric acid. Of these, the oxidation of
the dioxide is the most important, the dioxide it-









‘s


4
///// ///// //
///% ///////
DIAGRAM SHOWING CHAMBER PROCESS FOR MAKING SULPHURIO ACID.
’/ -.///w 1/ /./ /
In the figure, A is a bench of pyrites burners, niter oven, etc. The burner gas is conducted through pipe D to the
Glover tower, E, where it meets the dilute acids and oxides of nitrogen. The fan J carries the gases through the
pipe I to the first chamber, K, where oxidation of the sulphur dioxide takes place in presence of water vapor supplied
by the steam line shown above the chambers, thence to the second and third chambers, M and N, through the flues
I1 and I2 and surface condensers L and L1. The acid drained from the bottom of each chamber and the condensers is
collected in the tank R2.
The pump S2 delivers this acid to the tank 11,, over the Glover tower, or to the storage tank U, whence it goes to
the tank car V. The strong acid coming from the Glover tower is collected in cooler Q and tank R and is delivered by
the pump S1 to the tank H.,‘ over the second Gay-Lussac tower, P, and to the storage tank 13,. The gases from the last
chamber, N, are conducted through the pipe I, to the first Gay-Lussac tower, O, and thence to the second Gay-Lussac
tower, P, their flow being maintained by the fan J1.
The exhausted gases pass to the atmosphere at T. The nitrous
vitriol from the first Gay-Lussac tower is collected in the tank R4 and is delivered by the pump S, to tank H over the
Glover tower.
The nitrous vitriol from the second Gay-Lussac tower, containing but little N203, is collected in the
tank R8 and is delivered by the pump S3 to the tank H3 over the first Gay-Lussac tower.
In different works this
scheme varies somewhat in detail, but not in its essential points.
Glass bottles containing commercial sulphuric
acid often burst in winter, owing to the separa-
tion of crystals of this hydrate, whose melting-
point is about 8° C. (about 46° F.), and which
decomposes into sulphuric acid and water above
205° C. (about 370° F.). If pure sulphuric acid
is mixed with water in the proportion of 49
parts of the former to 18 parts of the latter,
mineral sulphides, or sulphureted hydrogen,
with free access of air, the resulting gases, tech-
nically termed ‘burner gas,’ including from 5 to
8 per cent. of the dioxide (the remainder is con-
stituted by the nitrogen and excessive oxygen of
the air and by impurities). The two processes
devised to effect the oxidation of the dioxide are
alike catalytic in their action, in so far as the
SULPHURIC ACID.
SULPHURIC ACID.
325
substances used, while producing the required
chemical reaction, remain themselves in the end
unchanged. These two processes are termed, re-
spectively, the chamber process and the con-
tact process. v
THE CHAMBER Pnoosss. In the chamber proc-
ess the burner gas is mixed in large lead cham-
bers (and with more or less auxiliary appar-
atus) with nitric acid, or with the products of
the action of sulphuric acid on sodium nitrate,
the catalytic agent being probably nitrogen tri-
oxide, and the following reactions probably tak-
ing place:
2SO? + N203 +' H20 + 02 : 2SO2(OH) (N02) §
2SO2(OH) (NO,) + H20 : 2H,SO4 + N20,.
The nitrogen trioxide is thus entirely repro-
duced. In addition to the above principal reac-
tions there are further reactions set up in
the so-called Guy-Lussac and Glover towers, in
which apparatus, respectively, the catalytic
agent is recovered and made available (in the
form of nitric acid) for further use. The prin-
ciple of the chamber process, therefore, is the
production of a dilute sulphuric acid by oxidiz-
ing a burner gas containing say 5 per cent. to
8 per cent. of sulphur dioxide in presence of
water vapor by the means of nitric acid in suit-
able apparatus in such a way that the nitric
acid is practically recovered for further use.
This recovery, however, is rarely complete—a
certain mechanical loss being unavoidable. The
-771


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A. \ (L

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nd -71 W
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to 95.5 per cent. of H,,SO,; but the anhydrous
can only be isolated by freezing.
THE CONTACT PROCESS. In the contact process
the method of production is directly synthetical,
and acids of any desired strength may be made
in one operation. In this process the burner gas
must be first rendered absolutely free from
everything other than sulphur dioxide, oxygen,
and inert nitrogen, the usual impurities of
burner gas, such as dust, moisture, arsenic, sele-
nium, etc., derived from the raw material used,
seriously interfering with the process. After
purification, the gas is passed through a sub-
stance possessing the faculty of causing sulphur
dioxide to oxidize into sulphur trioxide, without
apparently sufiering any change whatever in its
own condition. This contact must be brought
about under conditions as to temperature ac-
cording to the substance used. The contact
substances used are finely divided platinum in
various forms, such as platinized asbestos and
pumice, etc., crusts formed of platinum and some
soluble sulphate, ferric oxide, cupric sulphate,
diatomaceous earth, etc. The transformation of
sulphur dioxide into the trioxide takes place
best between 200° and 450° C. (392°-842° F.).
Above 450° C. the transformation grows incom-
plete, for at that temperature commences the
dissociation of sulphur trioxide into dioxide and
free oxygen—a dissociation which is complete at
900° C. The formation of sulphur trioxide hav-


I .
DIAGRAM SHOWING CONTACT PROCESS FOR MAKING SULPHURIC ACID.
A is a bench of pyrites burners. The burner gas passes through the flue A to the first cleaning tower, B. Weak
sulphuric acid is constantly flowing down this tower, becoming"concentrated by the hot burner gas and absorption
of the sulphur trioxide contained in the burner gas, and finally flows out at the bottom into the cooler C at a
strength of from 62° to 64° Baumé. From the cooler C, the strong acid passes to the tank D and is delivered by the
pump D1 to the storage tank T, or to the tank F over the second cleaning tower, E. A constant stream of strong
sulphuric acid from the tank F is kept flowing down this tower. In this tower the burner gas coming from the top
of B is further cleaned and dried by the action of the strong acid and then passes to the filter tower, I; the circu-
lation of the gases through the train of apparatus is maintained by the fan J . Before entering the contact ovens,
the mixed gases are reheated to the proper temperature for the combination of the sulphur dioxide and oxygen in the
reheater, K.
Thg) contact oven, L, consists of cast-iron rings with perforated shelves, or diaphragms, upon which is placed the
contac mass.
The sulphur trioxide formed in the contact oven now passes through the 'absorption cylinders. M1, M2, M3, M4.
'~1‘hese are cylindrical iron tanks connected in such a way that the gas passes from end to end, meeting the weak acid
flowing in the opposite direction. Both the gas and the acid in M1 are richest in sulphur trioxide, while in M4 the gas
and acid are weak. Sulphur trioxide is most readily absorbed by acid containing about 98% HQSO4. The strong
acid, which is ready for the market as it comes from M1, is collected in the tank Q and is delivered by the pump Q, to
the storage tank, R.
The gases coming from the last absorption tank, M4, contain still a small amount of unabsorbed sulphur trioxide.
In order to recover this, the gases are passed through the tower N, which is supplied with strong acid which absorbs
the last traces of sulphur trioxide. The nitrogen and oxygen remaining pass into the air through the pipe 0. The
tank car S receives acid for shipment from the storage tank, R.
strongest acid which can be produced by the
chamber process will correspond to from 50 per
cent. to 60 per cent. of sulphur trioxide. Strong-
er acids must be produced by driving off the
contained water by heat or by isolating the acid
by freezing. It is thus possible to produce the
concentrated acid (oil of vitriol) of commerce,
containing from 93.5 to 97 per cent. of pure sul-
phuric acid; also distilled acid, containing up
ing been attained, it simply remains either to
condense it at the proper temperature in its
crystalline condition or to absorb it in sulphuric
acid or water until a solution of the required
strength is obtained.
Usns OF SULPHUBIC A011). The uses of sul-
phuric acid in the arts are extremely varied and
of the highest importance. It forms the basis
of manufacture of nearly all the other acids and
SULPHURIC ACID.
SULPHUR srmnes.
326
salts. Nitric, hydrochloric, acetic, picric, phos-
phoric, oxalic, tartaric, citric, and stearic acids,
chemical manures and fertilizers, are all pre-
pared by the agency of sulphuric acid. It is also
used in the metallurgy of copper, cobalt, nickel,
silver, and platinum, as well as in the prepara-
tion of sheet iron and wire for galvanizing and
tinning; in the preparation of phosphorus, bro-
mine, iodine, potassium bichromate, ordinary
ether, and various esters (q.v.), starch, glucose,
sugar, and effervescent drinks; in the manufac-
ture of parchment papers, cellulose, celluloid,
high explosives, nitroglycerin, nitrobenzene, gun-
cotton, smokeless powdérs, pyroxilene, etc.; in
the manufacture of coal-tar colors and dyes; in
dyeing, calico printing, and tanning; in refining
mineral oils, tallow, benzene, and paraffin; in the
preparation of the various sulphates, as those of
ammonium, potassium, barium, magnesium, alu-
minum, iron, zinc, copper, mercury, atropine,
hydroscyamine, morphine, quinidine, quinine,
strychnine, and others, too numerous to mention
and many of which have an extensive application
in therapeutics.
HISTORY. Geber was the first to describe sul-
phuric acid as a spirit which can be produced
from alum and which possesses solvent proper-
ties. From the year 1613 sulphuric acid was pre-
pared by the apothecaries by burning sulphur
with access of air in moist vessels. In 1666 the
addition of a little saltpetre was introduced by
Nicholas LeFevre. About 1740, at Richmond, near
London, England, the first sulphuric acid works
on a commercial scale were founded, producing
oil of vitriol ‘made by the bell’ in contradistinc-
tion to that distilled from copperas. The birth of
the modern method of sulphuric acid making,
however, dates from Roebuck’s installation of lead
chambers in Birmingham in 1746, and his further
installation at Prestonpans, in Scotland, in
partnership with Garbett. As late, however, as
1800 the Prestonpans works only yielded 111
per cent. on the sulphur burned, with a consump-
tion of 13 per cent. of nitrate of soda (modern
practice would yield 300 per cent. of the acid
on sulphur burned with a consumption of less
than 3 per cent. nitrate of soda). The chambers
at that time were about 14 feet long, 10 feet high,
and 4 feet 10 inches wide. (They are now com-
monly 50 feet to 100 feet long, 20 feet to 25
feet high, and 20 feet to 30 feet wide.) In
1827 Gay-Lussac introduced his towers for the re-
covery of nitric acid. Another important step
was the introduction, in 1859, by John Glover,
of his denitrating and concentrating tower at the
Washington Chemical Works, near Durham, in
England. This completed the rational and eco-
nomical method of manufacture known as ‘the
chamber process.’ From that time on the his-
tory of the chamber process of manufacturing
sulphuric acid has been largely one of minor
improvements, economics, and investigations into
the chemical reactions involved in the process.
In the meantime, however, as early as 1817,
the catalytic action of platinum was discovered
by Sir Humphrey Davy, and this phenomenon
was further investigated by Edmund Davy,
Dtibereiner, and others. In 1831 Peregrine Phil-
lips, Jr., an acetic acid manufacturer, discovered
and patented the application of the catalytic’
action of platinum to the production of sulphur
trioxide. The matter remained dormant until
1848,- when the Belgian Schneider claimed to
have discovered in pumice stone a substance of
great catalytic activity, From this time on the
subject received the attention of many scientists
in Europe. But it was not until the publication
of the investigations of Clemens Winkler in.
Dingler’s Journal, in 1875, that the foundation of
a commercial contact process can be said to have
been securely laid. Subsequent work by Hanisch
and Schroeder, Messel and Lunge, and others,
followed. Finally, about 1880, the matter was
taken up by the Badische Anilin und Soda
Fabrik in Germany, and this firm, after a long,
costly, and obstinate struggle, brought the proc-
ess to a commercial success. An output of 18,-
500 tons of sulphur trioxide by this firm in 1888
had been increased in 1890 to 116,000 tons.
Other manufacturers also have made the contact
process an established success, the different
maniifacturers working on slightly difierent
methods or different contact materials. As yet,
however, the only contact material of demon-
strated commercial value is platinum in one or
the other form or combination. In the United
States the first contact plant was erected in 1899,
at Mineral Point, Wis., by the New Jersey Zinc
Company under the patents of Schroeder. This
plant was almost immediately followed by others,
all of which are in successful operation, and
while this process cannot be said to have super-
seded the old chamber process, its advantages
are such that its complete triumph is probably
only a matter of time and improved methods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Until the publication of Georg
Lunge’s Sulphuric Acid and Alkali in 1879 (3d
Eng. ed., London, 1903), the literature on this
subject was confined entirely to the scientific jour-
nals and Proceedings of scientific societies.
Consult also a lecture by Dr. Rudolf Kneitsch
before the German Chemical Society, October
19, 1901, an English translation of which was
published in the Mineral Industry, vol. x. Vols.
vii., viii., ix., x. of the Mineral Industry also
contain reports on “Progress in the Sulphuric
Acid Industry.”
SULPHURIC ETHER. See ETHER.
SULPHUROUS ACID (HZSO3). A colorless
liquid containing about 6.4 per cent. of sul-
phurous anhydrid (SO2) and 93.6 per cent. of
water. The gas is a valuable disinfectant and
has been used for this purpose from the most
ancient times. The gas is employed almost uni-
versally at the present day to disinfect buildings
and rooms, although formaldehyde gas is gradu-
ally superseding it. Sulphurous acid is used as
a spray or lotion in diphtheria and stomatitis,
and is valuable as a wash for indolent ulcers
and foul sores. It is an excellent remedy for
ringworm. Theacid is sometimes given internal-
ly to prevent abnormal fermentation in the
stomach and intestines in certain varieties of
dyspepsia, but its value is problematical, and
there are many other drugs suitable for this
condition whose action is certain. See DISINFEC-
TANTS; FUMIGATION.
SULPHUR SPRINGS. The county-seat of
Hopkins County, Texas, 79 miles east by north
of Dallas, on White Oak Creek, and on the Saint
Louis Southwestern and the Missouri, Kansas
and Texas railroads (Map: Texas G 3). It has
cotton gins, a cotton compress, cottonseed-oil
mills, and manufactories of leather, brick ,and
SULPHUR SPRINGS.
SULU ISLANDS.
327
tile, carriages and wagons, and lumber products.
The water-works are owned by the municipality.
Population, in 1890, 3038; in 1900, 3635.
SULPICIANS, sul-pish'anz. A society of
priests founded in 1641 by Jean Jacques Olier
(q.v.) to educate candidates for the priesthood.
It took its name from the parish of Saint-Sulpice
in Paris, of which Olier was pastor. When the
number of priests had increased beyond the needs
of the parish, some took charge of a seminary;
and this has since been their principal work. At
the present time they have charge of the clerical
seminaries in twenty-five dioceses of France.
They came to Canada in 1642 and had a large
share in the founding of the city of Montreal as
a Christian colony; for a long time they did all
the priestly work there, and still conduct the
seminary. On the invitation of Bishop Carroll,
they came to Baltimore in 1790 and took charge
of the seminary founded there a year later; in
1808 they established another at Emmitsburg,
the later Mount Saint Mary’s College. They
also have charge of the seminaries in the dioceses
of New York, Boston, and San Francisco, and
of the clerical students in the Catholic University
at Washington.
SULPICIUS (sul-pisl1’i-us) SEVE’RUS
(c.363-c.410.) An ecclesiastical historian, born in
Aquitaine. According to Paulinus (Ep. xxii.) he
went to live at Primuliacum, a village near' Tou-
louse, and about this time he seems to have taken
monastic vows. He was a friend of Saint Martin,
Bishop of Tours, whom he frequently visited, and
whose life he wrote (Vita S. Martini Turonensis) .
His biography and his dialogues are of
great historical value. The most important of
Sulpicius’s other writings is his Historia Sacra,
composed about 403. This book was for a long
time used as a text-book for history in the schools
of Europe (till c.1656). There is an English
version of his writin S, by Alexander Roberts,
in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (vol. xi., 2d
series, New York and Oxford, 1894).
SULTAN. A breed of small fowls, derived
from Turkey, and kept for their beauty of
plumage and docility as pets.
_. _-\\~A
..-,~\_\~. \ \ .
,_.—A-<4:=_~_‘.r~ -‘—\ \-A
;?

I
\\
I .



A SULTAN COCK.
SULTAN (Ar. sultan, emperor, empire, from
salita, to be imperious). A common title of
Mohammedan rinces since the time of the Ghaz-
nivid Mahmu (997-1030). It is given, par
eaccellence, to the ruler of Turkey, who takes the
name sultan khan, ‘reigning sultan,’ or sultan of
sultans. It is also given to the princesses of the
royal house, and the Sultan’s mother is called
val-ide sultan; the mother of his first-born son is
called hasseki sultan. In English a feminine
form sultana is usually employed for women.
SULTE, sult, BENJAMIN (184l—). A French-
Canadian author, born at Three Rivers, in the
Province of Quebec. Taken from school at the
death of his father, who perished at sea, Sulte
pushed his way through various employments
into journalism and into the service of the Gov-
ernment as translator. His most solid prose
work is the Histoire des Canadiens-Francais (8
vols., 1882-84), which was followed by Histoire
de Saint Francois-du-Lac (1886) and Pages
d’histoire du Canada (1891). Sulte is also well
known for his songs in Les Laurentien-nes (1870)
and Les chants nouveaua: (1880).
SULU, SM-1%’, or JoL(’). The capital of the
island and archipelago of the same name in the
Philippines, situated on the northwest coast of
the island of Sulu, 580 miles almost due south
of Manila, and 99 miles southwest of Zambo-
anga, Mindanao (Map: Philippine Islands, F
13). The old town, destroyed during the Span-
ish occupation of 1876-78, was the residence of
the sultans from the time of the traditional first
leader, Xarib, or Charib, who is reported to have
come from Mecca during the latter part of the
seventeenth century. The new town, laid out
on the hill by the Spaniards at the time of their
permanent occupation, is well constructed and
fortified. The harbor is provided with a long
stone pier and a lighthouse, and the town is an
important shipping place. Since the protocol
of 1877 between England and the German Em-
pire and Spain, it has been a free port. The
population is but a few thousand.
SULU (Sp. JoLo) ISLANDS, or SooLoo,
ISLANDS. The southernmost group of the Phil-
ippine Islands. It extends between the Sulu
and Celebes Seas from the western ex-
tremity of Mindanao southwestward to the
northeastern extremity of Borneo (Map: Philip-
pine Islands, F 13). Its combined area, exclud-
ing the Basilan group, which properly belongs to
Mindanao and forms a separate province, is
estimated at 1029 square miles. The archipelago
is arranged in two main parallel chains, and
consists of several minor groups, each centred
around a large island. Of the latter the two
largest are Sulu Island in the north and Tawi-
Tawi in the south, whose areas, respectively, are
380-and 187 square miles. The number of islands
counted is 188. The larger islands are of vol-
canic formation, and consist of mountains from
1000 to 3000 feet high, with several extinct vol-
canoes. The mountains are generally surrounded
by a coast zone of coral deposits, and most of
the smaller islands are wholly of coral formation
and very low, though all are built on the summits
of a subterranean mountain range. The climate,
being more tempered by the sea, is cooler and
more equable than that of Mindanao. The soil,
a mixture of volcanic and coral detritus, is ex-
tremely fertile, and the vegetation is luxuriant.
The flora is more distinctly related to that of the
Philippines, especially Mindanao, than to the
Borneo flora; the forests produce teak and other
valuable timbers, and cocoanut and nipa palm
are abundant. -
SULU ISLANDS.
SUMACH.
328
Considerable areas in Sulu Island are cleared
and cultivated, the chief crop being rice, while
coffee, cacao, corn, hemp, cotton, and indigo are
also raised. The industries include weaving for
domestic use, the manufacture of cordage and of
knives and hatchets, and pearl and shell fish-
ing, the last being probably the most impor-
tant. Trade is almost wholly in the hands of
Chinese merchants, and consists chiefly in the
exportation of pearl shell to Singapore and
Manila and the importation of manufactured
goods. The dominant race among the inhabitants
are tl1e Moros, a tribe of Mohammedan Malays,
who had invaded and conquered the islands be-
fore the arrival of the Europeans. They prac-
tice polygamy and a mild form of slavery, which
the United States Government has agreed not to
abolish, though it has insisted that hereafter no
person shall be enslaved. The people are gov-
erned directly by local chieftains called datos,
who are more or less nominally subject to the
Sultan of Sulu. The latter was confirmed in his
title and authority by the United States Gov-
ernment. The population of the archipelago is
estimated at 22,630. The capital is Sulu (q.v.).
VVhen the Sulu Archipelago was visited by
Magellan in 1521 it was already occupied by
the Moros, and formed, together with its posses-
sions in North Borneo, an independent State.
The Moros showed a warlike and independent
spirit, and remained almost up to the present
time among the most formidable pirates in the
Malay Arcliipelago. Spain claimed sovereignty
over the islands and their dependencies, but did
not exercise it beyond sending occasional punitive
expeditions against the pirates, and her sov-
ereignty was disputed by England and Germany.
By 1875, however, Spain had gradually gained a
foothold and begun to assume actual control.
In 1877 trafiic was declared free in the archi-
pelago, and Spain abandoned her claim to North-
Borneo in favor of England. Finally in 1885
England and Germany formally recognized Span-
ish sovereignty in the islands. It had already
been acknowledged by the Sultan in 1878. With
the Philippine Islands the Sulu Archipelago
passed into the possession of the United States
in 1898. In December, 1899, a treaty was defi-
nitely concluded between the Sultan and the
United States by which American sovereignty
over the islands was recognized. The rights and
dignities of the Sultan were acknowledged and an
annual stipend was conferred upon him. The
Moros were guaranteed immunity in the practice
of their religion. Toward the end of 1903 hos-
tilities broke out between the Moro chiefs and
the United States forces. The latter, under the
command of General Leonard Wood, inflicted a
severe defeat on the enemy in the last days of
November.
SULZER, zul’tse'r, JOHANN GEORG (1720-79).
A Swiss esthetic philosopher, born at Winter-
thur. Educated in Zurich, he went in 1742 to
Berlin, where he entertained friendly relations
with Euler and Maupertuis, became professor of
mathematics at the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium
(1747), then at the Ritterakademie (1763), and
was elected a member of the Academy. His prin-
cipal work, in which he sought to reconcile the
doctrines of Wolf with the tenets of the French
and English philosophers, is the Allgcmcine Theo-
rie der scluinen K/iinste (17 71-74; new ed., with
literary additions by Blankenburg, 17 92-94) , sup-
plemented by Nachtmiige, oder Oharalcteristilc der
vornehmsten D/ichter aller Nationcn, ed. by Dyk
and Schatz (1792-1808). With Ramler he edited
Kritischc Nachrichten aus dem Re/iche der Ge-
lelzrsavnlceit (1750). Consult his autobiography
(Berlin, 1809).
SUMACH (OF. sumac, sumach, Fr. sumac,
sommac, sumach, from Ar. sum/mdq, sumach,
from samaqa, to come of good stock), Rhus. A
genus of about 100 species of shrubs and small
trees of the natural order Anacardiaceae, dis-
tributed over almost all the world, except its
coldest regions. The following species are of
commercial importance: Venetian sumach (Rhus
Uotinus) , known also as wig sumach or wig tree,
is a native of Southern Europe and Western
Asia, and is often planted under the name smoke
tree as an ornamental shrub. It has simple
leaves and hairy corymbs of fruit, which have a
sort of resemblance to periwigs. The wood,
which dyes yellow, and, with the addition of
other substances, green and brown, is known in
trade as young fustic. The leaves are astrin-
gent, and are used for dyeing Turkey red. The
root is also used in dyeing, and the whole plant
is used for tanning in Italy. The seed resembles
the almond in flavor. The very acid fruit of the
elm-leaved sumach (Rhus Cor-z'a'r2'a.), a native of
the Mediterranean region, has been used from
the earliest times as a condiment. Similar to
this is the Virginian sumach, or stag-horn su-
mach (Rims typhina), a native of almost all
parts of North America, with curiously crooked
\
1
\ I
/5 R)

sraenonn sfmaou (Rhus typbina).
branches, covered, when young, with a soft vel-
vety down. The smooth-leaved sumach (Rhus
glabra), a similar species, also North American,
has acid leaves, which are used for domestic pur-
poses. The collection of the leaves of the su-
mach, especially Rhus typhina, for tanning is
an industry in parts of the South. The varnish
sumach or Japan varnish tree (Rhus verm'cz'-
fem), a native of Japan and Nepal, yields a
varnish much used in Japan for lacquer-work.
The expressed oil of the seeds becomes as hard
as tallow, and is used for candles. In Australia
SUMACH.
SUMATRA.
329
the wood of Rhus rhodanthema (or Rhodasphcera
rhodanthema) is considered one of the most valu-
able cabinet woods. It is dark yellow with a
satiny lustre, and takes an excellent polish. The
leaves and bark are used in tanning. The name
tanner’s sumach is given to Coriaria myrtifolia,
a European shrub of the natural order Cori-
ariaceae. The leaves are astringent, and are used
for tanning and for dyeing black.
The popularly reputed poisonous American
species are botanically confused. Rhus Toxico-
dendron, a low shrub, is believed to be common
only at the South; Rhus radicans, the so-called
poison oak or ivy, a low, trailing or climbing
species, referred by some botanists to Toxicoden-
dron, is more widely distributed. Rhus vernia
(or Rhus venenata), the so-called poison alder,
sumach, dogwood, or swamp sumach, has long
been reputed to cause irritation of the skin in
some people and to be inert in others, a reputa-
tion also pertaining to the preceding species. A
saturated alcoholic solution of lead acetate is
considered a specific.
SUMAROKOFF, s'o'o"nia-ro’kof, ALEXANDER
PETRCVITCH (1718-77). A Russian poet. He was
born in Finland, was well educated, entered the
military service, became Count Rumyantseff’s
adjutant, and later reached a high rank. \Vhen
the first permanent theatre was established at
Saint Petersburg in 1756, he was made director,
and also wrote plays for production at the the-
atre. Petty of character, quarrelsome, and over-
ambitious, he left the capital, incensed at the in-
sufficient recognition he had received, and began
to stage his works at Moscow. After a time he
got into di-sputcs with the management of the
theatre there, and in despair took to drink, dying
in obscurity. Although clumsy and ineffective,
his tragedies played an important part in the
history of Russian morals. His comedies and
satires have a great deal of genuine humor and
wit. His works were published at Moscow (2d
ed., 10 vols., 1787).
SUMATRA, s66-ma’tra. One of the Sunda
Islands, the most western, also the largest, not
reckoning Borneo, of the Dutch East India Isl-
ands, separated from the Malay Peninsula by the
Malacca Strait, and from Java by the Sunda
Strait (Map: East India Islands, B 5). It ex-
tends in a northwest and southeast direction. Its
length is 1050 miles; its breadth ranges from 90
to 240 miles. Area, 161,612 square miles.
The Bukit-Barisan mountain range, of primi-
tive formation with a covering of eruptive rocks,
lines the island along the whole western shore,
and in the south and in the north diverges toward
the east coast. The whole northern part of the
island is in fact mountainous. The descent to
the generally rocky shores on the west is com-
paratively short and results in numerous valleys
and ports of safety. To the east‘, in all the Cen-
tral part, extend lower stretches‘of level and un-
dulating country sloping eastward, where all the
main rivers are found, flowing eastward, often
through marshy flats at the coast. The greatest
elevations in the island are in the north, the
loftiest peak being 12,100 feet. Here in the
vicinity of Lake Toba——the most important lake
——are steppes averaging 4000 feet In elevation,
and thinly wooded, but the contiguous lower
plains are richin forests and characterized by
dry rice fields. In the region next south are en-
countered volcanoes and deep river valleys. Fur-
ther south, in the large middle belt of the island,
are also volcanoes on the west, rising to about
10,000 feet. Here are Lake Maninju, covering
nearly 50 square miles and occupying the sunken
cone of a volcano, and Lake Singkara, of equal
area. Out of the latter issues the Ombilin
River, coursing over a high plain of Eocene for-
mation, and rich in coal fields. This whole fer-
tile region in the western part is thickly popu-
lated and forms the Padang section, at present
the most valuable industrial and commercial
part of Sumatra. The large, more or less allu-
vial, and plentifully watered southern part of
the island is little known. Sumatra has eight
active volcanoes. The western coast with
its rich soil, timber, and mines has been
much more favorable to development than the
eastern. The main rivers are the Musi, Jambi,
Indragiri, and Kampar. They are of little im-
portance for navigation. Around a large part
of the coast extend rows and groups of islands
of more or less significance and once a ortion
of the mainland—Banka, Linga, Rupert, imalu,
Siberut, etc. As a whole, Sumatra geologically
belongs to the neighboring continental regions;
sandstone, limestone, and slate formations
abound.
The equator passes nearly through the centre
of the island; accordingly the even temperature
is constantly high, the mean annual tempera-
ture ranging from 77° to 81° F. The
annual rainfall varies from approximately
90 to 185 inches. The lower sections of the
island are unhealthful, the higher are pleasant
and habitable. Thunderstorms and waterspouts
occur frequently, and earthquakes now and then.
The flora is practically that of the Malay Penin-
sula and Borneo, containing a few remarkable
special features, such as gigantic forms of arum.
A large part of the island is overgrown with trees
and foliage. The mountains are rich in tall
timber. Oak, camphor, and teak trees abound.
Sumatra is unsurpassed for fauna, nearly all
the large equatorial types being present. Buffaloes
are the leading live stock. The rhinoceros,- ele-
phant, tiger, tapir, panther, deer, and many
species of the ape are also largely represented.
The supply of minerals is large. The island
yields coal abundantly, and large tin deposits
on Singkap Island on the east coast are being
worked. Petroleum wells flow in the Palembang
region, and there is an important output of pe-
troleum in Langkat.
Agriculture is the occupation of the natives.
All the tropical crops are or can be grown. The-
native princes and the Government farm out land
to cultivators. The natives skillfully manu-
-facture filigree articles in gold and silver, fabrics,
and household articles. The northeast coast,
around Dili, is a rich and extensive tobacco
country, which produced in 1899 about 53,000,000
pounds of tobacco. The pepper trade is impor-
tant. Coffee, bamboo, rubber, copra, and gums
are also exported.
Sumatra is called one of the outposts of the
Dutch East Indies. Its government appears to be
in a somewhat transitory state, but is patterned
after that of Java. The Dutch control in the in-
terior is as yet but nominal. The various por-
tions are known as the West Coast, the East
Coast, Benkulen, Lampongs, Palembang, and
SUMATRA.
SUMERIAN LANGUAGE
330
Achin, the first containing one-half the people of
the island. Sumatra has a Governor (under the ‘
Governor-General of the East Indies), a President,
Comptroller, etc. The 8 administrative districts
are called residences. The Residency of Rhio in-
cludes several hundred islands ofi the east coast.
A Government railway extends from Padang to
the great coal mines in the adjacent interior.
There is a railway from Medan to the coast, and
one will operate from Achin along the northern
coast. In 1900 Sumatra had 200 miles of rail-
way. There are many good roads in various coast
districts, and there is now a fair roadway from
Palembang to Benkulen. Padang, Achin, Dili,
Benkulen, and Palembang are the leading towns.
The population of Sumatra exceeds 3,000,000.
The Europeans number about 6000, and the
Chinese about 100,000. The natives of Su-
matra, exclusive of the intruding Hindus,
Arabs, Tamils, Indo-Chinese, and Chinese, belong
to the Malayan stock, linguistically and physi-
cally, although some authorities group as ‘In-
donesians’ such peoples as the Battaks and a
few others. Among the most important and most
interesting tribes are the Achinese of the ex-
treme northwest, noted for their long struggle
against the Dutch, the Battaks of the northern
interior and northwest coast, and their neighbors
in the N ias and Batu Islands, the Kubus, a very
primitive people of the forests and marshy re-
gions of Palembang, the so-called Menangkabau
Malays of the middle of the island and other
parts east and west, the Palembangs, Redjar s,
Passumahs, Lampongs, and other tribes to t e
south, and the Abongs. The Malayan people of
Sumatra exhibit many varieties of culture, from
that of the forest-dwelling Kubus and other
tribes of a primitive sort to those who
under Hindu, and centuries later under Mo-
hammedan influences, reached a considerable de-
gree of culture, with religious and commercial
as well as political development and expansion.
The first intrusions of Hindu life and culture
into Sumatra began some time before the Chris-
tian Era. Traces of Hinduism are evident in
architecture, religion, and language. It was in
all probability from Java that Buddhism in the
sixth century made its way into Sumatra, where,
however, it never obtained general vogue. The
Battaks, some of whose divinities bear corrupted
Indian names, possess an alphabet of Hindu
origin. Hindu influences were probably at their
height in the eighth century. From the thir-
teenth to the fifteenth century Mohammedan in-
fluenccs prevailed and many of the tribes were
converted to Islam, and a number of sultanates
were established. The Mohammedan influence
upon politics, religion, and language was great.
Since then the various European conquerors and
intruders (Portuguese, English, Dutch) have
made themselves felt, but chiefly in the coast
regions. A considerable portion of the interior
is still only nominally subject to the rule of the
‘Dutch. On the whole the native population of
Sumatra, as is also the case in Java, is on the
increase. Mohammedanism is generally pro-
fessed in the coast districts and also to a great
extent in the interior.
Marco Polo visited Sumatra in 1292, and the
first Portuguese in 1508. In the seventeenth
century the Dutch obtained a firm foothold, hav-
ing forced out the Portuguese. From 1812 to
1819 the English held the island. In 1825 Ben-
kulen, where the English had been established
for nearly a century and a half, was transferred
to the Dutch. The conquest of the natives has
been in progress since the discovery of the island,
and has not yet been entirely completed. The
Sultan of Achin, in the northwest, with whom
a war has been going on since 1873,-has especial-
ly proved troublesome.
Consult: Verbeek, Topographische en geolog-
ische beschrijving van een gedeelte /van Sumatras
westkust (The Hague, 1886) ; Forbes, A Natural-
ist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago
(London, 1887); Carthaus, Aus dem Reich von
Insulinde. Sumatra und der M alaiische Archipel
(Leipzig, 1891) ; Keane, Eastern Geography
(London, 1887) ; Brenner, Besuch bei den Kan-
nibalen Sumatras (Wfirzburg, 1894) ; Miquel,
Flora Sumatrana (London, 11. d.) ; Werner,
“Reptilien und Batrachier aus Sumatra,” in Z00-
logisches Jahrbuch, vol. xiii. (Jena, 1900) ; Breit-
enstein, Sumatra (Leipzig, 1902); Giesenhagen,
Auf Jana und Sumatra (ib., 1902).
SUMBA, s6o\,m’ba, or SANDALWOOD ISLAND.
One of the Sunda Islands (q.v.).
SUMBAWA, sum-be/wa. An island of the
Dutch East Indies, one of the Sunda group, sit-
uated between Java and Flores. It is separated
by Atlas Strait from Lombok on the west and
by Sapi Strait from Komodo and Flores on the
east (Map: East India Islands, E 6). Its area is
given as“ 4300 square miles by some authorities,
and as high as 5400 by others. Four mountain
ranges traverse Sumbawa from west to east, the
northern being volcanic, the southern containing
a limestone formation. Mid-Sumbawa is a region
of circular hills of lava and tufa, and the land
is covered with a long silver-colored grass. The
natives engage in agriculture. Sumbawa, with
its four free States, is included, for the adminis-
trative purposes of the Dutch, under Residency
No. XI. of Insulinde or Island India. The popu-
lation is put as low as 75,000 and as high as
150,000, nearly all Mohammedan Malays. There
are about 12,000 foreigners, who control the
trade.
SUMEBIAN LANGUAGE. The language
supposed to have been spoken by the non-Semitic
inhabitants of the Euphrates valley who were
gradually absorbed by the invading Babylonians.
This language, according to the view of a ma-
jority of Assyriologists, has been preserved in
a number of inscriptions. The first successful
decipherers of the cuneiform characters, Hincks,
Rawlinson, and Oppert, observed that the wedge-
shaped signs were employed in writing languages
not akin to the Assyrian, that the inventors of
. this system of writing cannot have been Semites,
since the signs have syllabic values and some
characteristic Semitic sounds are not represented,
and that one of these languages was used in
Babylonia itself. Hincks thought that these
languages were Aryan; Rawlinson regarded them
as Scythian, meaning by this term Mon olian;
Oppert considered the Babylonian non- emitic
tongue as Kasdo-Scythian. The term ‘Accadian’
was first used by Rawlinson in 1855, the term
‘Sumerian’ by Oppert in 1869. There was prac-
tical unanimity among all Assyriologists before
1874 as to the agglutinating and non-Semitic
character of this language. In that year, how-
ever, Halevy began his protest against the very
SUMERIAN LANGUAGE.
SUMMARY PROCEEDINGS.
331
assumption that the Sumerian language ever ex-
isted. He first attempted to prove that the
Sumerian language did not belong to the Tura-
nian family and that the Turanian people can-
not be supposed to have lived in Babylonia, and
then maintained that the texts claimed to be
Sumerian could be regarded as composed in an
ideographic writing invented by the Assyrians in
addition to the phonetic system and having the
same values in pronunciation. Of the Sumerian
signs in the syllabary, he found Semitic values
for 114. In 1876 Halévy modified his view by
admitting that the Sumerian signs could not
have been pronounced like the ordinary Assyrian
words. In his opinion, the so-called Sumerian
was only a hieratic or priestly system of writing
used as a cryptography for purposes of conceal-
ment. It was made from the other not only by
the peculiar choice of ideograms, but by the
apocopation of the closing vowel or syllable,
changes of vowels and consonants, transpositions
of syllables, and transfers of rarer meanings to
common forms. Consequently it was to be re-
garded not only as a priestly system of writ-
ing, but as an artificial language constructed for
certain occult purposes. Against this theory es-
pecially Oppert and Lenormant, Sayce, and
Schrader urged many arguments, such as the im-
possibility of finding real Semitic values for the
Sumerian signs and the improbability of an
artificial language having been created as a secret
means of communication between priests and
then used for inscriptions in which kings recount
their victories and their building enterprises. In
1880 Haupt indicated the existence of two dia-
lects, Emelcu and Emesal, of the Sumerian as
shown by certain differences observed by earlier
scholars without full appreciation of their sig-
nificance. Even in view of this fact, explained
by Halévy as due to varieties of cryptography,
the difficulty of classifying the Sumerian, the
apparent silence of the monuments concerning a
nation speaking this language and conquered by
the Babylonians, and the manifest influence of
the Semitic speech on the vocabulary, led some
scholars to hesitate. Meanwhile the study of
the Sumerian, on the assumption that it was a
real language, continued. Lehmann’s investiga-
tions rendered it probable that the native name
of the peo le speaking this languaee was Shumeri
and that heir home was in South Babylonia, in
distinction from the Aklcadi, who were the Sem-
ites and had their centre in North Babylonia.
The Sumerian is found in bilingual syllabaries
and word-lists, bilingual hymns and prayers,
bilingual inscriptions of kings, and many unilin-
gual inscriptions. Of these the earliest show the
least evidence of a Semitic influence. These are
in the Emehu dialect. Those in the Emesal dia-
lect naturally reveal more traces of the Semitic
vernacular. Even within the Emelcu dialectical
differences have been observed, and the Ememalah
may represent a dialect spoken in Miluhha. (See
MINEANS.) Sumerian loan-words in the As-
syrian—of which Leander has counted 2l7—are
taken from the Emelcu dialect. The Sumerian is
made up of monosyllabic roots and shows no ten-
dency to triliterality; it is fond of compounds,
which are rarely found in the Semitic languages,
and expands its nouns by many prefixes and suf-
fixes; it has no gender. The plural is often
formed by duplication, as kur-kur, ‘lands,’ si-si,
VOL. xvr.-22. "
‘horns,’ and sometimes by ini; the genitive is
sometimes expressed by the suffix ge or gid; in-
stead of prepositions it has post-positions, such
as -shu, ‘to,’ -ta, ‘from,’ -da, ‘with;’ the pronouns
are either independent or pronominal suffixes, but
altogether different from the Semitic; the nu-
merals resemble the Semitic only in making the
twenties, thirties, etc., in the plural while the
forms are entirely different; the verb has prac-
tically the same derived stems as the Semitic and
Hamitic, but has a greater variety of prefixes,
infixes, and suflixes. The attempts to discover the
affinities of this language have not yet been
successful, but it is probably the oldest known
language in the world. From the Sumerian vo-
cabulary it is evident that the people who spoke
this language had reached a comparatively high
civilization. The sexagesimal system was in
vogue, and the beginnings of astronomy and
mathematics are with much plausibility ascribed
to the race who spoke the lishan Shumiri or
Sumerian language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lenormant, Lettres assyri-
ologiques (Paris, 1874) ; Halévy, Recherches
critiques sur l’origine de la civilisation baby-
lonienne (ib., 1876) ; Delitzsch, Assyrisehe
Grammatilc (Berlin, 1889) ; id., Assyrisches
Handwdrterbuch (Leipzig, 1896); id., Entste-
hung des iiltesten Schriftsystems (ib., 1892);
Haupt, Alcleadische und sumerische Keilschrz'ft-
terrte (ib., 1881-82) ; id., Die sumerischen
Familiengesetee (ib., 1879) ; id., Die alcka-
dische Sprache (Berlin, 1883) ; Guyard, Bulletin
critique de la religion assyro-babylonienne (Paris,
1882); Zimmern, Babylonische Busspsalmen
(Leipzig, 1885); Lehmann, Shamash-shum-ukin
(ib., 1892) ; Hommel, Sumerische Lesestiwhe
(Munich, 1894) ; Weissbach, Die sumerisehe
Frage (Leipzig, 1898) ; Radau, Early His-
tory of Babylonia (Oxford, 1900); Hilprecht.
Old Babylonian Inscriptions (Philadelphia,
1898); De Sarzec and Heuzy, Découvertes en
Ohaldée (Paris, 1890, et seq.) ; Rogers, History of
Babylonia (New York, 1902) ; Barton, A Slcetch
of Semitic Origins (ib., 1902).
SUMIDA-GAWA, s'5'6/me-da-g'el'wa. A river
in the island of Hondo, Japan, rising northwest
of Tokio on the border of the provinces of Hu-
sashi and Kai, and entering the Bay of Tokio,
after a course of some 90 miles. It is navigable
for small boats. In Tokio it is a place of popu-
lar resort. On its banks are tea-houses, temples,
and the great avenue of cherry trees at Muko-
jima. It is crossed by numerous bridges. In
July it is the scene of a great festival called
‘river opening,’ when the tea-houses are illumi-
nated, a great display of fireworks is given, and
the river is covered with gayly decorated boats
filled with pleasure parties.
SUMMARY PROCEEDINGS (from Lat.
summa, main thing, substance, sum, fem. sg. of
summus, superlative assigned to super, above,
over). Proceedings in the nature of trials which
are conducted before judicial officers without
juries, and in a speedy and peremptory manner.
Such proceedings must be specially authorized by
statute, as they are not sanctioned by the com-
mon law. The Federal Constitutional guaranty of
the right to trial by jury does not extend to such
civil and criminal cases as were not triable by
jury at common law, thus leaving the States free
to dispose of such cases by summary proceedings
SUMMARY PROCEEDINGS.
SUMNER.
332
if they deem it expedient to do so. Most of the
State constitutions also secure the right to trial
by jury in all important cases. However, for the
speedy administration of justice in trivial cases,
both civil and criminal, the statutes of nearly all
the States provide for the determination by sum-
mary proceedings of such petty misdemeanors as
the violation of municipal ordinances as to fast
driving, etc., disorderly conduct, and other minor
offenses.
Certain proceedings for the ejectment of ten-
ants are also known as summary proceedings in
some States. See JURY; TRIAL.
SUMMER. A principal horizontal beam. The
term, which is found in old English architecture,
applies to a chief beam of a floor, or What is
ordinarily termed a girder. When a summer is
used to support a wall or other superstructure,
as in the front of a building, it is known as a
breast summer (q.v.). Summer is also used to
denote a stone at the top of a pier or of a wall
where an arch, lintel, or other work is supported.
SUMMER DUCK. The wood duck (q.v.).
SUMMER REDBIRD, or TANAGER. See
TANAGER. '
SUM’MERS, THOMAS OSMUND (1812-82). A
clerical author of the Southern Methodist
Churcl1. He was born at Corfe Castle, Isle of
Purbeck, Dorsetshire, came to America in 1830,
and joined the Baltimore Conference (1835). He
was missionary to the Republic of Texas (1840),
and was one of the nine preachers who formed the
Texas Conference. He was transferred to the
Alabama Conference (1843); was secretary of
the Louisville convention where the Methodist
Episcopal Church South was organized; subse-
quently he was secretary of every General Con-
ference of his Church until his death. He was
assistant editor of the Southern Christian Advo-
cate (Charleston, 1846), removing to Nashville
(1855) ; was elected general book editor (1845),
serving until his death, and editing nearly all of
the publications of the denomination. He founded
the Sunday School Visitor and edited it for four
years; he edited the Quarterly Review nine years.
He was professor of systematic theology in Van-
derbilt University and dean of the theological
faculty (1872-82); and was chairman of the
committee which prepared a revised edition of
the hymn-book of his Church. He wrote numer-
ous works, including a commentary in six vol-
umes on the Gospels, Acts, and Romans (1868-
74); Baptism, a Treatise (1853); Biographi-
cal Shetches of Eminent Ministers (1858) ; Sun-
day Service of the M. E. Church South (1867) ;
Systematic Theology, edited by Tigert (1888).
For his life, consult Fitzgerald (Nashville, 1884) .
SUMMER SCHOOL. The name applied
either to institutions the sole purpose of which
is the giving of instruction during the summer
months, or to the summer sessions of any in-
stitutions of learning. Some universities in the
United States frequently select from their regu-
lar programmes such subjects as will be suitable,
and offer courses during the summer months.
The successful completion of summer school
courses gives credit toward the degrees of the
institution at which they are taken. Other sum-
mer schools exist independently, usually at some
situation favorable for summer resort. Such are
the schools at Chautauqua, N. Y.. at Martha's
Vineyard, etc. Conditions of admission are
eithernot required or are not severe. Certificates
are gfven- for work done, and fre uently such
work is allowed to count toward col ege degrees.
SUM’MERSON, ESTHER. The heroine of
Dickens’s Bleak House, the natural daughter of
Lady Dedlock and Captain Hawdon, and ward of
Mr. Jarndyce. She marries Allan Woodcourt, a
surgeon.
SUMMER YELLOWIBIRD. See WARBLEB.
SUMMIT. A city in Union County, N. J.,
12 miles west of Newark; on the Morris and
Essex division of the Delaware, Lackawanna
and Western Railroad (Map: New Jersey, D 2) .
It is attractive because of its elevation and the
beauty of its scenery and is largely inhabited by
New York business men. It has a Fresh Air
and Convalescent Home and the Arthur Home
for Orphans. There is a silk factory with sev-
eral hundred hands. Population, in 1890, 3502;
in 1900, 5302.
SUMMONS (OF. semonse, Fr. semonce, sum-
mons, admonition, fem. sg. of p.p. of OF. semoner,
somoner, semondre, Fr. semondre, to summon,
from Lat. submonere, to remind secretly, from
sub, under + monere, to warn). A writ or
process by which a defendant is notified to ap-
pear in court and answer the cause of action al-
leged in the plaintiff’s complaint or declaration.
It has superseded the original writs for the pur-
pose of beginning an action in England and most
of the United States. In the absence of statu-
tory provisions to the contrary, a summons
must be signed by the clerk of the court in which
the action is brought, but under the codes it is
usually signed by the plaintifi"s attorney. For
method of service, see SERVICE OF PAPERS. See
also Pnocnnunn; WRIT.
SUMMUM BONUM. See ETHICS.
SUM’NER, CHARLES (1811-74) . An American
statesman. He was born in Boston, Jan. 6, 1811;
graduated at Harvard in 1830; entered the Har-
vard Law School the following year, and was
admitted to the bar in 1834. Throughout his
early years he maintained an extraordinary lit-
erary activity, writing chiefly upon legal topics,
and occasionally appearing on the platform.
His strength becoming overtaxed from the labor
of editing an American edition of Vesey’s Re-
ports, he sailed for Europe in 1837, where he
traveled for three years, devoting much of his
time to the study of languages, literature, and
history. Returning to America in 1840, he be-
gan to take an active interest in the anti-slavery
movement, and in 1845 he delivered a notable
Fourth of July oration at Boston, on “The True
Grandeur of Nations,” which Cobden pronounced
“the noblest contribution ever made by any mod-
ern writer to the cause of peace,” but it gave of-
fense to the leaders of the Whig Party and led
eventually to his withdrawal from that party.
This oration was soon followed by others of
great force, mainly on anti-slavery topics. He
was a leader of the ‘Conscience Whigs’ of Massa-
chusetts, who helped to form the Free-Soil
Party. In 1851, through a combination of Free-
Soilers and Democrats, he was elected to the
United States Senate, of which body he was a
member until his death. Here he waged a vig-
orous and uncompromising war on slavery. His
first important speech was entitled “Freedom
National, Slavery Segtionalf’ This was followed
SUMNER.
SUMPTUARY LAWS.
333
in 1856 by another on “The Crime Against Kan-
sas,” in which he reflected severely upon Senator
Butler of South Carolina. This arraignment led
to an assault in the Senate Chamber upon Sum-
ner by Preston Brooks (q.v.), a Southern Repre-
sentative and a relative of Butler, with the re-
sult that Sumner was so injured that he was
incapacitated for Senatorial service for nearly
four years. The attack led, indeed, to the dis-
ease to which Sumner finally succumbed. In
December, 1859, he resumed his seat, but took
little part in the debates until the middle of
1860, when he delivered a speech on “The Bar-
barism of Slavery.” From the beginning he was
recognized as one of the leading men in the Re-
publican Party. In 1861 he became chair-
man of the Senate Committee on Foreign Re-
lations and made a number of able speeches on
question-s of foreign concern during the war,
notably on the Trent Affair (q.v.) .
He held the chairmanship of this important
committee during ten years of a critical period.
He took an active part in the debates on
reconstruction measures and allied questions,
ably advocating what came to be known as
the ‘suicide theory’ of the status of the South-
ern States at the close of the war. (See RE-
CONSTRUCTION.) He supported the impeachment
proceedings against President Johnson and se-
cured the enactment of a civil rights law to se-
cure equality of treatment to negroes in hotels,
theatres, etc., Which was subsequently declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. He
broke with the Grant -administration, and in
1872 joined the Liberal Republican movement in
advocating the election of Greeley for President.
Sumner’s Works were published in 15 volumes
(Boston, 1874-83). Consult an elaborate Memoir
by his friend E. L. Pierce (4 vols., Boston, 1877-
93), and a short biography by Moorfield Story
(Boston, 1900), in the “American Statesmen
Series.”
SUMNER, EDWIN VosE (1797-1863). An
American soldier, born in Boston, Mass. He
was educated at Milton Academy, entered the
United States Army, distinguished himself in
the Black Hawk VVar, and was engaged in fight-
ing Indians on the Western frontier. In 1838
he was placed in command of the school of cav-
alry practice at Carlisle Barracks, Pa. In the
Mexican War, before the outbreak of which he
had attained the rank of major, he participated
in all the engagements of Scott’s army in the
advance from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico,
was wounded while leading a cavalry charge at
Cerro Gordo, and for gallantry in holding in
check a body of 5000 Mexican lancers at Molino
del Rey was brevetted colonel. In 1857 he con-
ducted a successful campaign against a hostile
band of Cheyennes. In March, 1861, he was pro-
moted to the rank of brigadier-general, and re-
lieved Albert Sidney Johnston (q.v.) in command of
the Department of the Pacific. In the following
year he was recalled and placed in command of
the First Corps of the Army of the Potomac. He
distinguished himself in the Peninsular cam-
paign, particularly in the battle of Seven Pines
(q.v.); was twice wounded in the Seven Days’
Battles before Richmond; was brevetted major-
general in the Regular Army and was appointed
major-general of volunteers; and took part in
the battle of Antietam, in which he was again
wounded. He commanded the right wing of
Burnside’s army at Fredericksburg. Relieved at
his own request after the appointment of Hooker
to succeed Burnside, he was assigned to the com-
mand of the Department of Missouri, and died
suddenly while on his way thither.
SUMNER, INCREASE (1746-99). An American
jurist, born at Roxbury, Mass. He was educated
at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1767,
and studied law in the ofiice of Samuel Adams.
He was admitted to the bar in 1770, and he was
a member of the State Constitutional Convention
of 1779. In 1782 he was elected to Congress,
but at the same time was offered an associate
justiceship of the Supreme Court, which he held
till 1797. In 1789 he was a member of the con-
vention which adopted the Constitution of the
United States. In 1797 he was elected Governor
of Massachusetts, and held that office during the
remainder of his ife.
SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (l840—). An
American political economist and educator,
born at Paterson, N. J. He graduated
at Yale in 1863, studied at Giittingen and
Oxford, and was tutor at Yale in 1866-69. Or-
dained in the Protestant Episcopal Church in
1867, for some time he was assistant at Calvary
Church, New York, and rector at Morristow‘n,
N. J. After 1872 he was professor of political
and social science at Yale, where he attracted
public notice by his pungent and incisive advo-
cacy of free trade in lectures, essays, and books.
Among his chief publications are: History of
American Currency (1874); Lectures on the
History of Protection in the United States
(1875); Life of Andrew Jackson (“American
Statesmen Series”) (1882); What Social
Classes O/we Each Other (1882) ; Essays in P0-
litical and Social Sciences (1883) ; Protectionism
(1885); Robert Morris (1891); The Financier
and Finances of the American Revolution;
(1892) ; and A History of Banking in the United
States (1896).
SUMO, s'o6’mo. A Central American linguistic
stock. See ULUA.
SUMPTUARY LAWS (Lat. suinptuarius,
relating to expenditure, from sumptus, expendi-
ture, expense, from sumere, to take up, choose,
apply, spend, from sub, under + e/mere, to take,
buy). Laws to prevent extravagance in private
expenditure, and indirectly to prevent immoral-
ity aind crime. The purposes of sumptuary legis-
lation may be grouped under the following
heads: (1) To prevent poverty and diminish the
cost of supporting the Poor; (2) to increase the
possible revenue of the State by diminishing pri-
vate expenditure; (3) to prevent luxury when
considered an evil; (4) to favor certain com-
mercial or political interests; (5) to enforce
class distinctions; (6) to prevent the consump-
tion of commodities, as liquors and tobacco,
which are considered dangerous to health and
morals. -Sumptuary laws were common in an-
cient legislation. By means of them Greece en-
deavored to inculcate simple habits of life -among
her people. Women, except prostitutes, were
forbidden to wear expensive attire, as gold or
embroidered apparel. The laws of Solon forbade
costly banquets and funerals. At an early period
in Roman history the censors, to whom was in-
trusted the superintendence of public and private
morality, punished all persons guilty of luxuri-
SUMPTUARY LAWS.
SUN.
334
ous living; but as the love of luxury grew with
the increase of wealth and foreign conquest, vari-
ous legislative enactments were passed with the
object of restraining it. The Twelve Tables lim-
ited expenditures for funerals.
of Rome limited the expenditures of women,
specified the number of guests who might be
entertained at a single time, and fixed the
amount which could be spent on entertainments.
A later law made guests, as well as those who
entertained, liable for a violation of these regu-
lations. '
Sumptuary laws found favor in England from
the time of Edward III. down to the Reforma-
tion. In the reign of Edward III. one act pro-
hibited more than two courses at a meal or
more than two kinds of food at a course, except
in the principal festivals of the year, when three
courses were allowed. Another act prescribed
the kinds of clothing the various classes might
wear, except the orders of the nobility above the
knights. Similar legislation prevailed in Scot-
land, France, Spain, and Italy.
When the mercantilistic theories of govern-
ment emerged nations endeavored to control con-
sumption by prohibiting the use of commodities
produced abroad. It was held that the luxury of
a people enriched other nations and impoverished
their own. An English law prohibited the wear-
ing of silk in order to encourage the manufac-
ture of woolen goods in England. In France a
law at one time prohibited the wearing of gold
and silver embroidery, silks, and fine linens.
Aside from protectionism sumptuary legisla-
tion to-day comes under the head of the police
regulations and is aimed to preserve the public
health and morals. Under the United States
Federal and State constitutions no restriction
can be placed on the consumption of commodi-
ties or traffic in them, save as the public health,
protection, and safety require it. The chief re-
strictive legislation is directed against the traf-
fic in intoxicating drinks, and takes the form of
high license requirements for the privilege of
selling liquors, or in the prohibition of the right
to deal in liquors altogether.
SUMTER. The county-seat of Sumter
County, S. C., 43 miles east by south of Colum-
bia, on several divisions of the Atlantic Coast
Line Railroad and the Southern Railway (Map:
South Carolina, D 3). It is known for its large
trade in cotton. There are a cotton compress,
cotton and cottonseed-oil mills, lumber mills,
telephone factories, cofiin and casket factories,
and a manufactory of golf sticks. Population,
in 1890, 3865; in 1900, 5673.
SUMTER, FoRT. See FORT SUMTER.
SUM'TER, THOMAS (1734-1832). An Ameri-
can soldier, born in Virginia. He early removed
to South Carolina; accompanied several expedi-
tions against the Cherokee Indians; served under
Braddock in 1755, and in March, 177 6, became_
lieutenant-colonel of the Second Regiment of
South Carolina Riflemen. Until the capture of
Charleston (1780), he served in the interior of
the State against the Loyalists and Indians;
but subsequently raised a regiment in North
Carolina and engaged actively in partisan war-
fare. On July 12, 1780, he defeated a force
of mounted infantry under Captain Huck, and
soon afterwards was made a brigadier-general
of State troops. On August 1st he made a
Other early laws
spirited but unsuccessful attack on Rocky Mount,
and on August 6th defeated 500 regulars and
Tories at Hanging Rock, but, his men dispersing,
he was subsequently driven back. He then by a
brilliant movement cut Cornwallis’s line of
communications between Charleston and Camden,
capturing a supply train with its convoy; but
three days later his force was almost annihilated
by Tarleton at Fishing Creek. Enlisting an-
other regiment, he defeated Major Wemys at
Broad River (November 9th), and on November
20th repulsed an attack of Tarleton at Black-
stock Hill, the latter losing 200 in killed and
wounded, while the Americans lost 3 killed and
4 wounded. Here Sumter was severely wounded,
but he returned to the army in February, 1781,
and‘ continued to render the most efficient service
as a partisan commander. After the war Sum-
ter sat in the State convention of South Carolina
which ratified the Federal Constitution, was a
member of Congress in 1789-93 and 1797-1801,
and of the United States Senate from 1801 to
1809 and again from 1811 to 1817, and was
United States Minister to Brazil in 1809-11. He
was the last surviving general officer of the
Revolution. .
SUMY, s6'6’me. The capital of a district in
the Government of Kharkov, Russia, situated 125
miles northwest of Kharkov (Map: Russia, D
4). The chief manufactures are machinery, to-
bacco, and liqueurs. Population, in 1898, 26,355.
SUN (AS. sunne, Goth., OHG. sunnci, sunna,
Ger. Sonne; connected with AS. sol, Goth. sawil,
Lat. sol, Gk. i)7\ws, helios, Ir. sul, Lith., Lett.,
OPruss. sauls, Skt. scar, sura, Av. hvara, sun).
The central governing body of the solar system
(q.v.), and the chief source of our light and heat.
To us the sun is the most important of all the
heavenly bodies, since upon it depends the possi-
bility of life upon the earth. The sun’s apparent
angular diameter is 32' 4"; diameter in miles,
866,500; density, 1.41, water being 1; mean
distance from the earth, 92,800,000 miles. The
sun’s distance from the earth is the fundamental
unit of linear measures in cosmic astronomy.
The method of the determination of this distance
is given under PARALLAX.
Successive generations of astronomers have
been able to gather much information as to the
appearance, constitution, and structure of the
sun. The theory at present accepted is as fol-
lows: The visible light-giving surface, as we
see it in the telescope, is called the photosphere.
We suppose it to be a collection of luminous
clouds, holding in suspension certain particles
condensed out of the extremely hot gaseous ma-
terial of which the innermost nucleus of the sun
is probably composed. Just outside the photo-
sphere is a thin shell of gaseous matter called
the reversing layer. This is doubtless com-
posed of many substances such as we find among
the known chemical elements of our earth. It is
observed and its very existence is demonstrated
by the spectroscope. According to Kirchhoff’s
theory, when light coming from incandescent sol-
ids or liquids is passed through vaporized matter,
the vapors absorb or cut off the light from
certain definite parts of the spectrum. To each
vaporized substance belongs its own series of
such points in the spectrum; and these corre-
spond exactly to the positions which would be
occupied by bright lines in a spectrum derived
SUN.-
SUN.
335
directly from such vaporized substances them-
selves, if rendered incandescent. Thus the ordi-
nary solar spectrum is crossed by certain well-
known dark lines corresponding to the absorption
of Certain parts of the photospheric light by the
absorptive effect of the reversing layer. Now
if it were possible in some way to get rid ‘of the
light of the photosphere and examine directly
the light of the reversing layer, we ought to
see the spectrum of ordinary incandescent gases.
This observation can actually be made at the
time of a total solar eclipse. If we watch the
solar spectrum very carefully just before the
beginning of totality, when the moon’s advancing
edge is on the point of obscuring the sun com-
pletely, there will come a moment when nothing
remains in sight but the outer or reversing
layer. At that instant the dark lines in the
spectrum are suddenly reversed, becoming bright
like the lines in the spectrum of a gas heated
to incandescence artificially in the laboratory.
This remarkable observation was made by
Young (q.v.) at the Spanish eclipse of 1870,
and repeated photographically in 1896 by
Shackleton, at the Nova Zembla eclipse.
The so-called chromosphere is a great layer
composed of very hot gases, principally hydro-
gen, and surrounding the sun chiefiy outside the
reversing layer. It is supposed, however, that
both these strata are mixed together, except that
the hottest and densest gases are in the lower
or reversing layer. This chromospheric layer
can be seen for an instant at the begin-
ning or end of a total solar eclipse, and it is
found to consist principally of a mass of red
flames. The color is due to the preponderating
presence of hydrogen, and it is this color that
gives rise to the name chromosphere or color-
sphere. The presence of flame does not, however,
indicate a process of combustion in the usual
sense of the word. For instance, coal burning
in an ordinary stove is really being combined
chemically with the oxygen of the air, and chem-
ical combination of that character is certainly
not going on in the sun.
The most interesting features of the chromo-
sphere are the pro/1m'.nences. These are great
eruptive jets of red hydrogen flame bursting out-
ward from the solar surface, sometimes to a dis-
tance of hundreds of thousands of miles into
space. They were first seen during total solar
eclipses, when the bright light of the central
solar disk had been obscured by the interposed
moon. Under ordinary circumstances the central
solar light illuminates our terrestrial atmosphere
very strongly, and enough of this light is re-
flected from the air itself into our telescopes to
mask completely the fainter light of the promi-
nences. But it has been found possible to study
the prominences spectroscopically during full
sunlight, and without waiting for a solar eclipse.
This was first done visually in 1868 by Janssen,
Lockyer (q.v.), and Huggins (q.v.), and photo-
graphically by Hale (q.v.) and Deslandres in
1890. The two latter astronomers working inde-
pendently of each other, the former in Chicago
and the latter in Paris, devised certain instru-
ments called photographic spectro-heliographs,
by means of which it is possible to take pictures
of the chromosphere and prominences over the
entire solar surface at once and in full sun-
light. It has thus become known that the veloc-
ity of motion in these prominence eruptions
may be as great as several hundred miles per
second, indicating real explosions of incalculable
force.
Extending far out beyond the chromosphere
and prominences, and usually recognized as the
sun’s outermost envelope, is the corona. It is
visible only at the time of total eclipse, when
the central part of the solar disk is completely
obscured. The appearance of the corona at such
times is very sudden; the advancing edge of the
moon slowly and gradually covers more and more
of the sun’s surface, until finally only a sickle-
shaped filament remains. Then suddenly this
too disappears, and on the instant the superb
corona bursts into view, truly one of the most
magnificent objects in the whole range of nature’s
phenomena. The inner corona, close to the solar
disk, is very bright, even dazzling; farther out
it fades by insensible gradations into a beauti-
ful crown of filmy light. There are thread-like
streamers, interlacing with complex involutions,
and extending often many millions of miles into
space above the solar surface.
Although observed visually from the most an-
cient times, it was not until the application of
photography to astronomical -observation that
we have been able to fix with some approach to
certainty the details of the coronal structure.
See Asrno-Pnoroenxrnr.
Spectroscopically the corona reveals the pres-
ence of luminous gases, possibly containing in
suspension particles of solid or liquid matter.
No existing theory will explain quite satisfac-
torily its mechanical construction, so difficult is
it to reconcile with gravitationa’l law so enormous
an extension outward from the sun. Possibly
magnetic forces are wholly or partly responsible
for its existence and equilibrium; certain it is
that we still have in the corona one of the
‘pending problems’ of astronomy. _
The chemical constitution of the sun has been
studied with great care spectroscopically. The
spectroscope, when suitably arranged for the
purpose, enables us to compare solar light with
light obtained in the laboratory from vapors
of terrestrial substances raised to incandescence
by artificial heating. In this way 'many ter-
restrial chemical elements have been identified
in the sun; and we may consider extremely
probable the hypothesis that sun and earth are
composed of the same kinds of matter. This,
if true, is a fact of great importance in its
bearing on the origin and evolution of the solar
system. (See NEBULZE; Oosmoeomr.) The most
conspicuous phenomenon of the solar surface is
the sun-spots. These are apparently great holes
or depressions in the photospheric surface, usu-
ally having a dark spot in the middle, sur-
rounded by a sort of radial grating. They vary
in diameter from 500 to 60,000 miles for the
central black parts, and range up to 150,000
miles for the surrounding less dusky portions.
At times they are large enough to be seen with
the naked eye. Their depth is very uncertain,
and has been variously estimated from a few
miles up to 2500. The faouloe are bright streaks
seen in various parts of the photospheric surface,
but usually near spots, and most conspicuous
when approaching the edge of the solar disk.
The spots usually begin as mere dots, and then
grow gradually or rapidly to the enormous di-
mensions already stated. At times they break
into several pieces, giving rise to a group ' or
SUN.
SUNBURY.
336
collection ofseveral spots. They are by no means
immovable upon the solar surface, but have 'a
motion of their own, those near the sun’s equa-
tor traveling farther from the poles, and those
in higher solar latitudes increasing their dis-
tance from the equator. But no sun-spots are
ever found farther from the solar equator than
latitude 45°, and few are nearer the equator
than latitude 5°. One of the most remarkable
things about the spots is the fact that their
frequency is periodic. Once in about eleven
years they have a maximum frequency, and as-
tronomers are able to record their occurrence
in greater numbers than usual. The cause of
this periodicity is unknown.
Very interesting questions are raised by a
study of the sun’s light and heat. The quan-
tity of light given by the sun, as compared with
a standard candle, can be measured, and the
sun’s ‘candle power’ thus made known. Experi-
ments show that this candle power is repre-
sented by the number 1575 with twenty-four
zeros attached. The quantity of solar heat is no
less stupendous; it has been estimated that the
heat given out each hour by the sun is equiva-
lent to the burning of a quantity of coal sufficient
to cover the entire solar surface to a depth of
more than twenty feet. The source of this vast
amount of light and heat has been for a long
time a mystery. It cannot be a question of com-
bustion, because in that case the sun would have
been consumed long ago, even if made of solid coal.
The theory at present accepted is due to Helm-
holtz. It assumes that the sun’s bulk is slowly
contracting, and that the energy thus produced
is turned into heat. It has been computed that
a diminution of 150 feet annually in the sun’s
radius would be sufficient to account for the heat
developed. Such a contraction would remain
invisible even in our most powerful telescopes
until it had continued for at least 10,000 years,
and the process would need to continue for ten
million years before the sun would lose the power
to give us heat enough to keep life on the earth.
The rotation of the sun on its axis occupies
about 25 days, 8 hours. This period is deter-
mined by watching the spots go around with the
sun; and it is somewhat uncertain, because, as
we have seen, the spots are not themselves quies-
cent on the solar surface. The rotation axis is
inclined to the ecliptic plane, like that of the
earth; if continued to the celestial sphere, it
would pierce it midway between the bright star
Lyrae and the Pole star. And there is one very
peculiar feature in the rotation due perhaps to
the fact that the sun’s vast bulk has not yet been
completely transformed from the gaseous to the
liquid or solid stage. The equatorial regions
rotate faster than those in higher latitudes,
showing the existence of strong rotary surface
currents of different velocities. No thoroughly
satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon has
yet been obtained by astronomers. See ECLIPSE;
PLANETS; PEBTURBATIONS; ORBIT; SOLAR SYs-
TEM. Consult: Astrophysical J carnal (Chicago) ;
Kayer, Handbuch der Spectroscopic (Leipzig,
(1902); Young, The Sun (New York, 1900);
Lockyer, Solar Physics (London, 1874) ; Proctor,
Sun (London, 1871).
SUN, TEMPLE on THE. An immense temple of
ancient Rome erected by Aurelian, after the tak-
ing of Palmyra, on the site of the early Pulvinar
Solis on the Quirinal Hill. It was built in imita-
tion of the Eastern sanctuariesof the sun, and
stood on a platform '92 feet high, from which
the temple rose to a height of H0 feet. It was
approached by two staircases, the steps of which
now form the approach to the Church of the
Aracoeli, to which they were removed in 1348.
The temple was of massive proportions. The 44
pillars of its peristyle were 65 feet high and 7 %
feet in diameter, and a single fragment of the
cornice, now in the Colonna gardens, weighs 100
tons. The vaults in the substructure were
utilized for the storage of wines. The last
portion of the temple, which formed part of the
fortifications of the Colonnas, was destroyed
about 1595, and the only remains of the build-
ing are three blocks in the Villa Colonna. The
material was used in the Pope’s palace on the
Quirinal, Santa Maria Maggiore, and other
buildings.
SUN AND LION, ORDER OF THE. A Persian
civil and military order of merit with five classes,
founded in 1808 by Shah Feth Ali on the model
of the French Legion of Honor. The decoration
is a silver star, bearing a lion with a sword.
See Plate of ORDERS. ~
SUN ANIMALCULE. See HELIOZOA.
SUN BIRD. A bird of the tropical passerine
family Nectarinidee, which may be regarded as
occupying nearly the same place in the Old
World as do the humming-birds in America.
They are all of small size, although none are so
small as the smallest humming-birds, which
they rival in brilliancy of plumage. Like
them, they feed partly on the nectar of flowers,
which they suck by their long bill, but chiefly
on the minute insects which the flowers attract;
they do not, however, flutter on the wing when
feeding, like humming-birds, but perch on or
beside the flower into which the bill is to be in-
serted. The species are very numerous, and are
natives of the southern parts of Asia, the East-
ern Archipelago, and Africa. The resplendent
metallic plumage belongs only to the male, and
only to the breeding season. They have been
described and depicted in a magnificently illus-
trated monograph by Shelley, The N cctarinidce
(London, 1876-80). See Plate of CREEPERS.
SUN-BITTERN (so called because of its bril-
liant ocellated plumage). A curious bird of
South and Central America, about the size of a
chicken, allied to the cranes and more closely to
the kagu (q.v.), the two species of which con-
stitute the genus Eurypyga and the family Eury-
pycidee. It haunts river banks, feeds upon small
fis , crustaceans, and insects, and utters a soft
or plaintive, long-drawn whistle. In the mating
season it executes a fantastic dance, with its
wings spread about its head, showing a pattern
comparable to the sun’s rays. Its nest is a rude
aflair in a bush or on a low tree branch. The
best-known species is Earypyga helias, which is
beautifully variegated with brown, black, and
white tints. This bird is often domesticated by
the Brazilians. Consult Newton, Dictionary of
Birds (New York, 1896). See Plate of BUSTARDS.
SU1\T’BURY. The county-seat of Northum-
berland County, Pa., 54 miles north of Harris-
burg, on the Susquehanna River, and on the Penn-
sylvania and the Philadelphia and Reading rail-
roads (Map: Pennsylvania, E 3). There are the
SUNBURY.
SUNDAY.
837
Mary M. Packer Hospital, the court-house, jail, their teeth-whistles of eagle bone with which
and parish house. Sunbury has silk and woolen
mills, cofiin works, planing mills, a foundry and
machine shops, and flour mills. The government,
under the charter of 1896, is vested in a burgess,
chosen every three years, and a council. Sun-
bury was founded in 17 7 2 on the site of an old
Indian village and of Fort Augusta, built in
1756, during the French and Indian War. It
was first incorporated in 1797. Population, in
1890, 5930; in 1900, 9810.
SUNDA (sf1n’da) ISLANDS. A name com-
monly applied to all the islands of the Malay
Archipelago lying west of the Molucca and
Banda seas, and separating the China Sea from
the Indian Ocean (Map: East India Islands,
B 6). They include the -four large Sun-
das, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes,
with their dependent islands, and the Lesser
Sundas, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sandal-
wood Island, Timor, and others extending in a
chain eastward from Java. The Sunda Islands
are named from the Sundanese, ethnographically
a Malayan people of the western part of Java.
They are shorter in stature than the Javanese
proper, and somewhat more brachycephalic. They
have also been less influenced by Hindu culture.
SUN DANCE. The great annual religious
ceremony common to all the tribes of the Plains
with the exception of the Comanche and perhaps
one or two others. In purpose it is a thanksgiv-
ing and invocation to the sun god and his rep-
resentatives, the buffalo. Although anticipated
as a yearly tribal event, it is usually ‘made’ or
organized on each occasion in fulfillment of a vow‘
by some particular individual in gratitude for
recovery from sickness or for some other bless-
ing. The management of details is in charge
of certain priests, together with the warrior
societies. The dance usually takes place about
the beginning of summer and with all its at-
tendant ceremonies lasts more than a week, the
dance proper continuing four days and nights.
The entire tribe assemble for the occasion and
pitch their tipis in a great circle, in the centre
of which is erected the medicine lodge of leafy
cottonwood saplings. The centre pole of the
lodge is decorated with streamers and symbohc
paints, besides which a sacred bundle, usually
wrapped in a buffalo skin, is fastened near the top.
The centre pole is cut down by the women with
much ceremony. The dancers are stripped and
painted,the paint design differing in symbolic char-
acter at each stage of the dance, and are prohibited
from eating or drinking during the four days
of the dance. Among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and
some other tribes they formerly also subjected
themselves to voluntary torture by leaning their
weight upon ropes fastened to wooden skewers
driven through the flesh of their breasts and
shoulders. Among the Mandan this torture was
carried to an almost incredible degree; the vic-
tim was lifted completely from the ground and
permitted to swing from the roof pole in this
condition, after which one or more fingers were
chopped off as a further sacrifice. Among the
Kiowa such torture was unknown.
The dancers form a half circle about the
centre pole, each one looking steadfastly upon
the sacred bundle at the top and constantly
facing the sun in course, with their arms
swinging at their sides, and holding between
they keep up a continual shrill whistling. At
the west end of the medicine lodge is an altar
of bushes and variously decorated twigs within
which are the sacred buffalo skull, the sacred
pipe, and other ceremonial objects. On another
side are the drummers, who sing the songs of
the sun dance to the accompaniment of a power-
ful drum. Throughout the ceremony there is a
rapid succession of ceremonial performances, in-
cluding addresses, feasting, giving of presents,
initiation of new members into the various so-
cieties, and the piercing of the ears of the chil-
dren born during the past year. At night there
are games, story-telling, and more feasting,
winding up with various social dances after the
grand performance is at an end. The dance is
still kept up among nearly all the Plains tribes,
varying but little in details.
~ SUNDARBANS, or SUNDERBUNDS,
s5‘5n’dér-bfmz. A number of low islands, forming
the delta of the Ganges, British India, and ex-
tending from the mouth of the Hugli to the
island of Rabanabad (Map: India, E 4). Area,
7500 square miles. Only the northern part is
inhabited, the southern being mainly jungle, in-
fested by tigers, leopards, buffaloes, crocodiles,
and snakes. The only town worthy of mention
is Port Canning, connected with Calcutta by rail.
SUNDAY (AS. zmnnandceg, OHG. sunmmtag,
Ger. Sonntag, Sunday, from AS. swman, OHG.
sunnun, gen. sg. of AS. sunna, OHG. smmo, Ger.
Sonne, sun + AS. doeg, Ger. Tag, day). The first
day of the week, observed by Christians almost
universally as a holy day in honor of the resur-
rection of Christ. For some time after the
foundation of the Christian Church, the converts
from Judaism still observed the Jewish Sabbath
to a greater or less extent, at first, it would
seem, concurrently with the celebration of the
first day; but before the end of the apostolic
period, Sunday, known as ‘the Lord’s day,’ had
thoroughly established itself as the special day
to be sanctified by rest from secular labor and
by public worship. The hallowing of Sunday
appears incontestably as a definite law of the
Church by the beginning of the fourth century;
and the Emperor Constantine confirmed the cus-
tom by a law of the State. Throughout the
mediaeval period the authority of the Church
was so universally recognized that secular legis-
lation in this regard was almost unnecessary.
The Catholic Church then required, and still
requires, abstinence from servile work on that
day, and the assistance at mass of all who are
not lawfully hindered. While the devout have at-
tempted to make it in all respects a holy day,
yet the mass of the people in Roman Catholic
countries see no harm in spending a part of
the day in social intercourse and amusements
of various kinds. The tendency of Protestant-
ism, however, has been to recur to the stricter
Jewish observance, and to forbid any practice
of the ordinary occupations of other days.
In the mediaeval period the courts were pre-
sided over or dominated by the clergy, and Sun-
day early became in the legal sense a dies non
(q.v.), on which legal proceedings could not be
conducted. By the common law, however, all
other business might lawfully be transacted on
Sunday. The first substantial limitation of this
right was imposed by the statute 5 and 6 Edw.
SUNDAY.
SUN DAY-SCHO OLS.
338
V., ch. 3, which provided that all sec'ular labor
should be unlawful on Sunday, except in cases
of necessity. This was supplemented by the
sweeping act of 29 Car. 11., ch. 7, which pro-
hibited all ‘worldly business’ on the ‘Lord’s day,’
except where absolutely necessary, or for charity.
These statutes have been substantially followed
in practically all of the United States. The
New England States were the first to regulate
the obser ance of Sunday by a series of statutes.
The Constitution of the United States prohibits
the restriction of religious liberty or the en-
forcement of religious observances, and therefore,
in law, Sunday is regarded merely as a civil day,
which is a convenient one for the suspension of
business, because of its observance as a holy day
by a great majority of the people. These stat-
utes are constitutional as a valid exercise of the
police power. Works of necessity and great
public convenience are usually excepted. Thus,
a physician may carry on his practice, making
lawful charges for his services; drug stores may
keep open; transportation lines may handle
freight and passenger traffic; milk dealers are
usually permitted to deliver their product; and
all persons whose business conduces to the pub-
lic health are permitted to continue their ac-
tivities. Where a cessation of operations would
cause great financial loss, an exception is com-
monly made.
Where a person is traveling on Sunday in
violation of law, and is injured, he is not pre-
cluded from recovering damages if he is other-
wise entitled thereto. Although contracts entered
into on Sunday were valid at common law, the
courts of many States have interpreted their
Sunday statutes as including this kind of a
business transaction. A payment of a debt on
Sunday is generally held to discharge the obliga-
tion. Wills executed on Sunday may be probated
in most jurisdictions. In most States the legal
Sunday begins at midnight on Saturday night,
and continues twenty-four hours. In a few New
England States Sunday ends at sunset. Many
States exempt Hebrews and others who observe
Saturday or some day other than Sunday as
a holy day from the operation of the Sunday
laws, but if such persons do not keep sacred any
other day, they must suspend business on Sun-
day.
The need of one day in seven for rest from
labor has long been recognized from an economic
standpoint also. Not only has it been found that
man produces more and better work by resting
one day in seven, but also that he is a better
physical and social being for observing such a
rule. Sunday labor in the United States is, how-
ever, increasing. It has been estimated that in
Massachusetts alone 50,000 persons work on
Sunday. That the increase is general is shown
by the growing opposition of the labor unions,
and their frequent demands for shorter hours
throughout the week, on the ground that they
have no assurance of the Sunday respite.
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS. An agency of the
Church for giving religious instruction to learn-
ers of all ages. The method of instruction is gen-
erally interlocutory and the subject of study
more particularly the Bible. In its essentials
the Sunday-school or Bible-school was an impor-
tant part of the early Jewish educational sys-
tem. About B.C. 80-70 Simon ben Shetach
established a system of religious schools in con-
nection with synagogues in Palestine, making
attendance obligatory. Historians like Eders-
heim and Schiirer confirm the general existence
of such schools then and later in the time of
Christ.
Bunsen says that “the Apostolic Church made
the school the connecting link between herself
and the world.” Her catechetical instruction
(of. Luke i. 4; Acts xviii. 25) grew so steadily in
acknowledged importance that church buildings
were designed to provide special accommodations
for the Bible-school. These early catechumenical
schools included children and adults, who were
taught individually, by the interlocutory method,
subject matter beginning with the Old Testament
story of creation and proceeding to practical
Christian living. Gregory the Illuminator Chris-
tianized Armenia at the beginning of the fourth
century by a compulsory system of Bible-schools
for children in every city, while at that period
similar schools were to be found in Mesopotamia,
Cappadocia, Egypt, and elsewhere. In all these
schools the Bible text was the main subject.‘ ’ In
the Middle Ages the Bible-school idea was ad-
hered to among the Waldenses, Albigenses, Lol-
lards, Wiclifites, etc. A notable example of the
Bible-school, apparently in many ways like our
modern institution, were the schools of Charles
Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, in the middle
of the sixteenth century. During the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries the direct study of the
Bible gave way to the rote memorizing of set an-
swers in catechisms not intended for such uses,
and genuine Bible teaching was thus largely dis-
placed.
It is to Robert Raikes (q.v.) that the modern
revival of the Sunday-school is justly accredited,
although numerous isolated Bible-schools were
to be found both in England and America prior
to his time and pioneer efforts were made in
America independent of his example. (Consult
Trumbull, Yale Lectures on the Sunday-school,
Philadelphia, 1889.) According to contempo-
rary testimony Raikes gathered some street boys
in July, 1780, into a room in Sooty Alley, Glou-
cester, England, under the temporary ‘care of a
Mrs. Meredith, but soon transferred the school
to the house and care of Mrs. Mary Critchley, in
Southgate Street, where the first permanent
Raikes school was established. The pupils were
instructed not only in the Bible, but in reading,
and in catechisms of the day. Later the school
was held in Saint Mary de Crypt Church, then
in the Crypt Grammar School, then at the Corn
Exchange, and thence was transferred to the
church again. The school seems to have had as
many as. 100 scholars at a time, the teachers re-
ceiving a shilling a day from Raikes for their
work. Raikes worked quietly and experimentally
for three years, and then on November 3, 17 83,
began to publish his idea in his newspaper, the
Gloucester Journal. He published as early as
1785 The Sunday Scholar’s Companion. In the
extension -of the Sunday-school idea Raikes ac-
cords much credit to John Nichols, of The Gen-
tlemen’s Magazine. The cause was notably fur-
thered by Hannah More, John and Charles Wesley,
and Whitefield, and even the Queen expressed an
interest in the movement by sending for Raikes
in order to hear his plan described. In 1784
Rowland Hill started a Sunday-school in Lon-
don at Surrey Chapel. William Fox and Jonas
Hanway were instrumental in organizing a gen-
SUNDAY-SOHO OLS.
SUN DAY-SOHO OLS.
339
June 11, 1787, Raikes was elected an honorary
member. In 1786 five schools were reported in
or near London. In ten years from that
date the society had distributed 91,915 spelling
books, 24,232 Testaments, and 5360 Bibles, to
1012 Sunday-schools and 65,000 scholars. From
1788 to 1800 the society had paid more than
$17,000 to teachers. Gratuitous teachers were
utilized in a school in Stockport, England, to-
ward the close of the eighteenth century, and
paid teachers gradually ceased to be generally
employed. Before Raikes died, in 1811, there
were 400,000 children in the Sunday-schools of
Great Britain alone. In Scotland, where the
need was not so greatly felt, and in New Eng-
land, the Sunday-school met with little favor at
first, as seeming to endanger the sacredness of
the Sabbath, and to relieve the home of some of
its duties. The Archbishop of Canterbury sum-
moned a council of bishops to consider means by
which the movement might be stopped. Yet not-
withstanding all opposition the Sunday-school
idea constantly gained in favor.
On December 19, 1790, twelve Christian work-
ers held a meeting in Philadelphia, which led to
the organizing on January 11, 1791, of a Society
for the Institution and Support of First Day or
' Sunday Schools in the city of Philadelphia, with
Bishop William White as president and Mat-
thew Carey as secretary. The Reverend Robert
May, of London, ave a new impetus to Sun-
day-schools in Phi adelphia in 1811, urging the
need of a general union. On January 13, 1816,
in New York City, was formed the Female Union
Society for the Promotion of Sabbath-Schools,
and on February 26, 1816, the New York (male)
Sunday-School Union. In 1817 the Sunday and
Adult School Union was formed in Philadelphia
with Alexander Henry as the first president, and
this developed on May 24, 1824, into the Ameri-
can Sunday-School Union. The records of this
great agency, interdenominational and national
in its scope and support, showed in 1899, on_ its
seventy-fifth anniversary, that through its ef-
forts 100,928 Sunday-schools had been organized,
with 578,680 teachers and 4,070,346 scholars, and
that the union had distributed publications
amounting in value to over $9,000,000.
At an anniversary of the American Sunday-
School Union in Philadelphia on May 23, 1832,‘
fifteen States Were represented. It was then de-
cided to call a general national Sunday-school
convention to meet in New York in the autumn
of that year to consider 78 questions on Sunday-
school work sent out to 2500 persons throughout
the country. The first national convention, there-
fore, assembled on October 3, 1832, in Chatham
Street Chapel, New York City, and chose the
Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen as president. The
National Convention as an independent organ-
ization met subsequently in Philadelphia, May
22, 1833; Philadelphia, February 22-24, 1859; in
Newark,pN. J ., April 29-30, 1869; and in Indian-
apolis, April 16-19, 1872, at which convention the
uniform lesson system was inaugurated, after_
much discussion, by the appointment of the first
lesson committee to select the lessons from 187 3
to 1879. The united interest of Bible students in
selected portions of the Bible, in the progress of
the uniform lesson plan, has given rise to a lit-
erature, both permanent and periodical, that has
widely popularized Bible study. The interna-
eral Sunday-School Society in 1785, of which on ‘
tional lesson system now includes a special
beginners’ course of Bible study for the young-
est children, and still other modifications are
under discussion. Other lesson systems are in
use in some schools and in a few denominations,
but in the vast majority of schools the interna-
tional uniform lesson system is used.
At the next convention in Baltimore, May
11-13, 1875, the convention became international
in scope and name. This convention has met
every three years since that time. It is com-
posed of delegates from auxiliary State, Terri-
torial, and provincial Sunday-school associations
in North America. Its work is conducted durmg
the triennium by an executive committee; a les-
son committee, international and interdenomi-
national in its personnel; a primary department;
and a field workers’ department. A Wor1d’s
Convention, under the auspices of the London
Sunday-School Union and the International
Executive Committee, was held in London, July
1-4, 1889, thus establishing an institution com-
prising all the countries of the world, and meet-
ing since then in Saint Louis, Mo., September
3-5, 1893, and in London, July 11-15, 1898. In the
improvement of teacher-training and Bible study
what is known as the ‘Chautauqua movement’
has been an important factor. See CHAUTAU-
QUA.
The Sunday-school is the pioneer religious
agency in new communities, and the conserver of
neighborhood religious instruction for the entire
family in every community where it exists. It is
extended to frontier or sparsely settled districts
in America by the various denominational mis-
sion boards, and by the American Sunday-School
Union. It is stimulated to better work, and is
made acquainted with the most- recent methods,
by means of conventions and institutes, some
18,000 of which are held in North America year-
ly, under the auspices of the International Con-
vention and its auxiliary State, provincial, coun-
ty, township, and district Sunday-school asso-
ciations. -
At the tenth intenational Sunday-school con-
vention, held at Denver, Colo., in 1902, the fol-
lowing statistics were presented as to the Sun-
day-schools in the United States, including Ha-
waii and Porto Rico: Number of Sunday-schools,
139,817; ofiicers and teachers, 1,419,807; schol-
ars, 11,493,591; total enrollment, 13,092,703. In
1898 the corresponding figures for the entire
world were: Sunday-schools, 254,698; teachers,
2,410,818; scholars, 23,227,330; total, 25,810,861.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) Historical: Pray, History
of Sunday-schools and of Religious Education
from the Earliest Times (Boston, 1847); Wat-
son, The History of the Sunday School Union
(London, 1853); id., The First Fifty Years of
the Sunday School (ib., 1873); Centenary Me-
morial of the Establishment of Sunday Schools
(ib., 1881), a collection of informing addresses
and papers containing valuable historical ma-
terial; Trumbull, Yale Lectures on the Sunday
School (Philadelphia, 1888), the most compre-
hensive and thorough treatment of the whole sub-
ject; Harris, Robert Railces, the Man and His
Work (Bristol, 1899); Brown, Sunday School
Movements in America (New York, 1901),
deals with special phases of Sunday-school prog-
ress, and the general field in America; Hamill,
A _Brief History of the International Lessons
(Chicago, 1901). (2) Practical: Trumbull,
SUNDAY-SOHO OLS.
SUNDEW.
340
standard manual for the thorough study of the
work of the teacher; Vincent, The Modern Sun-
day School (New York, 1887), a comprehensive
detailed outlining of the school itself; id., The
Church School and Normal Guide (ib., 1889),
deals with the character of the institution and
methods of Bible study and teacher-training;
Schaufiler, Ways of Working (New York, 1895),
practical hints out of a varied experience; Fos-
ter, A Manual of Sunday School Methods (Phila-
delphia, 1899); Peters, Practical Handbook on
Sunday School Work (Philadelphia, 1900);
Oxtill, The Organized Sunday School (Nashville,
1901) ; Hamill, The Sunday School Teacher
(Nashville, 1901) ; Pattison, The Ministry of the
Sunday School (Philadelphia, 1902); Blackall,
Our Sunday School Work and How to Do It
(rev. ed., Philadelphia, 1902); Schauiiler, Pas-
toral Leadership of Sunday School Forces (Nash-
ville, 1903).
SUNDERBUNDS, s5'6n’dér-bflnz. A name
applied to the islands forming the delta of the
Ganges. See SUNDARBANS.
SUN’DERLAND. A seaport in the County
of Durham, England, 14 miles northeast of Dur-
ham, at the mouth of the Wear (Map: England,
E 2). It is one of the great coal-shipping ports
of the world. Shipbuilding is an important in-
dustry. Machinery, glass, earthenware, ropes
and chains, anchors, and other iron wares are ex-
tensively manufactured, and fishing is carried
on to a considerable extent. In the vicinity are
rich coal mines, of which the Pemberton, 2286
feet deep, is said to be the deepest in existence.
On both sides of the river are extensive wet
docks, much of the area of which has been re-
claimed from the sea. The harbor, defended by
batteries, is formed by two great piers, one 650
yards and the other 590 yards in length. Sun-
derland is a well-built town with broad streets.
There are a fine town hall, an assembly hall,
handsome club houses, a large infirmary, and a
spacious workmen’s hall. The public park con-
tains 70 acres. The town came under the Mn-
nicipal Corporations Act in 1835. The borough
was extended in 1867 and again in 1895; it in-
cludes the townships of Bishopwearmouth,
Monkwearmouth, and Monkwearmouth Shore.
The Monkwearmouth portion of the town dates
from a monastery of the seventh century, in
which the Venerable Bede spent most of his life.
Population, in 1891, 131,686; in 1901, 146,565.
SUNDEBLAND, CHARLES SPENCER, third
Earl of (1674-1722). An English statesman.
He was the second son of the second Earl of
Sunderland, and became Lord Spencer on the
death of his elder brother in 1688. In 1700
he married Lady Anne Churchill, second daugh-
ter of the Earl of Marlborough. In 1702, on the
death of his father, Spencer succeeded to the
title. Through the influence of Marlborough, Sun-
derland obtained several important posts, and
became a member of the famous Whig Junta,
which for a time controlled the whole Govern-
ment. In 1720 Sunderland brought about the es- ‘
tablishment of the notorious South Sea Company
( .v.). When the crash came it was found that
Sunderland had received a bribe of £50,000 from
the company, and though he was acquitted by a
party vote, he had to resign his offices. He re-
tained, however, considerable influence until his
Teaching and Teachers (Philadelphia, 1884), the -
death. Sunderland seems to have been a dis-
agreeable and treacherous politician. He was a
collector of rare books, and a patron of Addison
and other men of letters.
SUNDERLAND, JABEZ THOMAS (1842-—).
A Unitarian minister, born at Howarth, in
Yorkshire, England. He was educated at Madi-
son (now Colgate) University, Hamilton, N. Y.,
University of Chicago, and Union Baptist Theo-
logical Seminary of Chicago. From 1886 to 1895
he edited the Unitarian Monthly. He visited
India in 1895-96. He is author of A Rational
Faith (1878); What is the Bible? (1878); The
Liberal Christian Ministry (1889) ; Home
Travel in Bible Lands (1894) ; The Bible: Its
Origin, Growth, and Character, and Place
Among the Sacred‘ Books of the I/Vorld‘ (1893) ;
The Spark in the Clod: A Study in Evolution
(1902).
SUNDERLAND, Ronnsr SPENCER, second
Earl of (1640-1702). An English statesman. He
was the only son of Henry Spencer, who was raised
to the peerage in 1643. After some diplomatic ser-
vice abroad he was madea member of Temple’s
reformed Privy Council of thirty members, and
was one of the smaller inner Cabinet with which
King Charles II. habitually conferred. Sunder-
land at first supported the Duke of York and then
labored for the Exclusion Bill, which was to
exclude the Duke from the succession. Thereby he
lost the favor of Charles and his position in the
Privy Council (1680). In 1682 he was restored
to royal favor through the influence of the Duch-
ess' of Portland, mistress of Charles 11., and the
French Ambassador Barillon, and unscrupulously
advocated the disgraceful French connection, He
remained in office until the accession of James
11., when his influence in the Ministry became
greater than ever. Although there is reason to
believe he gave some encouragement to Mon-
mouth in his rebellion, he managed, with con-
summate art, to obtain the entire confidence of
James, and in 1685 became Lord President and
principal Secretary of State. In 1687 he pri-
vately conformed to the Roman Catholic Church,
and afterwards openly professed his conversion.
Yet we find him about this time in correspond-
ence with the Prince of Orange, afterwards Wil-
liam 111. With profiigate but masterly dexterity
he contrived to deceive both his master and
Barillon, and to keep them in ignorance of the
events that were passing in Holland. When the
Prince arrived in England, Sunderland and his
wife went to Amsterdam, whence he wrote to
the new monarch, claiming his favor and pro-
tection on the ground that he had all along been
in his interest. In 1691 he was allowed to
return to England, and in 1697 was made Lord
Chamberlain. Popular indignation, however,
compelled him to resign within a few
months. He spent the rest of his days at A1-
thorpe, where he died September 28, 1702.
SUN DE-W (so called from the dew-like drops
exuded, especially in the sunlight), Drosera. A
beautiful and interesting genus of about seventy-
five species of plants of the natural order Dro-
seraceae, several species of which are natives
of American bogs, etc. A common species is the
round-leaved sundew (Dorsera rotundifolia).
Its leaves all spring from the root, and spread
out in a rosette, from the centre of which springs
the flower-stem or scape with a raceme of flowers
SUNDEW.
SUNFLOWER.
341
all on one side. The leaves of this and the
other species are fringed and beset in all parts
with hairs, which bear at their extremity viscid
pl
//'0




BUNDEW (Drosera rotundifolia).
glands, which fold up when irritated, imprisoning
insects and digesting them through the action
of enzymes secreted y the plant. Consult Dar-
win, Insectivorous Plants (1875).
SUN-DIAL. See DIAL.
SUN-DOGS. See HALC.
SUN DSVALL, suns’ve'rl. A seaport in the
Liin of Wester Norrland, Sweden, 28 miles south
by west of Herniisand, on the Gulf of Bothnia
(Map: Sweden, G 5) . It is known for its exten-
sive lumber interests, and is engaged in ship-
building and the manufacture of iron and steel.
Population, in 1901, 15,087.
SUNFISH. The name of a variety of fishes;
also given by sailors to jellyfish. (1) In
the United States a group of numerous and
familiar fishes of streams and ponds, related to
the bass, and forming several genera of the
feeding and breeding habits are similar to those of
the fresh-water bass (q.v.). See Plate of DABTEBS
AND SUNFISH ; and consult Jordan and Everman,
Fishes of North and Middle America (Washing-
ton, 1900), and the authorities there cited.
(2) One of the strange oceanic fishes of the
family Molidae, related to the Diodontidae; espe-
cially Mola mola, which seems to be composed
of a huge head with small fins attached. (See
Plate of RCCKFISH, SUNEISH, ETC.) They reach
a weight of 300 to 1500 pounds, are scaleless,
dull in color, clumsy, and often lie inert like a
huge gray blanket on the surface of the sea
sunning themselves and bending with the move-
ments of the waves. The young are more fish-
like, and were long considered entirely separate.
They are of no use as food. There are about six
species, one of which (Ranzania truncata) is
called ‘king of the mackerels.’ Consult Dean,
Fishes Living and Fossil (New York, 1895).
(3) The threadfish (Alectis ciliaris).
SUNFLOWER (probably so called from its
yellow radiate disk), Helianthus. A genus of
large herbs of the order Composites, containing
numerous, mostly perennial species, all natives
of America. The common sunflower (H elianthus
annuus), an annual, one of the most important
species, is a native of the tropics, where it some-
times attains a height of 20 feet and produces
flower heads from 1 to 2 feet in diameter. In
temperate climates it grows from 5 to 8
feet high. This species has become widely dis-
tributed throughout the United States as a weed,
especially in the West and the Southwest. It
was introduced into Europe about the middle
of the sixteenth century. In Egypt, India, and
Southern Europe, especially in Russia, the plant
is grown for its seeds, which are eaten like nuts,
and their oil, which is used for culinary purposes.
The oil is also used in the manufacture of
varnishes on account of its drying properties,
which, however, are inferior to those of linseed
oil. It is also used in soap-making and other
manufactures. Sunflowers are cultivated some-
what in the United States and Canada for orna-
ment, for forage, and for seed. On light, well-
drained, well-tilled, and fertile soil a yield of
from 30 to 50 bushels of seed per acre may be ob-
tained. The preparation of the soil and its sub-
sequent cultivation is similar to that for corn,
but the distance between plants in the row should
be from 12 to 16 inches. From 10 to 15 pounds
of seed is required per acre. The heads are har-
vested shortly before they are thoroughly ripe
to prevent loss of seed. Before storing they are
carefully dried to prevent molding. The seeds are
threshed out with flails.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION on SUNFLOWER Pnonucrs.





Water Protein Fat frfiétggtgfigt Crude fibre Ash
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Whole plant. . ............................................ .. 85.2 1.7 1.0 6.2 4.0 1.9
Heads .............................................................. .. 86.1 1.9 1.5 5.6 3.8 1.1
Seed ................................. .. - . 8.6 16.3 21.2 21.4 29.9 2.6
Sunflower seed cake ................................... .. . 10.8 32.8 9.1 27.1 13.5 6.7

family Centrarchidae (q.v.). All are of small
size, six to ten inches long, oval in shape, and
much compressed. All are excellent eating.
They are brightly colored, especially in the breed-
ing season, and may be known by the black flap
to the posterior edge of the gill-cover. Their
The whole plant and the seeds have been used
to a limited extent as a feeding stuff, especially
mixed with horse beans and corn fodder for mak-
ing silage. The seed is frequently fed to poultry.
The oil cake is fed especially in Northern Europe
to fatten animals.
SUNFLOWER.
SUN N ITES.
342
Sunflower stalks are useful as fuel when other
materials are not abundant.
SUN G, soiong. One of the seven great Chinese
dynasties. It was founded in 960 by Chao
Kw’ang-yin, a descendant of a family of officials
of the T’ang dynasty (618-907), who had risen
to high military command. With the Empire
rent with disorder, and the hordes of the Liao
Tatars threating on the north, the army con-
cluded to raise their general, Chao, to the throne.
He at once proceeded to repel the Liao and
unify the Empire by reducing the petty States. He
introduced many reforms, and for sixteen years
ruled with great wisdom and ability. The Liao,
however, continued to encroach on Chinese ter-
ritory, and in 1126, during the reign of the ninth
Emperor, established their authority over all of
North Cl1ina, styling their dynasty the Kin or
‘Golden.’ The Sung fled south to Hang-chow
(q.v.), which continued to be the capital of the
diminished empire of the Southern Sung. Nine
emperors ruled here until 1279, -when Kublai
Khan and his Mongols overthrew both the Kin
and the Sung, and established the Yuen dynasty
in 1280. Notwithstanding the harassments and
encroachments of invading armies, the Sung
period was one of great prosperity and advance
in civilization and culture.
SUN GA’RIA, or DZUNGARIA. A name
vaguely applied to a region of undefined extent
in Central Asia (Map: Asia, H 4). It belongs
to the Chinese Empire, and the name is gen-
erally restricted to the region lying north
of the Tarim Basin in East Turkestan, be-
tween the Tian-Shan and Altai Mountains,
and west of Mongolia. It is chiefly of histori-
cal significance, deriving its name from the
Sungarians, a Mongolian people who attained
their greatest power about the middle of the
seventeenth century, when their kingdom em-
braced the territory between the Kuen-lun and
the Altai Mountains, extending westward to Lake
Balkash. About 1670 the ruler of Sungaria en-
tered into conflict with the Chinese, who com-
pletely overran the country. The Chinese were
driven out in 1710 and for a short time the rulers
of Sungaria were masters of Tibet. In 1759 the
Chinese, after long campaigns, destroyed the re-
established Sungarian kingdom and made the
country a part of their empire, peopling it in
large measure with colonists from China.
SUNKEN BELL, THE (Ger. Die Versunhene
Gloche). A poetic play in blank verse by Gerhart
Hauptmann (1896). It is a fairy-drama, the chief
human character of which is Heinrich, a master
bell-founder who has completed his crowning
work, a bell which is to be hung in a church on
a mountain inhabited by sprites. Through their
hostility the wagon bearing the bell is over-
thrown and the latter is sunk in a mountain
brook. Heinrich is injured and is nursed by the
chief personage of the drama, Rautendelein, half
child, half fairy, whose love changes Heinrich’s
standards and brings about the death of his wife.
SUNN. A plant (Orotalaria juncea) grown
in India and some other warm climates for its
fibre. See HEMP, SUNN; Cnorxmnrx, and illus-
trations on Plate of CRANBERRY, ETC.
SUN’NA (Ar. sunnah, custom, legal usage,
tradition, from sanna, to establish a usage or
law). In the original meaning among Moslems,
the sayings and the example of Mohammed and
h1_s community, provided they are in accordance
with the Koran, the meaning of which, however,
is itself explained by the Sunna. As embracing
traditional law, Sunna is divided into three parts:
(1) what Mohammed did; (2) what he enjoined;
and (3) what was done in his presence and not
forbidden by him. The term is therefore (though
incorrectly) used for the collections of moral and
legal traditions known as H adith (q.v.) traced to
the Prophet, which supplement the Koran, some-
what like the Mishna (q.v.), which supplements
the laws of the Pentateuch. The Sunna not only
comprises religious doctrines and practice, but
also civil and criminal laws, and the usages of
common life, the way to eat and to drink, to
dress, and the like. For the credibility and
canonicity of a tradition, it was originally neces-
sary that it should have been heard by one truth-
ful witness; but this law was much relaxed in
later times. By the beginning of the ninth cen-
tury a large number of individual collections
known as Musnads had been produced by differ-
ent theologians, but the first who sifted them
critirsally, and without regard to any special
theological system, was Buchari (810-887). His
collection contains 7275 single traditions, 4000
of which, however, occur twice in the work.
Muslim, a younger contemporary (817-873), sup-
plemented Buchari with another collection, con-
taining 12,000 traditions, a ain including 4000
repetitions. Besides these, t ere are ‘canonical’
collections by Abu Daud (817-888), by Tirmidhi
(830-914), a pupil of Buchari, and by Abu
Maja (824-886), besides others that also en-
joyed some measure of authority. The Sunna,
as we have it in these collections, contains,
broadly speaking, more truth than it is generally
supposed to contain, and, critically used, is, be-
sides the Koran, the most authentic source of a
knowledge of Islam. A selection from the differ-
ent collections (both canonical and otherwise),
called Mishkat Al Masabih, has been translated
into English by Matthews (Calcutta, 1809). The
Arabic text of Buchari has been published by
Krehl, Le recueil des traditions musulmanes
(Leyden, 1862-68), and fragments of this
work in German translation were embodied by
Hammer-Purgstall in his Fundgruben des Orients
(Vienna, 1810-19). Goldziher has a valuable
treatise on the Hadith literature in his Mo-
hammedanische Studien, vol. ii., pp. 1-274 (Halle,
1890).
SUNNITES, siin'its (from Ar. sunnah, cus-
tom, legal usage, tradition, from sanna, to estab-
lish a usage or law) . The orthodox sect
in Islam ; politically it may be described
as the Centre, in contrast to extreme
theories concerning the headship of the
Church. The term arose in distinction to several
tendencies which early asserted themselves, but
especially difi"erentiates that section which denies
the claim of the Shiites (q.v.) for the peculiar
authority of Ali, as the sole legitimate successor
of Mohammed. (See MOHAMMEDAN Snors.) These
Shiites fast developed their peculiar theological
and constitutional theories, and so drove their
opponents to an understanding of their own posi-
tion; as they were content with tradition and
with things as they were, they called themselves
Sunnites, or Traditionalists. The differences
rapidly developed into those of a political and
SUNNITES.
SUOVETAURILIA.
343
ethnic character, the Shiites being found in the
lands which were opposed to the Ommiads (q.v.) ,
as Arabia, where independence was characteristic,
and in Persia, which only by force of arms had
submitted to Islam. But the decision between
the two parties was by no means immediately
reached. The fall of the Ommiads was brought
about by Persian Shiite influences (750), al-
though the new Abbaside dynasty which was in-
stalled soon threw in its lot with the Sunnites.
In general the geographic centre of the Arab
power, Mesopotamia and Syria, remained in the
control of this party. But the Shiites main-
tained the contest. The latter as liberalists and
theosophists possessed a strong following, es-
pecially among the cultured, and they often en-
joyed immunity under free-thinking caliphs. The
Empire was honeycombed with Shiite secret
societies like the Assassins (q.v.), and Shiite
dynasties arose in Egypt and at Bagdad. (See
SHIITES.) But by 1100 Sunnism was master in
Southwestern Asia. This party was able to main-
tain itself during the Mongol invasions, and
with the favor of the Ottoman Turks it remains
as the predominant body in Islam. At the pres-
ent time orthodoxy outnumbers all its opponents
by ten to one, and commands not only the whole
Turkish Empire, but the millions of Moslems in
Africa, India, China, Malaysia and the Philip-
pines, non-Turkish Arabia, and Northern Africa
(Morocco being practically Sunnite) .
Within this conservative and orthodox body,
apart from outer foes, there early developed all
kinds of theological strife. Rationalistic and
liberal parties developed, which opposed, one
after another, the original principles of Islam,
such as its views of God, and of heaven and hell,
its doctrines of predestination and of the literal
authority of the,Koran. On the other hand, the
crass views of the fanatical mob opposed any-
thing like philosophy, even though orthodox.
Traditionalism was not fitted to meet the dia-
lectic methods of its opponents, who had learned
from the ancient schools of culture, and was
ignorant of the use of philosophy in self-defense.
But the champion of orthodoxy arose in Al-
Ashari (born 882). A member originally of the
Mutazilite sect, which had gone to the extreme
of rationalizing upon the faith and the Koran
(see MOHAMMEDAN SEors), he was led to the
consciousness of this inconsistency, and openly
abjured that heresy, henceforth devoting himself
to the formulation of a scholastic philosophy in
support of orthodoxy. This school encountered
for long the opposition of the liberals and the
ignorant, but about 1050 Ashari’s triumph be-
came evident. His philosophy was continued and
popularized by Al-Gazali (q.v.), who estab-
lished the pietistic principle of Sufiism, which
may be compared to the Christian emotional
principle of faith. Since Ashari and Gazali no
commanding theologian has arisen and no further
philosophic advance has been made in Islam.
With reference to the head of Islam, Sunnism
still as ever lacks a definite principle. Since
1658 the Ottoman Sultan has claimed the cali-
phate, although he possesses but fictions of -the
traditional requirements, and he holds his power
by force and through the agreement of the Faith-
ful. Hence Sunnism is not bound to the dynasty
at Constantinople, and many of its thoughtful
minds would regard the fall of the Ottoman
power in the light of redemption for the Church.
Contrary, therefore, to the original theocratic
constitution of Mohammed there has arisen a
division between the spiritual and the political
forces. Political power is wielded by the Sultan,
but the spiritual rule is in the hands of the
Ulema (q.v.) of Constantinople, a close corpora-
tion of lawyer-theologians. Its chief, the Sheik-
ul-Islam, is appointed by the Sultan, but only
out of that body, and he possesses large indepen-
dent powers which the Sultan dare not invade.
He is the chief spiritual person in orthodox Islam.
Within the Sunnite body exist four different
schools of law, those respectively of the Han-
balites, the Hanifites, the Shafiites, and the
Malikites (so named after their respective
founders). The first code is confined to the
Wahhabites (q.v.) ; the second to Upper Egypt
and North Africa; the third prevails in Lower
Egypt, Southern India, and Malaysia; the fourth
is followed by the Turks and by the Moslems of
Central and Northern Asia. These schools arose
in the second and third centuries of the Hejira
and represent so many different compositions be-
tween tradition and progressive law. They are
at peace with one another now, and divide ortho-
dox Islam among themselves, each people be-
ing allowed to live by its law, and each lawyer
electing his choice. But in the Ottoman Empire
there exists the contrast between this canon law
and the secular law. The latter proceeds from
the authority of the Sultan or is the ancient
secular law of the land; the other, the law of the
Church, is confined mostly to domestic matters,
and it is one of the grievances of the orthodox
that the legal authority of the Church is thus
put into abeyance by the secular arm. Here
again the analogy may be drawn with the dis-
pute which has prevailed in European Christen-
dom between the canon and the civil law. There-
fore, both in its past history and in its present
condition, Sunnism is by no means to be re-
garded as a homogeneous body or practice. For
literature, see MOHAMMEDANISM; MOHAMMEDAN
Sncrs.
SUNNYSIDE. A gabled stone house on the
Hudson River near Irvington, three miles south
of Tarrytown, noted as the home of VVashington
Irving, and described in Irving’s sketch entitled
W01/‘crt’s Roost, the former name of the man-
sion. The house, in which the author’s study
has been preserved in its original condition, is
overgrown with ivy from Abbotsford.
SUNSTONE, or HELIOLITE. A variety of
aventurine, oligoclase, or feldspar, which when
polished yields internal yellowish or reddish re-
flections emanating from crystals or flakes of
iron oxide that are contained in the mass. The
finest specimens, which show a brilliant play of
colors, are found in Norway, although gem
varieties occur in the United States at Crown
Point, N. Y., and Media, Pa.
SUNSTROKE. See HEAT-STROKE.
SUN-WORSHIP. See NATLTRE-WORSHIP.
SUO’VETAURIL’IA (Lat., sacrifice of a
boar, a sheep, and a bull. from sus, boar -1- ovis,
sheep + taurus, bull). A Roman sacrifice, which
was offered to Mars, in the lustrum, or purifica-
tion of the people on the Campus Martins at the
Census, the Ambarvalia in May, the Amburbium
in February, and other similar lustrations. It
SUOVETAURILIA.
SUPERIOR.
344
derived its name from the three animals of which
it consisted, a boar, a ram, and a bullock. In all
cases the animals were led three times around the
gathering or territory to be purified, and then
sacrificed.
SUPAN, s6o’pan, ALEXANDER (1847—-). An
Austrian geographer, born at Innichen, Tyrol.
Having studied at the universities of Gratz, Vi-
enna, Halle, and Leipzig, and taught at Laibach,
he qualified as privat-docent at Czernowitz, Bu-
kowina, and was made professor in 1880, but re-
moved to Gotha in 1884 to assume the redaction
of Petermanns Mitteilungen. The publication of
its geographical literary reports, since 1885, is
due to his initiative. He wrote: Lehrbuch der
Geographic filr oesterreichische Mittelschulen
(1874; 10th ed. 1901) ; Grundziige der physischen
Erdhunde (3d ed., 1903) ; Geographic von Oester-
reich-Ungarn (1889) ; Deutsche Schulgeographie
(6th ed. 1903) ; and numerous contributions to
the Mitteilungen.
SUPEREROGATION, Wonxs OF (Lat.
supererogatio, payment in addition, from super-
erogare, to pay in addition, from super, above
+ erogare, to expend, especially after asking con-
sent, from e, out —|— rogare, to ask). A class of
good works which, in the Roman Catholic system,
are described as not absolutely required of each
individual as conditions to his eternal salvation.
Roman Catholics found this definition on the dis-
tinction between what they believe to be com-
manded and what they hold to be only counseled.
(See EVANGELICAL CoUNsELS.) For works of
supererogation, as for all supernaturally good
works, they hold that the assistance of God’s
grace is indispensably necessary; and they do
not ascribe to them any merit, except that which
arises from God’s own free and gratuitous prom-
ise. A further consequence of this doctrine is
that God may accept the superabundant works
of one in atonement for the defective service of
another; and hence, in the Catholic theory of in-
dulgences (q.v.) , along with what they regard as
the infinite and inexhaustible treasure of the
merits of Christ, they also regard, although in a
degree infinitely inferior, the superabundant
merits of the saints as forming part of that
‘treasure of the Church’ which is applied in the
form of indulgences.
The idea of such works is rejected by Prot-
estants generally, and the Anglican Articles de-
clare that they “cannot be taught without ar-
rogancy and impiety.”
SUPERFICIES (Lat., surface). At civil law,
the hereditary and alienable right to maintain
and use a building on land belonging to another.
Unless a term be fixed in the contract, the right
is perpetual. The owner of the land is tech-
nically owner of the building (superficies solo
oedit); but practically the owner has no right
except to an annual ground-rent (solarium).
Even when the ground-rent has not been paid
for several years, the right of the superficiary is
not forfeited unless this be expressed in the con-
tract. In the absence of such express agreement,
the owner of the land can only attach and sell
the superficiary right.
Historically, superficies was first established at
Rome in public or municipal land. It was orig-
inally lease (locatio conductio), but it soon be-
came a different thing, because the superficiary
was recognized as having possessory right (see
POSSESSION) and actions in rem.—advantages
which the Roman lessee did not enjoy. In the
later development of the Roman law superficiary
right could be established on private land and
also in a special story or floor of a building.
Superficies is analogous to emphyteusis (q.v.),
but the rights of the superficiary are greater
than those of the emphyteutist.
Mediaeval jurists regarded superficies and em-
phyteusis as cases of divided ownership, analo-
gous to the feudal tenures. The landlord had
dominium directum, the tenant dominium utile.
Some of the modern legislations recognize divided
ownership in a different sense: the landlord is
said to own the land, the superficiary the house
or floor. See DOMINIUM ; EMPHYTEUSIS; PROP-
ERTY.
SU’PERF(E'1‘A’TION (from Lat. superfoe-
tare, to conceive anew when already pregnant, from
super, above, over + foetare, to breed, from fwtus,
offspring; connected with Gk. ¢1iew, phyein, to
generate, Skt. thu, to become, and ultimately
with Eng. be), and SUPERFECUNDATION. The cir-
cumstance of two distinct conceptions occurring
in the same woman at an interval of weeks or
months, so that two foetuses of different ages,
and possibly the offspring of different fathers,
may coexist in the uterus. True superfoetation
takes place when a second ovule has been impreg-
nated while the uterus already contains an ovum
which has arrived at a considerable degree of de-
velopment. By superfecundation is meant the
impregnation, at or near the same period of time,
of two separate ovules before the decidua lining
of the uterus has been formed, which is believed
by many to interpose an insuperable obstacle to
subsequent impregnation. The possibility of this
occurrence has been proved on numerous occa-
sions by the birth of twins bearing the stamp of
fathers of diflerent races, i.e. white and black.
The question of superfoetation has given rise to
much discussion owing to its medico-legal im-
portance. Against the possibility of this occur-
rence it is urged that ovulation is suspended
when impregnation has taken place; that the de-
cidua (afterbirth) so completely fills the uterine
cavity that the passage of spermatozoa is im-
possible, and that their ascent is prevented by
the plug of mucus filling the cervix. It is now be-
lieved that none of these obstacles is insuperable.
The medico-legal aspect of the question may be
summed up as follows: A woman may be un-
justly suspected of conjugal infidelity when, de-
livery of a mature or premature child having
taken place, she is (without having meanwhile
seen her husband, or submitted to coitus), in
the course of one, two, or three months, de-
livered of another child, either mature or pre-
mature. Cases of this kind may be explained,
as indicated above, by twin pregnancy with ex-
pulsion of the foetuses at an interval of several
weeks or months; by the existence of bilobed
uterus, the two cavities expelling their contents
at different times; or by true superfoetation.
When the children are of different race or color
the fidelity of the female may be justly ques-
tioned. See Bonner, in Edinburgh Medical Jour-
nal (1864-65); Witthaus and Becker, Medical
Jurisprudence (New York, 1894) ; Playfair,
Midwifery (Philadelphia, 1893).
SUPE'RIOR. A port of entry and the county-
seat of Douglas County, Wis., adjacent to Duluth,
SUPERIOR.
SUPERPHOSZPHATE.
345
Minn. ; at the mouth of the Saint Louis and
Nemadji rivers, on three bays, inlets of Lake
Superior, and on the Northern Pacific, the East-
ern Minnesota, the Saint Paul and Duluth, the
Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic, the Great
Northern, and the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minne-
apolis and Omaha railroads (Map: Wisconsin,
A 2). It is connected with Duluth by two rail-
road bridges and by ferry. The city is finely
situated. It is the seat of a State Normal
School, and among other features are a public
library, with more than 13,000 volumes, and
Saint Mary’s Hospital. An excellent harbor,
Which has been enlarged and improved through
national, State, and city appropriations, and
good transportation facilities have contributed to
Superior’s commercial importance. In the year
ending June 30, 1901, the total foreign trade was
valued at $7,353,553, including exports to the
amount of $6,946,547. I/Vheat, corn, flour, lard
and other meat products, iron and steel, cement,
and lumber compose the principal shipments.
The various industries in the census year 1900
had an invested capital of $5,882,562, and a pro-
duction valued at $7,527,703. There are lumber
mills, foundries and machine shops, breweries,
flour mills, boiler shops, iron works, manufac-
tories of chairs and windmills, and shipbuilding
interests.
The government is vested in a mayor, elected
biennially, and a unicameral council; and in ad-
ministrative oflicials, the majority of whom are
appointed by the mayor, subject to the confirma-
tion of the council. For maintenance and opera-
tion, the city spends annually about $409,000,
the chief items being: schools, $120,000; fire de-
partment, $25,000; interest on debt, $23,000 ; and
streets, $19,000. Population, in 1890, 11,983;
in 1900, 31,091.
On the site of Superior Radisson and Gros-
seilliers are supposed to have made their head-
quarters in 1661. Here in 1680 the famous ex-
plorer Du L’Hut established a trading post. Su-
perior was first laid out in 1855, and in 1885 the
city was considerably enlarged, a company
headed by Gen. J . H. Hammond having laid out
an addition west of the original town. In 1881
the Northern Pacific Railroad Company built a
branch hither.
SUPERIOR, LAKE. The largest and most
northerly of the Great Lakes of North America,
and the largest body of fresh water in the world
(Map: America, North, K 5). It is situated a
little to the northeast of the centre of the conti-
nent, and is bounded on the north and east by
the Canadian Province of Ontario, and on the
south by the State of Michigan and a part of
Minnesota, the latter State forming also the
western boundary. Its shape is nearly a cres-
cent, the horns extending southwest and south-
east, while the large Keweenaw Peninsula
reaches nearly to the centre of the lake from the
middle of the southern coast. Lake Superior has
a coast line of 1500 miles; its extreme length
from east to west is 412 miles; its extreme
breadth is 167 miles. Area, 31,200 square miles.
Its mean elevation above sea level is 602 feet,
and it lies 20 feet above the level of Lake Huron,
into which it discharges through the Saint
Mary’s River (q.v.). It receives a large number
of streams, but they are all short, the basin of
the lake being closely hemmed in by the water-
sheds of the Mississippi and of Hudson Bay.
The principal stream entering it is the Saint
Louis River, which falls into the extreme western
end of the lake, and is considered as the farthest
headstream of the Saint Lawrence.
The shores of Lake Superior, except in the
southeast, where there are long lines of sand
dunes, are generally bold and rocky. On the
Michigan sl1ore are the celebrated sandstone
cliffs known as Pictured Rocks, which are
streaked by the red and yellow deposits of fer-
ruginous waters. In many places, especially
along the Canadian shore, there are precipitous
cliffs of basalt rising directly from the water to
a sheer height of from 300 to over 1000 feet, such
as~Thunder Cape on the northwest shore. The
north shore is also cut up into deep bays sur-
rounded by high cliffs, and forming good har-
bors, and it is lined with a number of high, rocky
islands with precipitous sides and capped by
eruptive material. In the greater part of the
lake, however, the islands are few, the largest
being Isle Royal, 45 miles long and 8 miles wide,
belonging to Michigan. In general the country
surrounding the lake is covered with pine forests.
Lake Superior is deeper than any of the other
Great Lakes, its maximum depth being 1008 feet,
so that the bottom lies 400 feet below sea level.
The water is very clear, and so fresh as to be al-
most chemically pure. It is cold throughout the
year to within a few feet of the surface, and in
the deeper portions maintains a nearly uni-
form temperature of 39°. The lake never
freezes except in the shallow water along the
shores. The level of the lake is subject to several
sets of periodic changes, partly owing to changes
in rainfall and evaporation and partly to the
winds; a long continued storm will sometimes
raise the leeward level seven feet above the nor-
mal. Violent storms occasionally sweep over the
lake, when the waves may attain an amplitude of
15 or 18 feet.
The basin of Lake Superior is remarkable as
being unrelated to those of the other Great
Lakes. While the latter are river valleys scooped
out of the softer strata of the ancient coastal
plain lying northwest of the Appalachian Plateau
and skirting the Archeean continent, Lake Su-
perior lies almost wholly within the Archsean
region. The most recent investigators are of the
opinion that this basin is a primitive depression
in the earth’s crust antedating the Huronian pe-
riod. The numerous intrusions of eruptive rocks
which encircle the lake are arranged roughly in
concentric circles, the most recent being found
nearest the lake, and it has been suggested that
the depression is an ancient and deep-seated cen-
tre of volcanic activity. The formation of the
lakes themselves, however, is due to the obstruc-
tion of the valleys during the Glacial Period.
The country surrounding the lake is rich in min-
erals, and large veins of copper and iron ore
traverse its bottom from the southern shore.
Consult Agassiz, Lake Superior: Its Physical
Character. Vegetation, and Animals (Boston,
1850). For commerce and navigation on the
lake, see GREAT LAKES.
SUPERPHOSPHATE. An orthophosphate
in which only a portion of the hydrogen of the
orthophosphoric acid has been replaced by a basic
radical. The most important superphosphate,
agriculturally. that of lime, monocalcium phos
phate (CaO.2H._.O.P,O,). is prepared by treating
tricalcium phosphate ([CaO]3.P,O,-,) in the form
SUPERPHOSPHATE.
SUPERSTITION.
346
of mineral phosphate, bone ash, bone black, etc.,
with sulphuric acid. It is also called acid phos-
phate. See MANURES AND MANUBING.
SUPERPOSITION. See CGNGRUENGE.
SUPERSEDEAS (Lat., that you set aside).
A common-law writ containing an order for a
stay or suspension of legal proceedings. Under
the common-law practice it is issued in a great
variety of cases for the above purpose, and is
sometimes used as a substitute for the common-
law writ of audita querela (q.v.). Probably it
is issued most frequently to stay execution, pend-
ing an appeal from a judgment. The person ap-
plying for the writ is required to give a bond, to
secure the other party against loss by reason of
the delay. Several writs are said to operate as
a supersedeas by implication, as in effect they
operate as a stay, viz.: habeas corpus, certiorari,
and writ of error. The practice of granting a
stay by an order of the court has superseded the
above practice in many jurisdictions.
SUPERSTITION (Lat. superstitio, excessive
religious belief, superstition, possibly originally
a standing over a thing in amazement or awe,
from superstars, to stand above or over, from
super, above, over + stare, to stand). A term
loosely used to include all false faith or belief,
its distinguishing characteristic being its irra-
tional estimate of something imperfectly under-
stood. Since the answer to the question of
truth or falsity varies with place and time, it
follows that the accepted belief of one time or
people may be superstition to another. Most
of the popular superstitions of the present
are survivals of earlier science or religion.
At a time when there existed no system of
recorded observations of natural phenomena
conclusions were of necessity drawn from ex-
ternal characteristics, and objects and events
were supposed to exercise influences correspond-
ing to the impression produced upon the
senses or imagination. This manner of interpre-
tation, or sympathetic magic (see MAGIC), is re-
sponsible for a great mass of superstitions. It
is a characteristic of popular credulity that such
notions, once prevalent, do not yield to contrary
experience. If observation shows the principle
to be inaccurate, reasons are always at hand to
explain the error, or at the most it is only neces-
sary to introduce additional complexity into the
rule. Hence the power of the ancestral habits,
which we find arbitrary and call superstitious.
With all savage peoples, such beliefs have an
immense effect on action; the daily method of
nutrition, attire, the chase, agriculture, and war-
fare are determined by an infinity of regulations
which are religiously handed down from genera-
tion to generation. In some cases it is possible
to discover the principle of expediency which
gave birth to the requirement; thus, the discov-
ery of the ill effect of in and in breeding causes
to be established a religious necessity, limiting
the relations of the sexes according to certain
complicated and ingenious rules, of which the
prohibited degrees are the modern ecclesiastical
survival. But in multitudes of other cases no
good reason can be offered for demands and ab-
stentions which originally depend on infer-
ences which it is impossible to reconstruct.
A considerable number of superstitions are
connected with the heavenly bodies. From
remote times the observation of the stars
and their movements has been considered
important, but it has been with the night,
especially, that ancient religious ceremonies
are associated. The most distinctive differ-
ences between the nights were formed by altera-
tions in the growth of the lunar crescent;
according to universal processes of thought, it
was supposed that the time when the planet in-
creases and becomes dominant the principle of
growth must prevail, and on the other hand, that
her wane must be a season of general decay.
Hence it has been everywhere inferred that all
operations designed to promote increase ought to
be performed at the time of the new moon, and
that then potatoes should be planted, hair cut,
and so on. But if it is desired to cause shrink-
ing, the work should be done when the moon is
at the full according to the maxims of tradi-
tional agriculture, and at this time should be
cut alders, spruce, and other undergrowth, be-
cause the roots will in this case wither without
sprouting.
Not less important in‘ popular usage is the
part played by the course of the sun. As he
moves in a particular direction, so it has been
thought that in order to produce beneficial re-
sults, mankind should proceed in a correspond-
ing manner ; in worship it was thought necessary
to adopt a processional movement in the sunwise
direction. Even in the ordinary movements of
daily life this order was followed, and traces of
it survive to the present day. Thus in order to
make good bread or butter, it is essential that
the motion should be in the same uniform direc-
tion, for reversal of the direction in which the
kneading or churning is performed will undo
the work accomplished, and insure a failure.
From household maxims still preserved, it ap-
pears that the hand must be moved in a sunwise
circuit. As the route taken by the sun is holy,
so the opposite path will be evil, and has been
adopted in practices of witchcraft and magic, and
in Roman worship the gods below were adored
with this reverse circuit.
Among periods of human life, the terror which
attaches to death has made it the centre of a vast
body of superstitions habits. A great number of
actions and experiences are still popularly re-
garded as signs of approaching departure. The
principle on which the phenomena are inter-
preted is that of association of ideas. Thus
ringing in the ears is a sign of dissolution, be-
cause the Church has usually rung a ‘death-bell’
over the departed; carrying a spade through the
house has like significance, because a spade is
used to dig graves; a blue flame in the candle
is ominous, for the lowering of the light forecasts
the decline of the life; a flower blooming out of
season foreshows a decease; and so on indefinite-
ly. In like manner, the unusual also is a fruit-
ful source of superstition; if every child were
born with a caul (that is, a membrane encom-
passing the head) it is doubtful if this would
have been taken as an especial sign of good luck.
A considerable number of superstitions relate
to times of the year, and revert to the practices
of old religion. Thus Hallowe’en, or the evening
before All Saints’ Day, is attended with obser-
vances Which seem to have been dependent on its
original character as a feast of the dead, when
departed spirits were invited to partake in the
fruits of the harvest, and were conceived as pres-
ent at the sacrifice and merry-making. On this
SUPERSTITION.
SUPPE.
347
night it is usual to perform divinations, now
reduced to mere jests, in which an unmarried
person is expected to discover his or her com-
panion for life. These practices must be re-
garded as the remainder of serious necromancy,
in which the returning spirits were asked to re-
veal the future.
While the majority of superstitions are re-
mains of antiquity, their invention has not alto-
gether ceased in historical times. Of this we have
examples in the prejudice against the number
thirteen, and in objection to Friday as unlucky,
since in Christian thought the day of the Cruci-
fixion and the number involving the addition of
Judas were of necessity regarded as ill-omened.
The superstition of the evil eye, that is, the belief
that certain individuals have the power to in-
jure by a look, is still widespread in Eastern
countries, where the belief yet lingers that the
demoniac (q.v.) is divinely inspired. Nature
worship (q.v.) lingers in such superstitions as
those connected with the moon, the belief in its
mysterious power to work good or ill, its influ-
ence on the weather, and the like. The belief in
ghosts (q.v.) reflects the earlier ancestor wor-
ship. The common notion about the good luck
brought by a horseshoe has been traced back to
phallicism (q.v.).
The following list, prepared by Bolton (The
Counting-out Rhymes of Children, London, 1888) ,
gives the technical names for different forms of
divination and the method followed in each:
Aéromancy ....... ..... ..by appearances in the air.
Alectoromancy, or } by a fowl picking up grains of
Alectryomancy ...... .. wheat.
Aleuromancy ........... ..by wheat.
Alphitomancy ........... ..by barley flour.
Amniomancy ............ ..by the amnion.
Anagrammatisrn ...,....by anagrams of a person's names.
Anthropomancy ....... ..by human entrails.
Anthroposcopy ......... ..by man’s features.
Arithmancy .............. ..by the use of numbers.
Astragalomancy, or } by little sticks, bones, tablets, or
Astragiromancy .... .. dice.
Astrology ................. ..by the heavenly bodies.
Austromancy ............ ..by winds.
Axinomancy ............. ..by the axe or hatchet.
Belomancy ................ ..by arrows.
Bibliomancy ............. ..by the Bible.
Bletonism ................. ..by subterranean springs.
Botanomancy ............ ..by herbs.
Cartomancy .............. ..by playing cards.
Capnomancy ............. ..by smoke from an altar.
Catoptromancy ......... ..by mirrors.
Ceromancy ................ ..by dropping melted wax into water.
Cephalomancy ........... ..by an ass’s head.
Chalcomancy ............ ..by vessels of brass.
Chaomancy ............... ..by appearances in the air.
Chartomancy ............ ..by writings on paper.
Chiromancy ............... ..by the hand.
Cledonismancy ........... ..by certain lucky or unlucky words.
Cleromancy...... ......... ..by dice.
Glidomancy ............... ..by keys.
Coscinomancy ........... ..by sieves.
Crithomancy ............. ..by dough of cakes.
Cromniomancy .......... ..by onions.
Crystallomancy ........ ..by a magic lens.
Dactylomancy .......... ..by suspended rings.
Demonomancy .......... ..by evil spirits.
Daphnomancy .......... ..by the laurel.
Extispicium ............... ..by entrails of a victim.
Gastromancy ............ ..by ventriloquism, or by a vial of
water.
Geloscopy .................. ..by the manner of laughing.
Geomancy ................. ..by geometrical figures.
Gyromancy ............... ..by walking in a circle.
Haruspicy ................. ..by sacrificial appearances.
Halomancy ............... ..by common salt.
Hieromancy .............. ..by the entrails of animals.
Hydromancy ............ ..by water.
Hydatoscopy ............ ..by rain water.
Ichthyomancy ........... ..by the entrails of fishes.
Idolomancy ............... ..by idols and images.
J udeomancy ............... ..by a Jewish art.
Keraunoscopy .......... ..by thunder.
Lampadomancy ....... ..by lamps.
VOL. XVI'—23.
Lecanomancy ........... ..by a basin of water.
Libanomancy ........... . . by incense.
Lithomancy .............. . .by precious stones, or pebbles.
Logarithmancy ........ . . by logarithms.
Lychnomancy ........... ..by lamps.
Margaritomancy ...... ..by pearls.
Macharomancy ......... ..by knives and by swords.
Meteoromancy., ........ ..by meteors.
Metoposcopy ............ ..by men’s features.
Molybdomancy ......... ..by melted lead.
Myomancy ................ ..by mice.
N ecromancy .............. ..by the black art.
Oinomancy ............... .. by wine of libations.
Omphalomancy ......... ..by the navel of an infant.
Oneiromancy ............. ..by dreams.
Onomancy ................. ..by letters forming the name of a
person.
Onyomancy, or } by the finger nails reflecting the
Onychomancy. ....... .. sun’s rays.
Otiscopy .................... ..by eggs.
Ophiomancy ............. ..by serpents.
Ornithomancy ........... ..by birds.
Palrnistry .................. ..by the hands. .
Pa1p1tat1o ................. ..by the pulsation of some member.
Pegomancy ............... ..by springs of water.
Pessomancy .............. ..by pebbles.
Physiognomy ........... ..by man’s features.
Podomancy ............... ..by the feet.
Psephomancy ........... ..by pebbles drawn from a heap.
Psychomancy ............ ..by ghosts.
Pyromancy ............... ..by sacrificial fire.
Pyroscopy ................ ..by examining fire.
Rhabdomancy .......... ..by wands.
Rhapsodomancy ....... ..by poetical passages.
Salisatio ................... ..by the pulsation of some member.
Sciomancy ................ ..by shadows or manes.
Sideromancy ............. ..by straws on a red-hot iron.
Sortilege ................... ..by drawing lots.
Spatilomancy ............ ..by skin, bones, etc.
Stereomancy ............. ..by the elements.
Sternomancy ............. ..by marks on the breast.
Stichomancy ............. ..by poetical passages.
Tephramancy ............ ..by writing in ashes.
Theomancy ............... ..by oracles.
Theriomancy ............. ..by wild beasts.
Tyromancy ............... ..by cheese.
See also FOLKLORE; MAN, Scmnon OF; MAGIC;
MYTHOLOGY; RELIGION, COMPARATIVE.
SUPERTONIC. In music, the note which, in
the diatonic scale, is next above the tonic or
keynote, and forms with it the interval of the
second, as, for example, D in the key of C major.
SUPERVISOR (ML. supervisor, overseer,
from Lat. superoidere, to overlook, oversee, from
super, above, over + videre, to see). A popu-
larly elected officer of a township or other local
district in the United States. The name first ap-
peared in New York in 1691. This officer is still
the chief administrator of the town organization
in New York, while all the supervisors of the
county assembled in ‘a board meeting constitute
the chief county authority. The New York su-
pervisor system exists in several Western States.
In Michigan and Illinois, as in New York, there
is a single supervisor for each township, while
in Wisconsin and Minnesota there are three for
each township. In some States the supervisor
is not a member of the county board and his
duties vary, as, for example, in Michigan, where
he is also tax assessor, and in Illinois, treasurer.
See UNITED STATES, section on Local Government.
SUPPE, s66-pa’, FRANZ VON (1820-95). An
Austrian composer of light opera, born at Spa-
lato, Dalmatia. He studied at‘ the Vienna Con-
servatory under Sechter and Seyfried. He was
kapellmeister successively at the Josephstadterl
Theater, the Theater an der Wien, and
from 1865 until the end of his career at‘ the
Leopoldstiidter Theater. He was a pro-
lific composer, the most important of his
works being the operettas Flo-tte Bursche
(1863), Die sohdne Galathea (1865), Leichte
Kaoallerie (1866), Banditenstreiche (1867),
SUPPE.
SUPREMACY.
348
Fatimltza (Vienna, 1876), Bocoaooio (1879),
Das Modell (posth., 1895). He also composed
considerable instrumental and sacred music. He
was one of the most popular of the world’s light
opera composers, and a musician of no little
genius.
SUPPLE JACK (Berohemia volubilis). An
American twining shrub of the natural order
Rhamnaceee, which is found as far north as the
Dismal Swamp in Virginia. It has oval leaves,
small flowers, and violet-colored berries, and
ascends to the top of the highest trees. The
name is also given in the West Indies and trop-
ical America to Serjania lucida and Serjania
trachygona, shrubs of similar habit which belong
to the natural order Sapindaceae. The stems are
used for walking-sticks.
SUPPLEMENTARY PROCEEDINGS. Cer-
tain proceedings under codes and practice acts
designed to discover property of a judgment
debtor and apply it to the satisfaction of the
judgment. The order directs the debtor to ap-
pear and submit to an examination under oath
as to his property. Most acts provide for the
appointment of a receiver where property is
found. Consult New York Code of Civil Pro-
oedure. See EXECUTION.
SUPPLIANTS, THE (Lat. Suppl/ices, Gk.
'I1<én5es, Hilseticles). (1) The earliest of the
extant plays of fEschylus, of uncertain date.
With but slight plot or dramatic action, it pic-
tures the arrival of the fifty daughters of
Danaus on the shore near Argos, their prayer
to the King of Argos for protection, the appear-
ance of the ship bearing the fifty sons of ZEgyp-
tus, and their repulse by the King.
(2) A tragedy by Euripides, produced about
13.0. 420. Theseus and the Athenians, entreated
by the mothers of the dead chiefs, after defeat-
ing the Thebans, oblige them to surrender the
bodies of the slain Polynices and his allies, to
whom they had refused burial. The funeral of
the chiefs, the burning of Evadne on the pyre
of her husband, Capaneus, and thepatriotic and
political references provide the interest lacking
in the simple plot.
SUPPORTERS (from support, OF., Fr. sup-
porter, from Lat. supportare, subportare, to sup-
port, from sub, under + portare, to carry). In
heraldry, figures placed on each side of an armo-
rial shield. See HERALDRY.
SUPPOSITORY (Lat. suppositoriu/m, from
supponere, subponere, to put beneath, from sub,
under + poncre, to put, place). A solid medi-
cated compound intended to be introduced into
the rectum, vagina, or urethra, either for the
purpose of causing an evacuation of the bowels,
or for its specific effect on inflamed mucous mem-
brane. Suppositories are made in several shapes
——conical, cylindrical, or spherical—and in sizes
adapted to the orifice they are intended to enter.
In consistency they are such that they remain
solid at ordinary temperatures, but melt slowly
at the temperature of the body. The basis of
most suppositories is cocoa butter. With this
are incorporated one or several ingredients, such
as carbolic acid, tannic acid, belladonna, mor-
phine, opium, cocaine, and lead.
SUPPURATION (Lat. suppuratio, subpura-
tio, from suppurare, subpurare, to form pus,
from sub, under + pus, white viscous matter
from a sore). A morbid process which takes
place in animal tissues, resulting in the forma-
tion of pus. It is a frequent termination of in-
flammatory processes and is due to invasion of
the inflamed tissues and their exudates by pyo-
genie organisms. (See Pus; INFLAMMATION.)
White blood cells escape into the neighboring
tissue after passing through the walls of the
blood vessels, and become pus cells. If they
escape to the surface and there is an open wound,
the wound is said to suppurate. If they are
confined to a circumscribed area below the sur-
face, the collection of pus cells and broken down
tissue is called an abscess (q.v.).
SUPRALAPSARIAN. See INFBALAPSARIAN.
SUPRARENAL (from Lat. supra, above
+ reualis, relating to the kidneys, from renes,
kidneys) CAPSULES AND THEIR DISEASES. The
suprarenal capsules are two small, flattened,
glandular bodies of a yellowish color and cres-
centic shape, situated, as their name implies, im-
mediately in front of the upper end of each kid-
ney. In weight they vary from one to two drams.
They belong to the class of ductless glands, and
on making a perpendicular section each gland is
seen (like the kidney) to consist of cortical and
medullary substance. The blood-vessels and
nerves of the glands are exceedingly numerous.
The capsules are also called the suprarenal
bodies or the adrenals.
The suprarenal bodies are subject to inflamma-
tion, to atrophy, and to invasion by malignant
processes, but all of these occurrences are ex-
tremely rare. The only morbid process that oc-
curs with any frequency is tuberculosis. This
process is the causative factor in the production
of Addison’s disease (q.v.), a rather rare and
usually fatal affection characterized by anaemia,
general languor, feebleness of the heart’s action,
irgzitability of the stomach, and bronzing of the
s m.
The dried and prepared suprarenal substance
of animals constitutes a powerful and valuable
astringent and heemastatic. See QRGANOTHERAPY.
SUPREIVLACY, ROYAL (OF. suprematie, Fr.
suprématie, from OF. supreme, Fr. supréme, su-
preme, from Lat. supremus, highest, superlative
of superus, high, from super, Ck. inrép, hyper,
Skt. upari, Goth. ufar, OHG. ubar, uber, ubir/L,
AS, ofer, Eng. over). A phrase specifically
applied to the relation of the sovereign of
England to the established Church of that coun-
try. During the Reformation the supremacy of
the Pope was abolished in England, and the act
passed in 1534 declared the King to be the “only
supreme head on earth of the Church of Eng-
land.” The Government at the same time issued
an explanation of this language to the effect that
it was intended to recognize in the sovereign the
authority of a governor without spiritual juris-
diction, and not to “take any power from the
successors of the Apostles that was given them
by God.” Under Queen Mary this Act of Supre-
macy was repealed in 1554. but this repeal was
itself repealed by Queen Elizabeth in 1559, who,
however, did not make use of the words ‘supreme
head.’ In her injunctions she explained the su-
premacy of the Crown to be “that which is
and was of ancient time due to the Imperial
Crown of this realm. that is, under God to
have the sovereignty and rule over all manner
of persons born within those her realms of what
SUPREMACY.
SUPREME COURT.
849
I and ab j uration.
estate either ecclesiastical or temporal soever
they may be so as no other foreign power
shall or ought to have any superiority over
them.” The governing and visitorial power of
the sovereign, under the safeguard of an organ-
ized court of justice, has since been continuously
recognized by the Church of England. By suc-
cessive statutes an oath as to royal supremacy
was appointed to be taken by the holders of
public offices along with the oaths of allegiance
A royal supremacy similar in
character is a prerogative of the Czar of All the
Russias, also of the Protestant princes of Ger-
many, and of the sovereigns of Holland, Den-
mark, Norway, and Sweden.
SUPREME COURT. See Comrr.
' SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED
STATES, THE. The Supreme Court of the
United States is the head of the national ju-
diciary. In our system of government there are
three coiirdinate departments—executive, legis-
lative, and judicial. The latter is the last
named in the national Constitution, was the last
brought into being, but is by no means the least
important. The existence of the Supreme Court
is authorized by the Constitution. Section 1 of
Article III. ‘provides that “the judicial power of
the United States shall be vested in one supreme
court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress
may from time to time ordain and establish.”
The Supreme Court is thus a constitutional
court, while the other courts of the United
States are statutory. Though the Constitution
provides for a Supreme Court, it leaves its or-
ganization and membership for Congressional
supervision. The first act in respect thereto
was passed at the first session of the United
States ‘Congress, approved by Washington on
September 24, 1789, and directed that the court
should consist of a Chief Justice and five asso-
ciate justices, any four of whom should make a
quorum. This act not only made provision for
the Supreme Court, but created the inferior
courts of the United States and organized its
entire judicial system. It was drafted by Oliver
Ellsworth, afterwards a Chief Justice of the
United States. It has remained in its main fea-
tures unchanged, and one of Ellsworth’s ad-
mirers has declared that the Federal judicial
system, “the whole edifice, organization, jurisdic-
tion, and process, was built by him as it now
stands.”
The Constitution in Section 2 of Article III.
declares that “the judicial power shall extend to
all cases, in law and equity, arising under this
Constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under
their authority; to all cases affecting ambassa-
dors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdictions;
to controversies to which the United States shall
be a party; to controversies between two or more
States; between one State and citizens of an-
other State; between citizens of different States;
between citizens of the same State claiming lands
under grants of different States, and between a
State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States,
citizens or subjects.” And also that “in all cases
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers,
and consuls, and those in which a State shall
be a party, the Supreme Court shall have orig-
inal jurisdiction. In all other cases before men-
tioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate
jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such
exceptions and under such regulations as the
Congress shall make.” The original jurisdic-
tion, being conferred by the Constitution, cannot
be taken away by Congress,. although that body
may prescribe the procedure by which that juris-
diction is to be exercised; but in respect to the
appellate jurisdiction both the procedure and its
extent are matters of Congressional determina-
tion, and Congress has from time to time made
changes in each.
The appellate jurisdiction may be separated
into two divisions: one over State courts; the
other over the inferior Federal courts. With
respect to the former it reviews the final judg-
ment rendered in any case by the highest court
of the State to which the case under State prac-
tice can be carried, and this irrespective of the
amount in controversy. With respect to the lat-
ter, up to 1891 it had, speaking generally, juris-
diction to review the proceedings in any case
which had passed to final judgment in such in-
ferior courts, with a limitation in some classes
of cases to a certain amount in controversy. By
the act of that year (1891) courts of appeal
were established, one in each circuit, and were
given final jurisdiction in certain cases, such
as revenue, admiralty, patent cases, etc. But
the Supreme Court may still by certiorari, if it
sees fit, bring any of these cases from a court of
appeals before it for review. This act did away
with the limitation as to the amount in contro-
versy requisite for review by the Supreme Court. ‘
In addition the Supreme Court is given power
to issue writs of prohibition and all other writs
which may be necessary for the exercise of its
jurisdiction and agreeable to the principles and
usages of law. So that it may be said that the
Supreme Court has complete supervision and
control over all the inferior courts of the United
States.
The full significance of the Supreme Court as
a factor in the new government was not at first
appreciated by all; yet there were some who
realized its great importance, like Washington,
who, with prophetic visions of what the future
was to disclose, wrote, in a letter inclosing the
commission of James Wilson, one of the first
associate justices: “Considering the judicial sys-
tem as the chief pillar upon which our national
government must rest, I have thought it my
duty to nominate for the high ofiices in that
department such men as I conceived would give
dignity and lustre to our national character.”
Early there arose two parties in this country—
one believing that the new government was but
a continuance of the old confederacy, in effect a
league of States, the States remaining the domi-
nant powers, and the national Government serving
only as a limited agency for the transaction of a
few matters of general importance; the other that
a new nation was created, supreme in control,
possessing all the power of a nation, the States
being simply parts of the one new nation. By
the one party, the provisions of the Consti-
tution were strictly construed; no power was
vested in the national Government, except that ,
which was expressly named. The other believed
that the Constitution was to be so construed as
to give vigor and efliciency to the new nation.
Upon the solution of this question turned the
future of the Republic. It was finally answered
SUPREME COURT.
SUPREME COURT.
350
and settled by the Supreme Court, which has
always spoken for the nationality of the United
States. A brief reference to some of the leading
cases may indicate its action, and the effect
thereof on our history. In Chisholm, executor,
12. Georgia, 2 Dall. 419, decided February 18,
1793, the court (considering those provisions of
the Constitution which extend the judicial power
of the United States to controversies “between a
State and citizens of another State,” and give to
the Supreme Court original jurisdiction of con-
troversies to which a State is a party) held that
an action might be maintained against a State
by a citizen of another State. The national idea
was not yet strong, and the proposition that a
sovereign State could at the instance of an indi-
vidual and without its consent be brought to the
bar of a court and compelled to defend an action
against it startled many. As a consequence the
Eleventh Amendment was adopted, which in ef-
fect forbids an action in the Federal courts
against a State by an individual.
John Marshall became Chief Justice in Janu-.
ary, 1801, and remained in ofiice for thirty-
four years. He is often aptly called ‘the great
Chief Justice.’ During his long term many ques-
tions of vital interest were considered and de-
termined by the court. It was a great constructive
period, and by those decisions which declared
the relative powers of the nation and the
State was disclosed the full significance of the
Constitution as an instrument expressing the cre-
ating of a new nation and not a mere article of
confederation between separate States. Not
merely were these relative powers declared, but
the peculiar work and value of the Supreme Court
as the tribunal to determine the extent of such
relative powers and to pass in judgment upon
acts of State and nation were also made appa-
rent. In Marbury /0. Madison, 1. Cranch, 137,
decided February 24, 1803, it was held that an
act of Congress repugnant to the Constitution
was void. True, this was not the first case in
which such a judicial opinion had been an-
nounced, but Chief Justice Marshall presented
the argument so fully and forcibly that since
then the question has been at rest, and it is now
undoubted that a legislative act repugnant to
the Constitution is a nullity. Again, in M’Cul-
loch /0. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, the question was
presented of the power of Congress to charter a
national bank. The Constitution gives in terms
no such power, or indeed any power to create
corporations, and the advocates of a strict con-
struction contended that in the absence of an
express grant of such power Congress could not
create a corporation for any purpose. The court,
upon the authority of that clause which, follow-
ing the clauses making express grants to Con-
gress, empowers that body to “make all laws
which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
into execution the foregoing powers,” held that,
as a bank was a proper and convenient agency
for carrying on the fiscal affairs of a govern-
ment, there was power in Congress to create a
banking corporation; that the word ‘necessary’
was not to be construed in a strict and narrow
sense, but—viewing the Constitution as an organic
instrument by which a government was estab-
lished and which from the very necessities of
the case used general terms in giving to that
government the power essential for its being—to
be taken broadly and liberally, and said in a
phrase which has become axiomatic in constitu-
tional law: “Let the end be legitimate, let it be
within the scope of the Constitution, and all
means which are appropriate, which are plainly
adapted to that end, which are not prohibited,
but consistent with the letter and spirit of the
Constitution, are constitutional.”
This decision laid the foundation of what is
known as the doctrine of implied powers, the
significance of which may be better appreciated
when we recall the fact that under a grant of
power stated in these few words “to establish
post-oflices and post roads” the great postal sys-
tem of the United States has been built up. At
the same term was decided the case of the Trus-
tees of Dartmouth College 11. Woodward, 4 Wheat.
518, in which it was held that the charter of a pri-
vate corporation granted by a State created a con-
tract whose obligations the State could not impair,
because of that provision of the Federal Consti-
tution which forbids a State to pass any law
“impairing the obligation of contracts.” (See
DARTMOUTH COLLEGE CASE.) It is true the full
effect of that decision has been avoided by con-
stitutional enactments in the several States, re-
serving the power of repeal, alteration, and
amendment of all corporate grants. Yet, not-
withstanding these limitations, that decision
stands as the great bulwark of the sanctity of
contract rights created by the States.
Martin 17. Hunter, 1. Wheat. 304, and Cohens v.
Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, the latter decided at the
February term, 1821, settled the power of the
Supreme Court to review, and if necessary set
aside, the proceedings of a State court in a case
in which a Federal right was asserted by the
defeated party. Thus it is that all rights which
are claimed under the Constitution of the United
States may finally be adjudicated by the Su-
preme Court of the United States, and a unity
is thereby established which pervades the nation
in respect to such rights. Again, in Gibbons '0.
Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, decided in 1824, the supreme
power of the Federal Government over the naviga-
ble waters of the United States was affirmed. In
that case Robert Fulton, the inventor of the
steamboat, and his associate, Robert R. Living-
ston, obtained from the State of New York the
grant of an exclusive right to navigate with
steamboats the waters within the jurisdiction of
that State. Gibbons claimed a right under na-
tional authority to navigate with his steamboats
the same waters, and hence the litigation. The
Constitution having granted to Congress the
power to “regulate commerce with foreign na-
tions and among the several States,” it was held
that that power could not be infringed upon by
any action of a State and that a State could not
interfere with such commerce even when carried
upon waters wholly within its own territory.
Upon that decision rests that freedom of com-
merce between the States which, perhaps more
than any other thing, has wrought into the
minds of the people the great thought of a single
controlling nationality. In this connection the
case of ‘The Genesee Chief,’ 12 How. 443, decided
in 1851, may be noticed. In that case it was
held that the English rule that the jurisdiction
of admiralty ended with tide waters was in-
applicable, and that in this country such juris-
diction, which by the Constitution is vested in
the United States courts, extends to all the
navigable waters of the Republic. Thus
SUPREME COURT.
SUPREME COURT.
351
the control of the Great Lakes and all the navi-
gable rivers of the United States, whether within
or without the limits of a State, is vested in the
national Government. In Osborn o. United States
Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, it was held that a State
had no power to tax one of the branches of the
United States Bank; that the bank was one of
the agencies and instrumentalities of the national
Government, and as such was removed from the
sphere of State taxation. From that decision
has sprung the settled rule exempting all the
agencies and instrumentalities of the national
Government from State taxation except so far
as permitted by Congress. This is seen in respect
to United States bonds, national banks, etc. Con-
versely, though at a later date, in The Collector
12. Day, 11 Wall. 113, decided December, 1870,
it was held that Congress could not impose an
income tax on the salaries paid to State officials.
By these two decisions neither State nor nation
can impair the efficiency of the necessary gov-
ernmental action of the other.
Chief Justice Marshall was succeeded by Chief
Justice Taney. As he and a majority of his
associates had belonged to the ‘strict construc-
tion school,’ many prophesied a complete re-
versal of prior rulings, but the court still af-
firmed the nationality of the United States.
Thus in Pennsylvania 1). Wheeling and Belmont
Bridge Company, decided in 1849, 9 How. 647,
and 1851, 13 How. 518, the jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court was afi‘irmed over a case brought
by a State to restrain the obstruction of a navi-
gable river within the limits of other States.
In Ableman 1). Booth, decided in 1858, 21 How.
506, a prisoner in custody of the United States
authorities was held not to be subject to dis-
charge by State process. And in the famous
‘Dred Scott Case,’ decided in 1856, 19 How. 393,
the nationality of the United States was as-
serted, though in a way not satisfactory to the
friends of human freedom, in that it decided that
the recognition by the Constitution of slave prop-
erty carried with it the protection of that prop-
erty in all the territories of the nation.
VVhen the Civil War ended and Chief Justice
Taney had been succeeded by Chief Justice Chase
a new series of cases arose. Naturally bitter
feelings were excited by the war, and stringent
laws were passed by Congress and by some of
the States against those who had participated
in the rebellion. Test oaths were prescribed
which prevented ministers and lawyers who had
taken part with the South from pursuing their
respective professions, but in Cummings o. Mis-
souri, and em parte Garland, decided in 1866, 4
Wall. 277 and 333, such test oaths were adjudged
invalid as ex post facto acts. At the same time
in ear parte Milligan, 4 VVall. 2, it was held that
a military tribunal, sitting in Indiana, a State
in which there had been no rebellion, had no
jurisdiction to punish a citizen, in no way con-
nected with the army, for an offense against the
Government. In Texas 1). White, 7 VVall. 700,
decided in 1868, it was held that States in re-
bellion did not lose their existence or identity,
and in the opinion Chief Justice Chase made
the memorable declaration that this was “an in-
destructible union composed of indestructible
States.” Soon after the war the Fourteenth
Amendment to the Federal Constitution was
adopted, which prohibited the States from de-
priving any person of life, liberty, or property
without due process of law, and from denying
to any one the equal protection of the law. It
was claimed by many that this operated to pre-
vent the grant by a State of any special privi-
leges, but in the Slaughter House Cases, 16 Wall.
36 (1872), a charter given by the State of
Louisiana, which secured to the corporation a
monopoly of the butchering business within cer-
tain li1nits of New Orleans, was held to be valid,
and thus the right of each State to determine
for itself, in the grant of privileges, that which
was best for its citizens, was sustained. In
1890 came Leisy 19. Hardin, 135 U. S., 100, in
which it was held that the grant by the Federal
Constitution to Congress of the power to regu-
late commerce between the States invalidated the
legislation of one State which sought to prevent
a citizen of another from selling and shipping
liquors into it. In 1895, in the Income Tax
Cases, 82 U. S., 429, it was held that the con-
stitutional provision requiring direct taxes to be
apportioned among the States according to their
population rendered invalid a tax which was not
so apportioned on incomes derived from real
estate and as the direct product of personal prop-
erty. And only recently were decided the Insular
Cases, 128 U. S., 1, cases arisin out of the
conquest of Porto Rico and the P ilippines, in
which was considered the power of Congress to
govern territories acquired by war or treaty, and
in which was affirmed to the largest extent the
national power of the Republic. This list might
be greatly increased, but enough have been cited
to show the general character of the cases con-
sidered and determined by that court in uphold-
ing the idea of nationality. It has always
strongly upheld the powers given by the Consti-
tution to the nation, and at the same time pro-
tected the States in the powers reserved by that
instrument to them.
At first the amount of business in the Su-
preme Court was small; now it is large. In 1801,
the first year of Chief Justice Marshall’s term,
only ten cases were filed; from 1875 to 1.880 there
were 1953, or an average of more than 391 a
year. While the act of 1891 diminished the num-
ber of cases that could come to the court, yet
during the year 1900 401 cases were filed, and
during the year 1901 383.
As heretofore stated, the court at first con-
sisted of six members; it never has had at any
time over ten, and now has but nine. The fol-
lowing is a list of the Chief Justices and also of
the associate justices, as well as the States from
which they were appointed: Chief Justices——Jolm
Jay, New York; John Rutledge, South Carolina;
Oliver Ellsworth, Connecticut; John Marshall,
Virginia; Roger B. Taney, Maryland; Salmon P.
Chase, Ohio; Morris R. Waite, Ohio; Melville
W. Fuller, Illinois. Associate Justices—William
Cushing, Massachusetts; James Wilson, Penn-
sylvania; John Blair, Virginia; James Iredell,
North Carolina; Thomas Johnson, Maryland;
William Patterson, New Jersey; Samuel Chase,
Maryland; Bushrod Washington, Virginia; Al-
fred Moore, North Carolina; William John-
son, South Carolina; Brockholst Livingston,
New York; Thomas Todd, Kentucky; Joseph
Story, Massachusetts; Gabriel Duval, Mary-
land; Smith Thompson, New York; Robert
Trimble, Kentucky; John McLean, Ohio; Henry
Baldwin, Pennsylvania; James M. Wayne, Geor-
gia; Philip P. Barbour, Virginia; John Oatron,
SUPREME COURT.
SURETYSHIP.
352
Tennessee; John McKinley, Alabama; Peter V.
Daniel, Virginia; Samuel Nelson, New York;
Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire; Robert C.
Grier, Pennsylvania; Benjamin R. Curtis, Massa-
chusetts; John A. Campbell, Alabama; Nathan
Clifford, Maine; Noah H. Swayne, Ohio; Samuel
F. Miller, Iowa; David Davis, Illinois; Stephen
J. Field, California; William Strong, Pennsyl-
vania; Joseph P. Bradley, New Jersey; Ward
Hunt, New York; John M. Harlan, Kentucky;
William B. Woods, Georgia; Stanley Matthews,
Ohio; Horace Gray, Massachusetts; Samuel
Blatchford, New York; Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Mis-
sissippi; David J. Brewer, Kansas; Henry B.
Brown, Michigan; George Shiras, Jr., Pennsyl-
vania; Howell E. Jackson, Tennessee; Edward
D. White, Louisiana; Rufus W. Peckham, New
York; Joseph McKenna, California; Oliver W.
Holmes, Massachusetts; William R. Day, Ohio.
They hold office for life, and yet up to 1903 the
average term of office of the Chief Justices had
been 13 5-12 years, and of the associates 15 9-12
years. '
That the work of the court has not only de-
veloped a national idea, but also has done much
to give stability to republican institutions, is now
conceded by all. See CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES; COURT; FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. Consult
Curtis, Jurisdiction of the United States Courts.
SURABAYA, some-ba'ya. The most popu-
lous residency in Java. Area, 2091 square miles.
The soil is fertile and produces an abundance of
rice, cofiee, sugar-cane, indigo, and tobacco. Cap-
ital, Surabaya. Population, in 1897, 2,217,120.
SURABAYA, or SOERABAYA. The larg-
est city in Java, and the capital of the Residency
of Surabaya, situated in the eastern part of the
north coast, at the mouth of the Kediri River, two
days by rail from Batavia; latitude 7°12’ S.,
longitude 112°34' E. (Map: East India Islands,
D 6). It has regular steam communication with
the other cities in the island and archipelago. It
has a good harbor and strong fortifications and
is the military and naval headquarters of the
Dutch East Indies. The houses are generally
separated by gardens. Simpang, the suburb,
contains the home of the resident and a large
hospital. The shipbuilding industry is im-
portant. The trade in rice, coffee, cotton, sugar,
tobacco, and cocoanuts is very extensive. Popula-
tion, in 1897, 142,980, of Whom 6988 were Euro-
peans, 121,075 natives, and 12,133 Chinese.
SURAKARTA, s'o'5'ra-kar’ta. A residency in
the central part of Java, between Samarang and
Surabaya. Area, 2404 square miles. The
residency is one of the so-called independent
States, and is governed by a native, ‘emperor,’
who is subsidized by the Dutch and wholly under
their control. Capital, Surakarta. Population,
in 1897, 1,226,368.
SURAKARTA, or SOERAKARTA. The
capital of the residency of Surakarta, Java, on
the left bank of the S010 River and on the rail-
way between Samarang and Surabaya (Map:
East India Islands, D 6) . It is the residence of
the native prince, whose palace is directly oppo-
site the great fort called Vastenburg in the mid-
dle of the city. Population, in 1897, 86,074.
SURAT, s66-rat’. The capital of a district
of the same name, Bombay, British India, 150
miles by rail north of Bombay and about 15
'palace of the former Nawab of Surat.
miles from its port, Swalli, at the mouth of
the Tapti, in the Gulf of Cambay (Map: India,
B 4). The town is surrounded on the landward
side by a brick wall. It has numerous mosques
and several Hindu and Parsi temples and the
The
Tapti, owing to a sand-bar, affords entry only to
small vessels, and the commerce of Surat, which
from the sixteenth century to the, eighteenth
century was very extensive, has been stead-
ily diverted to Bombay. Surat is a place
of military importance, with a castle dating
from 1540, centrally situated on the river
front, and a cantonment, the residence of a Brit-
ish military commandant and other dignitaries.
Surat rose into importance as the spot whence
the Mohammedans of Hindustan embarked on
their pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1612 the English
East India Company established a factory here,
which for some time was their principal trading
station in India. In 1759 the castle was made
over to the English and in 1800 they assumed the
administration of the town. Population, in
1901, 118,364.
SUB/BIT01\T. A town in Surrey, England,
on the Thames, one mile south of Kingston, with
which its industries are identified. Surbiton
common witnessed the last stand of the Royalists
in the Civil War. Population, in 1891, 12,178;
in 1901, 15,019.
SURDS. See IRRATIONAL NUMBERS.
SURESN ES, s1_1’ran’. A town of the Depart-
ment of Seine, France, at the foot of Mont
Valérien, on the left bank of the Seine, seven
and a half miles west of Paris (Map: France,
B 6) . In 1593 a conference was held here which
resulted in the adoption of Catholicism by Henry
IV. Population, in 1901, 11,225.
SURETTE, so_o-ret’, THOMAS WHITNEY (1862
—). An American organist and composer. He
was born .in Concord, Mass., and studied music
under Arthur Foote and J. K. Paine. In 1883
he became organist in his native town, and in
1894-96 was organist and choirmaster of Christ
Church, Baltimore. In 1896 he became interested
in the University Extension movement, and de-
voted most of his time to lecturing under its
auspices on musical subjects. He also lectured
on music at the University of the State of New
York, Albany; at Oxford University, England;
and at Mill Hill Abbey, London. As a com-
poser he became ‘known by his operetta Priscilla
(1899), which has been frequently performed.
In the same year he produced in Pittsburg a
romantic opera named Casoabel, and also set
Keats’s Eve of Saint Agnes as a dramatic ballad.
SURETYSHIP (from surety, from OF.
surete, seurte, Fr. sureté, from Lat. securitas,
freedom from care, from securus, free from care,
from se-, apart + cura, care, anxiety). The en-
gagement by which one person becomes legally
bound to another for the liability of a third.
It therefore involves three parties: the creditor,
the principal debtor, and the surety. The dis-
tinction between this term and another which
is often used interchangeably with it has been
pointed out under GUARANTY (q.v.), and need
not be repeated here.
It is generally held that surety agreements are
subject to the ordinary rule of interpretation
that a written contract is to be construed strong-
SURETYSHIP.
SURFACE.
353
ly against the party executing it. This will
always be enforced when it appears that the lan-
guage was chosen by the signer, whether he
enters into the contract for his own benefit or for
the benefit of a third person. Another important
rule is that such contracts shall be interpreted
so as to give effect to all of their provisions if
possible.
After the contract is made it is the duty of the
creditor not to enter into any binding engage-
ment with the principal, modifying that contract,
without the assent of the surety. The law
favors the surety and protects him with much
jealousy. Accordingly, if the creditor varies
the terms of the original contract or changes
securities put into his hands by the principal
debtor, or discharges a co-surety, or gives time
to the principal debtor, or negligently causes a
loss to the surety, the latter will be discharged
unless he has assented to this conduct of the
creditor. If, however, the principal debtor or
a co-surety is discharged from liability by opera-
tion of law, as by a discharge in bankruptcy, the
surety still remains bound.
The rights of the surety may be considered
under three heads. First: Against the principal
debtor. As soon as the debt becomes due, the
surety is entitled to call on him for exoneration.
This relief is obtainable in a court having equit-
able powers, it being unreasonable that the
surety should have such a cloud hanging over
him. If the surety has been compelled by the cred-
itor to pay the debt he is entitled to call on the
principal for reimbursement; for the money paid
by him was paid for the principal’s use. Second:
Against the creditor. As soon as the debt be-
comes due the surety may compel the creditor
to sue the principal and collect the debt from
him. In some of our States the surety is dis-
charged from liability if the creditor does not
sue the principal upon the surety’s request. One
who is surety for the honesty or good conduct of
an employee is entitled to have the employee dis-
charged from service for serious defaults or
breaches of duty, or to be freed from his surety-
ship. Another and very important right of the
surety is to have the benefit of all securities
which the creditor holds against the principal.
This is known as the right of subrogation (q.v.) .
Third: Against co-sureties. It often happens
that one surety is compelled by the creditor to
pay the whole debt, and that the debtor is
worthless. In such a case the unlucky surety is
entitled to call upon his co-sureties for contribu-
tion (q.v.). (See SUBROGATION.) Consult au-
thorities cited under GUARANTY.
SURFACE (OF., Fr. surface, from Lat.
superficies, upper side, surface, from super,
above + facies, form, figure, face). The boundary
between two portions of space. As a point in
a plane is determined in general by two inter- ,
secting lines, so a point in space is in general
determined by three intersecting surfaces. These
surfaces may be plane, quadric, or of higher
order according as their equations are of the
first, second, or higher degree in the linear
coiirdinates of the system. Thus in Cartesian
coiirdinates (see COORDINATES) the general equa-
tion of the first degree in ac, y, e, or am + by +‘
cs + d : 0, is represented by a plane. The gen-
eral equation of the second degree in as, y, e, or
an2 + by2 + cs2 + 2fyz -I— 2gza + 2ha'y + 2km
+ 2my + 2nz + d : 0, is represented by a coni-
, on which they do not.
coid, or surface of the second order, also called a
quadric surface. By a suitable transformation
of coiirdinates the general equation of the second
degree may be transformed into one or the other
of the forms (1) Ar:2 + By2 + C22 = D or (2)
A002 + By2 :2 Ce. Surfaces having the symmetric
equation (1) are symmetric with respect to the
origin as a centre and are called central quad-
rics. Non-central quadrics are included in equa-
tion (2). If A : B : C, equation (1) takes
the form a2 + y2 + e’ :: K (: r2) , the equation
of the sphere (q.v.). The general equation (1)
represents either an ellipsoid (q.v.) or an hyper-
boloid. If D = 0, and A, B, C are not all posi-
tive, equation (1) represents a conical surface
whose vertex is at the origin. Equation (2) is
represented by the surface of a paraboloid (q.v.) .
A surface through every point of which a
straight line may be drawn so as to lie entirely
in the surface is called a ruled surface. Any
one of these lines which lies on the surface is
called a generating line of the surface. The
cylinder, cone, hyperboloid of one sheet, conoid
(q.v.) , and the hyperbolic paraboloid (see PARA-
BCLCID) are ruled surfaces. There are two dis-
tinct classes of ruled surfaces, those on which
the consecutive generators intersect and those
The former are called
developable and the latter skew surfaces.
If the degree of the equation f(.v, y, e) : 0 is
higher than the second, the surface representing
it will be of an order higher than the second.
In discussing the properties of such surfaces,
especially the nature of the surface in the vicin-
ity of any given point, the equation of the tan-
gent plane at that point is necessary. This plane
is the locus of all tangent lines through the given
point, and will meet the surface of the nth order
in a -curve of the nth degree, since each straight
line meets this curve in n points. The point of
contact of the plane with the surface will be a
singular point on the curve. (See CURVE.) The
section of any surface by a plane parallel and
indefinitely near to the tangent plane at any point
is a conic and is called the indicatrix at the
point. Thus points of a surface are called ellip-
tic, parabolic, or hyperbolic, according as the
indicatrix is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola.
If every straight line througha point (a', y’, z’)
of a surface meets the surface in two coincident
points, the point (m’, y’, z’) is called a singular
point. If the tangent lines at any point form
a cone the point is called a conical point; if they
form two planes the point is called a nodal point‘.
Similar to the envelope of a family of curves,
the envelope of a family of surfaces is the locus
of the ultimate intersections of a series of sur-
faces produced by varying one or more param-
eters (q.v.) of an equation. The curve in which
any surface is met by the consecutive surface is
called the characteristic of the envelope. Every
characteristic will meet the next in one or more
points, and the locus of these is called the edge
of regression or cuspidal edge of the envelope.
The conditions for convexity and concavity, dif-
ferent orders of contact, and various other prop-
erties are best obtained from works on analytic
geometry.
Consult: Monge, Application de l’analyse a lb
géométrie (Paris, 1795) ; Dupin, Développements
de géométrie (ib., 1813); Pliicker, Neue Geome-
trie des Raumes gegriindet auf die Betrachtung
der geraden Linie als Raumelement (Leipzig,
SURFACE.
SURGERY.
354
1868) ; Salmon, Analytic Geometry of Three Di-
mensions (4th ed., Dublin, 1882) ; Smith, An Ele-
mentary Treatise on Solid Geometry (3d ed., New
York, 1891) ; Gauss, “Allgemeine F1tichenthe-
orie,” in Ostwald’s K lassilcer der ercalcten Wissen-
schaften (Leipzig, 1900) ; Knoblauch, Einleitung
in die allgemeine Theorie der lcrummen Fldchen
(ib., 1888). For a brief sketch of the history of
the subject, consult Smith, “History of Modern
Mathematics,” in Merriman and Woodward’s
Higher Mathematics (New York, 1896).
SURFACE, Josnrrr. A sentimental, plausible
hypocrite in Sheridan’s School for Scandal,
Char1es’s elder brother, who pursued Maria for
her fortune.
SURFACE TENSION. ‘See CAPILLARITY.
SURF-BIRD. A remarkable plover‘-like bird
(Aphriza virgata) widely distributed on the
coasts and islands of the Pacific Ocean, and com-
mon along the entire west coast of North Amer-
ica. It is about nine and a half inches long, dark
ashy brown above, white beneath, everywhere
more or less spotted, streaked, or barred with
black. The feet are like those of a sandpiper,
but the bill is plover-like, short and thick. The
wings are very long, and acute, reaching beyond
the end of the tail when folded. It is clearly re-
lated to the turnstone (q.v.) .
SURF DUCK, or SURF SGOTER. See ScoTER.
SURF-FISH. A fish of the suborder Hal-
conoti and family Embiotocidae, related to the
percoids. Many species occur on the Pacific Coast


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A SURF-FISH, THE ALFIONA.
of the United States, where they inhabit bays and
the surf on sandy beaches. They are small, oval-
oblong, compressed, and often very handsome,
with stripes, spots, and effusions of various col-
ors. Their flesh is not very highly regarded.
The fact of greatest interest connected with
them is that they are viviparous. One of the
largest and most useful of the family is the
‘alfiona’ (Rhacochilus toacotes) .
SURF SMELT. A small, firm-fleshed, and
fat smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) of the coast
of California and northward, valued as food. It
spawns in the surf, and is netted in great quanti-
ties. See Plate of WHITEEIsII, SMELTS, ETC.
SURGEON, MILITARY AND NAVAL. Appoint-
ments to the medical corps of the United States
army or navy are made by the President of the
_ United States upon recommendation of candi-
dates by the surgeons-general of the army and
navy, and after satisfactorily passing the exam-
inations of the respective medical examining
boards. Candidates for the army medical service
must be between the ages of twenty-two and
twenty-nine years; for the navy, between the
ages of twenty-one and thirty. A candidate for
, either service must be a graduate of a regular‘
medical school. Appointees are admitted to the
service of the army and navy as assistant sur-
geons, with the rank of first lieutenant in the
army and lieutenant (junior grade) in the navy.
A surgeon in the army has the rank of major,
and is required to have been an assistant sur-
geon at least five years. A surgeon in the navy
has the rank of lieutenant and must have been
an assistant surgeon for two years. Prior to
regular assignment, United States army surgeons
go through a five 1nonths’ course at the Army
Medical Museum, Washington, D. C.
The Royal Army Medical Corps of Great
Britain difiers from the United States in that
it is a distinct branch of the service; the sur-
geons and enlisted men use the same distinguish-
ing titles of rank as the combatant arms, and
the officers prefix the word surgeon before the
rank. They are under their own headquarters
organization, and are rarely, even indirectly, sub-
ject to the authority of commanding officers of
other branches. Members of the corps are armed
and trained for military as well as medical
emergencies. The Sanitary Corps of Germany
and France are on similar lines to the United
States, differing principally in the details due
to general army organization. See SURGERY,
MILITARY; ARMY ORGANIZATION; HOSPITAL;
HOSPITAL Conrs.
SURGEON-FISH (so called from the lancet-
shaped spine), or SEA-SURGEON. One of a family
(Teuthididse) of tropical Oriental fishes, of which
about 80 species are recognized, and which feed
upon seaweeds. Those best known are of the
genus Teuthi-s, called ‘barberos,’ ‘lancet-fishes,’






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SURGEON-FISH.
a, position of the laneet and its sheath.
‘tangs,’ and so on, and characterized by the pos-
session of a long, sharp, lancet-like spine on
each side of the caudal peduncle. The spine is
movable and shuts into a groove along the side
of the tail.
SURGERY (OF. cirurgerie, cirurgie, sirurgie,
Fr. chirurgie, surgery, from OF. cirurgien, serur-
gien, Fr. chirurgien, surgeon, from Lat. chirur-
gus, from Gk. X€lPOUP')/68, cheirourgos, surgeon,
handicraftsman, from Xelp, cheir, hand +
i="p'y01/, ergon, work). In contradistinction to
medicine surgery embraces a consideration of
those disease conditions that are treated chiefly
by mechanical methods rather than by the ad-
ministration of drugs. This classification is nat-
urally arbitrary; and now that the dangers of
surgical operations have so materially dimin-
ished, diseases formerly looked upon as hopeless
or as suitable for medical treatment only are
included among the surgical affections. It is
SURGERY.
SURGERY.
355
incorrect, however, to assume that surgery con-
sists entirely or even in great part in the elabo-
ration of methods of treatment; the pathological
processes so treated demand and receive their
proper degree of investigation and study.
Up to the time of Hunter (1728-93) surgery,
and indeed medicine, were based in their practice
almost entirely upon tradition and dogma. Hun-
ter, by his labors in the direction of anatomy
and physiology, lifted medicine from the ob-
scurity of philosophical doctrine to the firm
foundation of facts and imparted an impulse that
is still felt and is still in evidence in the meth-
ods of research employed today in the fields of
comparative pathology and experimental medi-
cine which promise most for the advancement
of the medical and allied sciences. With Hun-
ter’s death, however, ended the active prosecu-
tion of original investigation; and although the
high position of English surgery at that time
was preserved by the clinical and other work of
Hunter’s successors, notable among whom are
Charles Bell, Astley Cooper, Abernethy, and Jen-
ner, the laboratory methods employed by him
were largely abandoned and have only within
relatively few years been revived. From Hun-
ter’s period to the introduction of anaesthesia
there is no remarkable fact in the development
of surgery. During this time the eflorts of sur-
geons seem to have been directed chiefly to the
perfection of the bedside methods and the in-
fluence of the profession in America began to
make itself felt. Ephraim McDowell, a native of
Kentucky and trained under Bell in Scotland,
in 1809 first successfully opened the abdominal
cavity and removed an ovarian cyst, thus estab-
lishing forever one of the most beneficial of op-
erations. A little later Valentine Mott of New
York successfully applied ligatures to some of
the largest arteries, for the relief of aneurism,
and demonstrated the curability of this disease
in positions in which it had previously been in-
variably fatal. The introduction of general anaes-
thesia (q.v.) in 1846 by Warren in the Massa-
chusetts General Hospital marks the greatest
stride in the progress of surgery up to that time.
This property of ether was discovered inde-
pendently by Long of Georgia and Morton of
Boston, but it remained for Warren to popularize
it by making use of it publicly, repeatedly and
with success. A year later Simpson of Edinburgh
introduced chloroform. The propulsion to the
practice of surgery given by the employment of
general anaesthesia during operations can hardly
be exaggerated. Before that time operative
treatment of disease was limited in its application
to lesions correctible by coarse methods and in
briefest time. Human beings, surgeons and pa-
tients, could not endure the pain of protracted
operations, nor could sufficient freedom from
struggling be secured to make refined dissections
possible. Under the influence of anaesthesia quiet
was obtained and the necessity for great speed
was greatly diminished, so that new operations
were soon planned, new regions invaded, and de-
tailed procedures devised and new and better
results achieved. Even after the introduction of
anaesthesia, however, operations and all open
injuries continued to be looked upon with dread,
for they were almost invariably followed by one
or the other of the infectious wound diseases,
and deaths from septicaemia, pyaemia, tetanus,
hospital gangrene, etc., were so common that the
mortality after even trifling operations was not
small.
Pasteur then began the series of observations
and experiments that finally enabled him to in-
dicate the causes first of fermentation and then
of wound diseases, and to identify some of the
agents as members of the class of beings known
collectively as bacteria. Lister seized these facts
and applied them in surgery. His notion was
that the infectious wound diseases were due to
the deposit upon the raw surface exposed in open
injuries of the bacteria floating in the air, and
he therefore aimed at the sterilization of the air
in the neighborhood of wounds during the course
of operations, and at the exclusion of air from
wounds during healing. The first was attempted
by saturating the air in contact with wound
surfaces with the vapor of carbolic acid, and
from time to time flooding wounds with solutions
of the same substance or of corrosive sublimate;
the second object was accomplished by covering
wounds during repair with dressings impreg-
nated with the same antiseptics.
The effect was apparent at once in the results
of operations, in lowered mortality, and in recov-
eries with fewer complications. This plan of
treatment, properly called antiseptic, was found,
however, to possess serious dangers to both sur-
geon and patient in the risk of poisoning-by
the powerful germicides necessarily employed,
and the idea began to develop that it was more
logical to prevent the inoculation of wounds by
bacteria from any source than to attempt their
destruction after they had gained entrance.
Meanwhile the rapid growth of the science of
bacteriology had reached a development that led
to the identification of the bacteria causing the
common wound diseases and had made surgeons
familiar with their distribution, the modes of
growth within and outside of the body, and the
means of destroying them. The adoption of
methods of conducting operations and treating
wounds whose purpose was absolutely to pre-
vent the inoculation of denuded surfaces and
tissues by bacteria followed naturally, and now
has become universal; and the methods have be-
come so perfect that wound diseases due to bac-
teria are rare except after accidental injuries,
and some of the most serious of them have vir-
tually ceased to exist. Few men of the present
generation of surgeons have seen hospital gan-
grene, for example, a disease which has been the
cause of thousands of deaths.
The possibilities suggested by the relative free-
dom from danger with which operations were
carried out were quickly appreciated by the
medical profession, and the cure of disease by
operative measures was soon extended to regions
in which, previously, operations had been under-
taken with the greatest misgiving, or not at all.
In consequence, to-day the surgeon opens the
cranial and spinal cavities, the thorax, the abdo-
men, and the joints with perfect confidence that
no ill will result from the operation itself; and
the benefits that have thus been secured in the
relief of lesions of the viscera contained in these
cavities cannot be adequately estimated. While
the attention of the surgeons during the last two
or three decades has been in great part directed
toward the perfection of operative technique,
progress in other lines has also gone on, and
during this period the knowledge of the pathol-
ogy of many surgical affections has been great-
SURGE RY.
SURGERY.
356
ly widened, with corresponding refinements in
their treatment. '
Not the least important factor in the great
progress which has been made in surgery and
in medicine also is the method by which the sub-
ject is now taught, and the candidate for the
degree of doctor in medicine is now qualified to
undertake the management of the cases he may
be called upon to treat. Up to twenty years ago
the instruction to medical students consisted
'very largely of didactic lectures on the various
branches of medicine, supplemented by clinics at
which various diseases were demonstrated and
their treatment indicated or carried out by the
professors. The student but rarely came into
contact with the patient. With the better ap-
preciation of the value of laboratory methods of
instruction in the natural sciences which were
originally adopted by Hunter and revived and
insisted upon by Huxley, they began to be util-
ized in medical schools, and were gradually elab-
orated until at present in almost every de-
partment the student gains his information and
experience in that way. The result is that
didactic lectures have been greatly diminished in
numbers. During the first year of instruction
the medical student is introduced in this way to
normal human anatomy and physiology; in the
laboratories he studies the gross and minute
structure of the body and the functions of the
tissues of which it is composed. During the
second year he is taught by the same means the
general process of deviation from the normal
that constitutes disease. During the third year
he studies specific instances of deviations from
the normal and learns to identify them as par-
ticular diseases. At this time he is brought into
contact with patients suffering with the diseases
with which he has more or less familiarized him-
self in the laboratory and concerning whose
causation and pathology he is fully informed,
but whose symptoms and treatments he has yet
to learn. The laboratory method is still pur-
sued, but the dispensary and the hospital have
now become for the student his laboratory, and
it is in them during his fourth year that he
spends the major part of his time. Thus up to
the point of gaining experience in performing op-
erations the student is as well instructed as he
can well be. This field is well covered by the
performance of operations upon the cadaver
where practically all of the major and minor
operations can be as well practiced as upon the
living; and for special purposes operations can
be carried out upon the dog.
As time has progressed and the treatment of
diseases peculiar to particular regions has be-
come more refined, special divisions of surgery
have naturally arisen; and this specialization
has contributed in no small degree to the rapid-
ity of the development of surgery. There are
now the well-recognized departments of ophthal-
mology, treating of diseases of the eye; otology,
treating of diseases of the ear; rhinology and
laryngol.ogy, treating of diseases of the nose,
throat, and larynx; gynecology, treating of dis-
eases of the female; genito-urinary surgery,
treating of the diseases of the male; dermatol-
ogy, treating of diseases of the skin; orthopaedic
surgery, treating of deformities growing out of
diseases of the bones and joints. In the case
of all of these specialties the feature that makes
them departments of surgery is the fact that
the diseases peculiar to each are treated by me-
chanical means, either by the application of
fixed apparatus to be continually worn through
long periods or by bloody or non-bloody proced-
ures whose duration is brief.
OPERATIONS. The purpose in view in designing
operations is very variable and scarcely admits
of formulation with any accuracy. They may
be planned in case of injuries to close superficial
or deep-seated wounds, to stop bleeding, to facili-
tate the adjustment of broken bones or the re-
duction of dislocated joints, to remove foreign
bodies, or to make disinfection and drainage
easier. In inflammations operations may be re-
quired to evacuate pus, to establish drainage, or
to remove inflammatory tissue. In case of tu-
mors, operations are done for their removal. In
deformities, operations may be required to re-
store the normal contour of the region. In the
contemplation of a typical operation to be per-
formed under average circumstances several fac-
tors necessarily come up for consideration in
detail: (1) The operating room, instruments,
dressings. (2) Preparation of the patient. (3)
Preparation of the surgeons. (4) The operation.
(5) After-treatment.
(1) The Operating Room.—This should be of
good size, well lighted, and of a temperature
of between 70° and 80° F. All furniture, car-
pets, and hangings should be removed, the walls
and ceiling rubbed over with moist bread crumbs,
and the floor scrubbed. The operating table
should be made especially for the purpose. On
each side of the table and at its head there
should be one or two small tables, those on the
operator’s side for the instrument trays, those
on the assistant’s side for the sponges, towels,
dressings, etc., and that at the head for the
anaesthetics, stimulants, etc. On each side of
the table there should be a large basin in which
the hands of the operator and his assistant may
be rinsed from time to time. The instruments
vary with the character of the operation to
be performed. They should be made entirely
of metal to withstand the heating necessary for
sterilization and as smooth as possible to avoid
lodgment for bacteria. They are sterilized im-
mediately before use by boiling for fifteen min-
utes in a 1 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate,
and are then transferred to trays themselves
sterilized by thorough washing in 0.2 per cent.
solution of bichloride of mercury and lined by
sterile towels. The suture and ligature ma-
terials are also sterilized, silk by being exposed
to steam at about 250° F. for one hour, catgut
by boiling in absolute alcohol under pressure
for one hour. Dressings composed of absor-
bent material (usually cheese-cloth and cot-
ton) and the pledgets of gauze with which the
wound is kept free from blood during the prog-
ress of the operation are sterilized by being ex-
posed to steam at 250° for one hour. The
basins, trays, and other receptacles used during
operations are sterilized by prolonged submer-
sion in strong (0.2 per cent.) solutions of corro-
sive sublimate. The solutions used are 0.1
per cent. bichloride of mercury for the hands
and towels; for douching wounds 0.6 per cent.
solutions of sodium chloride are employed, ster-
ilized by being boiled in cotton-plugged flasks
for one hour on two occasions.
(2) Preparation of the Patient.—Twenty-four
hours before operation the skin at the site
SURGERY.
357
chosen for incision and for a wide area around
it is thoroughly scrubbed and shaven and then
covered by a soap poultice. Immediately before
the operation the skin is again scrubbed, wiped
off with spirits of turpentine, ether, and a 0.1
per cent. solution of corrosive sublimate in alco-
hol. If local aneeesthesia is sufficient it is se-
cured by the injection into the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissues of dilute solutions of cocaine.
If general anaesthesia is necessary, ether, chloro-
form, or nitrous oxide may be used, the choice
depending upon the duration of the operation
and upon the presence or absence of certain
physical changes in the heart, blood-vessels,
lungs, and kidneys. In any case the necessary
restoratives must be at hand.
(3) The Surgeons’ Preparations.—The sur-
geons’ preparations consist in sterilization of their
hands and forearms and in the assumption of
gowns designed to prevent dust from settling
from the clothing upon the wound, instruments,
etc. Such gowns are of coarse cotton or linen,
and extend from the neck to the feet; the sleeves
only reach the elbow. They are sterilized by
steam before using. The hands and forearms of‘
all persons likely to handle the wound, instru-
ments, dressings, etc., are thoroughly disinfected
and the hands covered by thin rubber gloves
previously sterilized by boiling.
(4) The Operation.—In addition to the proce-
dures necessary to fulfill the purpose of the
operation, the most painstaking care is exer-
cised to exclude all bacteria from wounds, in
aseptic operations; and to kill or remove the
bacteria present, and to avoid the introduction of
more bacteria, in antiseptic operations. There-
fore, besides the elaborate preparations just de-
scribed during the progress of an aseptic opera-
tion, much attention must be paid to cleanliness.
(a) No substance—finger, instrumpnt, sponge, or
dressing—is allowed to come into contact with
the wound unless previously sterilized. (b) In-
struments, sponges, and the surgeons’ and as-
sistants’ hands are rinsed in sterile solutions
from time to time. (c) If, for any reason, hands
or instruments become soiled, they must be re-
sterilized before again coming into contact with
the wound. (cl) No antiseptic fluids are to be
used in the wound. If any flushing at all is
necessary, sterile salt solution only is allowable.
For antiseptic operations, the same preparations
are made, but here it is often advisable to use
antiseptic rather than simple sterile solutions.
Otherwise the precautions are the same.
The first step in so-called bloody operations is
the division of the integument. This is done by
cutting implements, as knives and scissors, or,
sometimes, by the actual cautery, or the écraseur.
Subsequent steps are accomplished in a variety of
ways: To expose deep-seated tissues, retractors
are used. To facilitate dissection, various forms
of forceps are used. To-puncture cavities, hol-
low needles and trocars are used. To scrape out
tissue, sharp spoons are used. To divide bones,
saws, chisels, and strong cutting forceps are
used. The division of tissue involves more or less
bleeding. To prevent bleeding, in operations
upon the extremities digital or instrumental
compression of the afferent arteries is prac-
ticed, or the afferent artery may be ligated as a
preliminary step. During the progress of the
operation the ‘bleeding points’-ends of the ves-
sels——-are seized by clamps, and then ligated with
catgut. General oozing is controlled by packing
the wound ‘with dry gauze, or by flushing it
with very hot salt solution, or by touching the
surface with the actual cautery, or by elevating
the part. At the end of the operation it re-
mains to treat the wound so as to secure healing
in the shortest possible time, and with a mini-
mum scar, i.e. to secure union by first intention.
For this purpose every obstacle to such union is
removed. (a) Bleeding is absolutely stopped.
(b) Foreign bodies, including bacteria, are re-
moved. (c) The walls of the wound are brought
into close contact and no ‘dead spaces’ allowed
to remain. (d) Drainage is provided for, i.e.
vents established for the escape of wound secre-
tions. (e) The wound is protected from possible
bacterial invasion, and the wounded tissues sup-
. ported and immobilized by dressings.
(5) After-Treatment.—After the dressing has
been applied, the patient is moved to his bed and
allowed to recover from the anaesthetic. Mor-
phine is often given to diminish vomiting and to
mitigate anticipated pain. General symptoms,
as shock or acute anaemia, are treated if they
exist. No food or drink is given by the mouth
until the nausea and vomiting caused by the
anaesthetic have ceased. Then small but increas-
ing quantities of milk or beef-juice are given
until the desired diet is taken. If there is reten-
tion of urine, the bladder is emptied with the
catheter. The bowels are to be moved by the sec-
ond or third day after operation. Drains are
removed in two to five days. Sutures are re-
moved in five to seven days. If suppuration, due
of course to bacteria, develops, the particular
inflammation excited is to be treated as indicated
by its characteristics.
From what has just been outlined it is obvious
enough that all of the conditions looking toward
the successful issue of a serious operation can
be secured only in hospitals of first-class equip-
ment; and it is to be noted that this fact is be-
coming so generally known that hospitals of the
first class are being established and operated not
only in the larger cities of this country, but also
in the smaller ones and even in villages. Insti-
tutions of this kind are of benefit to the com-
munities in which they exist and by which they
are supported in many ways. They furnish at a
nominal cost, or very often without charge, care
for the sick poor that could be supplied in no
other way; and the well-to-do may find in them
facilities for the treatment of disease and par-
ticularly for the conduct of operations that can-
not be secured even in their own homes. For the
community at large they are also of the greatest
value, since they afford for the medical men
who serve in the hospitals a field which amplifies
their experience indefinitely. Again, in the larger
cities where medicine is taught as before out-
lined the hospitals may be regarded as parts
of the laboratory system. The wards are the
places in which the student finally gains his
practical experience in the recognition of particu-
lar disease forms and the treatment of them.
SURGERY, MILITARY. The best civil have
proved the best military surgeons, as is shown
by the great names in surgical history, Ambroise
Paré, Larrey, Pirogoff, Von Bergman, Von Es-
march, Billroth, and Lister. Not until the discov-
ery of asepsis and antisepsis was the true foun-
dation laid for the modern treatment of gun-
shot wounds. This discovery so radically changed
SURGE RY.
SURGERY.
358
all former methods of treatment as to lead to the
now thoroughly established maxim formulated
by Senn in the recent war between the United
States and Spain, “The fate of the wounded rests
in the hands of the one who applies the first
dressing.” The lesson has only recently been
learned that bullet wounds must never be touched
on the field—much less explored by probing
or otherwise—before the first aid (antiseptic)
dressing is applied. Operative interference is
justifiable on the battlefield only in cases of ex-
treme urgency, where extensive hemorrhage ‘ex-
ists, or where the wound is in the region of the
throat and suffocation is imminent. As a rule
gunshot wounds are bloodless. Primary hemor-
rhage, unless resulting from the very rare acci-
dent of cutting some large vessel, is usually ab-
sent altogether, or can readily be controlled by a
compress or first aid bandage. Especially in
wounds of the abdomen the law of non-interfer-
ence applies with double force. In the Spanish-
American War 50 per cent. of all the cases of
abdominal wounds unoperated upon recovered,
while all operated upon died. In the Russo-Tur-
kish NVar, that great apostle of conservatism in
military surgery, Von Bergman, by the use of
occlusive dressings, immobilization of the limb,
and antiseptic precautions, saved thirteen out of
fourteen cases of severe gunshot wounds of the
knee-joint complicated with extensive comminu-
tion of the bone, while of similar cases treated
by the old method of exploration without anti-
septic precaution 95 per cent. died.
Observations during the recent Spanish-Ameri-
can War and the Boer War have led to the
following deductions: (1) Small-calibre bullet
wounds are usually aseptic and heal promptly.
(2) Jagged and extensive wounds, poisoned by
such missiles, are due to the detachment of the
jacket, the introduction into the bullet of for-
eign particles (such as cloth, buttons, etc.), lat-
eral impingement of the bullet, or ricochet. (3)
Owing to the small diameter of the bullet and its
great velocity, the orifices at entrance and exit
are minute, and it is almost impossible to- dis-
tinguish one from the other. (4) The cardinal
principle has been established that manipulation
of such wounds and probing on the field (except
in the rarest instances) is surgical malpractice.
To Esmarch is really due the latest conception
of the axiom ‘laissee aller,’ and his first aid pack-
age is a memorial to his practical grasp of the
principles of wound infection. The first aid
package has been modified by Senn, of Chicago,
who emphasizes his conclusions as follows: (1)
First aid packages are indispensable on the bat-
tlefield in modern warfare. (2) The first aid
dressing must be sufiiciently compact and light
to be carried in the skirt of the uniform, or on
the inner surface of the cartridge or sword belt,
to be of no inconvenience to the soldier or in con-
flict with military regulations. (3) The Esmarch
triangular bandage is of great value in the school
of instruction, but as a component part of the
first aid package it is inferior to the gauze band-
age. ( 4) The first aid package must contain
in a waxed aseptic envelope an antiseptic powder,
such as boro-salicylic powder; two strips of
aseptic lintine, each 2% X 4 inches; a triangu-
lar piece of gauze, the diagonal half of a square
yard; sterilized pins wrapped in tin foil, and be-
tween this package and the outside impermeable
cover, two strips of adhesive plaster an inch wide
and eight inches long. (5) The first aid dressing
must be applied as soon as possible after the re-
ceipt of the injury, a part of the field service
which can be safely intrusted to competent hospi-
tal corps men. (6) The first aid dressing, if em-
ployed on the firing line, should be applied with-
out removal of the clothing over the injured part,
and fastened to the surface of the skin with strips
of rubber adhesive plaster, the bandage being ap-
plied over and not under the clothing.‘ (7) The
first aid dressing must be dry and should remain
so by dispensing with an impermeable cover of
any kind over it, so as not to interfere with free
evaporation of the wound secretion. (8) The
first aid dressing should not be disturbed un-
necessarily, but any defects should be corrected
at the first dressing station.
Suppurating wounds from small-calibre bullets,
having high velocity, heal with comparative
promptness. Wounds from such bullets are
necessarily more humane and less painful than
those from the older missiles; but the relative
percentage of deaths to wounded is but slightly
reduced. Unless unusual complications call for
immediate surgical interference, the injured
should be removed as rapidly as possible to a
well-equipped base or general hospital for treat-
ment. Penetrating abdominal and thoracic
wounds give a vastly larger pencentage of recov-
eries where non-interference has been observed.
Laparotomy, except under the most favorable
conditions, such as hold in well-equipped hospi-
tals, is attended with great peril. The Rtintgen
ray has been of utility in indicating where surgi-
cal interference is justified and in many cases
has averted infection which would result from
probing or similar surgical procedures. It has
also thrown light on the pathology of wounds in-
volving the solid structures, and shown that the
severest lesions of bones will progress toward
recovery, proyided the wound . is sterile. It
proved an invaluable aid in the Spanish-Ameri-
can War, in the Boer War, and in the Philip-
pines, where it was used in general hospitals at
the base of operations and on hospital ships; but
it is not a practical apparatus near the firing
line, where its use in the detection of bullets
could only prove an incentive to premature opera-
tions. The modern jacketed bullet is practically
aseptic; there is never urgency for its removal
except where aseptic technique is possible, other-
wise infection of the wound is an inevitable con-
sequence. The Riintgen ray was also of especial
scientific value in gunshot fractures by showing
the character of the bone lesions, the form of the
fracture, and the amount of bone comminution by
small-calibre bullets, fragments of shells or other
missiles, conditions that could not have been
otherwise determined in the living body, thus
also proving an important factor in developing
the principle of conservatism in surgery of war.
It is to Pasteur and Lister that military sur-'
gery owes its greatest debt. They have simplified
its labors and taught the great lesson of non-
interference. The soldier who falls on the battle-
field from the effect of a ball passing through any
but a vital part of his anatomy and who has a
‘first-aid’ dressing promptly applied and is then
transported to a general hospital where the
Rbntgen ray and the principles of asepsis and
antisepsis can be utilized, has a far greater
chance of recovery than when his wounds are
treated on the field. By following these conserva-
SURGERY.
SURGERY.
359
tive methods in the Spanish-American War the
percentage of recoveries was 95.1 per cent., while
4.9 per cent. died, a ratio never before attained
in the history of warfare.
The medical corps of different armies vary lit-
tle in their personnel. There is one surgeon-gen-
eral; a chief surgeon to each separate army
corps, division, brigade, and general hospital; a
surgeon and two assistants to each regiment; and
a single surgeon with each battery or separate
detachment. These are all commissioned oflicers.
The hospital corps comprises the hospital stew-
ards and their assistants, privates often selected
to serve as pharmacists, orderlies, nurses, cooks,
litter-bearers, and ambulance-drivers, and should
equal four per cent. of the fighting force of the
army. In addition to a canteen, the United States
Hospital Corps men carry a corps pouch and an
orderly pouch. The corps pouch contains aromatic
spirits of ammonia, first dressing packets, wire
gauze for splints, gauze bandages, rubber band-
ages, surgical plaster, scissors, pins, forceps, and
knife. The orderly pouch contains chloroform,
antiseptic tablets, pocket case, ligatures, hypo-
dermic syringe, etc. Medical and surgical chests
used on the march or at the front should contain,
as stated by Surgeon-General Forward, United-
States Army, “surgical material mainly, and
very little medicine, which may be for the most
part in tablet form. The principal articles are
splints and modern w'ound dressings, including
plaster rollers, and rubber plaster for rapid
fixation of splints; a light complete operating
set, tin trays, basins, and cups in nests; chloro-
form and inhaler; rubber tubing, needle, and
canula; and pure sodic chlorid for transfusion;
mercuric bichlorid, tricresol, iodoform, soda, and
green soap; rubber bandage and rubber gloves;
hypodermic syringe and full sets of tablets;
purgative pills, quinine, and a few other medi-
cines; concentrated food and stimulants; small
case of ‘tools in the handle,’ and a lantern. The
dressings consist mostly of bichlorid and iodo-
form gauze, absorbent cotton, and gauze band-
ages. They should be in small parcels, compressed,
and wrapped in strong waterproof paper, to save
waste and contamination, and for convenience
in transportation, handling, and distribution.”
The same general directions, relative to (1) the
operating room, covering, instruments, and dress-
ings; (2) preparation of the patient; (3) prepa-
ration of the surgeons; (4) the operation; and
(5) after-treatment, that apply in general-sur-
gery (as stated in the article SURGERY) apply
also to military surgery at the base hospitals,
and successful results will follow in exact pro-
portion as these details are carried out. It is
not therefore to any special training in surgical
technique that the military surgeon will owe his
triumphs. History has shown that more cam-
paigns have been decided by disease than by the
sword. Statistics of wars for the past hundred
years, while varying in some particulars, have
concurred to establish the fact that for every
soldier killed in battle there are five wounded
who recover. The introduction of modern wea-
pons with the compound metal-jacketed small-
calibre balls of high velocity and great range,
has shown no perceptible change in the propor-
tion of these figures, viz. one killed to five
wounded. It is also an established fact that for
every man killed in action or who dies from the
results of wounds, at least five die of disease
‘BY).
that is almost invariably of a preventable char-
acter. In the American Civil War (1861-64)
100,000 were killed, and over 400,000 died from
disease. These proportions were higher in the
war of the Crimea and also in the Mexican War;
and in the Spanish-American War, although ac-
tual hostilities only lasted for a period of six
weeks, the proportion of losses by disease was
even higher still.
When these appalling figures are properly rec-
ognized, and the advantages of extreme conserva-
tion on the field is appreciated, the true field of
the military surgeon will be found. He must
possess executive ability and a certain amount
of military training, so that in time of action he
can quickly organize his assistants and hospital
corps, seeing that the Wounded are .brought
promptly from the firing line to the first dressing
station. This should be located at the nearest
protected spot to the firing line. Here the
wounded man can receive such immediate atten-
tion by the surgeon or an assistant as is im-
peratively demanded; dressings if out of place
can be readjusted; in case of fractures or joint .
injuries the limb can be immobilized in splints, _
and the soldier can rest until transported by
ambulance or otherwise to the field hospital,
which should be located well in the rear. Here
the case can receive thorough attention, and later
be transported to a general or base hospital, a
hospital ship, or a civil hospital, as is deemed
most advisable. The problem of rapid transpor-
tation of the wounded is one that should engage
much attention. Splendid results in the develop-
ment of this feature were attained in the war
with Spain, by the hospital ships and fast rail-
way train in charge of the surgeons of the Ameri-
can Army, and many valuable lives were saved in
consequence.
But it is at times when the army is not in
action that the responsibilities of the military
surgeon are greatest. In order to prevent the in-
vasion of that deadlier foe, whose fatalities in
every year are never less than five times greater
than those killed in battle, he must prove himself
a keen sanitary engineer in the selection of camp
sites, of camp drainage, of the location of lat-
rines; in the inspection of all water supplies,
the quality of food and its cooking, and of the
soldier’s clothing and his personal cleanliness.
He must be an epidemiologist and a bacteriologist,
as well as a student of dietetics and metabolism.
Terrible epidemics of typhoid fever, cholera, dys-
entery, and diarrhoea have resulted from flies car-
rying disease germs from unsavory places to the
mess-hall, or through the drinking of polluted
Water. The parasite of malaria and of yellow
fever is transmitted through the medium of the
mosquito, that of tuberculosis through the
sputum. ( See INsEcTs, PROPAGATION or DrsEAsE
The iron-clad ration of the soldier has
at times led to starvation or scurvy, or has
proved an excitant to intestinal disease. With
all these problems the military surgeon must be
prepared to wrestle, especially when he is with
newly recruited troops, unaccustomed to the
, rigorous discipline of army life, or when sta-
tioned in tropical climes. The normal condition
of the soldier is health; disease and premature
deathare to a large extent unnecessary. “They
are to be overcome, however, not by the abroga-
tion of the intellectual faculty, but by its exer-
cise.”
SURGICAL ASSOCIATION.
SURREY.
360
SURGICAL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN. A
society founded in 1880 for the primary purpose
of cultivating and improving the science and art
of surgery. The active membership is limited
to 125 fellows; the honorary membership to
25 fellows. An applicant tobe eligible for fel-
lowship must be thirty years old, a graduate of
five years’ standing from a recognized medical
college, and have an established reputation as a
practitioner, author, or investigator. The meet-
ings of the association are held annually. Every
third year the association joins with the con-
stituent associations of the Congress of Ameri-
can Physicians and Surgeons in a meeting held
in Washington, D. C. An annual volume of
Transactions is published containing the papers
presented at each meeting.
SURICATE. The meerkat (q.v.).
SURIGAO, so6’re-ga’o. A province of Min-
danao, Philippine Islands, occupying the north-
eastern portion of the island, and bounded on
the west and south by the provinces of Misamis
and Davao (Map: Philippine Islands, K 11).
Area, 13,201 square miles. The greater
.part is covered with forests, and the river forms
almost the only means of communication, most
of the towns being situated on its banks. Cot-
ton, hemp, rice, sugar, and tobacco are raised,
and betelnuts and cocoanuts are exported. Popu-
lation, estimated in 1901, at 85,125, largely
Visayans. Capital, Surigao (q.v.).
SURIGAO, STRAIT or. The strait connecting
the Sulu Sea with the Pacific Ocean, extending
between the island of Mindanao on the south and
the islands of Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, and
IS{amar on the north (Map: Philippine Islands,
10).
SURINAM, s'o_o're-néim’. A river of Dutch
Guiana. It rises in the south central part of
the country, and flows northward, emptying
into the Atlantic Ocean through an estuary three
miles wide, on whose shore lies the town of
Paramaribo. Length, 400 miles. It is navigable
40 miles for the largest vessels, and 100 miles
for ships drawing 10 feet. Near its mouth it
is joined by the Cottica River, a navigable chan-
nel running 100 miles parallel with the coast
and connecting with the mouth of the Maroni.
SURINA1)/I, A Dutch colony in South Ameri-
ca. See GUIANA. '
SURINAM TOAD. See PIPA.
SURMULLET (OF., Fr. surmulet, from sur,
sor, saur, reddish + mulet, diminutive of mulle,
from Lat. mullus, red mullet). One of certain
species of mullets found for the most part in
the tropical seas. The striped red surmullet
(Mullus surrnuletus), attaining a weight of six
to eight pounds, is sometimes abundant on the
coasts of Europe. A very similar species (M ullus
auratus), about eight inches long, occurs along
our Atlantic coast, particularly toward the
south. See Plate of MULLETS AND ALLIES.
SURNAME '(OF., Fr. surnom, from ML.
supernomen, surname, additional name, from
Lat. super, above, over —I— no/men, name). In
modern usage, the family name, as distinguished
from the given or individual name. Many are
based on personal peculiarities, as William Ru-
fus, John Lackland, and are consequently origi-
nally mere epithets. Another class is patro-
nymic, indicating of whom the person bearing the
- tery, and beer.
name is a son. Here belong the numerous names
like Johnson, Thompson, Williamson. This form
of surname prevailed especially in Scandinavian
countries, and survived in Denmark until the
middle of the nineteenth century, when it was
replaced by the system of family names. A
third class is given by the occupation or place of
residence. Surnames were not generally used
as family names until the thirteenth century.
See COGNOMEN.
SURPLICE (-OF., Fr. surplis, from ML. super-
pelliceum, surplice, from Lat. super, above, over
+ ML. pellicia, fur garment, pelisse, from Lat.
pellioeus, made of skin, from pellis, skin). A
linen -vestment 'worn in the Roman Catholic
Church by all ecclesiastics in choir except the
officiants of the mass, and by the clergy of the
Anglican communion; also, in both churches, by
laymen and boys who sing in the choir or assist
at the altar. The shape of the vestment in
medieeval days was long and flowing; the modern
tendency has been to reduce its size so that it
usually comes little below the waist. The Italian
name cotta is frequently applied to the modern
vestment.
SURRENDER. In law, the giving up or
abandonment of an estate for life or years in real
property to the person next entitled to the re-
mainder or reversion, with intent to merge the
lesser estate in the greater. This differs from
renunciation (q.v.) which is practically the re-
fusal to receive an estate to which one is legally
entitled. A valid surrender can only be made
by an adult person of sound mind. Under the
Statute of Frauds in most States, a surrender
in fact, that is, by agreement, can only be made
in writing. Thus, the mere cancellation or de-
struction of the instrument creating the estate
will not operate ipso faoto as .a surrender. How-
ever, a surrender may take place by operation of
law. Thus, where the landlord accepts another
person as tenant; where the landlord takes pos-
session of the premises to his own use; or where
the tenant accepts a new lease for the same
premises, these acts will be construed as a sur-
render by operation of law. The legal effect of
a surrender is to terminate the relation of land-
lord -and tenant, and to discharge the latter from
liability for future rent, though not for rent al-
ready accrued. See LANDLOBD AND TENANT, and
authorities there referred to.
SUR'REY. A southeastern inland county of
England, bounded on the north by Middlesex,
and on the east by Kent (Map: England, F 5).
Area, 758 square miles; population, in 1891,
1,731,343; in 1901, 2,008,923. The surface is
hilly and diversified, with a northern slope toward
the Thames. The principal streams are the Mole
and Wey, tributaries of the Thames. The north-
ern half of the county along the valley of the
Thames is fertile and largely cultivated, hops,
wheat, and the ordinary crops being raised; mar-
ket gardening constitutes a lucrative industry.
In the west and southwest the land is to a great
extent covered with heath. The numerous manu-
factures include silk, cloth, leather, paper, pot-
Lambeth, Southwark, and other
portions of southern metropolitan London are
in the county, which is a favorite suburban resi-
dential section of London business men.
SURREY, HENRY HDWARD, Earl of (c.1517-
47 ). An English soldier and poet, son of
SURREY.
SURVEYING.
361
Lord Thomas Howard, affirmed third Duke of
Norfolk. His youth was spent in France, and at
the Court of Henry VIII., and he received a care-
ful classical education. He was made a knight
of the Garter in 1541, and in 1543 joined the
English army in France, where by his gallantry
and feats of arms he gained the title of field
marshal. He captured Boulogne, was made its
Governor, and gained other victories, but was re-
called to England after some slight reverses at
Saint-Etienne. His influence at Court was no
longer so powerful as in the life of his youthful
friend and companion the Duke of Richmond,
Henry’s natural son, and charges of treasonable
ambition in aspiring to the royal succession were
constantly urged against Surrey and his father
by the Hertford faction. In 1546 the two were
arrested; Norfolk was sent to the Tower, and
Surrey, on the most trivial charge, was beheaded
in 1547 . Though not primarily a man of letters,
his work in that field left a more abiding impres-
sion than his exploits as a soldier. He wrote
many amatory verses and elegies in the Italian
' manner, but his chief service to English litera-
ture lay in the insight with which he enriched
its poetry by the introduction of the verse forms
which had already received a higher development
in Italy. His translation of two books of the
Eneid gave the language its most powerful and
characteristic poetic form, blank verse; and the
sonnet which Shakespeare used, consisting of
three quatrains and a couplet, was also introduced
by Surrey. The peculiar excellence of his work
was in the insight with which he not only
adopted but also adapted these forms, making
them harmonize with the genius of the English
language. The best known edition of his verse
and that of Wyatt, including a memoir, is by Nott
(London, 1815-16; new ed. 1871); there is also
the Arber reprint of 'TotteZ’s M iscellam , in which
the work of both of them first appeared. Consult
also an essay in Hales, Folia Literaria (London,
1893).
SURROGATE (Lat. surrogatus, subrogatus,
p.p. of subrogare, surrogare, to substitute, from
sub, under + rogare, to ask). A judicial oflicer
having jurisdiction over the probate of wills, the
administration and settlement of decedents’ es-
tates, and in some States the power to appoint
and supervise guardians of infants and other
legally incompetent persons. As the derivation
of the name indicates, a surrogate was formerly
the substitute or representative of another of-
ficial. Originally in England the ecclesiastical
courts had jurisdiction of all the matters above
mentioned, and as their business increased it be-
came necessary for the bishops to delegate some
one to act in their places. These substitutes
were at first ecclesiastical, and at a later period
lawyers, and were known as surrogates. In 1857
the probate jurisdiction of the surrogates was
transferred to the Court of Probate and Divorce.
Prior to the Revolution the Governors of the
various American colonies were accustomed to
appoint surrogates to represent them in matters
of probate and administration of estates. In
New York and several other States to-day the
surrogate of a county is an independent judicial
officer. The jurisdiction of a surrogate is usual-
ly confined to the Probate of wills, the adminis-
tration of the estates of persons dying intestate,
and the appointment of guardians for infants
and other incompetent persons. Incidentally they
must hear contests of wills, and controversies
over the descent and distribution of property of
decedents. They exercise a close supervision
over the conduct of guardians’ affairs, and the
latter may apply to them for advice in case of
doubt on any matter pertaining to their trusts.
Proceedings before a surrogate are conducted
with practically the same formality as in other
courts. An appeal from the decisions of surro-
gates will lie to appellate courts. Surrogates
correspond to probate judges and judges of
widows’ and orphans’ courts in some States. See
CoURTs ; PROBATE COURT; and consult the au-
thorities there referred to.
SURTEES, stir’té-z, ROBERT (1779-1834). An
English antiquary, born at Durham. He gradu-
ated B.A. from Christ Church, Oxford, in 1800;
then studied law at the Middle Temple. On the
death of his father (1802) he gave up the law
and settled on the family estate at Mainsforth,
a small village in the County of Durham, where
he lived in retirement. Surtees devoted his life
to his History of Durham (vol. i. 1816; vol. ii.
1820; vol. iii. 1823; vol. iv., ed. by James Raine,
1840). This is a careful and exhaustive work,
and is written in a readable style. Surtees
was also an adept at composing ballads which were
playfully palmed off as ancient. Scott himself
was deceived by The Death of Featherstonehaugh,
which was inserted in the Minstrelsy of the Scot-
tish Border. As a memorial, the Surtees So-
ciety was established in 1834 at Durham for
publishing unedited manuscripts bearing on the
history of the northern counties of England from
the earliest period to the Restoration. Consult
the Life of Surtees, by G. Taylor (Surtees So-
ciety, Durham, 1852). ‘
SURVEY. See SURVEYING; GEODESY; CoAsT
AND GEODETIO SURVEY, UNITED STATES; GEO-
LOGICAL SURVEY, UNITED STATES.
SURVEYING (from survey, from AF. sur-
ueer, sur/voir, from Lat. supermldere, to overlook,
oversee, from super, above + videre, to see). The
art of ascertaining by measurement the shape
and size of any portion of the earth’s surface,
and representing the same on a reduced scale
on maps in a conventional manner. Surveying is
supposed to have originated in Egypt, where
property boundaries were annually obliterated by
the inundations of the Nile. In Rome surveying
was considered one of the liberal arts, and the
measurement of lands was intrusted to public
officers (agrimeusores) who enjoyed certain privi-
leges; and it is probable that the system of
measurement practiced by them was similar to
the cruder methods of plane surveying practiced
at the present time. The higher development
gf surveying method is of comparatively recent
ate.
Surveys are broadly separated into two classes,
determined by the extent of the area surveyed.
Most surveys comprise the measurement of com-
paratively small areas in which all practical re-
finements are met if we consider the areas abso-
lute planes, neglecting the curvature of the
earth’s surface. The methods of measuring such
areas is usually denominated plane surveying.
Certain surveys of modern times, however, in-
clude areas so large that it is necessary to take
into account the curvature of the earth’s sur-
face, and the methods of measuring such areas
are termed geodetic surveying or geodesy (q.v.).
SURVEYING.
SURVEYING.
362
Briefly summarized, plane surveying includes
land surveying, topographic surveying, and by-
drographic surveying -(see HYDBOGRAPHY), min-
ing surveying, railway surveying, and city sur-
veying. Geological surveying is a development
of topographical surveying in which the outcrops
of the earth’s rock formation are located and de-
noted on topographical maps. Geodetic survey-
ing is a class by itself, as is also photographic
surveying (q.v.).
PLANE SURVEYING.
LAND SURVEYING. As at present practiced all
surveys of land, properly so called, are made:
(1) to establish certain monuments, corners,
lines, and boundaries, so as to lay out and divide
land; or (2) to identify and locate such monu-
ments, lines, and boundaries after they have
been established, as in all resurveys for location
and area. In all cases of land surveying the
boundaries and dividing lines are the traces of
vertical planes on the surface of the ground,
and the area is the area of the horizontal plane
included between the bounding vertical planes.
In other words, the area sought is not the real
surface, but the horizontal projection of that
surface. In laying out land, the work consists in
running the bounding and dividing lines over all
the irregularities of the surface, determining
their bearings and horizontal distances and leav-
ing temporary and permanent marks. The bear-
ing of a line is the horizontal angle it makes
with a meridian plane through one extremity,
and it is determined by means of a surveyor’s
compass. The length of the line is usually de-
termined by measurement with a surveyor’s
chain. (See ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS.) The
marks by which the line is physically denoted
are various, such as stones, stakes, holes, mounds,
or trees, specially marked and described. These
marks, whatever their character, are called monu-
ments, and should be of distinctive and perma-
nent character.
The true meridian of a place may be obtained
by astronomical observations and the deviation
of the magnetic meridian determined. This
deviation is called the declination, or variation,
of the magnetic needle. The compass is usually
provided with a vernier-scale (see VERNIER) for
turning off the variation so that the needle may
indicate the true meridian if desired. An instru-
ment called the solar compass, invented by Burt
(1836), determines the true meridian by a single
observation, the sun being on the observer’s me-
ridian. This instrument has been adopted by the
United States Government for use in surveying
the public domain. The declination varies from
year to year and is an essential element to be
recorded in the field-notes so as to enable the
surveyor at any future time to retrace the orig-
inal survey.
The system of laying out the United States
public lands furnishes a good example of the
methods of laying out land on a large scale. This
system probably was devised by Gen. Rufus Put-
nam, of Revolutionary War fame, and was first
used in laying out the eastern portion of the
State of Ohio in 1786-87. The reference lines
employed in these public land surveys are in each
case a principal meridian and a base line, the
meridian running, of course, north and south, and
the base line running east and west. From the
principal meridian and its accompanying base line
guide meridians are run north and south from the
base line 24 miles apart, and standard parallels
are run east and west from the principal me-
ridian 24 miles apart. These lines are run with
great care, the solar compass being employed.
Every mile is marked by a monument and is
called a ‘section corner,’ and every sixth mile has
a different mark and is called a ‘township cor-
ner,’ From each township corner on any stand-
ard parallel, auxiliary meridians are run north
to the next standard parallel. Since these
meridians converge somewhat toward the prin-
cipal meridian, they will not be quite six
miles apart when they reach the next
standard parallel, and, therefore, to run the
next series of auxiliary meridians north, the.
start is made not at the points where the first
series terminate, but at the six-mile points pre-
viously marked off. Where the auxiliary merid-
ians have been lined out, the land is divided into
a series of strips running north and south, and
six miles wide. These are called ‘ranges.’ The
next step is to out these ranges transversely by
running east and west lines at six-mile intervals.
The landfiis thus divided into squares measuring
six miles on each side. These squares are called
‘townships,’ and each contains 36 square miles,
or 23,040 acres. The next step is to run merid-
ians and parallels one mile apart to divide the
township into 36 sections. Monuments are set
at intervals of one-half mile on the lines to di-
vide each section into quarter sections. The
quarter section is the smallest primary division
of the public land surveys.
The determination of areas between known
boundaries is accomplished in several ways, but
the one commonly used consists in determining
the bearings and lengths of the outside boundary
lines. This is done by beginning at one corner
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DIAGRAM OF A SURVEY.
and running around the area to the starting
point, and observing the bearing and measuring
the distance of each boundary line in the order in
which it is encountered. To illustrate reference
will be made to the diagram, in which the
lines A B C D E represent the boundary of a
field of land whose area is required. Beginning
SURVEYING.
SURVEYING.
363
at A, the surveyor proceeds around the field ob-
taining by his compass. the bearings, and by
measurement with a surveyor’s chain, the lengths,
of the lines A B, B C, C D, D E, and E A, one
after the other in the order named. This being
done.he states these-bearings and distances on
paper, giving the figure A B C D E shown by the
sketch. He next draws a meridian line NS
through the westernmost corner of his boundary,
and draws the various perpendiculars shown by
the broken lines. These perpendiculars represent
what are known as the latitudes of the several
lines; thus for line DC, dD is the latitude, Do
is the departure, and (fD+ dC) is the double
meridian distance. Knowing the bearings and
lengths of the various courses by simple trigo-
nometrical calculation, the surveyor is enabled to
calculate the latitudes, departures, and double
meridian distances. This being known, the fol-
lowing rule is used for calculating the area:
Twice the area of the figure is equal to the
algebraic sum of the products of the double me-
ridian distances of the several courses into the
corresponding latitudes, north latitude being
reckoned positively and south latitude negative-
ly. Expressed symbolically, for the figure shown,
this rule is as follows:
(eC + fD) Dd— (bB) Ab -— (aE) Aa— (aE-)-
fD) Eg. It may often happen that one boundary
of a field is not a right line, but is an irregular
curved line such as the course of a stream C F B
instead of by the right line B C. The area of this
field is then the area of A B C D E plus the area
of C F B; the surveyor when measuring the line
B C measures two or more perpendiculars such as
am, yy, zz, and ww, known as offsets and extend-
ing from the line B C to the stream. These per-
pendiculars divide the area C F B into a number
of small areas each of which approximates close-
ly a simple trapezoid or triangle whose area is
easily determined and the sum of whose areas
is the area of the total tract. There is of course
a slight error in this method, but it can be made
so small by an experienced surveyor as to be
practically negligible. Systematic methods have
been devised for making field notes so as to in-
clude a register of the topographical features
incident to the chain lines, the relation of these
lines one to another, and a description of monu-
ments sufiicient to identify the lines in the'“field.
A column is usually taken in the centre of each
page of the field-book to represent the chain
line, and the necessary notes are entered on either
side. These notes if properly kept enable the
surveyor to execute a topographical map of the
territory surveyed, and to calculate its area.
Toroenxrnrcxr. SURVEYING. The topographical
surveying of a region includes not only the char-
acter and geographical distribution of the sur-
face covering, but also the exact configuration of
that surface with reference to its elevations
and depressions. Thus any point is geographi-
cally located when its position with reference to
any chosen point and a meridian through it is
found, but to be topographically located its ele-
vation above a chosen level must also be known.
In making-a topographical survey, therefore, the
following processes are carried out. First, one
or more reference points, according to the area,
are geographically located; second, a series of
precise levels are run to establish marks at cer-
tain intervals whose elevations are computed
with reference to a common datum; third, from
Von. XVI.— 24.
2A: (z>B+@o)B@+_
these established points and elevations the loca-
tions and elevations of the surface points are es-
tablished by one of several methods. The final
process is to plat on a map by means of conven-
.tional symbols the location of all surface objects
and the elevations and depressions of the general
surface. See Topographical Map, accompanying
Map.
In the topographic work of the Geological
Survey, and in fact in the work of all the United
States Government Surveys, the reference point
for geographical location is astronomical position
and the datum for all elevations is mean sea
level. The various reference points are connected
by means of a system of triangulation, by which
intermediate points are geographically located.
Elevations are established by means of lines of
precise levels starting from datum. On these as
a skeleton the topographical survey proper is
hung. The operation of determining an astronom-
ical position consists, first, in the measurement
of zenith distances of stars by means of delicate
transit instruments for the determination of lati-
tude; second, the exchange of telegraphic time
signals between a known astronomical position
and an unknown one for the determination of
time difference, and hence the difference of longi-
tude ; and, third, the determination by astronomic
observations on close cireumpolar stars of the
azimuth of a line, presumably a base line or side
of a triangle. The measurement of a base line
consists, first, in-the selection of a site, the ex-
tremities of which are so situated as to permit
of easy expansion by primary triangulation; sec-
ond, the laying out of a site by running a line of
spirit levels over it and of setting plugs or other
stable measuring marks at fixed intervals; third,
the ranging out of a straight line by transit or
theodolite; and finally, the measurement of the
length of the base by means of base bars, iced
bars or steel tapes. The expansion of a system
of primary triangulation consists, first, in a
reconnoissance to select stations from which
others are intervisible in such manner as to per-
mit of the formation of a series of quadrilateral,
pentagonal, or similar figures composed of well-
conditioned triangles; second, the erection of
signals and the marking of station positions by
monuments; and third, the measurement of the
angles at any one station to the others which are
intervisible therefrom, by means of theodolites of
high power. Finally, there remains the office
computation whereby the lengths of the sides of
the various triangles are determined, and by the
aid of this and their connection with a known
astronomic position and azimuth the geodetic po-
sition and coiirdinates of the various triangula-
tion stations are computed. These or equivalent
coiirdinates at important points on a traverse
line are then platted on the topographic map
sheets, and this furnishes the primary control
for the extension of the secondary detail of the
map.
The datum on which all of the representation
of the relief by contours is based is mean sea
level. In order that pieces of work separated
by distances of 100 or 1000 miles may ultimately
meet on sheet lines with homogeneity of verti-
cal location, it has been necessary, first, to plan
out series of primary triangulation for the con-
trol of the whole. These precise levels are con-
nected with tidal gaugesreferred to the mean
levelof the sea. With these primary data in ex-
SURVEYING.
SURVIVORSHIP.
364
istence it is possible to commence field work in
widely scattered areas, lines of spirit leveling of
lesser precision being run throughout the area
to be mapped at distances not exceeding six
miles apart. Between these, at distances of one
to three miles apart, according to the scale and
contour interval, lines of flying or secondary
levels are run with only such accuracy as will
enable them to close upon the better levels with-
in limits of one or two feet, an amount imper-
ceptible in contours of 10 to 50 feet interval.
The three surveying bureaus of the Govern-
ment, viz. the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the
Engineer Corps of the Army, and the Geological
Survey, are all engaged in running lines of pre-
cise levels throughout the country, as they are
extending the related work of triangulation and
topographical mapping. The skeleton of the sur-
vey being completed, the next task is to perform
the topographical mapping. Starting with two
or more primary triangulation stations within
the area of the quadrilateral to be surveyed, a
secondary scheme of triangulation is‘ extended
by plane table (q.v.) by which tertiary points are
located with such frequency as to give an aver-
age of from one to three good locations per square
mile, equivalent to the same number per square
inch of map. Elevations are determined of all
triangulation points, 'which are chiefly hill sum-
mits, by vertical angulation depending on spirit
leveling. Also of all the lower relief of the coun-
try by lines of spirit levels run from three to
six miles apart. VVhere the lack of surface relief
or the density of forests is unfavorable to the
execution of triangulation, the primary and sec-
ondary control consists of a system of primary
traverses checked by astronomical positions or
primary triangulation locations. A second sys-
tem of horizontal control consists of odometer
traverses of all roads and trails, or, where these
are not sufficient, of stadia or taped traverses
across country and about the shores of lakes and
streams. These traverse lines are run by compass
and plane table, and are plotted upon the board
as the work progresses, and are adjusted upon the
map, between the frequent locations resulting
from the primary traverse or the plane-table tri-
angulation. The distances between check points
on such traverse are so relatively short, being one
to four miles, that the error of location is hardly
perceptible upon the scales of one or two miles
to the inch, and an adjustment to the better posi-
tions becomes easily possible. The primary tri-
angulation and precise leveling is executed a
season in advance of the topographic mapping.
The determination of secondary positions by
plane-table triangulation, road and stadia trav-
erse, and flying levels proceeds together a little
in advance of the sketching of the map, but by
members of the same party. The results of the
adjustment and transfer of all traverse lines and
level elevations to the secondary locations is a
control or sketch sheet upon which are two to
five triogonometric locations per square inch,
from four to eight inches of road traverse per
square inch, and an average of one to two instru-
mental elevations per square inch. Placing himself
at a known position, the height of which is already
determined, the topographer sketches, with the
aid of hand level and by eye, the plan of the
contour line passing through his position on the
map, and it may be possible to locate this for a
distance of half a mile, the equivalent of half an
inch, in either direction. If the country be
wooded it cannot be seen beyond his absolute
position. Proceeding now over the road, prefer-
ably by vehicle, he stops at greater or lesser in-
tervals, according to the amount of change of
slope, carrying differences of elevation for short
distances between check points by aneroid. When,
good elevations are insuflicient more are pro-
cured by flying levels or by vertical angulation,
as the work progresses. In this way a network
of topographic contouring is built up everywhere
along the lines of the roads, and these are fre-
quently so near together that the contours meet
and fill up the entire surface of the map. Other-
wise the topographer walks in between roads,
pacing distances if short, or runs stadia line, if
necessary, and thus he fills in the interior of the
road circuits and completes the map. This gen-
eral method is necessarily much modified, accord-
ing to the conditions.
MINING SURVEYING. Mining surveys are of
two classes: (1) surveys to determine the sur-
face location and boundaries of mining claims,
and (2) underground surveys to determine con-
nections, lay_ out work, establish the relations of
the underground workings to the surface lines,
points, and so on, and measure the ore removed
or still in the mine. The surface methods em-
ployed are substantially land surveying methods
as modified by the local and general mining laws.
The underground surveys comprise carrying sur-
face locations underground, lining on the galleries
and shafts, running levels, etc., and laying out
tramways and railroads. This work is ordinarily
carried onmuch the same as it is on the surface.
CITY SURVEYING. The methods described in
the section on land surveying are adequate to
the needs of the city surveyor, except that, on ac-
count of the value of the land, greater accuracy
should be secured. To this end, the transit in-
strument is used instead of the compass and the
steel tape instead of the chain.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of surveying is
extensive. A concise technical treatment of the
whole subject is contained in Johnson, Theory
and Practice of Surveying (New York, 1900).
Other books of equal value in their particular
field are: Wilson, Topographic Surveying (New
York, 1900); Merriman, Precise Surveying and
Geodesy (New York, 1899); and Geodetic Sur-
veying (New York, 1892) ; and Gribble, Prelimi-
nary Surveys and Work Estimates (London,
1897). The voluminous reports of the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, the Geological Survey, and the
Engineer Corps, United States Army, contain an
enormous mass of information relating to their
surveys throughout the United States. Many im-
portant articles on surveys and surveying are
also to be found in the proceedings of the engi-
neering societies and in the volumes of the prin-
cipal engineering journals. See GEODESY; MAP;
ENGINEERING INsTRUMENTs; ENGINEERING, MILI-
TARY; PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEYING; LEVELING;
CoAsT AND GEoDETIo SURVEY; GEOLOGICAL SUR-
VEY; PLANE TABLE; STADIA; etc.
SURVEYING, MARINE. See HYDROGBAPHY.
SURVEYS, NATIONAL. See GEOLOGIGAL SUR-
VEY, UNITED STATES; CoAsT AND GEODETIC SUR-
VEY, UNITED STATEs.
SURVIVORSHIP. A term commonly em-
ployed to describe a doctrine prevailing in some
jurisdictions to the effect that where two or more
SURVIVO RSHPP. I
' SUSANNA.
365
persons perish in the same accident or calamity
there is a presumption of law that the stronger
of them survived the others. This doctrine orig-
inated in the Roman and civil law, but generally
no presumption exists in England or most of
the United States, and a person seeking to es-
tablish the survivorship of one who lost his life
With others in the same peril must do so by
logical and relevant evidence as in any other
case, or he will fail to sustain the burden of
proof resting upon him. This proof need not
be direct; the facts and circumstances may be
shown if they furnish any reasonable basis for a
conclusion. See PRESUMPTION; EVIDENCE.
SURVIVORSHIP, RIGHT OF. The right of a
person holding a title jointly with another to
succeed to the latter’s rights upon his death, by
operation of law. This right exists in case of
joint tenancies, in the absence of statutes to the
contrary; in a husband and wife where they hold
real property as tenants by the entirety; and in
surviving partners after the death of another
for the purpose of winding up the business, and
in some forms (tontine) of life- insurance. See
PROPERTY, LAW or ; J OINT TENANCY; PARTNER-
SHIP; INSURANCE.
SIIRYA, sU6r'ya (Skt., sun). In Hindu
mythology, the god of the sun in its physical as-
pects. He is honored in the hymns of the Big-
Veda. (See VEDA.) All creatures depend on
him, for he drives away disease and upholds
the sky. He watches over mankind and beholds
their deeds. His father is variously said to be
Dyaus, the sky, or Indra (q.v.), or Soma (q.v.).
On the other hand, he is the son of Aditi or of
Ushas (q.v.), who is also regarded _in other
hymns as his wife, who bears the Asvins (q.v.).
In later mythology Surya is the son of the sage
Kasyapa and Aditi. He married Sanjna, who,
overpowered by his radiance, left him, substitut-
ing for herself Chaya (Shadow). When he dis-
covered this, he prevailed on his wife to return,
and at his request his father-in-law, Tvashtar,
the artificer of the gods, ground off one-eighth of
his brightness, from which were made the disk
of Vishnu (q.v.), the trident of Siva (q.v.), and
other divine implements. He is still worshiped on
the first Sunday of the month of Magha (Janu-
ary-February), although he has degenerated into
a petty godling in modern times. Consult: Mac-
donell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897) ;
Wilkins, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900).
STIRYASIDDHANTA, smwya - séd - han’ta
(Skt., text-book of the sun). The earliest Hindu
astronomy that has been preserved. It is written
in verse and contains fourteen chapters, furnish-
ing a complete system which remains the chief
authority in India for the adherents of the Hindu
science of astronomy. The work has been con-
siderably altered in content in course of time. It
is probable that Greek astronomy exercised some
influence over this as over the succeeding Hindu
works on this science. The Silryasiddhanta has
been published repeatedly in India, the best edi-
tion being that by Hall and Deva Sastri (Cal-
cutta, 1859). It has been translated into English
by Deva Sastri (ib., 1860), and by Burgess and
Whitney in the Journal of the American Oriental
Society, vol. vi. (New Haven, 1860). Consult
Thibaut, Astronornie, Astrologie and M athematik
(Strassburg, 1899).
SU’SA (Lat., from Gk. Zofiaa, Sousa, Heb.
Sh’ll8h6l7'l-, Pers. Shizs). The capital of the Prov-
ince of Susiana or Elam in Persia, a royal
residence, and one of the most important cities
of the ancient East. The site, 21 miles southwest
of Dizful, in the modern Province of Khuzistan,
is on a hilly plateau between the Ab-i-Kerkhah
(the ancient Choaspes) and the Shaur (the an-
cient Euleeus) (Map: Persia, C 5) . It is marked
by the so-called tomb of Daniel, a pilgrimage
shrine of repute, which in reality is a compara-
tively modern Mohammedan mausoleum, and by
the Kaleh-i-Shus (fortress or acropolis of Susa)
with ruins that cover a space of about three
miles and consist of three spacious artificial
platforms more than 100 feet high. The name
of Susa occurs on Assyrian monuments of the
time of Asshurbanipal (B.C. 668-626), who cap-
tured it. At first under Babylonian dominion,
it came, at the time of Cyrus, under Persian
rule; and the Acheemenian kings raised it to the
dignity of a metropolis of the entire Persian
Empire._ When Babylon had risen again to
importance under Alexander and his successors,
Susa gradually declined. In the Arab conquest
of Persia it held out bravely for a long time, de-
fended by Hormuzan. During the Middle Ages
it was still inhabited and known for its manufac-
tures of sugar. Excavations by Williams, Loftus,
Churchill, Dieulafoy, and others, have revealed a
citadel of semicircular form, and the remains of
the extensive colonnade, with a frontage of 343
feet and a depth of 244 feet, of the great palace
built by Darius Hystaspis (B.C. 521-485), and re-
stored by Artaxerxes Mnemon (B.O. 405-362),
after having been ruined by fire in the reign of
Artaxerxes Longimanus (13.0. 465-424). Cunei-
form inscriptions, friezes of lions and archers,
finely colored, now in the Museum of the Louvre
at Paris, and numerous other relics have been re-
covered. Consult: Dieulafoy, L’Acropole de Sase
cl’apr£zs les foailles eacécutées en 1881;, 1885 1886,
etc. (Paris, 1890-92) ; and Billerbeck, Susa
(Berlin, 1892).
SUSA, some (Lat. Segusio). A city in the
Province of Turin, Italy, 32 miles by rail west of
the city of Turin, on the Dora Riparia (Map:
Italy, B 2). It has a triumphal arch 44 feet
high, dedicated, the inscription reads, in AD. 8
to Augustus. It was formerly of strategic im-
portance, being regarded as the key to the Alpine
roads over Mont Cenis and Mont Genevre. Popu-
lation (commune), in 1901, 4957.
SUSA. A port of Tunis, on the Gulf of
Hammamet, in the Mediterranean Sea. It is 32
miles east-northeast of Kairwan, with which it is
connected by rail, as also with Tunis (Map:
Africa, F 1). It is surrounded by old walls, and
its lofty, ancient, and restored citadel is used
as the French military headquarters. In the
neighborhood are large plantations of olives and
grapes. The roadstead is bad. Susa is on the site
of the Roman city of H adrametum. Population,
about 12,000.
SUSAN’1\TA (Gk. Eoficawa, Sousanna, from
Heb. sh/zlshan, lily), HIs'roRY or, also known as
THE JUDGMENT or DANIEL, and as SUSANNA
AND THE ELDERS. One of three apocryphal addi-
tions to the Book of Daniel in the Greek Bible,
the others being The Song of the Three Holy
Children and The History of Bel and the Dragon
(q.v.). The story of Susanna is as follows: In
SUSANNA. ‘
'sussnx.
366
the early days of the Babylonian captivity there
lived a woman, Susanna by name, who was cele-
brated for her beauty and her virtue. She was
the wife of Joiachim, a wealthy and respected
man, and daughter of a priest, Hilkiah. Two
elders, who were also judges and held in high
repute, were seized by desire for Susanna, and,
meeting each other unexpectedly in Joiachim’s
garden, agreed to coerce her. Susanna refused to
listen to them, and in revenge the elders accused
her of adulterous relations with a young man
who had fled when surprised by their sudden
appearance. She was condemned to death on
this evidence, but Daniel, then a very young man,
appeared and undertook to prove Susanna’s inno-
cence. By questioning the witnesses apart and
showing discrepancies in their testimony he
-succeeded. The people applauded Daniel and
put Susanna’s accusers to death. There is noth-
ing to warrant the supposition that the story was
originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic. In
most manuscripts it precedes the first chaptef
of the Book of Daniel, and so we find it in the
old Latin and Arabic versions; but the Septua-
gint, the Vulgate, the Complutensian Polyglot,
and the Hexaplar Syriac place it at the end of
the book, and reckon it as the thirteenth chap-
ter. Consult: Ball, in the Spea7cer’s Apocrypha,
vol. ii. (London, 1888); Fritzsche, Apolaryphen
(Leipzig, 1871) ; Ziickler, Apokryphen des Alten
Testaments (Munich, 1891); Kautzsch, Apokry-
phen and Psenclepigraphen des Alten Testaments
(Tiibingen, 1899 et seq.) .
SUSEMIHL, z'o'6’ze-mél, FRANZ (1826-1901).
A German classical scholar, born at Laage, in
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He was appointed pro-
fessor of classical philology at the University of
Greifswald in 1856. Among his works the most
valuable are: Die gen-etische Entwiclcelnng der
Platonischen Philosophie (1855-60) ; text editions
of Aristotle’s Politics (with German translation,
1879); the Ethica Nicomachea (1880) ; and
a Geschichte der griechischen Littemtwr in der
Alemandrinerzeit (1891-92). The last work is
regarded as one of the most popular and trust-
worthy treatises on the subject.
SUSO (zones) , or SEUSE, HEINRICH (c.1295-
1366). A German mystic. He was born at
Ueberlingen, Baden. At the age of thirteen he
entered the Dominican Order and spent most of
his life in monasteries at Constance and Ulm.
He Was impulsive and an enthusiastic disciple of
Eckhart (q.v. ) , but gives the master’s speculative
ideas a spiritual expression. He was truly called
‘the sweet’ Suso on account of his poetry and
child-like religion. He was not a member of the
Brethren of the Free Spirit, as has sometimes
been supposed. His Autobiography and his Book
of Everlasting Wisdom have been translated into
many languages, and are both of unique impor-
tance for the study of the psychology of mysti-
cism. He died at Ulm, and was beatified by
Gregory XVI. in 1831. Consult Diepenbrock,
Heinrich Suso: Leben and Schriften (Regens-
burg, 1829, 1837, and Vienna, 1863). A more
critical edition of Suso’s works is that by De-
nifle (Augsburg, 1878) and there is an English
translation (London, 1865) .
SUSPENSION (Lat. snspensio, from sus-
pendere, to hang, from sub, under + pendere, to
hang). A term in music. A note is said to be
suspended when it is continued from one chord
to another to which it does not properly belong,
and to a proper interval of which it must eventu-
ally be resolved.
SUSPENSION BRIDGE. See BRIDGE.
SUSPENSOR (ML., that which suspends,
from Lat. snspendere, to hang). A special,
usually filamentous organ developed by and at
the base of the embryo, which is thereby related
more effectively to its food supply. The sus-
pensor chiefly appears among seed-plants, its
largest development occurring among the coni-
fers. See EMBRYO.
SUSPICIOUS HUSBAND, THE. A comedy
by Benjamin Hoadly, produced in 1747. Strick-
land, the husband, is made jealous by the in-
trigues of two attractive visitors in his home,
in which he fancies his wife involved.
SUSQUEHANNA, sfis'kwe-han'a. A river
draining the greater part of Pennsylvania (Map:
Pennsylvania, E 4). It rises in Otsego Lake in
central New York, and flows southward in three
large zigzag bends across Pennsylvania and
into Maryland, where it empties into the north-
ern end of Chesapeake Bay at Havre de Grace
after a total course of more than 400 miles. It
is almost throughout a shallow, swift, and un-
navigable stream, but its whole course is
through very picturesque country as well as
through some of the most populous industrial
and mining regions. After flowing through the
northern plateau it enters the anthracite dis-
tricts of the Appalachian valley. First it fol-
lows one of the western longitudinal valleys, and
then turning to the southeast it breaks through
all the Appalachian ridges, after which it trav-
erses the more open but still picturesque Pied-
mont plain. It receives its chief tributaries from
the west, the Chemu'ng, which joins it near the
New York boundary, the large West Branch, 200
miles long, and the Juniata. Its lower and mid-
dle course is followed by a lateral canal, but its
only importance as a waterway is for floating
lumber. The traflic along its valley is carried
chiefly by the railroads which follow its course
throughout its length. The chief cities on its
banks are Harrisburg and Wilkesbarre in Penn-
sylvania, Port Deposit in Maryland, and Bing-
hamton in New York. The principal city on the
VVest Branch is Williamsport.
SUS’SEX. A southeastern maritime county
of England, bounded on the north by Surrey and
Kent, on the south by the English Channel, and
on the west by Hampshire (Map: England, F 6).
Area, 1458 square miles. Population, in 1891,
550,446; in 1901, 605,052. The South Downs
traverse the county from west to east, ending
about 20 miles east of Brighton, in the lofty
cliff of Beachyhead, and the northern escarp-
ment of the Downs leads down to the fertile and
richly wooded district of the Weald. The chief
rivers are the Arun, Adur, and Ouse, which rise
in the north of the county, and flow south into the
Channel. A remarkably productive tract of land
extends west from Brighton along the coast to
the Hampshire border; and in the southeast of
the county the rich marsh lands that line the
coast make excellent pasture grounds. The
Down-lands are covered with a fine, short, and
delicate turf, on which the well-known breed of
Southdown sheep are pastured. The principal
industries of the county are agriculture and cat-
SUSSEX.
SUTRA.
367
tle-raising. Thick beds of gypsum are worked
at Netherfield. Capital, Chichester.
SUSSMANN-HELLBORN, zus’m'ein hél’-
b6rn, LOUIS (1828—) . A German sculptor, born
in Berlin, where he studied under Wredow and
settled in 1857 after a sojourn in Rome (1852-
56). Of his genre and mythological subjects, a
“Drunken Faun” (1856) and “Sleeping Beauty”
are in the National Gallery, while his monu-
mental work is represented by statues of “Fred-
erick the Great in Youth” (1862), City Hall,
Breslau; “Frederick the Great in Mid-age” and
Frederick 1/Villiam III. (both 1869), City Hall,
Berlin; “Holbein” and “Peter Vischer,” both in
the Art-Industrial Museum, Berlin, which he
helped to establish in 1867. He was artistic di-
rector of the Royal Porcelain Factory in 1882-87.
SUTE-CH, s?o5’tek. An Egyptian deity. See
SET.
SUTIBYERLAND. A northern county of
Scotland, bounded on the east by Caithness and
the North Sea, on the north and west by the
Atlantic, and on the south by Ross and Cromarty
(Map: Scotland, D 1). Area, 2028 square miles;
population, in 1891, 21,896; in 1901, 21,440. The
coast line is 60 miles in extent, and the shores,
rugged on the north and west, where they are
broken by the force of the Atlantic, are com-
paratively flat on the east. The southern and
central regions of Sutherland are the most ele-
vated; the principal mountain peaks are Ben
More in Assynt (3273 feet) and Ben Clibrigg
(3154 feet). The chief rivers are the Oikel and
the Shin. Extensive moors stretch across the
county; and the rivers and lakes, the chief of
which is Loch Shin, form numerous low-lying
valleys or straths. In the eastern districts the
soil is very fertile, yielding all kinds of agricul-
tural produce. Coal, granites of various colors,
marble, limestone, etc., are found; there are good
salmon, herring, and other fisheries. The capital
is Dornoch. -
SU'1"LEJ, or SATLEJ. The chief tributary
of the Indus. It rises in the southern part of
Tibet near the sources of the Indus and the
Brahmaputra, and, after breaking through the
main range of the Himalayas, it flows southwest
through the great arid plains of the Punjab, join-
ing the Indus in the southwesten part of that
province after a course of about 95.0 miles (Map:
India, B 3). After passing through Lake Ma-
nasarowar (q.v.) the river, whose upper course
is very rapid, flows through a series of lofty and
highly picturesque mountain valleys. In the low
‘doabs’ of the Punjab its waters are largely used
for irrigation, but its volume is nevertheless al-
most equal to that of the Indus. The Sutlej is
the eastern and southernmost of the ‘Five
Rivers of the Punjab,’ the other four being its
two main tributaries, the Beas and the Chenab,
together with two branches of the latter. Below
the confluence of the Beas the river is known as
the Ghara, and its lowest course, a.fter receiving
the Chenab, is called the Panjnad, or Five
Rivers.
SUTRA, s5"6’tr:i (Skt., thread, string, clew).
In Sanskrit literature, the technical name of
more or less brief, aphoristic rules, and works
consisting of such rules. The 8’ll-t7‘(l style of writ-
ing is preéminently the scientific style of India.
The object of the sutras is to supply a short sur-
~ measurements of the altars, and so forth.
vey of the facts of any given science in a form so
brief that the whole theme may be memorized.
In the later works of this class brevity and al-
lusiveness are carried to such an excess that,
but for the aid of commentaries which regularly
accompany them, they would be obscure and
sometimes absolutely unintelligible. Probably
this peculiar style of writing originated with
the methods of teaching which have prevailed in
India from the earliest time. The school work is
purely mnemonic; the teacher recites, and the
pupil learns by heart piecemeal. It seems, there-
fore, likely that the szitras were intended as me-
morial sentences which the pupil had to learn by
heart, in order to obtain a grasp of the outline
of his subject, as well as the fuller explanation
which his teacher appended to it orally.
The importance of the s-zitras will be under-
stood from the fact that they form in very early
times the standard medium of most of the ritual,
legal, grammatical, metrical, and philosophical
literature.
S-dtras and Grhya Siitras, are systematic com-
pendiums of the priestly sacrifices and the home-
lier religious practices of the householder respec-
tively. The Dharma S-zltras, the oldest sources of
Indian law, -are also rooted in the Veda (q.v.).
There is another class of Vedic t8’ll/t’I"Cl/-S‘, concerned
with religious practice, the Sulva Siltras, of
which class the last chapter of the great Vedic
s-zitra collection of the school of Apastamba is an
example. There are practical manuals giving the
They
show quite an advanced knowledge of geometry,
and constitute the oldest Indian mathematical
works. In addition, the systematic study of the
Vedas, which was prompted by the increasing
difficulty of understanding and preserving the
hymns, produced a series of ancillary Vedic
sciences in sz'ttra- style, the so-called six Védzingas
or ‘members of the Veda.’ These are 8'/t7.-.._<.-a., or
phonetics, chandas, or metrics, vyaharana, or
grammar, niruhta, or etymoloy, loalpa, or reli-
gious practice, and jyotisa, or astronomy. The
most important class of these texts, belonging to
the class sihsa, phonetics, are the Pratisahhya
Siitras, which deal with accentuation, pronunci-
ation, and other matters, but are chiefly con-
cerned with the phonetic changes undergone by
Vedic words when combined in a sentence. Their
observations are so minute and acute as to ap-
proach the best results of the modern science of
phonetics, and they are unrivaled in their way in
the whole history of antiquity. A still more im-
portant branch of siltra literature is grammar,
in which the Hindus again surpass all nations of
antiquity. Little has been preserved of the pre-
liminary stages of grammar. The student of na-
tive Sanskrit grammar, therefore, enters at once
upon the intricate structure which bears the
name of Panini (q.v.). His systematic analysis
of words into roots, suffixes, and inflexional ele-
ments has been adopted with unimportant
changes by modern European scientific grammar.
Later systematic philosophy, which has grown
up on the basis of the theosophic hymns of the
Veda and the Upanishads (q.v.), also adopts the
sutra style of presentation in the six systems of
philosophy. Even so remote a theme as erotics
is in the K-(l’)7l»(l81lt?“(l-, or ‘Love Sutra,’ of Vatsya-
yana, naively treats this subject in the set form
of sutra rules. In one quarter, however, the
sat-ra has abandoned its typical style and has
The ritual satras, known as Srauta
SUTRA.c
SU TUNG-IP’O.
368
become the reverse of brief, for the Buddhist
S-zltras, or Suttas (see PITAKA), the sermons as-
cribed to Buddha, excel in prolixity almost every
other type of literature in existence.
SUTRI, Sm/as (anciently SUTRIUM). A
town in the Province of Rome, Italy, 29 miles
northwest of Rome. It is interesting for its an-
cient walls and gates, its Etruscan tombs, and
the ruins of an amphitheatre dating from the
time of Augustus. Sutri is known as the scene
of the synod which in 1046 deposed Popes Gre-
gory VI. and Sylvester III. Population (com-
mune), in 1901, 2795.
SUTRO, sUi’tr5, ADOLPH HEINRICH JOSEPH
(1830-98). A German-American mining engi-
neer, philanthropist, and Mayor of San
Francisco. He was born at Aix-la-Chapelle, in
Rhenish Prussia; came to the United States in
1850; and soon after went to the Pacific Coast.
He was best known as the designer and construc-
tor of the famous Sutro Tunnel, built to drain and
ventilate the mines of the celebrated Comstock
silver lode in Nevada. It is 20,500 feet long, and
cost about $6,500,000. It did not prove so valu-
able as had been hoped, but by investing the re-
turns which he got from it in San Francisco
real estate Sutro became a millionaire. In
1880 he laid\out in San Francisco the Sutro
Heights Park, and he made numerous gifts to the
city. He also founded the Sutro Library, con-
taining about 250,000 volumes. In 1894 he was
elected Mayor of the city by the Populists. By
the terms of his will Sutro Heights was given
to the city for a public park, the Sutro Library
was to be opened to the public, and San Miguel
ranch was given to support a scientific school.
The will was, however, set aside by the courts on
the ground that he was not mentally competent
at the time he made it.
SUTTEE (from Skt. sati, virtuous wife). The
practice which prevailed in India of a wife
burning herself on the funeral pile, either with
the body of her husband, or separately, if he died
at a distance. Suttee for the orthodox Hindus is
based on the injunctions of their sacred books,
and there can be no doubt that various passages
in the Puranas (q.v.) and codes of law counte-
nance belief in its merit and efficacy. These, how-
ever, are all rather late texts. The custom is al-
luded to in Hindu literature, and classicalauthors
refer to it as early as B.C. 316. ‘It has even been
referred to the Rig Veda as authority, and it was
formerly thought that a Vedic verse had been
falsified to give support to the practice. It has
been shown, however, that this view is untenable.
The Rig Veda does not recognize the custom.
' Manu (q.v.), the law-giver, does not sanction it,
though it was known before his time. It appears
at first to have been a royal custom and privi-
lege, afterwards generalized and made legal. The
custom was abolished by the British in 1829.
Suttee is by no means confined to India. Under
other names, and in other forms, the widow’s
death at the grave of her husband is known in
many parts of the world, notably in the South
Pacific, where a king’s favorite wives were wont
to let themselves be buried a.1ive in his grave.
Consult: Colebrook, Digest of Hindu Law (Lon-
don, 1801); id., Miscellaneous Essays, vol. i.
(new ed., ib., 1873) ; Grimm, Kleinere Schriften,
vol. ii. (Berlin, 1849); Wilson, Collected
Works, ed. by Rost, vol. ii. (London, 1862).
SUT’TER, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1803-80). An
American pioneer, born in Kandern, Baden. He
was of Swiss parentage and was educated at the
military college at Berne. He emigrated to
America in 1834, and became a trader at Santa
Fe, N. M. In 1838 he made his way to the
Pacific Coast, thence to the Sandwich Islands,
and finally to Alaska. Obtaining a grant of
Mexican land, he established in 1841 a settle-
ment called New Helvetia, where the city of
Sacramento now stands. He was Governor of
the north district of California under the Mexi-
cans, and alcalde and Indian agent after it
passed to the United States. In February, 1848,
gold was discovered on his estate. The discovery,
however, brought him nothing but disaster. Gold-
diggers preempted his lands, and except an
annual pension of $3000 granted him by the
California Legislature he received nothing. He
settled in Pennsylvania in 1873.
SUTTNER, zU6t’nér, BERTH'. VON (1843—).
An Austrian novelist, especially known for her
efforts to promote peace. Born at Prague, the
daughter of Count Franz Kinsky, she married, in
1876, Baron Arthur von Suttner (1850-1902), also
known as a novelist, and lived with him for ten
years in Tiflis. In 1891 she founded the Austrian
Society of Peace-lovers, and, as its president,
took a prominent part in the peace congresses at
Rome (1891), Bern (1892), Antwerp (1894),
and Hamburg (1897). Her novels include:
High Life (1884; 3d ed. 1902) ; Ein Manushript
(1885) ; Eredhlte Lustspiele (1889) ; Die Waffen
nieder (1889; 14th ed. 1896), translated into
most European languages; and its sequel Mar-
thas Kinder (1902) . She also wrote Das M aschi-
nenzeitalter (3d ed. 1898) and Die Haager
Friedenshonferenz,- Tagebuchbldtter (1900) ; and
edits the monthly Die Wafien nieder (Dresden,
1892, et seq.), organ of the Peace Bureau at
Bern.
SUT’TON. A town in Surrey, England, four
miles northeast of Epsom. Population, in 1891,
13,977; in 1901, 17,224. .
SUTTON COLD’FIELD. A municipal bor-
ough in VVarwickshire~, England, seven miles
north-northeast of Birmingham (Map: England,
E 4). The chief objects of interest are an
ancient Early English church, the grammar
school founded in 1543, and the celebrated Sut-
ton Park, a recreation ground of 3500 acres,
these two latter institutions due to the benefi-
cence of Bishop Vesey of Henry VIII.’s reign,
who also bequeathed real estate yielding an an-
nual revenue of $15,000, which is applied to
educational and charitable purposes. Popula-
tion, in 1891, 8685; in 1901, 14,264.
SUTTON IN ASH’FIELD. A town in Not-
tinghamshire, England, three miles southwest of
Mansfield, known for its hosiery manufactures
(Map: England, E 3). Population, in 1891,
10,562; in 1901, 14,862.
SU TUNG-P’O, or SOO TUNG-P’O, SW’-
tfing'po’ (1036-1101). The name by which Su
Shih, a Chinese statesman and poet, is best known.
He entered public service in 1060, and soon
attracted the attention of the Emperor. At his
own request he was appointed Governor of Hang-
chow (q.v.). He opposed the reforms of Wang
An-shih, then in favor at the Court, and
was degraded in consequence and banished. On
SU TUNG-P’O.
SUVARO FF.
369
the death of the Emperor in 1086 he was recalled
to the capital, where he filled several high posts,
becoming president of the Board of Rites in
1091. The sarcasm of his verse, however, con-
tinued to make him enemies, and, being accused
of speaking ill of the Emperor, he was again
banished. A new Emperor having come to the
throne, he was recalled in 1101 and restored to
honor, but died soon after at Ch’ang-chow, in
Kiang-su. In the estimation of the Chinese, Su
stands in the first rank as a poet. An edition of
his works in 115 books was issued in his lifetime,
and there have been many since then with com-
mentaries and new arrangements. Copious trans-
lated extracts are to be found in Giles, Gems of
Chinese Literature (London, 1884), and his
Chinese Literature (New York, 1901).
SUTURE (from Lat. sutura, seam, from
suere, to sew; connected with Skt. sin, Goth.
siujan, OHG. siuwan, siwan, AS. siwian, Eng.
sew). A term employed both in anatomy and
surgery. In anatomy it is used to designate the
modes of connection between the various bones
of the cranium and face. A suture is said to be
serrated when it is formed by the union of two
edges of bone with projections‘ and indentations
(like the edge of a saw) fitting into one another.
The coronal, sagittal, and lambdoidal sutures
(see SKULL) are of this kind. A suture is
termed squamous when it is formed by the over-
lapping of the beveled (or scale-like) edges of
two contiguous bones. There are also the har-
monia and schindylesis sutures, the former being
the simple apposition of rough bony surfaces,
and the latter being the reception of one bone
into a fissure of another. See J OINT.
In surgery the word suture is employed to
designate various modes of sewing up wounds.
The term is also applied to a single stitch. Two
main varieties of suture are recognized, the con-
tinuous and the interrupted suture, and from
these two a great number of modifications have
been made, of which the quill suture, button
suture, the glover’s suture, the quilt suture, and
the intestinal sutures of Lembert and Duypuy-
tren are examples. A buried suture is one which
unites some deeper structure, such as a muscle
or a layer of fascia, and which'does not appear
above the skin. It is often made of some ab-
sorbable material. Many materials are at pres-
ent employed for sutures, such as silk, catgut,
silkworm-gut, horse-hair, animal-tendon, and
silver wire. Consult McGrath, Surgical Anat-
omy and Operative Surgery (Philadelphia,
1902).
SU’VA. The capital and chief port of the
British colony of the Fiji Islands (q.v.). It is
situated on the southwestern coast of Viti Levu,
1100 miles from Auckland and 1540 miles from
Brisbane. There is good anchorage in a harbor
accessible at all tides; wharf extension was
made in 1901. There is a European population
of over 1000.
SUVALKY, s55-v'iil'ké. A government of
Russian Poland, situated in the northeastern part.
Area, 4852 square miles (Map: Russia, B 4) . The
surface is generally flat and interspersed with
lakes. The principal river is the Niemen. The
soil is mostly fertile. About one-fourth of the
area is in forests, which belong chiefly to the
State and are extensively exploited. The prin-
cipal occupation is agriculture. Population, in
1899, 604,945, half of Whom were Lithuanians.
SUVALKY. The capital of the Government
of Suvalky in Russian Poland, situated on a
small tributary of the N iemen, 606 miles south-
west of Saint Petersburg (Map: Russia, B 4).
Population, in 1899, 27,165.
SUVAROFF, su-vZei’r0f, or SUVOROFF,
ALEXEI VASSILIEVITCH, Count (1729-1800). A
Russian field-marshal. He was of Swedish de-
scent and was born in Finland. He served in
the campaigns of the Seven Years’ War and was
made a colonel after the battle of Kunersdorf
(1759). His services in the Polish War (1768-
72), in the war against the Turks (1773-74), in
suppressing the uprising of Pugatcheff, and in
subduing the Tatars of the Kuban (1783), gave
him increased reputation and he rose to the
rank of general. In the Turkish War of 1787-92
he was commander-in-chief, for the first time
brought the bayonet prominently into use in the
Russian army, and decided by it the battle of
Kinburn (1787). At the siege of Otchakov
(1788), the battle of Fokshany (1789), which
he gained in conjunction with the Austrians, and
the decisive victory of Rymnik (1789), his sys-
tem of rapid and repeated attack by overwhelm-
ing numbers secured him complete success. For
this last victory, which saved the Austrians
under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg from annihila-
tion or capture, Suvaroff was created by the
Emperor Joseph 11. a count of the Empire, and
from his own sovereign received the title of
Count Suvaroff-Rymnikski. One of his greatest
successes was the storming, in -1790, of the for-
tress of Ismail, where the whole Turkish garrison
was put to the sword. He was appointed (1791)
Governor of the newly conquered provinces. In
1794 he was sent into Poland, where he completed
the annihilation of the Polish monarchy by a
victory won, in conjunction with Fersen, over the
army of Kosciuszko, the capture of Praga,
where a horrible massacre of the inhabi-
tants took place, and the occupation of
Warsaw. The grade of field-marshal rewarded
these successes. Under Paul I. he fell into dis-
grace (1798), from his impatience of the Em-
peror’s fantastic military regulations, and was
deprived of his rank; but being restored through
English influence, he commanded the army sent to
coiiperate with the Austrians in Italy against
the French. He reached Verona in April,
1799; compelled Moreau to retire behind the
Adda after defeating him at Cassano (April
27th); entered Milan (April 29th); again
defeated the French under Macdonald at the
Trebbia (June 17th-19th), and a third time
under Joubert at Novi (August 15th), driving
them out of the whole of Northern Italy. He
next entered Switzerland in order to join Korea-
koff and effected a toilsome march across the
Saint Gotthard, in the course of which he lost
one-third of his army. But Masséna defeated the
army of Korsakoff at Zurich (September 25th),
and Suvaroff was compelled to execute a retreat
through the Grisons and Vorarlberg. For these
remarkable services he received the title of
Prince Italiski. In 1800 he was named com-
mander-in-chief of the Russian armies and or-
dered home. He arrived in the capital, where
he died May 18, 1800. He left an autobiography
SUVAROFF.
SWABIA.
370
in French, which was edited by Glinka (Mos-
cow, 1819). Consult also: Smith, Su/worows
_Leben und Heere/iige (Vilna, 1833-34); id., Su-
worow und Polens Unterga/ng (Leipzig, 1858);
Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworo/ws durch die
Schweie (Zurich, 1869); Macready, A Sketch of
Suwarrow and His Last Campaign (London,
1851).
SUWANEE, su-wa’ne. A river of Florida
' (Map: Florida, E 2). It rises in the Okefinokee
Swamp in southern Georgia and flows south-
west, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, 12 miles
north of Cedar Keys, after a course of 240 miles.
The scenery along its banks is attractive, and
the river has been celebrated throughout the
country by the song, “Old Folks at Home.”
SUYUTI, stT6-y-6o"te (Ar. Abu al Fadl ‘Abel
al-Rahmdn al-Suy-zlti) (1445-1505). An encyclo-
paedist and the most prolific writer in Arabic
literature. His family was of Persian origin,
but had emigrated ,to Egypt, where his father
was a judge and professor at Cairo. Hither the
son returned after the usual travels to Mecca
and the centres of learning, and here he rose
from one professorship to another. But at last
his arrogant and dishonest conduct drove him
from his position and he died in retirement. The
production of great numbers of books seems to
have been his affectation, and although they do
not reveal genius, they are of value for the ency-
clopaedic information they contain. About 315
titles of extant books of his are enumerated,
touching upon every subject. Consult: VViisten-
feld, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Ara-ber (Glit-
tingen, 1882) ; Brockelmann, Geschichte der ara-
bischen Litterat-ur (Berlin, 1899).
SVARGA, swar’ga (Skt., heaven). In Hindu
mytholog , the paradise of the god Indra (q.v.) .
It is the residence of some of the inferior gods
and deified mortals, who there rest in the shade
of the five wonderful trees, Manddra, Pdrijata,
Santana, 1Y(ll1)Ll’U?“]6_8Ct-, and H arichandana, drink
amrta, the beverage of immortality, and enjoy
the music of the heavenly musicians, the Gandh-
ar/vas, and_ the dancing of the celestial courte-
sans, the Apsarasas. Svarga is situated on
Mount Meru (q.v.), and is 800 miles i11 circum-
ference and 80 miles high. Its pillars are of
diamonds and its palaces of gold. The inhabi-
tants do not remain there forever, but after a
lapse of years they descend to earth to be born
and die according to the doctrine of metempsy-
chosis (q.v.).
SVEABORG, sva’a-bor-y’. A fortress of Fin-
land, Russia. See HELSINGFORS.
SVEARIKE, sva’a-re'ke. One of the three
historical divisions of Sweden. It lies between
Gtitarike and Norrland. Area, 32,589 square
miles; Population, in 1900, 1,579,954.
SVENDBORG, svénd’borG. A seaport of
Denmark, on the southeast coast of the island
of Fiinen, on the Svendborg Sound, 27 miles
south of Odense (Map: Deninark, D 3). The
town occupies a charming site in a hill—encircled
valley. The chief industries are iron-founding,
tanning, and shipbuilding. -Population, in 1901,
11,531.
SVENUSEN, ' JOHAN (1840-—-). A Nor-
wegian violinist and composer, born at
Christiania. He studied at the Leipzig Conserva-
tory, toured extensively, later was appointed
Concertmeister of the Leipzig ‘Euterpe’ con-
certs, and from 1872 to 1877 was conductor
of the Christiania Musical Association. After-
wards he became Court conductor at Copen-
hagen, and in 1896 was appointed conductor of
the Royal Theatre. His works include string
quartets and quintets; symphony in D; violin
concerto in A; overture to Bj6rnson’s drama
Sigurd Slembe; Carncwal a Paris, for the or-
chestra; Coronation March (for Oscar 11.);
1-Vedding Cantata, for chorus and orchestra;
Car-naval des artistes noruégiens; Norwegian
rhapsodies for the orchestra; overture to Romeo
and Juliet; Scandinavian airs for string quar-
tet; and Romance in G, for the violin and or-
chestra.
SVERDRUP, sver’dri_1p, JOHAN (1816-92). A
Norwegian politician, born at the Chateau of
Jarisberg. He studied and practiced law, but
from 1850, when he was elected to the Storthing,
gave his entire attention to politics and became
the leader of the radical peasant faction. As
president of the Storthing since_ 1871, he violent-
ly fought against the royal prerogatives. He was
called to preside over the Ministry in 1884, but
did not satisfy the radical portion of his adher-
ents, and, yielding to the combined attacks of the
Conservatives and the extreme Left, resigned in
1889.
SVERDRUP, OTTO (1855——). A Norwegian
Arctic explorer, born at Haarstad Farm, District
of Helgeland. He followed the sea at the age
of seventeen, was subsequently in command of a
merchantvessel, and in 1888 joined Nansen’s
expedition to Greenland. In 1893 he started
with Nansen for the North Pole as commander
of the Fram, which had been built under his
supervision, and when Nansen, in 1895, pro-
ceeded north on dog sledges, Sverdrup took the
ship to the Arctic Sea and in 1896 back to Nor-
way. In 1898 he led another expedition iii the
Fram as far as Cape Sable, was .caught in the
ice for a year, and, after advancing into Jones’s
Sound in the summer of 1899, was again ice-
bound for three years. Having explored the
southwest and western shores of Ellesmere Land
and discovered islands north of the Peary Archi-
pelago, he reached Goodhaven, Greenland, in
August, 1902, and returned to Norway in the
autumn.
SWA’BIA, or SUABIA (Ger. Schwaben, Lat.
Sue/via). A medieeval duchy in the southwest of
Germany. It took its name from the Suevi, by
which the Germanic people of the Alemanni
(q.v.) , who occupied Southwestern Germany in
the third century, were also known. The name
Suevia alternates with that of Alemannia as the
designation of the country in the early part of
the Middle Ages, but the former finally pre-
vailed. The region occupied by the Alemanni
embraced Western Bavaria, VViirttemberg, Baden,
Alsace, and a great part of Switzerland. The
bulk of the nation was subjected by the Franks
at the close of the fifth century. As part of the
Frankish realm, Alemannia was governed by na-
tive dukes, but the duchy was abolished before
the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. The
country from which Alsace and part of the Al-
pine territories had been detached, and which
now came to be known as Swabia, was then
placed under the rule of counts and nuntii
SWABIA.
SWALLOW.
371
mrnerce, and for a time it was nearly independ-
ent.
In 919 Swabia was constituted one of the great
duchies of the German Kingdom. It comprised
the region between the Rhine and the Lech and
part of Switzerland. The office of duke was fre-
quently kept in the royal family. In 1079 the
duchy passed to the House of Hohenstaufen, being
bestowed by the Emperor Henry IV. upon Fred-
erick of Staufen. Under the rule of this house,
which occupied the Imperial throne of Germany
from 1138 to 1254, Swabia was the most wealthy
and powerful of the German duchies. In 1096
Frederick of Staufen was compelled to give up
to Berthold of Ziihringen the Breisgau and the
Imperial bailiffship in Zurich. On the extinc-
tion of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in 1268 disin-
tegration took place and the ducal vassals (cities,
prelates, counts, etc.) claimed independence ex-
cept for their allegiance to the emperors. The
Count of 'Wiirttemberg occupied the leading
place among the petty rulers. The numerous
lesser lords were for the most part obliged to
accept the overlordship of the House of Ziihrin-
gen or of Austria. The cities, of which many
had become wealthy and powerful, were striving
for local independence. In 1376 some of them
formed the first Swabian League, which extended
beyond the bounds of Swabia. In 1405 \Viirt-
temberg, Baden, and seventeen cities joined to-
gether in the League of Marbach. The two
Leagues were of little importance as political
powers, but they paved the way for the Great
Swabian League, formed in 1488, which under
the leadership of the Count of W'iirttemberg exer-
cised administrative and judicial authority over
the whole country. During this long period of
strife a considerable portion of old Swabia had
passed into the power of Bavaria. In 1512 Swa-
bia became one of the ten circles into which Ger-
many was divided for administrative purposes
by Maximilian I. The dissolution of the Great
Swabian League took place in 1533. Among the
many city commonwealths which arose in Swa-
bia were Augsburg, Ulm, and Constance. The
southwestern Government District of Bavaria
bears the name of Swabia (or Swabia and New-
burg). Its capital is Augsburg. The best gen-
eral history is Sttilin, Geschichte IV~iirtternbergs
(Gotha, 1882-87).
SWADLINCOTE, sw(>d’lin-kot. A town in
Derbyshire, England, four miles southeast of
Burton-upon-Trent. Its industries comprise coal-
mining and the various branches of earthenware
manufacture. Population, in 1891, 13,889; in
1901, 18,014.
SWAHILL, swa-he’le. A Bantu people of the
Kau District, Tana-Ozi Delta, British East Af-
rica, mingled more or less in blood with Semites.
They are Mohammedans and differ little from the
Arabs in general culture. They number about one
million. They are noted traders, and their lan-
guage, the Kiswahili, is the great medium of
intercourse throughout east Central Africa.
Consult: Biittner, Wrirterbuch der Suahelispraehe
(Berlin, 1890) ; Seidel, G'ra/m-matilt der Suaheli-
sprache (Vienna, 1891) ; Steere, Handbook of
the Swahili Language (4th ed., London, 1894) ;
Krapf, Dictionary of the Suahili Language (ib.,
1882) ; Madan, English-Swahili Dictionary (Ox-
ford, l894) : Delaunay, Grammaire Kis-wahili
(Paris, 1898).
SWAIN, CHARLES (1801-74). An English
writer known as ‘the Manchester poet.’ He was
born in Manchester, and lived all his life in
England. For fourteen years he was a clerk in
the dye house of his uncle ; he afterwards carried
on a business in engraving and lithographing.
Between 1827 and 1867 he published several
volumes of verse, among which are Dryburgh
Abbey (1832), an elegy on Sir Walter Scott;
English Melodies (1849); and the more ambi-
tious The Mind and Other Poems (1832). Sev-
eral of his songs, which have been set to music,
are well known, as “Somebody’s Waiting for
Somebody” and “Tapping at the Window.” Con-
sult the edition of his poems, with portrait and
introduction by C. C. Smith (Boston, 1857).
SWAIN, GEoReE FILLMORE (l857—). An
American civil engineer. He was born in San
Francisco and was educated at the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, where he gradu-
ated in 1877. He then studied three years in
the Government engineering school at Berlin,
Germany. Upon his return he settled in Boston,
where in 1887 he became professor of civil engi-
neering at the Institute of Technology, and engi-
neer to the Massachusetts Railroad Commission.
In 1894 he was also made a member of the
Boston Transit Commission. His most important
publication is a “Report on the VVater Power of
the Atlantic VVatershed” (vol. xvii. of Tenth
United States Census).
SWAIN, JOSEPH (l857—). An American
educator, born at Pendleton, Ind. He graduated
at Indiana University in 1883; studied in the
University of Edinburgh, and with the astrono-
mer royal of Scotland in 1885-86; was professor
of mathematics in his alma mater from 1886
till 1891; and in the latter year was called as
professor of mathematics to Leland Stanford
University. Two years afterwards he returned
to Indiana University as president, and remained
in that position until 1902, when he accepted
the presidency of Swarthmore College in Penn-
sylvania.
SWAIN’SON, VVILLIAM (1789-1855). An
English naturalist, born in Liverpool. He trav-
eled in South America, and on his return to Eng-
land began the publication of works on natural
history. In 1841 he emigrated to New Zealand,
where he became Attorney-General. Important
among his works are: Zoiilogical Illustrations
(1820-23; 1829-33); Erotic Uonchology (1821-
22); Ornithological Drawings (1834-41); Birds
of VVestern Africa (1837); The Naturalist’s
Guide, etc. (1840).
SWALLOW (AS. swale/we, OHG. swalawa,
Ger. Schwalbe, swallow; perhaps connected with
Gk. dhxvaiv, alkyd-n, Lat. alcedo, kingfisher). A
passerine bird of the family Hinmdinidae, a fam-
ily represented by many similar species in almost
all parts of the world. This family consists of
birds which prey on insects, catching them in
the air. They have remarkable powers of flight,
now soaring to a great height, now skimming
near the surface of the ground or of the water,
and wheeling with great rapidity. The bill is
short and weak, broad at the base, and deeply
cleft, so that the gape is wide; the wings are
very long, pointed, and more or less sickle-shaped
when expanded, and have only nine primaries;
the legs are short and weak. The tail is gener-
SWALLOW.
SWAMMERDAM.
372
ally forked, and the plumage is close and glossy.
The family is perhaps the most sharply defined
and easily recognized of any in the order. The
species are about eighty, widely diflused, being
found in all countries except near the poles.
Such of them as occur in the colder parts of the
world are summer birds of passage, migrating to
warmer regions when winter approaches and in-
sects become scarce. Only seven species of swal-
low occur in North America, and all but one of
these winter south of the United States, though
in summer they range to the Arctic Ocean. The
largest species is the purple martin, while
the smallest is the bank swallow (q.v.) . Perhaps
the commonest of North American swallows is
the barn-swallow (q.v.). Another swallow nu-
merous about farmyards and barns is the cliff or
eaves swallow (Petroehelidon lunifrons), whose
nest is the remarkable flask-shaped structure of
pellets of mud often seen attached in rows to
the outside walls of barns, just under the eaves.
Formerly, as in the case of other swallows (see
BARN-SWALLOW) , this species bred in rocky places
and placed its nests in large companies against
the faces of clifl's.
A large and handsome swallow common
throughout North America is the white-bellied
or tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor), which is
steel blue or green above and pure white beneath.
Of the same genus is the exquisite little violet-
green swallow (Tachycineta thallasina) of the
Western United States, which is less than five
inches long; the upper parts are velvety green
and violet purple, while the under parts are pure
white. The rough-winged swallow (q.v.) com-
pletes the list. South America has a large series
of swallows very similar to those of the United
States, and especially of that group of which the
tree and violet-green swallows are a type. Some
naturally breed in holes of rocks, others in hollow
trees, or form nests of mud, straw, and feathers
in some similar situation; but nearly all have
abandoned their wild ways as fast as the country
has been settled, and placed their abodes near or
within buildings. The same pleasing habit char-
acterizes the tribe in India, Africa, Australia,
and everywhere else, and has led to the growth
of much pleasant folk-lore, poetry, and senti-
ment. In Great Britain Hirundo rustica, the
common or ‘chimney swallow’ (to be distin-
guished from the American chimney swift, q.v.),
is much like our barn-swallow, and makes a simi-
lar nest, usually placed under a shed roof, in a
half-ruined building, or often in a chimney.
The geographical range of this species extends
over a great part of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
The window swallow, or house-martin (H irundo
urbioa), is another very common European spe-
cies, glossy black above, white below and on the
rump; the feet covered with short downy white
feathers, which is not the case in the chimney
swallow.
Consult Sharpe and Wyatt, Monograph of the
Hiruncliniclce (London, 1885-94), which contains
a description, with colored plates, of all the
species of the world, and a full bibliography.
SWALLOWTAIL. Any member of a family
of large butterflies, Papilionidee, with tail-like
prolongations of the hind wings. Black, yellow,
blue, and green are the prevailing colors. About
25 species occur in the United States. South
America is most rich in these butterflies. About
700 species have been described in all. The
larvae of the swallowtails possess a curious
process on the thorax called an ‘osmaterium,’
which is usually retracted, but may be thrust
forth at will. It is a Y-shaped process and con-
tains a scent-gland which emits a strong odor
when the organ is thrust out. The pupa is placed
with the head upward, fastened by the tail to the
supporting object, and is kept in place by a silk
band around the middle of the body. (See BUT-
TERFLIES ; also Plate under BUTTERFLIES, Fig. 5.)
In certain species the males and females differ
so much both in form and coloration that they
might easily be mistaken for distinct species. In
New Guinea there occurs a swallow-tail butterfly
(Ornithoptera paradisea) the female of which is
black, white, and gray, and the male is gold and
green, with very long tails on the hind wings.
The males of another species of the same genus
are numerous and the female is rare; the propor-
tion is said to be about 1000 to 15. Not only
does the female show sexual dimorphism, but
even considerable seasonal dimorphism. The
tiger swallowtail (Jasoniades glauous) is a
North American species which shows a striking
sexual dimorphism in a portion of its range. The
form now known as Turnus is straw-colored
above, banded and marked with black. In the
South and West black forms of the female sex
occur, and belong to the so-called ‘glaucus-’ form.
The caterpillar of these two forms is dark green
with two purple eye-spots, one on each side of the
third thoracic segment, which are bordered with
black, yellow, and black again in turn. When
not feeding, this caterpillar rests on a bed of silk
spun on a leaf. The zebra swallowtail (Iphi-
clides Ajax) presents one of the most striking
cases of seasonal dimorphism known among but-
terflies, so that until the life-history of this form
was known three different species had been de-
scribed from it. There are several broods a sea-
son and the last brood winters in the chrysalis
stage. The butterflies that appear in the early
spring are known as the Marcellus form and
those that appear later in the spring as the TeZa-
monides form. The latter are larger butterflies
with longer tails and more white than the M ar-
cellus form. (See Colored Plate of AMERICAN
BUTTERFLIES.) All the late spring broods pro-
duce a third form which is still larger and with
longer tails. This summer brood is known as
the Ajax form. See illustration at SKIPPER.
SWALLOWTHORN, or SEA-BUCKTHORN
(Hippophaé) . A genus of shrubs of the natural
order Eleeagnaceae, natives of Europe. The com-
monest species (Hippophaié rhamnoicles) is a
spiny shrub often planted for ornament i11 sandy
soil, especially near the sea. It is valued for its
silvery leaves and yellow, acid, one-seeded ber-
ries, which, besides being attractive, are useful
for sauces and jellies.
SWAMMERDAM, sw'2i.m’mer-diim, JAN
(1637-80). A Dutch naturalist, born in Amster-
dam. He studied medicine at Leyden, but devoted
most of his life to the study of insects and other
animals. He was a skilled dissector of small ani-
mals, and was the father of the scientific study of
the morphology and metamorphosis of insects.
He first made a natural classification of insects
by distinguishing between those which have a
complete metamorphosis and those which have
not. He wrote: De Respimtione usuque Pul-
monum (1667) ; Allyerneene Verhanoleling van
FAMILIAR SWALLONN/S


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.' 1

1. VVHITE-‘BELLIED Of‘ TREE SVVALLOVV (Tachycim:ta 4. CLIFF Off EAVES SWALLQW (PEtI'OCHEIIdOH luni-
blcolor). fronsl.
2. BARN SWALLOW (Chelidon erythrogaaterh 5 BANK SWALLOW or SAND MARTIN (CIIVICOII
8. PURPLE MARTIN (Pr-ogne aubis). rlparia).
6. ENGLISH HOUSE swau.ow (Hir-undo umea).
SWAMMERDAIML
SWAN.
878
Bloedloose Dierhens (1669) ; Biblia N aturce, sine
Historia Insectorum in Gertas Classes Redacta
(ed. Boerhaave, 1737-38).
SWAMP (AS. swamm, swam, swamp, Goth.
swamms, sponge, swumsl, ditch, OHG. swam,
MHG. swam, swamp, Ger. Sch/wamm, sponge;
connected with OHG. sumpft, Ger. Sumpf, swamp,
and with Gk. 0'0/.L¢0S, somphos, spongy). An area
of wet ground usually covered with certain coarse
grasses, trees, and other plants peculiar to such
land. While the direct cause for differences be-
tween typical swamps has not been fully worked
out, drainage seems to be the principal control-
ling factor. It seems probable that in undrained
swamps, such as peat bogs, the products of plant
decay, including various acids, necessarily ac-
cumulate and that aeration is imperfect. Hence it
seems reasonable to believe that only xerophytic
plants can grow in such places. On the other
hand, river swamps, which are comparatively
well drained, may show reverse conditions. Since
they are hydrophytic, as habitats they maintain
plants whose structures are hydrophytic. (See
Hrnnornrrns.) Thus undrained swamps are
hydrophytic with respect to soil moisture, but
xerophytic with respect to plant structures. See
XEROPHYTES.
Perhaps no type of plant society better illus-
trates the order of succession or encroachment
of one zone upon another than the most xero-
phytic swamps, the peat bogs or moors. A typi-
cal bog, for instance, may show a central pond
with water lilies and other aquatics, surrounded
by bulrushes, behind which may be a zone of
sedges, and then grasses or swamp forests, e.g. of
tamarack or arborvitze. Since each of these zones
in turn advances toward and encroaches upon the
centre, the swamp gradually becomes filled and
drained naturally in a few years.
Other characteristic xerophytic swamps are
salt marshes, both the typical northern salt
meadows and the mangrove swamps of the
tropics. Plants of salt marshes (halophytes,
q.v.) are very largely succulent. In many cases
the coarse grasses resemble those of the prairies.
In mangrove swamps xerophytic structures, rep-
resented typically by the mangrove leaf, are not
the sole interesting features. Above the foul
water many plants develop knee-like processes
which supposedly are of advantage in aeration;
and vivipary (q.v.) here reaches its highest ex-
pression. (See MANGROVE.) A closely allied
type is the so-called cypress swamp of the South-
ern United States.
All swamps may be considered as ephemeral
plant societies, developing either into prairies
or mesophytic forests as they become better
drained. Climate doubtless plays some part
in this development, since the prairie rather than
the forest is likely to develop in the prairie re-
gions or in the forest regions adjoining the
prairie, whereas in the heart of the forest regions
most swamps eventually become covered with
trees. This, is, however, not a universal ex-
planation, since some swamps in forest regions
never become sylvan.
SWAMP DEER, or BARASINGHA. A deer of
Northern India, of rather large size, with smooth
and somewhat flattened antlers, with a promi-
nent brow-tine and sometimes 16 to 20 points.
It is a grazer, keeps in the outskirts of the woods,
and on grassy lands, and in winter gathers into
small bands. Its scientific name is Gervus Du-
oaucelli. Consult Lydekker, Deer of All Lands
(London, 1898) .
SWAMP HARE, or SWAMP RABBIT. A hare
of the swamps of the Lower Mississippi Valley
(Lepus aquaticus) , 24 inches long, finely mottled
above with buff, rufous, and black, and more
buffy than the ‘cottontail;’ belly and under side
of tail pure white. Its habits are little known.
Compare Mxssn HARE.
SWAMP’SCOTT. A town, including several
villages, in Essex County, Mass., adjoining Lynn
and 13 miles from Boston; on Massachusetts
Bay, and on the Boston and Maine Railroad
(Map: Massachusetts, F 3). It is attractively
situated and is known as a summer resort.
There are two parks, a public library with 7500
volumes in the town hall, and the Phillips
School, the most prominent building along the
shore. Fishing is of some importance, but the
community is engaged largely in the industries
of Lynn (q.v.). The government is adminis-
tered by town meetings. The water-works are
owned and operated by the town. Population, in
1890, 3198; in 1900, 4548.
SWAMP WARBLER. A large genus (Hel-
minthophila) of American warblers (q.v.), so
called because of their fondness for low, swampy
places. They are small, trim, insect-catching mi-
gratory birds prevailingly
gray or green and yellow
in color, and most of
them breed north of the
United States and winter
in the tropics. A good
example is the ‘golden-
w in g ’ (Helminthophila
ch/rysoptera), which is
gray on the upper parts
and white below, with the throat and auricular
region black, and a conspicuous yellow patch on
the wing.
SWAN (AS., OHG. s-wan, Ger. Schwan, swan;
probably connected with Lat. sonus, sound, Skt.
soan, to resound). A water-bird of the duck
family, the seven or eight species of which con-
stitute the subfamily Cygninac, composed mainly
of the genera Cygnus and Olor, -the latter dis-
tinguished by the great keel of the breast-bone
being divided into two plates, between which lies
the curvature of the windpipe—an organ greatly
developed in this group. Swans are larger in
body than geese, and are recognizable by their
long arched necks, enabling them to reach food
on the bottom of streams and shallow ponds
without diving. They nest mostly in high lati-
tudes, constructing on the ground a rude re-
ceptacle of rushes and the like for the half a
dozen greenish eggs. They feed chiefly on vege-
table substances, as the seeds and roots of aquatic
plants, but also on fish-spawn, of which they are
great destroyers._ They hiss like geese, and strike
with their wings in attack or defense.
The typical and most familiar example of the
tribe is the tame or ‘mute’ swan (Cygnus olor),
which is about five feet in entire length, and
weighs about thirty pounds. It is known to live
for at least fifty years. The male is larger than
the female. The adults of both sexes are pure
white, with a reddish bill; the young (cygnets)
have a dark bluish-gray plumage, and lead-colored
bill, surmounted by a black knob at the base of


GOLD E N WING.
SWAN.
SWARTH.
374
the upper mandible, and with a black nail. (See
Colored Plate of WATER BIRDS.) In its wild
state this species is found in Eastern Europe and
in Asia; in a half-domesticated state it has long
been a common ornament of ponds, lakes, and
rivers. The ancients ascribed to it remarkable
musical powers, which it was supposed to exer-
cise particularly when its death approached. It
has, in reality, a soft low voice, plaintive, and
with little variety, to be heard chiefly when it is
moving about with its young.
Swans, according to the law of England, are
birds royal; those actually kept by the Crown
had a mark, and the King’s swan-herd once was
an important person. The royal swans of the
Thames are so marked to this day by notches and
lines out upon the beak, andthe process of col-
lecting and marking them annually is called ‘up-
ping.’ Other Old V\*orld swans are the Polish,
with an orange bill; the whistling swan or
‘whooper;’ Bewick’S swan, and the aberrant black
swan (Chenopis atrata) of Australia, which
is comparatively small and deep black except the
white wing-quills and the red bill.
The North American swans belong to the genus
Olor. The most common species (Olor Colum-
bianus) breeds iii the far North and is seen in
the United States only on its migrations, which
extend to the Gulf of Mexico; and it is very rare
east of the Alleghanies. The trumpeter swan
(Olor buccinator), noted for its sonorous cry,
breeds from Iowa and Dakota northward, and
winters southward to the Gulf. It is one of the
largest species, measuring 5% feet in length. The
black-necked and duck-billed swans are South
American species. See DUCK; and authorities
there cited.
SWAN, ORDER OF THE. A religious associa-
tion of princes and nobles formed in 1440 by
Elector Frederick 11. of Brandenburg for benevo-
lent purposes. It was extinguished during the
Reformation, but was renewed in 1843 by Fred-
erick William IV. of Prussia as an association,
open to men and women of all creeds, for the
amelioration of physical and moral ills.
SWAN, THE KNIGHT OF THE. A very old and
popular myth found in French, German, and
English mediaeval romances, first mentioned by
William of Tyre about 1180. Helias, Knight of
the Swan, is one of eight children of Oriant of
Lilefort. Seven are changed to swans, one draw-
ing the hero in a boat to become champion for
Clarissa of Bouillon, the ancestor of Godfrey,
thus connecting the story with the Crusades.
After marriage the knight departs when his wife
breaks the taboo on his name, a Grail feature
common to all variants, as Lohengrin, showing
its partly Celtic origin. The scene is generally
on the Lower Rhine, connecting it with the dukes
of Brabant and Clev_es, whose symbol was a
swan.
SWAN, JoHN MAGALLAN (1847—). An Eng-
lish painter and sculptor, born at Old Brentford.
He studied in London and in Paris. In 1889 his
“Prodigal Son” (bought by the Chantrey Fund)
established his reputation. His sculptured works
—in nearly every material—are usually studies
of cats, and his modeling is broad, flexible, and
naturalistic. “The Jaguar,” “Puma and Ma-
caw,” “Wounded Leopard,” and “Leopard Run-
ning,” challenge comparison with Barye. His
subjects in oil include animals, figures, and land-
scapes, and are distinguished by massive, simple
treatment, and a strongly imaginative element.
His color is delicate and discriminating, but
nearly always low in tone. Notable paintings
are: “Ocelot and Fish ;” “Tigers;” “Tigers
Drinking ;” “Ceylon Leopards ;” “Lioness Defend-
ing Her Cubs;” and “Polar Bear Swimming.”
He was elected an associate of the Royal Acad-
emy in 1894.
SWAN, JOSEPI-I WILSON (1828-—). An Eng-
lish inventor, born at Sunderland, and there edu-
cated. He made several inventions of great value,
among them the carbon process for making per-
manent photographs, ‘called autotypes, a miner’s
electric safety lamp, improvements in electro-
metallurgical deposition, but most notable of all
the incandescent electric lamp which bears his
name, the forerunner of all the electric lamps
now in use. These inventions brought him many
honors, including a fellowship in the Royal So-
ciety.
SWANPAN. A Chinese calculating device.
See CALCULATING MACHINES.
SWAN RIVER. A small river of Western
Australia entering the Indian Ocean at the Fre-
mantle, a few miles below Perth (Map: Aus-
tralia, B 5). It is navigable for steamers to the
latter city. On its banks was founded in 1829
the Swan River Colony, which formed the nu-
cleus around which the colony of Western Aus-
tralia was built up. -
SWANSEA, sw5n’-si. A seaport in Glamor-
ganshire, South Wales, at the mouth of the
Tawe, 60 miles west-northwest of Bristol (Map:
Wales, B 5). Swansea is the chief seat of the
~ tin-plate trade of England, and one of the most
important copper smelting and refining centres
in the world. The vast resources of the surround-
ing coal field began to be exploited about 1830,
and since that time the progress of Swansea has
made it next to Cardiff the most important town
in South Wales. The principal edifices, for the
most part of modern construction, comprise a
guild hall with the crown and law courts and mu-
nicipal ofiices, the Royal Institution of South
\Vales, the grammar school founded in 1682, a
good public hall, and a spacious and well-ar-
ranged infirmary. The harbor is formed by piers
of masonry projecting from either side of
the mouth of the Tawe into Swansea Bay,
a wide inlet of the Bristol Channel. An ave-
rage of 6000 vessels enter and clear nearly
4,000,000 tons of merchandise annually. In
the immediate vicinity are smelting works, in
which many thousands of tons of copper ores,
silver ores, and zinc ores are smelted an-
nually. About 20,000 tons of copper, valued
at $15,000,000 to $20,000,000, are annual-
ly produced, and about. 2,000,000 tons of tin
plate, valued at $15,000,000, are exported an-
nually. The annual value of exports and im-
ports is estimated at $50,000,000 to $60,000,000.
Swansea owes its origin to a castle erected in
1099. In 1260 the castle was burned down. It
was twice rebuilt, but was finally dismantled by
the Parliamentarians in 1647, and is now an in-
teresting ruin. Population, in 1891, 90,349; in
1901, 94,514.
SWARTH, swart, HELENE (1859——) . A Dutch
poet, born at Amsterdam and, since 1893, married
to the poet Frits Lapidoth at The Hague. From
SWARTH.
SWAS'I‘IKA.
375
1865 to 1884 she lived at Brussels, and after pub-
lishing two volumes of poems in French, Fleurs
dit reve (187 9) and Les‘ Printanieres (1882),
took high rank among the younger generation of
poets in Holland with the lyrics, mostly in son-
net form, Blauwe Bloemen (1884), Beelden en
Stemmen (1887), Sneeawvlohlcen (1888), Passie-
bloemen (1891), and other collections. She also
wrote sketches in prose, such as Fronisch en tra-
gisch (1895), Van Vromenleed and Van Vrou-
wenlot (1896), Ernst (1902), and others.
SWARTH’MORE COLLEGE. A co-educa-
tional institution at Swarthmore, Pa., 12 miles
west-southwest of Philadelphia. It was founded
in 1864 by members of the Society of Friends, to
secure to the youth of the Society higher educa-
tional training under instructors of their own
faith. The college conferred the degrees of
bachelor of letters and bachelor of science until
1903, when the degrees of bachelor of arts and
bachelor of science in engineering were made
the only ones given. The work is partially
elective, and special courses of study are pro-
vided. The master’s degree in arts, letters, and
science and the degrees of civil, mechanical, and
chemical engineers are given for advanced work.
In 1903 there were 205 students in all depart-
ments, with 25 instructors. The college library
contained 22,100 volumes. The productive funds
amounted to $300,000, the income to $100,000,
and the total valuation of the college property
to $800,000.
SWASTIKA (Skt., weal-making). A fylfot
or ‘four-foot’ cross, a monogrammatic sign having
four branches, of which the ends are bent, gen-
It isa
sign of benediction or of good luck, and in one
form or another has been used as a symbol of
welfare from a very early time. The sign ap-
pears in a variety of modifications, often con-
nected in a continuous scroll, of which there are
two well-defined types, forming on the one hand
the European and Asiatic series, and on the other
hand the American series, as illustrated by the
following diagrams:
/MG)
erally at right angles, thus or


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EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC SERIES.

Though the swastika has been found in Europe,
Asia, and America, yet it is unknown to many
racesl There is, for example, no evidence to show
that it was current as a native symbol in Egypt,
Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia, or (till a late
period) in Persia. It was particularly adopted
by Buddhism and its presence in China, Ja an,
and Tibet can easily be explained as due to hat
religion. The swastika is unknown in early In-
dia (all evidence to the contrary rests on false
assumptions) and when (c.300 13.0.) it first ap-
pears, it is as a simple cross, as in crossed arms.
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Many of the swastikas found at Hissarlik (Troy)
are now acknowledged to be no true swastikas.
They are not found before the third city. Its
original place and significance are alike unknown,
but it has been the object of endless speculation.
Some scholars see in the swastika a solar symbol,
which represents, in its so-called female and male
‘-ti
cuits of_the sun to north and south. It has been
derived from the triskalion or ‘three-leg’ symbol






A-Q
forms, and I:-‘F-l respectively, the annual cir-
, but this sign is of later origin.‘ The swas-
tika has also been interpreted in other ways, as
a wind-symbol, an earth-symbol, an emblem of
productivity, a phallic emblem, etc. Temple re-
gards it as in origin merely decorative, and sug-
gests that the running design may have been
taken from a coil of string. In the opinion of
d’A1viella, who calls it, from its shape, gam-
madion, the swastika was chiefly talismanic. The
swastika has been derived by some from the
cross; by others, from the circle; it has been re-
garded as an evolution from the lotus-petal in
architecture; and as a mystic design it has been
associated with fire and with water. The sun and
fecundity are its most probable sources, if it
had any meaning beyond that of an orname.t
becoming a mystic sign. The swastika appeared
first in the Bronze Age, and occurs in the Swiss
lake-dwellings. In the historic period it is found
in Japan, Korea, China, Tibet, Armenia, Asia
Minor, Greece and its islands (especially Cyprus
and Rhodes), Italy, France, Germany, Scandi-
navia, Great Britain (perhaps only under Scan-
dinavian influence), North America (e.g. Ohio,
Tennessee, - Mississippi, Alaska), Mexico, and
South America (e.g. Brazil). In assigning its
original home, it must be remembered that no
case of Oriental swastikas precedes the period of
Greek influence in India. It seems probable that
d’Alviella may be right in ascribing an eastern
emigration from a western centre, if not from
Troy itself. It is said that there is in Tibet a sect
of rationalists called Swastikas, but this is prob-
ably an error, and the sect meant is that of the
Jains.
SWASTIKA.
SWEATING SICKNESS.
376
Brsmoenarnr. The literature directly or in-
directly relating to the swastika is very. large
(more than 100 works are mentioned by Wilson),
- but most of it is useless, being composed by
theorists rather than by careful scholars. Be-
sides the article by R. C. Temple (referred to
above) , which appeared in the first number of the
Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bom-
bay, and d’Alviella’s great work, La migration
des symboles (Paris, 1891), there is an exhaus-
tive treatise in the Report of the United States
National Museum (Washington, 1894), by
Thomas Wilson, The Swastika, the Earliest
K-no-wn Symbol, and Its Migrations, which, be-
sides giving an account of the various theories
of the symbol, has a complete bibliography of
the subject.
SWATOW, swii’tou' (a local corruption of
Chinese Shan-t’ow, fish-trap head). A treaty
port in the Province of Kwang-tung, Southeast-
ern China, situated in latitude 23° 21’ N., longi-
tude 116° 39' E., on the left bank and near the
mouth of the river Han (Map: China, E 7 ). It
is dependent on the departmental city of Ch’ao-
chow fu, 35 miles farther up the river, where the
consuls are supposed to reside. It was opened to
foreign residence and trade by the Treaty ofTien-
tsin (1858), and the British and United States
consuls were appointed in 1860. The foreign
community is small and isolated, partly in the
vicinity of the native town and partly on the
hilly ground on the opposite side of the river.
The natives are noted for their turbulence and
their hostility to foreigners. Sugar-making is
the chief industry of the region served by Swa-
tow. Sugar is the heaviest export, and bean-cake
from Niu-chwang for use as manure in the sugar
fields is due of the heaviest imports of native
products. There are several large sugar refiner-
ies here, and a steam flour mill. Other products
are tea, grasscloth, indigo, vegetable oils, paper,
tobacco, joss-sticks, joss-paper, etc. The popula-
tion in 1901 was‘38,000.
SWATS, swats. A people of the Indo-Afghan
frontier belonging by race and language to the
Aryan stock. Their country, called Swat, trav-
ersed by the river of the same name, an afliuent
of the Kabul, is included in the recently consti-
tuted Northwest Frontier Province of India. For-
merly Buddhists, they were converted to M0-
hammedanism in the eleventh century. The
lower Swat country was occupied by the Yusuf-
zais in the middle of the fifteenth century, and at
the end of the sixteenth the Swats were nearly
exterminated.
SWAZILAND, sw%i’zé-land. - A small Kafiir
country in South Africa under British rule,
bounded by Portuguese East Africa (Lourengo
Marques), Natal (Tongaland), and the Trans-
vaal Colony (Map: Transvaal Colony, P 4).
Area, about 8500 square miles. The region is
mountainous. The Lebombo chain lies on the
east, the Drakensberg on the west. The general
elevation is given as about 5000 feet. Swaziland
is well watered, and is a fine grazing country. It
is considered also well adapted for farming.
There is much rich soil and the climate is health-
ful. The forests are large and valuable, possess-'
ing rare varieties of woods. Its gold deposits are
now being mined. Copper, coal, and tin are said
to exist. The British resident commissioner has
his seat at Bremersdorp. The population is
about 70,000, the Europeans numbering 1600.
Swaziland became an independent State in 1843,
its people having thrown off the yoke of the
Zulus. In 1894, by convention between the Boers
and British, the region came under the rule of
the South African Republic (Transvaal), with
ghgse downfall the sovereignty passed to Great
r1 am.
SWEARING, PROFANE. See BLASPHEMY.
SWEAT (AS. swat, OHG. sweiz, Ger. Schweiss,
sweat; connected with Lat. sudor, Gk. l6pu’:s,
hidros, Lith. swidrs, Skt. s/veda, sweat). The
fluid that is excreted through the pores of the
skin; perspiration. The nature, composition,
and uses of this fluid in the normal state have
been noticed in the article on SKIN (q.v.). The
sweat is diminished in amount in many febrile
diseases, especially if the temperature is high
and prolonged. Anidrosis, -as this condition is
called, accompanies diseases in which there is a
profuse discharge of fluid from the kidneys, as in
diabetes, or from the bowels or stomach. In
anasarca or general oedema and myxoedema sweat
is diminished from stretching of the skin. Cer-
tain drugs, as belladonna and strychnine, marked-
ly diminish the amount of sweat; others, notably
pilocarpine, increase it. Profuse sweating (hy-
perid/rosis) occurs in acute rheumatism, Asiatic
cholera, and certain adynamic fevers, the sweat-
ing stage of malaria, the advanced stages of pul-
monary phthisis, and septicaemia. Certain ail-
ments are characterized by localized sweats; for
example, the hands and feet in conditions of gen-
eral debility; the head in rickets; and unilateral
or one-sided sweating of the head or face or body
in some nervous diseases, or from pressure on the
sympathetic nerves by thoracic aneurism. The
composition and color of the sweat may in rare
instances undergo remarkable alterations. When
through disease the action of the kidneys has be-
come impaired the sweat has sometimes a urinous
odor and deposits white scales or urinary solids
upon the skin. This is known as uridrosis.
Bromidrosis is an affection of the sweat glands
characterized by ofi'ensive-smelling perspiration.
SWEATING SICKNESS. An extremely
fatal epidemic disease which prevailed in Europe,
and especially England, during the fifteenth, six-
teenth, and early part of the seventeenth cen-
turies. From the fact that the English people
both at home and abroad were chiefly attacked,
the malady was known as the ‘English sweat’ or
‘English ephemera.’ It first appeared in August,
1485, in the army of Henry VII. shortly after
his arrival in Wales from France to fight the bat-
tle of Bosworth, and in a few weeks it had spread
to London. It was a violent inflammatory fever,
attacking as a rule robust, vigorous men, and
characterized by a short chill, painful oppression
over the epigastrium, headache, stupor,, and a
profuse fetid sweat. The disease took its course
in about twenty-four hours. The patient suf-
fered profound prostration and intense internal
fever, but refrigerants seemed only to do harm.
This epidemic lasted about a month, but during
this short period many thousands died. The dis-
ease returned to- England in 1506, 1517, 1528, and
1551. The epidemic of 1528 was particularly
severe and was long referred to as ‘the great
mortality.’ It raged over Europe—Germany,
the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Po-
land, Lithuania, and Livonia were all attacked.
SWEATING SICKNESS.
SWEDEN.
377
In Hanover alone 8000 persons died. After 1551
no further epidemic occurred until the beginning
of the eighteenth century. Since that time nu-
merous outbreaks have been noted, but in a milder
form. The disease is nearly always prevalent in
some part of the world, most frequently in
France (Picardy) and Italy, under the more
modern name of miliary fever. (See MILIABIA.)
In Germany it is still known as the ‘English
sweat.’ As now observed, the disease is character-
ized by fever, profuse sweats, and an eruption
of miliary vesicles. As in influenza a large num-
ber of people are attacked, but the epidemic lasts
sometimes not more than seven or eight days,
and the mortality is not high. For full his-
torical accounts of the epidemics of the Middle
Ages, consult Dr. Cains, A Boise Against the
Sioeatyng Siclcnesse (1552); Hecker, Epidemics
of the Middle Ages (Sydenham Society Trans-
actions); Hirsch, Geographical and Historical
Pathology ; (new Sydenham Society Transactions,
actions, vol. i.) ; and Creighton’s History of
Epidemics in Britain (1891) .
SWEATING SYSTEM. The practice pur-
sued by certain manufacturers, particularly of
clothing, of giving out piece work to individuals
on which the work is to be done at home and at
starvation wages.
The system is a survival of the household
form of industry that still exists in certain
trades in large cities. The term ‘sweater’ was
used first by journeymen tailors in London, who
worked long hours. As more work was given out,
the home worker employed his family and out-
siders, and thus a system of sub-contract de-
veloped in which the middleman was called the
sweater. To-day ‘the sweating system’ designates
the fag end of all industries where low wages and
bad conditions prevail. The work is on a cheap
grade of goods, principally cigars, bread made in
cellars, candy, and garments. The people sweated
belong to a low class of unskilled labor, generally
foreign born. The sub-contractors usually are
Jews.
Evils of the sweat shop are long hours—ten
to eighteen hours a day, including Sunday; over-
crowding in the shops and surrounding tene-
ments; unsanitary conditions in the work rooms
and tenement houses, lacking in light, air, and
cleanliness; child labor, very young girls and
boys often running the machines; disease and de-
formity brought on by confinement and dust;
irregularity of the work; and poor pay. The chief
causes of the sweating system are (1) the exces-
sive supply of unskilled labor; (2) an economic
advantage to large dealers, in having their work
done in small shops, thereby saving rent and
evading factory laws, in cheap labor, in the ina-
bility of isolated workers to combine, and in the
irregularity of work; (3) finally, the irresponsi-
bility of employers, and the indifference of the
public.
Among proposed remedies may be mentioned
( 1) stringent legislation, backed by public opin-
ion, to force these kinds of work into large
shops and factories; (2) coiiperative production;
(3) trade unions for unskilled workers; (4) pub-
lic workshops; (5) restriction of foreign immigra-
tion ; (6) an eight-hour day; (7) consumers’ league.
Factory laws of Ohio, Massachusetts, Illinois,
and New York require licenses, or permits, de-
scribing rooms in which work may be done. Mas-
sachusetts only enforces such laws successfully;
and she cannot rotect herself against sweat-
shop goods from e sewhere.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Banks, White Slaves (Bos-
ton, 1892); Hobson, Problem of Poverty (Lon-
don, 1891) ; Hall House Maps and Papers (New
York, 1898); American Social Science Associa-
tion Journal, 30, 57; Unitcd States Labor Com-
mission Balletin IV. (May, 1896); Factory In-
spectors’ Report (Illinois, 1895-96). See GON-
SUMEBS’ LEAGUE; LABOR Psosuzms; FACTORIES
AND THE FACTORY SYSTEM; FACTORY INSPECTION.
SWE’IDEN (SW. Sverige) . The eastern and
larger part of the Scandinavian peninsula. It
is separated from Denmark on the southwest by
the Cattegat and on the west, north, and east
is bounded by Norway, Finland, and the Baltic
Sea. It extends from latitude 55° 20’ N. to 69°,
and from longitude 11° E. to 24°. Area, 172,876
square miles. In several physical aspects it
differs much from Norway. It contains more
level land and is more fertile and therefore adapt-
ed to support a larger population. Its coasts are
not so deeply indented; its climate is continental
instead of oceanic; and its harbors may be
blocked with ice for five months, while those of
Norway are unfrozen. Sweden comprises three
main divisions. The northern half, which is very
scantily inhabited, is called Norrland. The
southern half comprises Svealand (Svearike), in
the north, and Gotland (Giitarike) , in the south.
TOPOGRAPHY. The area of all the islands that
are a part of Sweden is about 3000 square miles.
A group of islands without mountains or vegeta-
tion skirt the Cattegat north of Giiteborg; and
north of Kalmar, on the Baltic side, are many
islets, chiefly low rocks in shallow water, the
continuation seaward of the Swedish plain. Two
large islands in the Baltic lie off the southern or
peninsular part of Sweden. The smaller, éland, a
narrow strip of land, 80 miles long, was once a
part of the chalk shore of the mainland, from
which it is separated by only two miles at the
narrowest part of Kalmar Sound. The other,
Gotland, is farther at sea, but connected with the
mainland by a submarine bank. Only a compara-
tively small part of Sweden is very mountainous
—the portion lying along the Norwegian.border.
The frontier region is not all mountains, but a
part of it is a high and bleak plateau. (See To-
pography in NORWAY.) The greatest heights are
in the northwest, Kebnekaisse being 7004 feet.
In the south is a hilly district rising from a
plateau that is several hundred feet above the
surrounding plains of the coast, and is separated
from the mountains of the north by the great
depression occupied by the southern lakes. Most
of the remainder of Sweden is a plateau sloping
rapidly from the mountain fringe to a plain
which stretches along the east coast to the
southern extremity of the country, and which in-
cludes the fertile lowlands of Gotland, strewn
with erratic boulders, where the largest and most
productive farm lands are found.
Hvnnoermrnr. Sweden is well watered and
is rich in lakes. Many rivers flow from the
mountains southeast to the Gulf of Bothnia
or the Baltic, affording much water power,
but little navigation, on account of their rapid
fall. They pass through many lakes, particu-
SWEDEN.
SWEDEN.
378
larly in the upper part of their courses,
and the lakes have the effect of equalizing the
floods so that the rivers are quite regular in
their discharge. The numerous falls and rapids
give picturesque charm to the rivers. The Klar
Elf (‘large stream’), the largest river, flows
south into Lake Vener. The Gbta Elf, which dis-
charges the waters of Lake Vener into the Cat-
tegat, is more important, because its falls and
rapids have been circumvented by canals, making
it‘ a part of the waterway system of South
Sweden. The principal river emptying into the
Baltic is the Dal Elf. Many of the Swedish lakes
are large and beautiful, and are distinguished by
the clearness of their water and their picturesque
surroundings. The four great lakes of the coun-
try lie in the depressed area north of the plateau
of Southern Sweden. Lake Vener, -the largest
of them, is the third largest in Europe (over
2000 square miles). Lakes Vetter (about 700
square miles), Hjelmar, and Miilar (about 670
square miles) drain into the Baltic.
CLIMATE AND SOIL. As the western moun-
tains shut off the tempering influence of the At-
lantic, the climate is much colder than in Nor-
way. The country being in the latitude of Labra-
dor, the summer is short and the winter is cold
and long. At Stockholm the mean temperature
in January is about 25° F. and in July about 61°.
The climate of Sweden is very healthy. The
mountains prevent the greater part of the precipi-
tation from reaching the eastern plateaus and
plains, so that the mean rainfall in Sweden is
only about 20 inches. The greatest rainfall is on
the southwest coast, facing the Cattegat, where
the average is 35 inches annually. The country
is almost completely covered with snow in win-
ter, when snow traveling on ski, or long wooden
runners attached to the feet, is a favorite amuse-
ment. The splendid and extensive forests and
the farms of Gotland and Scania, where the
grain fields return as much to the acre as in Eng-
land, show that the soils of the central and
southern parts of the country are not deficient in
fertility.
FLORA. Forests cover about two-fifths of the
country, 'pines and firs predominating, and extend
beyond the Arctic Circle. Over 2000 European
plants have their northern limit in the Scandi-
navian peninsula. In Sweden beeches are found
only in the extreme south, the oak disappears a
little north of Stockholm, while the pine, fir,
and alder extend nearly to the li1nit of arboreal
vegetation. The forests of the southern plains
differ little in appearance from those of the more
temperate parts of Europe, but farther north, in
the region of prevailing conifers, the labyrinth of
moss-covered boulders, amid which the towering
trees rise, where even a path is scarcely possible,
gives a special character to the woodlands. The
Dal Elf, north of Stockholm, is practically the
northern limit of wheat, but barley is grown to
the Arctic Circle.
FAUNA. The bounties paid for bear, lynx,
wolf, and fox skins and for birds of prey have
resulted in nearly exterminating the leading wild
animals. The beaver and hare survive, but the
wild reindeer is no longer found. Fish are
much less abundant in Swedish than in Nor-
Wegian waters.
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES. Archaean
rocks are predomina_nt, and in some districts, es-
-pecially around the great lakes, they are over-
laid by Cambrianand Silurian formations. In
large areas also the ancient rocks are covered by
extensive glacial deposits of clay, sand, gravel,
and erratic boulders. Triassic, Jurassic, and
Craetaceous rocks appear only in Scania, in the ex-
treme south. Some time after the glacial epoch
the Scandinavian peninsula subsided till the sea
level, in relation to the land, stood 500, 700, and
in some places 1000 feet higher than before, as is
shown by marine deposits resting on rocks that
had been scarred by glacial ice. Then the land
began to rise again and the gradual upheaval is
still in progress. The movement is best observed,
of course, along the coasts. It is nowhere so
rapid as on the Swedish side of the Gulf of
Bothnia, and it is most rapid at the northern ex-
tremity of the Gulf, where the upheaval is esti-
mated at about 5 feet in the past century. In the
extreme south no change of level has been ob-
served. Thus the Gulf of Bothnia appears to be
slowly draining into the southern basin of the
Baltic.
The mining industry competes with difficulty
against the powerful rivalry of the leading Euro-
pean countries, although it is more important
than that of Norway. Sweden is poorly supplied
with coal (only 271,509 tons having been mined
in South Sweden i11 1901). Manufacturers are
compelled to import coal or use charcoal.
The most important and valuable mineral prod-
uct is iron. In 1901 2,793,566 tons of iron ore
were mined in the kingdom.While about 1,000,000
tons are mined every year near Gefle, Falun, and
Dannemora, the largest supply comes from Gel-
livare (q.v.) , 130 miles north of the Arctic Circle.
Swedish iron is regarded as unsurpassed in the
world, as it is almost entirely free from phospho-
rus (.05 per cent. or less), and is therefore of
superior value for the manufacture of steel.
For this reason it now rivals the ores of Spain
in British and German markets, and large quan-
tities are exported. Magnetite and manganese
ores (2271 tons of manganese in 1901) used in
steel-making also abound. The copper industry
of Falun was long widely renowned, but the
yield was formerly much larger than at present
(23,660 tons of ore in 1901). Three-fourths of
the total yield of zinc ore (48,630 tons in 1901)
is produced at the Ammeberg mines, on the north
side of Lake Vetter. The silver product in 1901
was 1557 kilograms, and the yield of lead was
988,396 kilograms. The number of persons en-
gaged in mining declined from 35,000 in 1890 to
30,776 in 1901.
AGRICULTURE, LIVE Srocx, AND FISHERIES.
Three-fourths of the population support them-
selves by agriculture, though only about 8- per


, Area I Yield
Wheat ......................................... .. 192,413 4,726,700
Bye ............................................. .. 1,015,417 21,447,900
Barley ......................................... .. 537,225 12,954,425
Oats ............................................ .. 2 037,503 55,210,375
Mixed grain ................................. .. 320,606 8,372,925
Pulse .......................................... .. 114,114 1,612,325
Potatoes ..................................... .. 381,862 44,841,775

cent. of the land area is under cultivation. Hay
meadows and pastures cover 4 per cent. of the
surface, forests 44.2 per cent., and 43.6 per cent.
is unproductive. In 1900, 388,416 farms were












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SWEDEN.
SWEDEN.
379
under cultivation, of which-about two-thirds were
from 5 to 45 acres in extent. The preceding table
shows the area (in acres) under the chief crops
in 1900 and the yield (in bushels).
The largest and most productive area of farm
lands is in East and West Gotland and Scania,
in the south of the country. In spite of the im-
provement in farming in recent years, especially
through the importation of modern farm ma-
chinery and implements, the country cannot pro-
duce wheat and rye enough for home consump-
tion, and about 12,000 tons of breadstuffs more
than the kingdom produces are brought in every
year, chiefly from the Baltic countries. Nearly
half the total grain raised is oats, which is an
export crop. The sugar beet thrives in the ex-
treme south, but the acreage given to it is not
suflicient to supply the demand for sugar. Flax,
tobacco, and hops are cultivated with much suc-
cess. At the end of 1900 Sweden had 533,050
horses, 2,582,555 head of cattle, 1,261,436 sheep,
and 805,805 hogs. Great quantities of butter
are exported to Great Britain. The Government
has done much to improve agriculture by found-
ing schools of agriculture and by the appoint-
ment of peripatetic teachers. The fisheries are im-
portant, though much inferior to those of Nor-
way. They do not suffice for the needs of the
country. On the other hand, the timber trade
is of much greater value than that of Norway.
MANUFACTURES. Although the manufacturing
industries have been stimulated in every way
by the Government and have made great progress,
Sweden is still largely dependent upon foreign
countries for most of these commodities. The
kingdom lacks the coal, population, and capital
for the most successful development in this re-
spect. The industrial advance, however, has
been most substantial, as is seen from the fol-
lowing comparisons: From 1896 to the close of
to $285,010,200. The sawmills in 1901 con-
tributed 13.53 per cent. of the total value of
product; flour mills, 7.70 per cent.; textile mills,
5.22 per cent.; machine shops, 5.14 per cent. ; and
iron and steel manufactures and foundries, 5.01
per cent. The timber industry in all its branches,
including wood pulp, is the leading manufac-
turing industry. The public forests (area, 18,-
830,000 acres) yielded in 1899 timber valued at
$20,085,650. In 1900 43,312 work people in
1148 saw and planing mills produced lumber
worth $43,589,544; furniture and other wood-
work were also large products. Swedish
matches, everywhere famous, are produced
chiefly at Jiinkiiping, where one factory em-
ploys 1500 hands. There are woolen and cot-
ton factories at Norrkiiping, Stockholm, and
Giiteborg, but the manufacture of linen, a house-
hold industry, is the only branch of textile
manufacture which meets the domestic demand.
The most famous iron works are near Eskilstuna
and the chief machine shops at Motala.
bar iron, steel goods, blades, armor plates, cables,
nails, and knives are highly esteemed. _
COMMERCE. The average annual trade (in
million dollars) is as follows:


1881-85 ‘1891-95 _ 1898 1900
Imports ........................ .. 85. 5 97. 5 122 . 0 143.3
Exports ........................ .. 67.5 88.5 92.4 104.8

The kingdom sells abroad the abundant product
of its forests, iron and zinc mines, dairies, and cat
fields. Its home supplies of textiles, wool, machin-
ery, railroad iron, and many other things are in-
adequate, and it must supplement them by for-
eign purchases. The following table gives the
value in kronor of the leading imports and ex-
ports for two years (a krona equals in value
26 7-10 cents) : '

Swedish -






Imports Imports, Exports, Exports,
1899 1900 ‘ 1899 1900
Kronor Kronor Kronor Kronor
Textile manufactures 46,738,248 41,958,659 1,579,218 1,544,852
Grain and flour .......... .. 49,327,777 51,793,392 4,850,080 2,145,094
Groceries ................................... .. 38,634,760 45,584,093 135,289 336,180
Raw textile material and yarn ............................................... .. 47,818,471 46,165,793 1,252,671 1,502,842
Minerals, of imports mostly coal ........................... ..'. ............. .. 82,388,362 104,052,262 21,421,309 22,518,863
Metal goods, machinery, etc .... .. 74,605,197 65,009,836 22,585,054 25,316,543
Live animals and animal food ...... .., ....................................... .. 23,542,296 29,195,718 48,128,649 43,161,578
Hair, hides, and other animal products 24,459,229 20,438,630 4,300,564 5,370,750
Metals, raw and partly wrought ........................................... .. 13,159,371 25,556,124 43,513,013 52,395,037
Timber, wrought and unwrought .................................... ..... .. 4,751,465 5,925,996 178,553,581 200,559,375
Paper and paper manufactures .............................................. .. 4,745,770 4,407,698 11,706,764 14,392,265
Other articles .... .. 94,617,737 94,846,909 20,158,575 22,090,583
Total 404,788,683 534,935,110 358,184,767 391,333,962

1901 the number of manufacturing establish-
- ments increased from 8812 to 10,904; the work-
people in them from 202,293 to 262,229; and
the total value of the product from $192,487,400
The trade of Sweden is chiefly with the coun-
tries bordering on the Baltic and North Seas.
The value of its trade in two years with the lead-
ing countries in its commerce was:



Imports from Imports from Exports to Ex orts to
COUNTRY (1899) (1900) (1899) I(‘1900)
Kronor Kronor Kronor Kronor
Great Britain 154,563,118 176,504,553 157,198,342 169.2-48,313
Germany ..................................................................... .. 184,113,227 187,897,874 54,860,864 65,244,540
Denmark ..................................................................... .. 60,681,189 62,525,129 43,298,276 47,682,183
Norway ....................................................................... .. 20,449,954 21,761,911 6,451,052 7,186,593
Russia (including Finland) .......................................... .. 28,502,131 34,358,984 15,861,424 14,027,846
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,992,214 9,692,566 29,065,568 29,807,333
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,767,701 1,736,294 2,851,295 3,649,832
Netherlands. ................................ .. 10,390,719 11,184,842 25,666,540 29,941,211
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,804,527 13,166,404 13,783,461 14,839,185

Von. XV I.—25.



SWEDEN.
SWEDEN.
380
The exports of the United States to Sweden
and Norway in 1899 were $10,000,000, and the
imports were $4,000,000; in 1901 the exports to
Sweden and Norway were $11,000,000 and the
imports were $3,600,000. Among the things that
the United States sells to these countries are
provisions, wheat, machinery, tools, and cotton.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION. Rail-
roads are cheaply built because of the small cost
of land, lumber, and iron. Uninterrupted rail
communication extends between Gellivare in the
north and Malmti in the south, over 1200 miles.
A line has been constructed from Gellivare to
Ofoten Fiord, Norway, giving the iron ore of
North Sweden an outlet on the Atlantic coast.
The total length of railroads in 1900 was
7023 miles. Southern Sweden has an ex-
cellent system Of waterways by which a
series of canals and canalized rivers unite the
great lakes with both the North and Baltic seas,
providing about 2500 miles of interior navigation.
In 1900, 100,806 ships and boats passed through
the canals. Swedish trade, like that of Norway,
is predominantly maritime, and Swedish vessels
are engaged both in the home and foreign trade.
The mercantile fleet in 1901 comprised 2987 ves-
sels, of 613,792 tons, including 911 steamers, of
325,105 tons. Gtiteborg is the principal port,
with Stockholm, Malmii, and Helsingborg follow-
mg.
BANKING. The National Bank of Sweden
(Riksbank) belongs to the State, regulates finan-
cial relations with foreign countries, receives
private accounts, and lends money on security to
non-speculative enterprises. The bank is under
the guarantee of the Diet, its capital and re-
serve are fixed, and its note circulation is limited
by its metallic stock and its current accounts.
Its actual circulation is kept far within the au-
thorized limit. The assets and liabilities of
the Swedish banks balanced (in kronor)
on January 1, 1902, as follows: National Bank,
245,255,457; private banks, 874,039,400; joint-
stock banks, 581,424,650.
GOVERNMENT. Since 1814 Sweden has been
united with Norway under a common king, but
each is in effect a separate kingdom with its own
government. The fundamental laws of Sweden
have never been embodied in any single written
constitution, but consist of various enactments of
the Diet from 1809 to 1866. By the fundamental
laws a limited monarchy is constituted, at the
head of which is a king, who is required to be
a member of the Lutheran Church and who is
bound by oath to observe the laws of the land.
By the law of succession women are ex-
cluded from the throne. In case of failure of
succession the King is to be chosen by the
Swedish and Norwegian Diets acting separately.
The King has the exclusive right of legislation as
regards trade, commerce, manufacturing, mines,
and forests. He is also empowered to issue police
regulations and to make rules concerning va-
grancy, sanitation, protection against fire, etc.
In legislating on other matters he must act with
the consent of the Diet. He possesses the right
to declare war and make peace upon the advice
of a Council of State representing both monar-
chies. He nominates higher ofiicials, military
and civil, negotiates treaties with foreign coun-
tries, and presides in the Supreme Court. He is
advised and in some manner assisted by a Council
of State consisting at present of eleven Ministers,
at the head of which is the Minister of State.
They have seats in the Diet with the privilege of
debate and the right to initiate le'gislation. They
sometimes resign in case of serious disagreement
with the Diet, but the principle of Ministerial
responsibility is not yet freely recognized.
The National Parliament or Diet (Riksdag)
consists of two Chambers, both of which are rep-
resentative in principle. The Upper Chamber
consists at present of 150 members chosen for a
term of nine years by the provincial legislatures
(Landstings) 25 in number, and by the municipal
governments of those towns which are not rep-
resented in the provincial assemblies. These
towns are Stockholm, Goteborg, Malmti, Norr-
kiiping, and Gefle. The members are distributed
on the basis of one to every 30,000 of the popula-
tion, and are required to be 35 years of age and
in the possession for at least three years prior
to their election of property of the taxable value
of about $22,000, or an annual income of about
$1100. They receive no compensation for their
services. The Lower Chamber consists at present
of 230 members chosen for a term of three years.
Of these, 80 are chosen by the towns and 150 by
the rural districts. The rural members are dis-
tributed on the basis of one member to every
40,000 inhabitants, while the towns are allowed
one member for every 10,000 of the population.
All native Swedes 21 years of age possessing prop-
erty of the taxable value of about $280,, or who
cultivate for a period of five years a certain
amount of land, or who pay an annual income tax
on an income of about $225 are qualified voters.
Any elector twenty-five years of age is qualified
for membership in the Lower Chamber. The num-
ber of electors in 1899 was 339,876, less than
7 per cent. of the population, and but 40 per
cent. of these actually voted. The members of
the Second Chamber receive compensation.
The union of Norway and Sweden under the
same executive makes necessary some provision
for the administration of those affairs which are
common to both monarchies, such as the conduct
of their foreign relations. In this domain the
King is given power to act for both countries, but
his action is subject to the approval of the joint
Council of State. Thus he may declare war and
make peace, send and recall ambassadors, use
ships of war, etc., with the consent of the joint
council. This does not, however, destroy the
individuality of either nation as regards foreign
affairs, since the King may conclude treaties
which affect but one of his kingdoms. Matters
of common interest not within the power of the
King are regulated by concurrent action of the
two Diets. For the purposes of local adminis-
tration Sweden is divided into 24 ltins or prov-
inces, each under the supervision of a prefect
nominated by the King. In each province there is
a general council or Landsting, which regulates
internal affairs. The city of Stockholm, the
capital, constitutes a separate administrative di-
vision. In the communes there is almost com-
plete local self-government, all taxpayers being
voters. Some of the communes have primary
assemblies very much like the town meetings of
New England, while those which are larger and
more populous have municipal councils. In the
parishes there are local assemblies for regulating
ecclesiastical affairs.
SWEDEN.
SWEDEN.
381
FINANCE. The sources and amount of rev-
enue and the expenditures for 1902 and 1903
blind, medical, military, agricultural, veterinary,
forestry, weaving, mining, and other special



On January 1, 1902, the public liabilities, con-
tracted entirely for railroads, were 349,132,333
kronor, bearing interest at from 3 to 4 per cent.
All loans are paid off gradually by means of
sinking funds.
WEIGIITS, MEASURES, AND MONEY. Gold is the
standard of value. The krona, the unit of coin-
age, is worth 26 7-10 cents. The metric sys-
tem of weights and measures became obligatory
in 1889.
ARMY AND NAVY.
NAVIES.
POPULATION. The population, according to
the census of 1901, was 5,175,228. The density
of population is 30 to the square mile. The
growth of population has been as follows: in
1800, 2,347,303; in 1840, 3,138,887; in 1870,
4,168,525; and in 1890, 4,784,981. The emi-
gration, chiefly to America, has been large for
many years, and since 1894 has varied from
8000 to 19,000 a year. -
RELIGION. The Lutheran Protestant Church
is recognized as the State religion, and most of
the people are professors of that faith, its adher-
ents numbering 4,735,218 in 1890. Other Prot-
estants numbered 44,375 and there were a few
followers of the Roman Catholic and other faiths.
In the State Church are 12 bishoprics and 2572
parishes.
EDUCATION. Education is maintained at a
high level. It is under the control of the Gov-
ernment, is compulsory, and practically all the
inhabitants of school age and over can read and
write. The secondary schools and the univer-
sities are modeled on the German system. In
1902 there were 1434 students in the University
at Upsala and 644 in the University at Lund.
The schools included in 1901: 79 public high
schools, 18,085 pupils; 29 people’s high schools,
1510 pupils; 14 normal schools for elementary
teachers, 1325 pupils; 2 high and 6 elementary
technical schools; 10 navigation schools, 729
pupils; and besides schools for deaf mutes and the
See articles ARMIES and



were as follows; schools. In 1900 the expenditure on elementary
REVENUE 1902 1903 EXPENDITURE 1902 1903
- Kronor Kronor Kronor Kronor
Domains, railways, land taxes, etc. 21,578,000 26,546,000 (a) Ordinary:
Customs ...................................... .. 49,000,000 48,500,000 Royal household .................... .. 1,321,000 1,321,000
Post ............................................ .. 12,400,000 13,340,000 Justice .................................... .. 3,852,420 3,911,815
Stamps ........................................ .. 6,500,000 6,500,000 Foreign affairs ....................... .. 652,050 659,150
Impost on spirits, beet sugar, etc. 30,000,000 32,000,000 Army ...................................... .. 33,775,094 37,204,600
Tax on incomes, etc .................... .. 10,500,000 26,950,000 Navy ....................................... .. 10,461,982 11,865,917
Net profit of the National Bank... 2,000,000 2,716,200 Interior .................................. .. 19,319,100 25,015,315
Surplus from the previous years... 24,165,000 15,916,000 Education and ecclesiastical
affairs ................................. .. 13,721,011 14,115,333
Finance ................................... .. 7,299,821 7,338,705
Agriculture ............................. .. 4,680,915 4,859. 600
Pensions ................................. .. 3,649,115 3,786,632
98,732,508 110,078,067
(b) Extraordinary ....................... .. 43,872,492 40,466,033
(0) Expenditure through the Riks-
gttldskontorz
Payment of loans and miscel-
laneous (diet, etc.) ............. .. 11,888,000 13,774,100
Carried to floating capital. ................... .. 6,500,000
Fund for insurance against in-
validity of workmen ........... .. 1,400,000 1,400,000
Fund for insurance against ac-
cidents of workmen, etc ...... .. 250,000 250,000
Total revenue ........................ .. 156,143,000 172,468,200 Total expenditure ................. .. 156,143,000 172,468,200

education was 23,097,746 kronor, of which about
one-fourth came from the national treasury.
ETHNOLOGY. The Swedes belong to the Scan-
dinavian branch of the Teutonic stock. Their
average stature is 1.705 meters, classing them
among the tall races; the average cephalic in-
dex is 78.2. The Swedes are blondes, sturdy and
robust. In the settlement of Sweden the Goths or
Gotar were the first conquerors of whom
history tells. They occupied the south-
ern parts, and following them came the
Svear, who overran the rest of the country and
gave their name to the Svenskar or Swedes of to-
day. The Dalecarlians are thought to preserve
best the type of the Svear; they are described
as tall, slender, and agile, with blue eyes and
broad, open brow, courteous, cheerful, and firm,
and with a wide reputation for honesty.
HISTORY. Tacitus in the Germamla tells of the
two great Germanic tribes in the Scandinavian
peninsula, the Suiones, or Swedes, in the north,
and the Gothones, or Goths, in the south. These
two, like other rival Germanic tribes, seem to have
been generally at war with each other, and it
was not until about the fourteenth century that
the country was really organized and unified
through the cessation of jealousy between the
two sections. The ancient Swedish people had a
bond of union 111 their religion and a common
sanctuary at Upsala, which was the early centre
of Swedish nationality. The history of Sweden
previous to the tenth century is wrapped in ob-
scurity. In the first half of the ninth century
Ansgar (q.v.), a Frankish missionary, came to
Sweden from Denmark, and began the teaching of
Christianity, which slowly became established in
the country. Under Eric the Saint (1150-60)
the Swedish power was strengthened and ex-
tended and Christianity with it. Churches were
built and monasteries founded. Eric carried
Christianity into Finland ‘with the sword and
established Swedish settlements in that country,
whose subjugation, however, was not completed
SWEDEN.
SWEDEN.
382
until more than a century after his death. He
was defeated and killed in 1160 by the Danish
prince Magnus Henriksen, who made an unpro-
voked attack upon Sweden, the beginning of a
long series of wars between Sweden and Den-
mark, productive of national hatred and bitter-
ness. The reigns of the early Swedish kings
were short and stormy. In 1389 the Swedish
nobles, disgusted with the conduct of their King,
Albert of Mecklenburg, offered the crown to Mar-
garet, Queen of Denmark and Norway, daughter
of Valdemar IV., who defeated and dethroned
Albert, and in 1397 brought about the union of
Kalmar, by which the three Scandinavian king-
doms were henceforth to remain united under a
single sovereign. This union continued with inter-
ruptions for more than a century, but with con-
stant dissensions and wars between Denmark and
the Swedish people. The Swedes themselves were
divided between the upholders of national sover-
eignty and the supporters of the pretensions of
the Danish kings. In the latter part of the fif-
teenth century the family of Sture (q.v.) rose to
eminence in the struggle for national independ-
. ence, Sten Sture, the Elder, being proclaimed
administrator of the kingdom in 1470. In 1520
Christian II. of Denmark invaded Sweden to en-
force his claim to sovereignty. The administra-
tor, Sten Sture, the Younger, was defeated and
mortally wounded and Christian entered Stock-
holm, where he enacted a carnival of blood, exe-
cuting a large number of the nobles. Sweden
soon rose against the tyrant (1521) under the
lead of Gustavus Vasa, who was made adminis-
trator. He shook off the hated yoke of Denmark
and in 1523 became King of Sweden. In 1529
Lutheranism was formally established as the
State religion of the kingdom. Gustavus Vasa
organized the kingdom as a hereditary monarchy,
in which the power of the nobles was circum-
scribed and that of the clergy subordinated to
that of the State. He fostered trade, manu-
factures, art, learning, and science, and left a
full exchequer, a standing army, and a well-ap-
pointed navy.
The great work of the first Vasa sovereign was
almost undone by his son and successor, Eric
XIV. (1560-68), who became insane and was
deposed, being succeeded by his brother, John
III. At the beginning of Eric’s reign Esthonia,
a fragment of the dominions of the Knights
Swordbearers, submitted to Sweden. The reign
of John III. (1568-92) was notable for a reaction
toward Catholicism. He had married Catharine
Jagellon, of the Polish royal house, and in 1587
secured the election of his son Sigismund to the
throne of Poland. For this Sigismund had to pro-
fess‘ Catholicism. The great majority of the
Swedes were strong Protestants, and when Sigis-
mund succeeded his father as King of Sweden
and attempted to restore Catholicism he was
compelled by the Diet to resign the throne in 1599.
His uncle Charles, the only one of Gustavus
Vasa’s sons who inherited his talents as a ruler,
was made administrator of the kingdom and in
1604 was crowned King as Charles IX. The policy
of Charles IX. was to encourage the burgher
classes at the expense of the nobility; and by his
successful efforts to foster trade——in furtherance
of which he laid the foundations of Giiteborg and
other trading ports—-to develop the mineral re-
sources of the country, and to reorganize the
system of Swedish jurisprudence, he did much to
retrieve the calamitous errors of his predecessors.
(See CHARLES IX.) The deposition of Sigis-
mund gave rise to a long war with Poland.
Charles was succeeded by his son, Gustavus II.
Adolphus (1611-32). This greatest of Swedish
kings was confronted at the beginning of his
reign by wars with Russia, Poland, and Den-
mark, which last-named power still owned Sca-
nia and other districts at the southern extremity
of the Scandinavian Peninsula. These wars
were concluded advantageously for Sweden,
which acquired Ingria, Karelia, and Livonia (the
last-named not formally renounced by Poland
until 1660), and the King addressed himself to
the task of making Sweden the dominant power
on the Baltic. In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus came
to the rescue of German Protestantism, which
had succumbed to the arms of Tilly and Wallen-
stein. (For his victorious career in Germany,
and the successes of the generals who were
trained in his school, see the articles GUSTAVUS
II. ADOLPHUS, and THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.) The
foreign policy of Gustavus Adolphus was con-
tinued after his death at Liitzen in 1632 by his
able chancellor, Oxenstierna (q.v.), who directed
the government during the minority of Gus-
tavus’s gifted but eccentric daughter Christina
( 1632-54). As a result Sweden was for nearly a
century the great power of the north. By the
Peace of I-Westphalia (1648) Sweden received
Hither Pomerania (west of the Oder), the island
of Riigen, and other territories in Germany, and
was admitted to representation in the German
Diet.
Charles X. Gustavus (1654-60) waged a fierce
war against the Polish King, John Casimir, in
which the Swedish forces overran Poland. He
conquered from Denmark the provinces of Sea-
nia, Halland, and Blekinge, which rounded out
the Swedish boundaries. The war with Poland
was closed at his death by the Peace of Oliva
(1660). Misgovernment by a regency followed
during the minority of Charles X.’s son and suc-
cessor, Charles XI. (q.v.) (1660-97). This King
was involved as the ally of Louis XIV. in Euro-
pean wars, which the regency had not left him
the resources to carry on. In 1675 the Swedes
suffered a great defeat at the hands of Frederick
William, the “Great Elector” of Brandenburg, at
Fehrbellin. Charles XI. reorganized the govern-
ment and was declared an absolute sovereign by
the estates in 1693. His son, Charles XII.
(1697-1718), by his military genius raised Swe-
den to an extraordinary pitch of power. Not
long after his accession he successfully met a
joint attack by Russia, Poland, and Denmark,
dealing blows that astonished the world. His
inordinate ambition, however, finally brought
ruin upon Sweden. Peter the Great wrested from
her Karelia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia.
Charles met his death in an invasion of Norway,
leaving the kingdom overwhelmed with debts and
again disorganized. With him the male line of
the House of Vasa expired. His sister Ulrica
Eleonora, who succeeded him, and her husband,
Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, who shared the throne,
were mere puppets of the nobles, whose dissen-
sions as the factions of the ‘Hats,’ or French
party, and the ‘Caps,’ or Russian party, brought
on the country calamitous wars and almost
equally disastrous treaties of peace. The weak
SWEDEN.
SWEDEN BO RG.
383
Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who was
called to the throne on the death of Frederick in
1751 and died in 1771, did little to retrieve the
evil fortunes of the State. (See STRUCTURE.) His
son, Gustavus III. (q.v.) (17-71-92), skillfully
availed himself of the general dissatisfaction of
the people with the nobles, to destroy the fac-
tions of the Hats and Caps, and under a new
constitution to restore the power of the Crown
and of the popular estates at the expense of the
nobles. His extravagance and dissoluteness de-
tracted, however, from his merits as a ruler. He
was assassinated in 1792. His son and successor,
Gustavus IV. Adolphus (q.v.), was but three
years of age at his accession, and was forcibly de-
posed in 1809, and obliged to renounce the crown
for himself and his direct heirs in favor of his
uncle, Charles XIII. (1809-18), who was com-
pelled at once to conclude a humiliating peace
with Russia, by the terms of which Finland was
severed from Sweden. The early part of the
reign of Charles, who was childless, was troubled
by domestic and foreign intrigues to regulate the
choice of an heir to the throne. Finally, hoping
to conciliate Napoleon, the dominant party in
Sweden elected General Bernadette to the rank of
Crown Prince. Bernadette led the Swedish forces
in suport of the Allies against the French Em-
peror in 1813-14. With the aid of England, Swe-
den compelled Denmark, in January, 1814, to
cede Norway to her, the Swedish possessions in
Pomerania being handed over to Denmark. The
Congress of Vienna (1814-15) recognized the
union of Norway with Sweden; Swedish Pome-
rania passed to Prussia. In 1818 Bernadette
mounted the throne as Charles XIV. John (q.v.) .
Under his able administration the united king-
doms of Sweden and Norway made great ad-
vances in material prosperity and political and
intellectual progress; and although the nation at
large entertained very little personal regard for
their alien sovereign, his son and successor,
Oscar 1. (1844-59), and his grandsons, Charles
XV. and the present King, Oscar II., who came to
the throne in 1872, won a large share of the affec-
tions of the Swedes. The great problem of the
dual kingdom under the present sovereign has
been to satisfy the demands of the Norwegians,
who are more democratic than the Swedes and
are restive under the union. See NORWAY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H6jer, Konungariket Soerige
(Stockholm, 1872-84) ; Rosenberg, Geografiskt-
stat-istiskt han(Zle:v'iko-n iifoer Sverige (ib., 1883) ;
Nystrom, H andbok i S'ver'i_,r./es geografi (ib., 1895) ;
id., Sneriges rike (ib., 1902); Du Chaillu, The
Land of the Midni-gh.t Sun (New York, 1882);
Hahn, “Schweden,” in Kirchhoff’s Liinderkunde
non Europa (Leipzig, 1890) ; Passage, Schweden
(Berlin, 1897) ; Thomas, Sweden and the Swedes
(Chicago, 1893) ; Healey, Educational Systems of
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (London, 1893) ;
Gandolphe, La vie ct l’art des Scandinaves
(Paris, 1899) ; Nathorst, Soeriges geologi
(Stockholm, 1894); Andersson, Geschichte der
Vegetation Schwedcns (Leipzig, 1896); Norden-
str6m, L’industric miniere de la Suede (Stock-
holm, 1897); Strindberg and Sjbgren, S-verigcs
natur (ib., 1901) ; Sundbiirg, La Suede,‘ son pen-
ple et son industrie (ib., 1900; English trans.,
ib., 1903). HISTORY. Dunham, History of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway (London, 1840),
a standard small work; Geijer and Carlson,
Geschichte Swedens (Gotha, 1844-75), the Ger-
man edition of. the principal Swedish history;
Otté, Scandinavian History (London, 1874), is
the chief work in English on this field; Geifroy,
Histoire des états scandinaoes (Paris), one of
the useful series edited by V. Duruy; Save,
Sneriges Historia under den nyaste ticlen (1890),
popular; Cronholm, A History of Sweden (Chi-
cago, 1902) ; and the standard works of Fryxell,
Strinnholm, Malmstriim, Montelius, and Hilde-
brand.
SWE’DE.NBORG, S/w. pron. sva’den-bory’,
EMANUEL (1688-1772). A Swedish scientist and
theologian. He was born in Stockholm and died
in London. His father was J esper Svedberg, sub-
sequently Bishop of Skara. He was educated at
Upsala, and traveled for four years in England,
Holland, France, and Germany. On his return
to Sweden he was appointed by Charles XII. to
an assessorship of mines. Swedenborg was en-
nobled in 1719, and the family name changed
from Svedberg to Swedenborg. Swedenborg pub-
lished short treatises on various topics in the
fields of mathematics, astronomy, physics, and
chemistry. He devoted himself for eleven
years to the duties of his assessorship and
to a systematic description of mining and
smelting, and the construction of a theory of
the origin of creation. The result appeared at
Leipzig in 1734, in three massive folios, entitled
Opera Philosophica et Mineralia. This was fol-
lowed in the same year by a treatise on The In-
finite, and the Final Cause of Creation; and the
Mechanism of the Operation of the Soul and the
Body, carrying the doctrine of the Principia into
higher regions. Dissatisfied with his conclusions,
he determined to track the soul to its inmost
recesses in the body. His studies in human
anatomy and physiology, with this end in view,
appeared as Gfconomia Reg-ni An-imalis, in two
volumes, 17 41, and as Regnum Animate, in three
volumes, unfinished, 1744-45.
At this point his course as scientist was ar-
rested, and he entered on his career as seer, by
which he is known in history. After 1745 he pro-
fessed to have had his spiritual senses opened.
His recorded experience was unique in this re-
spect, that it did not consist in having communi-
cation with spirits, as is the claim in modern
spiritualism; nor did it consist in having visions
merely, and receiving communications, as was
the case with the prophets; but it consisted in
being himself consciously an inhabitant of the
spiritual world as if he had died, and thence in
associating with the people of that world as one
of them. In 1749 he made his first public ap-
poarance in his new character in the issue in Lon-
don of the Arcana Coelestia, completed in 1756 in
eight quartos. It is a revelation of the internal,
or spiritual, sense of Genesis and Exodus. Adam
signifies the Most Ancient Church, and the flood
its dissolution; Noah, the Ancient Church, which,
falling into idolatry, was superseded by the
Jewish. The spiritual sense pervades the Scrip-
tures, with the exception of Ruth, Chronicles,
Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Proverbs, Ec-
clesiastes, the Song of Solomon, the Acts of the
Apostles, and the Epistles. By reason of its
symbolism of the inward sense, the letter
of Scripture is holy in every jot and tittle,
SWEDEN BO RG.
SWEDENBO RGIANS.
384
and has been preserved in immaculate perfection
since the hour of its divine dictation. The Jew-
ish dispensation having reached its period, God
appeared in Jesus Christ. He assumed human
nature in its lowest condition in the Virgin,
wrought it into conformity with himself, “glori-
fied and 1nadc it divine.” There is a Trinity, not
of Persons, but of Divine Essentials, consisting
of the Father, or God as He is in himself, and
thus incomprehensible to man; the Son, or God
as revealed to man in Jesus Christ; and the Holy
Spirit, or divine operation thence. It is imaged
in man by his soul, his body, and their operation.
Swedenborg acknowledged God in Jesus Christ,
and regarded Him as the sole object of Christian
worship. The Church which Christ established
at His advent in the flesh came to an end in 1757,
and Swedenborg witnessed the last General Judg-
ment at that time effected in the world of spirits.
Then commenced a new dispensation, and a New
Church, signified by the New Jerusalem in the
Revelation, of which the writings of Swedenborg
contained the doctrines.
The grand and distinctive principle of Sweden-
borgian theology, next to the doctrine of the
divine humanity, is the doctrine of life. God
alone lives. Creation is dead—-—man is dead; and
their apparent life is the divine presence. God
is everywhere the same. It fallaciously appears
as if He were different in one man and in another.
The difference is in the recipients; by one He is
not received in the same degree as another. There
is an inmost, or highest, degree, or plane, of
man’s reception of the divine life, called the
celestial or love plane; there is a second, or
lower degree of receptivity called the spiritual
or wisdom plane, and there is a third called the
natural or plane of obedience. The life of evil
is the perversion of divine life into disorderly
forms. These degrees of man’s reception of God’s
life are entirely separate from each other, and
can never be commingled. They are related by
correspondence, by which each lower degree de-
rives its existence and its life from the plane
above. The relation of correspondence is plenary,
there being nothing in a higher plane which is
not represented by something corresponding t'o it
in the plane below; and there is nothing in the
lower plane which does not exist from some cor-
responding thing in the plane above; and all this
to the most minute detail, even to the things on
this earth. Earthly things beautiful and useful
manifest spiritual good; and earthly things ugly
and hurtful, spiritual evil. The Scriptures are
written according to correspondences, and by the
aid of that science their mysteries are unlocked.
By it, too, the constitution of heaven and of hell
is revealed. There are three heavens in which
there live three orders of angels, the first, the
second, and the third, or the natural, the
spiritual, and the celestial; they are three planes,
or degrees, of man’s receptivity of divine life de-
scribed above. All angels were once men, and
have lived on this or some other planet. They
marry and live in societies, in cities and coun-
tries as in the world, in outer appearance differ-
ing only in the vast superiority and glory of
these things there. But the similarity between
the life of angels in heaven and that of men on
earth is of the outer appearance only, while the
differences between them are internal and rad-
ical; for it is not in degrees of outer perfection
and glory that the life in heaven and the life on
earth may be compared truly, but in their ca-
pacity to supply a field for the realization of the
inner life of the soul. To the angels the images
presented to their senses are the expressions of
ideas and emotions which are by this means re-
vealed to them; and so concerned are they in
these meanings, that they are unconscious of the
objects of their senses, or of their own bodily
life, as such. To them their sense-life therefore
is made only a visible, audible, and tangible——a
concrete spiritual life. There is no denomina-
tional favoritism with God; all in whom the love
for God and man prevails in any degree what-
ever, and whatever may have been their Church,
or religious connection, go to heaven after the
death of their bodies. Between heaven and hell,
there is an intermediate state called the world
of spirits, where all those who pass into the
spiritual world are prepared for their final states.
Hell is not merely a place of punishment for the
sins done in the body, but is a provision of divine
love, and the necessary state and condition of the
unregenerated natural man. No one is sent there,
but the unregenerated seek a place there of their
own accord. Hell as a whole is called the devil,
or Satan; there is no supreme individual bear-
ing that name. There are three hells opposite
the three heavens.
All of Swedenborg’s works were written in
Latin and received little attention from con-
temporaries. The American Swedenborg Print-
ing and Publishing Society of New York issued
com lete editions of the theological works in
Eng ish, a nearly complete edition in Latin,
certain of the works in Latin-English, and
some in other languages. Most of -the origi-
nal manuscripts have been reproduced by
photolithographic processes. Complete editions
have been issued in English by the Swedenborg
Society of London, which has also issued a con-
cordance to the works by Potts (6 vols. 1888 et
seq.) . The Rotch Edition of Swedenborg’s works
in small volume is published by the Massachu-
setts New-Church Union. About forty biog-
raphies of Swedenborg have been published. The
most important of those now in print are by
\Vilkinson (London, 1849), \Vhite (ib., 1856),
Swift (ib., 1883), and \Vorcester (Boston, 1883).
Consult also Documents Concerning the Life and
Character of Emanuel Swedenborg, Collected,
Translated, and Annotated by R. L. Tafel (Lon-
don, 1875-77), a very scholarly work, compiled
with great labor.
SWEDENBORGIANS. The name popularly
applied to those who accept the doctrines of
Christianity and of philosophy as set forth in
the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (q.v.).
They do not call themselves Swedenborgians, but
members of the New Church. Swedenborg formed
no ecclesiastical organization, and many of his
followers do not sever themselves from their
previous Church connections; but the majority
have organized a Church which they have named
‘The Church of the New Jerusalem,’ after the
New Jerusalem of Apocalyptic vision (Rev. xxi.) .
The first movement toward organization began
in Great Britain in 1782, when Robert Hind-
marsh, a printer of London, and certain asso-
ciates formed a class for reading and studying
SWEDENBORGIANS.
SWEDISH LANGUAGE.
385
the writings of Swedenborg. This grew into a
society for worship and preaching. Public ser-
vices were first held in 1788. The General Con-
ference of the New Jerusalem Church in that
country began its sessions in 1789, and since 1815
has met annually. In 1902 the Conference con-
sisted of 73 societies, with an aggregate mem-
bership of 6337. There were twelve societies, with
a membership of 193, which do not belong to the
Conference, and also 996 believers not connected
with any society, enrolled as ‘isolated receivers,’
making a grand total of 7526 enrolled Sweden-
borgians in Great Britain. On the Continent of
Europe there is a ‘society of Swedenborgians in
each of the cities of Paris, Zurich, Florence,
Budapest, Vienna, Stuttgart, Copenhagen, Stock-
holm, and Gothenburg. In the United States
the first society of Swedenborgians was organized
in Baltimore in 1792. The General Convention
of the New Jerusalem in the United States and
Canada held its first meeting in Philadelphia in
1817. With little interruption this body has
held annual sessions ever since. In this country
the Swedenborgian societies are grouped into
State organizations, called associations. The
General Convention is composed of twelve of
these associations, and of nine separate societies.
The individual membership of the bodies com-
posing the Convention as reported in 1902 was
6812. There is a smaller organization of the
Swedenborgians called The General Church of the
New Jerusalem. Its headquarters are in the
United States, though it has members in other
countries. It is an offshoot from the Conven-
tion, having withdrawn from that body in 1891.
It reports a membership of 600. In Australia
there are four societies of Swedenborgians, with
an aggregate membership of about 350; and
there is a society in New Zealand; one on the
island of Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean; and
one at Durban, South Africa. There are also
circles of readers and students of Swedenborg
of sufficient importance to be reported in the
journals of the organization in British India,
China, Japan, and South America. Taken all
together there are not far from 16,000 registered
adult members of the Swedenborgian faith in the
world.
The ministry of the Swedenborgians is pat-
terned after the Episcopal order. In the General
Conference of Great Britain there are 7 ordain-
ing ministers, 35 ordained ministers, and 12
recognized leaders and missionaries, making a
total ministerial force of 54. In the General
Convention of the United States there are- 6
general pastors, 102 pastors and ministers, and
16 authorized candidates and preachers, making
a total of 124 in its ministerial force. The Gen-
eral Church of the New Jerusalem reports one
bishop, 16 pastors, 4 ministers, and 2 candidates,
making a ministerial force of 23. The pastors
and ministers of the societies scattered through-
out the world for the most part act under the
authority of some one of these three general
bodies, and their ministerial force of about 200
as reported above,may be considered as constitut-
ing the entire clergy of the Swedenborgians in
the world. In this classification the ordaining
ministers of the General Conference, the general
pastors of the General Convention, and the bish-
op of the General Church hold among Sweden-
borgians a position similar to that of a bishop
of the Episcopal Church, though with the ex-
ception of the bishop of the General Church they
do not exercise such authority.
A number of Swedenborgian societies in Eng-
land conduct secular schools in connection with
their religious societies. There are ten such
institutions, with an aggregate enrollment (in
1902) of 4375 scholars. There is also a New
Church College, London, concerned for the most
part in preparing young men for the ministry.
In the United States there are The Waltham
New Church School, at Waltham, Mass.; The
Urbana University, at Urbana, Ohio; The New
Church Theological School, at Cambridge, Mass. ;
and The Academy of the New Church, at Bryn
Athyn, Pa., conducted by the General Church,
which has also several parochial schools in the
United -States and Canada. The sect publishes
many journals.
SWEDISH LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE. Swedish belongs to the northern branch
of the Germanic family, within which it is an
eastern development of the old donsh tunga, or
Danish tongue, a name anciently applied to the
language spoken not in Denmark only, but in the
rest of Scandinavia as well. It was very much
the same in the entire Northland down to about
A.D. 900, or a little later, when it began to dif-
ferentiate into an eastern type, ramifying into
Danish and Swedish, and a western type, giving
rise to Norwegian and Icelandic. From 900 to
1500 the Swedish branch is called Old Swedish.
Until after 1200 the only records are runic in-
scriptions, cut for the most part on gravestones.
The use of the Latin alphabet began in the thir-
teenth century. In the fourteenth century, when
a literary language began to develop out of the
Stidermanland dialect, the difl'erentiation from
Danish proceeded slowly; after this came a period
of extensive approximation to Danish, to be fol-
lowed in time by an archaizing period, which
restored original forms. Aside from divcrgencies
of vocabulary, Swedish now differs from Danish
especially in its retention, after a vowel, of the
old voiceless consonants, ie, t, p, which in Danish
changed to g, cl, Z), and in its retention of the
vowels a and o in unstressed syllables, where
Danish has e or no vowel at all; thus Swedish
bola, ‘book,’ /mat, ‘meat,’ apa, ‘ape,’ are in Danish
bog, mad, abe. Swedish talar ni svensha ‘do
you speak Swedish?’ is in Danish taler clc
sver1slc,' and Swedish fliclcan lihnar s/in mor, ‘the
girl resembles her mother,’ is in Danish pigen
ligner moderen. Under this head it may be added
that Swedish has not the ‘glottal catch’ of
Danish, and that Danish has not the delicately
modulated musical accent of Swedish.
The main body of the Swedish vocabulary is
old Germanic stock, the principal foreign in-
gredients being (1) Latin and Greek words that
came in with Christianity or with the growth of
scholarship; (2) Low German words dating from
the time of the Hanseatic League, as arbeta, ‘to
work, stdvel, ‘boot,’ smaka, ‘taste ;’ (3) Ger-
man words from the time of the Thirty Years’
War‘, as tapper, ‘brave,’ , praht, ‘splendor ;’ (4)
French words borrowed in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, as af/“iir, ‘business.’ talang,
‘talent,’ charmant, ‘charming.’ Like the other
North-Germanic tongues, Swedish has the post-
positive definite article (originally a pronominal
SWEDISH LANGUAGE.
SWEDISH LANGUAGE.
386
affix) ; thus flicha, ‘girl,’ flicha/n, ‘the girl.’ As in
English, nouns have but one case (the genitive)
which is now distinguished by inflection. The
genitive ending is -s, which is appended after the
article; thus fliclcans mor, ‘the girl’s mother.’
The plural of nouns is formed by means of the
endings -or, -ar, -er, -en, to which the definite arti-
cle is appended in the forms -na, -ne, according to
a feeling for vowel-balance which shows itself as
early as the fourteenth century; thus flick-:orna,
‘the girls,’ but dalarne, ‘the dales.’ A new pro-
noun of address, ni, taking the place of I, came
into the language in the seventeenth century and
is now commonly used in books; but in conversa-
tion Swedish politeness prefers to avoid it and
substitute the title of the person addressed, put-
ting the verb in the third person; thus air frun
sjuh, ‘is the lady sick?’ : ‘are you sick, madam?’
The verb still retains the old Scandinavian pas-
sive in -s, which was originally an affixed reflexive
pronoun; thus, kalla, ‘call,’ kallas, ‘to be called.’
A more peculiar feature of conjugation is the
difl'erentiation of the perfect passive participle
into two forms, one of which, called the supine, is
used to inflect the perfect tenses, while the other
is declinable and serves as a true participle;
thus jag har iilshat, ‘I have loved,’ but jag iir
alskad, ‘I am loved,’ and oi iiro itlslcade, ‘we are
loved.’
In the printing of Swedish the Roman letters
have long since prevailed. Speaking somewhat
roughly, the written language of to-day repre-
sents the pronunciation of about two hundred
years ago; and as phonetic change has been at
work during the interval, it is the case, just as in
English, that the written form is often a bad
index to colloquial utterance. Swedish print
teems with ‘silent’ letters; thus, jag skal vara i
staden, ‘I shall be in the city,’ is pronounced ja
ska oara i st-(tn; and hoad ¢iir det, ‘what is it?’
becomes oa it cle. For the learner of Swedish
one of the greatest difficulties is presented by its
peculiar accent, which involves both stress and
variations of musical pitch. Every word has
either the simple or the compound tone. The
simple tone is a rising modulation, while the
compound (to quote from Sweet) “consists of a
falling tone on the stress-syllable, with an up-
ward leap of the voice and a slight secondary
stress on a succeeding syllable.” Not only the
correct pronunciation, but the very meaning of
a word often depends on the exact modulation of
its musical accent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For Old Swedish the leading
authority is Noreen, Altschwedische Grammatih
(Halle, 1897). He has also treated the subject
in his Geschichte der norclischen Sprachen
(Strassburg, 1898), a reprint of his article in
the second edition of Paul’s Grandriss. The great
work on Swedish grammar is Rydqvist, Soensha
sprdkets lagar (6 vols., Stockholm, 1850-83). A
good small grammar is Schwarz and Noreen’s
Soensh sprdhlara (ib., 1881). There is no good
grammar in English. The best Swedish-English
dictionary is that of Bjiirkman (Stockholm,
1886). The great dictionary of the Swedish Acad-
emy, Ordboolc o'f'ver snenska sprciket (Lund, 1894
et seq.) , is only in the initial stages. On the sub-
ject of the dialects consult Lundell, Nyare bid-
rag till loiinnedom om de soenska landsmalen, etc.
(Stockholm, 187 9 et seq.) . An excellent account
of Swedish pronunciation by Sweet is given in
Transactions of the Philological Society (Lon-
don, 1877-79).
THE LITERATURE. About 160 of the runic in-
scriptions of Sweden, the oldest dating from the
tenth century, contain alliterating verses evi-
dently quoted from preexisting sagas. This and
other lines of evidence show that the poetic art
was widely cultivated in the Viking Age. But
this ‘literature,’ which may have been compar-
able to that preserved in Old Icelandic, is lost.
By the middle of the twelfth century Christianity
was firmly established, and the old pagan songs
and sagas fell under the ban of the Church. From
that time on for five hundred years the national
literature was dominated, rather more than else-
where in Western Europe, by the religious spirit‘.
The earliest writings that have come down in
the Latin alphabet are certain codes of provincial
laws (landshapslagar). The most important is
the “Elder West Giita Law,” dating from the
thirteenth century. Magnus Eriksson’s Landslag
(about 1350) is that King’s attempt to provide
a common law for all the provinces he had
brought under his rule. It was probably a
scholar from the entourage of this same King
Magnus who wrote the celebrated Um styrilsi
honnnga oh hofpinga (“On the Conduct of Kings
and Magnates”) . To the fourteenth century be-
long the writings ascribed to Saint Birgitta, a
pious nun and mystic revealer of heavenly things.
There are nine books of her “Revelations.”
Saint Birgitta is the most eminent person-
age in the annals of Catholic Sweden. She
made the Convent of Vadstena a literary centre,
where many Latin writings, chiefly mystical and
hagiographic, but including a part of the Bible,
were translated into Swedish for the benefit of
the nuns. In poetry the mediaeval period is not
very rich, though its aggregate of metrical pro-
duction is considerable. The romances of chiv-
alry are represented in the so-called Eafemia-
visor, certain tales of knighthood done into Swed-
ish verse by a gleeman living at the court of
Queen Euphemia of Norway (1303-12). They
are H erra Iwan, H ertig Fredrilc a)‘ N ormandie,
and Flores och Blanzaflor, all in rhyming couplets
with four accents to the line. Besides these met-
rical romances, there are several rhymed chron-
icles, the oldest being the Erihslcr6nika (about
1320), and the ballads. It is agreed that the
ballad-making period in Sweden was in the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries, but the extant
collections are of :-the sixteenth and seventeenth.
None of the known specimens are of indisputable
antiquity, but the best compare very well in
form and matter with the better Kcempeoiser of
Denmark. From the fifteenth century we have a
few good poems by Bishop Thomas of Strengniis
(died in 1443).
The Reformation transferred the literary centre
from Vadstena to Upsala. The literature of the
sixteenth century is almost exclusively religious,
the two chief writers being the brothers Petri,
Carmelite monks who had been converted to
Lutheranism at Wittenberg. They stand out as
the leading Swedish apostles of the new faith.
The elder, Olavus (‘Master Olof ’) , wrote psalms,
devotional poems, a prose chronicle of Swedish
history, and (probably) the mystery-play Tobie
Oomedia. With his brother Laurentius he di-
rected the publication of the first Swedish Bible
SWEDISH LANGUAGE.
SWEENEY.
387
(Upsala, 1541) . The first secular author of any
note in the new era is the historian Messenius,
who also wrote six ‘school comedies’ on subjects
from Swedish history. The best known is Disa,
which was played by Upsala students in 1611.
The period of Swedish expansion (1630-1730)
is marked by the widening of the literary horizon
through the introduction of new ideas and forms
from Germany, France, Italy, and Holland. The
prominent figure is Stjernhjelm (1598-1672), the
‘father of Swedish poetry.’ He did a work
like that of Opitz in Germany, by whom he was
influenced; that is, he sought to give his country
a worthy poetic literature by imitating good
models, old and new. He laid great stress on
metrical regularity and ornateness of diction.
His poem Hercules, a didactic allegory on the
conflict of Pleasure and Duty, may fairly be said
to have nationalized the dactylic hexameter. It
is metrically elegant, but rather florid. Stjern-
hjelm also experimented with alexandrines, the
ottava rima, the sonnet, and the ballad. His most
noteworthy disciple was the poet-scholar Colum-
bus (1642-79). An opponent of Stjernhjelm,
Rosenhane (1619-84), won fame especially as a
sonneteer. A jovial and facile rhymester who
stood apart fro1n the schools was Johansson,
called Lucidor (died in 1684). The eccentric
polyhistor Rudbeck (1630-1702), with his amaz-
ing Atlantiha, belongs to the history of literary
curiosities rather than of literature.
In the ensuing epoch (1730-1772) the great
Swedish names are Swedenborg and Linnaeus; but
they belong, respectively, to the history .of re-
ligion and of science. In belles lettres the ideals
of Sweden were substantially those of contempo-
rary France and England. The presiding
genius is Dalin (1708-63), whose Swedish Argus,
started in 1732 in imitation of the Spectator,
became the rallying-point of the dominant ideas.
Dalin had something of Voltaire’s versatility
and cleverness. He wrote much poetry, but is best
remembered as an elegant stylist in prose, the
first in Swedish annals. Opposed to Dalin in
some of his tendencies was the coterie of Fru
Nordenflycht (1718-63), the ‘Northern Aspasia.’
Her salon in Stockholm was not unworthy of its
Parisian models. To her circle belonged Creutz
(1729-85), best known for his pleasant pastoral
Atis och Camilla, and Gyllenborg (1731-1808),
author of many ratiocinative poems. All these
mid-century writers were strongly influenced by
their contemporaries in England.
The Gustavian epoch (1772-1809) is marked by
royal patronage of letters on a large scale. Gus-
tavus III., himself a playwright and a prize
orator, assembled an academic court of talent,
which continued the French tradition of the
Old‘ Regime. The leading Gustavians were Kell-
gren (1751-95), Leopold (1756-1829), and
Oxenstjerna (1750-1818), all poets of consider-
able talent and devoted to the ideals and senti-
ments of the expiring Age of Enlightenment.
Here belongs also the name of the gifted poetess
Fru Lenngren (1754-1817), famed for her idyls
and satires and her literary salon. Quite un-
touched by academic influence was the much ad-
mired Bellman (1740-95), a genial humorist of
Anacreontic tendencies, who turned his,observa-
tions of Stockholm low life into wonderfully
tuneful verse. To the Gustavian period belongs,
finally, though not of its spirit and distinctly
prophetic of a new era, the best work of the
eminent lyric poet Franzén (1772-1847).
The great Romantic movement of the nine-
teenth century, with the concomitant renais-
sance of national feeling, affected Swedish litera-
ture profoundly. The new ideas, coming from
Germany by way of Denmark, precipitated at
first a wordy war of various schools and ten-
dencies, after which came a season of really
brilliant production. In the soulful verse of
Wallin (1779-1839); in the best work of the
arch-Romanticist Atterbom (1790-1855); in the
fine spirituality and exquisite workmanship of
Stagnelius (1793-1823); in the stirring North-
ern poems of Geijer (1783-1847), who was des-
tined to become, next to Fryxell, perhaps, his
country’s greatest historian; in the productions
of the brilliantly endowed but erratic and un-
even Almqvist (1793-1866) ; and of several minor
poets like Sjiiberg (1794-1828) and Nicander
(1799-1839) ; but above all in the splendid talent
of Tegnér (1782-1846), who won world-wide
fame with his romanticized Fr-ithiof’s Saga/—the
national genius found a richer expression than
at any time before or since. '
In the mid-century period the prominent names
are Fredrika Bremer (1801-65), once widely
read at home and abroad, and Runeberg (1804-
77), a strong rival of Tegnér for the first place of
honor in the whole Swedish Parnassus. Some-
what later come Topelius (1818-98), best known
for his novels of Finnish history, and Rydberg
(1829-95), eminent as poet, novelist, and trans-
lator of Goethe’s Faust. The newer realism is
most conspicuously represented by Strindberg
(1849—), and recent poetry by Count Snoilsky
(1841-1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A good anthology of Old
Swedish will be found in Noreen’s Altschwe-
disches Lesebuch (Halle, 1892-94), and of the en-
tire literature (to 1830) in the bdseboh i svensh
Litteratur of Hildebrand, Bergstadt, and Bendix-
son (Stockholm, 1897-98). The old laws have
been edited by Schlyter, much of the religious
mediaeval literature by Klemming. See also the
publications of the Svenska Fornskriftssitllsha-
pet. Of older works on the history of literature
the best are Wieselgren, Sveriges slcéina litteratur
(Lund, 1833-49) ; and Malmstrtim, Grunddragen
af svenska vitterhetens historia (Orebo, 1866-
69). The best work up to date is the Illustrated
svensh litteratur-historia of. Schiick and War-
burg (Stockholm, 1896 et seq.).
swnnrsn MOVEMENT. See Movsniznr
CURE.
SWEDISH MUSIC. See SCANDINAVIAN
Musrc.
SWEDISH NIGHTINGALE. A popular
name given to the Swedish singer Jenny Lind.
SWEE’NEY, THOMAS WILLIAM (1820-92).
An American soldier, born at Cork, Ireland. He
came to the United States in his boyhood; in
1846 enlisted as second lieutenant in Burnett’s
New York Volunteers, and fought under General
Scott in Mexico. At the outbreak of the Civil
War he was in command of the arsenal at Saint
Louis, Mo. In reply to efforts of Confederate
sympathizers to induce him to surrender that
important post he declared that before he would
do so he would blow it up. As second in com-
SWEENEY.
SWEET POTATO.
388
mand he participated in the capture of Camp
Jackson in May, 1861; assisted in organizing
the Home Guards, and was chosen brigadier-
general of that organization, and commanded the
Fifty-second Illinois at Fort Donelson. At Shi-
loh he successfully defended a gap in the Union
line. He commanded the second division in
Sherman’s Atlanta campaign. In 1866 he took
a prominent part in the Fenian invasion of
Canada. He retired from the United States
Army in 1870 with the rank of brigadier.
SWEET, BENJAMIN JEFFREY (1832-74). An
American soldier, born at Kirkland, Oneida
County, N. Y. At the age of sixteen he moved
with his father to Wisconsin. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he helped to raise two regi-
ments, and became colonel of one of them, the
Twenty-first Wisconsin. At the battle of Perry-
ville he received a wound that incapacitated him
from further service in the field. In the spring
of 1864 he was put i11 command of Camp Douglas
at Chicago. In the following July and again in
November he defeated plots of the Knights of
the Golden Circle (q.v.) to capture Chicago and
release the 10,000 Confederate prisoners confined
in Camp Douglas. For these services he was
promoted brigadier-general of volunteers. From
1869 till 1870 he was United States pension
agent at Chicago, and from 1870 till his death
was First Deputy Commissioner of Internal
Revenue at Washington.
SWEET, HENRY (1845—). An English phil-
ologist, born in London. He was educated at
King’s College and Balliol College, Oxford. He
devoted himself to Anglo-Saxon and phonetics.
Of his editions of Anglo-Saxon texts the most
important are King Alfred’s version of Gregory’s
Oura Pastoralis (1871); Anglo-Sa-won Reader
(7th ed. 1894); Anglo-Saaron Primer (3d
ed. 1883); Alfred’s Translation of Orosias
(1883); Epinal Glossary (1883); Oldest Eng-
lish Texts (1885). Among his contributions to
Anglo-Saxon philology are his Dialects and
Prehistoric Forms of Old English (1876),
and A Sketch of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, in Whar-
ton’s History of English .PO6t’)"’l , vol. iv. (London,
1871). His work in phonetics includes his
Handboolc of Phonetics (1877) ; History of Eng-
lish Sounds ( 2d ed. 1888) ; and Primer of Pho-
netics (1890). He is likewise the author of
Words, Logic, and Grammar (187_ 6) ; Elementar-
bnch des gesprochenen Englisch (2d ed. 1886);
New English Grammar (1892); Current Short-
hand, Orthographic and Phonetic (1892) ; and a
literary study on Shelley/’s Nature-Poetry
(1891), of primers of Middle English (1884-86)
and of Icelandic (1886), and The Practical
Study of Languages (1899).
SWEETBRIER. See EGLANTINE.
SWEET OALABASH. See GRANADILLA.
SWEET FERN. A popular name for Myrica
asplenifolia and Myrrhis odora.ta, also known as
sweet cicely, both of which have fern-like foliage.
The former, being rich in tannin, has been em-
ployed as an astringent in domestic medicine;
the latter is employed in cooking, for its agree-
able flavor.
SWEET FLAG. See Aconus.
SWEET GALE. Sec CANDLEBERBY.
SWEET GUM. See LIQUIDAMBAR.
SWEET PEA (Lathyrus odoratus). An old-
fashioned papilionaceous garden flower which has
been brought into prominence and greatly im-
proved in form and color during the closing
quarter of the nineteenth century. The plant is
a free random grower like other peas, but has
perfumed flowers of greater beauty. Sweet peas
should be planted as early in spring as the
ground can be worked. A rich, deeply prepared
clay loam suits them best. Thin, dry soils are
not satisfactory. Sweet peas should be sown

SWEET PEA (Latbyrus odoratus).
thinly, 2 to 3 inches deep in trenches 4 to 5
inches broad and as deep, 3~to 3% feet apart.
Brush or trellis should be provided when the
plants are two inches high, and shallow culti-
vation should be given all through the growing
season and blooming period, gradually filling up
the trench. No pods should be allowed to ripen
as long as flowers are wanted, as growth ceases
with the ripening of the pods. More than 100
named varieties are in cultivation. Two other
closely related peas are also cultivated for their
flowers—the sweet tangier pea (Lathyras tingi-
I-anus) and the perrenial or everlasting pea
(Lathyras latifolius). Both have long been in
cultivation in Europe. The latter, which is very
hardy, has many-flowered clusters, large stand-
ard, scentless flowers, strongly veined leaflets,
and broad, hairless pods. Consult: Hutchins,
All About Sweet Peas (1894) ; id., Sweet Peas
Up to Date (Philadelphia, 1897); New York
Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulle-
tins 111, 127.-
SWEET POTATO, or BATATAS (Ipomoea
Batatas) . A perennial plant of the natural order
Convolvulaceze, with long creeping stems, heart-
shaped leaves on long stalks, and variously lobed,
large purple flowers much resembling those of
the best known species of Convolvulus. and large
oblong or elongated roots. Authorities differ
as to whether it owes its origin to East India
or America, but it is now cultivated in all
tropical and sub-tropical countries for its sweet,
wholesome roots, which are highly esteemed as
an article of food.
The sweet potato is propagated by sets ob-
tained from the tubers sprouted in a specially
SW'EE-T POTATO.
SWELL SHARK.
389
prepared bed and when about four inches tall
planted 18 inches asunder in rows 31/2 feet apart
in the field; the later vine cuttings, which are
commonly used in the Gulf States and as far
north as Virginia, require from 90 to 105 days
to mature their roots. The crop grows best in a
warm, sandy, well-drained soil. It requires clean
cultivation. Early digging yields only one-half
to two-thirds as much as may be obtained from
the matured crop, which averages from 250 to
275 bushels per acre. The roots should be har-
vested before frost and when the ground is dry.
The roots must be stored in a rather warm, dry
place, as otherwise heavy losses are almost sure
to occur from rotting. The so-called ‘yams’
grown in the United States are all sweet
potatoes.
The most serious diseases of the sweet potato
destroy the fleshy roots. The black rot (Cera-
tocystis fimbriata), which appears as greenish
black, irregular spots which increase in size and
eventually destroy the whole root, may be spread
through planting diseased tubers in the seed bed
or through the presence of the fungus in the soil.
At the New Jersey Experiment Station sulphur
in the soil has been used with success as a pre-
ventive. Dry rot (Phoma batatoe) dries,
wrinkles, and fills the roots with powder. It at-
tacks the whole root in the field. Rotation of
crops and destruction of diseased material are
recommended as preventives. A soft rot
(Rhizopus nigricans) attacks stored roots, usu-
ally commencing at places where the skin has
been broken. Since moisture favors its spread,
sweet potatoes should be stored in well-ventilated,
dry rooms. A leaf spot (Phyllosticta batati-
cola) often attacks and turns the foliage white,
and a leaf mold (Cystopus ipomcece-pandurame)
turns the leaves, especially the older ones, brown.
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture or other fungi-
cide (q.v.) is recommended for these last two and
the first disease.
As ordinarily prepared for the table the skin
constitutes on an average 20 per cent. and the
edible portion 80 per cent. of the root. The edible
portion has the following percentage composition:
water, 69.0; protein, 1.8; fat, 0.7 ; nitrogen-free
extract, 27.4; and ash, 1.1 per cent., the fuel
value being 570 calories per pound. Like ordi-
nary potatoes, sweet potatoes are a succulent
food, the chief nutrient being carbohydrates, the
principal of which is starch. Sugars are also
found, 2.5 per cent. cane sugar and 3.4 per cent.
invert sugar being the average amount found in
a large number of analyses. In addition to the
quantities consumed in the fresh state, sweet
potatoes are also canned and evaporated. They
are sometimes fed to farm animals, especially
pigs. To secure the greatest profit the pigs
should harvest the crop and some nitrogenous
feed like cowpeas should also be fed. See Plate
of YAM, SWEET PoTATo, ETC.
SWEET-POTATO INSECTS. The leaves of
the sweet potato are punctured by a small
bronzed flea-beetle (Chaetocnema confinis),
which eats channels along the veins soon after
the plants have been set out and causes the leaves
to shrivel. The most serious of the insect ene-
mies of the crop are several species of tortoise-
beetles. (See TORTOISE-BEETLE.) Among the
commonest species are the two-striped tortoise-
beetle (Cassida bivittata), which is pale yellow
and has two black- stripes on each wing-cover.
The larva is dirty yellowish white and covers
itself with cast skins and excrement. It gnaws
irregular holes in the leaves underneath which
it transforms to pupa. The golden tortoise-
beetle (Coptocycla aurichalcea), which is more
abundant, resembles gold tinsel and is beauti-
fully resplendent. The larva is dark brown and
feeds like the previous species. Arsenical sprays
have been recommended.
SWEET-SCENTED SHRUB. See CALY-
CANTHUS.
SWEET SOP (Anona squamosa) . A bush or
small tree of the natural order Anonaceee, a na-
tive of tropical America and introduced in other
warm countries. The scaly greenish fruit has
a soft, somewhat mealy, sweet, and luscious
pulp with a musky aromatic odor and flavor. It
is much used, generally raw, but sometimes
cooked, and has proved valuable during famines
in Hindustan.
SWEET SULTAN. A garden plant. See
CENTAUREA.
SWEET VERNAL GRASS. A slender
European grass (Anthoaanthum odoratum),
about 18 inches tall and bearing a loose cylindri-
cal spike of flowers. It is noted for its pleasing
odor due to coumarin which is most noticeable
when the plant is in flower. It is often mixed
with other grasses to give flavor to hay, but is
not considered equal in feeding value to timothy,
orchard grass, etc. See Plate of GRASSES.
SWEET WILLIAM, WILD. See PHLox.
SWELL (AS., OHG. swellan, Ger. schwellen,
to swell; possibly connected with Gk. o'a>\eiieu/,
saleuein, to toss, Lat. salum, open sea). A term
applied to a local thickening of a mineral de-
posit. The phenomenon is not uncommon in
many metalliferous veins, and is caused by local
expansions of the ore-bearing fissure, due to
dynamic action or solution. In coal seams a
similar phenomenon is often met with, but the
swell here is caused by movements of the floor
and roof of the coal bed.
SWELL. In music, a set of pipes in an organ,
forming a separate department, which are ca-
pable of being increased or diminished in in-
tensity of sound by the action of a pedal, or by
a series of shades or shutters overlapping each
other like Venetian window-blinds, within which
the pipes in question are inclosed. The first
recorded swell organ was made in 1712 by Jordan,
and in 1763 Shudi introduced the so-called Ve-
netia swell, but the compass of all the early
swells was very incomplete. See ORGAN.
SWELLFISH. One of the many names ap-
plied to plectognath fishes, especially of the fam-
ily Tetraodontidee, which inflate their bodies with
air until they become globe-like and the spines
of their skin rigid, making them unpleasant
morsels for an enemy to swallow. A familiar
example is Tetrao-don turgidus, of the Eastern
American coast-waters, also called ‘swell-toad’
and ‘puffer.’ Compare GLOBEFISH. See Plate
of PLEoToeNATH FISHES.
SWELL SHARK. A small, voracious gray
shark (Catullus uter) of the family Scylliidee,
common on the Pacific Coast from central Cali-
fornia to Chile. and often taken in lobster-pots.
When caught it will inflate its stomach with air,
SWELL SHARK.
SWIFT.
390
until its thickness is equal to a third of its
length, and will float belly upward until it sup-
poses the danger past; hence its vernacular name.
See Plate of LAMPREYS AND Doemsn.
SWETCHINE, svech-én’, ANNE SOPHIE Sor-
MANOFF (1782-1857). A Russian-French author,
born in Moscow. Her father was Soymanoff-, the
founder of the Moscow Academy. She married in
1799 General Swetchine and established at Saint
Petersburg a salon of much distinction, fre-
quented by émigrés. Thus she came into touch
with Joseph le Maistre in 1815, and was by him
converted to Roman Catholicism. In the next
year she moved to Paris, where her equally
famous salon took on a distinctly religious tone.
I-Ier writings, all of a religious or contemplative
character, are edited with a Life by Falloux
(Paris, 1860) ; her Lettres by the same
editor (ib., 1862; 5th ed. 1881), who added
a journal of her Conversation (ib., 1863),
and Lettres ine’d-ites (ib., 1866). Her letters
have been translated by H. WV. Preston (Boston,
1867). Consult: Sainte-Beuve, Noureaua: lun-
dis (vol. i., Paris, 1863-72), and Scherer, Etudes
critiques sur la littérature contemporaine, vol. i.
(ib., 1863).
SWETE, swet, HENRY BARCLAY (1835—-). An
Anglican clergyman, especially distinguished for
his work in textual criticism. He was born at
Redlands, Bristol, and was educated at King’s
College, London, and at Caius College, Cam-
bridge. In 1877-90 he was rector of Ashdon,
Essex; in 1882-90 professor of pastoral theology
at King’s College, London, and in 1890 was made
regius professor of divinity in Cambridge. Among
his published works are two essays on the His-
_tory of the Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (1873,
1876), an edition of Theodore of Mopsuestia’s
Commentary on the Epistles of Saint Paul
(1880-82), The Old Testament in Greek
(1887-94; 2d ed. 1895-99), The Ahhmin Frag-
ment of the Gospel of Saint Peter (1893), The
Psalms in Greek According to the Septuagint,
with the Canticles (1889; 2d ed. 1896), The
Apostles’ Creed in Relation to Primitive Christi-
anity (1894; 3d ed. 1899), Church Services and
Service Books Before the Reformation (1896),
and An Introduction to the Old Testament in
Greek (1900).
SWEYN, swan, SWEGEN, sva’gen, or
SWEND, svénd. A King of Denmark, father
of Canute (q.v.). See DENMARK.
SWIETEN, sve’ten, GERARD VAN (1700-72).
A celebrated Dutch physician and scholar, born
at Leyden, where, after studying philosophy at
Louvain, he pursued medicine under Boerhaave,
Whose most distinguished pupil he became. Called
to Vienna in 1745 as physician in ordinary to
Maria Theresa, he instilled new life into every
branch of science, but especially promoted re-
forms in the study of medicine, which, as di-
rector of the faculty, he raised to a high stand-
ard through his own teachings as well as by the
appointment of famous specialists to chairs at
the university. Reforms in the other faculties
presently followed, and although greatly hampered
by the intrigues of the Jesuits, Van Swieten held
his own against them here as well as in the su-
pervision of censorship, in which considerable
authority was accorded him as custodian of the
Imperial library, and of which he was finally ap-
pointed chairman in 1759. In science he sought
his fame as an expositor of his teacher Boerhaave.
His Commentaria in H ermanni Boerhaave Apho-
rismos de Cognoscend-is ct Curandis Morbis (new
ed. 1787-92) hold a permanent place in medical
literature. In 1758 Van Swieten, having saved
the life of the Empress, was created a baron.
His son GOTTFRIED (1733-1803) succeeded him
as custodian of the Imperial library and was an
intimate friend of Haydn and Mozart. For the
former he adapted the text of the Creation from
the English and wrote the text of The Seasons.
SWIFT (AS. swift, fleet, rapid; connected
with su;-apan, Eng. swoop, sweep, OHG. sweifan,
Ger. sch-weifen, to rove). A bird of the family
Cypselidae, nearly related to the humming-birds.
The swifts are widely distributed, and some are
only found in tropical countries; others are
birds of passage, and spend the summer in colder
parts of the world. Many are popularly called
swallows, as, for example, the chimney-swift of
the United States, almost always called ‘chimney-
swallow.-’ This confusion is due to a resemblance
in the long, pointed wings, the small, widely
gaping bill, the weak feet, and to the habit of
capturing their insect prey by untiring hunting
in the air. About seventy-five species of swift
are known, half of which are American, al-
though only four occur in the United States.
Swifts are mostly dull-colored birds, black,
brown, gray, and white, and are seldom over
seven inches in length or more than twice that
across the wings. They are remarkable for the
development of the salivary glands, the secretion
of which is used in building the nest. The latter
may be nearly pure saliva, as in the edible nests
of the salangane (q.v.), or, as is more commonly
the case, may be composed of grass, twigs, or
other vegetable matter, glued together and to the
support by saliva. The nests are attached to
cliffs, the interior of chimneys, or hollow trees,
the spathes of palm blossoms, or the leaves of
palms, etc. The eggs are pure white, unspotted.
The only swift common in the United States is
the well-known chimney-swift (q.v.). Along the
Pacific Coast occurs also the great black swift
(Cypseloides niger), whose range includes the
West Indies and Mexico and extends north to
British Columbia. It breeds on inaccessible
cliffs, and is still little known. Another large
swift (Cypselus melanoleucus), which has the
chin, throat, and breast white, occurs in the
Southwestern United States, north to Wyoming
and Utah, and it also breeds on practically inac-
cessible cliffs. To the same genus as the last-
named species belong the best-known European
forms. In this genus, which contains about
twenty-five species, three-fourths belonging to the
Old World, the tail is usually forked, the legs
and toes are feathered, and all the toes are
directed forward. The common and widespread
European swift is Cypselus apus. Another nota-
ble species is the alpine swift of the mountainous
parts of South Europe. To this same genus be-
long the palm swifts of the VVest Indies, of
which a Jamaican species ( M icropus phaenicobia)
is noteworthy on account of its nest, which when
placed in a palmetto is glued to the surface of
one of the great fronds and formed of silk-cotton
in the shape of a bag or watch-pocket open at
the side. Some of the most curious and inter-
esting swifts dwell in the Orient. One genus
SWIFTS AND THEIR NESTS


M * H ‘H 'H W
A “'''l [H 4 “' "


.'
J-vi \
1‘ 1|“ I




1. AMER|CAN CHIMNEY SWIFT (Chatura pelagica). 3. SALANGANE (C0lIocalla fuclphaga) and edlble nests.
2. TREE SWIFT AND NE$T (Macropterlx coronata). 4. PALM SW1FT (MICFOIJUS phuanlcohla).
SWIFT.
SWIFT.
391
(Macropteryx) contains the tree-swifts, whose
plumage is peculiarly soft, the tails deeply
forked and the head crested. They are shy and
breed in rocky jungles, forming a little cup-
shaped nest of flakes of bark glued together with
saliva and attached to the side of the branch of
a tree. There is only one egg, which (as is the
case with all the family) is pure white. Five
species are found in the Indo-Chinese region and
eastward to the Solomon Islands.
SWIFT, BENJAMIN. The pseudonym of the
English novelist William Romaine Paterson
(q.v.).
SWIFT, GUSTAVUS FRANKLIN (1839-1903).
An American merchant, born at Cape Cod, Mass.
After various business experiences he engaged
in meat-packing in Chicago, and was the first to
ship meat long distances successfully. He found-
ed and was president of the corporation of Swift
and Company, one of the largest packing firms
in the United States, and was a prominent mem-
ber of many other similar concerns. His busi-
ness enterprise did much for the trade de-
velopment of Chicago.
SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745). The great-
est of English satirists, born in Dublin, Novem-
ber 30, 1667. He was of Yorkshire origin. His
father had been attracted to Ireland by the
prospect of political preferment, but died before
Jonathan’s birth. When he was six years old,
his uncle Godwin sent him to Kilkenny School,
the Eton of Ireland, where Congreve and Berke-
ley were his contemporaries. At fifteen he was
sent to Trinity College, Dublin. At Trinity the
lad read much history and poetry, but was so dis-
dainful of the ordinary curriculum and of college
regulations that his degree was only granted to
him by a special grace. The disturbances of the
Revolution of 1688 drove him to England, and in
the following year he obtained employment as
secretary to Sir William Temple (q.v.) at Moor
Park, in Surrey. Swift found the position trying,
though he calls Temple “a man of sense and
virtue.” In 1694. he quarreled with his employer
and returned to Ireland to seek ordination, ob-
taining the small living of Kilroot, near Belfast.
But he soon wearied of rural isolation and in 1696
he went back to Moor Park. Perhaps the impell-
ing motive was the presence there of Esther J ohn-
son, subsequently immortalized as “Stella,” a
poor relation of Temple’s. Swift had a hand in
her education; she was now, at fifteen, growing
into a beautiful woman, with “hair blacker than
the raven and every feature of her face in per-
fection.” Swift remained at Moor Park until
Temple’s death in 1699. His sojourn there, how-
ever galling some incidents of it may have
been to his pride, was of inestimable value to
him. Besides the daily association with a states-
man and a man of culture, he had time for an
enormous amount of reading and for practice in
writing. His only relics, however, of this period
are some Pindaric odes, a species of composition
for which he was little qualified and which Dry-
den characterized frankly with the judgment,
“Cousin Swift. you will never be a poet.”
His first prose composition betrayed his resent-
ment. This was The Battle of the Books, a bur-
lesque of the controversy then raging over the
relative merits of the ancients and the moderns,
in which for the first and last time his satire re-
coiled on himself. He returned once more to Ire-
land, as secretary and chaplain to Lord Berkeley,
but lost the secretaryship and did not get the
deanery of Derry, which he had expected. He
was, however, appointed to the rectory of Agher,
with the vicarages of Laracor and Rathbeggan
For the first time his own master, Swift showed
that stern regard for duty which characterized
him, and gained the respect, if he failed to in-
fluence the convictions, of his Catholic neigh-
bors. He realized himself that he was a poor
preacher, calling his sermons ‘pamphlets.’ He soon
began his career as a political pamphleteer, which
was to be so epoch-making, with A Discourse
on the Dissensions in Athens and Rome (1700),
really a defense of Somers and the other Whig
lords threatened with impeachment. In 1704
he published the Tale of a Tub, the most amus-
ing of his satirical works, the most strikingly
original, and the one in which the full compass
of his powers was most perfectly displayed.
With matchless irony he ridiculed many forms
of pretentious pedantry, mainly in literature
and religion. The book led to many doubts of
his orthodoxy and injured his chances of ec-
clesiastical preferment.
Though nominally a Whig, Swift differed from
his party on important questions. He hated its
war policy and its alliance with dissent. These
differences, along with the failure to gain any-
thing from the connection, made it easy for him
to break from his former allies. In 1710 the
Tories came into power with Harley and St.
John at their head and Swift was easily won over
to their side. He turned upon the Whigs with a
series of brilliant squibs, assumed the editorship
of the Examiner, the Tory organ, November 2,
1710-June 14, 1711, and produced several in-
dependent pamphlets, in all of which he ably de-
fended the policy of the Tories. Of these par-
ticular papers the most powerful was the Con-
duct of the Allies (November, 1711), in which
the position was maintained that the VVhigs had
prolonged the Continental ‘Var out of self-inter-
est. Swift certainly led the way to the dis-
missal of Marlborough and the Peace of Utrecht
(1713). For three years Swift was among the
most conspicuous men in politics and society.
His advent marks a new era in English politics,
with the accession of public opinion, fostered
by him more than by any other man, to supreme
power.
He comes into full light in September, 1710,
with the beginning of his Journal to Stella. He
had invited her in 1701 to Ireland, with her
friend Mrs. Dingley. They lived in his house
at Laracor and Dublin when he was absent,
and in lodgings near by when he was present.
The diary letters which he sent to Stella and
Mrs. Dingley, ending with April, 1713, com-
pose one of the most interesting documents
that ever threw light on the history of a man
of genius. In London he lodged close to Mrs.
Vanhomrigh, whose daughter Hester (called
Vanessa by him) fell in love with Swift, and
hugged the chains to which Stella merely sub-
mitted. In 1714 the Tory Ministry fell, Queen
Anne died, and Swift’s power was gone. In
spite of the Queen’s distrust of him, he had been
appointed to the deanery of Saint Patrick’s in
Dublin, in 1713. and thither he now retired, ‘no
doubt hoping that the move would settle his com-
plications for him. But, as luck would have it,
Vanessa’s mother died and she followed him to
SWIFT.
SWIFT.
392
Celbridge, in the near neighborhood. It is pos-
sible that in 1716 Swift may have married Stella.
He undoubtedly loved her and shows a tenderness
for her such as he never displays in any other
case. From 1717 to 1720 he and Vanessa re-
mained apart, but in the latter year he began to
pay her regular visits. In 1723 Vanessa took
the desperate step of writing to Stella. Swift
rode down to Marley Abbey, where she was stay-
ing, with a terrible countenance, petrified her
with a frown, and departed, flinging on the table
a packet containing her letter to Stella. Van-
essa died within a few weeks, leaving behind
her the poem he had written for her, Oadenus
and Vanessa, and their correspondence.
Five years afterwards Stella followed Vanessa,
and the wretched lover sat down the same night
to record her virtues in language of unsurpassed
simplicity. A look of her hair is preserved with
the inscription in Swift’s handwriting, most af-
fecting in its apparent cynicism,“Only a woman’s
hair.” Between the death of Vanessa and that
of Stella, as though withheld by an evil fate un-
til he could no longer enjoy it, came the greatest
political and literary triumph of Swift’s life.
He had fled to Dublin a broken man, politically
extinct; a few years raised him to the summit
of popularity, though power was denied him.
In 1724 he took Ireland by storm with the
Drapier Letters, a series of wonderfully effective
pamphlets, directed against the patent granted to
one Wood, a hanger-on of the Court, for coining
copper halfpence in Ireland.
The noise of this success had hardly died
away when Swift acquired more lasting glory
by the publication of Gulliuer’s Travels. Few
books have added so much to the innocent mirth
of mankind as the first two parts of Gulliver.
With the omission of certain passages, it is one
of the most delightful children’s books ever
written. Yet it has been equally valued, as
Swift meant it to be, for an unrivaled satire on
mankind. He seems to have solaced himself with
its composition in the early years of what he
called his exile; and if the ‘later books show his
most savage temper, it is well to remember that
they were written during the years when he was
attacking political corruption and when his pri-
vate happiness was being destroyed. In 1726 he
brought the completed manuscript to England
with him and it was published anonymously in
the winter of that year, meeting with instanta-
neous success.
His last years, however, were clouded by
constantly increasing torture from disease. He
governed his cathedral with great strictness and
conscientiousness, and for years after Stella’s
death held a sort of miniature court at the
deanery. But death was becoming more and
more real and welcome to him. His regular fare-
well to a friend in these latter years was, “Good
night—-I hope I shall never see you again.” A
period of absolute mental decay closed with his
death on October 19, 1745. He was buried in his
cathedral in the same coffin with Stella, with the
epitaph written by himself, “Here lies the body
of Jonathan Swift. D.D.. dean of this cathedral,
where burning indignation can no longer tear
at his heart. Go, traveler, and imitate if you
can a man who was an undaunted champion
of liberty.”
Swift’s character, as a whole, forms a fascinat-
ing psychological study. From some passages
of his life he would appear a heartless egotist;
and yet he was capable of the sincerest friend-
ship, and could never dispense with human
sympathy. Thus an object of pity, as well as
awe, he is the most tragic figure in the literature
of the eighteenth century——the only man of his
age who could be conceived as affording a ground-
work for the creations of Shakespeare. “To think
of him,” says Thackeray, “is like thinking of the
ruins of a great empire.” Nothing finer or truer
could be said.
Consult his Works, edited by Sir Walter Scott
(19 vols., Edinburgh, 1814 and 1824) ; Prose
1Vorks (the best edition) edited by T. Scott, with
introduction by W. E. H. Lecky (Bohn’s Library,
8 vols., London, 1897-99); various selections,
by S. Lane-Poole (ib., 1884-85), by W. Lew-
in (Camelot Series, ib., 1886), by H. Morley
(Carisbrooke Library, ib., 1889), and by H.
Craik (Oxford, 1892-93) ; Unpublished Let-
ters (edited by G. B. Hill, London, 1899).
The best recent lives of Swift are by H. Craik
(London, 1882), Leslie Stephen (ib., 1882), and
Churton Collins (ib., 1893). Consult also
Forster’s incomplete Life (1875), Wilde, Closing
Years of Swift’s Life (Dublin, 1849) ; Lane-
Poole’s Notes for a Bibliography of Swift,
reprinted from The Bibliographer (London,
1884).
SWIFT, Josnrrr GARDNER (1783-1865). An
American soldier, born at Nantucket, Mass. He
graduated at the United States Military Acad-
emy in 1802, being the first graduate of that
institution; became a captain in 1806 and a
major in 1808, and in July, 1812, was promoted
to be colonel and chief engineer of the United
States Army. In the War of 1812 he served as
chief engineer of the army under General VVilkin-
son, in the Saint Lawrence campaign of 1813;
later had charge of the construction of the forti-
fications of New York harbor; was brevetted a
brigadier-general in February, 1814; and was
superintendent of the United States Military
Academy by virtue of his ofiice as chief of en-
gineers from 1812 to 1817. He resigned from
the army in November, 1818; superintended the
construction of the New Orleans and Lake Pont-
chartrain Railroad in 1830-31; was for many
years in charge of harbor improvements on the
Great Lakes; and was engaged in numerous
other engineering enterprises.
SWIFT, LEWIS (1820-—). An American
astronomer, born at Clarkson, N. Y. He was
educated at Clarkson Academy and about 1854
took up the study of astronomy. He was noted
for his numerous discoveries of comets and
nebulae previously uncatalogued. He became di-
rector of the Warner Observatory, Rochester,
N. Y., 1882. His 16-inch telescope at that in-
stitution was presented to him as a gift by the
citizens of Rochester and was subsequently re-
moved by him to his present observatory on Echo
Mountain, Pasadena, California.
SWIFT, LINDSAY (l856—). An American
librarian, bibliographer, and literary historian,
born in Boston. A graduate of Harvard (1877),
he became associated in various bibliographical
capacities with the Boston Public Library, and
made valuable contributions, editorial and origi-
nal, to the study of early American literature
and history. The most noteworthy of his books
is Brook Farm (1900), an essay on New Eng-
SWIFT.
SWINBURNE.
' 393
land transcendentalism. Noteworthy also is a
monograph on Massachusetts Election Sermons.
SWIMMING (from swim, AS., OHG. swim-
man, Ger. schwimmen, to swim; connected with
Goth. swumsl, pond, and ultimately with Eng.
swamp). The act by which an animal progresses
in the water. Man is the only animal who does
not swim naturally, yet keeping the head above
the water is an act which most human beings
may easily learn.
The swimming of quadrupeds amounts simply
to walking in the water, whereas man has adopt-
ed many kinds of stroke besides the dog-paddle
method by which most land animals propel them-
selves. These methods involve swimming on the
breast, with a broad sweep of the arms and a
frog-like motion of the legs; swimming on the
side, and swimming on the back. He has also
learned to float and to tread water. In the lat-
ter case the body is held in a perpendicular
position and the hands and feet beat down-
ward. The old side stroke is the favorite style
for long-distance racing. It consists of three
alternate motions, an under-arm and an over-
arm stroke, and a scissors leg stroke, coming be-
tween the two arm strokes. The Trudgeon stroke
is a form of swimming introduced into England
a few years ago from the South Pacific. This is
now very popular among all civilized swimmers,
and is one of the fastest of all strokes for short
distances. It consists of alternate overhead
strokes, with a frog kick simultaneous with one
of the arm strokes, the body swimming on the
belly. A modification of this stroke was intro-
duced a few years ago by Alexander Meflert, the
famous American amateur mile-champion, in
which the head and forearm are kept submerged
as the body is pushed forward, the body being
turned from the waist and the face brought
above the water as the body checks between
strokes. This style of swimming admits of freer
animation and obviates any cramped position of
the head. It is used by some of the best Ameri-
can swimmers.
The home of organized swimming is England.
International swimming races between the vari-
ous parts of the United Kingdom are held an-
nually, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge
include swimming on the list of inter-university
sports, and inter-collegiate competitions take
place within the universities themselves. An
amalgamation of clubs in 1869 first brought
swimming under organized control, and this asso-
ciation developed, under several successive
names, into the Amateur Swimming Association
in 1886. England and the Australian colonies
easily head the world in feat swimmers. In ad-
dition to the Amateur Swimming Association,
great practical good has come to the art by the
establishment of classes of already good swim-
mers to be further instructed in the methods of
rescuing drowning persons, and resuscitating
those apparently exhausted. Diving has been
carried to a greater degree of perfection in Swe-
den than in any other country. Usually the
English practice has been confined to the stand-
ing or running dive with the succeeding under-
water swim, a very useful accomplishment where
life-saving is the object, as the body thereby en-
ters the water with a strong impulse and in the
line of the desired direction; but in Sweden
the dive from platforms from forty to sixty feet
above the surface, singly and in platoons, and
either directly or horizontally, or with inter-
mediate somersaults, has been developed.
In the United States, the West is ahead of
the East both in general interest and participa-
tion, especially beyond the Rockies, where several
world’s records have been approached. The first
championship races were held in 1877 by the
New York Athletic Club, and were annual there-
after up to 1888, excepting the years 1879-82.
In 1888 the management was ceded to the Ama-
teur Athletic Union. In 1896 an indoor meet
was added. The development in time made is
shown in the record of the first meet in 1877,
when R. Weissenborn won the mile in 45.44%, a
quarter of a minute slower than the present
American record. The 100-yard event was estab-
lished at the third meet, 1883, when A. F.
Camacho won in 1.28%.
Water polo is a department of swimming that
has become very popular since it was first recog-
nized as a sport, and there are leagues and na-
tional and international championships in Ire-
land, England, and Scotland (where the "game
is called water football), Wales, the United
States, Canada, India, Australia, and New Zea-
land. It is played with an Association foot-
ball (the round ball) in a bath or open water
by seven swimmers on each side. The goals are
from 19 to 30 yards apart with goal posts at
each end. The game is started by the referee
throwing the ball into the centre between the
line of teams. The ball can be hit or thrown
by any player providing he is not standing and
only uses one hand. Fouls are awarded for vari-
ous breaches of rules, the penalty being a free
throw for the opposing party. The duration of
the game is 14 minutes, 7 each way; a goal is
scored when the ball passes through the goal
posts and under the cross bar.
SWIN’BURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES (1837
—). An English poet, son of Admiral Charles
Henry Swinburne and Lady Henrietta Jane,
daughter of the third Earl of Ashburnham. He
was born in London, April 5, 1837, and was edu-
cated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford.
There he contributed prose and verse to Under-
graduate Papers, ed. by John Nichol. After three
years he left Oxford (1860) without a degree and
traveled on the Continent, visiting La.ndor at
Florence (1864). Returning to England, he be-
came closely associated with his brother ro-
mantics, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and VVilliam
Morris. Having written The Queen Mother and
Rosamond (1860), two dramas recalling the fire
of the Elizabethan age, he published Atalanta
in Calydon (1865), a beautiful lyric drama cast
in the mold of ancient tragedy. The next
year he awakened violent criticism with Poems
and Ballads. To his assailants Swinburne re-
plied with unmeasured scorn in Notes on Poems
and Reviews (1866). Besides the few pieces
that reasonably disturbed the moralists, the vol-
ume contained melodious lyrics covering a wide
range of motives, Hebrew, Greek, and media-.val.
Swinburne now composed a series of eloquent
odes, which won universal attention and again
exposed him to censure. Beginning with “A Song
of Italy” (1867), they reach a point where “the
heights flash” in Songs Before Sunrise (1871).
celebrating the conflict between darkness and
dawn, tyranny and freedom in revolutionary
Europe. In the meantime had appeared several
lyrics on other themes, of which the finest was
SWINIBURNE.
SWINE.
394
“Ave atque Vale” (1868), in memory of Baude-
laire. In 1865 Swinburne published Chastelard,
a romantic tragedy on the first period in the
career of Mary Queen of Scots. He continued
her history in Bothwell (1874) and afterwards
completed it in Mary Stuart (1881). The im-
posing trilogy is a chronicle history cast in
dramatic form with no view to the stage. The
poems thus far enumerated fairly represent
Swinburne, his originality, his extraordinary
command over hitherto unsuspected sources of
melody, his passion and vehemence.
With occasional fall in power, Swinburne pro-
duced Erechtheus (1876), a second and more
restrained classical drama; a second series of
Poems and Ballads (1878); the grand odes to
Victor Hugo; various beautiful sonnets; trans-
lations from Villon; Songs of Two Nations
(1875) ; Songs of the Springtides (1880) ; Studies
in Song ( 1880) ; Tristram of Lyonesse and Other
Poems (1882), passionate verse haunted by the
rhythm of the sea; A Century of Roundels
(1883); A Midsummer Holiday and Other
Poems (1884) ; Marino Faliero, a tragedy
(1885); Locrine, a tragedy (1887); a third
series of Poems and Ballads ( 1889) ; The Sisters,
a tragedy (1892); Astrophel and Other Poems
(1894); The Tale of Balen (1896); and Rosa-
mund, Queen of the Lombards, a tragedy (1899).
The earlier attitude of defiant revolt against
the conventional social order, against kings and
priests, prevented his appointment as laureate
on the death of Tennyson in 1892, though he was
acknowledged as the greatest surviving English
poet. In his later years, however, the note of re-
bellion was less violently sounded, and other
feelings, characteristically English, the love of
the sea and of little children, held a large place
in his poems. As an artist in verse, by his un-
surpassed command of all the resources of metric-
al technique, he takes a unique position. He
invented a number of new rhythmic forms, and
used none of the old without developing new
beauties in them. His chief defect was the
natural outcome of his exceptional facility of
utterance and impatience of restraint, which al-
lows him frequently to pour forth long sequences
of sonorous strains with but little regard to
sense. In criticism Swinburne’s attention is
paid chiefly to the Elizabethan dramatists,
though he has indeed made excursions elsewhere,
not sparing contemporary singers. These es-
says have been partially collected in Essays and
Studies (1875), A Study of Shakespeare (1880),
and Miscellanies (1886). Into his prose Swin-
burne carried something of the passion of his
verse. Notwithstanding the occasional exaggera-
tion into which this leads him, and much
faulty reasoning, his conclusions are likely to
be true. With wonderful insight he sees the
truth, but deceives himself when he comes to
state the way in which he arrived at it. His
prose, too, has caught the alliteration, resonance,
and undulating rhythm of his verse. Consult:
Stedman, Victorian Poets (rev. ed., Boston,
1887); Theodore Wratislaw, Algernon Charles
Swinburne: a Study (London, 1901) ; and Shep-
herd, The Bibliography of Swinburne (ib., 1887).
Also The Fleshly School of Poetry (1871)--a
pamphlet in which Robert Buchanan attacked
Rossetti and Swinburne-—and Swinburne’s reply
in Under the Microscope (1872).
SWINIDLING-. See FRAUD.
SWIN’DON. A municipal borough in Wilt-
shire, England, 77 miles west of London
(Map: England, E 5). The old market
town, the Svindune of Domesday, is built
on an eminence commanding fine views of
the surrounding country; its urban boundaries
were enlarged between 1890 and 1900 to in-
clude New Swindon on the marshy plain below.
The old town, which received a charter for a fair
from Charles 1., still maintains the character-
istics of an agricultural centre with corn and
cattle markets. Population, in 1891, 90,350; in
1901, 94,500.
SWINE (AS. swin, Goth. swein, OHG. swin,
Ger. Sohwein, swine; connected with Lat. suinus,
relating to swine, from sus, Gk. ils, hys, Av. hu,
pig, OHG. su, Ger. Sau, AS. sugu, sat, Eng. sow,
and ultimately connected with Skt. sd, to gen-
erate, produce, or with Skt. sukara, swine, lit.
su, maker). The family Suidse, containing those
cloven-hoofed ungulate mammals whose domesti-
cated races are called hogs or pigs. The swine
are closely allied to the Hippopotomidae, on the
one hand, and to the Dicotylidae on the other;
the latter (peccaries, q.v.), indeed, are some-
times included in the term in popular usage.
The three families form a group, Suina. Swine
differ from hippopotamuses in their smaller size,
in the terminal nostrils, and mobile, gristly
snouts with which they obtain their food (large-
ly roots and herbs) by grubbing in the ground.
Each foot has four digits, two of which are
functional, while the others, although elevated,
are often useful in preventing the foot from too
readily sinking into marshy ground. They are
generally hairy, the babirussa (q.v.) being an
exception. The dentition is complete and of the
character exhibited by the accompanying illus-
tration of a hog’s teeth. The great canines form




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DENTITION OF SWINE.
1', incisors ; c, canines (tusks); pm, premolars; m, molars ;
the nervous system of the teeth is also shown.
tusks, which in the males (boars) become for-
midable weapons; and in some cases (as the
babirussa) are doubly developed. The food
consists largely of vegetable matter, but may
include tough roots, nuts, etc., and also flesh,
fish, shellfish, etc.; the stomach is simple, and
there is no caecum (except in the peccaries).
These animals are somewhat gregarious, often
gathering into small bands, and some peccaries
form large herds. The boars fight terrifically in
competition for the favor of the females (sows),
and valorously defend their young (which are
usually striped); they are also courageous in
resisting all foes, so that the hunting of cer-
tain species affords exciting sport. The pork is
usually nutritious and palatable. The family is
not large, and is mainly tropical in its distribu-
tion. The Suidae are confined to the Old World;
the Dicotylidae to the warm latitudes of Ameri-
SWINE.
SWITHIN.
395
ca. The type-genus is Sus, of which the wild
boar (see BOAR) of Europe and Asia is the most
prominent species. India and the Malayan re-
gion have together three other species, and West-
ern Africa possibly a fifth. The African wart-
hogs (q.v.) include two species of the genus
Phacochoerus, distinguished from Sus principally
by the huge tusks and great protuberances on the
face. The Celebesian babirussa (q.v.) represents
alone another genus; and the African river-hogs
(q.v.) close the list with two species. One genus
and two species enumerate the peccaries. See
Hoe for an account of domestic races.
Fossil forms of the enus Sus are known in
rocks of Middle Miocene to Pleistocene time in
Europe, India, and Africa. The earliest repre-
sentatives of the hog family appear in the Eocene
of both North America and Europe, and the
group reached an important stage of evolution in
late Tertiary time. One notable genus, not, how-
ever, in the direct line of pig ancestry, is E1othe-
rium of the Miocene, which was about the size
of a rhinoceros, with large heavy head, massive
shoulders, and small hindbody and narrow chest,
and the body supported on stilted legs that ter-
minated in two-toed feet.
SWINEMUNDE, své’ne-mun'de. A strongly
fortified port and fashionable resort on the Baltic
Sea, in the Province of Pomerania, Prussia,
on the island of Usedom, 37 miles north-north-
west of Stettin (Map: Germany, F 2). The
Swine here connects the Stettiner Hafi with
the sea. The harbor is fine. Nearly 5000 vessels
of 1,700,000 tons cleared the port in 1899. The
town has valuable fisheries. Population, in 1900,
10,251.
SWINE PLAGUE. A reputed contagious
disease of hogs attributed to the action of a
specific organism. For remedial, preventive, and
sanitary measures, see Hoe CHOLERA.
SWING, DAVID (1830-94). An American
preacher, born in Cincinnati. He graduated at
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, in 1852, and be-
gan to study theology, but for twelve years, be-
ginning in 1853, he filled the position of professor
of languages in his college. In 1866 he was called
to the Fourth Presbyterian Church in Chicago
and soon became one of the prominent clergy-
men of that city. In 1874 he was tried for heresy
and acquitted, but, as a consequence, he resigned
his pastorate and withdrew from the Presby-
terian ministry. Many of his congregation sym-
pathized with him and a new church was or-
ganized, meeting at first in a theatre and later
in the Central Music Hall, where Dr. Swing con-
tinued to preach to one of the largest congre-
gations in Chicago till his death. His preach-
ing, though diverging from the verbal standards
of ‘orthodoxy,’ was essentially evangelical and
spiritual, as well as marked by intellectual
power.
SWIN'TON. A manufacturing town in York-
shire, England, 4 miles north-northeast of Both-
erham (Map: England, E 3). It has railway,
iron, glass, and pottery works. Population, in
1891, 9705; in 1901, 12,217.
SWINTON, WILLIAM (1833-92). A Scotch-
American author, born near Edinburgh. He
came to America in 1843 and studied at Knox
College, Toronto, and at Amherst College, with
a view to the Presbyterian ministry. Giving up
this intention, he became professor in a woman’s
VOL. XVI.-26.
seminary at Greensboro, N. C., and subsequently
in Mount Washington College, New York. On
the outbreak of the Civil War he was sent to the
front as war correspondent for the New York
Times, and served principally with the Army of
the Potomac, of whose career he was afterwards
a historian. In 1869 he was appointed professor
of belles-lettres in the University of California.
Among his publications are: Rambles Among
Words (1859); Campaigns of the Army of the
Potomac (1864; rev. 1886) ; The Twelve Decisive
Battles of the War (1867); and several text-
books, including a Condensed History of the
Unitecl States (1871) and Outlines of the
1Vorld’s History (1874) .
SWINTON AND PENDLEBURY, pén’d’l-
ber-i. A town in Lancashire, England, five miles
northwest of Manchester. Cotton manufacture
and brickmaking are its chief industries. Popu-
lation, in 1891, 21,637; in 1901, 27,001.
SWISS FAMILY ROBINSON. A story by
by the Swiss writer J. R. VVyss, begun by his
father and published by him under the title Der
Schweizerische Robinson. It is the account of a
family wrecked on an uninhabited island, whose
wants are provided for by the most remarkable
resources of the island. The tale is based on the
idea of Robinson Crusoe, and has been widely
popular in many languages.
SWISS GUARD. A famous regiment of
royal body-guards in France, composed exclusive-
ly of Swiss. This regiment was first constituted
by royal decree in 1616. Their fidelity was ab-
solute and on the outbreak of the Revolution of
1789 they were the object of special animosity
on the part of the Parisian mob. On August 10,
1792, the Swiss Guards were called on to defend
the palace of the Tuileries against the revolu-
tionary mob. After a gallant resistance in the
face of overwhelming numbers, the Swiss were
ordered to lay down their arms, whereupon most
of them were massacred by the infuriated as-
sailants and those who escaped did so with the
greatest difficulty. It is estimated that nearly
800 Swiss Guards were slain on that day. It is in
memory of their heroic conduct and brave death
that the famous Lion of Lucerne (q.v.), designed
by Thorwaldsen, was carved in the face of a cliff
at Lucerne, Switzerland. A feeble effort to re-
constitute the Swiss Guards was made in 1815,
and a body bearing that name was organized.
But it was a poor imitation of the old corps and
was easily dispersed by the revolutionists in
1830. Consult: Pollio et Marcel, Le bataillon du
10 Amlt (Paris, 1881); Ternaux, Histoire de
la Terreur (8 vols., Paris, 1863-81) ; Morse
Stephens, The French Revolution (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1886-91). ~
SWITCHIBACK. See RAILwAYs.
SWITCH]!/£EN’S UNION OF NORTH
AMERICA. See RAILWAY Bnornnmroons.
SWITHIN, SWlTH'II1 (or, more correctly,
SWITHUN), SAINT (?-862). An English ecclesi-
astic of the ninth century, who was chaplain to
King Egbert, and tutor to his son Ethelwulf. In
852 he was consecrated Bishop of Winchester
and made one of Ethelwulf’s chief councilors.
The origin of the tribute called ‘Peter-pence’
(q.v.) has been often assigned to him, and he is
said to have procured an act of the Witenage-
mot enforcing for the first time the universal
SWITHIN.
SWITZERLAND.
396
obligation of paying tithes. Swithin was buried,
according to his own desire, in a place outside of
his church at Winchester, where passersby might
tread upon his grave and the rain drop on it from
the eaves. A century later he was canonized and
his body exhumedand buried inside the churcl1.
According to the legend this translation, which
was to have taken place on July 15, was delayed
in consequence of violent rains, which continued
without intermission for forty days. Out of this
circumstance arose the still current belief that if
rain falls on July 15 it will continue to rain
for forty days.
SWI'I."ZE-RLAND (Fr. Snisse, Ger. Sch/weiz) .
A country of Europe extending between latitudes
45° 50' and 47° 45’ N. and longitudes 6° and 10°
25' E. It is bounded on the west by France, on
the north by Germany and the Lake of Constance,
on the east by Austria-Hungary (Tyrol and V0-
rarlberg) and Liechtenstein, and on the south by
Italy and the French Department of Haute-
Savoie, from which it is separated by the Lake
of Geneva. Area, 15,976 square miles.
It stretches over 200 miles east and west
and 120 miles north and south. The boundaries
are complicated"and do not follow natural fea-
tures, excepting‘ that the Jura Mountains form
the natural border between Switzerland and
France, and the main crest of the Alps is mainly
the border on the south side.
Toroomrrrr. Switzerland is the most moun-
tainous country of Europe, three-fourths of its
area being covered with mountains. The central
and southern parts are occupied by the Swiss
Alps, which spread over nearly three-fifths of
the entire area. The Jura Mountains cover the
northwestern portion of the country. Between
the Jura Mountains and the Alps is the Swiss
high plain, where most of the inhabitants live
surrounded by these great natural ramparts.
The Jura Mountains form a generally southwest-
northeast curve. Their summits do not ordinarily
exceed 5000 feet, the loftiest in Switzerland be-
ing the Dole, 5505 feet. The folded Juras have
fifteen main folds, nearly parallel with one an-
other, none of them extending the whole length
.of the district. Between the ranges are long
valleys, transverse gorges connecting one val-
ley with another; and these features produce
scenery of great beauty and variety. Many
fine forests of firs cover the upper slopes and an
abundance of rich pastures is spread below
them, mingling with the fields and vineyards
which extend down to the margin of the small
lakes that occupy some of the valley bottoms.
The central plain is steeply walled in between
the Juras and the Alps. It is about 1300 feet in
general elevation. It is a plain chiefly in con-
trast with the mountains around it and in other
countries would be called an elevated region,
thickly studded with picturesque hills. It ex-
tends in a southwest and northeast direction
from the Lake of Geneva across Lake Constance
to Wiirttemberg, and has an average width of
about thirty miles. Its hills are due chiefly to un-
equal erosion, the coarse gravel brought down
from the Alps (known as ‘N agelflue,’ often ce-
mented into a hard conglomerate) having been
able especially to resist the destructive action
of time and weather. The debris from the Alps,
with which it is covered to a great depth, forms
its soil, but the disintegrated granites and gneiss-
es contribute too large a proportion of sand
and pebbles to make the soil very rich in plant
food, though the conditions are more favorable
where there is a considerable admixture from the
limestone mountains.
The Alps rising from this central plateau are
three times as high as the Juras. The utmost
complexity appears to mark the arrangement
of the towering ranges, masses, spurs, and
precipices of the Swiss Alps. The group of
Saint Gotthard, however, is the central knot of
this mountain world. It is the middle point
from which radiate on almost every side the
mighty Alpine ranges that fill the centre and the
south of Switzerland. The ranges of Ticino
from the south, the mountain masses extending
from the Simplon in the southwest, the Bernese
Oberland from the west, the Titlis group from
the north, the Tiidi chains (the Alps of Glarus
and Schwyz) from the northeast, and the mighty
complex of the Grisons from the southeast, all
converge upon Saint Gotthard. This group is
also a great hydrographic centre. The head-
waters of the Rhine flow from its eastern and
of the Rhone from its western sides, cutting the
Swiss Alps into a northern and a southern half.
The Reuss rises from its northern and the Ticino
from its southern slopes.
The Swiss Alps are the middle part of the
great highland region of South Europe, which
extends in the form of a bow from the Gulf of
Genoa to the plain of Hungary. The southern
Swiss Alps (south of the Rhine and Rhone) be-
gin in the west in the splendid glacier-cow
cred chain of the Pennine Alps, which have their
culmination in Monte Rosa (15,217 feet), in-
ferior in height only to Mont Blanc in France.
The Mischabelhiirner, the \Veisshorn, the Breit-
horn, and the incomparable pinnacle of the Mat-
terhorn are among the Pennines which extend
eastward to the Simplon. Over thirty summits ex-
ceed 12,000 feet. East of the Simplon extend the
Lepontine Alps, the water parting between the
Rhine, the Rhone, and the P0, with many valleys
deeply excavated by torrents and crossed by a
number of important passes to Italy. East of the
Ticino Valley and between the Rhine and the Inn
are the Alps of the Gfisons, whose snows chiefly
feed tributaries of the Rhine, many summits ex-
ceeding 10,000 feet. Lastly, south of the Inn and
the most eastern group of the southern Swiss
Alps are the magnificent peaks of Bernina. whose
culminating point is 13,288 feet above the sea.
These southern Alps are formed of crystalline
rocks, while the northern Swiss Alps are chiefly
of limestone stupendously folded.
The chains of the northern Swiss Alps are
separated one from another by three deep val-
leys: (1) that of the Aar with the lakes of
B-rienz and Thun, which carries nearly all the
drainage of North Switzerland to the Rhine ; (2)
the valley of the Reuss with Lake Lucerne; and
(3) the VValensee and Lake Ziirich. Thus sep-
arated the four great groups of the northern
Alps are: First, the Bernese Alps (Oberland),
the water parting between the Aar and the Up-
per Rhone, which-include the greatest snow moun-
tains of the Alps; first among them the crystal-
line summits of the Finsteraarhorn (14,026
feet), the Jungfrau (13,672), M6nch (13,440),
Eiger, Wetterhorn, Schreekhorn, and others, a
compact mass of snowy and rugged peaks with
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SWITZERLAND.
SWITZERLAND.
397
Switzerland’s 000 glaciers. More than 20 of these
summits rise over 12,000 feet above sea level.
Second, the Titlis Alps, to the east of the Bernese
Oberland. Third, the Alps of Glarus and Schwyz,
also known by the name of their highest summit
in the centre, Todi (11,887 feet). The Rigi
(5900 feet), commanding one of the magnificent
views of the Alps, stands in the northwest
corner of this group on the shores of Lake
Lucerne. Fourth, the lower Alps, between lakes
Constance and Ziirich, which nowhere reach
the snow line. On the whole the southern slopes
of the Swiss Alps are steep, but the northern
slopes are more gradual. Glaciers and perpetual
snow are spread over 800 square miles, or about
one-twentieth of the area of Switzerland. See
ALPS.
HYDROGRAPHY. Owing to the Alps, the coun-
try is especially well supplied with water. Near-
ly every valley is traversed by a larger or smaller
stream, often interrupted by picturesque water-
falls. The country possesses the headwaters of
some of the important rivers of Europe—the
Rhine, the Rhone, and the P0. The Rhine and its
tributaries flowing to the North Sea form the
principal system of rivers, but all the rivers in
Switzerland are so rapid that they are almost
useless for navigation, though their impetuous
character fits them for industrial purposes. The
only navigable stream of importance is the Aar
tributary of the Rhine, which carries a larger vol-
ume of water to that river than the Rhine itself
supplies above their point of junction. The Rhone,
flowing to the southwest and to the Mediterra-
nean, reaches Lake Geneva as a muddy stream and
leaves it to enter France as a clear blue river.
The Ticino is the largest river sent down by
Switzerland to the Po. It has a larger catch-
ment basin than any other Swiss river and is the
least fed by glaciers. The Inn flows east through
the deep, narrow valley called the Engadine, and
falls into the Danube at Passau, where it is
much larger than the Danube itself. The glaciers
are a source of perennial water supply, and since
they melt most rapidly in summer. the Swiss riv-
ers are larger in summer than in winter.
The Alps are the Lake Country of Southwest-
ern Europe. The lakes are remarkable for size,
depth, and the grandeur and beauty of the
scenery which surrounds them. Among the fif-
teen important lakes in Switzerland, eleven are
in the basin of the Aar and none in the basin
of the Inn. Lakes Geneva and Constance, the
largest lakes, balance each other at the oppo-
site ends of the country. Lake Geneva, partly
in France, is over 200 square miles in area and
has a maximum _depth of 1000 feet, its bottom
extending almost to the level of the Mediterra-
nean. Lake Constance is a little smaller than
Geneva, not quite so deep, lies partly in German
territory, and is the filter of the Rhine. Lake
Neuehatel, the largest lake entirely in Swiss ter-
ritory, lies on the tableland, and hence is not so
deep as the lakes in the longitudinal mountain
valleys. Lucerne, Ziirich, Brienz, Thun, and
Bienne are also important lakes. Lake Lugano
lies partly in Italy, and only nine miles of Lake
Maggiore belongs to Switzerland. The Ticino
flows through the latter on its way to the Po.
CLIMATE. The distribution of climate is verti-
cal rather than horizontal. On the central plain
and in the lower mountain valleys a temperate
climate prevails, the mean annual temperature be-
ing about 50° F. The mean temperature dimin-
ishes on an average by 3° for eveiy thousand feet
of elevation, so that the climate in the higher val-
leys is very severe. Ticino, Vaud, and Geneva
enjoy an almost Italian climate, with a mean
temperature of 51° to 535° F., in which southern
fruits ripen. The snow line on the southern side
of the Alps is about 10,170 feet above sea level;
on the north side the limit of perpetual snow is
about 8530 feet. The growth of grain ceases at
about 4000 feet. On the higher Alps, which
are wrapped in clouds much of the time, the
annual precipitation is from 78 to 97 inches;
on the central plain it is 33 inches. The Ftihn,
a warm south wind, causes some destruction by
rapidly melting the snow and so producing ava-
lanches and inundations. The climate of Switz-
erland, on the whole, is not favorable to agricul-
ture, but is stimulating and healthful.
FLORA AND. FAUNA. The vertical zones of vege-
tation in the Alps correspond to the horizontal
zones of Europe between latitude 46° and the
Arctic Circle. Olives in a few of the low val-
leys are succeeded by vines and the plants of
middle Europe; then come in succession decidu-
ous trees and grains, conifers, the high pastures,
and shrubs and mosses, above which rises the
region of perpetual snow. Oaks and chestnut
trees are abundant only in the more south-
ern valleys, beech trees are numerous up to 4000
feet above the sea, and pines, larches, and fir
trees thrive between 4000 and 6500 feet. Agri-
culture is mainly confined to the regions not
above 2500 feet, but the high pastures extend far
above the region of tillage.
The wolf, ibex, and chamois are found in the
mountains, but all wild animals are becoming
very scarce.
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL R1-zsooncms. The back-
bone of Switzerland consists of gneiss and gran-
ite with outlying strata of the Carboniferous,
Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary
formations. These strata are all thrown into a
succession of gigantic folds, giving rise to great
geologic complexity. Four distinct geologic
zones, extending across Switzerland from south-
west to northeast, are recognized. The lime-
stone Jura region of roughly parallel folds is
the first zone. The second is the plain whose
rocks are chiefly sandstone covered, to a great ex-
tent, by the deposits of the ice invasions. The
other zones cover the Alps, the more northern
being that of the limestone Alps whose strata are
greatly distorted and piled up over one another.
The fourth zone consists of the great crystalline
masses of the southern Swiss Alps formed of
gneiss, granite, and other crystalline rocks and
schists. Denudation has reduced the height of
the mountains and deepened and lengthened the
valleys, the larger rivers having pushed their
sources back to the very heart of the mountain
groups. The mining industry is of little im-
portance. Building stone, particularly sand and
limestone and rock salt, found in three cantons,
are the chief mineral products. A little iron
ore is mined in the Jura ranges, but the iron in-
dustries depend upon imports of material. A
small amount of anthracite is mined near Bern
of Fribourg, but Germany sends nearly a million
tons of coal to Switzerland every year, and
France, Austria. and England also contribute
important quantities. Asphalt in the Val des
SWITZERLAND.
SWITZERLAND.
398
Travers, marble in Uri, Schwyz, and Ticino,
slate in Glarus, and rock-crystals of great
beauty, are other mineral products.
AGRICULTURE AND STOCK—RAISING. The soil is
distributed among nearly 300,000 peasant pro-
prietors representing nearly two-thirds of the
population. More than 28 per cent. of the area
is unproductive, chiefly the regions above the
zone of tillage. Hay and pasturage lands, more
important than the cultivated lands, cover 36
per cent. of the surface; the area under forests
is 18.4 per cent., while only 16.5 per cent. of the
surface is arable. Switzerland derives less sup-
port from its agricultural resources than any
country of the Continent, excepting Norway. Only
Solothurn, Lucerne, Schaffhausen, and Fribourg,
among the cantons, produce nearly enough plant
food for their own consumption. Wheat is
grown up to 2500 feet above sea level, but the
crop averages only about 3,500,000 bushels, while
over 11,000,000 bushels are imported from other
countries, chiefly Russia and Hungary. Rye, oats,
and potatoes are the chief crops, but potatoes
are imported in large quantities. During the
tourist season of 1901 the amount of vegetables
brought into the country was about 20,000 tons,
of which nearly two-thirds came from Germany,
France and Italy contributing most of the re-
mainder. The cultivation of fruit is in a flourish-
ing condition and nearly all the cantons manu-
facture wine or spirits from it, such as the cherry
brandy produced at Basel. In 1901, 78,931 acres
were in grapes, the cultivation of the vine com-
manding careful attention in most of the cantons.
The best wine is made in Geneva, Neuchatel, and
Valais. The wine produced (35,800,000 gallons
in 1901) does not cover the domestic demand.
Orchards are planted everywhere in sheltered
places and grapes thrive especially in the warmer
soils around Lake Geneva and some other lakes
and on the southern slopes of the mountains.
The warmer cantons of the south also produce
chestnuts, almonds, walnuts in abundance,
olives, and even lemons. Switzerland is no long-
er so rich in timber as formerly, for unscientific
forestry has thinned the woods to a large extent.
The entire forest area is about 3300 square miles,
of which a large portion is now under Govern-
ment supervision. Every effort is being made to
restore this source of wealth to its former magni-
tude, and in 1901 there were planted 23,731,376
trees.
As the climate and soil are especially favor-
able for hay and pasturage, the animal indus-
tries are more important than tillage. In com-
parison with cattle ( 1,340,375 in 1901) the other
domestic animals are much inferior in number
and importance. Cattle-breeding is carried on
in all the cantons, and in the higher regions it is
the chief and sometimes the only resource
of the inhabitants. Switzerland is famous for its
cheese, and the chief agricultural industries are
the manufacture of cheese and condensed milk.
The annual production of cheese amounts to
about 500,000 cwts., of which three-fifths is
exported to all quarters of the globe. The best
cheeses are made in the Emmenthal, Maderan-
thal, Ufernthal, and in Gruyeres. Many Swiss
cattle are ex orted for breeding purposes, while,
on the other hand, the great influx of tourists in
summer makes it necessary to import an average
of about 50,000 beef cattle a year, chiefly from
Austria and Italy, to make up for the local de-
ficiency in beef. Next in number are goats
(354,634), which abound in the higher Alpine
cantons and are reared for their skins, flesh, and
milk. In 1901 the horses numbered 124,896;
mules and asses, 4866; sheep, 219,438 ; and hogs,
555,261. The lakes abound in fish, and pisci-
culture is promoted by 155 establishments that
produce enormous quantities of fry.
MANUFACTURES. Switzerland is a great manu-
facturing country, though it lacks coal, iron,
and seaports. Its advantages are abundant
water power, markets in the adjoining countries
in which to buy raw materials and sell
manufactured products, good connections with
seaports, and the diligence, perseverance, and
skill of the people. Nearly as many persons are
engaged in manufactures as in agriculture. Large
quantities of the manufacturing output are pro-
duced in the homes. The textile and metal in-
dustries are of greatest importance. The cotton
industry, which competes even with English
manufactures, is centred chiefly in the cantons
of Zurich, Glarus, Saint Gall, and Appenzell.
Swiss cotton cloths noted for fineness of texture
and excellence of dyes and prints are sent all
over the world. The well-known machine-made
lace and embroidery industry of Switzerland
employs about 10,000 machines and 17,000
workers in Saint Gall, Appenzell, and Neuchatel.
The great centres of the silk industry are Basel,
where all kinds of silk ribbons are produced, and
Zurich, where dress goods are woven. Watch-
making and machinery lead in the metal in-
dustries. The most important centres of watch-
making are Geneva, Chaux-de-Fonds, and Locle.
The industry was once very prosperous, but it
has suffered severely of late years from the
competition of the machine-made watches of the
United States. The Swiss, however, have re-
gained a large part of their export trade by the
introduction of machinery and the manufacture
of the cheaper grades of watches, which they pro-
duce by the hundreds of thousands every year,
five-sixths of them being sold in foreign coun-
tries. The manufacture of jewelry and musical
boxes, wood-carving, straw-plaiting, leather-mak-
ing, and tanning are also very important indus-
tries. The well-known machine works of Zurich,
VVinterthur, and Geneva export a considerable
part of their output.
COMMERGE. The average annual foreign trade
of Switzerland is:


1885-86 1891-96 1901
Imports .......... .. $149,000,000 $1 89,500,000 8223, 700,000
Exports ........... .. 134,000,000 140,000, 000 172, 600, 000

The largest imports are grain, cattle, and other
foodstuffs, cotton, coal, iron, petroleum, and
groceries. Nearly all the exports are manufac-
tures, such as cheese, wine, silk and cotton goods,
watches, fine steel and iron goods (instruments,
etc.), machinery, jewelry, lace, embroideries, and
straw-plaiting. Manufacturers do not aim to
produce large quantities of cheap stuffs, except
that cheap watches have, to a great extent, re-
placed the finer grades. They aim to make a
reputation for the excellence and fineness of their
goods. Nine-tenths of the import trade and
three-fourths of the export trade are with Europe,
chiefly with Germany, France, Italy, Great Brit-
SWITZERLAND.
SWITZERLAND.
399
ain, and Austria-Hungary. The United States
sells very little to Switzerland, but its purchases
of cotton embroideries, silk goods, cheese, and
other Swiss products are important. Switzer-
land’s trade with the United States in three
years amounted to:
1900 1901 1902
Imports from..... $250,477 $255,360 $217,545
Exports to ....... .. 17,393,268 15,799,400 17,784,805
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION. In the
absence of navigable rivers, the international
traflic is carried by the railroads. The main
arteries are the lines from Lake Constance to
Geneva and Basel, and from the north via the
Saint Gotthard tunnel to Italy. There are
2490 miles of railroad, andunder the law of
1808 the State is acquiring the ownership of the
entire system. Switzerland is noted for its
admirable wagon roads. Navigation is important
on the lakes, where 112 steamboats belonging to
fifteen companies were plying in 1901.
BANKING. The 36 banks had, at the close of
1901, paid up capital amounting to $39,155,000;
note circulation, $47,610,000; and cash on hand,
$23,995,000. Banks of issue are under Govern-
ment inspection; the notes of the 22 cantonal
banks are secured by the cantons, and 10 of other
banks by the deposit of securities.
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of 1848, with
the important revision of 1874 and subsequent
amendments of lesser importance, constitutes the,
present fundamental law of Switzerland. (For
the methods of amending the Constitution, see
REFEBENDUM.) The Swiss State is composed of
twenty-two cantons, with Bern as the capital.
The Constitution vests the executive power in a
Federal Council of seven members elected for a
term of three years by the two Houses of the Fed-
eral Legislature. Any Swiss citizen who is eligi-
ble to either branch of the Federal Legislature
may be chosen to the Federal Council, except that
not more than one member may be chosen from
the same canton. It is the custom to choose
members of the Council from the membership of
the Federal Legislature and to reéilect them con-
tinually for a long period of time. The work of
administration is divided into seven departments,
and one member of the Council is put in charge
of each department, but the act of any Councilor
is considered to be the act of the Council as a
whole. The Council is organized under a presi-
dent (President of the confederation) and a vice-
president chosen by the Federal Legislature from
among the Councilors to serve for a term of
one year.
The powers and duties of the Federal Council
are many and varied. In the domain of legisla-
tion it plays an important part, although it has
no veto upon the acts of the legislature. In this
domain the Council sustains a relation to the
legislature somewhat like that of the Cabinet in
the parliamentary system of government. It
makes an elaborate report to the legislature, and
although its members cannot at the same time be
members of the legislature, they have access to
its sessions, take an active part in the delibera-
tions, introduce legislative proposals, give their
opinions upon various measures, and exert a great
influence upon the work of legislation. It pre-
pares the budget and advocates its adoption by
the legislature and takes the lead in the dis-
cussion of all important measures introduced by
the Government. The Federal Council also has
a wide power of action in judicial affairs. It
has, for instance, the settlement of a large class
of administrative controversies which in other
Continental countries is intrusted to special ad-
ministrative courts. It has a large supervisory
power over the cantonal administration, particu-
larly when the cantons are engaged in admin-
istering federal law. In addition to the above
mentioned functions the Council has the other
powers usually exercised by a nation’s executive.
The strictly legislative powers of the Govern-
ment are vested in a Federal Assembly (Bundes-
versammlzmg), consisting of two Houses, viz.
the National Council (Nationalrat) and the
Council of Estates (A9tIfiHdGTGt) . The two Houses
hold separate sessions in all legislative matters
and joint sessions for the exercise of certain
electoral and judicial functions. There is full
e uality between the two Houses in all matters
wiatsoever. The Council of Estates is composed
of 4.4 members, or two from each canton. In
three cantons which are divided, each half can-
ton chooses one member. The tenure, amount of
compensation, qualifications, mode of election,
and the relations which they bear to their
constituents are matters which the Federal
Constitution does not regulate, but are left to
the determination of each canton according to
its own ideas with the result that the greatest
variety of provisions prevails. The terms of
members vary from one to four years. The
Council of Estates elects its own president
and vice-president under the limitation that
neither office can be filled from a canton which
furnished the president for the session preceding.
The National Council, or popular chamber of
the legislature, consists of members chosen by
direct universal suffrage for a term of three
years. The Federal Constitution apportions the
members of the National Council according to
population on the basis of one representative for
every 20,000 inhabitants. In those districts
which choose more than one representative the
members are chosen on a general ticket. The Coun-
cil elects its own oflicers subject to the limitation
that the president and vice-president must be
chosen from the body of the Council and are in-
eligible to succeed themselves for an ensuing
term. The president,-in addition to his vote as a
member, has a casting vote in case of a tie.
The members of the National Council receive
a compensation from the Federal treasury. The
Federal Assembly holds two regular sessions
annually, beginning in June and December, each
lasting about one month. The discussions take
place in French, German, or Italian, according to
the convenience of the speakers, while all formal
readings occur in both French and German. The
two Chambers meet jointly to settle conflicts of
jurisdiction between the Federal authorities; to
grant pardons; and to elect the Federal Council,
the Supreme Court, the Chancellor, and the com-
mander of the army. The ordinary legislative
power of the Federal Assembly is very wide and
extends to many subjects which in the United
States are left to the regulation of the States.
The judicial power of the Confederation is
vested in a Supreme Court or Federal Tri-

SWITZERLAND.
SWITZERLAND.
400
bunal consisting of fourteen judges and a number
of supernumeraries elected for a term of six
years by the Federal Assembly, which also desig-
nates a president and a vice-president of the
court for two years. The court is divided into
three sections, each of which holds a session
in one of the five judicial districts into which
Switzerland is divided. The seat of the court is
at Lausanne, in the Canton of Vaud. The juris-
diction of the Federal Court in the domain of
public law extends to conflicts of authority be-
tween the Confederation and tl1e cantons, to dis-
putes between cantons of a public law nature,
and to complaints of the violation of individual
constitutional rights. In civil matters of private
law its jurisdiction extends to suits between the
Confederation and the cantons or between the
cantons themselves, or suits against the Con-
federation or between the cantons and private
individuals or corporations. The Federal Tri-
bunal is also a court of appeal from the de-
cisions of the cantonal courts where the amount
in dispute exceeds 3000 francs (about $600) . Its
criminal jurisdiction extends to cases of high
treason against the Confederation or violence
against the Federal authorities, to offenses
against the law of nations, to political offenses
which cause disorder and lead to armed inter-
vention, and to certain minor offenses.
For the purposes of local government the po-
litical divisions and subdivisions of Switzerland
are cantons, districts, and communes. Each can~
ton has its own constitution and local govern~
ment. With a few exceptions there is a uni-
cameral legislative body called the Great Council,
whose members are elected by popular suf-
frage, as a rule, for a term of three or four
years. It enacts laws, votes the taxes, and
supervises the administration. In the four can-
tons of Uri, Unterwalden, Glarus, and Appen-
zell primary assemblies of all the voters, in many
respects like the New England town meeting,
take the place of a legislative body. Such as-
semblies are known as the Landsgemeinden. The
chief executive authority in all the cantons is a
council whose membership varies in number
from 5 to 9 in the different cantons. The same
may be said of the term of service and the mode
of election. At present the members are chosen
by po ular vote in a majority of the cantons; in
the ot ers they are chosen by the local legisla-
tures. In all the cantonal constitutions except
that of Fribourg the referendum (q.v.) as a
means of legislation has a prominent place. The
initiative likewise plays an important part in
local legislation. In all the cantons except
Geneva constitutional amendments may be in-
itiated by popular petition; and in all except
Fribourg, Lucerne, and Valais the same right ex-
ists in the case of ordinary statutes.
The cantons are divided into districts. The
chief .executive and administrative authority in
the district is a sort of prefect either popularly
elected or chosen by the cantonal Council. A
subdivision of the district is called the commune
(Gemeinde). In some of these the popular town
meeting is the chief organ of government; in the
others there is a local legislative assembly popu-
larly elected. In all of them the chief executive
authority is a small council consisting of a
president or mayor and not less than four
members.
FINANCE. The Confederation derives most of
its revenue from the customs, though considerable
income is yielded by the post-oliice and tele-
graphs. The alcohol monopoly, amounting in
1901 to about $1,120,000, is divided among the
cantons, one-tenth of the amount being used to
combat the spread and evil effects of alcoholism.
The revenue of the Confederation in 1901 was
$20,384,936, and the expenditure was $21,110,618.
The public debt amounted on January 1, 1902,
to approximately $17,500,000,.most of it bear-
ing 3% per cent. interest. The monetary stand-
ard is gold and silver, with the franc as the unit
of coinage. Metric weights and measures are
used.
Dnrnnsn. See under ARMIES.
POPULATION. The population, according to the
census of December 1, 1900, was 3,315,443. In
1900, 2,319,105 inhabitants spoke German, 733,-
220 French, 222,247 Italian, and 38,677 Romansh.
The total number of foreigners living in the coun-
try in 1900 was 392,896. The chief towns, with
their populations. in 1901, were: Zurich, 152,-
942; Basel, 111,009; Geneva, 105,139; Bern.
64.864. The list of the cantons of Switzerland,
with areas and populations for 1888 and 1900,
is as follows:



_ Population
CANTO\S qqA1ne;21-a1’eS
‘ ‘ 1888 1900
Aargau..... A .. ...l d 542 193,580 206,498
. nsserr 10 en.. 101 54,109 55,281
.AppenZen ' ilnnerrhoden . 61 12.888 13,499
Basel { Stadt 14 73,749 112,227
' """ " Land . 163 61,941 68,497
Bern . . . . 2,657 536.679 589,433
Fnbourg 644 119,155 127,951
Geneva ..................... .. 108 105, 509 132,609
Glarus.. .. 267 33,825 32,349
Gnsons. . 2,773 94,810 104,520
Lucerne ........... .. 79 135,360 146,159
Neuchatel... . . .. 312 108,153 126,279
Samt Gall ............ .. . 779 228.174 250,285
Schatfhausen..... . . 114 37,783 41,514
Schwyz.... 351 50,307 55,385
Solothurn ..... .. 302 85,621 100,762
Thurgau. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381 104,678 113,221
Ticino 1,088 126,751 138,638
ipper.. 183 15,043 15,260
Unterwalden ....... .. % Lower _ 112 12,538 13,070
Uri. .............................. .. 415 17,249 19,700
Valais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 2,027 101,985 114,438
Vaud .... .. . . . 1,244 247,655 281,379
Zug . ..... .. . .. 92 23,029 25,093
Zurich ................ .. . . . 666 337,139 431,036
Total . 15,976 2,917,754 3,315,443

EDUCATION AND RELIGION. Instruction is
compulsory and is rigidly enforced in the Prot-
estant but not in the Roman Catholic cantons.
The pupils number nearly 600,000, of whom 471,-
713 were in the primary schools in 1900. Among
the famous institutions are’ the Universities of
Zurich, Bern, Geneva, and Fribourg, the Acad-
emies of Geneva and Lausanne, and the “Federal
Polytechnic” at Zurich, which attracts pupils
from all parts of Europe. In religion there is
complete liberty of conscience. About three-fifths
of the inhabitants are Protestants, nearly all the
remainder being Roman Catholics.
ETIINOLOGY. Such human remains of the pre-
historic Swiss as have been found in their lake-
dwellings (q.v.) ally the ancient people with
the short-headed Celtic or Alpine race. Racially
Switzerland is now overwhelmingly Alpine or
Celtic (index, 83.8; Romansh 85), especially
SWITZERLAND.
SWITZERLAND.
401
in isolated portions, with local invasions of
northern and southern types. Great confusion is
caused by the conflict between racial characters
and enviromnental influences. Especially in
stature is this true, the Teutonic element being
shorter instead of taller.
HISTORY. In Roman times the country was
inhabited by two raccs—-the Helvetii, sup-
posed to have been Celts, in the northwest; and
the Rhaetii, who were said to be of common stock
with the Etruscans, in the southeast. The
Helvetii, having migrated into Gaul, were con-
quered by Julius Caesar in 13.0. 58, who forced
the remnant of them to return to their homes,
and before the close of the century the Rhaetians
were subdued by the armies of Augustus. W11en the
German invasions took place, the Alemanni took
possession of the country east of the Aar, while
the Burgundians settled in VVestern Switzerland.
About the close of the fifth century the Alemanni
were conquered by the Franks and the Burgundi-
an realm succeeded to them in 534. Another
Teutonic people, the Ostrogoths, took possession
of the part of the country occupied by the
Rhaetii, which nearly corresponded to Grisous,
but their rule was of short duration. The Bur-
gundians embraced Christianity about the end
of the fifth century; the Alemanni retained their
old pagan creed until the seventh century, when
the band of Irish monks which had entered Gaul
under Saint Columban (q.v.) came among them,
converted the people in vigorous fashion, and
founded abbeys and churches, which survive to
our own time. Switzerland made great progress
under the rule of the Franks. After the dis-
solution of the great Carolingian realm the bulk
of Switzerland was included in the Duchy of
Alemannia, which became part of the German
Kingdom, while the southwestern portion of the
country was included in the Kingdom of Trans-
jurane, Burgundy. In 1033-34 this Burgundian
portion passed under the rule of the German
emperors, so that from this time the whole of
Switzerland belonged to the Holy Roman Empire.
In the early part of the Middle Ages feudalism
flourished in the Swiss highlands even more than
elsewhere. In the twelfth century the dukes of
Ziihringen rose to great power in Switzerland.
They did much to check civil wars and to pro-
mote the prosperity of the towns. In 1178 they
founded Fribourg and in 1191 Bern. On the ex-
tinction of the line of Ziihringen (1218) their
allodial possessions passed to the counts of
Kyburg, while a number of cities were released
from feudal overlordship. In the latter part of the
thirteenth century the counts of Savoy extended
their domination into Western Switzerland. At
this time the counts of Hapsburg became a great
power in the land, and in 1264 the house suc-
ceeded to the bulk of the possession of the counts
of Kyburg. At this time there were a large
number of petty sovereignties in Switzerland.
Prominent among the ecclesiastical princes were
the bishops of Basel and Geneva and the Abbot of
Saint Gall. The great towns were united in self-
defensc, and many of them obtained charters as
free Imperial cities. The Hapsburg rule soon
became burdensome and tyrannical, and the re-
sistance which opened the long struggle that
was to end in Swiss independence began in the
three Forest Cantons—Uri, Schwyz, and Unter-
walden. Uri received a special charter of lib-
erties from the Emperor Frederick 11. in 1231 and
Schwyz in 1240. They had leagued themselves
together in behalf of the Emperor somewhat
later. Thus they were accustomed to the idea of
a mutual league when after the death of the
Emperor Rudolph they sought to resist the
Hapsburgs. In 1291 they allied themselves into
a ‘perpetual league,’ which came to be known as
the Eidgenossenschaft. Subsequently they en-
tered into an alliance with Zurich and the coa-
lition of which it was the centre. Unterwalden
received a charter similar to that of its asso-
ciates from the Emperor Henry VII. In 1315
hostilities opened between Frederick of Hapsburg
and the Eidgenossen, and the latter won the de-
cisive battle of Morgarten (q.v.) . To the period
preceding this victory belongs the legend of VVil-
liam Tell. The Forest Cantons then renewed
their pact by a fundamental agreement which
was for five centuries the basis of the political
life of independent Switzerland. Lueerne (1332),
Zurich (1351), Glarus and Zug (1352) , and Bern
(1353) entered the confederation. Fresh wars
followed with Austria, whose power in Switzer-
land was shattered by the victories of the con-
federates in 1386 at Sempach and in 1388 at
Ntifels. In 1415 the people of the cantons be-
came the aggressors, invading Aargau and wrest-
ing it from Austria. Half a century later they
made themselves masters of Thurgau. Swiss in-
dependence clashed with the ambitions of Charles
the Bold of Burgundy, and the invincible prowess
of the Swiss mountaineers shone forth when
they were assailed by that powerful monarch.
In 1476 they overthrew his armies at Granson
and Morat, and it was with the aid of Swiss
mercenaries that René of Lorraine overwhelmed
Charles the Bold at Nancy in 1477. In 1481 the
towns of Fribourg and Solothurn were admitted
into the confederacy. In 1499 the Emperor Max-
imilian I. made a final attempt to bring Swit-
zerland once more within the bounds of the Holy
Roman Empire. He sought to draw men and
supplies from the inhabitants for his Turkish
war, but in vain. He was defeated in six desper-
ate engagements. Basel and Schafihausen
(1501) and Appenzell (1513) were then re-
ceived into the confederation, and its true in-
dependence began. The abbacy of Saint Gall and
the cities of Saint Gall, Miilhausen, and Bienne
became associated States with a vote in the Diet.
Geneva, Neuchatel, Valais, and Grisons also be-
came associated States, but without a vote. In
the early part of the sixteenth century the Swiss
soldiers, who had become the most famous in-
fantry in Europe, played a great. if not glorious,
role as mercenaries in the Italian wars. After
fighting successfully on the side of Milan against
the French they suffered a terrible defeat at the
hands of Francis 1. at Melegnano in 1515. In
1516 they concluded the so-called Perpetual Peace
with France, after which they fought on the
French side. In the course of these wars a num-
ber of Italian towns and districts (in the pres-
gnt Canton of Ticino) were annexed to Switzer-
and.
The Reformation (q.v.), which was inaugurat-
ed by Zwingli in 1519. brought dissension among
the confederates. Zurich in 1523 adopted Zwing-
li’s opinions, and was followed by Bern and other
cantons of the north. The Forest Cantons re-
maincd attached to the Church of Rome. War
SWITZERLAND.
SWITZERLAND.
402
broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and
Protestants, and a small body of Zurichers was
defeated at Kappel. Zwingli, who was with
them as their chaplain, was slain. In 1536 Bern
wrested the Pays de Vaud from the dukes of
Savoy and annexed it to its own territory. In
the same year Calvin settled at Geneva, which
had succeeded in emancipating itself completely
from the jurisdiction of Savoy and of its bishop,
and the reformed doctrines spread throughout
Western Switzerland. During the Thirty Years’
War Bern, which had become, since the conquest
of Vaud, the leading canton, and Zurich, con-
trived to maintain the neutrality of Switzerland;
and in the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, the
country was formally declared to be wholly inde-
pendent of the German Empire.
The complex fabric of the Swiss Confederation,
with the division into two hostile religious
camps, the relation between governing cantons
and subjected districts, the selfish assertion of
local and class interests, and the absence of any
firm bond of union, was not conducive to a
healthy political development. The constitution
of the larger cantons became more and more
aristocratic. In Zurich, Schaffhausen, and Basel
the governing councils were elected by the cor-
porations ; and in Bern, Fribourg, Solothurn, and
Lucerne a few families had acquired permanent
rule. The French Revolution had its effect in
Switzerland as elsewhere. In 1798 the country
was occupied by the French, who were aided by
the dissensions between the democrats and aris-
tocrats. The old cantonal system was abolished
arid the Helvetic Republic was organized. In
1803, at the dictation of Napoleon and under the
Act of Mediation, the cantonal system was re-
established, with nineteen cantons, six new ones
being constituted—-Saint Gall, Grisons, Aargau,
Thurgan, Ticino, and Vaud. After this Switzer-
land enjoyed peace under an orderly government
and began to recover prosperity. The Congress
of Vienna (1814-15) recognized the independence
of Switzerland and her perpetual neutrality and
the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed
by the great Powers. The new Confederation was
divided into twenty-two cantons (three new can-
tons, Geneva, Valais, and Neuchatel, being con-
stituted), each of which was represented in a
diet, which was appointed to hold its annual
meetings alternately at Bern, Zurich, and Lu-
cerne. The old abuses, however, which had crept
into the constitutions of the cantons were re-
vived, and representation in most of them became
based on property qualifications. Officials, the
aristocracy, and the clergy joined to oppose inno-
vations, and succeeded in doing so until the Revo-
lution of 1830 in France. From that year until
1848 Switzerland passed through a long crisis.
There was strife between the democratic and
aristocratic elements, and then between the
Catholics, who in some of the cantons retained
ancient special privileges, and the Protestants,
who formed a majority of the Swiss 1people. In
Aargau a struggle took place between t e Liberals
and the Ultramontane Party, which was settled
by an unsatisfactory compromise. In Valais,
where universal suffrage had put power into the
hands of the reactionary party, a war took place,
in which this party was victorious. It then ruled
with a strong hand, and forbade Protestant wor-
ship within the canton. In Lucerne the Ultra-
montane Party so persecuted its political oppo-
nents that the latter were compelled to leave the
canton. In 1844 a proposal was made in the
Diet to expel the Jesuits, the chief object of Prot-
estant attack; but that body declined to act. The
Radical Party then determined to resort to force;
they organized bodies Of armed men, called
“free corps,” which invaded the Catholic
cantons, but were defeated. The Catholic
cantons then formed a league, named the Son-
derbund, for defense against the free corps.
There was a general clamor for its suppression,
but in the Diet only 101/2 votes out of 22
were in favor of that measure. The ruling
party in Geneva had been with the majority, and
this conduct led to a revolution in that city. One
vote was thus gained against the Sonderbund.
Saint Gall added another; and a majority in the
Diet in 1847 declared the illegality of the Son-
derbund, and decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits.
The Federal forces under General Dufour de-
feated those of the Sonderbund; the leagued can-
tons were made liable for all the expenses of the
war, the Jesuits were expelled, and the mon-
asteries were suppressed. An attempt was made
by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss
Government, but the revolutions of 1848 pre-
vented further interference. This same period
of civil strife was also one of intellectual and
material development. The results of these
stormy but profitable years were seen in part in
the Constitution of 1848, which bound the Con-
federation more firmly together and gave it at
last an efiicient government. This Constitution
subsisted until 1874, when the believers in a
stronger federal overnment won a step in that
direction. The onstitution of 1874 has been
since amended in some of its details. In 1891
the six hundredth anniversary of the ‘Perpetual
League’ was celebrated by the Swiss with great
enthusiasm. The history of Switzerland for the
past quarter of a century has been very unevent-
ful, though marked by a steady material, intellec-
tual, and political growth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. GENERAL: DESCBIPTIVE. Re-
clus, Nouoelle géographie uniuerselle, vol. iii.
(Paris, 1878); Gourdault, La Suisse études et
voyages a trauers les 22 cantons (ib., 1879);
Robida, Les nieilles uilles de la Suisse (ib., 1879) ;
Sowerby, The Forest Ca-ntons of Switzerland
’(London, 1892); Stephen, The Playground of
Europe (ib., 1894); Dixon, The S-witzers (Lon-
don, 1872) ; Osenbriiggen, Die Schweizer daheim
und in der Fre-mde (Berlin, 1874) ; Story, Swiss
Life in Town and Country (London, 1902).
FLORA; FAUNA. Morthier, Flore analytique
de la Suisse (Neuchatel, 1879); Schriiter, Die
Flora der Eiszeit (Zurich, 1882); Heer, Die
Urwelt der Schweiz (ib., 1883) ; F. von Tschudi,
Tierleben der Alpenwelt (11th ed., Leipzig,
1890); Schinz and Keller, Flora der Schweiz
(Zurich, 1900). GEOLOGY. Studer, Geologie der
Schweiz (Bern, 1851-53) ; Schmidt, Zur Geologic
der Schweizeralpen (Basel, 1889) ; Lubbock, The
Scenery of Switzerland (London, 1896) ; and the
authorities referred to under ALPS‘.
ECONOMICS. Farrer, Volhswirtschaftslewikon
der Schweiz (Bern, 1885-92) ; Jay, Etudes sur la
question ouurie‘re en Suisse (Paris, 1893) ; Daw-
son, Sooial Switzerland (London, 1897); Geer-
ing, Wirtschaftskunde der Schweiz (Zurich,
1902) ; and with special reference to industries
SWITZERLAND.
SWORD.
403
and resources, Wirth, Allgemeine Besch/reibung
und Statistik der Schweiz (Zurich, 1871-75) ;
Geering and Holtz, Die Handelspolitik der
Schweiz am Ausgang des 19. J ahrhunderts (Ber-
lin, 1902). GOVERNMENT. Reymond, Etudes sur
les institutions civiles de la Suisse (Geneva,
1885) ; Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Con-
federation (London, 1889) ; Moses, Federal Gov-
ernment of Switzerland (Oakland, Cal., 1889);
Vincent, State and Federal Government in Switz-
erland (Baltimore, 1891); Winchester, The
Swiss Republic (Philadelphia, 1891); Salis, Le
droit féderal suisse (2d ed., Berne, 1902).
HISTORY. Hug and Stead, Switzerland (New
York, 1890); Daguet, H istoire de la Conféde’ra-
tion Saisse depuis les temps aneiens jusqu’en
1861; (7th ed., Paris, 1880); Muydin, Histoire
de la nation suisse (Lausanne, 1896-97) ; Miiller,
Monnard and Vulliemin, Histoire de la Suisse (19
vols., Paris, 1837-51), indispensable as a refer-
ence work; Morin, Précis de l’hz'stoire politique
de la Suisse (Geneva, 1855-75); Dtindliker,
Geschichte der Schweiz (Zurich, 1892-1902);
Vulliéty, La Saisse a travers les dges (Paris,
1902).
SWIV’ELLER, DICK. A lively young man in
Dickens’s Old Curiosity Shop, very flowery in
language and untidy in dress. He finally mar-
ries ‘the Marchioness.’
SWORD (AS. sweord, OHG. swert, Ger.
Sohwert, sword; of uncertain etymology). In
its general sense, every steel weapon of offense or
defense larger than the dagger or poniard; in
modern military usage the term sword is used to
describe the infantry or straight weapon, and sabre
for the slightly curved weapon of the cavalryman.
Although the distinction is clearly marked in
Germany by the employment of Dcgen for the
straight sword and Siibel for the curved weapon,
the custom with other nations is to employ a
single word for both varieties. The sword always
has been, and is at present, a personal weapon; so
much so that in the prose and poetry of all na-
tions it is often endowed with human as well as
superhuman qualities. To surrender the sword
has always been a token of submission, and the
breaking of it a most impressive ceremony of deg-
radation, while to kiss the sword is even to-
day with Orientals the highest form of oath
and homage. The first sword was undoubtedly
of hard wood, and judging from the widely scat-
tered area in which it has been proved to have
been known, its employment must have been
practically spontaneous among all the peoples
whose stage of civilization rendered possible its
use. Wooden swords were part of the equipment
of the Indians of Virginia, according to the state-
ment of Captain John Smith. Greek literature
refers more frequently to the spear and bow
than to the sword, as is the case with the
Roman and Hebrew writings. According to the
testimony of the Greek works of art, the leaf-
shaped blade sword was the one used by the
Greeks in historical times, although the Greeks,
almost alone of the ancient peoples, held the
sword in but slight estimation. The ancient
sword was usually worn on the left side sus-
pended by a belt from the shoulder, although it
was sometimes slung more forward, bringing the
hilt in the front, or else suspended from a
girdle around the waist. With the Egyptians
the sword of bronze was carried in its leather‘
scabbard in front of the body, and thrust in the
sword belt in a sloping direction from right to
left. The Assyrians seem to have possessed
the weapon most nearly approaching the sword
of to-day. It was straight and narrow and ap-
parently designed for thrusting as much as for
cutting. The pointed sword of the Roman legion-
aries was invariably successful when opposed to
the pointless weapons of their enemies. On the
other hand, most Asiatic nations to this day
continue to use the sword as a cutting weapon,
its curved shape usually preventing any use of
the point. Thus the swords, military and civil,
of to-day may be said to be descended from the
European straight sword and the Eastern scimitar
or tulwar. Under FENCING will be found the his-
tory of the sword up to the present day.
Asia has been more prolific in the matter of
variety of blades than has Europe; for instance,
the yataghan of the Mohammedan races with
its double curve is a compact and formidable
weapon, as also is the kukri of the Gukhas,
which resembles the yataghan except that it is
considerably broader in the blade. The pata,
a long straight-hilted sword, is found in the
south of India, while in the north the katcir, a
broad-bladed weapon with a cross-bar handle, was
for a long time in favor. The Japanese swords
are many in number and characteristic to a de-
gree of the Japanese people. They may be clas-
sified as two-edged swords called tsurugi, and
one-edged swords called in general katana. The
tsurugi is the primitive weapon of Japan, and is
now rarely met with except as an ornament in
temples. It was from 28 to 40 inches long and
about 21/2 or 3 inches wide, and in the middle
up to % of an inch thick. It ended in a sharp‘
point and often thickened and broadened toward
the point. It was evidently designed more
for cutting than for thrusting. The katana or
one-edged sword is also a cutting rather than a
thrusting weapon, but is a much more handy
sword than the tsurugi. The various varieties of
the katana are named according to their length.
which is measured from the guard (at the inner
end) to the hilt of the point, as: Lachi; katana
proper; wakizashi; tauto; and many others.
The katana proper is from 2 feet 6 inches to
2 feet 9 inches long, and is the common straight
sword of the Japanese military class. The tauto
or short sword was the weapon allowed to be
worn by the tradesmen, and all others not al-
lowed to wear the katana. The kuwaiken is a
s;nall sword worn by the ladies of the military
c ass.
The modern military sword of all civilized na-
tions is so constructed as to combine all the
advantages of cutting and thrusting. The thrust
is regarded as by far the most effective attack,
but as it demands considerable skill and coolness,
and as the average soldier (who in modern cam-
paigns will in the majority of instances have
been hastily taken from civil life) cannot be
always counted upon to remember his training
and will very naturally use the cut, it has led
to the compromise above described. A good
sword is required to be sufficiently elastic to
permit of its being bent, or to resist a heavy blow
without breaking or other injury, and also to be
strong enough to deliver a thrust without bend-
SWORD.
SWORDFISHING.
404
ing too much. Equally important. is the ‘re-
quirement that it be as light as possible, consist-
ent with the strength required, and that it be
well balanced. The military blades of to-day
are all closely similar in design. They are
nearly straight, but sufficiently heavy toward
the point to enable the soldier to deliver a very
effective cut. The only exception is the sword
adopted by the French Government in 1899,
which is a long sword designed only for thrust-
ing. It is 35 inches in length of blade from hilt
to point, and weighs 2 pounds 6 ounces with-
out the scabbard, which latter is made of steel,
with a wood lining. The German cavalry sword
is 32 % inches long from hilt to point, and weighs
2 pounds 8% ounces without the scabbard. The
scabbard, like that of the French and British, is
of steel with wood lining. The British cavalry
ofiicer’s sword measures 35 inches from hilt to
point, and weighs without the scabbard 2 pounds;
while the sword of the trooper measures 331/2
inches, and is 2 pounds 10% ounces in weight.
The British infantry sword (officer’s) measures
321/; inches from hilt to point, and weighs,
without scabbard, 2 pounds 3 ounces. In the
United States Army the sword proper has been
abolished and a single form of sabre is now worn
by all officers. These are issued in lengths of
30, 32, and 34 inches. The troopers of the United
States cavalry have a sabre which is designed for
both cutting and thrusting, and differs from the
light artillery sabre, which is intended for cutting
only and is more curved. In addition to the
article FENCING, already mentioned, the reader
is referred to the articles CAVALRY; TACTICS,
MILITARY.
SWORD, ORDER or THE. A Swedish military
order of merit, with seven classes, founded in
1522 and renewed by Frederick I. in 1748. The
decoration is a white cross of eight points, the
arms separated by golden crowns. The blue
medallion shows a bared sword surrounded by
three crowns. The reverse bears a sword with
a laurel wreath and the legend Pro Patria.
SWORD DANCE. A dance in which the use
of a sword plays the characteristic part. Such
dances, held in military attire, and serving as ex-
ercises of youth, were probably a feature in the
life of all ancient peoples. In Greece a dance
of this character was known under the name of
Pyrrhic, and in Athens such a performance was
said to have been instituted by Athena. Tacitus
describes the youths of Germany as dancing
naked over a bare blade, and fifteen centuries
later a particular form of the sword dance was
described by Olaus Magnus as belonging to Den-
mark. This special dance was widely diffused,
and has survived in Germany, England, and
Scotland. In it the number of performers was
commonly six, with a leader; the movements
were various, consisting of a march with weapons
erect, directing them toward the centre of the
ring, grasping the neighbor’s blade by the hilt‘
and point, forming the swords into a shield or
rose and dancing with them in that form, leaping
over and under the brands, and the like.
SWORDTTSH. One of several fishes having
an elongated snout, serviceable as a weapon;
specifically, the single representative of the
family Xiphiidae, related to the mackerels and
common in the warmer parts of the Atlantic
and occasional in the Pacific Ocean. This fish
has a round, very muscular body (see Plate of
SPEARFISH AND Swomrrsn), with large fins and
a crescentic tail of extraordinary size and power,
so that it‘ is able to move with extreme speed
and force. As the young grow, the fore part of
the body and the head increase steadily in girth
in proportion to the posterior parts, and the
upper jaw grows more and more elongated until
it finally forms a flattened, sharp-edged ‘sword’
composed of the consolidated vomer, ethmoid and
premaxillary bones, and coated with a finely
granulated hide. This weapon is about half as
long as the body, and becomes so strong that
it may be driven far through the planking of a
rowboat or even a sailing vessel, as has repeatedly
happened, probably by accident. The swordfish
reaches its largest size off the coast of New Eng-
land, where in midsummer it comes near shore in
pursuit of the schools of herring, mackerel, men-
haden, and other gregarious fishes upon which
it mainly feeds. A swordfish finding such a
school pushes into its midst from beneath, and,
striking right and left with its sword, kills or
disables dozens of victims. The average size in
the Atlantic is about seven feet in total length
and 250 pounds in weight, but there are authentic
records of fish more than twice that size. The
flesh is of excellent flavor, and the capture of a
swordfish is reckoned fine sport. Their spawn-
ing habits are little understood; and where they
spend the winter, when they disappear from the
American coast, is unknown.
Several other large related fishes are called
‘swordfish,’ among them the ‘sailfish’ and ‘spear-
fish’ (qq.v.) of the family Istiophoridae; the
large handsome ‘papagallo’ (Nem/atistius pec-
tomlis) of the Pacific coast of tropical America;
and the cutlass-fish (q.v.). The best general
account of the swordfish and swordfishing is by
Goode, Fishery Industries, sec. i. (Washington,
1884) .
SWORDFISHING. The catching of sword-
fish is pursued in summer both for profit and
sport ofi the coast of New England, and especial-
ly in the neighborhood of Nantucket, and is often
the occasion of exciting incidents. Small swift
vessels are employed, provided with a short bow-
sprit, at the outer end of which is set a small
platform and a strong iron stanchion surmounted
by a circular horizontal band at the height of a
man’s Waist. The fisherman, standing within
this contrivance, with a connecting strap buckled
behind him, is held safely in spite of the pitch-
ing of the vessel, while both his arms are left
free. A swordfish having been sighted at the sur-
face, where it is feeding upon menhaden or some
similar prey, the schooner bears down upon it
until the fisherman is able to hurl a barbed
spear, or a heavy grains, into its body. To this
spear a line is attached, fastened inboard; and if
a successful strike is made the crew gradually
haul the struggling fish near enough to be
knocked on the head and disabled. As the sword-
fish is big and strong, and is armed with for-
midable weapons in his ‘sword’ and his powerful
tail, much strength, skill, and agility are re-
quired to overcome and secure it; and the sport
is justly regarded as exhilarating and courage-
ous in the extrpme. Consult: Goode, Fishing
SWO RDFISHING.
SYDENHAM.
405
Industries, see. i.( VVashington, 1884); Halder,
Marvels of Animal Life (New York, 1885).
SYB’ARIS (Lat., from Gk. 2zi)3a/us). A cele-
brated Greek colony in Magna Graecia (q.v.). It
was situated in northeastern Bruttium, between
the river Crathis (Crati) and Sybaris (Ooscili),
about three miles from the Tarentine gulf. It was
founded by Acheeans and Trcezenians at an early
period in the colonization of Magna Graecia, and it
soon acquired control of territory extending en-
tirely across the peninsula. Sybaris was a great
mercantile city, with strong democratic ten-
dencies. The wealth and luxury of the inhabi-
tants became proverbial. Of the history of the
city almost nothing is known, but during the
sixth century 13.0. it had attained a circumference
of more than five miles, and ranked with Miletus
as one of the most powerful and wealthy of
Grecian cities. The party strife which disturbed
so many of the Greek mercantile communities
raged here also, and toward the end of the cen-
tury we find the city in the hands of a tyrant,
Telys, supported by the popular party. A Cro-
tonian noble who married Telys’s daughter was
exiled by his townsmen, and they also gave
asylum to a large body of the banished nobles
of Sybaris. The refusal of a demand for their
surrender led to a war between the two cities, in
which the Crotoni-ans. in spite of inferior num-
bers, won a great victory, which was followed
by internal strife in Sybaris, leading to the easy
capture of the city (c.510 B.0.). The victors
razed it to the ground and turned the bed of the
Crathis over the site. The few survivors with-
drew to their colonies, Scidros and Laos, on the
west coast. Excavations in 1879 and 1888 have
determined the site of the ancient city. but
yielded little else of interest.
SYBEL, ze’bel, HEINRICH voN (1817-95). A
German historian, born at Diisseldorf, December
2, 1817. He studied four years at Berlin and at
Bonn, and in 1841 published his first work, the
Geschichte des ersten Kreuezugs. In 1844 he was
made professor extraordinary at Bonn and two
years later went to Marburg as professor in or-
dinary. It was there that he wrote his Ge-
schichte der Reeolutionszeit von 1789 bis 1795
(1853-58) , the most important of his works with
one exception. In 1856 he became professor at
Munich, where he instituted the historical com-
mission of the Royal Bavarian Academy and
founded the H istorische Zeitschrift, and in 1861
was appointed professor at Bonn. He was made
director of Prussian archives in 1875 and thus
had access to the most valuable material for
his chief work, Die Begriinclung des deutschen
Reichs (Munich, 1889-94; trans. by Perrin,
New York, 1890-97). Sybel was from 1862 to
1864 and-from 1874 to 1880 a member of the
Prussian Diet, and in 1867 was elected to the
Constituent Beichstag of the North German Con-
federation. He died at Marburg. August 1, 1895.
—His son LUDWIG (18-16-) is an archaeologist,
professor at Marburg since 1877. and author of:
Die ./llythologie der Ilias (1877); Kritile cles
iigy/ptischcn Ornaments (1883); Weltgeschichte
der Kunst im Altcrtum (2d ed. 1902), and
others.
SYC’A1VIORE. The county-seat of Dckalb
County, 111.. 52 miles west by north of Chicago;
on the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago
and Northwestern railroads (Map: Illinois, D
2). It is in a farming section, but is important
rather for its manufactures, which include farm
implements, gray iron castings, insulated wire,
canned goods, etc. The water works are owned
by the municipality. Population, in 1890, 2987;
in 1900, 3653. '
SYCAMORE, or SYCOIVIORE (OF., Fr. syco-
more, from Lat. sycomorus, from Gk. owc6,u.op0s,
syhomoros, mulberry-tree, from cfixov, syhon,
fig + népov, moron, ,ad>pov, m6ron, black mul-
berry), Ficus. A genus of generally large, long-
lived trees of the natural order Moraceae, mostly
natives of Africa. and Asia. The Egyptian syca-
more (Ficus sycamorus), supposed to be the
sycamore of the Bible, is a large spreading tree
often planted for shade in Egypt and lVestern
Asia, where it is abundant in forests. The figs
are top-shaped, and grow in clustered racemes
on the trunk and oldest branches. They are
sweet, well-flavored, and somewhat aromatic.
The sycamore of \Vestern Europe is a species of
maple (q.v.) ; those of North America are vari-
ous species of plane (q.v.).
SYCAMORE INSECTS. The sycamore or
plane tree is comparatively free, from in-
sect attack, for although several caterpillars feed
upon the leaves of the tree, none seems specifi-
cally confined to it. The leaves sometimes turn
brown and fall from the attacks of colonies of
one of the lace-bugs (Oorythuca fimbriata), and
the seed balls are attacked by a true bug (Mela-
nochilus numicleus), which punctures the leaves
and passes the winter in a half-grown condition
thrust down between the seeds in the ball. Only
one borer seems specifically confined to this tree,
but Chalcophora campestris is found burrowing
into dead limbs and trunks, and may hasten the
death of an otherwise diseased tree. Consult
Packard, Insects I n jurious to Forest Trees
(Washington, 1890) .
SYCOSIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. aiixwms, sy-
h6sis, fig-like excrescence on the flesh, from
aiixou, sykon, fig). A skin disease characterized
by an eruption of pustules or papules, each one
pierced by a hair, generally limited to the bearded
face. It is, in common with impetigo faciei and
tinca barbce, called ‘barber’s itch.’ It is caused
by the entrance into the hair follicles of a
variety of staphylococcus, either albus, aureus,
or citreus. Acne or eczema may be mistaken
for it. Zinc, oil of cade, carbolic acid, ichthyol,
sulphur, and betanaphthol are all recommended
for its relief.
SYDENHAM, sid’en-am. A residential sec-
tion and Parliamentary sub-district of Lewisham
Borough, metropolitan London, 8 miles southeast
of Saint Paul’s Cathedral (Map: London and
vicinity, F 8). It is of world-wide celebrity in
connection with the Crystal Palace (q.v.) , which
was reiérected here in 1854. Population, in 1891,
34,100; in 1901, 43,630.
SYDENHAM, THOMAS (1624-89). A great
English physician, born at Winford Eagle, edu-
cated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. at All Souls’
College, and at Montpellier, France. He received
his degree in medicine from Cambridge, and in
1600 established himself in practice in London,
and soon became the foremost physician of his
time. Although his name is inseparably con-
SYDENHAM.
SY.ENITEt
406
nected with our present knowledge of many dis-
eases, he is especially to be remembered as the
one who introduced cinchona in the treatment of
malaria, and who first differentiated scarlatina,
classified chorea, and expounded gout. A col-
lection of his works was published in English
(1785); and the Sydenham Society of London,
founded for the purpose of printing meritorious
medical Works, put forth as its first issue his
complete works in Latin in 1846, and in Eng-
lish in 1848. Consult Latham’s Memoir (Lon-
don, 1848).
SYD’NEY. The capital of New South Wales
and the oldest city in Australia, on the southern
shores of Port Jackson; latitude 33° 52’ S., longi-
tude 151° 13' E. (Map: New South Wales, F 3).
It is situated about 8 miles from the sea, and
the whole bay round which the city is built
forms a fine harbor, where the largest vessels can
safely anchor. Its bold and rocky shores present
a succession of picturesque and beautiful land-
scapes. The narrow entrance is called the
‘Heads,’ and is marked by a lighthouse. The
Fitzroy dry-dock, originally intended for vessels
of the royal navy, can accommodate vessels of
the largest size. The city is defended by mod-
ern forts and batteries, and is the chief station of
the Australian navy. The neighborhood of Syd-
ney is surrounded by park-like grounds, and
gardens of orange trees, bananas, and number-
less semi-tropical plants. The suburbs include 41
municipalities, the chief of which are Balmain in
the west; Newton, Redfern, Marrickville, and
Waterlow in the south; Paddington, Randwick,
VVoolhara and VVaverley in the east.
The climate of Sydney is, upon the whole,
temperate and healthful. The sandstone rock
upon which the city is built affords a valuable
material for building. The streets in the older
parts of the town are narrow and irregular; in
the newer portions they are modern, and the size
and style of the buildings are not behind those
of the principal towns of Europe. The Uni-
versity of Sydney stands on a commanding
height. There are two suffragan colleges in con-
nection with the university-—that of Saint Paul’s,
belonging to the Church of England, and Saint
John’s, erected under the auspices of the Roman
Catholic community. The metropolitan Cathe-
dral of Saint Andrew is a handsome building in
the later Perpendicular style of architecture, and
the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saint Mary is
also a fine structure. Noteworthy are the resi-
dence of the Governor, the museum, the National
Art Gallery, the exchange. the custom-house, the
town hall, the new post-office, the public gram-
mar school, and the theatres. Sydney has sev-
eral mechanics’ institutes.
There are fine botanical gardens, and a number
of public parks, of which Hyde Park is the chiéf.
Water is brought from a point on the Nepean
River, 63 miles distant, and stored in a large
reservoir at Parramatta. The water-works, ab-
attoirs, and street railways are municipal prop-
erty. The manufactures comprise wagons,
glass, pottery, boots and shoes, carriages, stoves,
and tobacco, and there are car-shops, distilleries,
and breweries. At various points within a
radius of from 30 to 100 miles large quantities
of coal are mined for colonial consumption as
well as for export. Its central position makes
Sydney the permanent emporium of the British
dependencies in the Southern Hemisphere. It
maintains its position as the exclusive outlet
for the productions and commerce of extensive
pastoral and mineral districts on the northwest,
west, and southwest. -
The first party of British settlers (convicts)
that reached Australia were landed at Botany
Bay on January 20, 1788. The spot which had
been selected being found unsuitable, it was
abandoned a few days afterwards, and the infant
settlement was transferred to a point about 7
miles farther to the north, the place where
Sydney now stands. The choice of the new local-
ity was chiefly determined by the circumstance of
a stream of fresh water found there, flowing into
the deep inlet known as Sydney Cove, one of the
numerous bays into which the basin of Port Jack-
son is divided. After the abolition of convict
transportation the growth of Sydney was rapid.
The installation here, on January 1, 1901, of Earl
Hopetoun as first Governor-General of the Aus-
tralian Commonwealth consummated the federa-
tion of Australia. The population of municipal
Sydney in 1901 was 111,801; of the city with its
suburbs, 488,968.
SYDNEY, ALGERNON. An English states-
man. See SIDNEY, ALGERNON.
SYDOW, ze/do, EMIL VON (1812-73). A dis-
tinguished German cartographer, born at Frei-
berg, Saxony. He entered the Prussian army in
1829, taught geography, and in 1838 began to
publish his excellent school-room maps. Detailed
to Berlin in 1843 as a member of the Military
Examination Committee, he was subsequently in-
trusted with the geographical lectures at the
Military Academy, which he resumed in 1860,
having in the meanwhile lived retired at Gotha
since 1855. Attached to the great general staff,
he was made director of the geographic-statisti-
cal department in 1867 and colonel in 1870. His
cartographic work, nearly all translated also
into foreign languages, comprises: M ethodischer
Handatlas fitr das wissenschaftliche Stadium
der Erdhunde, 30 maps (4th ed. 1870); Schul-
atlas in 42 Bliittern (32d ed. 1880) ; new ed. by
Wagner, entitled Sydow-Wagner, Methodischer
Schulatlas, 63 main and 50 accessory maps (10th
ed. 1902) ; Oro-hydrographischer Atlas, 25
maps; and others. He also contributed many
articles to various periodicals, notably the re-
ports “Ueber den kartographischen Standpunkt
Europas,” to Petermanns Mitteilungen (1857-
72), and created the valuable book of reference
Registrande der geographisch-statistischen A btei-
lung des Grossen Generalstabs (Berlin, 1870-83).
SYENE, si-e/ne. The ancient name of Assuan
(q.v.), a town of Egypt.
SYENITE (Lat. syenites, from Syene, from
Gk. 21261117, a locality in Upper Egypt). An
igneous rock of granitic texture, composed es-
sentially of alkali feldspar and mica, hornblende,
or augite (mica seyenite, hornblende syenite,
augite syenite) . Its average composition is: silica,
59 per cent.; alumina, 17 per cent.; oxides of
iron, 7 per cent.; magnesia, 37 per cent.; oxide
of lime, 5 per cent.; oxide of sodium, 4 per cent.;
oxide of potassium, 5 per cent. From granite,
syenite differs in containing little or no free
silica (quartz).
SYKE S.
SYLLO GISM.
407
SYKES, siks, GEORGE (1822-80). An Ameri-
can soldier, born at Dover, Del. He graduated
at West Point in 1842, served in the Semi-
nole and Mexican wars, and was brevetted cap-
tain for gallant conduct at Cerro Gordo. He
fought in the first battle of Bull Run, as a major
in the Federal army; was commissioned briga-
dier-general of volunteers in September, 1861,
took part in the Peninsular, in the second Bull
Run, and in the Antietam campaigns; was com-
missioned major-general of volunteers in Novem-
ber, 1862; fought at Fredericksburg and Chancel-
lorsville; and commanded the Fifth Corps at Get-
tysburg. In March, 1865, he was brevetted
brigadier-general in the Regular Army for his
services in the battle of Gettysburg and major-
general in the Regular Army for his services
during the war. He was mustered out of the
volunteer army in January, 1866, but remained
in the Regular Army first as lieutenant-colonel
and then as colonel until his death in 1880. A
monument has been erected in his honor at West
Point.
SYKES, OLIVE (LOGAN) (1841—). An Ameri-
can actress and author, born in New York. In
1864 she appeared at Wallack’s Theatre, New
York, in Eveleen, a play of her own composition;
but retired from the stage in 1868, and devoted
herself principally to lecturing and writing in
behalf of the woman’s rights movement.
Her later publications include Women and The-
atres (1869) ; Before the Footlights and Behind
the Scenes (1870); and the comedy Surf, or
Life at Long Branch.
SYL'LABUS ERRO’RUM (Lat., catalogue
of errors). A document published by Pius IX.
in 1864, appended to the encyclical Quanta cura,
condemning eighty doctrines which it calls “the
principal errors of our times.” They are classed
under various heads: pantheism, naturalism, and
absolute rationalism; moderate rationalism; in-
differentism and latitudinarianism; socialism,
communism, secret societies, Bible societies (con-
sidered from the point of view as Prot-
estant proselytizing organizations), and clerico-
liberal societies; errors concerning the Church
and her rights; concerning civil society; concern-
ing natural and Christian ethics; concerning
Christian marriage; concerning the temporal
power of the Pope; and errors connected with
modern liberalism. The text of the document and
an English translation are given in Schaff, Creeds
of Christendom (New York, 1877-78). The
Syllabus gave rise in England to a famous con-
troversy between Gladstone and Newman. Con-
sult Gladstone, Vaticanism (London, 1875) ;
Newman, Letters to the Duke of Norfolk (ib.,
1875).
SYLLOGISM (Lat. syllogismus, from Gk.
o'v7L}lo)/no/16;, reasoning, conclusion, from cv7L2.o-
yifjeofiat, syllogieesthai, to infer, conclude, from
aim, syn, together -1- ?l.oy1’§'so6ai, logizesthai, to
reason, from 7L6)/og, logos, word, reason). The
name of a logical operation when expressed in
a certain form in accordance with the principles
of formal logic. When we reason, or get at
truth by means of inference, we are said to pro-
ceed either inductively (see INDUCTION) or de-
ductively. Deductive reasoning, when fully and
methodically expressed, takes the form called the
syllogism. ‘This thing will sink in water, for it
is a stone,’ is a deductive argument, but not fully
stated; this is called an enthymeme (q.v.).
The complete form is, “Stones sink in water; this
is a stone; therefore, this sinks in water’—-
which form is called a syllogism.
To a perfect syllogism it is necessary (1) that
there should be three, and no more than three,
propositions (see PROPOSITION); these are the
conclusion, or the matter to be proved, and two
others that are the means of proving it, called the
premises. It is also necessary (2) that there
should be three, and no more than three, terms,
namely, the subject and the predicate of the con-
clusion, and one, called the middle term, which
must occur in both premises, being the connect-
ing link for bringing the two other terms to-
gether in the conclusion. The predicate of the
conclusion is called the major term, because it
is in its extension (q.v.) the largest of the three;
the subject of the conclusion is the minor term,
as being the smallest in extension. The major
and minor terms are called extremes. The three
terms appear in the premises in this manner: the
major term and the middle term appear in one
premise, called the major premise; the middle
term and the minor term in the minor premise.
In the syllogism above stated, the terms are
‘(a thing that will) sink in water’ (major),
‘this thing’ (minor), ‘stone’ (middle) ; the
premises are, ‘stones sink in water’ (major),
‘this thing is a stone’ (minor); the conclusion
is, ‘this thing sinks in water’; (3) one premise
at least must be aflirmative; (4) if one premise
be negative, the conclusion must be negative; (5)
the middle term must be distributed (I taken in
the whole of its extension) in at least one pre-
mise; (6) an extreme, if undistributed in a pre-
mise, may not be distributed in the conclusion.
Any syllogism which violates any one or more
of these six syllogistic rules is invalid. There
are two other rules which are derivative: (7)
one premise at least must be universal; (8) if
one premise be particular, the conclusion must be
particular also. Any syllogism which violates
either of these rules violates also one or more
of the first six rules given above. For the dis-
cussion of the question as to the evidence of
these canons, see LOGIO.
Categorical syllogistic forms are divided into
figures, and each figure into moods, which are
the distinct syllogistic forms, the principle of
division being as follows: The figure is deter-
mined by the function of the middle term, in the
two premises; it may be the subject of the major
premise, and the predicate of the minor (lst
figure); the predicate in both (2d figure), the
subject in both (3d figure), the predicate of the
major and the subject of the minor (4th figure).
The 4th figure did not belong to the original
scheme of Aristotle, and it is usually considered
as both unnatural and unnecessary, being only
an awkward inversion of the first. The syllogisms
of each figure are said to differ in mood, or ac-
cording to the quality and the quantity of the
propositions—that is, according as these are
affirmative or negative (quality), universal or
particular (quantity).
A conditional syllogism whose conditional
major premise presents some sort of alternative
is called a dilemma. We may have these cases:
Either (a) alternative consequences may be as-
SYLLO GISM.
SYLVESTE R.
408
serted to follow upon a single condition (or com-
bination of conditions) or (1)) alternative con-
ditions may be asserted to determine a single
consequence (or combination of consequences);
or (c) an alternative may be presented between
a condition with its consequence and another con-
dition with its separate consequence. If alter-
native consequences are asserted to follow upon a
single condition, then it is possible to have a
valid conditional syllogism either when a minor
premise alfirms the condition, warranting as
conclusion the affirmation of the alternative con-
sequence; or when a minor premise denies con-
junctively (‘neither-—nor’) the alternative con-
sequences, warranting as conclusion the denial of
the antecedent. If alternative conditions are
asserted to determine a single consequence, it is
possible to have a valid syllogism when a minor
premise either categorically afiirms one of the
conditions or disjunctively aflirms both con-
ditions, in either case justifying as conclusion the
affirmation of the consequent; or when the minor
premise categorically denies the consequent,
justifying as conclusion the conjunctive denial of
the conditions. If the major premise presents
an alternative between a condition with its con-
- sequence and another condition with its separate
consequence, a valid syllogism obtains when the
minor premise either disjunctively affirms the
two conditions, justifying the disjunctive affirma-
tion of the two consequences. or when the minor
premise conjunctively or disjunctively denies
both consequences, justifying a conjunctive or
disjunctive denial respectively of the two ante-
cedents. For bibliography, see books mentioned
under Locro. See also FALLACY; DILEMMA;
CONVERSION; OBVERSION.
SYLPHS (Neo-Lat. sylpha, probably from Gk.
UiZ¢1], silplzé», sort of beetle; so called as being a
spirit flying in the air). In the fantastic system
of the Paracelsists, the elemental spirits of the
air, who, like the other elemental spirits, hold
an intermediate place between immaterial and
material beings. They eat, drink, speak, move
about, beget children, and are subject to in-
firmities like men; but, on the other hand, they
resemble spirits in being more nimble and swift in
their motions, while their bodies are more diaph-
anous than those of the human race. They also
surpass the latter in their knowledge, both of
the present and the future. but have no soul; and
when they die, nothing is left.
In common usage, the term ‘sylph’ has a
feminine signification, and is applied to a grace-
ful maiden. How this curious change of mean-
ing occurred is not quite certain; but it is pos-
sibly owing to the popularity of Pope’s Rape of
the Lock, which introduced the term into the
world of fashion and literature. Consult: Para-
ce1sus’s Liber de Nymphis, Sylphis, Pygmceis et
Salamandrts et Gceteris Spiritibus (Basel ed. of
Paracelsus’s works, 1590).
SYLVANITE. See TELLURIUM.
SYLVES'TER. The name of two popes.
SYLVESTER I., Pope 314-35. His reign was the
first in the new period of Church freedom under
Constantine. In his pontificate the Council of
Nicaea was held, which he did not himself at-
tend, but sent two legates to represent him.
Numerous unhistorical legends, especally concern-
ing his relations to Constantine, have clustered
about him; concerning them, consult Dol-
linger, Fables Respecting the Popes in the
Middle Ages (Eng. trans., New York, 1872) ; and
see DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. His works are
in Migne, Patrologia Latina, Viii.——SYLVESTER
II., Pope 999-1003, Gerbert by name. He was
born at Aurillac, in Auvergne, about 935, and at
an early age went to Spain, where he made re-
markable progress in scientific studies. He be-
came head of the cathedral school at Rheims,
which grew to eminence under his direction. In
982 he was made Abbot of Bobbio on the nomina-
tion of Otho II., but returned to Rheims, of
which, by Hugh Capet’s wish, he was chosen
Archbishop in 991. Four years later, the deposi-
tion of his predecessor having been declared in-
valid,_ he went to Magdeburg on ()tho III.’s in-
vitation, and accompanied him to Italy, where he
remained, becoming Archbishop of Ravenna in
998, and reaching the Papal throne in the follow-
ing year. He was a strict reformer, and ac-
quired the reputation of the most learned man
of his age; he was an adept in mathematics, and
in practical mechanics and astronomy, in which
his attainments were so amazing to his contem-
poraries as to arouse a suspicion that he was in
league with the devil. The Gubar numerals, the
ancestors of our modern numerals and due to
the VVestern Arabs, owe much of their prominence,
if not their introduction into Europe, to Sylvester.
His writings are reprinted in Migne, Patrologia
Latina, CXXXlX.; also by Olleris (Paris, 1867):
his letters, which throw much light upon an
obscure period, have been translated into French
(Riom, 1847). Consult studies of his life
and times by Hock (Vienna, 1837), Axinger
(Paris, 1842), Tappe (Berlin, 1869), and Schul-
tess (Hamburg, 1891) ; also Schultess, Die Sagen
itber Silvester II. (ib., 1893), and the book of
Dtillinger referred to above.-—The name was also
borne by two antipopes, SYLVESTER III., who con-
tested the Papal throne with Benedict IX. in
1044, and SYLVESTER IV., who was put up by the
Imperial party to oppose Paschal II. in 1105.
SYLVESTER, JAMES Josnrn (1814-97).
One of the foremost English mathematicians of
the nineteenth century. He was born in Lon-
don, of Jewish parents, and received his early
education in a Jewish school. He then attended
the Royal Institution school in Liverpool, and
thence proceeded to Saint John’s, Cambridge
(1831). As a Jew he was barred from taking a
degree, and it was not until the passing of the
Tests Act that he obtained his B.A. at Cam-
bridge (1872). He studied at Inner Temple after
leaving Cambridge, and was called to the bar in
1850. Sylvester was appointed professor of nat-
ural philosophy at University College, London, in
1837, and was elected fellow of the Royal Society
in 1839. In 1841 he was appointed professor
of mathematics in the University of Virginia, but
soon after (1845) returned to England, where he
took up the work of an actuary. In 1855 he be-
came professor of mathematics at the Royal Mili-
tary Academy at Woolwich, where he remained
for 15 years. In 1877 he became the first pro-
fessor of mathematics at Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, which position he held for seven years,
returning to England to accept the Savilian pro-
fessorship of geometry at Oxford. He founded
SYLVE STE R.
SYMBIO SIS.
409
the American Journal of Mathematics and was
for some years its editor.
Sylvester’s contributions were almost exclu-
sively in the form of memoirs, scattered through
various scientific journals and the proceedings
of various societies. They are devoted chiefly to
the theories of algebraic forms (see FORMS), in
which he was the recognized leader of the mathe-
matical world. He and Cayley (q.v.) con-
tributed more than any of their contemporaries
to the theory of invariants, and he may be said
to have practically created the vocabulary of
the subject. He also published a work on Laws
of Verse (1870), a subject in which he always
showed an interest. Consult obituary notices in
various scientific journals in 1897; and Franklin,
Address Commemorative of Sylvester (Baltimore,
1897).
SYLVESTER, JOSHUA (1563-1618). An
English poet, born in the north of Kent. His
life was divided between poetry and trade. He
is mainly known for a translation, or rather para-
phrase, of the Semaines (\Veeks), a sacred epic
written by the French poet Du Bartas (q.v.) . The
translation had considerable influence upon Mil-
ton.., Of Sylvester’s original verse, all is forgotten
except the beautiful sonnet beginning “\Vere I as
base as is the lowly plaine” (in Palgrave’s Golden
Treasury). Consult his Works, ed. A. B. Gros-
art, “Chertsey Worthies Library” (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1878).
SYLVESTER DAGGERWOOD. A. one-act
play by George Colman the younger. produced in
1795, a shorter form of New Hay at the Old Mar-
ket, brought out in the same year. There were
only two characters in it, the strolling player
whose name is the title, and Fustian, a play-
wright.
SYLVICULTURE. See Fonnsrnr.
SYL’VIUS. The Latinized name of Jacques
Dubois (1478-1555), a French anatomist, born
near Amiens. He studied in Paris, and after-
wards was a lecturer on anatomy there. His
anatomical discoveries and his invention of in-
jection for use in dissection cause him to be re-
membered. The Sylvian fissure, the Sylvian
aqueduct, and the Sylvian artery were named in
his honor. His Opera M edica were published at
Geneva in 1630.
SYMBIOSIS (Neo-Lat., fl‘0111 Gk. o'v,u,8Zmo'lg,
life together, from 05111, syn, together + fiiog, bios,
life.) That condition in which two or more dis-
similar organisms live together in an intimate
life relation. Various types of symbiosis depend
upon the type of relation existing between the
organisms, the so-called symbionts.
(1) Mutualistic symbiosis, or mutualism, is
that condition in which each party to the sym-
biosis seems to derive advantage therefrom.
This relation has perhaps not been proved to
exist in plants, though it seems likely that
mutualism exists between the legumes and the
bacteria of their root tubercles. Many be-
lieve that lichens show true mutualism, the
fungus symbiont supplying nitrogenous sub-
stances or other materials absorbed from the
substratum, and the alga symbiont the carbohy-
drates.
(2) Antagonistic symbiosis. or parasitism, is
that condition where one symbiont gains at the
expense of the other. There are many illustra-
tions of this in nature. For example, the para-
sitic fungi and seed plants may be regarded as
securing food from their host plants, but not giv-
ing an equivalent in return, as is the case in
perfect mutualism.
(3) A somewhat intermediate condition is
illustrated by contingent symbiosis. or helotism
(q.v.). Some writers hold that lichens illus-
trate this type, the idea being that there is not
a mutual exchange between the alga and the
fungus symbiont. The fungus is supposed to
gain, but the alga is supposed neither to lose nor
gain.
Symbiosis may be more or less intimate. In
conjunctive symbiosis the symbionts are blended
together so as to form a single body, as best
illustrated by the lichens. In disjunctive sym-
biosis the symbiosis is more temporary, or the
symbionts are less completely blended, as illus-
trated by ectotropic mycorrhizas.
Relations which are, perhaps, not to be re-
garded as symbiosis, but which nevertheless bear
a close similarity to it, are frequently found.
Saprophytism differs from parasitism only in
that the host plant, so to speak, is dead. Re-
cently a new life relation has been recognized,
such as is found in the Indian pipe (Monotropa) ;
in which case there is a root fungus which de-
rives its food materials saprophytically from
the soil. Monotropa, not being a green plant, gets
nearly all of its food material from the fungus.
Hence the relation of the two organisms taken
together is saprophytism. The mutual rela-
tion of the pair is, however, symbiosis, and the
whole relation may be called symbiotic sapro-
phytism. This term may be applied to all of the
mycorrhiza plants. By some authors lianas and
epiphytes have been regarded as having symbiotic
relations with the supporting plants, but the
relation is not at all intimate, since they prob-
ably get only mechanical support. Kerner held
a still broader view of symbiosis, applying this
term, for instance, to the herbaceous shade plants
of the woods, which are unable to grow unless
shaded by the trees.
Among animals forms of symbiosis are to be
found. An example of social symbiosis is the
case of a polyp (Epizoanthus) or a sea-anemone
(Adamsia), which grows on the shell inhabited
by a hermit-crab. Klebs states that when
the crab changes its shell it seizes the
anemone and carries it off to its new home.
The term physiological symbiosis may be ap-
plied to cases among the lowest organisms where
certain algae (Zoiixanthellae) often live in Rad-
iolaria (q.v.), while similar green and yellow
plants inhabit the stomach epithelium of many
actinians, corals, and worms. As Hertwig says,
the Zoiixanthellae are nourished by the carbon
dioxide which is formed by the animal tissues,
and breathe out oxygen, which in turn serves as
food for the animal. They also form starch and
other carbohydrates, and there is nothing to pre-
vent any surplus thus formed from becoming
food for the animal. A remarkable case of sym-
biosis, involving a structural modification, is
that of a carpenter bee (of the Oriental genus
Koptorthosoma) and a certain mite. A special
chamber, with a small orifice for entry, exists in
the abdomen of the bee, in which the Acari are
lodged. Here it is a little difficult to draw the
SYMBIO SIS.
SYMBOLS.
410
line between symbiosis and the parasitism, for
instance, of the itch mite which burrows under
the skin between the fingers.
SOCIAL SYMBIOSIS. Wheeler applies this term
to the relations between ants and the various
beetles, crickets, cockroaches, etc., which live at
their expense. Of those beetles (Claviger, Paus-
sus, etc.) that live in ant and termite nests cer-
tain ones seem to be tolerated or ignored by the
ants. So completely agreeable to the ants is the
presence of certain of the Staphylinidae that the
ants regurgitate food which they give to the
beetles, and the beetles in the same manner share
their supply with hungry ants. The ants feed
the larval beetles with as much care as they do
their own larvae. They even clean the young
beetles by licking them. See ANT; BEE; COM-
MENSALISM; EPIPHYTE; INSECT; LICHEN; MU-
TUALISM ; Penesrrn; ROVE-BEETLE; TERMITE.
Consult: O. Hertwig, Die Symbiosis (Jena,
1883) ; Geddes, Nature, vol. xxv.(l882) ; Brandt,
Archiv filr Anatomic and Physiologic (1882) , and
Mittheilungen der zoologischrm Station, Naples,
iv. (1883) ; Lankester, Nature, vol. xxvii. (1882).
For symbiosis in insects, see the -papers of Forel,
Wasmann, Wheeler, etc.
SYMBOLISM (from symbol, from Lat. sym-
bolus, symbolum, from Gk. a-6,u.)3o>\os, o'l5,ufio>\0v,
mark, token, signal, sign, confession of faith,
from 0'v)u.Bd)O\eLv, symballein, to compare, put
together, from 0611, syn, together + Bdhherv,
ballein, to throw). In its broadest sense, the
representation of one thing by another, as of a
sound by a letter, of a word or a concrete idea
by a hieroglyph. Symbolism is most important
in the history of art, especially of Christian art.
Obviously no doctrine of religion can take form
in outward act without some kind of symbolism;
and accordingly every detail of the ancient Ro-
man Catholic or Eastern rites is so planned as
to suggest to the worshiper one or another aspect
of abstract truth. In the plan and construction
of the older churches the same idea is carried
out as in their cruciform shape. Early Christian
art represented Jesus under numerous symbols,
among the commonest being the lamb, the fish,
and the Greek letters Alpha and Omega (the be-
ginning and the end). Similarly, the Holy Ghost
was represented by a dove; and the olive branch
denoted peace; the palm, triumph; and the
anchor, faith or hope. In later art each one of
the saints depicted may be recognized by some
appropriate symbol, e.g. Saint Andrew by a cross
in the shape of an X, or Saint Dominic by the
lily and the star above his forehead. Consult:
Clement, Handbook of Legendary and Mythologi-
cal Art (2d ed., Boston, 1881) ; Knight, The
Symbolic La/nguage of Ancient Art and Myth-
ology (2d ed., New York, 1876). See DECA-
DENTS.
SYMBOLISTS. The name of a class of
writers which sprang up after 1880 notably in
France and in connection with verse. The sym-
bolists regard symbolism as the expression of an
idea by the introduction of a being or an object
merely for the purposes of such expression. The
characteristic means are the allegory, transposi-
tion, and allusion. The syrnbolists were in ef-
fect reactionists against realism. They concern
themselves with general truths in contrast with
actualities. They court erudition, adore the
metaphysical and mysterious, and especially ex-
alt the magic power and charm of music. Identi-
fied with the influence of Wagner, they seek music
in language and accordingly the sonorousness of
words; they suggest but do not name. Dreams,
visions, and mythological tales are their proper
subjects, and lyricism their favorite form of
poetic expression. In their aim to unify and blend
the arts and the functions of the senses, the ex-
tremists among them, like Arthur Rimbaud, as-
sociated the vowels with colors, etc. The metri-
cal reforms of the French Symbolists have re-
sulted in making French verse more free and
large in its possibilities of effect, more subtle, in-
timate, and musical. The Symbolists, despite
the vagaries which attend all new schools of lit-
erature and art, have left a permanent and de-
sirable mark. Their general influence has been
for the exclusive, the refined, the delicate, and
the mystic beauties of the supranatural. Their
verse has represented idealism, religious senti-
ment, a return to the ancient, and an inherent
preference for solemn or fatalistic themes. Ver-
laine, Mallarmé, and Maeterlinck are the most
noteworthy of the French and Belgian Symbolists.
Among Symbolist plays those of De Curel may
be noted. Symbolism reaches also into” the
domain of contemporary painting. For a state-
ment of certain particular phases or develop-
ments of Symbolism, see DECADENTS.
SYMBOLS, MATHEMATICAL. The various
signs and abbreviations used to facilitate mathe-
matical expression. They are of the following
kinds:
Of value.
Hindu and other numerals.
Of operation.
Addition, +, Z.
Subtraction, —.
Multiplication, as in a X b, awb,
|g_ or a!
See NUMERALS.
(a+b),
O I O I 1
Division, as in a—2— b, a:b, a/b, of“ (I
% (as in 6% I Tgfi).
Involution, as in as“.
L .. _
Evolution, as in an or 1/21.
Differentation, cl, 6, D.
Integration, Of function. ‘
f(:1:), F(w), for f— function of 41:, F-
function of ac; ¢ (as, y, . . .), for phi-func-
tion of 0:, y, ...
Of quality.
Positive number, + a.
Negative number, — a.
Absolute value, |a|.
Imaginary, at for a
Decimal, as in 3.2.
Of relation.
Equality, —_:, :..
Indentity, E.
Inequality as in a<b (a less than b),
a > b (a greater than b), a <1: b (a not
less than b), aj> b (a not greater than
b), a :|: b (a not equal to b).
Of continuation.
as in a, a’, a‘,
SYMBOLS.
SYMMACHUS.
411
Of deduction.
(since).
(therefore).
Of aggregation.
( )9 [ ]a { }"'-‘—'
Of denominate numbers, as in $10, 3° 4'
15" (degrees, minutes, seconds), £20 3s.
2d. (pounds, shillings, pence), cwt. (100
lbs.), and various abbreviations.
Of geometry.
4, la (angle, angles).
_l_ (perpendicular to).
| (parallel to).
E (congruent to).
Pf (similar to).
-: (approaches as a limit).
A, (triangle, triangles).
Q, (circle, circles).
E], E) (square, squares).
E, ,_'T'__, (rectangle, rectangles).
L], E (parallelogram, parallelograms) .
A (are). '
a (radians).
The question of the origin and development of
mathematical symbols is a large one, and science
has not yet given satisfactory answers at many
points. The probable origin of the remarkable
digits 1 . . 9, is discussed in the article on NU-
MERALS. The origin of zero is unknown, there
being no authentic record of its history before
A.D. 400. The extension of the position system
below unity is attributed to Stevin (1585), who
called tenths, hundredths, thousandths, . . .
primes, sehoncles, terzes, and wrote subscripts to
denote the orders, thus 4.628 was written 4(,)
6(1) 2(,) 8(3). But Rudolfl‘ (1525) and Kepler
(1571-1630) used the comma to set off the deci-
mal orders, and Biirgi (1552-1632) and Pitiscus
( 1612) in their tables used the decimal fraction
in the form 0.32, 3.2. Although the early Egyp-
tians had symbols for addition and equality, and
the Greeks, Hindus, and Arabs symbols for equal-
ity and for the unknown quantity, from earliest
times mathematical processes were cumbersome
for lack of proper symbols of operation. The
expressions for such processes were either written
out in full or denoted by word abbreviations.
The later Greeks, the Hindus, and lordanus in-
dicated addition by juxtaposition; the Italians
usually denoted it by the letter P or p with a
line drawn through it to distinguish it as an
operation, but their symbols were not uniform.
Pacioli, for example, sometimes used p and some-
times e, and Tartaglia commonly expressed the
operation by q). The German and English alge-
braists introduced the sign +, but spoke of it
as signam additoram and first employed it only
to indicate excess. Subtraction was indicated by
Diophantus by the symbol d~. The Hindus used
a dot, while the Italian algebraists denoted it by
M or m with a line drawn through the letter.
The symbols m and dc were, however, used by
Pacioli. The German and English algebraists
were the first to use the present symbol and de-
scribed it as signam subtractorum. The symbols
—I- and — appeared first in print in an arith-
metic of Widmann (1489). The symbol X for
‘times’ is due to Oughtred (1631). To Rahn
(1659) is due the present sign -1- for division;
Harriot (1631) -used a period to indicate multi-
plication, and Descartes (1637) used juxtapo-
sition. Leibnitz in 1688 employed the sign A
Von. XVI.—2'L
to denote multiplication and V to denote di-
vision. Division among the Arabs was desig-
nated variously by a - b, a/b, ,-cg, but Clairaut
(1760) made familiar the form a : b. Descartes
made popular the notation can for involution and
Wallis defined the negative exponent. The sym-
bol of equality, :, is due to Recorde (1557),
and the symbols >, <, for greater than and
less than, originated with Harriot (1631) . Vieta
(1591) and Girard (1629) introduced various
symbols of aggregation. The symbol 00 for in-
finity was first employed by Wallis in 1655. The
symbols of differentiation der: and of integration
as used in calculus, are due toLeibnitz, as
is also the symbol ~\ for similarity, as used in
geometry. The symbolism ¢, f, F, as used in
theory of functions, is due to Abel.
Consult Cantor, Vorlesungen iiber Geschichtc
der Mathematilc (2d ed., Leipzig, 1900).
SYME, sim, JAMES (1799-1870). A noted
Scotch surgeon, born in Fife, and educated at
the University of Edinburgh. He was lecturer
(1823-32) and professor (1833-48) of surgery
at his alma mater, after having served as dem-
onstrator under Liston. He was the inventor of
the mackintosh waterproof cloth. He was clini-
cal professor from 1829 to 1833 in Minto House
Hospital, which he founded at his own ex-
pense. He was one of the -ablest teachers
and operative surgeons of the age. He de-
vised- resection of the joints, Syme’s ampu-
tation of the foot, and excision of the lower jaw.
He was the author of many valuable works, in-
cluding The Excision of Diseased Joints (1831) ;
Principles of Surgery (1832) ; the same, to which
is added Diseases of the Rectum (1866) ; Pathol-
ogy and Practice of Surgery (1848) ; Strictare
of the Urethra and Fistala in Perineo (1849).
Consult Paterson, Memoir (Edinburgh, 1874).
SYMINGTON, sim'ing-ton, WILLIAM (1763-
1831). A“British inventor, born at Leadhills.
In 1786 he constructed a working model of a
steam road-carriage, and afterwards patented a
steam-engine in which he obtained rotary motion
by chains and ratchet wheels. In 17 88 he and
Patrick Miller used an engine constructed on
the lines of this patent to propel a small pleas-
ure boat on Dalswinton Loch. In the following
year they experimented on a larger scale on the
Forth and Clyde Canal and succeeded in attain-
ing a speed of seven miles an hour. As the type
of engine used was imperfect, however, Syming-
ton in 1801 patented another in which‘ a piston
rod guided by rollers was connected by a rod to
a crank attached to the paddle-wheel shaft. In
the following year he fitted out a boat called the
Charlotte Dwndas, which proved able to tow two
barges a distance of 19%, miles in six hours.
The Duke of Bridgewater, Symington’s patron,
was so well pleased with the boat that he ordered
eight others to be constructed. Unfortunately
for the inventor, however, the Duke died short-
ly afterwards, the order was canceled, and Sym-
ington was unable to find another patron.
SYMMACHUS, sim'm€1-kus. Pope, 498-514.
He was born in Sardinia, and was chosen to fill
the vacancy left by the death of Anastasius II.
A minority, however, of the Byzantine faction,
set up as a rival the archipresbyter Laurentius.
As a result of the schism, bloody encounters took
SYMMACHUS.
SYMMETRY.
412
place, and the Ostrogothic King Theodoric, al-
though an Arian, was appealed to, and gave his
voice for Symmachus. Theodoric, being again ap-
pealed to, caused the Bishop of Altinum to admin-
ister the affairs of the Church for a time, and left
the decision to a synod. In its fourth session the
synod (502) finally decided in favor of Symma-
chus. In vindication of the action of the synod
the deacon Ennodius, afterwards Bishop of Ticini-
um (Pavia), gave clear expression to the prin-
ciple that the Pope (Ennodius is among the first
to limit this title to the Bishop of Rome) is above
every human tribunal and is responsible only to
God himself. Later councils during Symmachus’s
pontificate condemned all interference of laymen
in the election of popes and regulated the disposi-
tion of goods belonging to the Church.
SYMMACHUS, GREEK VERSION or. See
BIBLE, section on Versions.
SYMMACHUS, QUINTUS AURELIUS. A dis-
tinguished Roman orator, scholar, and statesman,
who was born probably not long after A.D. 340,
was educated in Gaul, and after holding several
lesser offices, became prefect of Rome (AD. 384).
Seven years later he was raised to the consulship.
The date of his death is unknown, but we know
that he was alive in AD. 404. A sincere pagan
in an age when classic paganism was almost ex-
tinct, he proved in his own person a pattern of
its choicest virtues, and manfully, if in vain,
strove to regain for it a place of honor in the
State. Symmachus’s extant writings consist of
ten books of letters (Epistolarum Libri X.) and
the fragments of nine orations. The best editions
of Symmachus’s entire works are by Seeck (Ber-
lin, 1883) and Kroll (Leipzig, 1893). Consult:
Morin, Etude srur la vie et les éerits de Sym-
maque, préfet de Rome (Paris, 1847) ; Dill,
Roman Society in the Last Century of the West-
ern Empire (London, 1899).
SYMMES, simz, JOHN CLEVES (c.1780-1829).
An American soldier and author, born in Sussex
County, N. J. He entered the United States
Army as ensign in 1802, became captain Janu-
ary 20, 1813, and served through the War of
1812, distinguishing himself particularly at
Niagara and in the sortie from Fort Erie. He
subsequently lived in Newport, Ky., and gave his
entire time to developing and advocating his
theory that the earth and all the other planetary
bodies are composed of a number of hollow con-
centric spheres, open at their poles. He believed
the inside of the earth, to be habitable, and in
1822 and again in 1823 petitioned Congress to fit
out an expedition to test the theory. In support
of his contention he published many pamphlets
and a volume entitled Theory of Concentric
Spheres (1826). Consult an article on “Symmes’s
Theory of the Earth,” in the Atlantic Monthly
for April, 1873.
SYMMETRY (Lat. symmetria, from Gk.
ovp.,usrpia, from cn’),u,usrpog, symmetros, having a
common measure, from aim, syn, together -1-
pérpov, metron, measure, from /rsrpeiv, metrein,
to measure). A term used in geometry to ex-
press a characteristic property of two congruent.
or quasi-congruent figures which have _a,,certain
relation with respect to a point. line, -or.-plane.
Two systems of points, A,, B,, C,, .-., .A._., B,,
1:5’ 35' axis when all lines A, A,, B, B,-,,...
are said to be svmmetric-w;it,h_ respect
are bisected at right angles by that axis. Two
figures are said to be symmetric with respect to
an axis when their systems of points are sym-


metric with respect to that axis. A figure is
C
A M B
FIGURE BYMMETRIC WITH RESPECT TO AN AXIS.
said to be symmetric with respect to an axis
when the axis divides it into two symmetric lig-



POINTS BYMMETRIC WITH RESPECT TO A CENTRE.
ures. Two systems of points A,, B,, C,, . . . ., and
A,, B2, C,, . . . ., are said to be symmetric with
respect to a centre 0 when all lines A1 A,, B1 B,,
C1 C,, .. . ., are bisected by O.


BY MMETRICAL TRIA NGLES.
Two figures are said to be symmetric with re-
spect to a centre when their systems of points
are symmetric with respect to that centre. E.g.
in the figure triangles A1 B1 C1, A2 B2 C2 are sym-
metric with respect to 0.
Figures of three dimensions besides being sym-
metric with respect to an axis or a centre may be
symmetric with respect to a plane. E.g. the sphere
is symmetric with respect to its centre, with re-
spect to any diameter as axis, and with respect
to any diametrical plane as a plane of sym-
nietry. Symmetric polyhedral angles may be con-
sidered as quasi-congruent, and are such as have
their dihedral angles equal, and the plane angles ‘
of their faces also equal, but arranged in reverse
order.
Thus, in the following figure, V and V’ are sym-
metric trihedral angles, the letters showing the
reserve arrangement. Opposite polyhedral angles
are such that each is formed by producing the
edges and faces of the other through the vertex,
SYMME-TRY.
SYMO NDS.
413
and are symmetric. The theory of symmetric
figures is closely related to that of similarity
(q.v.) .

/
W
0‘
/1
V


OPPOSITE POLYHE-
DRAL ANGLES.
BYMMETBIO POLYHEDRAL
ANGLES.
In algebra, an algebraic function is said to be
symmetric with respect to certain letters when
these letters can be interchanged without chang-
ing the form of the expression. E.g. av’-1- 2a:y
+ y2 is symmetric as to ac and y, because if a:
and y are interchanged it becomes y“’ + 2yr + ac”,
which is the same as the original expression.
A knowledge of symmetry and homogeneity
(q.v.) is of great value in factoring. E.g. to
factor f(w,.i/,5) = w(y‘°'—z3) + y(s3—w") +
e(a;8 — y“). The expression vanishes for at : y,
hence ac-—y is a factor by the remainder the-
orem (q.v.) . But f(a:,y,z) is symmetric with re-
spect to a>,y,z, therefore y-2, z—ac, are also
factors. And f(ac, y, 2*) being homogeneous of
the fourth degree, it must contain another factor
of the first degree; but such a homogeneous sym-
metric factor can be at + y + a only. Whence the
literal factors are w—y, y——z, e——a:, a:+y
+ z. On algebraic symmetry consult Beman and
Smith, Elements of Algebra (Boston, 1900).
SYMMETRY. The general tendency in ani-
mals toward a symmetrical arrangement of parts.
Thus man is bilaterally symmetrical, i.e. the
external parts or limbs are arranged in pairs
on each side of his body. So with the annelid
worms, the lobster, centipede, and scorpion. On
the other hand, this symmetry is wanting in
some of the internal organs—those which are
single. Haeckel has elaborated a scheme of
fundamental forms of which the following is a
summary.
(1) Anawial or symmetrical forms, with no
fixed central point or definite axis (many Pro-
tozoa and most sponges).
(2) Homamial or spherical animals have the
fundamental shape of a sphere, the parts of the
body being arranged concentrically around a fixed
central point (a few spherical Protozoa, chiefly
Radiolaria) .
( 3) Monawial o-r Radial Symmetry. In
polyps, owing to their becoming fixed in larval
life, the digestive canal opens upward, the parts
being arranged around the single or main axis,
radiating from it. In cross-section the radial
symmetry is seen to be very marked. The parts
are like reéntering wedges and were called by
Agassiz spheromeres (coelenterates and echino-
derms).
(4) Bilateral Symmetry. Here the parts are
symmetrically arranged on each side of the main
or sagittal axis
vertebrates) .
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SEGMENTATTON.
( annelid worms, arthropods, ‘1-
~ "duli Libellus (1884).
This -
is due to the division of the body into segments,
indicated externally by infoldings of the integu-
mcnt (annelids, tapeworms, arthropods). The
external signs of segmentation may be effaced or
wanting. Thus in man the body is segmented
only internally; in the lancelet the muscles are
arranged segmentally and can be seen on the out-
side of the body. In the annelid worms (earth-
worm, etc.) not only is the body segmented
externally, bearing setae or parapodia on each
segment, but the nerve-ganglia, nephridia or
segmental organs, the vascular arches or trans-
verse arteries, and the septa of the body, i.e. the
partitions between the segments, are repeated
metamerically.
HOMONOMOUS AND HETEROMEROUS SEGMENTA-
TION. The earthworm, the galley-worm (Julus),
and the centipedes afford examples where the
trunk-segments are for the most part alike in
size and appearance, and bear similar locomotive
setae or jointed appendages. In most crustacea
and insects, as well as in the higher vertebrates,
‘heteronomy’ prevails. Homonomy is character-
istic of the more primitive forms, heteronomy
of later more specialized types. Thus the trans-
fer of parts headwards in crabs (cephalization),
due to the excessive development of certain of
the head segments and the atrophy of those be-
hind, brings about a decided irregularity in the
size and shape of the segments. Heteronomy is
thus accompanied by a division of physiological
labor due to the specialization of the seg-
ments and their appendages. It is owing to
the hypertrophy of certain segments and partial
or total reduction and even in some cases loss of
segments or portions of segments, with their ap-
pendages, that the varied forms of arthropods
are produced. Consult Haeckel, Generelle Mor-
phologie (Berlin, 1866).
SYMONDS, sim’ondz or si’mondz, JOHN AD-
DINGTON (1840-93). An English critic and lit-
erary historian, born at Bristol. From Harrow
he passed to Balliol College, Oxford, where he
graduated with distinction, winning the Newdi-
gate prize, with a poem on The Escorial (1860),
and a fellowship at Magdalen College (1862).
He began the study of law, which ill health
compelled him to abandon. He settled at
Clifton and began literary work in earnest.
Subsequently he passed much time on the
Continent, and for several years lived at
Davos, in Switzerland. Our Life in the Swiss
Highlands (1891) tells charmingly of his moun-
tain home. He died in Rome. Symonds’s repu-
tation rests mainly on The History of the Italian
Renaissance (7 vols., 1875-86), and the excel-
lent translations of the Vita di Benuenuto Cel-
lini (1887 ) and the Sonnets of Michelangelo and
C’a/mpanella (1878). Other striking books are
the Introduction to the Study of Dante (1872),
Essays, Speculative and Suggestive (1890), In
the Key of Blue (1893), and Walt Whitman
(1893) . Symonds also contributed to the “Eng-
lish Men of Letters” good lives of Shelley (1878)
and of Sir Philip Sidney (1886). Besides all
these and much other miscellaneous work, he
composed a considerable body of verse, admirable
in technique, but wanting in inspiration. This
includes Many Moods (1878); New and Old
(1880); Animi Figura (1882); and Vagabun-
Both his verse and his
prose show the thorough interpenetration of his
SYMO NDS.
SYMPTOM.
414
nature by the culture and the ideals of the Re-
naissance period with which he was so familiar.
He was celebrated as a fascinating conversation-
alist ; Stevenson, who passed some time at Davos
with him, has commemorated him in the essay
on “Talk and Talkers” in Memories and Por-
traits, under the name~of Opalstein. Consult
also the biography by Brown (London, 1895).
SYMON S, sim'onz, ARTHUR (1865—). An
English essayist and verse writer, born in Wales.
He attended several private schools and traveled
in France and in Italy. He has written for the
Athenceum and the Saturday Review, and was
editor of the short-lived Savoy (1896). As a
literary critic, Symons is seen at his best in
Studies in Two Literatures (1897 ), dealing with
contemporary English and French writers. These
essays possess a charm and finish recalling
Walter Pater. Symons has published An
Introduction to the Study of Browning (1886)
and The Symbolist Movement in Literature
(1899). He has produced a body of graceful
and tender verse in Days and Nights (1889);
Silhouettes (1892); London Nights (1895);
Amoris Victima (1897); and Images of Good
and Evil (1900), all showing a marked influence
of the recent school of French Symbolists. Two
volumes of poems (1902) contain, with some
new verses, all he wished to preserve from earlier
volumes.
SYMPATHY (Lat. sympathia, from Gk.
ev,mrd0aa, sympatheia, fellow-feeling, sympathy,
from o-up.-1ra0ns, sympathés, having like feeling,
sympathetic, from 0'61/, syn, together -1- rrddos,
pathos, feeling). In its broade.GL sense, the re-
production in one’s self of a particular condition
(physiological, psychophysical, or psychological)
presented by other living creatures in one’s per-
ceptual or ideal environment. In genetic psy-
chology, sympathy is a form of ejective or social
consciousness, based ultimately upon a group of
organic sensations (q.v.) . The motor attitude
assumed by gregarious animals in defense of their
kind is different from the attitude adopted under
the influence of personal fear. When conscious-
ness becomes representative, and free ideas are
formed (see IDEA), the sense-basis of the former
attitude is associated with ideas of others’ suf-
fering and rescue, that of the latter with ideas of
one’s own danger, safety, escape, etc. This is the
stage of sympathetic consciousness proper. In
general psychology, sympathy is one of the great
emotional types, covering such different individ-
ual emotions as love, anger, contempt, aversion,
chagrin, resentment, etc. (See EMOTION ;
ANGER.) For the ethical importance of sym-
pathy, see ALTRUISM, and the references there
given. See also ANTIPATHY.
SYMPETALE. One of the two great groups
of dicotyledons (q.v.).
SYMPHONY ( Lat. symphonia, from Gk.
o-u,u¢wvla, unison of sound, harmony, from mie-
¢wv0S, symphiinos, agreeing in sound, harmonious,
from 0611, syn, together + ¢om5, phone’, sound,
voice). In music, a word used in two different
senses: (1) The instrumental introduction and
termination of a vocal composition, sometimes
called ritornello; (2) a composition for a full
orchestra, consisting generally of four move-
ments. The most usual though not unvarying
order of movements is a brilliant allegro, ushered
in by a slow introduction, an adagio or andante,
a scherzo with its trio, and the finale, again an
allegro. For the origin of the modern symphony
we must go back to the beginnings of opera
early in the seventeenth century, when the name
Sinfon/ia was given to the short instrumental
prelude which preceded the opera. The early his-
tory of the symphony is, therefore, that of the
overture (q.v.) . About the middle of the eight-
eenth century composers began to write separate
sinfonie exclusively for concert performance.
The three parts of the older overture, which
had then only a loose connection, were entirely
detached and became separate movements. Haydn
introduced a fourth movement, the minuet (q.v.) ,
which he inserted before the finale. He also
adopted for the first movement the sonata form
(q.v.). By individualizing the separate instru-
ments and grouping them in families Haydn
also established the symphony orchestra and thus
made the symphony what it is to-day. Beethoven
extended the form considerably, particularly
the development section of the first movement,
and also replaced the minuet by the more elab-
orate scherzo (q.v.). Beethoven also increased
the orchestra considerably. (See ORCHESTRA.)
SYMPLEGADES, sim-pleg’a-dez (Lat., from
Gk. Ev/.t1r)on/¢i6es, that strike together, from
o'vu1rMo-sew, symple'ssein, to strike together, from
adv, syn, together + 1r)\1ja-sew, plessein, to strike).
Two mythical floating islands in the Pontus
Euxinus, which dashed against each other until
they became fixed when the Argo made its way
between them. See ARGONAUTS.
SYMPOSIUM (Lat., from Gk. Zv,u.1r6c'&ov,
banquet). (1) A philosophical treatise by
Xenophon, discussing the nature of love and
friendship, and depicting the character of
Socrates, who is one of the speakers. The meet-
ing place is the house of the Athenian Callias.
The work conveys a good idea of the conduct of
an Athenian drinking party. (2) A dialogue
by Plato, intended probably as a corrective of
the similar work of Xenophon. Its subject is the
nature of love. Its scene is the house of the poet
Agathon, and Socrates and Alcibiades are among
the speakers.
SYMPTOM (from Gk. m5,um-w,aa, sympt6ma,
chance, mischance, symptom, from o-va1r£1r1-cw
sympiptein, to‘ fall in with, happen, coincide,
from 0611, syn, together + irlvrrew, piptein, to
fall). A medical term denoting a phenomenon
by which a physician judges of the presence of
disease. A group, or syndrome, of symptoms en-
ables the physician to judge directly of the
nature of and to identify the disease, or to decide
upon the lesions or morbid tissue changes, and
then determine what disease is present. This
decision is called a diagnosis. (See PATHOLOGY.)
Symptoms are objective, including those perceived
by the physician and found upon examination,
such as heart murmurs, rise of temperature, etc.;
or subjective, including those perceived only by
the patient, as pain, ringing in the ears, etc.
Symptoms are termed pathognomonic when
they are sure signs of a certain disease; e.g.
the syndrome of occipital headache, severe pain
in the orbits, acute nasal catarrh, rheumatoid
pains in joints and muscles, and great prostra-
tion is almost always pathognomonic of the
grippe-
SYNAGO GUE.
SYNAGO G-UE.
415
SYNAGOGUE (Gk. o'vva'yw'yr'), synagoge, as-
sembly, collection, from ovvdxyew, synagein, to
bring together, from mfv, syn, together + dyew,
agein, to lead; translation of Heb. b<§th-hak-
keneseth, the house of assembly). The name
applied to the place of assembly used by Jewish
communities primarily for public worship. The
origin of this institution is probably to be traced
to the period of the Babylonian captivity, when
religious needs in the absence of an official cult
could only be satisfied by private assemblies for
religious communion. The example set during
the Babylonian Exile led to the establishment
of synagogues in Palestine after the days of
Ezra, and with the impetus then given to the
study of the law a further factor was intro-
duced which encouraged the institution of assem-
bly-houses for prayer and study. Although ex-
press notices of the synagogues are not found in
the literature till the last century B.C., all indica-
tions point to their existence in the towns and
even villages of Palestine at the time of the
Maccabees.
Synagogues were erected from the common
funds or free gifts of the community and sup-
ported by taxes and donations. Regarding their
architecture it would appear that in Palestine the
Greeco-Roman model of public buildings was fol-
lowed, though with some essential modifications.
Abundant ornamentation was a feature both of
the exterior and interior. The larger synagogues
were divided by rows of pillars into several aisles
and some had porticoes in front. In later times
in Europe the Romanesque style was adopted,
and in more modern times Moorish architecture
is frequently chosen as a model. Little is known
of any special law respecting the construction of
these buildings, save that the faces of the wor-
shipers should be directed toward Jerusalem;
that, in accordance with the verse in the Psalms,
there should be a slight descent of a step or two
on entering the edifice; that the building should
stand, if feasible, on a slightly elevated ground,
or be somehow or other made visible from afar.
Within at the extreme eastern end was the holy
ark, or chest (tebah) containing several copies of
the Pentateuch, from which the periodical read-
ings were chanted. In front of this was the
stand of the public reader of the prayers, not far
from which was suspended the everlasting lamp.
On a raised platform in the middle of the syna-
gogue was the place of the reader or preacher.
The women, who were not counted as members of
the congregation, sat separated from the men.
The affairs of the synagogue were administered
by a board of ‘ancients’ or ‘elders.’ at whose
head stood a chief or principal (R/osh hakkene-
seth, arehisynagogos). The ‘chief’ was not a
scribe, though taking rank immediately after
the scribes. The officiating minister, whose office
it was to recite the prayers aloud, was called
shéliachsibbar, messenger of the community.
The chazean had general charge of the sacred
place and its books and implements. He had to
present the scroll to the reader, received it back
after the reading was finished, rolled up the scroll
and deposited it in the chest, and it was he who
announced the advent of the Sabbath or of a holy
day from the roof of the synagogue with a thrice
repeated trumpet-blast. During the week-days
he had to teach the children of the town or vil-
lage. He had to be initiated by a solemn im-
position of hands. The name of chazedn, how-
ever, at a later period, came to designate the
officiating minister, and it has retained that
meaning until this day. Almoners or deacons,
who collected or distributed the alms, possibly
the same as the batlanim or ‘idle men,’ whose
office in relation to the synagogue cannot be ex-
actly determined now, but who had always to be
ready for the purpose of making up the requisite
number of ten worshipers, were further attached
to the general body of officials. The third, sixth,
and ninth hours of the day were the times ap-
pointed for daily worship; the more special days
were ‘Monday and Thursday, when the judges sat,
and the villagers came to town, and Saturday, on
which the forms of some of the prayers were
altered according to the occasion.
The reading from the Scriptures, though in
Hebrew, was coupled in the synagogues of Pales-
tine and Babylonia with a translation or para-
phrase in the current Aramaic idiom, and pre-
sumably in the synagogues of Egypt a Greek
translation was employed, but the chief prayers
were always pronounced in Hebrew, though the
Talmud admits the use of other languages in
worship. Besides the prayers and the readings, a
feature of early synagogue worship was the ex-
position of the law or of the lesson of the day
by a competent person. In course of time a
more elaborate liturgy developed. The oldest
complete ritual, known as siddur (‘arrange-
ment’), dates from the year AD. 880, and was
compiled by a Rabbi Amram. In the liturgy as
finally evolved two distinct elements are dis-
cernible: the Shema‘ (‘Hear, O Israel,’ etc.), be-
ing a collection of the three passages, Deuteron-
omy vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and numbers xv. 37-41,
expressive of the unity of God and of His govern-
ment over Israel, put together without any ex-
traneous addition; and the Téphillrth or prayer,
consisting of a certain number of supplications,
with a hymnal introduction and conclusion, fol-
lowed by the priestly blessing. The single por-
tions of this prayer gradually increased to eight-
een and the prayer itself received the name of
Shém6n/ah ‘esheh (eighteen). For a long time the
prayers were recited only by the reader, the peo-
ple joining in silent responses and amens. These
readers by degrees—chie'fly from the tenth cen-
tury—introduced occasional prayers of their own,
and ultimately religious doctrine, history, saga,
angelology, and mysticism, interspersed with
biblical verses, are found put together in a
mosaic of the most original and fantastic, often
grand and brilliant, often obscure and feeble
kind. The ritual differed in different countries.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century a
movement began in Germany for the reform of
the ritual and gradually spread to other coun-
tries. At first the changes consisted in the
shortening of certain prayers, the omission of
others and the introduction of German, English,
or French by the side of the Hebrew.
The synagogues contributed more than any-
thing else to the steadfast adherence of the peo-
ple to their religion and liberty as long as there
was any possibility of keeping both intact. At
the same time they gradually undermined the
priestly and aristocratic element that gathered
around the temple, its gorgeous worship and
kingly revenues. Their importance as a place of
SYN AGO GUE.
SYNCRE-TISM.
416
instruction as well as a place of worship was
of profound influence on the development of
Judaism. Both primary and advanced instruc-
tion in the Scriptures and subsequently in Tal-
mudic literature was given in the synagogue, and
in the early centuries of the Christian Era legal
decisions were likewise announced there. The
synagogue could also be used as the place of
mourning for prominent members of the com-
munity, and there are instances on record of the
use of synagogues for political gatherings. In
Babylonia travelers were accommodated in the
synagogue and ate their Sabbath meals there.
In view of these various uses to which the syna-
gogue was put, it is not surprising that it be-
came in the Middle Ages the centre of the re-
ligious and intellectual life of the Jews and in
a measure of their social life as well. The ‘re-
form’ movement within Judaism as well as the
extension of the intellectual interests of the
Jews has resulted in narrowing the influence
and scope of the synagogue to purely religious
affairs, though in orthodox Jewish communities
in Eastern Europe and in the Orient the former
status of the synagogue is still in large meas-
ure maintained.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Schiirer, History of the Jew-
ish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng.
trans., London, 1886-90); Abrahams, Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1896);
Griitz, History of the Jews, vol. i. (Eng. trans.,
ib., 1893). For the ritual, Leopold Low, Der
synagogale Ritus (Gesammelte Schriften, vol. iv.,
Szegedin, 1889); Dembitz, Jewish Services in
Synagogue and Home (Philadelphia, 1899);
Zunz, Der Ritus synagogalen G’-ottesdienstes,
geschichtlich entwickelt (Berlin, 1855-59); a
complete English translation of the Portuguese
ritual may be found in Lesser’s Prayer-book
(Philadelphia, 1845); and a translation of the
German ritual in Sachs’s Machsar (Berlin,
1866).
SYNAG-OGUE, THE GREAT (Heb. hakkene-
seth hagge'do'l<ih). An alleged assembly or
synod, said to have been founded and presided
over by Ezra and to have controlled the national
and religious fortunes of the Jews after the re-
turn from Babylon, c.450-200 B.O. Its mem-
bership is generally given as 120, but sometimes
as 80. The palpable chronological discrepancies
that occur in the early accounts about this synod,
together with other doubtful points, have led
modern scholars to deny its existence. It is not
mentioned by Josephus or the Apocrypha and is
only twice referred to in the Mishna (Pirke
Aboth I., 1 and 2). Even according to the Tal-
mudical notices the ‘great synagogue’ continued
only for a single generation. According to these
notices the men of the great synagogue secured
the acceptance of certain books of the Old Testa-
ment (Proverbs, Canticles, Ecclesiastes); they
promoted the work of copying the Torah, de-
voted themselves to the perfection of a daily
ritual, and introduced certain changes into the
Old Testament text in order to\avoid misunder-
standings. The notion that they collected the
books of the Old Testament and fixed the canon
had no authority in the Talmud, and indeed does
not arise till the sixteenth century. Kuenen has
traced the origin of the name to the ‘great as-
sembly’ which is described in Nehemiah viii.-x.
This assembly was of a popular character, and no
doubt marked an epoch in the history of post-
exilic Judaism. An uncritical age made of this
‘assembly’ a permanent institution and attributed
to it the various steps taken in the natural un-
folding of that phase of Rabbinical Judaism
which came to a temporary close when the canon
of the Old Testament was definitely established.
While some scholars (notably D. Hoifmann of
Berlin) still cling to the traditional view, Kuenen’s
results have been accepted by the great majority.
Consult his essay in Gesammelte Abhandlungen,
pp. 125-160 (Freiburg, 1894); Hofi'mann’s reply
will be found in the Magazin f-iir die Wissen-
schaft des Judenthums, vol. x. (1883), pp. 45-63.
See also L. Krauss, “The Great Synod,” in the
Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x. (1898), pp.
347-377 .
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS. See Drnnmc
ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
SYNCLINE (from Gk. o'vw<7\ivew, synhlinein,
to lean together, from miv, syn, together +
Khlvecv, hlinein, to lean). A term used in
geology for the structure formed by the bend-
ing of strata into a basin of downward fold, the
limbs of the fold dipping toward each other and
meeting at a line called the synclinal axis.
Where the strata dip downward from all sides a
peculiar type of syncline arises, known as a
geologic basin; in this case the synclinal axis is
reduced to a point. The syncline, structurally, is
the complement of the anticline (q.v.). See
GEOLOGY.
SYNCOPATION (from Lat. syncopatus, p.p.
of syncopare, to syncopate, from syneope, from
Gk. o-wxoirii, synkope, a cutting short, from av’)/—
K61r'rew, synlcoptein, to abridge, from o-ziv, syn,
together + K61r'rew, koptein, to out). In music.
the joining together of two similar notes by
means of a tie, so that the accent intended to fall
on the second (strong beat) comes on the first
(weak beat). The effect produced is that of con-
tra-tempo. The following example is from Bee-
thoven’s overture “Lenora No. 3:”
é&fiQfiAA

The effect of syncopation can also be produced
by merely shifting the accent by means of sf
marks (Eroica Symphony, Scherzo) :
52> >
.
' 'r E? ' ,. 4 1
F l—Wm E-’ A —'.
F J -' 6? l
g i sf sf ' > i
The North American Indians made extensive
use of syncopation, and in this were followed by
the Southern negroes. In fact, the music of
nearly every savage or semi-civilized nation shows
traces of syncopated rhythm.
SYNCOPE. See FAINTING.
SYNCRETISM (from Gk. o'v'y!cp17'rw';i6s, syn-
krétis/mos, combination against a common enemy,
from o-v'y|cpm-l§'ew, synkrétizein, to combine
against a common enemy, apparently from cniv,
syn, together + xpirrlgtiv, hriétizein, to act like a
Cretan, from Kpfis, Kres, Cretan). A term used:
(1) in ancient times, politically, to designate
the Cretan custom of disregarding all internal
dissensions whenever a controversy with a for-
F)"f'F'
SYNCRETISM.
SYNONYM.
417
eign country occurred; (2) in the sixteenth cen-
tury, philosophically, to denote the efforts made
to reconcile opposing systems; (3) in the seven-
teenth century theologically, first by Pereus in
his Irenicon, and afterwards to describe the views
of Calixtus and his followers, who sought to heal
the schism in the Church by making the tradi-
tions of the first five centuries of equal authority
with the Bible, and by adopting the Apostles’
Creed as the common basis of all Christian de-
nominations and a sufficient definition of true
Christianity.
SYN DIG (from Lat. synclicus, from Gk. etu-
ducos, syndihos, advocate, public ofiicer, from
adv, syn, together + 6007, dike, justice, law,
right). A name which has at different times and
in different countries been given to various
municipal and other officers. In Geneva the chief
magistrate was formerly called the syndic. The
syndics of cities in France, under the old régime,
were oflicers delegated by the municipality as
agents or mandatories; the various trading com-
panies in Paris and the university had also their
syndics; and in the University of Cambridge the
same name is applied to members of special com-
mittees of members of the senate appointed by
grace from time to time for specific duties. In
ltaly the mayors of towns are called syndics.
SYNERGISM (from Gk. o-vvem/ta, srynergia,
coiiperation, from o'vvep'y6$, synergos, co6pera-
tive, from aziv, syn, together -|- é'p')/ov, ergon,
work) . The name given to a doctrine of theology
which teaches that in the work of conversion
the will of man is not wholly passive, but
can coiiperate, through consent, with the-Divine
Spirit. In the time of the Reformation Melanch-
then and his school were inclined to this view,
while the strict Lutherans opposed it and charged
its advocates with favoring Pelagianism (q.v.).
In 1557 and later the question was hotly dis-
cussed, Pfeflinger and Strigel taking the lead on
the Synergistic side, Flacius and Amsdorf (qq.v.)
on the opposite. The VVittenberg divines in gen-
eral favored the doctrine, the Mansfield divines
opposed it. Finally it was condemned in 1580
in the third article of the Formula of Concord.
See CoNooRD, Boox or.
SYNE’SIUS (Lat., from Gk. Zvvéaiosg
(c.370-‘2). A Neo-Platonic philosopher an
Christian bishop. He studied philosophy in
Alexandria, under Hypatia, to whom he was ever
warmly devoted, and his life well illustrates the
combination of Neo-Platonism and Christianity
so characteristic of the fourth century. For
three years (397-400) he served as envoy at the
court of Arcadius, in Constantinople, where he
won popularity and influence. His famous speech
On Kingship was delivered in the Emperor’s
presence, and was a bold discussion of the duties
and frailties of monarchs. Synesius was made
Bishop of Ptolemais in 410, against his own de-
sire, and with the apparent stipulation that he
should not be obliged to give up his wife or his
philosophy. He administered his see with con-
scientious fidelity, notwithstanding the fact that
his personal tastes were far from ecclesiastical.
Neither the time nor the place of his death is
known. Synesius’s writings include about 150
letters; Egyptian Tales, or on Providence, a sort
of historical allegory defending the idea of a
providential government of the world; a defense
of the philosophic life, entitled Dio (after Dio
Chrysostom) ; a humorous work, called Praise of
Baldness, suggested by Dio’s Praise of H air ,' and
ten Hymns, which are partly pagan and partly
Christian. His general theological point of view
and his distinctive characteristics are well
brought out in Charles Kingsley’s novel, H ypatia,
in which Synesius figures. For his works, con-
sult: Migne, Patrologia Graeca, lxvi. In gen-
eral, consult: Glover, Life and Letters in the
Fourth Century (Cambridge, 1901); Druon,
Etudes sur la vie et les oeuvres de Synésius
(Paris, 1859); Volkmann, Synesius von Oyrene
(Berlin, 1869).
SYNOD (Lat. synodus, from Gk. 01590501",
assembly, meeting, coming together, from (Tliv,
syn, together + 666:, hodos, way, road). A term
applied almost exclusively to ecclesiastical as-
semblies convoked for the discussion and decision
of ecclesiastical affairs. Synods or church coun-
cils are of five kinds: Ecumenical, general,
national, provincial, and diocesan or local.
By the law of the Roman Catholic Church the
decrees of a national or provincial synod must
be submitted to the Pope, and unless confirmed
by him, or at least suffered to pass for two years
without condemnation, are not held to be valid.
The term synod has been preserved to describe
courts in the Presbyterian system of church gov-
ernment which rank above the presbytery and the
synod either is subordinate to a General Assembly
or is itself the supreme court of the Church. The
courts above the classes in the Dutch and Ger-
man Reformed churches are called synods. In
the organization of the Lutheran churches the
synod is the highest representative body. Two
of the Eastern churches have preserved the synod.
The Holy Governing Synod of All the Russias is
the highest ecclesiastical authority for the estab-
lished Church of the Russian Empire. It con-
sists of several metropolitans and other prelates
and oflicials—the Chief Procurator of the synod
representing the Czar. It was instituted by
Peter the Great in 1721, to take over the juris-
diction formerly exercised by the Patriarch of
Moscow. The orthodox national Church of the
Kingdom of Greece is also governed by a synod
of archbishops and bishops independent of the
jurisdiction of any patriarch. For other con-
ciliar organizations, see COUNCIL.
SYNODIC ( Lat. synodicus, from Gk. am1o6¢-
xés, synodihos, relating to a conjunction, from
mivodos, synodos, assembly, meeting, coming to-
gether). In astronomy, the epithet applied to
the period of time which elapses between two
successive conjunctions (q.v.) of a planet with
the sun, as seen from the earth. In the case of
the moon, the synodic period is therefore the time -
elapsing between two successive new moons. See
1\IooN.
SYNONYM ( Lat. synonymum, from Gk. cumb-
vvpnov, syncinymon, neu. sg. of o'v1/cévvuos, syno'ny-
mos, having the same name or meaning, from
etv, syn, together-F 6:10/.m., onoma, name). A
word which nearly coincides in meaning with an-
other, as clear, transparent; bright, limpid ; fair,
cloudless; serene, plain; lucid, perspicuous;
patent, obvious; visible, evident. There is,
however, in nearly every case a slight indi-
vidual shade of meaning in each synonym. The
development of synonyms is one first of con-
vergence and then of divergence. That is,
the meanings are originally quite distinct.
SYN ON YM.
SYN OVITIS.
418
In the course of semasiological evolution, how-
ever (see SEMASIOLOGY), the particular words
which tend to become synonymous overlap in
meaning. This process may then continue till
the words become identical in meaning. In this
case the result is suppression of one of the terms,
either complete, or, less usually, partial. The
latter process gives the so-called suppletive or
composite inflection, illustrated in such English
verbs as am, be, was, or go, went, in which verb-
roots originally distinct have coalesced. If, on
the other hand, synonyms do not become identical,
they tend to become so specialized in meaning
with respect to each other that they not only
retain for the most part their original distinc-
tions, but frequently develop others. The main
stylistic use of synonyms is to give variety and
accuracy of diction. One of the criteria of ex-
cellence of a language is its synonyms, and herein
English ranks as one of the foremost tongues.
Consult, for English synonyms: Roget, Thesaurus
of English Words (new ed., London, 1883);
Soule, Dictionary of English Synonyms (new ed.,
Philadelphia, 1895) ; Crabbe, English Synonyms
(new ed., New York, 1891) ; Smith, Synonyms
Discriminated (4th ed., London, 1890).
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE and FLUID
(from Neo-Lat. synovialis, from synovia, lubri-
cating fluid secreted by a synovial membrane,
so called because it resembles the white of an
egg, from Gk. 0151), syn, together + Lat. ovum,
egg). In every joint in which a considerable
range of motion is required, the osseous segments
(or contiguous extremities of bones) are sep-
arated by a space, which is called the cavity of
the joint. The end of each of the bones enter-
ing into the composition of the joint is incrusted
by a layer of articular cartilage adapted to its
form, and the entire cavity of the joint is lined
by a delicate membrane, which is termed the
synovial membrane, which secretes a peculiar
viscid matter, termed synovia, or synovial fluid,
for the purpose of lubricating the inner surface.
Being a serous membrane, a synovial membrane
is always a closed bag, like the pleura, for ex-
ample, with an attached and a free surface, the
latter being smooth and moist. The minute
structure of a synovial membrane is much the
same as that of serous membranes elsewhere.
(See HISTOLOGY.) A very simple form of sync-
vial membrane—anatomically known as a bursa
—-is employed to facilitate the gliding of a tendon
of a muscle or of the integument over a projec-
tion of bone. It consists of a bag connected by
areolar tissue with the neighboring parts, and
secreting a fluid in its interior. These bags are
sometimes prolonged into synovial sheaths, which
surround long tendons, such as those of the
flexor and extensor muscles of the fingers and
toes. In felon (q.v.), when inflammation extends
to one of the sheaths, and gives rise to the forma-
tion of adhesions, the motion of the inclosed
tendon is destroyed, and a permanently stiff fin-
ger is the result. See SYNOVITIS.
The synovial fluicl, or synovia, consists of water
holding in solution mucin, albumen, fat, and
inorganic salts. Excessive movement diminishes
its amount, makes it more inspissated, and in-
creases the mucin, but diminishes the salts.
SYNOVITIS (Neo-Lat., from synovia, lubri-
cating fluid secreted by a synovial membrane).
Inflammation of a synovial membrane. Although
inflammatory processes involving joints frequent-
ly start in an inflammation of the synovial mem-
brane, they rarely confine themselves to this
membrane, but spread to and involve the sur-
rounding tissues. It is for this reason that,
especially in discussing the pathology of joints,
the term synovitis, which properly means inflam-
mation of the synovial membrane only, has been
displaced by the term arthritis, which signifies
inflammation of the joint in general, including
the synovial membrane.
ACUTE ARTHRITIS is usually an exudative in-
flammation and may be serous, sero-fibrinous, or
suppurative in character. In serous arthritis
there is congestion of the synovial membrane
with a serous exudate into the joint cavity. With
the subsidence of the inflammation the serum
may be absorbed and the joint return to its
normal condition, or, becoming infected, may pass
on to suppuration. The acuteness of the con-
dition may pass oif and the joint go on to a
chronic inflammation. In sero-fibrinous arthritis
there is in addition to the serum more or less
fibrin in the joint cavity. Suppurative arthritis
is an infectious condition due to the presence of
bacteria. The exudate is purulent, while the
synovial membrane is usually thickened, dull,
and infiltrated with pus cells. Suppurative ar-
thritis is apt to accompany or follow some one
of the infectious diseases, as e.g. pyaemia, puer-
peral fever, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, diphtheria,
and scarlet fever. Acute rheumatic arthritis or
acute articular rheumatism is usually an exu-
dative inflammation in which the exudate is se-
rous in character and in which there is a suc-
cessive involvement of different joints.
Cnnonrc ARTHRITIS. The most important forms
of chronic arthritis are simple chronic arthritis,
arthritis deformans, rheumatic arthritis, gouty
arthritis, and tubercular arthritis. In simple
chronic arthritis there is a serous exudation into
the joint cavity; the synovial membrane is thick-
ened, pale, and rough. The exudate may be clear,
thin, and watery, or may be cloudy and thick
from the presence of minute particles of fibrin,
O O
‘I 11
or of lymphoid or endothelrar cells.
m A ,.......---...L
.l..J.1U GLUUHIIU
of fluid is sometimes large and may result in
rupture of the joint capsule or in so separating
the joint surfaces that dislocations occur. In
that peculiar form of chronic inflammation of
the joints known as arthritis deformans there is
a combination of destruction of parts of the
joint with new bone formation which leads to
extensive deformities. The joints most commonly
involved are those of the fingers, hips, knees, and
feet. In gouty arthritis there is a deposit of
urates in and about the joints. These deposits
take place in the cartilages and in the connective
tissue and in the ligaments around the joints or
even in the subcutaneous tissue. The deposit
may be in the form of crystals or of whitish con-
cretions. In tubercular arthritis the lesion is
that of a tubercular inflammation modified by
the nature of the tissues in which the inflamma-
tion occurs. The process may originate in the
joint, but more frequently represents an extension
to the joint of tubercular inflammation of the
bones. Tubercular arthritis is always charac-
terized by the growth of tubercle tissue in and
about the joint. Like tubercle tissue in other
parts of the body, this tissue may vary in char-
acter; and, dependent upon these variations, sev-
eral types of tubercular arthritis are recognized.
SYNOVITIS.
SYNTHESIS.
419
In some cases the most marked feature of the
tubercular process is the degeneration of the
tubercle tissue and of the adjacent joint struc-
tures with the formation of ulcers. This is
known as the ulcerative form of the disease. In
other cases the growth of granulation tissue is
very extensive and the name ‘fungous’ is ap-
plied to this form of the disease. In still others
extensive suppuration occurs, pus being present
in the joint cavity and in the surrounding tis-
sues. This is designated suppurative tubercular
arthritis. The tubercular process frequently
spreads to and involves the bone, resulting in
extensive changes in the bones themselves. Tu-
bercular arthritis is usually slow in its progress.
The large joints are most frequently affected.
The amount of stiffness is dependent upon the
extent of the process. Tubercular arthritis may
occur as part of a general tubercular infection,
as secondary to other tubercular lesions, or, not
infrequently, is confined to a single joint with
no evidence of any tubercular condition in other
parts of the body.
Treatment of synovitis or arthritis depends
upon the cause. In the acute serous or sero-
fibrinous varieties, rest, alternate hot and cold
affusion, extension of the limb so as to separate
the surfaces, and exercise with the joint im-
movable, may be all that is necessary. In some
cases passive motion is desirable, to break up
adhesions, after prolonged rest in a splint. In
some exudative, especially in suppurative cases,
the joint is aspirated and the fluid drawn off.
Rheumatic and gouty arthritis yields to the sali-
cylates, alkalies, lithia salts, or other internal
medicine used in rheumatism or gout. In tuber-
cular cases the joint is opened and the tubercular
nidus scooped out, or the joint is resected in
some instances. Deforming arthritis usually
leaves permanent deformities. Sometimes opera-
tive procedures, undertaken after the inflamma-
tion has ceased, will correct these deformities in
part. Consult Marsh, Diseases of the Joints and
Spine (London, 1895) ; “Joints, Diseases of,” in
Encyclopcedia Medica, vol. vi. (Edinburgh,
1900).
SYNTAX. A division of philology (q.v.).
SYNTAX, Freusns OF. Intentional deviations
from the ordinary construction of words. The
principal figures of syntax are as follows: Ana-
phora is the repetition of the same word or gram-
matical form at the beginning of several succes-
sive clauses, as ‘without tumult, without arms,
without harm or injury the insurrection was
quelled.’ Anastrophe consists of a transposition
of words, as rolled the thunder for the thunder
rolled, or ‘he travels earth around.’ Asyndeton
is the elipsis of a conjunction or connecting par-
ticle, as veni, vidi, vici, ‘I came, I saw, I con-
quered.’ Brachylogy is the use of a concise or
pregnant mode of expression, as ‘the eye of a
horse is bigger than an elephant,’ i.e. than (the
eye of) an elephant. Chiasmus is a cross-wise
arrangement of words, where the words of a
second and corresponding set are stated in in-
verse order to those of the first set, as ‘Begot by
butchers, but by bishops bred.’ Ellipsis is the
omission of a word or words necessary for the
construction of the sentence, but not essential
to its meaning. By means of ellipsis conciseness
and impressiveness are gained, and accordingly it
prevails in proverbs, as ‘More haste. less speed.’
or Ea; pede Herculem. Asyndeton is a special
form of ellipsis. Enallage is the substitution of
one part of speech, or of one inflectional form of
a word, for another, as ‘they fall successive and
successive rise.’ Epanastrophe is the repetition
of the end of a clause at the beginning of the
next, as ‘The mouse ran up the clock, the clock
struck one.’ Epiphora is the repetition of a word
or words at the end of successive clauses and
hence is the reverse of anaphora, as Laelius navus
erat, doctus erat. Epizeuxis is the emphatic
repetition of a word, as
“Alone, alone, all, all alone,
Alone on a wide, wide sea.”
Hendiadys or hendiadyoin is the use of two co-
ordinate words or phrases instead of an expres-
sion in which one qualifies the other gram-
matically, or, in other words, it is the presenta-
tion of one idea by means of two coordinate
words or phrases, as a ‘couch strewn with purple
and tapestry,’i.e. with purple tapestry, or armis
virisque, ‘with arms and men’ (i.e. armed men).
Hypallage is the use of one case for another, the
transference of an epithet from its proper sub-
ject to another, as Tyrrhenus tubce clangor, ‘the
Tyrrhenian clang of the trumpet,’ for Tyrrhence
tubce clangor, ‘the clang of the Tyrrhenian trum-
pet.’ Hyperbaton is the transposition of words
or clauses. An example of hyperbaton of clauses
is valet atque vivit, ‘he is well and alive,’ for
vivit atque valet, ‘he is alive and well.’ Plec-
nasm is the use of superfluous words, sometimes,
however, arising from a desire to secure strength,
as in the excessive use of the negative in conver-
sation, especially by uneducated persons or
by children. Polysyndeton is pleonasm in the
use of conjunctions and is the reverse of asynde-
ton. Prolepsis consists in introducing a word
in advance of its proper place, as ‘I know thee,
who thou art.’ Prolepsis also denotes the use
of an epithet before it is logically applicable,
as Scuta latentia condum, ‘they conceal their hid-
ing (or hidden) shields.’ Syllepsis is the agree-
ment of an adjective or verb with only one of
two or more subjects with which it is linked,
as rem et regina beati. Synesis is a construction
of words according to the sense conveyed by them
rather than by the strict requirements of gram-
matical rules, as ‘Philip went down to Samaria
and preached Christ unto them.’ Tmesis is the
separation of the parts of a word, as in Ennius’s
famous line, saaco cere comminuit brum, or, in
‘the love of God to us ward.’ Zeugma is the use
of a word in two or more connections, though,
strictly speaking, it is appliable to only one of
them.
SYNTHESIS (Lat. synthesis, from Gk. aliv-
0e<m, composition, combination, a putting to-
gether, from avvndévoa, syntithenai, to combine,
put together, from miv, syn, together + -r¢0ém,
tithenai, to put, place). In philosophy, a term
applied to the organic unity of different elements,
or to the process whereby such a unity is consti-
tuted. See ANALYSIS.
SYNTHESIS, CHEMICAL. The building up of
compounds from their elements. The synthetic
methods of chemistry are of the greatest impor-
tance in several respects. First, they may serve
to test the correctness of analyses, or even, in
certain cases, replace analytical methods alto-
gether. For example, if there were any doubt
as to water being composed of eight parts of
SYNTHESIS.
SYPHILIS.
420
oxygen and one of hydrogen, or if water could
not be analyzed at all, its exact composition
could be demonstrated by causing oxygen and
hydrogen to combine. In fact, it was the synthe-
sis of water by Cavendish that first indicated its
chemical nature and exact composition. (See
CHEMISTRY, historical section.) Secondly, syn-
thetic methods may, and very often do, serve to
reveal the complex chemical constitution of com-
pounds of carbon. It is explained under CARBON
COMPOUNDS (q.v.) that one of the basal princi-
ples employed in determining the constitution of
compounds is the assumption, itself well founded
on facts, that when a given compound undergoes
a moderate chemical change, the greater part of
each of its molecules remains unaffected: an
atom, or a group of atoms, may be replaced by
another, but the linking of the remaining atoms
is not changed. Thus, by the action of chlorine
on acetic acid, the latter may be gradually trans-
formed into mono-chloracetic acid, di-chloracetic
acid, and tri-chloracetic acid, one, two, or three
atoms of hydrogen in the molecule of acetic acid
being replaced by one, two, or three atoms of
chlorine; but the remaining atoms (carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen) are linked in the chlor-
acetic acids in the same manner as in acetic acid
itself. On this principle, the constitution of a
compound becomes known if it is produced by
synthesis from compounds of known constitution.
In this connection it may be well to observe that
the definition of the term synthesis must not be
taken to mean the production of compounds
from their elements directly. Thus, when it is
said that ordinary alcohol can be produced syn-
thetically, it does not mean that alcohol can be
made by the direct union of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. The synthesis of alcohol consists of the
following steps: carbon and hydrogen are caused
to unite into acetylene (q.v.) ; acetylene is caused
to unite with hydrogen into ethylene; ethylene is
caused to unite with sulphuric acid to form
ethyl-sulphuric acid; and the latter by reaction
with water yields alcohol. The two compounds
employed, viz. water and sulphuric acid, can also
be made by starting with their elements; and
so it may be said that ordinary alcohol can be
made with nothing to start with but elementary
substances, and this is what is meant by ‘the
synthesis of alcohol from its elements.’ Finally,
many synthetic processes have acquired great im-
portance industrially. In 1868 Graebe and Lie-
bermann built up by synthetical processes the
substance called alizarin (q.v.), which occurs
naturally in madder root, and which gives the
latter its chief value as a dye-stuff. This arti-
ficial alizarin is now made on an enormous scale
and has almost entirely displaced madder in
dyeing and calico-printing. In 1880 Adolf
Baeyer accomplished the synthesis of indigo. In
1887- Ladenburg succeeded in the synthesis of
coniine, C,,H,,N, the poisonous alkaloid found in
hemlock. Vanillin, the aromatic flavoring prin-
ciple of the vanilla bean, has been made arti-
ficially by several chemists. Antipyrin, a sub-
stance much used in medicine, and saccharin, a
substance several hundred times sweeter than
sugar, are entirely the products of synthesis.
Yet while most of the known carbon compounds
can be produced synthetically, some of the most
important organic substances, including the pro-
teins and many carbohydrates, still remain un-
synthesized, and hence but imperfectly under-
stood, and must still be obtained ready-made
from nature. The synthetic methods employed
in the preparation of a large number of carbon
compounds are mentioned under the special
names of those compounds. For further informa-
tion, consult: Berthelot, La synthe‘se chimique
(Paris, 1876; Ger, trans., Leipzig, 1877) ; Louise,
S3/nthese d’hydrocarbures, d’acétones, d’acides,
d’alcools, d’éthers et de qutnones dans la sc"rie
aromattque (Paris, 1885) ; Lellmann, Pm'ncip/ien
der organischen S3/nthese (Berlin, 1887); and
especially the excellent work of Elbs, Die syn-
thettschen Darstellungsmetltoden der K0hlenstofi°-
Verbtndungen (Leipzig, 1889-91). See CHEM-
rsrnv (historical section) and CARBON CoM-
POUNDS.
SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY. See Gnomnrnr.
SYNTONIN (from Gk. ozivrovog, syntonos,
stretched tight, from avvrsivew, syntetnein, to
stretch tight, from otv, syn, together + reive/v,
teinein, to stretch). A protein substance pre-
pared by the action of dilute acids on the myosin
of the muscles. The acid solution thus obtained
is neutralized with alkali and the precipitated
syntonin is washed with a small quantity of
water. Syntonin may be converted into a globu-
lin probably identical with myosin, by dissolving
in lime-water, adding ammonium chloride, then
neutralizing with acetic acid; from the solution
thus obtained the globulin may be precipitated
by adding the solution slowly to a large amount
of distilled water. Syntonin is soluble in lime-
water and in dilute solutions of sodium carbon-
ate, but not in acid sodium phosphate. It may
be classed with the so-called acid albumins, and
it is distinguished from other substances of the
same class of proteids by its insolubility in acid
sodium phosphate solution.
SYPHAX, si’faks (Lat., from Gk. Zt¢a§),
A N umidian prince, who played a part in the
Second Punic War, an enemy of Masinissa (q.v.) .
SYPHILIS (from Syphilus, in the Latin
poem entitled Sg/philus, sive M orbt G-allict ltbri
tree, by the Italian physician and poet Hieronimo
Fracasteria (1483-1553), a shepherd who was
afflicted with the disease by Apollo as a punish-
ment for offering homage to his king instead of
to the god; of uncertain etymology, popularly
explained as from Gk. orig, aye, hog + ¢Z2.og,
philos, loving, or, less plausibly, from air, syn,
with + ¢/’7Log, phtlos, loving), or Lons, or THE
Pox. A specific contagious disease peculiar to
the human species, chronic in its course, and gen-
erally acquired during sexual congress. It is
always due to contact with a syphilitic indi-
vidual or with his secretions or discharges. De-
scriptions of syphilis are found in the earliest
writings, and traces of it are discovered in the
bones of prehistoric people. Chinese accounts of
it date back to the writings of Hoan-Ti, who
lived about 2637 13.0. The earliest Indian record
is found in the Ajwe Veda of Sus'rutas, A.D. 400.
The Japanese historians described the disease
several thousand years ago. The Hebrews were
familiar with it and it is probable that many
cases called leprosy were really syphilis. Hip-
pocrates and his successors describe it as it
existed among the ancient Greeks, and Celsus
speaks of it among the Romans. Although the
malady is known to have existed in Europe at
least as early as A.D. 1250, when Theodoric, a
Dominican monk, wrote of the malum mortuu/m
SYPHILIS.
SYPHILIS.
421
and recommended inunctions of mercury for its
cure, its authentic and general recognition dates
from a severe outbreak of the disease in the army
of Charles VIII. of France during the siege of
Naples. It was known as ‘the Neapolitan dis-
ease’ and as the morbns Gallicus. The disease
spread with frightful rapidity and virulence,
and during the following years was so widely dis-
seminated as to be considered a form of plague.
The armies of the various countries were nearly
decimated, and no class of society escaped its
ravages.
It was not at first recognized as a venereal dis-
ease. Its true nature appears to have been un-
suspected at this time, as it was again a little
previous to the time of John Hunter (q.v.) , after
whom was named the Hunterian or hard venereal
sore. Hunter, although the greatest surgical
philosopher of the eighteenth century, believed
that there was but one venereal disease; that
gonorrhoea, chancroid, and syphilitic chancre
were merely variations of the same constitutional
affection. Nearly half a century later (1831)
Ricord established the identity of gonorrhoea, but
failed to distinguish between chancroid and
chancre. This was left to one of his pupils,
Bassereau, to accomplish in 1856. The severe
epidemics of the fifteenth century have never
been repeated, although syphilis has since pre-
vailed with continually decreasing virulence.
This is due in part to improved personal hygiene,
better understanding of the disease, and rational
treatment, but also doubtless to the fact that
successive generations have transmitted a certain
degree of immunity to their descendants. See
IMMUNITY.
The nature of the morbific principle—the
materies morbr'—of syphilis has not been de-
termined. No specific microorganism has been
discovered. Syphilis is peculiar to man. At-
tempts to inoculate the lower animals, with the
possible exception of the monkey, have been uni-
formly unsuccessful. A disease somewhat re-
sembling syphilis is observed in the horse. This
is known as maladie du eoit or equine syphilis.
The negro race is believed to be more susceptible
to syphilis and to have it in a severer form than
the Caucasian. This may be explainable on the
ground that the disease is a comparatively new
one to the darker race, which has not had time
to acquire immunity.
Syphilis requires for its transmission contact
of the specific poison existent in the secretions
or discharges of a syphilitic patient with an
abraded surface of skin or with a mucous mem- "
brane. The blood is also capable of transmitting
syphilis. Although the disease is as a rule ac-
quired through sexual intercourse, sryphilis in-
sontium, or syphilis of the innocent, is of fre-
quent occurrence. Physicians may become in-
oculated by contact with syphilitic patients, and
innocent patients, on the other hand, may be in-
fected, though rarely, by surgical and dental in-
struments. The saliva of syphilitic individuals
contains the specific virus, and in this way in-
oculation may occur by kissing, and the use of
pipes, spoons, cups, pencils, sticks of candy, plugs
of tobacco, etc. Great care is necessary when one
member of a family is affected to prevent trans-
mission of the disease to others, since in the fa-
miliar intercourse of relations great danger ex-
ists.
After the poison of syphilis has been absorbed
a certain time elapses before its effects become
manifest. The abrasion heals over and there
are no visible signs of danger. This is the period
of incubation and lasts on the average three
weeks, but may vary from ten to seventy days.
At the end of this period a hard thickening ap-
pears at the site of inoculation, and this soon
breaks down into a discharging sore or ulcer, the
discharge from which is extremely contagious.
This ulcer is situated on an indurated b e and
is surrounded by dense tissue, and from t is fact
is known as the ‘hard’ chancre. It is the char-
acteristic initial lesion of syphilis, and is usual-
ly single. Another period of apparent quiescence
now ensues, during which the patient is con-
scious of no trouble besides the sore. This is
the so-called secondary incubation period, lasting
from four to six weeks or perhaps longer. A
characteristic set of symptoms now appears. The
poison has been absorbed by the lymphatics, and
upon examination the glands of the groin, axilla,
neck, and in fact of the entire body will be found
enlarged and indurated. A rash, somewhat re-
sembling that of measles, breaks out upon the
chest and abdomen, spreading thence to the face,
extremities, and back. The rash may vary wide-
ly in character, presenting in different cases
macules, papules, nodules, scabs, vesicles, or
pustules. The eruption is usually superficial and
fades gradually without scarring, differing in this
respect from the tertiary rashes or ‘late syphi-
lides.’ The rash marks the secondary stage of
syphilis, and is attended with constitutional dis-
turbances. There is slight fever, with severe noc-
turnal headache, pains in the bones, and general
malaise. The tonsils, soft palate, and lymphatic
tissues of the pharynx become swollen, and to-
gether with the gums, tongue, and inner side of
the cheeks are the seat of ‘mucous patches.’
These are small grayish or whitish papules or
shallow ulcers which discharge a most infectious
material. It is through them that by far the
greater number of cases of ‘innocent’ syphilis
occur. Mucous patches are also apt to appear
on the inner surface of the nose, the eyelids,
about the genitals and arms. The threat is
sometimes so sore and painful that eating solid
food becomes impossible. Coincident with these
changes in the skin and mucous membranes, sev-
eral other tissues are affected. The periosteum
covering the tibiae, skull, clavicles, or sternum
becomes the seat of inflammatory thickenings
or nodules (see NODES) , tender to the touch, but
soon disappearing. The joints may swell. The
hair may come off in considerable quantities,
either in patches, or as a general thinning. The
finger-nails are dry, brittle, and lustreless. The
lymph glands continue swollen during the sec-
ondary period of the disease. They may be felt
in chains along the neck and groins. A small
gland just above the inside of the elbow, the
epitrochlear, is almost invariably affected in
syphilis and rarely in other diseases, and is there-
fore a valuable aid in the diagnosis of doubtful
cases. Syphilitic iritis is apt to occur during
this stage. It usually affects one eye at a time,
and is manifested by photophobia, irregularity of
the pupil from adhesions of the iris, swelling,
and congestion. Later in the disease other eye
tissues—the choroid and retina——may suffer seri-
ously. Deafness may result from infiltration
of the labyrinth of the ear.
SYPHILIS.
SYRACUSE.
422
The period of the active manifestations of
syphilis, embracing the primary and secondary
stages, extends over a year or more. In many
cases all symptoms disappear, and no further
evidence of the disease is felt. Patients rarely
die during the second stage. After an interval
of months or years, in a certain proportion of
cases, the so-called ‘tertiary’ or third stage of
syphilis sets in. Insidious degenerative changes
may have been going on during the interval and
now become manifest, suddenly or gradually.
The characteristic lesion of this stage is the
gumma, which consists of a soft elastic tumor
composed of cells and fibrous tissue. Gummata
may develop in any situation, skin, bones, liver,
testes, kidneys, lungs, or brain, and vary in size
from a hemp-seed to a walnut. They are very
prone to break down and ulcerate, often resulting
in great loss of tissue and hideous scars and de-
formities. The bony framework of the nose is
frequently destroyed in this manner. The skin
is apt to be the seat of a variety of deposits which
tend to form sluggish ulcerations, slow in heal-
ing, and leaving scars surrounded by deeply
pigmented skin. Several disorders of the ner-
vous system are referable to syphilis; some, like
hemiplegia, due to syphilitic degeneration of the
arterial walls; others, like localized paralysis
and convulsions, to gummata on the surface of
the brain or the roots of the nerves; others again,
like locomotor ataxia, are only indirectly trace-
able to syphilis.
Congenital syphilis shows itself in many and
curious ways. Children born of parents suffering
from syphilis in the first or second stage may
be infected with the disease. The infection may
be derived from the father alone, the mother be-
ing healthy; or from the mother alone, the father
being healthy; or from both father and mother.
Or the mother may acquire syphilis after con-
ception and convey it to the child in utero. A
curious law, to which there seems to be no ex-
ception, is that if a child inherits syphilis from
its father, the mother being originally healthy,
the infant may infect a wet nurse, but not its
own mother, who is in some way protected
against infection although she may have shown no
evidences of the disease. As a rule the effect of
syphilis in the parents is to cut pregnancy short,
with resulting miscarriages, premature or still
birth. Children may be born alive, presenting
lesions of any stage of the disease. In many
cases the child is at birth apparently healthy, fat
and plump, but in a few weeks develops a char-
acteristic catarrh, vulgarly termed the ‘snufiies,’
shows a rash, with ulcerations about the lips,
genitals, and anus, and gradually wastes away
until the face acquires a typical withered,
shrunken, and aged appearance. Most of these
children die in infancy.
The treatment and prophylaxis of syphilis is a
matter of great importance, since there is no dis-
ease so widespread in its dissemination nor so
potent in its influence upon the human species.
Prevention depends on education in matters of
sexual hygiene on the part of the public, eleva-
tion of the moral tone of- the individual, and in
segregation and inspection of prostitutes. The
latter is practiced with good results in many
cities of the Old World, and attempts are con-
stantly making toward the same end in the
United States. Great ignorance prevails among
the laity as to the nature, effects, and treatment
Of syphilis. The only remedies of any value are
mercury and iodides; but these must be given
with care and under close observation, and
should be combined with tonic remedies, accord-
ing to the needs of the particular case. Lay
medication is apt to be ineffectual, if not dan-
gerous. Mercury may be given by inunction,
fumigation, hypodermically or by the mouth. Ex-
cessive doses of mercury are likely to produce a
series of very unpleasant symptoms (see MER-
CURY; SALIVATION), and its unwise use in the
hands of the ancient practitioners has resulted in
a popular distrust of the drug. As a rule mercury
is of greatest value in the first stages of syphilis,
a combination of iodine and mercury in the sec-
ond stage, and iodine alone, usually in the form of
potassium iodide, in the tertiary period. When
these drugs are given skillfully and for proper
periods of time, there is every reasonable pros-
pect of a permanent cure. The time of treatment
should extend over at least two and one-half
years after all visible signs of the disease have
disappeared and marriage should be prohibited
during this interval. The general health must
be watched, and exercise in the open air, full diet,
and appropriate tonics administered. In the
syphilis of infants mercury is best given by
inunction. Children somewhat older may take
mercury in the form of gray powder in small
doses. The two other drugs that seem to exert
almost a specific effect in children are cod-liver
oil and the iodide of iron. For a fuller descrip-
tion of this disease, consult: Lydston, A Tenet-
book on the Genito-Urinary, Venereal, and Seamal
Dis-eases(Phi1adelphia, 1900) ; Fournier, Syphilis
and Marriage (trans. by Morrow, New York,
1881) ; id., Danger social de la Syphilis (Paris,
1901).
SY'RA (Lat. Syrus, from Gk. Efipos). An
island in the Fflgean Sea, belonging to the Cy-
clades, and situated nearly in the centre of the
group, 10 miles southwest of Tinos. Area, 31
square miles (Map: Greece, F 4). It is for the
most part barren and rocky, and its natural
products are insufficient to support its population.
Its importance is due to its being the site of
Hermopolis (q.v.), the capital of the nomarchy
of the Cyclades and one of the chief commercial
ports of Greece. Population of the island in
1896, 26,856.
SYR/ACUSE (Lat. Syracnsce, from Gk. Zvpd.-
xovoaz, Snrakoasai) . Anciently the most famous
and powerful city of Sicily, situated on the
southeastern coast of the island, 33 miles south-
southeast of Catania. It was founded by a body
of Corinthian settlers under Archias, one of the
Bacchiadae, near the end of the eighth century
B.C. The traditional date, 13.0. 734, rests on un-
certain evidence. The original colonists seem at
first to have occupied nothing more than the little
isle of Ortygia, about one mile long and half a
mile broad, which lies near the shore, but with
the growth of the city the population soon
passed over to the mainland. This settlement
was on Achradina, at the eastern end of a high
triangular plateau, which lies north of the isl-
and. To the north of the island lay the small
harbor, while to the west was the great harbor,
one of the best in Sicily. Later the greater part
of the city was on the mainland, with which
Ortygia was connected by bridges or a cause-
way. It consisted of Achradina, occupying the
SYRACUSE.
SYRACUSE.
423
eastern end of the tableland and the adjacent
coast, Tyche and Neapolis to the west of
Achradina and of Epipola, still farther west,
with the strong fort of Euryalus at the apex
of the triangle. The colony rapidly rose to pros-
perity, and was enabled to establish sub-colonies
of its own, Acrae (no. 664), Casmenae (12.0. 644),
and Camarina (B.C. 599). Nothing definite is
known of the early political state of Syracuse,
but the government seems to have been in the
hands of the descendants of the Dorian colonists,
who were land-owners employing a large body
of serfs, seemingly Sicels. The commerce of the
city brought, however, a large ‘Demos’ of Greeks,
who about 13.0. 486 expelled the ‘Gamori,’ or rul-
ing oligarchy, and established a democracy. The
‘Gamori’ were brought back in the following year
by Gelon (q.v.) , tyrant of Gela, who at the same
time made himself master of Syracuse. He was
a great ruler, and under him the city increased in
size and wealth. He was succeeded by his broth-
er, Hiero I. (q.v.) (13.0. 478-467), whose court
became a literary centre. In B.C. 465 the de-
mocracy expelled his brother and successor
Thrasybulus, and for sixty years a free and popu-
lar government was enjoyed under which Syra-
cuse prospered greatly. The Sicels were re-
duced, and war was waged with neighboring
States, till the island attracted Athenian inter-
vention, only closed by the Peace of Hermo-
crates (13.0. 424). Renewed hostilities with
Segesta led to the great struggle with Athens
(B.o. 415-413), in which Syracuse, aided by the
Spartan Gylippus, annihilated the invading army,
and contributed not a little to the outcome of
the Peloponnesian War. But a new power ap-
peared on the stage-the Carthaginian, whose
conquests in Sicily toward the close of the fifth
century threatened the existence of Syracuse.
The successful leadership of Dionysius the Elder
(q.v.) enabled him to become tyrant of the city
and make it the chief power of Magna Graecia and
Sicily. It was he who constructed the docks in
the greater and lesser harbors, and surrounded
the city with fortifications. His fierce and vic-
torious war with Carthage (13.0. 397) raised the
renown of Syracuse still higher. The reigns of
Dionysius the Younger (q.v.) and of Dion (q.v.)
were unsettled; but after the restoration of pub-
lic liberty by Timoleon (13.0. 343) a brief season
of tranquillity ensued, during which the pros-
perity of the city rapidly revived. Under Aga-
thocles (q.v.), however, the despotic form of
government was again established (13.0. 317).
This reign was marked by a war with Carthage,
including an invasion of Africa, conducted with
very doubtful success. In 13.0. 275 Hiero II.
(q.v.) was chosen general, and about B.C. 270 he
(assumed the title of King. He adopted the policy
of loyal alliance with Rome, and preserved the
independence of the State until his death in B.C.
216. His grandson, Hieronymus, joined the Car-
thaginians, and in consequence the city suffered
a long siege, rendered famous by the devices of
Archimedes, and was finally stormed and plun-
dered in RC. 212 by Marcellus.
Under the Romans Syracuse slowly but stead-
ily declined, though it always continued to be
the capital and first city of Sicily, and was made
a colony by Augustus. Captured, pillaged, and
burned by the Saracens (878), it sank into com-
plete decay, and is at present confined to its
original limits, Ortygia, which, however, is no
longer an island, but a peninsula. The popula-
tion of Syracuse, which is the capital of a prov-
ince of the same name, was about 32,000 in 1900.
The mainland contains the chief remains of
antiquity, which include a fine rock-cut theatre,
a Roman amphitheatre, the great altar of Hiero
II., the remains of the ancient fortifications, and
the great Latomiae or quarries. The cathedral on
Ortygia has been built around an ancient Doric
temple, and the columns of the temple form part
of the church. The museum contains many inter-
esting remains of the pre-Hellenic population,
found in graves and caves in the neighborhood.
In the southern part of the town is the famous
fountain of Arethusa. Consult: Freeman, His-
tory of Sicily (Oxford, 1891-94) ; Holm, Ge-
schichte Siciliens (Leipzig, 1870-98); Cavallari
and Holm, Topografia archeologica di Siracasa
(Polermo, 1883), and Appenclice (1891).
SYRACUSE. The fourth city in population
of the State of New York, and the county-seat of
Onondaga County, 148 miles west of Albany and
149 miles east of Buffalo (Map: New York, D
2). It is situated at the mouth of Onondaga
Valley, 35 miles south of Lake Ontario, in an
amphitheatre of hills.
Syracuse has superior facilities for transpor-
tation, steam railroads entering the city from
ten directions, and canals from three. The Erie
Canal, which pierces the heart of the city, gives
water communication with Lake Erie and the
Hudson River, and thence with tidewater, and
the Oswego Canal with Lake Ontario and the
Saint Lawrence. All the steam railroad lines
centring here are of two systems, the New
York Central and Hudson River and the Lacka-
wanna. The street railway system comprises 65
miles of track, and reaches all sections of the
city. It is practically under one management.
The chief residential streets are profusely
shaded, presenting a park-like appearance. Syra-
cuse has forty-five public parks, ranging from
small plots at street intersections to Burnet
Park, on a hillside to the West, with more than
100 acres. Lincoln Park, a wooded height of 20
acres on the eastern border, commands the most
extensive and picturesque view of the city and its
surroundings. The State Fair, under the aus-
pices of the State Agricultural Society, is per-
manently located in Syracuse. The State an-
nually appropriates a large sum for the support
of the fair.
The buildings of Syracuse University (q.v.)
crown a commanding elevation and are among
the most imposing edifices in the city. Other
prominent public buildings are the city hall, the
new high school, costing $400,000, the Carnegie
Library, the county court-house, the Federal Gov-
ernment building, the State Asylum for Feeble-
Minded Children, the County Orphan Asylum,
the Old Ladies’ Home, and the four hospitals.
The Carnegie (public) Library contains 60,000
volumes, and the Court of Appeals Law Library,
belonging to the State, 10,000 volumes. The city
also maintains a Museum of Fine Arts. The On-
ondaga Historical Society is (1904) to erect a
building for its own use.
Industrially, Syracuse is fourth among the
cities of the State, its establishments in the
census year 1900 having $31,358,000 invested
capital, and a production valued at $31,918,000.
SYRACUSE.
SYR-DARYA.
424
The leading manufactures are men’s clothing,
foundry and machine shop products, iron and
steel, malt liquors, iron and steel pipe, typewrit-
ers and supplies, boots and shoes, agricultural
implements, flouring and grist mill products,
and furniture. The city is noted for the manufac-
ture of typewriters. The Onondaga Salt Springs,
belonging to the State, are on the borders of
Onondaga Lake. The manufacture of salt, from
the brine pumped out of the springs, was for-
merly the main industry, and is still of impor-
tance. The Solvay Process Works, manufacturing
soda ash and other products, and employing some
3000 men, are just outside of the city limits on
the west. With its many and varied manufac-
tures, the city has a large wholesale and export
trade.
The government is vested in a mayor and com-
mon council, elected ‘every two years. The
comptroller and treasurer are chosen at the
same time. The mayor appoints the heads of
departments, including the city engineer, corpora-
tion counsel, and commissioners of public works,
public safety, and charities. The schools are un-
der the control of a board of education elected on
a general ticket. In maintenance and operation
the city annually expends about $2,000,000, the
principal items being: schools, $350,000; police
department, $140,000; fire department, $180,-
000; and lighting, $122,000. There are 45 miles
of paved streets, principally of asphalt; 100
miles of sewers; and 161 miles of water mains.
The water system is under municipal ownership
and control. The water is obtained from Skan-
eateles Lake, 18 miles distant, and is conveyed
by gravity to the city through 36-inch pipes.
The plant cost $5,000,000. The water department
in 1902 netted the city a profit of $40,000.
Population, in 1850, 22,271; in 1860, 28,119;
in 1870, 43,051; in 1880, 51,792; in 1890, 88,143;
in 1900, 108,374.
The territory in which Syracuse is situated
originally belonged to the Onondaga ‘Indians. It
was visited by the Jesuit missionary Father
Isaac Jogues as early as 1642. By treaties in
1778 and 1795 the State bought large tract cor.-
taining the salt springs and formed from it the
‘Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation,’ parts of
which were subsequently sold to individuals.
Syracuse proper was first settled about 1805 and
was of little importance until after the com-
pletion of the Erie Canal, its population in 1820
being only 250. Until named Syracuse in 1819 it
was known successively as South Salina, Bo-
gardus’s Corners, Cassitt’s Corners, and Milan.
It was incorporated as a village in 1825, and in
1847 absorbed Salina and was chartered as a
city. It was prominent for its abolitionist senti-
ment preceding the Civil War, and was one of
the chief stations on the ‘Underground Railroad’
(q.v.). Here on October 1, 1849, occurred the
famous ‘Jerry Rescue,’ which did much to crys-
tallize abolitionist sentiment in the North and
arouse the animosity of the Southern planters.
In‘ 1887 the villages of Geddes and Danforth be-
- came a part of Syracuse, and in 1892 some fur-
ther additions were authorized by the Legisla-
ture. Consult Bruce, Memorial History of Syra-
cuse (Syracuse, 1891).
SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY. A coeduca-
tional institution of higher learning at Syracuse,
N. Y., founded in 1870. In its academic depart-
.sponding engineer’s degrees.
ment it is 'a continuation of Genesee College,
which was conducted at Lima, N. Y., from 1849
to 1871, and in its medical department of the
Geneva Medical College (1835-72), which was in
part successor of the Fairfield Medical College
(1812-39). The university at present comprises
five colleges: (1)the College of Liberal Arts with
classical, philosophical, scientific, and library
courses, leading to the degrees of B.A., Ph.B.,
and B.S.; (2) the College of Fine Arts, with
courses in architecture, belles lettres, music,
painting, art, and decorative design, as well as
normal courses, leading to the bachelor’s degree
in architecture, letters, music, and painting; (3)
the College of Medicine, with a four years’ course
and leading to the degree of M.D.; (4) the Col-
lege of Law, with a three years’ course leading
to the degree of LL.B.; and (5) the College of
Applied Science with courses in civil, electrical,
and mining engineering, leading to the corre-
In the graduate
department the master’s and doctor’s degrees
are conferred. In addition to the regular de-
partments, the university maintains a summer
session of six weeks, and a table at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at VVood’s Hole, Mass.
In 1902 an observing station of the United States
Weather Bureau was established, in connection
with which lectures are given on meteorology
and climatology. The attendance in 1903, al-
lowing for duplications, was 2009, distributed as
' follows: Liberal Arts, 905; Fine Arts, 706; Medi-
cine, 140; Law, 123; Applied Science, 183;
Summer School, 39. The endowment was $1,-
625,600, the income $765,936, and the estimated
value of the college property $3,169,361, the
grounds and buildings being valued at $1,169,-
500. The general library contained 50,842 vol-
umes and 21,500 pamphlets.
SYR-DARYA, ser dar’ya, or SIR-DARIA
(ancient Jawartes). A large river of Russian
Turkestan, Central Asia (Map: Asia, F 4). It
rises on the north slope of the Tian Shan on
the boundary of Chinese Turkestan, and flows
in a general northwest direction till it enters
the northeastern part of the Aral Sea after
a course of over 1700 miles. Its upper
course, known as the Narin, descends through
a series of romantic gorges as a tumultuous
mountain torrent, the fall being more than‘
3000 feet in less than 50 miles. It receives here
numerous tributaries, but after making a long
detour to the southwest around the highlands
north of Ferghana, it enters upon the great arid
lowland steppes, in which it receives no more
aflluents, but decreases in volume by evapora-
tion. Its course becomes here very sluggish. In
the rainy season it overflows the surrounding
country, and its low banks are in some places
lined with extensive marshes. In these lowland
regions, also, a considerable amount of water is
drawn from the river through numerous irriga-
tion canals, and the discharge into the Aral Sea
is less than half of the volume of the river in its
middle course. The delta is marshy and shifting,
and the depth on the bar is generally not more
than three feet. From its lower middle course
the river sends an arm across the desert to the
southeastern end of the Aral Sea. This channel
is now nearly dry, but probably indicates the
former bed of the main river. The river is prac-
tically unnavigable in its lower course, though
SYR-DARYA.
SYRIA.
425
small Russian gunboats have crossed the bar.
It is new little used as an avenue of commerce.
SYR-DARYA, or SIR-DARIA. A terri-
tory in the northwest of Russian Turkestan.
Area, about 195,000 square miles (Map: Asia,
F 4). The larger part consists of extensive
steppes and deserts. The southeastern part be-
longs to the region of the Tian-Shan Mountains
and rises in some of its snow-covered peaks to
an altitude of over 15,000 feet. The flat part of
the territory is very scantily watered by the
Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya (qq.v.) . The lakes are
mostly salty. The settlements are found largely
at the foot of the mountains, where the streams
are utilized for irrigation. Wheat, barley,
rice, and cotton are the principal products, the
cotton crop being valued at over $3,500,000 in
1900. The nomadic inhabitants have extensive
herds of cattle and sheep, and utilize the wool
for the manufacturing of woolen products, be-
sides exporting large quantities of the raw ma-
terial to Russia and other parts of Europe. The
Central Asiatic Railway is the principal means
of transportation. Population, in 1897, 1,479,-
848, consisting principally of Kirghizes and
Sarts, the Russians forming only about 4 per
cent. of the total. Capital, Tashkend (q.v.) .
SYR’IA. Traditionally, the region lying be-
tween the Euphrates River and the Syrian Desert
on the east and the Mediterranean on the west,
and between the Alma Dagh (the ancient Ama-
nus) in the north and Egypt in the south. This
region now forms a part of Asiatic Turkey
(Map: Turkey in Asia, G 6). Mesopotamia, or
at least a portion of it, is frequently designated
as East Syria. Syria proper is now a distinct
part of the Turkish Empire and is divided
into six provinces—Jerusalem, Lebanon, Beirut,
Aleppo, Syria, and Zor. It occupies approxi-
mately the area within the above boundaries.
It, therefore, includes Palestine. Its area is
109,500 square miles.
Syria proper is traversed from north to south
by a system of mountains connected with the
Taurus in the north and in the south with Mount
Sinai as well as with the important mountain
chain of Western Arabia. The loftiest section is
the Lebanon district, comprising the range of the
Lebanon proper, skirting the middle part of the
Mediterranean coast, and the parallel Anti-Li-
banus, with the valley of Coele-Syria, between
them. The Lebanon reaches an elevation of about
10,000 feet, the highest peak of the Anti-Libanus,
Mount Hermon, being about 9000 feet. Syria is
in general a plateau of chalk and Tertiary forma-
tion, with sandstone in evidence, and varied in
places by eruptive stone. The plateau dips steep-
ly to the Mediterranean. It is traversed north
and south by the important and remarkable
inter-mountain depression which, beginning at
the Gulf of Akabah (of the Red Sea) in the
south, extends under the name of Wadi el-Araba
to the Dead Sea, thence north through the region
of the Jordan to its sources, and beyond this
through the Lebanon region, becoming narrower
but widening again farther north, and finally
reaches the sea at Antioch. This depression is
over 400 miles long, and generally averages about
12 miles in width. It divides Syria (except
in the north and northeast) into two long
comparatively narrow stretches of tableland—
the eastern and western. For the full description
of the western, adjacent to the Mediterranean,
see PALESTINE. The eastern strip merges into the
Syrian desert, and is sandy and bare, its elevated
levels being dominated by the basaltic Jebel
Hauran (6000 feet) situated east of Lake
Tiberias. The Nahr-el-Asi (ancient Orontes),
the Litany (Leontes), and many short streams
flow into the sea on the west. The Jordan is
the main feeder of the Dead Sea, whose surface
is nearly 1300 feet below that of the ocean.
The principal afliuents of the Jordan are the
Yarmuk and J abbok. In the east are a number of
streams that die in the sands of the desert. There
are several lakes besides the Dead Sea, the best
known being Lake Tiberias (Gennesaret). The
climate is that of the Mediterranean basin. At
Beirut the mean annual temperature is 68° F.;
at Jerusalem, 62.6° F. The rainfall is scanty, be-
ing heaviest in the north and west. The springs
are short, the summers long, dry, and hot. Snow
falls in winter and there is often almost severe
cold. The flora is that of the Mediterranean
region, the olive being prominent. Forests of
conifers clothe portions of the western slope of
the Lebanon. But small remnants survive of the
famous cedars of Lebanon. In the east and
south, however, the plant growth partakes of the
scanty desert species. In the extreme north the
date palm thrives. Of the wild fauna the lion
has nearly disappeared, hyenas exist in some
mountainous regions, and jackals abound. Ga-
zelles are still met with. There are several species
of venomous serpents, including the cobra. For-
merly a land rich and highly productive, Syria
is in modern times of very inferior agricultural
and industrial significance. Fruits, grain, and
vegetables are grown. The principal ports
are Beirut and Jaffa. The Syrian Railroad has
afforded an impetus to trade since 1895. The
population in 1900 was 3,317,600. It is mainly
Semitic in race. Mohammedans predominate,
and Arabic is generally spoken. Bedouins and
Arabs roam in the south and east. The Turks
are few. The Christian population is consider-
able, the Maronites of the Lebanon region alone
numbering over 100,000. There are many Jews,
especially in Palestine, where they form agri-
cultural communities. The Mohammedan sect of
the Druses (in the Lebanon region and the
Hauran) has been prominent through its fierce
hatred of the Maronites. The chief towns are
Damascus, Aleppo, Beirut, and Jerusalem.
HISTORY. About 13.0. 1500 the kings of Egypt
brought the greater part of Syria under their
dominion. Their advance was opposed by the
Hittites (q.v.), who were long dominant in
northern Syria, and who spread also into the
southern part of the country. The non-Semitic
people were gradually ar algamated with the
Semites among whom they dwelt, their speech be-
coming Semitic. About RC. 1000 the Phaanicians
were at the height of their power and prosperity
and the Hebrew kingdom was firmly established.
By this time the Hittites, whose State had be-
come disintegrated into a number of principali-
ties, had begun to feel the power of Assyria. Un-
der David and Solomon the Israelites extended
their sway over a great part of Syria, subduing
the southern Hittites, the Amorites, and other
peoples and subjecting Damascus and other im-
portant cities. On the southern part of the
SYRIA.
SYRIAC LANGUAGE-.
426
coast the Philistine cities were united in a pow-
erful confederacy. After the disruption of the
Hebrew realm Damascus became the seat of a
powerful independent kingdom. This was de-
Stroyed in the second half of the eighth century
B.C. by the Assyrians, who imposed their yoke
upon the Philistine cities, and put an end to the
kingdom of Israel, while the Phoenician cities
paid them tribute. About this time the last of
the Hittite principalities were swallowed up by
the same enemy. At the beginning of the sixth
century B.C. Syria came under the rule of Baby-
lon, which was succeeded in B.C. 538 by that of
Persia. In B.C. 333-332 Alexander of Macedon
established his sway. At the close of the century
Upper Syria was appropriated by Seleucus, one
of Alexander’s generals, who founded Antioch
as the seat of his kingdom. The Ptolemies and
the Seleucidae (q.v.) contended for the possession
of the rest of the country, which finally passed
to the latter, whose realm, which embraced a
large part of Western Asia, came to be known as
the Kingdom of Syria. A number of Greek cities
were founded by this dynasty. In B.C. 167-141
Palestine threw off the yoke of the Seleucidee.
In B.C. 64 Syria was made a Roman province and
in the following year Judea was made tributary
to the Romans.
In the third century A.D. the Kingdom of Pal-
myra, on the eastern borders of Syria, enjoyed
a short-lived splendor. After the close of the
fourth century Syria formed part of the Byzan-
tine Empire, from which it was wrestéd in 634-
36 by the Saracens. In 661 Damascus became
the seat of the caliphs, but about a century later
it was supplanted by Bagdad. In the second
half of the eleventh century the Seljuks occupied
the country. In 1099 the Crusaders took Jeru-
salem, which was made the capital of a king-
dom. At the same time was founded the Princi-
pality of Antioch. In the middle of the next
century the Christian power in Syra was shat-
tered by the assaults of Sultan Nureddin, whose
seat was at Aleppo. In 1174-87 Saladin, Sultan
of Egypt, wrested Syria from the successors of
.
[Z ‘ A m -R T
Nureddm a .d overthrew the .l..\.II‘1”u.G1.u. OI Uerusa-
lem.
In the thirteenth century Khwaresmians
and Mongols swept over Syria. In 1291 Acre,
the last stronghold of the Christians on the
Syrian coast, was taken by the Mameluke ruler of
Egypt and Syria. In 1516 Syria was conquered
by the Ottoman Turks. In 1831-32 Mehemet
Ali of Egypt made himself master of the country,
but was forced to relinquish it to the Sultan in
1841. In 1860 there were massacres of the
Maronites by the Druses and a frightful slaugh-
ter of Christians at Damascus.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. De Vogiié, Syric, Palestine,
Mont Athos. (Paris, 1879); Sachu, Reise in
Syrien und M esopotamien (Leipzig, 1883) ; Hull,
Memoir of the Geology and Geography of Arabia
Petrcea, Palestine, and the Adjoining Districts
(London, 1886) ; Post, Essays on the Scots and
Nationalities of Syria and Palestine (ib., 1890) ;
Miller, Alone Through Syria (ib., 1891) ;
Charmes, Voyage en Syrie (Paris, 1891); Post,
Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai (Beirut,
1896) ; Petrie, Syria and Egypt from the Tell-el-
Amarna Letters (New York, 1898); Deverell,
My Tour in Palestine and Syria (London,
1899) ; Burton and Drake, Unewplored Syria
(ib., 187 2) ; Lady Burton, Inner Life of Syria
(ib., 1875) ;
(Paris, 1861).
SYRIAC LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE. The Aramaic dialect anciently spoken
in Edessa and Western Mesopotamia (see ARA-
MAIC), in which many literary productions have
been preserved. This*name is derived from the
Greek Zvpia, which is either an abbreviation of
’AaovpZa, or a survival of the old designation Suri
found in cuneiform inscriptions. Before the in-
troduction of Christianity the natives of Mesopo-
tamia called themselves Aramwans. Subsequently
this term was used especially for the pagans,
while the Christians were designated by Greeks
and Persians as ‘Syrians’ and seem to some ex-
tent to have adopted the name themselves. The
Syriac langua e shows in its earliest documents
a remarkably ed type, and must therefore have
been long spoken in Mesopotamia. Character-
istic of this dialect are the n of the preformative
in the imperfect of the verb and the loss of the
determinative force of the emphatic ending a
in the noun.
There was probably an extensive pagan litera-
ture both in Edessa and in Harran ; but no speci-
men of it has yet been recovered. The earliest
document in this language is the translation of
the Old Testament, which was probably made
by Jews. It may belong to the first Christian cen-
tury, though it was subsequently revised in
some books with the aid of the Greek version.
Two recensions of the oldest translation of the
New Testament have been preserved in part in
a Sinaitic manuscript of the Gospels and a Nit-
rian manuscript published by Cureton, contain-
ing fragments of the Gospels. This latter version
may have been made in the middle of the second
century. A compilation of the four Gospels, called
the Diatessaron, was made by Tatian (q.v.), or
translated by him from a Greek work of the same
kind about 180. This Diatessaron is lost and is
known chiefly through Ephraem Syrus (q.v.);
the Arabic translation of this work published
by Ciasca seems to belong to the eleventh cen-
I
L]
fury, and has mamfestlv been made conformable
to the standard text. This compilation of the
Gospels, after being long in use in the Mesopo-
tamian churches, was finally supplanted by the
Syriac Vulgate or Peshitto (see BIBLE, heading
Versions), apparently in the fifth century. The
shorter Catholic Epistles (II. Peter, 11. and III.
John, J ude) and the Apocalypse, which were not
found in the old Syriac Bible, were later supplied
from the versions of Philoxenus (508) and
Thomas of Heraclea (616). In addition to the
canonical books, Ecclesiasticus (q.v.) was also
translated from the Hebrew and the other Apoc-
rypha, including IV. Maccabees and a part of
J osephus’s Jewish War called V. Maccabees, were
translated from the Greek, as well as several
Pseudepigrapha, such as the Apocalypses of
Baruch and Ezra. A translation of the Greek
text adopted by Origen called the Syro-Hexaplaric
version was made by Paul of Tella in 617 ; and a
revision of the New Testament was made by
Jacob of Edessa at the end of the seventeenth
century.
As early as any of the New Testament trans-
lations are the works of Bardesanes, the Gnostic
(q.v.), who flourished in the second century and
was a poet, philosopher, astronomer, and his-
Salverte, La Syrie avant 1860
SYRIAC LANGUAGE.
SYRINGOMYELIA.
427
torian. His Dialogue on Destiny is extant; his
150 -hymns are lost. A number of Gnostic
hymns have, however, been preserved in the Acts
of Thomas, written in the third century. In the
fourth century Aphraates (q.v.) wrote his homi-
lies, and the famous Ephraem (died 373) his
commentaries on the Bible and on Tatian’s Dia-
tessaron, his exegetical discourses, and his hymns.
Among the disciples of Ephraem were such
writers as Aha, Zenobius, Balai, and Cyrillona.
The most flourishing period of Syriac literature
extended from c.400 to the Arabic conquest. In
the course of the fifth century the great schism
occurred which divided the Mesopotamian Church
between Nestorians and Monophysites (qq.v.)
and severed both from the Catholic Church.
Much of the early Nestorian literature is lost;
but some works of Hamana (died 607), Babai
(died 610), and Elias of Merv remain. Among
the Monophysites, Philoxenus of Mabug, Jacob
of Serug (died 521), Jacob Baradaeus, after
whom the party was called ‘Jacobitcs,’ and
Jacob of Edessa (died 708) were perhaps the
most influenfial writers. In addition to the
strictly theological works, there grew up an his-
torical literature, including the Chronicle of
Edessa, the very excellent chronicle of Diony-
sins of Tell Mahre, many histories dealing ex-
clusively with the Church, such as that of John of
Ephesus (sixth century), martyrologies and
legends such as those of King Abgar and the
Apostle Addai. Not only theological works, such
as the Clementine Recognitions, the Apology of
Aristides, the ecclesiastical history of Eusebius,
and the commenatries of Theodore of Mopsuestia,
were translated from the Greek, but also secular
works like those of Homer, Alsop, Aristotle,
Galen, and Hippocrates. Mana, Moses, Probus,
Sergius, and Jacob of Edessa were especially
active as translators. After the Moslem con-
quest the Arabic language gradually gained on
the vernacular. But Syriac still continued to be
spoken in many localities and to be cultivated as
a learned language. The use of two languages
led to philological studies, and many works on
grammar and lexicography were written. Among
these may be mentioned the grammar of Elias
of Tirhan and the lexicons composed by Bar Ali
Honain (died 873) and Bar Bahlul (963). Many
books were translated from the Arabic in the
tenth century, such as the Kalilah wa Dimnah,
Sindbad, and Pseudo-Callisthenes’s life of Alex-
ander. Classical Syriac was written with great
elegance by the Sabian Thabit ben Korrah (died
901) and his sons. (See SABIANS.) With the
decline of the caliphate, the Syriac gained a more
vigorous life, and numerous theological writers
used it. The most important of these are Abul-
faraj Gregory, called Bar Ebhraya or Bar-He-
brecus (1226-86), who wrote a grammar, a com-
mentary on the Bible, a history of the world, a
commentary on Galen, translations from the
Greek, essays on ethics and religion, astronomy,
and other physical sciences (see BAR-HEBREUS) ;
and Abhdisho (died 1318), a learned Nestorian
who wrote the history of Syriac literature and
many other works. After the fourteenth century
there were no noteworthy writers.
The system of writing used by the Edessene
Christians before the fifth century was a modi-
fication of the Aramaic script then in use in
VOL. XVI.—28.
Syria, resembling most the Palmyrene. From
the tenth century this writing was known as
Estrangelo or ‘the writing of the gospel.’ The
Nestorians continued to use it, while the Jacob-
ites adopted for distinction a cursive form. At
first vowels were 11ot indicated at all. Subse-
quently vowel-letters were used. But in the sev-
enth century the Nestorians began to employ
vowel points, and about 700 the J acobitcs adopted
some of the Greek vowels, which they wrote above
or below the consonants to show the proper pro-
nunciation.
The modern Syriac spoken with dialectical
differences by the Nestorians in the West, those
of Lake Urumiah, in the Kurdish mountains, and
on the plain of Mosul, and by the Jacobitcs of
Tur Abdin, exhibits, in addition to numerous
Turkish, Kurdish, and Arabic loan-words, cer-
tain peculiarities rendering it probable that it
is a descendant of the Aramaic, once spoken in
Assyria, rather than of the classical Edessene.
In the dialect of Urumiah a considerable litera-
ture has been developed by American mission-
aries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Niildeke, Syrische Grammatik
(2d ed., Leipzig, 1898); Duval, Grammaire
syriaque (Paris, 1881); Nestle, Syrische Gram-
matik (2d ed., Berlin, 1888); Wilson, Syriac
Grammar (New York, 1891) ; Brockelmann,
Syrisehe Grammatik (Leipzig, 1900) ; Michaelis,
Castelli Leaioon Syriacum (Giittingen, 1788);
Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus (Oxford, 1868-
1903) ; Brockelmann, Lewicon Syriaeum (Berlin,
1895); Wright, History of Syriac Literature
(London, 1895) ; Stoddard, Grammar of the
Modern Syriac Language (New Haven, 1855);
Niildeke, Grammatik der neusyrischen Sprache
(Leipzig, 1868) ; Prym and Socin, Der neu-
aramiiische Dialekt des Tur Abdin (Giittingen,
1881) ; Socin, Die neuaramrtischen Dialekte von
Urmia bis Mosul (Tiibingen, 1882).
SYRIAC VERSIONS. See BIBLE.
SYRINGA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. oirpt)/5, syrinw,
pipe, tube; name first given to the mock-
orange, because its stems, after removal of the
pith, were used as pipes). A genus of plants of
the natural order Oleaceae. The English name of
the genus is lilac (q.v.). Syringa is also a
name very commonly applied to the mock-orange
or Philadelphus.
SYRINGOMYE’LIA (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
oz";/ii)/§,syrin:1c, a pipe + uvelég, myelos, marrow).
A disease of the spinal cord characterized by the
formation of cavities and the growth of new
tissue resembling glioma in its central parts. Its
cause is not accurately known, though it may
depend upon anomalous embryonic development
and it apparently follows infectious diseases as
well as wounds upon the hands. It is not
caused by alcohol or syphilis. nor is it hereditary.
It often appears after childbirth. It is rare. as
probably less than 300 cases have been reported.
The disease appears between the eleventh and
the thirtieth year, and is more frequent in males
than in females, in the proportion of 2.2 to 1.
The symptoms are pains in neck and arms with
reduced sensation in the hands, atrophy of the
muscles of the hands, arms. and shoulders, with
twitchings, followed by the same wasting in
muscles of back, thighs. and legs. The hands
become clawed, the feet deformed; and the spine
SYRINGOMYELIA.
SZECHENYI.
428
becomes curved, in extreme cases. Loss of sen-
sation to temperature and pain, while not to
touch, occurs, and is considered pathognomonic.
Eruptions and ulcerations appear on hands and
face, and many other changes occur. The dis-
ease runs for from five to twenty years, and the
prognosis for checking it is not good. It is in-
curable. Rest and general tonic treatment, hy-
drotherapy, and massage, as well as silver and
arsenic are among the therapeutic measures tried.
Consult: Dana, Temt-book of Nervous Diseases
(New York, 1902).
SYR’I1\TGOP’ORA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Gk. avpi;/5, syrinw, pipe, tube + wépog, poros,
passage, pore). A genus of fossil tabulate corals
in which the coral mass consists of a bundle of
slender cylindrical tubes that rise from a com-
mon base and that are connected at intervals by
slender hollow horizontal processes or plates.
The genus contains many species, and ranges
through the Upper Silurian, Devonian, and
Lower Carboniferous formations.
SYRINX (Neo-Lat., from Gk. o'i)pi)/E, pipe,
tube). A simple instrument of reeds, probably
the most ancient of all musical instruments. It
is thought to be identical with the Hebrew Ugab,
mentioned in the Bible. It is made in China
with twelve tubes of bamboo, and in Peru it is
made of cane or soapstone. It is seen in ancient
manuscripts and bas-reliefs. The Greeks sup-
posed it to have been made by the god Pan out
of reeds, and hence its secondary name, Pandean
pipes. It was formed of seven, eight, or nine
short hollow reeds cut in graduated lengths, so
as to produce a musical scale, and then fixed to-
gether by wax. The lower ends of the reeds
were closed and the upper ones open and on a
level, so that the lips could easily pass from one
pipe to another.
SYRLIN, zer’l-én, J ORG, the Elder ( ?-1491). A
famous German wood-carver and sculptor, active
at Ulm from about 1458, one of the most re-
markable masters of his time. The three-seated
stool of 1468 at the entrance of the choir in the
cathedral, and his chief production, the stately
double row of “Choir Stalls” (1469-74) there,
the first of their kind in richness and artistic
merit, exhibit a plastic beauty not even re-
motely equaled by any contemporary eifort. His
earliest known work is a “Singing Desk” (1458)
in the Museum of Antiquities, and as an isolated
production in stone is to be mentioned the
fountain in the market square, known as the
“Fischkasten” (1482). His son and pupil, J6RG,
the Younger (1455-c.1521), was a worthy in-
heritor of his art and executed the “Choir Stalls”
(1493) and the “Celebrants’ Stool” (1496), in
the church at Blaubeuren, also a similar stool
(1505) in the Neithardt Chapel of Ulm Cathe-
dral, and in the latter the sounding-board of the
pulpit (1510), more important architecturally
than as a work of sculpture.
SYRPHUS FLY (Neo-Lat., from Gk. m5p¢og,
syrphos, oéprpog, serphos, gnat). A fly of the
family Syrphidee, many species of which are of
much economic importance. More than 300
species occur in the United States. They are
stout-bodied flies and vary greatly in color.
Many species closely resemble bees and wasps.
Nearly all of them ‘are flower flies, and carry
pollen from one plant to another. Very many
syrphus flies in the larval state feed upon plant-
lice and other soft-bodied insects. Others live
in decaying wood or in manure or soft mud, in
the sap of trees or in the stems of plants, or in
fungi, or as guests of ants and bumblebees. The
rat-tailed maggot (q.v.) -is an example of the
forms found in soft mud or in manure. Those
which live in ants’ nests belong to the genus
Microdon and are among the strangest insect
larvae known. Those which live in the nests of
bumblebees belong to the genus Volucella, and
the adult flies resemble bumblebees. Consult
Williston, Synopsis of the North American
Syrphidae, Bulletin 31, United States National
Museum (Washington, 1886) .
SYIVTIS MA'JOR and SYR'TIS MYNOR.
The ancient names of two gulfs on the north coast
of Africa. See SIDRA, GULF or; and Camss,
GULF or.
SYSTOLE. See HEART.
SYSTYLE. An arrangement of classic col-
umns in which the intercolunmiation is very
narrow, being equal to only twice the diameter
of the column.
SYZRAN, siz-riin’y’. A river port in the
Government of Simbirsk, Russia. on the River
Syzran, near the right bank of the Volga (Map:
Russia, G 4). It lies in a low district, sub-
merged during the annual rise of the Volga. The
town is known as a grain exporting centre and
also manufactures leather, flour, etc. Population,
in 1897, 32,377.
SZABADKA, s5’b5t-k5.
See THERESIOPEL
SZABO, 36%, JOZSEF (1822-94). An Hun-
garian geologist. born in Kalocsa, near Pesth,
and educated in Pesth, where he studied law, and
at the School of Mines in Schemnitz. He be-
came professor in the higher industrial school at
Pesth in 1855, and in 1860 was appointed pro-
fessor of mineralogy and geology in the uni-
versity. Szabo wrote, mostly in Hungarian, on
geology, and in 1883 published a valuable text-
book of that science, with especial stress on
petrography.
SZARVAS, sor’vosh. A town of Hungary, in
the county of Békés, 85 miles southeast of Buda-
pest, on the left bank of the K6r6s (Map: Hun-
gary, G 3). Population, in 1900, 25,773.
SZATMAR-NEMETI, sot’mar-nii’mé-té. A
town in the County of Szatmzir, Hungary, 63
miles northeast of Debreczin, on the right bank
of the Szamos (Map: Hungary, H 3). It con-
tains a beautiful cathedral. There are manufac-
tures of pottery, linen, and plum brandy. Szat-
mar-Nemeti was founded by the Germans in the
eleventh century. Its poprlation in 1890 was
21,218; in 1900, 26,881, chiefly Magyars.
SZECHENYI, sa’cha-nyé, BELA, Count (1837
—). An Hungarian traveler and explorer, born
in Budapest. He traveled in North America in
1863 and in Algeria in 1865, and described the
former trip in Amerihai ittam (1865). In 1877-
80 he explored the East Indies, Japan, China,
Java, Borneo, Western Mongolia, and the fron-
tiers of Tibet. An Hungarian description of this
expedition was published in 1890 and a German
version, Die wissensehaftlichen Ergebnisse der
A town of Hungary.
SZECHENYI.
SZEGEDIN.
429
Reise des Grafen Béla Seéchenyi in Ostasien, in
1893.
SZECHENYI, ISTVAN (Stephen), Count
(1792-1860). An Hungarian statesman, born in
Vienna. As a youth he served in the Austrian
Army in the wars with Napoleon, and afterwards
traveled through Europe. In 1825 he took his
seat in the Upper House of the Hungarian Parlia-
ment. As a leader of the National Party he
endowed the Hungarian Academy of Science, a
conservatory of music, and a theatre, and found-
ed a society for effecting improvements in horse-
breeding. To his exertions were due the erection
of the great suspension bridge between Pesth and
Buda, the removal of obstacles to navigation at
the Iron Gate, the regulation of the Theiss, and
the introduction of steamboats on the Danube.
In 1847-48 he at first opposed the extreme meas-
ures of Kossuth, but later fell in with the popu-
lar movement and became a member of the
Ministry under Batthyanyi and Kossuth in 1848.
Becoming insane soon after, he was taken to the
asylum at Diibling, near Vienna, where, though
he partly regained his health, he spent his re-
maining years. In March, 1860, his papers were
searched by the police, and in a fit of excitement
he shot himself. Consult Lonyay, Graf Stephan
Seéchenyi und seine hinterassenen Schriften
(Pesth, 1875).
SZE-CHUEN, or SZE-CHUAN, se'chwtin’
(Chin., Four Rivers). The largest of the eighteen
provinces of China. It is bounded on the north by
Kan-su and Shen-si, on the east by Hu-peh, on
the south by Kwei-chow and Yun-nan, and on the
west by Tibet (Map: China, B 5). Area, 220,-
000 square miles. VVith the exception of the
elevated plain of Ching-tu (q.v.), 2400 square
miles in area, and 1800 feet above the level of
the sea, the province is entirely covered with
mountains, many of them rising above the snow
line. The eastern portion, east of the Min
River, may be regarded as Sze-chuen proper, the
western and more inaccessible part being inhabit-
ed chiefly by non-Chinese tribes—Man-tse, Si-fan,
and Lolos (q.v.) . The province is well watered by
the Yang-tse and its numerous tributaries—the
Yalung, the Min, the T’o, and the Kia-ling from
the north, and the Ta-kwan, the Nan-kwang, the
Yung-ning, the Chih-shui, the K’i-kiang, and
the Kung-t’an from the south. Nearly all of
these are obstructed in parts by rapids, but they
nevertheless form most valuable avenues of com-
munication in an otherwise difficult country.
The climate is not extreme, but changes are sud-
den. From October to February the country is
generally enveloped in deep fogs and the sun is
seldom seen. The rainy season begins in May and
is at its height in July.
Sze-chuen is rich in minerals, especially in
coal and iron, which occur together. Coal is
found everywhere, but the seams are thin and
the quality does not compare with the coal of
Kan-su, Shan-si, Ho-nan, or even Hu-nan. It has
not as yet been mined by modern methods. Cop-
per, silver, gold, and lead occur in small quanti-
ties. Notwithstanding the mountainous char-
acter of the country, agriculture has been
brought to a high state of perfection, and the
province produces everything needed for home
consumption except cotton and wool. The hill-
sides in many places have been terraced with
much industry and skill. Wheat is a winter
crop, but it has been largely encroached on by
poppy culture, which is more remunerative.
Rice, the staple article of diet, is very exten-
sively grown. Other crops are barley, maize,
millet, buckwheat, pulse, potatoes, tobacco of
very fine quality, tea, sugar, indigo, and sesa-
mum, rape and other oil-producing plants. Hemp
is the only textile plant grown, except that used
in the manufacture of grass-cloth.
Other important products are silk, white wax,
vegetable tallow, tung-oil, rhubarb, medicines,
musk, and hides. Wool is imported from Shen-si,
Tibet, Kokonor, and other regions. Cotton, both
raw and manufactured, comes chiefly from Hu-
peh. Cotton spinning and weaving are important
home industries, and the cloth is exported to
Tibet and Yun-nan, along with tea and silk. Iron
manufacture from the ores of the province is one
of the most extensive industries. Enormous
quantities of salt are obtained from brine-springs
from 500 to 2000 or more feet in depth, the brine
being evaporated by natural gas or coal. It is a
Government monopoly, and brings in a large reve-
nue to both the provincial and the Imperial gov-
ernments. Large numbers of people are also
employed in paper-making and the production of
fans, umbrellas, crape, gauze, and beautiful silk
embroideries, etc.
Sze-chuen can be entered from the east by only
two routes: either overland through Shan-si and
Shen-si, along difficult mountain paths infested
by robbers, or up the Yang-tse by steam to
I-chang (q.v.) and thence by native, specially
constructed, junks which are hauled slowly and
at great expense and risk up formidable rapids
and through deep gorges. VVithin the province it-
self there are many pack-roads paved with flags,
and with steps cut in the rocks at very steep
places. For travelers sedans and ponies are
used, and for goods coolie carriers. Capital,
Ching-tu (q.v.) , where resides the Governor-Gen-
eral, who also has charge of East Tibet (q.v.).
The only port opened to foreign trade is Ch’ung-
k’ing (q.v.). Population, about 70,000,000. The
province buys more foreign goods than any other.
See Baber, Travels and Researches in Western
China (London, 1882); Hosie, Three Years in
Western China (London and New York, 1890) ;
and Bishop, The Yang-tse Valley and Beyond
(London and New York, 1901).
SZEGEDIN, ség’éd-én (Hung. Szegecl). A
royal free city of Hungary, next in size to Buda-
pest, in the County of Csongrzid, on the right
bank of the Theiss a little below the confluence
of the Maros, 96 miles southeast of Budapest
(Map: Hungary, G 3). The town has been large-
ly and handsomely rebuilt since the terrible in-
undation of 1879, when 2000 persons lost their
lives. A high dike has been constructed to pro-
tect the city from another such disaster. The
modern streets are wide and there are several
attractive squares. Szegedin has a fine rococo
town hall, a Gothic cathedral, a handsome thea-
tre, and other stately edifices. The Franciscan
monastery contains an excellent library (80,000
volumes) and a museum of antiquities. There are
also a Minorite and a Piarist monastery. The
principal manufactures are paper, salt, cloth, and
the famous Szegedin soap. As the commercial
centre of the great Hungarian Alf6ld it has a brisk
SZEGE-DIN.
SZUJ SKI.
430
trade in grain, wool,. tobacco, lumber, etc., both
by rail and river, the Theiss being lined with
quays. Boat-building is extensively carried on.
New Szegedin lies on the opposite bank. - Szegedin
was fortified by the Turks, who held it from 1526
for 160 years. Population, in 1890, 87,410; in
1900, 102,991, mostly Catholic Magyars.
SZEGSZARD, sek’sard. A town of Hungary,
capital of the County of Tolna, on the right bank
of the Danube, 84 miles south of Budapest (Map:
Hungary, F 3) . The town produces an ex-
ceptionally fine red wine. Population, in 1900,
13,895, mostly Catholic Magyars.
SZEKLERS. See TBANSYLVANIA.
SZELL, S51, KOLOMAN (l843—-). An Hunga-
rian statesman, born in Gosstony, and educated
at Budapest and Vienna. Entering local politics
in 1867 and Parliament the next year, he so dis-
tinguished himself by his financial interpellations
that in 1875 he was offered the portfolio of finance
by Wenckheim. He retained it until 1878, when
he retired because of his disapproval of the
Bosnian occupation. He then became president
of a great financial institution in Budapest, re-
fusing every inducement to rel-inter the Cabinet
until the fall of Banffy in 1899, when he rose to
the head of the Government as Minister of the
Interior and president of the Council. He re-
tired in June, 1903.
SZE-MA KWANG, se’ma’kwang’, or SSU-
MA KUAN G (1019-86). A distinguished
Chinese statesman and historian, born in Hia, a
district of Ho-nan. At nineteen he entered the
public service, rose rapidly, became president of
the Hanlin Yuan (q.v.), and a Minister of
State. He is specially noted for the persistency
and the vigor of his opposition to Wang An-shih
(q.v.) , ‘the innovator.’ Failing to induce the Em-
peror to dismiss Wang and repeal his reform,
Sze-ma retired to private life, and devoted him-
self to literature and especially to the prepara-
tion of his History of China (B.C. 403 to AD.
960), in 294 books, called the Comprehensive Mir-
ror for the Aid of Those Who Govern. In 1085,
on the death of the Emperor, he was taken into
favor by the Empress Regent, was reinstated in
office, and at once set about the repeal of the
reforms of Wang, but he died in the following
year. Besides the Comprehensive Mirror, he was
the author of the Ki-lcu-lu, or Investigations into
Antiquity, in 20 books, which extends to AD.
1067, an etymological dictionary, and many mis-
cellaneous essays. See Rémusat, N ouveauw mé-
langes Asiatiques (2 vols., Paris, 1829), and
Giles, Chinese Literature (New York, 1901) .
SZE-MAO, sé’m0u’. A town in the south-
western part of the Province of Yun-nan, China,
situated 185 miles southwest by west of Yun-nan-
fu. The trade of Sze-mao is almost entirely with
Burma and Tibet. The town was opened to for-
eign residence and trade in 1897. Population,
estimated at 14,000.
SZE-MA 'I.‘S’IEN, Sé’I113i' ClléI1', or SSU-MA
CH’IEN (c.145-c.85 B.C.). The first great his-
torian of China. He was born in Lung-miin, in
Ho-nan, made great progress in learning while
still a child, and at twenty began a great tour of
the Empire. On his return he entered the public
service, and was commissioned to inspect and re-
port upon the regions now known as Sze-chuen
and Yun-nan, then recently conquered. On the
death of his father in B.C. 110 he succeeded him
as historiographer, and entered upon the task of
completing the great historical work which had
been begun by his father. This he accomplished
13.0. 91, but the work did not appear until some
years after his death. It is entitled Shih Ki, or
“Historical Records,” and in 130 books gives the
history of the country from B.C. 2697 to 13.0. 104.
For specimens of his style, see Giles, Chinese Lit-
erature (New York, 1901).
SZENTES, sen’tesh. A market-town of the
County of Csongrad, Hungary, on a tributary of
the Theiss, 28 miles north by east of Szegedin
(Map: Hungary, G 3). The town formerly suf-
fered from inundations, but is now protected by
a number of large dikes. Agriculture and fish-
ing are the principal pursuits, and wine is ex-
ported. Population, in 1890, 30,797; in 1900,
31,308, mostly Lutheran Magyars.
SZIGLIGETI, sig’li-géflti, EDUARD (1814-78).
An Hungarian dramatist, whose real name was
Joseph Szatmary. Born at Grosswardein, he
studied engineering, but in 1834 went on the
stage at Buda and in 1837 became secretary and
stage manager of the newly erected national
theatre at Pest. Of his numerous dramas sev-
eral were crowned with prizes by the Academy,
among them Rozsa, Vdndor szinészelc (Itinerant
Actors), Béldi Pal, Lacefi Imre, and Béla I V.,
but the greatest success attended his popular
plays drawn from national life, many of which
found their way also to the German stage,
notably The Deserter, Two Pistols, The Csiho’s,
The Foundling, and others. Besides his excellent
A drdma és vdlfajai (The Drama and its Species,
1874), he published biographies of Hungarian
actors (1878). He was a member of the Acad-
emy and of the Kisfaludy Society, and, since
1874, director of the National Theatre.
SZILAGYI, se’lad-y-e, SANDOR (1827-99). An
Hungarian historian, born at Klausenburg, and
educated there and at Marosyasarhely. In 1867
he was appointed secretary in_ the Ministry of
Public Instruction, and in 1879 was made libra-
rian of the University Library at Budapest. He
founded the Hungarian Historical Society, of
which he was- secretary until his death, and of
whose organ, Szdzadoh (“The Centuries”), he
was editor. He was the moving spirit in the
revival of historical interest which took place
in Hungary after 1849, published many mono-
graphs himself, and edited or projected works of
importance. Of these may be mentioned the
M onumenta Comitialia Regni Transylvanice, in
twenty-one volumes; a collection of papers from
Hungaro-Turkish sources in nine volumes; and a
national history in ten volumes (1895-98) .
SZOLNOK, sol’nok. A town of Hungary, the
capital of the County of J azygia—Great Cumania
—-Szolnok, 57 miles southeast of Budapest, on the
right bank of the Theiss, at the mouth of the
Zagyva (Map: Hungary, G 3). On March 5,
1849, the Austrian General Karger was defeated
here by the Hungarians. Population, in 1890,
21,094; in 1900, 25,379, mostly Catholic Magyars.
SZUJ SKI, shwis’ki, J6ZEF (1835-83). A Po-
lish historian and dramatist, born at lfarnov,
Galicia. He studied in Cracow and Vienna, be-
came associated with Tarnovski in the estab-
lishment and redaction of the Przeglad Polski in
SZUJ SKI.
SZUJSKI.
431
1867 and was appointed professor of Polish his-
tory at the University of Cracow in 1869, sub-
sequently also secretary-general of the Academy
of Sciences. In 1881 he was called to a seat in
the Austrian House of Lords. He published
many mediaeval documents and chronicles bearing
upon Polish history and in his excellent Dzieje
Polslci (1862-66; new ed. 1896) presented a his-
tory of Poland based upon the most recent re-
searches. In German he wrote Die Polen und
Ruthenen in Galieien (1882). Besides poems
and tales he produced a number of historical
dramas, remarkable for spirited characterization,
such as Halselca z Ostroga (1858); Jerey Lu-
bomirski (1863) ; M aryna Mniszchovna (1876);
J adviga, Kopernilcus, and others.
Tl
The twentieth letter of the English
alphabet. Its Semitic original tau
the last letter of the Phoenician
alphabet, meant cross, and was so
called on account of the early shape
of the character. The various
forms which it has assumed are as follows:
XT XTT T
Early Greek Later Greek
Phoenician. and Latin. and Latin.
As a phonetic character t is the voiceless alveo-
lar explosive. To form this sound the tongue-
tip is brought into contact with the sockets of
the upper front teeth, and the breath is made
to escape explosively. _ _
English t represents in general an ongmal
Indo-Germanic d, as Sanskrit dam, ‘to tame,’
Greek 6a/aim, Latin domare, English tame._ It
may also represent an original Indo-Germamc t,
as in Sanskrit stigh, ‘to step,’ Greek oral;/0,
Anglo-Saxon stigan, English stile. An excrescent
t occurs especially between s and 1', as a glide-
sound between the median and lateral positions
of the tongue, as in English stream, compared
with Sanskrit sracas. An inorganic t has also
been developed in some modern English words
after a final s, as amidst from amiddes,
amongst from amonges, whilst from whites, and
in the dialectic oncet, twicet.
The digraph th represents both the voiced
and the voiceless spirant, as then, thorough. It
may be pronounced t, as Thames, thyme, as may
also the -ed of the preterite and perfect par-
ticiple, as dressed. In several words t is silent,
as in chasten, moisten, christen, castle, gristle,
hustle. In action, nation, portion, ti has the
sound of -sh.
As 3. mediaeval numeral T = 160; T = 160.000.
In music t = tenor, tempo.
TAAFFE, t‘a’fe, EDUARI), Count (1883-95).
An Austrian statesman of Irish extraction.
He was born at Prague, and was educated in com-
panionship with the Emperor Francis Joseph.
He entered the public service in 1857 and was
appointed Governor of Salzburg in 1863. He was
Minister of the Interior in 1867 and Minister of
National Defense in 1868, becoming president of
the Council after Prince Auersperg’s retirement
in September, 1868. He resigned in January,
1870, but three months later became again Min-
ister of the Interior and remained in ofi‘ice until
February, 1871, when he was made Governor of
432
Tyrol and Vorarlberg. In February, 1879, Taaffe
was once more appointed Minister of the Interior
and in August he formed a new Cabinet, over
which he presided until 1893. The distinguishing
feature of his administration was the greater
weight given to the Slav nationalities, especially
the Czechs and the Poles, as well as to the cleri-
cals, in the public affairs of the Empire and
his vain effort to conciliate the divergent na-
tionalities comprised in the Empire. He finally
attempted to sustain his Government by a radi-
cal electoral reform measure, which displeased
all parties, and was compelled to retire in No-
vember, 1893. He died November 29, 1895.
TAAL, tal. A town of Luzon, Philippines, in
the Province of Batangas. It is on the Transipit
River near its fall into the Gulf of Balayan, and
is connected by a bridge with Lemeri on the oppo-
site bank (Map: Luzon, E 11). It carries on a
large trade in coffee, sugar, and cotton goods in
addition to the local industries of agriculture,
fishing, and stock-raising. The old town of Taal
was situated on the bank of the lake of the same
name near the volcano Taal (q.v.), and was
destroyed in 1754. Population, in 1897, 22,000,
now estimated at about 33,400, of whom a con-
siderable number are of Chinese origin.
TAAL, or BOMBON. A volcano in Central
Luzon, Philippines. It forms a small island in
the middle of Lake Taal, which lies 10 miles
southwest of the Bay Lagoon. Its height is only
a little over 1000 feet, but it has a crater over
a mile in diameter. A number of eruptions have
been recorded since the discovery of the islands,
the last occurring in 1873.
TAALIBI, ta-le’be (Ar. Aba M ansztr Abd
al-Malih ibn Muhammad ibn Isma ’il al-Ta ‘alibi )
(961-1038). A prolific writer upon philological
and literary subjects. He was a native of Persia,
his birthplace being Nisabur, and he represented
the Persiafn-Arabic school of literature. Arabic
philology was now passing from the ancient
schools of Basra and Kufa to Persian soil. Por-
tions of Taalibi’s works have been edited in Eu-
rope and translated, for example: Seligman,
Prooemium et Specimen Leacici Synongmici Ar-
abici Atthalibi (Upsala, 1863) ; Cool, Selecta em
Thaalebii Libro Facetia/rum (Leyden, 1835) ;
Valeton, Talibii Sgntagma Dictorum Breoium et
Acutorum (Leyden, 1844). Consult Brockelmann,
Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar,
1898).
TABAGO.
TABE RNACLE-.
433
TABAGO, ta-ba’go.
Indies. See TOBAGO.
TABANIDJE (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat.
tabanus, gad-fly). A numerous family of dipter-
ous insects which live by sucking the blood of
horses, cattle, and other animals, and are popu-
larly known as gad-flies, horse-flies, or deer-flies.
See GAD-FLY.
TABARD, THE. A famous inn of old London.
It was situated on High Street, Southwark, near
Kent Road, and must have been in existence as
early as the fourteenth century, for Chaucer
starts his pilgrims from it on their journey
to the shrine of Thomas Becket. Its sign was
a tabard or sleéveless jacket. At the end of the
sixteenth century it was in high repute. In
the seventeenth century it was damaged by the
Great Fire, and in the process of restoration the
sign was changed to a ‘Talbot.’ It was con-
demned in 1866 and its site is at present occu-
pied by the freight depot of the Midland Railway.
TABARI, ta-b'a’r-e (Ar. Abe Ja ‘far Muham-
mad ibn Jarir al-Tabari) (838-923). Author of
the first universal history in Arabic. A Persian,
born in Tabaristan, he studied at Bagdad and
visited the other schools in Syria and Egypt. He
settled at last in Bagdad, and gave himself to
teaching and incessant literary labors. His great
historical work is the Annals, a history of the
world from the creation to A.H. 302. This has
been published at Leyden by de Goeje (1879
sqq.). N6ldeke’s Geschichte der Perser
und Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden (Leyden,
1879) is a translation of portions of the Annals.
His commentary on the Koran stands superior
to all other commentaries. Consult Brockelmann,
Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar,
1898).
TABASCO, ta-Bas’k-6. A maritime State of
Mexico, bounded by the Gulf of Mexico on the
north, the State of Campeche and the Republic of
Guatemala on the east, Chiapas on the south,
and Vera Cruz on the west (Map: Mexico, M 8).
Area, 10,072 square miles. Tabasco is well
watered and some of its rivers, as the Usuma-
cinta, are navigable to some extent. The climate
is hot and unhealthful and the rainfall very
abundant. The fertile soil yields good crops
of cacao, sugar, coffee, tobacco, rice, and fruit.
Stock-raising is of secondary importance. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 158,107. Capital, San Juan
Bautista.
TABASHEER (Hind. tabrishir, Skt. tweak-
_s/Zra, toaiesira, bamboo-manna) . A substance
sometimes found in the cavities or tubular parts
of the stems of- bamboos and other large grasses.
It consists chiefly of silica, with a little lime
and vegetable matter, or sometimes of silica and
potash. It appears to be formed by extravasation
of the juices of the plant, in consequence of
some diseased condition of the nodes or joints. It
is in high repute among the Hindus as a tonic,
and is prepared by imperfect calcination and
trituration. Tabasheer has a beautiful veined
structure and is remarkable as having the lowest
refracting power of any known substance.
TABB, JOHN BANISTER ( 1845-). An Ameri-
can poet, born in Virginia. He was a Roman
Catholic priest and professor of English litera-
ture at Saint Charles College, Ellicott City, Md.
The verse of Father Tabb is scant, comprising
An island of the West
Poems (1883), An Octave to Mary (1893),
Lyrics (1897), Poems Grace and Gay (1899),
and Two Lyrics (1900), but it is distinguished for
its sympathy with whatever subjects it treats
from nature, literature, or religion, for the deli-
cacy and refinement of its sentiment, and for the
precision of its verse. The Sisters, To Shelley,
Clover, Indian Summer, The Child, and The
Druid are examples of his exquisite lyric quality,
and of his choice of subject. His thought is gen-
erally compressed into a few stanzas, often a
quatrain.
TABERNACLE (Lat. tabernaculum, dimin-
utive of taberna, hut, booth; connected with
tabula, plank, board, table, tablet, Umbrian tafle,
on a table). A portable sanctuary which, ac-
cording to the traditional view, was carried about
by the Israelites in the wilderness. The com-
mand to build this structure is found in Exodus
xxv. 10-xxvii. 19, and the account of its con-
struction in almost identical terms in Exodus
xxxvi. 8-xxxviii. 31. While it is called a tent,
it was in reality a house, having upright walls
made of thick boards on three sides, and a cur-
tain on the fourth. The wooden framework had
four coverings, one of linen, one of black goats’
hair, one of rams’ skins dyed red, and one of the
skins of wethers. In front the curtain was fas-
tened to pillars made of acacia wood, with cop-
per bases and capitals covered with gold. This
structure was divided into two parts, separated
by an inner curtain, supported by four pillars
with bases of silver and wholly overlaid with
gold. The outer and larger apartment was ‘the
Holy Place,’ accessible to priests only; the inner,
‘the Holy of Holies,’ was entered only once a
year by the high priest. Around the sanctuary
was a court inclosed by curtains supported by
sixty pillars of wood with bases of bronze and
capitals overlaid with silver. In the Holy of
Holies stood the Ark of the Covenant; in the
Holy Place the table of shewbread, the golden
candlestick, and the altar of incense; in the court
stood the brazen altar of burnt-offering - and
around it were ash-pans, shovels, bowls, forks,
and fire-pans of brass, while in the middle was
the great brazen laver.‘ The tabernacle is de-
scribed as being of extraordinary splendor and
of the costliest materials. It stood in the centre
of the camp, and was carried by a large retinue
of men when the camp moved. Modern scholars
generally regard the description as wholly imag-
inary and devoid of historical value. It is con-
sidered as having been drawn on the basis of
Solomon’s temple and projected into the Mosaic
period. This is indicated not only by the im-
possibility of such a house being constructed and
carried about in the wilderness, but also by the
fact that the earlier records know nothing of a
tabernacle of this kind, while an Ephraemitish
narrative has preserved the picture of a much
simpler tent where Yahweh revealed himself to
Moses (Ex. xxxiii. 7 et seq.; Num. xi. 25; xii. 5;
xiv. 10). This ‘tent of meeting’ (’6hel m6e'd)
stood outside the camp a.nd was only a small
tent with a single custodian, and Yahweh re-
vealed Himself there in a cloud at the door. It
is not impossible that the memory of such a
portable shrine, common to many nations, car-‘
ried about while they were still nomads, sur-
vived among some of the tribes that afterwards
formed the people of Israel. Apparently the ark
TABE RNACLE-.
TABLE-WARE. '
434
has its own history, and was not originally con-
nected with this tent. The tent plays no part in
the early history of Israel in Canaan, while the
ark is of great importance.
In the Roman Catholic Church tabernacle is
the name given to the receptacle in which the
consecrated elements of the Eucharist are re-
tained. By the present discipline, the tabernacle
is commonly a small structure of marble, metal,
or wood, placed above the altar, and of costly
material and workmanship. Even when the ex-
terior structure is of marble or metal, there
is commonly an inner receptacle of wood (prop-
erly cedar), lined with silk. The tabernacle is
appropriated exclusively to the reservation of the
Eucharist, and it is prohibited to keep within
it any other object. A red lamp is kept con-
stantly burning before the tabernacle.
Consult: Colenso, The Pentateu-ch and
the Book of Joshua Critically Eau/mined
(London, 1862-7 9) ; Kuenen, De Godsdienst van
Israel (Haarlem, 1869); Wellhausen, Protege-
mena sur Geschichte Israels (4th ed., Berlin,
1895) ; Carpenter and Battersby, The H eacateuch
(London, 1900) ; Kennedy, article “Tabernacle,”
in the Hastings Bible Dictionary (New York,
1902); Benzinger, article “Tabernacle,” in En-
cyolopoeclia Biblica (London, 1903).
TABERNACLES, FEAST OF (Heb. Khag has-
sruleluith) . The name given in the Old Testament
codes to a festival which marked the close of the
harvest of fruit, oil, and wine in Palestine. As a
harvest festival it is also known as the Feast
of Ingathering (Ex. xxiii. 16; xxxiv. 22) and can
be traced back to the Canaanites. The festival was
marked by general jubilation and by a visit to
some sanctuary, accompanied by sacrifices for the
purpose of testifying gratitude to the giver of
fertility. Among the popular customs observed
by the Canaanites was the erection of booths in
the vineyards, in which the people dwelt during
the vintage. Hence the name Festival of Booths
(or Tabernacles) in the four passages besides
those already mentioned in which the ritual is
set forth (Deut. xvi. 13-15; xxxi. 10-13; Lev.
xxiii. 34-36; 39-44; Num. xxix. 12-40). This
Canaanitish agricultural festival was adopted
by the Hebrews and in the Deuteronomic and
Priestly codes was given an historical aspect by
interpreting the custom of dwelling in booths as
a reminiscence of the nomadic stage in the life
of the people, and more particularly of the tra-
ditional forty years’ sojourn in the wilderness
when the tent formed the only habitation. The
pristine importance of the festival may be gath-
ered from the fact that it was called ‘the festi-
val’ par excellence and that originally it was the
single occasion in the year on which a pilgrim-
age to a sanctuary was prescribed. As finally
shaped in the Hebrew ritual, it extended over the
seven days from the fifteenth to the twenty-
second day of Tishri (the seventh month) , and in
addition the eighth day was observed as a ‘solemn
assembly,’ which in Rabbinical Judaism devel-
oped into the festival of ‘Rejoicing of the Law.’
Booths were erected on the roofs of houses or in
the courts and streets, made of olive, pine, myrtle,
and palm branches (of. Neh. viii. 15) . The sac-
rifices prescribed for this feast were more numer-
ous than for any other, sin-offerings (one kid
daily) and burnt-offerings (two rams and 14
lambs daily), being prescribed for each day be-
sides 70 bullocks during the seven days (13 on
the first day, 12 on the second, a.nd so on in a
diminishing scale). Besides these distinctly
biblical enactments, we find in the days of the
second temple daily processions around the
temple altar, the priestly procession to Siloam to
fetch water and its libation in connection with
the morning sacrifice (of. John vii. 37), the sing-
ing of the Hallel psalms (Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.), the
lighting of the four great golden candelabra in
the Court of the Women (John viii. 12), and the
carrying of palm branches entwined with myrtle
and willow together with a specimen of the
ethrog (or citron) fruit by the worshipers into
the synagogues. The erection of booths and the
waving of the palm branches with the ethrog are
customs still observed in orthodox Jewish com-
munities. Consult the Hebrew archeeologies of
Nowack and Benzinger,
TABES DORSALIS, ta’béz dor-sa’lis. See
Looomoron ATAXIA. '
TABLATURE (Fr. tablature, from Lat.
tabula, plank, board, table, tablet). A method
of musical notation used in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries. At first it was chiefly employed
for the lutes and viols. The lines and spaces of
the staff did not represent the pitch of the notes,
but the frets of the instrument. Either the
lines or the spaces were used, but not both. These
lines or spaces varied according to the number
of the strings of each instrument. The French
and English tablatures denoted the tones by
letters, the Italian by numerals. But the Ger-
man or organ tablatures employed a regular staff
and musical notation for the melody or highest
part, while the tones completing the harmony
were written by letters vertically below each
note of the melody. All tablatures had three
points in common: (1) All letters or figures be-
longing to the same chord were written vertically
one above the other; ( 2) all employed lines for
the division of the separate bars or measures;
(3) all made use of a uniform system to denote
the time-value of notes and rests. These signs
were written either above or below the numbers
or letters.
line placed below the note sign.
TABLELAND. See PLATEAU.
TABLE MOUNTAIN, or TAFELBERG,
t‘:i’fel-bere. A mountain of Cape Colony over-
looking Cape Town and Table Bay. It is 3540
feet high and is named for its peculiar shape and
level top. It is often covered with a white cloud,
which is called the ‘Tablecloth.’
TABLES, LUNAR. Tabular lists of numerical
data based on the elements (q.v) . of the moon’s '
orbit and used for calculating the moon’s position
on the sky. See NAUTICAL ALMANAO.
TABLET OF ABYDOS. See ABYDOS.
TABLEWARE, SILVER-PLATED. The manu-
facture of silver-plated, tableware originated in
England, and the centre of its manufacture was
at Sheffield and Birmingham. The industry now
flourishes in Germany and also in the United
States, where the Rogers Brothers were the first
to apply the process of electroplating with silver
to table utensils. This they did in 1846, and in
1851 a company was formed in Hartford, Conn.,
for the manufacture of electro-plated ware. At
the close of the century the -silver-plated and
Rests were denoted by a horizontal
TABLE-WARE.
TABO O.
435
britannia ware industry had spread into seven
States, in which were located about 50 factories.
Connecticut, however, still led, about one-half
' the total number of factories being in that State,
with an annual product valued at $9,538,397.
Before the introduction of electro-plating, all
ware was plated by the application of a thin
sheet of silver to the object. Bits of solder were
placed here and there between the plating and
the body material, and, on subjecting the object
to moderate but continued heat, the solder Was
melted and firmly united the metals. In this
process it was always difficult to finish the sharp
edges so they had the appearance of a continu-
ous silver surface. The art of fashioning ma-
terials by stamping them out with dies (see DIES
AND DIE-SINKING) has greatly facilitated and
cheapened the manufacture of plated ware. In
the modern factory three methods are employed
for shaping the body material before the plating
is applied—-spinning, stamping, and casting, and
special parts are sometimes hammered into shape.
(See REPOUSSE.) The body material used in a
standard factory is the composite metal called
German silver, which consists of 53 per cent. cop-
per, 31%, per cent. zinc, and 15%, per cent. of
nickel. Stamping is the method usually em-
ployed when a large number of objects after the
same pattern are to be made. When only one or
a few pieces are to be made according to a given
design, they are usually spun. In this process the
object is shaped over a rapidly revolving wooden
mold, known as a chuck, frequent annealing be-
ing required to keep the metal flexible. Spinning
requires considerable manual dexterity, while
stamping is a purely mechanical process. But
the preliminary making of the wooden mold is
much easier and cheaper than that of the metal
die. Of course only objects which are somewhat
spherical in shape can be spun, and the flat metal
which is thus molded into shape is stamped out
of the sheet. Often the chucks are sectional and
hinged, so that they can be removed from the
finished object, when this object is narrower at
the top than atother portions; but oftener a
dish, whether stamped or spun, is fashioned in
several sections, which are soldered together be-
fore plating. Ornamental borders and similar
decorations are stamped separately and soldered
on. The final preparation for plating is to re-
move all roughnesses and scratches from each
article and render it perfectly smooth, which is
done by sand-finishing.
In applying the process of electro-plating
(q.v.) to produce silver-plated ware, the objects
are first washed in caustic soda and then in a
strong solution of nitric, sulphuric, and hydro-
chloric acids. The trade terms ‘single,’ ‘triple,’
and ‘quadruple,’ which are commonly applied to
plated ware to denote its quality, are somewhat
misleading, for the heaviness of the plate usually
depends upon the length of time during which the
object remains in the electric bath, and not on
the number of times the dip is repeated. The
ware is carefully weighed before and after im-
mersion and is allowed to remain in the bath un-
til the desired number of pennyweights of silver
ha.ve been added to its weight, an operation
which, in thoroughly good ware, requires several
hours, although the vessel is quite as attractive
in appearance after a bath of a few minutes. It
is sometimes stated that danger of poison is in-
curred in using certain forms of cheaply made
plated ware, but in all but the poorest quality
the silver is subjected to so many cleansing
processes after it is plated that not a vestige of
the deadly poison, cyanide of potassium, in which
it has been immersed can remain upon its sur-
face. Standard ware, after it is plated, is fin-
ished by a succession of processes of hand polish-
ing and burnishing.
TABOO’ (Samoan tapu, Hawaiian hapa, for-
bidden) . An object or act religiously interdicted,
and the religious system based upon such inter-
diction. Under various names and in one form or
another, the practice of taboo is found all over
the earth; but it has nowhere else been so sys-
tematized as in Polynesia. Primarily, taboo is
something forbidden because the tabooed object
_is regarded 'as potent to injure owing to its mana,
or mysterious (spiritual) power, which may be
either holy, as a priest’s possession, or unclean,
as a corpse. There is at first no moral signifi-
cance in taboo, and in many cases the interdict
is due merely to fear of spirits. Thus in New
Zealand there are a mana taboo and an ataa
taboo, the latter arising from a belief in spirits,
ataa, or a more personal embodiment of mana,
Even in rites of purification the object is simply
to keep off evil spirits. Taboo in many cases re-
verts to another phase of primitive philosophy,
which sees retained in blood, nails, hair, etc.,
though severed from the body, the spiritual
power of the individual. But in some cases
taboo is merely the expression of conservatism,
which may be religious or social. An instance of
the former is the taboo of iron in religious cere-
monies. Thus in such ceremonies both the an-
cient Romans and the modern Pawnee Indians
put a taboo on iron, since the gods dislike innova-
tions. Even without the fear of divinities, the
same religious conservatism prevents the Austra-
lians from using stone implements in circum-
cision, for which they employ the still more
antique burnt-wood knife. But there is also a
social conservatism resulting in taboo. Foreigners
and new things generally are dangerous and are
regularly tabooed by many wild tribes (as in
Africa), though the taboo is easily removed ex-
cept in the case of chiefs. In such cases the
foreign person, thing, or act is tabooed because of
the unknown and dreaded mana. But, on the
other hand, there are taboos which are simply in
the interest of old practices. Thus the Hindu
laws give the bed-hours of kings, and it needs
only the right environment of superstition and
antiquity to make such laws seem to be the ef-
fect of taboo, as in Egypt, though there can be no
question that this is not the case in India.
_ Taboo may be permanent or temporary, pri-
vate or public. Especially stringent are all royal
and priestly taboos, because kings and priests
control the weal of the people and must, for the
people’s sake, be guarded against danger in food
and the like. In some cases a king becomes a
mere slave bound by the rules thus laid upon him.
In others he makes taboos for his own interest.
The king is guarded from tabooed acts and ob-
jects; but the people too _must guard themselves
from the mysterious divine ma-na of the king,
and it is this latter aspect of taboo which king
1and priest alike find it for their interest to main-
am.
What is not taboo is noa, common, and in this
antithesis lies the germ of the conception of per-
TABO O.
TABO RITE S.
436
sonal property as applied to many persons and
things. Thus taboo became in many cases merely
an assertion of proprietary rights, as may be
seen fro1n the fact that a lesser chief’s taboo was
disregarded in New Zealand by a stronger chief,
but a stronger chief’s taboo was feared and re-
spected by one weaker. Isolation was the ob-
ject of taboo and this was the first stage to
ownership. Food-taboos are often totemistic or
hygienic, and the taboo of knots, which is very
common, is a temporary taboo imposed because
of the belief in mimetic magic. But it is
not necessary that the imitative act be due to a
wish to injure. Thus in Africa, Greece, and else-
where there is a taboo on knots, locks, crossed
arms and legs; in short, on all that suggests an
impediment. Another common taboo is the
hlonipa or name-taboo of the Kafirs, with the‘
woman-language found among the Kafirs (as also
among the Semites and the Caribs), certain
names and words being tabooed, for example, the
names of fearful beasts in India, of kings in
Africa, and of the dead in Australia and else-
where, as well as words used only by women.
Sex-taboo is very common. Thus the belief that
a woman’s blood is fatal to a man leads at stated
periods to a temporary taboo of women even
among civilized Hindus, and in many countries
men may not eat with women. Other common
examples of taboo are as follows: To be ill, or to
touch a corpse or grave, a king or a priest, or
anything divine (such as royal blood) renders
one taboo. A priest’s or a king’s clothes are so
filled with mana that it would kill any one else
to wear them, and to enter a chief’s house or
even in some cases to look at a great chief would
be destructive. A priest’s house is taboo even
to himself, so far as eating in it goes. The taboo
of part of one’s self is often recognized. Thus,
when a person is under taboo he may not touch
his own head and has to be fed by another or eat
with chopsticks. Such a person may not touch a
drinking vessel lest he render it also taboo and
dangerous. For whatever comes in contact with
a tabooed object becomes itself tabooed. The
private or public taboo of places for certain prac-
tical reasons is also noteworthy. A river is
tabooed by a king until the fishing-season is
over; a wood, till the game is caught; a field,
till the harvest is gathered. A public taboo is
where, as in New Zealand, a whole community is
made taboo while getting in their crops. This
renders it impossible for any member of the
tribe to do anything else till the taboo is re-
moved, and prevents any stranger from approach-
ing the tabooed ground. The removal of a public
taboo is made by a. priest who repeats a spell
and performs certain rites over the tabooed peo-~
ple. If a chief wants anything for himself he
taboos it by calling it part of himself. Women,
if of high rank, may taboo an object as effectively
as do chiefs of the tribe.
Taboo has been explained either as a priestly
trick or as a religious observance, required by
the chief for political reasons. But neither ex-
planation will suffice, though many taboos may
be referred to the arbitrary enactment of priest
or king, and again some taboos are not religious
at all. Others explain taboo as due to a cate-
gorical imperative, and deduce from it all moral
laws as well as most of the practices of civil-
ized communities, such as caste, the wearing of
ornaments, the carrying of umbrellas, the wash-
ing of new-born babes, etc. On the other hand,
oaths, the punishment of murderers and thieves,
and marriage restrictions may be developed out
of a taboo system, which recognizes no moral sin,
only the danger of ‘breaking taboo.’ But in that
case we have to do not with a categorical impera-
tive, but with a belief in a mysterious spiritual
potency and the fear of its effect. An extension
of this belief results in its becoming purely for-
mal. Taboo itself then may be divided into pure-
ly religious and formal taboo; while, if every-
thing ‘forbidden’ is to be called taboo, there
must be added a mass of detailed regulations
arising from different sources, some of them hav-
ing no connection with what is strictly called
taboo; and it is evident that for such a combina-
tion of effects there can be no one explanation.
Consult: Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand
and Its Inhabitants (2d ed., London, 1870) ;
Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.,
ib., 1894) ; Jevons, Introduction to the History of
Religion (ib., 1896) ; Frazer, The Golden Bough
(2d ed., ib., 1900).
TABOR (Heb. Thabor, lofty place). The
most conspicuous and famous mountain in Galilee
(Map: Palestine, C 2). Its summit is 1843 feet
above sea level. As a typical mountain of the
Holy Land it impressed itself upon the language
of poetry. It seems to have been the natural
site for a sanctuary, and upon it from early
times lay a town of the same name. Here Barak
assembled his forces to attack Sisera (Judges
iv.) ; twice the Jews held it, though un-
successfully, against the Romans (B.C. 53; AD.
67). It is the traditional scene of the Transfigu-
ration of Christ, although most unreasonably,
and so it became the site of churches and monas-
teries, and was an object of pious pilgrimage.
Consult: The Palestine Exploration Fund Me-
moirs, vol. i. (London, 1881) ; Robinson, Biblical
Researches (Boston, 1841) .
TABOR (OF. tabour, Fr. tambour, Sp. tann-
bor, from Ar. tamlnlr, sort of lute with a long
neck and six brass strings, drum). A small
drum, played with one stick, generally in combi-
nation with a galoubet or three-holed fife.
TABOR COLLEGE. An undenominational
institution of learning for both sexes at Tabor,
Iowa, founded by a company of missionaries in
1857 as an academy, and incorporated as a col-
lege in 1866. The courses after the freshman
year are arranged in the group system and in-
clude instruction in music and art. The attend-
ance in 1903 was 181; the faculty numbered 15,
and the library contained 12,000 volumes. The
productive funds of the college in the same year
amounted to $104,000.
TABORITES. The most radical party of the
Hussites in Bohemia. They derived their name
from their fortress of Tabor, near the river Luz“-
nib’; They asserted the right of individual
judgment, rejected all ordinances of the Church
not expressly appointed in the Bible, and had
democratic tendencies. Their leaders were John
Ziska (q.v.), Nicholas of Pistna (Husinec),
Procopius the Great, and Procopius the Lesser.
(See PROCOPIUS, ANDREW.) At first, in the face of
common danger, all parties of the Hussites held
together and inflicted repeated defeats upon the
Imperial troops. After the Calixtines (q.v.) had
made terms with Sigismund and the Church
TABO RITE S.
TABULAR STANDARD.
437
(1433), the Taborites continued the war, but were
overthrown in the battle of Biihmischbrod, May
30, 1434. The remnant of them was absorbed in
the Bohemian Brethren (q.v.) . See HUSSITES.
The
TABRIZ, ta-brez’, TAVRIS, or TEBBIS.
second largest town of Persia, capital of the
Province of Azerbaijan, situated in a wide val-
ley, on the Aji, a tributary of Lake Urumiah,
35 miles east of the lake, in about latitude 38° 4'
N ., longitude 46° 18’ E., over 4000 feet above the
sea (Map: Persia, B 2). Owing to the many
earthquakes, large sections of the town are in
ruins. The place is healthful, although the
weather is bitterly cold a third of the year. In
spite of the altitude, the bare rocks rising on the
northeast and east and the peak of Sahand
standing on the south give Tabriz the appearance
of being shut in by mountains. The squalor of
the native huts and the poor sanitary precautions
are counteracted by the abundance of water and
the numerous refreshing orchards and gardens.
The town, i11 addition to its hundred public baths,
numerous caravansaries, and five Christian (Ar-
menian) churches, has over 300 mosques. Among
these, the ‘Blue Mosque,’ incrusted within and
without with blue faience tiles, is especially
worthy of mention. The ‘Ark’ in the centre of
the town, the residence of the heir apparent, is
a large, somewhat imposing brick building.
Its cracked walls bear witness to the
frequency and violence of earthquakes in this
region. The ‘Great Maidan’ square and the ample
barracks are examples of modern progress. There
is an international telegraph. Before the Cau-
easus Railroad and the Caspian Sea became im-
portant mediums of transportation and the Rus-
sian trade was diverted to Astara and Resht,
Tabriz was the emporium of 1/Vestern trade.
In 1898-99, according to the books of the cus-
tom-house, the exports amounted to £219,930 and
imports to £682,330, but it is likely that these
figures are much less than the total trade. Dried
fruits, silk, and various kinds of manufactures
are exported from Tabriz. There are lead mines
in the vicinity, and copper and cobalt are found
in the Sahand. The population is estimated at
from 165,000 to 200,000. It was formerly much
larger.
Tabriz is said to have been founded by the wife
of- Harun-al-Rashid in 791, but is mentioned be-
fore that date. In 858, 1041, 1721, and 1780 it
was devastated by earthquakes. In that of 1721
80,000 persons lost their lives. It was held in
turn by the Arabs, Seljuks, Mongols, and Turke-
mans, from whom it was taken by the Persians.
It was several times in the possession of the
Turks and was finally taken from them by Nadir
Shah in 1730. Tabriz is essentially a Turkish
city and Turkish is the prevalent language.
TAP/ULA BANTI’NA. The chief source of
knowledge of the Oscan tongue; a bronze tablet in
the Naples Museum, containing on one side an
Oscan inscription of 33 lines referring to affairs
of Bantia, and on the other a portion of a law
in Latin. It was found near Bantia in 1793.
TABULA ILI’ACA (Lat., Ilian Tablet). A
small relief in soft marble found near the ancient
Bovillae in 1683 and now in the Capitoline Mu-
seum at Rome. The slab, 10 ><11% inches, is
covered with scenes from the Trojan War, taken
from the Iliad and the poems of the Trojan
Cycle (see CYCLIC Ponrs), with explanatory
Greek inscriptions. It is generally supposed to
have been intended for school instruction, but
was probably an ornamental panel of a book-
case.
TAB’ULA’RIUM. A large building on the
slope of the Capitoline Hill facing the Roman
Forum, built by Quintus Lutatius Catulus in B.C.
78 for the preservation of State records. It rested
on massive substructures and consisted of a
series of vaults with an upper portico of Doric
half columns, some of which are still to be seen.
Its extent corresponded with the present Palazzo
del Senatore, which is built on the ancient walls.
The structure is in good preservation, although
the masonry of the vaults is corroded by the
action of salt stored in them during the Middle
Ages.
TABULAR STANDARD. A proposed stand-
ard of value which should obviate difficulties due
to changes in the purchasing power of money.
The proposal involves the preparation, by public
authority, of a table of relative values of cer-
tain selected commodities after the fashion of an
index number, and the permissive use- of this
table as a legal standard in contracts involving
deferred payments. A tabular standard has been
briefly defined as an official index number. Its
compilation would require a commission or other
body with power and facilities to collect price
statistics. Having decided what commodities
should be employed as basis for the standard, the
commission would then calculate a yearly or
monthly index number according to some accepted
method. (See article -INDEX NUMBERS.) The
statistics would of course be public, and any one
who chose could verify the calculation. The rise
and fall of prices would either be expressed in
percentages, or an arbitrary unit would be
adopted, whose changing values, expressed in
money, would indicate the same thing.
The practical operation of the tabular stand-
ard is simple. When a person makes a loan of
say $100 for one year, the contract entitles him
to receive the same number of dollars (usually
with interest) at the end of the specified time,
but it does not insure that the $100 which he lent
and the $100 he receives will have the same pur-
chasing power. If prices have risen in the in-
tcrval, his $100 will buy less, if prices have
fallen it will buy more. In so far as changed
purchasing power is not compensated by a
change in rates of interest, debtors are likely
to be burdened by an appreciation, creditors by
a depreciation, of the value of money. Suppose,
however, the tabular standard to be employed,
and that A sells a piece of property to B for
$12,000, of which 1/4. is to be paid at once, and
1/4 more at the end of each succeeding year. The
$3000 cash is of course paid as such. But after
a year the tabular standard might show the
purchasing power of money to have fallen 10 per
cent. Expressed in tabular units, if at the time
of sale a unit was worth $10, it would now be
worth $11.11, giving the proportion 10.00: 11.11:
$3000: $3333.33, which last figure is what B
will have to pay. If at the end of the sec-
ond year a unit of the tabular standard was
worth $9, B would be called on for only $2,700.
Whether he pays more or less in money, the
sum will always have a uniform value in terms
TABULAR STANDARD.
TACHINA-ELY.
438
of the commodities on which the standard is
based.
That many advantages would be gained from
the use of a tabular standard has generally been
admitted. Two serious practical difficulties
stand in the way of its introduction. First,
the conservative attitude of business men toward
any change of this sort; second, the difficulty of
agreeing upon the precise mode of calculating
the standard, and especially upon the precise
commodities which should be selected as basis.
Gen. F. A. Walker and others have questioned
with good reason the practicability of the stand-
ard for the frequent short-time transactions of
ordinary business, but for contracts of long dura-
tion, and for correcting injustice to recipients
of fixed salaries, there seems no ground to ques-
tion its suitableness.
The first conception of a general index number,
or tabular standard, however, appears to date
from 1798, when Sir George S. Evelyn read be-
fore the Royal Society a paper on “Endeavors to
Ascertain a Standard of VVeights and Measures”
(Philosophical Translations, vol. lxxxviii'., pp.
175 et seq). Evelyn’s selection of articles is open
to criticism, as was pointed out by Arthur Young
in 1811. Joseph Lowe (The Present State of Eng-
land, London, 1822), referring to both Young
and Evelyn, proposes the actual introduction of
a tabular standard, and discusses the modes of
calculating it. (New York edition, 1824, p. 287,
and Appendix.) His is the first practical treat-
ment of the subject in English. In Germany the
principle of the tabular standard had been sug-
gested about 1805, in application to rent pay-
ments. (Horton, Silver and Gold, 1877, pp. 39,
157.) G. P. Scrope, in a pamphlet of 1833, and
in Principles of Political Economy (London, 1833,
pp. 405, 424), again proposed the standard. G.
R. Porter also treated the subject, and gave a
table, in his well-known Progress of the Nation
(London, 1838 and 1847). The matter was
finally brought to prominence by W. S. Jevons,
in an essay of 1865, and more forcibly in his
Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875;
chap. 25).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult the Reports of the
Committee of the British Association on Meas-
uring Variations in the Value of the Monetary
Standard (British Association Reports, 1887,
1888, 1889, 1890; the most important material
in English) ; also Price, Money and Its Relation
to Prices (London, 1896) ; Walker, Money (New
York, 1878); Report of the Monetary Commis-
sion of the Indianapolis Convention, 1898.
TABULATA (Lat. nom. pl., tabulate, floored,
table-shaped) . A suborder of fossil corals char-
acterized by the development of distinct hori-
zontal septa or tabulee across the visceral cham-
bers of the corallites. It includes such genera
as Favosites, Pleurodictyum, Michelinia, Au-
lopora, Syringopora, and others which are impor-
tant members of the Paleozoic faunas. See
CCELENTERATA; CORAL; and articles on genera
mentioned above.
TABULATIN G MACHINES, ELECTRIC. See
CALCULATING MACHINES.
TACAHOUT, t-a’ka-ho‘o't’ (native name). The
small gall formed on the tamarisk tree, Tama-
riscus Indica. Tacahout is one of the sources of
gallic acid, of which it contains a large pro-
portion.
TAC’AMAHAC’ (South American name), or
TAOAMAHACA. A name applied to several dif-
ferent resins. One variety of tacamahac is
yielded by the balsam-poplar (Populus balsa/mi
fera) growing in the United States.
tacamahaca) .
tained from the Calophyllum calaba, Calophyllum
inophyllum, and Calophyllum tacamahaca. These
and certain other varieties are used in making
varnishes and to some extent also in medicine.
See CALOPHYLLUM.
TACANA, ta-kii’na. A group of tribes, con-
‘stituting a distinct linguistic stock, inhabiting
the banks of the Upper Beni and Mamore Rivers,
Northeastern Bolivia. They are remarkable for
their light complexion, fine features, and in-
dependent expression.
TACCA (Neo-Lat., from the Malay name). A
genus of large perennial tuberous-rooted plants
of the natural order Taccaceae. The few species
are found in maritime places and woods in the
South Sea Islands, tropical Asia and Africa.
Some of them (Tacca pinnatifida, etc.) are
much cultivated for the sake of their starchy
tubers, which are used, generally with an acid,
as food, although their acridity must be removed
by maceration with water. They yield tahiti
arrowroot, which is used as a substitute for
West Indian arrowroot. The leafstalks of
various species are boiled in China and Cochin-
China and used as food. Hats, brooms, and other
articles of value are made from them.
TACCHINI, ta-ke’ne, PIETRO (1838—-). An
Italian astronomer, born at Modena. He was ap-
pointed director of the observatory there in 1859,
and was transferred to a similar post at Palermo
in 1863. In 1879 he became director of the ob-
servatory in the Collegio Romano. He became
known for his observations of eclipses and for
his work with the spectroseopc. His publica-
tions include I l passaggio di Venere sul sole dell’
8-9 dicembre 1-871;, osservato a M uddapur (1875),
Ecclissi totali di sole del 1870, 1882, 1883, 1886,
e 1887 (1888).
TACHE, ta’sha’, ALEXANDRE ANTONINE
(1823-94). A Canadian Catholic archbisho ,
born in the Riviere-de-Loup, Lower Canada. e
joined the Order of the Oblate Fathers, traveled
great distances toward the northwest and be-
came known for his mission work among the
Indians. In 1871 his see, that of Saint Boniface,
was erected into an archbishopric. Archbishop
Taché was the founder of the Saint Boniface
Theological College, and wrote Vingt années de
missions dans le nord-ouest de l’Amerique
(1866), and Esquisse sur le nord-ouest de
l’Amérique (1869), which -has been translated
into English and is one of the most valuable
works of reference on the region.
TACHINA-FLY, ta-ki’na (Neo-Lat., from
Gk. 1-axiig, tachys, swift). A parasitic fly of the
family Tachinidee. These insects resemble in gen-
eral the common house-fly and as a rule are gray,
sometimes striped. They are usually parasitic
upon caterpillars, upon the backs of which the
females lay their eggs. The maggots penetrate
Another ,
variety is obtained from certain tropical Ameri- I
can trees (Elaphrium tomento-sum and Elaphrium 5
East Indian tacamahac is ob- ‘
TACHINA-FLY.
TACITUS.
439
the body of the victim and feed upon its soft
internal organs. Frequently, however, cater-
pillars cast their skins before the eggs hatch.
The tachina-flies are considered beneficial to
man.
TACHYGENESIS, tak’i-jen’e-sis (Neo-Lat.,
from Gk. Taxfzg, tachys, swift + yévsmg, genesis,
origin, production, generation). A term proposed
by Hyatt for rapid evolution, or evolution by
leaps, i.e. without the vast series of intermediate
forms postulated by Darwin. In his own words
Hyatt defines tachygenesis as “the law of acceler-
ation in the inheritance of characters.” It has
been found, for example, that characteristics are
inherited in a series of species in a given stock at
earlier and earlier stages in the ontogeny of each
member of the series. These characteristics, as
a rule, altogether disappear from the ontogeny,
through lapse of heredity in the last members
of a series, and thus the terminal forms become
very distinct in their development. Rapid evo-
lution was also very marked at the beginning
of the evolution of any stock. In the dawn of
geological history, as soon as divergent evolution
set in, each type had a more or less free field, and
its first steps in evolution were obviously not
affected by natural selection. Afterwards evo-
lution became much slower. On the other hand,
when the type began to decline there was a sen-
sible quickening of evolution. Dall suggested the
term ‘saltatorial evolution’; Galton, De .Vries,
and others, and especially the paleontologists,
have all supposed that evolution has often been
by leaps or spurts. Consult: Hyatt, “Cycle in
the Life of the Individual (ontogeny) and in
the Evolution of Its Own Group (phylogeny),”
in Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, vol. xxxii. (Boston, 1897);
Dall, “On a Hypothesis of Saltatory Evolu-
tion,” in American Naturalist, vol. xi. (Boston,
1877 ).
TACITUS, tas’i-tns, MARCUS CLAUDIUS
(c. 200-276). Roman Emperor (275-276). He
was born at Interamna (modern Terni), in Um-
bria, and was elected Emperor by the senate after
the death of Aurelian and an interregnum of
seven months (275) . He began his brief reign of
200 days at the advanced age of seventy-five
years. He instituted needful reforms and favored
the restoration of the power of the senate. His
victory over the Alani and Goths, for which he
took the title Go-thicus M animus, is recorded on
his coins. He was murdered by the soldiers in
Asia about April 12, 276.
TACITUS, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS (c.55-c.ll7).
A Roman historical writer. Information as
to his life is exceedingly meagre. Tradition,
however, designates Interamna as his birth-
lace. His training and career certainly in-
dicate that he belonged to a Roman family of
good standing. He was preetor in the reign of
Domitian and consul suffectus under Nerva. In
the year 78 he married the daughter of Gnaeus
Julius Aricela, a man prominent as a soldier and
statesman. This event had great influence on his
subsequent career. After his praetorship he was
absent from Rome for at least four years until
after 93, the vear after the death of his father-
in-law. The intimacy of Tacitus and Pliny the
Younger is proved by references in the letters
of the latter, and the two were associated in the
successful prosecution of Marius Priscus, pro-
consul of Africa, charged with extortion.
Tacitus’s annals were published in 116 or 117,
so that we may believe that he lived to the reign
of Hadrian. Apparently he looked forward to
writing a history of the reign of Domitian
and of that of Trajan, but he must have changed.
his plan, for he began his Histories with Galba
and continued the work through the reign of
Domitian. In the Annals he declares his pur-
pose of writing the history of Augustus and in
the Histories of narrating the reigns of Nerva
and Trajan, but we have no indication that he
ever carried out this contemplated task. He
wrote, however, the history of the Empire from
the death of Augustus down to the beginning of
his earlier work, i.e. through the reign of Nero.
The earliest extant work of Tacitus is the
Dialogus de Oratoribus, published about 75 or
somewhat later, but not later than the reign of
Titus. The Agricola followed in the year 98,
and even when engaged upon these books the his-
torian was preparing for some greater work. It
is possible that his Germania, or more fully De
Ori-gine, Situ, M oribus, ac Populis Germaniae,
represents some of the material accumulated in
preparation for some more extensive history.
The Histories belong to the reign of Trajan and
the date of completion may be set in 108. The
Annals are the last work of the historian and
are plainly the production of the fully developed
writer. As we have references to the Annals
in the Histories, the date must be later than
108, and as there is apparently a reference in the
second book to Trajan’s conquest in the East
(115-116), the publication may have been just
prior to the reign of Hadrian. The Dialogue on
Oratory belongs to the writer’s early manhood,
and gives evidence of the influence of Cicero and
Quintilian, in so marked a degree that some
scholars have attempted to assign it to Quintil-
ian or to some other author. not identified. The
best opinion of the present day is in favor
of the genuineness of the work. The subject
is an investigation into the causes of the de-
cline of eloquence, and the discussion is car-
ried on by two celebrated Orators of the Flavian
period who are respectively supporters of
the old and new oratory. After an eloquent
silence—eloquent because we know the depth
of feeling from the bitter words as to the
reign of Domitian found in the introduction-
Tacitus wrote the Agricola. This work is a gem,
a most carefully prepared piece of biographical
composition. The rhetorical power of the writer
is plainly felt in the closing chapters, which are
unexcelled in Latin literature. His Germania
is a most important work because of the descrip-
tions of political institutions and of the cus-
toms of various tribes. As the writer brings into
vivid contrast the life of the Germans and that of
the Romans. it has been thought by some that he
was endeavoring to instruct his countrymen,
either pointing out their evil ways, or startling
them and Warning them against the dangers
threatening on their northern frontier. Tacitus
shows an exact knowledge of those Germans near
to the Rhine, but is uncertain as to the interior
and more remote tribes. The greatest work of
Tacitus has not come down to us entire, for of the
Histories there are extant only the first four
books and a part of the fifth, so that we have
TACITUS.
TACKING.
440
merely the year 69 and a part of 70. Of the
Annals there is extant only about one-half and
this does not give a continuous narrative. After
the fifth chapter of the fifth book there is a
lacuna which marks the loss of the events of 29-
31. Tacitus probably ended this book with the
death of Sejanus, so that the beginning of the
sixth book is also lacking. The seventh to the
tenth, the beginning of the eleventh, and the close
of the sixteenth are also missing, and we thus
lose all of the reign of Caligula, the first five
years of Claudius, and the last two years of Nero.
In the Annals Rome and the Princeps form the
centre about which are grouped the events of a
history which is not that alone of Rome, but of
the associated provinces. The Medicean manu-
script designates the work Ab Ewcessu Divi Au-
gusti, and this is no doubt the original title. In
the Histories Tacitus writes as a contemporary,
and therefore with a surer touch, and he gives
full play to his dramatic powers in his descrip-
tion of what is quite familiar to him. The An-
nals represent the culminating task of his life-
time and are the work of the period of his full
development as a writer.
The great power of Tacitus as an historian is
due to his skill in discerning the motives which
lead men to act, and his ‘deep psychological in-
sight’ is very marked. He studies men, not
things, and hence he is skilled in character paint-
ing. A marked feature of the Tacitean spirit is
the tendency to impute a base or unworthy mo-
tive to all the actions of those men whom he
describes. This is particularly true of his treat-
ment of Tiberius. Certain it is that Tacitus
writes of Roman society as a pessimist, and we
may obtain a juster view by turning to the more
attractive picture presented by his friend and
contemporary Pliny the Younger.
Tacitus early recognized that the style taught
in the schools of rhetoric was not adequate for
his history, and he thereupon evolved one of his
own. There are three distinguishing features of
Tacitus’s style—conciseness, variety, and poetical
coloring. There is not a superfluous word, and his
Condensation sometimes We
may say that his conciseness corresponds to his
thought, for there is nothing artificial in it, and
the style is characteristic of the writer. Tacitus’s
fondness for variety is found in his word posi-
tions, and in his variation in forms and con-
structions. The poetical coloring came from his
study of the Augustan poets, particularly Vergil.
Many words and expressions may be traced to
Vergil, and this is true particularly of the minor
writings and the Histories.
The manuscripts of Tacitus are the Codex
Mediceus (1.), dating from the ninth century and
containing a part of the Annals; and the Codex
Mediceus (II.) of the eleventh or twelfth cen-
turies containing what remains of the other
books of the Annals and Histories. The G-ermania
and Dialogus are obtained from a manuscript in
the Vatican based on an earlier one of the ninth
century and again from a mauscript at Leyden,
dating from the fifteenth century. The Agricola
is found in two transcriptions of the fifteenth cen-
tury now in the Vatican. The editio princeps
is by Puteolanus of Milan, about 1476. The best
text isthat of C. Halm in the “Teubner Series”
(Leipzig, 1886). Important editions are the
Annals, with English notes by H. Furneaux (Ox-
O
1*‘-"mes cbscunty.
vw saw
ford, 1891-92; vol. i., 2d ed. 1896); Allen, The
Annals of Tacitus, i.-vi. (Boston, 1890) ; Nipper-
dey and Andresen, Ab Ewcessu Divi Augusti
(Berlin, 1892); Codley, The Histories (New
York, 1891); Spooner (London, 1891); Frost,
Agricola and Germania (ib., 1861); Hop-
-kins (Boston, 1893); Furneaux, The Agricola
(Oxford, 1896) ; Gudeman (Boston, 1899) ;
id., Dialogus (ib., 1894); and Peterson (Oxford,
1893). The lexicons for Tacitus are Boetticher’s
( 1832) and the great work of Gerber and Greef
(completed 1903). An excellent English trans-
lation is that by Church and Brodribb (London,
1876-77).
TACKING (from tack, from OF. taque, tache,
dialectic Fr. tache, nail, tack; so called because
of the part of the sail to which the rope is at-
tached), AND WEARING (from wear, AS. wer-
ian, Goth. wasjan, OHG. werjan, to clothe; con-
nected with Lat. vest-is, Gk. éaqbvis, esthe's, cloth-
ing, Skt. vas, to put on clothing). A vessel is
said to be on the starboard tack when she is
sailing with the wind on her starboard side, and
on the port taclo when the wind is on her port
side. She is close-hauled on either tack ,when she
is sailing as near to the wind as the set of her
sails permits. The operation of changing from
one tack to the other is called tacking if the
vessel comes up head to wind and then falls off
on the other tack, and wearing or gybing if she
falls ofl’—bringing the wind astern-—and then
comes up to the wind on the new tack.

‘U
E
5
L6
5
E 2"Id Position:
9 \) After tacking;
( Vessel on porttack.
,/
/
l'-st Position :‘
‘\‘ Before tacking;
Vessel on starboard tack.
TACKIN Q-
It is evident from the sketches that in tacking
there is a gain to windward—if the vessel is
a weatherly one and well managed——while in
wearing there is a loss, because part of the time
the ship is running away from the wind. There-
fore, tacking is always preferred when practi-
cable. While all properly built vessels will tack
under ordinary conditions of sea and wind, there
are times when the sea is very rough and the
wind so strong that little sail can be carried;
or the wind may be too light to give suflicient
headway for tacking; or the vessel may be im-
properly sparred or ballasted. In these cases
wearing is necessarily resorted to. In vessels
carrying fore-and-aft sails only the operation of
TACKING.
TACKLE.
441
tacking requires little labor, but in square-
rigged ships the yards must be swung and the
sails adjusted on the new tack. Wearing is
called gybing when the vessel is fore-and-aft
rigged and carries a boom mainsail which is
not taken in or lowered during the operation. It
1’-"‘Posi-hon: Before wearing;
Vessel -on por*t1‘.a'r_:rl§__-,__~ .
\~

\
YE ‘:
3 1
Q_ 1
o l
= 3
.9.
+, 0
E‘: /
C)
. \ V
\\ ./
w"//I
____ __‘_'_..-"
2'1d Position: After wearing;
Vessel on starboard tack.
WEARING.
is evident that when the wind, in wearing, passes
from one side to the other of such a sail it will
give a thrust of considerable violence, and this
thrust must be carefully watched in small ves-
sels—and in large ones if the wind is strong-—
or it may cause them to capsize.
Tacking is frequently called going about.
While the operation is in progress a vessel is in
stays; if she fails to tack and falls back on the
same tack as before she is said to miss stays.
A lively, fast-moving vessel, particularly if deep-
ly loaded, will, before losing way, shoot some
distance directly up into the wind after it is.out
of her sails. Advantage is frequently taken of
this fact to avoid some slight obstruction, when
tacking is undesirable or otherwise unnecessary,
and the operation is called making a half board.
To make a good board is to lose nothing to lee-
ward; to make short boards is to tack fre-
quently; to make sternboard is to go astern.
TACKING OF MORTGAGES. The act, per-
mitted by a doctrine in English equity practice,
of one who takes a mortgage or lien on real
property subsequent to a second or later mort-
gage and in ignorance of its existence, to pur-
chase the first mortgage and merges or ‘tacks’ his
security in it. The effect of this is to compel the
intermediate incumbrancers to redeem the first
mortgage, including the one thus merged with it,
before they can enforce their liens. This doctrine
has been repudiated in most of the United States.
TACKLE (MDutch, Dutch, LG. talcel; pos-
sibly connected with Goth. taajan, to do, or with
Goth. te‘krm, Icel. talca, AS. tacan, to take, Lat.
tangere, to touch). A combination of blocks and
ropes designed to increase the capacity of the
available power to move heavy weights or de-
crease the time required to move an object with
a power capable of moving only at a certain
speed. The block consists of a shell or frame
containing one or more sheaves or pulleys and.a
strap to attach the block to the weight or sup-
port. It is evident that in all cases one block
of a tackle, or one end of the rope——-if there is a







\:\\N\“w\\\\\\\‘
\\ > .
\\‘\\\\‘\\\ : ‘ “ ‘“ \ v’ 5’ ".
‘ I | v ,. ‘ 2 "
.I .


\-\\\\
':_\l:\.\\\\<\
I


FIG. 2.
A and B, lufl or watch tackle; C and D, two-fold pur-
chases.
single movable block—-must be fixed. This being
the case, in simple purchases and neglecting fric-
tion we have P : E , in which P is the power,

A, single Spanish burton; B, double Spanish burton ; C,
Bell's purchase; I), lufl upon luff.
TACKLE.
TACONIC MOUNTAINS.
442
W the weight, and N the number of parts of
rope at the movable block. The amount of power
lost by friction depends upon many things, such
as: the character of the rope; its size with
reference to the diameter of the pulley and the
weight to be raised; the condition of the atmos-
phere; the bearings of the pulleys, etc. But in
ordinary tackles, with the usual type of pulleys,
rope, etc., the loss by friction is estimated at
about one-sixth the gain effected by each pulley
or sheave. The different classes of tackles, or
purchases as they are frequently called, are
shown in the accompanying figures.
TACKLETON, ME. A toy-maker with a
virulent dislike of toys and children, in Dickens’s
Cricket on the Hearth.
TACLOBAN, tak-lo-ban’. , Capital of the
Province of Leyte (q.v.), Philippine Islands, in
latitude 11° 15’ N. and longitude 124° 59' 30" E.
- The town, which is on the eastern coast, is well
built and has an important trade. The port is
well protected and has four different wharves.
Population, about 11,000.
TACNA, tiik’n:l. The northernmost province
of Chile, bounded by Peru on the north, Bolivia
on the east, the Chilean Province of Tarapaca
on the south, and the Pacific on the west. Area,
8688 square miles. Its level and arid interior
is inclosed by the slopes of the Andes on the
east and the coast range on the west. The
rainfall is very scanty, and with the excep-
tion of the river valleys, the interior is an
arid desert almost uninhabited. The climate
is unhealthful and earthquakes are not in-
frequent. There are deposits of nitrate, silver,
and copper, which are mined to a limited
extent. Population, in 1895, 24,160; in 1900
(estimated), 25,031, concentrated chiefly in the
capital, Tacna (q.v.), and the port Africa. The
province formerly belonged to Peru and was ceded
to Chile for a period of ten years in 1884. At
the expiration of that period, according to the
provisions of the treaty, the ownership of the
province was to have been determined by a
plebiscite of the inhabitants. The political state
of Peru, however, made it impossible to carry out
the provisions of the treaty, and Chile still ex-
ercises control.
TACNA. The capital of the Province of Tacna,
Chile, in the northwestern part of the province,
about 40 miles by rail from Arica (Map: Amer-
ica, South, B 4). It was formerly a place of
considerable commercial importance with notable
municipal and industrial establishments, but the
construction of railway lines in the Province of
Antofagasta diverted the trade southward.
Population, in 1895, 9418, as against 14,000 in
1885. In the vicinity a battle took place on
May 26, 1880, betwen the Chilean and the allied
Peruvian and Bolivian forces, in which the former
were victorious.
TACO'MA. The county-seat of Pierce County,
Wash., 140 miles north of Portland, Ore., at the
head of Commencement Bay, Puget Sound (Map:
Washington, C 2) . It is a terminus of the North-
ern Pacific Railway, and is on the Great North-
ern, the Canadian Pacific, and other railroads.
Many steamship lines, of which several are trans-
Pacific, sail from Tacoma. The harbor is spa-
cious and secure, and is admirably provided with
shipping facilities, the railroad and steamship
terminals being among the best on the Pacific
Coast.
Tacoma has a picturesque site, rising from the
bay to an altitude of 320 feet, with high moun-
tains in the vicinity, Mount Rainier (q.v.),
locally known by the old Indian name, Tacoma,
to the southeast, being 14,526 feet in height.
There are some 700 acres in public parks, of
which Point Defiance is by far the largest. The
city hall, court-house, Chamber of Commerce,
Northern Pacific Railway headquarters, Tacoma
Hotel, and Tacoma Theatre are- among the promi-
nent buildings. The city has a public library
(Carnegie) containing some 25,000 volumes, the
Ferry Museum of Art, and the State Historical
Society. The educational institutions include
Whitworth College (Presbyterian) and the Uni-
versity of Puget Sound (Methodist Episcopal),
both opened in 1890; Annie VVright Seminary
(Protestant Episcopal), the Pacific Lutheran
University, and an Indian school. The State
Insane Asylum is a few miles to the south, and
there are in the city a number of charitable
institutions, the more important of which are
the City and County Hospital, Saint Joseph’s
Hospital, and the Fanny Paddock Memorial Hos-
ital.
? Superior transportation facilities, and a vast
and highly productive tributary region have made
Tacoma one of the leading business centres on
the Pacific Coast. Coal is mined extensively
in the vicinity, and the city has also advan-
tages of rich agricultural and timber lands. It
carries on a large wholesale trade and is largely
interested in manufacturing, but derives its
chief importance from an extensive coastwise and
foreign commerce, particularly with the Orient.
The principal articles of commerce are wheat,
flour, lumber, coal, coke, fish, and fruit. In the
census year 1900 the various industrial estab-
lishments had $8,147,000 capital, and an output
valued at $12,029,000. The manufacture of lum-
ber, shingles, furniture, carriages and wagons,
woodenware, flour, foundry and machine shop
products, cars, car wheels, and engines, ship and
boat-building, smelting, and brewing are the chief
industries.
Under the revised charter of 1896 the gov-
ernment is vested in a mayor, elected for two
years, and a unicameral council. Most of the
administrative officials are appointed by the
mayor, the comptroller, treasurer, and board of
education, however, being chosen by popular -
vote. The city spends annually for maintenance
and operation about $698,000, the largest items
being: interest on debt, $228,000; schools, $164,-
000; electric light plant, $69,000; fire depart-
ment, $47,000; police department, $35,000. The
water-works and the electric light plant are
owned and operated by the municipality. Ta-
coma was formed in 1883 by the consolidation of
Old Tacoma (founded in 1868) and New Ta-
coma. New Tacoma, founded about 1869, was
made the western terminus of the Northern Pa-
cific Railway in 1873, was organized as a city
in 1874, and became the county-seat in 1880.
Population, in 1890, 36,006; in 1900, 37,714.
TACOMA, MOUNT. A peak of the Cascade
Range. See RAINIER, MoUNT. TACON’IC MOUNTAINS, or TAGHKANIC
MOUNTAINS. A low mountain range on the
eastern boundary of New York State and occupy-
TACONIC MOUNTAINS.
TACTICS.
443
ing a small area in Massachusetts and Vermont
(Map: Massachusetts, A 3) . It extends from the
Highlands east of the Hudson in a north-north-
east direction, becoming gradually higher as it
enters the northwestern corner of Massachusetts,
and passes into southwestern Vermont, where it
connects with the Green Mountains. Its highest
peaks are Mount Equinox in Vermont, 3816
feet, and Greylock in Massachusetts, 3535 feet.
It consists chiefly of metamorphosed Cambrian
and Silurian rocks to which it has given the
name Taconic System (q.v.).
TACONIC SYSTEM. A name applied by
Emmons in 1842 to a series of rocks found in
eastern New York, western Massachusetts, and
Vermont, and considered by him to be of pre-
Potsdam age because of their metamorphosed
character and the supposed absence of fossils.
It has been suggested by some that the term
Taconic should be substituted for Cambrian.
Consult: Emmons, Geology of New York, part
ii. (Albany, 1842); Dana, “A Brief History of
Taconic Ideas,” in American Journal of Science,
third series, vol. xxxvi. (New Haven).
TACTICS (from Gk. TGKTLKCS, taktikos, relat-
ing to arrangement, especially in war, from
'rdK'r6s, tahtos, arranged, from rdaoeiv, tassein,
to arrange), MILITARY. The art of conducting
and arranging troops on the battlefield, or in
its immediate vicinity. Strategy (q.v.) strives
to make all the conditions for the coming battle
favorable, while tactics endeavors to realize what
strategy has prepared for. The same principles
apply in both, but tactics is more dependent on
actual practice, while strategy is more of an art,
derived from study, reflection, and genius.
Tactics not only demands from the individual
officer understanding, comprehension, and genius,
but in addition the masters of the art must be
men of iron constitution and iron will. War
alone can develop great soldiers——they are born,
not made. But even they need preparation, edu-
cation, and training—not to acquire theoretical
knowledge, but to learn how to handle the tools
of their art. Moreover, the great leaders need
assistants, and these can be developed from the
men of average ability, by the careful study of
the use of the tools required, and practice with
them and by the lessons of military history, bear-
ing in mind that every case arising in war is an
exception, and will never arise again, and not a
general rule, which may be used as a model.
TACTICS OF INFANTRY.
Infantry, except during a single period, name-
ly, the Era of Knights or the Age of Chivalry,
has always been the principal arm, that is to say
numerically the strongest, and in its action the
most decisive, and ever since the introduction of
firearms the infantry has been gaining in impor-
tance. It is the only arm which can act inde-
pendently, that is without the assistance of the
other arms, under all conditions of ground,
weather, and other circumstances, in attack or
defense, while in motion or when at rest, in
closed or open order, with fire action or shock
action; it can operate on all kinds of ground; it
is more independent of circumstances than
the other arms; in it movement and effective
firing may be combined to a far greater ex-
tent than in the other arms; it can come into
action more easily and readily; it is equally
VOL. XVI.—29.
effective in attack and defense; it is more
easily and cheaply equipped and maintained
than the other arms; and it can be more quickly
made efficient. But it is limited in its rate of
movement, hence the advantage of combining
cavalry with it; and in the range of its effective
action, hence the advantage of combining artillery
with it for battle, and cavalry for reconnaissance.
Infantry holds its high position mainly on ac-
count of its great fire-action combined with its
capacity to utilize fully the configuration of the
ground.
The fire of the present breech-loading rifle be-
gins to make itself felt at 2500 yards, but does
not become effective as aimed fire until about
1000 yards from the enemy; at 500 yards it is
decisive, and at 300 practically annihilating.
Constant improvement gradually increases these
distances, and in the Boer VVar it was noticed
that the British attack usually came to a stand-
still at 900 yards.
The perfection of, firearms and the more ex-
tended utilization of the configuration of the
ground have greatly increased the power and sig-
nificance of fire-action. The introduction of an
automatic firearm is now only a question of a
comparatively short time, and this will still
further increase fire effect. The bayonet attack,
as an independent act, has ceased to exist; it can
no longer overcome fire-action, but can only win
the results of previous fire-action. The latter
takes by far the longer time and makes the high-
est demands on the strength and endurance of
the troops; moreover, its annihilating effect pun-
ishes promptly any rash resort to the bayonet,
nevertheless the necessity for the bayonet re-
mains; not indeed in hand to hand conflict, but
as a threatening measure in the assault of a po-
sition, and because of the confidence it inspires
and the power of the initiative which it confers.
According to the great German tactician Meckel,
“The laurel of victory still hangs on the point
of the bayonet.”
The power of infantry fire necessitates cover,
and the utilization of the natural configuration of
the ground to secure this has acquired vital im-
portance. The crossing of open spaces is avoided
as much as possible, or postponed to decisive
moments; hence, the battle usually crystallizes
around woods, villages, and groups of buildings.
But in broad open fields, as in the United States,
or where troops are opposed to each other in
strong natural or artificial positions for a consid-
erable time, artificial cover must be obtained,
consequently intrenchment is resorted to, and an
intrenching tool has become a necessary part of
the soldier’s equipment.
The formations in which infantry moves and
fights are not the result of haphazard theory,
but have grown out of the conditions of warfare,
and their importance is attested by the fact that,
in spite of the improvement in firearms, the
losses in battle have become gradually smaller.
Infantry can fight only when the distance from
the enemy, or the available natural or artificial
cover, permits it to fire, and effective fire can
only be obtained when the soldier has room to
use his arm freely, consequently this arm fights
in open or dispersed order, the closed order being
used only for troops in rear of the firing line.
The greatest difficulty in leading infantry is the
loss of control by the officers due to this dis-
pcrsed order, and this can only be overcome by
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
444
panics, the smaller the
platoons.
officers.
The tactics of infantry are designed to facili-
tate, as far as in them lies, that great object of
every commander, namely, to make himself
stronger than the enemy at the time and place
of actual combat, and this can only be done by
preserving unity of command, concerted action
and mobility, combined with the least exposure
of the men to loss. The formations in use at-
tempt to fulfill these conditions, and the main
principles governing in modern infantry tactics,
are an individual training and instruction to de-
velop a high degree
of initiative combined
with perfect subordi-
nation, the greatest
development of fire in
the firing line; a sub-
2 division into fire units
: 0 of such strength as to
3 '— _ ' insure complete fire




0 0 control by command-
ers; in the attack,
--§--0 -3-. pressure against the
flank combined with a '
2 . 2 = frontal attack; the re-
4 .___._ _____ 2 enforcement of the
.._.'__. _..'_. firing line by a succes-
:2 ::_': sion of lines gradually
3 . 3 _ closing to the front;
I ::_-__- and, if possible, the
accumulation of a
N N greater depth of forces
BATTALION DOUBLE COLUMN. (()’jI:,’P(,z1S11:e ef11e1:nyl’OrWF}1l(;1;:
I §§,Ef'$‘;‘§,%e,., the attack is to be
Colors ; concentrated.
The front line in
U Adjutant’ the attack is composed
of the fighting line
and its Ireseroe, and
the former is subdi-
vided into the actual
firing line and its sup-
ports. The battalion is
the tactical unit and
the front it covers, as
well as the particular
nature of the action,
Q Company Commander;
. Platoon Commander.
The double column of the
battalion (from whirgh 15l_1_9 C01-
umn of march is usually de-
ployed for battle). The larger
numbers indicate the, com-
1 determines the number of companies it places
in the fighting line. The battalion covers nor-
mally about 400 yards of front and a com-
pany about 100 yards. The progress of the
attack will proceed in general outline somewhat
as follows: Before entering the zone of artillery
fire (or at about 3000 yards) each regiment
forms from column of march into line; the bat-
talions then designate the companies to form the
fighting line and those to form the reserve;
the companies of the fighting line then designate
the sections for the firing line and for the sup-
ports. The best form of advance of the com-
panies is in column of sections (half platoons).
This line of columns is kept up as long as pos-
sible because in this formation the men are
under the perfect control of their officers. With-
in eifective infantry fire the column must deploy,
since the bullet from the modern firearm can
pass through two men at 1500 yards, and at 400
yards it can go through four men, so that the
column, if preserved here, must expect heavy
training, discipline, drill, and the example of the
losses. In the attack closed columns cannot ap-
pear in open country within a range of 2100
yards. The successive lines, deployed in open
order, or in company column of sections, depend-
CD010‘. CI-DO’ OQCOQGOIO”
4. .
-H
““OIOQ‘O 00
2
=
III“
III“
F
A BATTALION ON THE RIGHT FLANK OF A GENERAL LINE
DEPLOYED FOR BATTLE.
On a rwar footing the companies have three platoons
each. The numbers indicate the companies, the fourth
having two platoons deployed.
ing on the effect of the enemy’s fire, continue to
advance. VVhen within effective range, fire is
opened, by volleys, or a designated number of
rounds at will, the skirmishers halting to deliver
their fire, then advancing again. In open country,
within 1100 yards skirmishers can no longer re-
main standing. The supports gradually close on
the firing line, deploy as skirmishers and be-gin to
reiénforce the firing line. Then begins the advance
by rushes, by alternate subdivisions, and por-
tions of the reserve are added to the firing line,
the rest still held in reserve in rear of the point
of main attack. The final act is the charge, the
reserves being brought up to insure victory and
hold the position. The engagement is in general
decided at about 900 yards’ distance.
This is the general picture, but the details
are very various. Long lines of skirmishers can
only advance or retire onlines perpendicular to
the front, and changes of front are no longer pos-
sible after the open order is adopted; moreover,
throwing out a skirmish line oblique to the front
is dangerous, consequently the companies must
first be placed on the front to be formed before
deploying as skirmishers. The skirmish line, to
avoid losses, is often compelled to advance at a
run, and systematic rushes are possible only on
the drill ground; in the field these rapid advances
depend on the local conditions, especially the ef-
fect of the enemy’s fire. The long line, at three
or four thousand yards from the enemy, will pass
over varied ground, part covered, part open; on
the latter artillery fire will make itself felt here
and there, and at such points the men will ad-
vance at a run, then halt under cover, or out of
the zone of fire, to await the other parts of the
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
445
line. These conditions will constantly change
in all the different parts of the field.
The infantry attack is decided by fire-action,
and to determine the number of skirmishers in
the firing line, it must be remembered that there
should be at least enough to prevent surprises,
and not so many as to interfere with the com-
mander’s freedom of action, in case, for example,
it should turn out. that a considerable portion of,
the forces had been placed where they were not
really needed. The further development of the
fire-action will be determined by the points se-
lected for decisive action, which cannot usually
be determined beforehand.
One of the principal conditions for the success
of the attack is that fire once opened should be
kept up to about the same strength, and this
again indicates the necessity for comparatively
weak lines at first; on the other hand, the
enemy,should be met with superior forces from
the beginning, and this superiority kept up. Be-
tween these two limits the commander must de-
cide. -


THE FLANK ATTACK.
The attack covers the entire front of the defense and has
in addition sufficient troops for outflanking the right w_mg
of the latter, and attacking him in a. direction perpendicu-
lar to his front.
Decisive action is usually sought on a flank,
but not necessarily an extreme outer flank
of the line, for a modern skirmish line,
from various causes, is very apt to have a
number of inner flanks, which are also points of
weakness. In the early part of the engagement
the enemy must be forced to unveil his position,
and then these interior flanks can be determined,
and the commander may decide Where to concen-
trate hisforces, for superiority is desired only
at the decisive points. The rest of the front can
be held by comparatively weak forces. , This
also indicates the necessity for keeping as many
troops as possible in reserve, but it must be borne
in mind that the requisite number to insure su-
periority must be put in the firing line from the
beginning, and this aside from all other consider-
ations. The reserves must be added to the firing
line.in dispersed order, for the commander who
hopes to force a decisive action by means of re-
serves in closed order disregards the effects of
modern firearms. In an ideal action all the
rifles are in use at the decisive moment, but this '
is not possible in long lines. Still, the troops
remaining in close formation will find other uses.
To cover a retiring skirmish line only these re-
serves can be used that stand far enough to the
rear to be readily placed in a defensive position
to which the line may fall back; if they are al-
ready on the way to the front they had better
be thrown into the skirmish line, to turn the tide,
if possible.
Breaking through the front of a lineis a very
difiicult undertaking and hardly possible to-day.
Consequently, the reserves should not be in rear
of the centre, because they are of no use there,
and would have to be kept so far in rear, to
avoid the effects of the enemy’s fire, that they
might not enter the action in time. Their place
is on one or both flanks, and so far beyond the
flanks that they can enter the fight by a simple,
direct forward movement, without any lateral
gaining of ground. A regiment held in reserve,
for example, should be placed in rear of the flank
and about 600 yards beyond it. The main reserve
is always behind the flank where the decisive ac-
tion is expected to be brought about.
The regimental commander can only assign to
each battalion its general duty; the execution
must be left to the battalion commanders. On the
defensive he assigns to each his section of ground,
on the offensive his point of attack; and he lets
go his control as fast as the circumstances require.
The battalion commander, in the same way,
gradually gives up control of his companies, and
when once the battalion is deployed, he can only
aid by caring for the supply of ammunition. A‘
skirmish line fires only when at a halt, and the
position taken depends on the range, but lying
prone is now regarded as best because it gives
the enemy’s artillery no opportunity to get the
range. Before opening fire the distance must be
estimated, a difficult matter even for those well
trained in it in time of peace. The skillful desig-
nation of the target also requires much practice.
The firing may be by volley or at will, the former
being advantageous when the range has been de-
termined and the ground is suitable for observa-
tion of the fire, but in general is merely a drill-
ground exercise of little practical use. The con-
duct of the fire and all fire control is in the hands
of the company and subordinate commanders,
and one of the most difficult duties of these offi-
cers is the observation of the effects of the fire.
These are the generally'accepted principles of
infantry tactics, but in the different States of
Europe there are still considerable variations.
The fighting front of a battalion, for example,
varies from 200 yards in the Italian Army to 400
in the French, and the latter has practically
abolished the supports for the firing line. In
France and Russia fire is opened at great ranges,
over 1900 yards; all the nations except Ger-
many lay great stress on volley firing. Again, in
France (and in the United States, as set forth
in \Vagner’s Tactics and Organisation, New
York, 1895, officially approved), great attention
is given to successive regular lines of attack, the
first to introduce the action, the second to carry
it out, and the third as a reserve: an indication
of a love for theoretical forms, types, and sys-
tems in matters that are too elusive for such
treatment, and which experience on the battle-
field has shown to be very different in practice.
TACTICS OF CAVALRY.
The prominent characteristic of cavalry is
rapidity of movement, and its greatest duty is
the service of security and information: a cavalry
which is superior to the enemy’s in screening its
own army and clearing up that of its adversary
will more than pay for itself. Its duty next
in importance is pursuit, as it alone is capable
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
446
of overtaking and holding a retreating enemy till
the arrival of the infantry. On the battlefield its
use is important, but limited. .
Cavalry is the arm of surprise, of sudden and
vigorous attack; but its power of defense is com-
paratively poor, consequently it cannot hold for
any length of time the ground it has gained. It
is dependent to a great extent on the configura-
tion and character of the ground, and its use in
conjunction with the other arms is limited to
favorable moments. Cavalry for its best and
most effective action requires a broad, open
country, and this is available only rarely on
modern battlefields. For this reason, and on
account of the increased range, rapidity of fire,
and accuracy of firearms, cavalry can seldom
decide battles. '
Surprise is to-day absolutely essential for the
success of a cavalry attack, but to seize the prop-
er moment is very difficult, and requires constant
watching of the progress of the battle, and even
anticipation of the enemy’s movements in order
to place the cavalry in readiness to grasp the
fleeting moment, ere it be too late; consequently
the cavalry must often wait for hours, and even
under fire, but of course- this has its limits, and
after a certain percentage of losses the cavalry
must retire out of range, and thus give up tempo-
rarily any opportunities for attack that may pos-
sibly arise.
The true action of cavalry in battle has been
shock action, its fire-action being quite subor-
dinate, and employed mainly on the defensive.
Under present conditions the precise sphere of
activity for the arm in battle is a subject of
much debate. Positions seized by an advancing
cavalry may sometimes be held by its means
until the infantry comes up, or it may be used
_ to check the advance of the enemy; occasionally
it may serve to support infantry. As a rule, fire-
action of cavalry is delivered dismounted, but
mounted fire-action, although rare, has been
used with advantage in covering a retreat when
the pursuit was very active. The formation of
,2.
:1? t!
——'__d-_—_
at
- — - - -—
h--_— I-u--—-
-----I
CAVALRY DIVISION DEPLOYED.
3 Division 5 Regiment Cg Battalion
Commander ; Commander; Commander;
Division I Regiment Battalion
Staff Oflicers; Adjutant; Adjutant.
The division represented is composed of three regiments,
one of which is deployed in line; the regiment on the right
flank is in line of squadrons in column of troops with ex-
tended intervals ready to deploy; the other regiment is
massed in close column.
cavalry used in the attack is the line, composed
of two ranks in Europe. At other times the
cavalry is generally kept in columns. The line
allows of the simultaneous use of the greatest
number of weapons, but because of its unwieldi-
ness the squadron front is not exceeded for any
formations other than the attack. Columns
serve to assemble the troops in a narrow space,
and render movement up to the moment of at-
tack easy; they must be open to facilitate form-
ing line, with comparatively narrow front and
full distances.
In the attack of cavalry against cavalry, vic-
tory can be gained only by the rapid assault
of closed lines. In the advance of two opposed
lines toward each other the respective lines
will necessarily be more or less broken, the
closed portions of the line still remaining on
either side will penetrate the open places, both
fronts will thus be broken through, and a hand
to hand conflict begins. The extent to which
either side retains closed lines up to the last
will be of great effect on the result, hence the
necessity of keeping closed and advancing with
determination. The squadron commander can
always take personal part in the attack, and the
regimental commander can generally do so, but
the brigade commander very rarely. The enemy
should be kept uncertain as to the direction of
the proposed attack as long as possible, so that
he cannot prepare to meet the attack on his
flank or rear, where it is usually directed. The
principles applying to the subdivision of the
forces are the same as for infantry. Enough
men must be put into action at the beginning to
insure success, and the first contact should de-
cide the affair, consequently the forces directed
against the flanks must be so directed from the
beginning, and therefore must have an entirely
different base from those directed against the
front. In the front it will hardly be possible
to put more men than the enemy has, and over-
lapping flanks will charge against nothing. More
than necessary for decisive action should not be
put in at first, because a reserve will be neces-
sary to meet other approaching troops while
' the attack is going on. However, if all the troops
are needed for the first effect then there can be
no reserve, but one should be formed as soon as
possible out of the reassembled squadrons. After
the attack the action gradually changes into
flight on one side and pursuit on the other,
and the latter should be kept up till new infantry
or artillery stops it, or the horses are exhausted.
In the attack of cavalry against infantry
victory can only result when the attack is so
sudden that the infantry has no time to fire
at all, or when the latter is badly demoralized by
previous losses. Cavalry against artillery has
a better chance for success, because a firing ar-
tillery line cannot protect itself toward the
flanks, and in the early part of an engagement
such unprotected lines will often be found.
Fighting on foot enables cavalry to act for‘ a
time independently of the other arms, especially
when it is supported by horse artillery, and is
the only means by which cavalry can continue
its advance through defiles, woods, or villages
occupied by weak forces of the enemy. The action
of dismounted cavalry is limited in general to hold-
ing particular points, such as defiles or villages,
until the arrival of stronger forces. There
are, however, instances where cavalry on account
of their extreme mobility can be used advantage-
ously in foot fighting, and modern tacticians are
paying increased attention to this point. Such
cavalry, however, must be distinguished from
mere mounted infantry as they have a far wider
tactical use.
TACTICS. .
TACTICS.
447
The principal duty of the horse artillery at-
tached to the cavalry is to support the latter
since it can clear out the enemy from positions
which a cavalry force would have hard work to
take. In the attack of cavalry against cavalry
horse artillery cannot always find application,
but it can aid when its cavalry is deploying from
a defile. VVhile the opposed cavalries are still
manoeuvring the artillery takes the enemy’s cav-
alry as its target, and pays no attention to its
artillery unless its fire is masked by its own
cavalry or to facilitate the deployment of its
own cavalry. The artillery should be massed,
but artillery duels to prepare the action would
be absurd. There will probably be no time for
any change of position until after the cavalry
attack is decided, when the artillery takes part
in the pursuit. In case of defeat it will not have
time to take up a new position, but must remain
firing in its previous position.
These are in outline the principles involved in
cavalry tactics, though they are constantly un-
dergoing modifications and the discussion of the
true sphere and use of cavalry is a favorite topic
for military authorities. In France more atten-
tion is given to theoretical forms, and the French
tactics prescribe three lines for the division, the
third being a reserve in the hands of the division
commander, which is put into action only by
squadrons and never entirely, except as a last
resort; and the horse batteries are directed to
form about 900 yards on the flank of the field
of attack.
TACTICS OF FIELD ARTILLERY.
The artillery is the arm of destruction, and,
on account of its great moral effect and the
fact that it can reach troops in every part of
the field, in all kinds of ground, and behind all
artificial field cover, it is essentially the arm for
preparing for the attack, demoralizing the enemy,
and facilitating the work of the other arms.
The use of artillery in masses is the great
feature of a modern battle, and this use results
from the long range of the guns, which enables
them to do in one position that which formerly
required a number. Its mass action begins the
battle, prepares it, supports the action of the
other arms, and ends it, and as an arm of pur-
suit artillery ranks with cavalry. The disad-
vantages of artillery are that it is tied for a
considerable period to a particular position, and
cannot act alone, consequently it is always an
auxiliary arm. Moreover, it is cumbersome in
its movement and defenseless when moving. It
is also expensive and difficult to train. Leaving
out of consideration the artillery of the seacoast
and that used in the attack and defense of land
fortifications, which have a tactics of their own,
that is treated elsewhere (see Coasr DEFENSE
and FORTIFICATIONS, ATTACK AND DEFENSE or),
the artillery taken along by the field army may
be divided into light artillery and heavy artillery,
the former comprising field, horse, and mountain
batteries, the latter guns of position. The field
batteries include howitzer and mortar batteries
for curved or high-angle fire. The formations of
the artillery of practical use in the field are
simply a formation for going into battery, and
the formation in battery, ready for firing. To
train the cannoneer for his arduous work under
enormous strain, the greatest precision in accu-
racy in drill must he insisted upon, for the
numerous duties of a cannoneer (setting the fuze
accurately, also the sight for the range as well
as deviation ordered, and the use of the trail
in pointing), under a fire, which may burst shells
near the battery as often as one a -second from
each of the enemy’s batteries, require the high-
est order of discipline. Moreover, to regulate
the fire properly, each shot must be observed, in
order to correct fuze-setting and sight. All this
demands a formation of the battery in a small
space, so that the men may be directly under
the eyes of their superiors, and the batteries
must be able to move easily, under cover if pos-
sible, to their positions. Beyond the range of
firearms the artillery can move in column of
platoons, but within that zone it apears only
in the open order (in line at full intervals) or
in column of sections. Firing artillery always
stands in the open order (in battery), and this
formation in open order is also the best for ad-
vancing into position, where it can be used, but
the column of sections will be more generally
applicable in coming into position.
33
i’ '5 5
54 J4 J4 J4 J1 J4 J4 J4 fl
0
ease
aaaa
ease
ARTILLERY BATTA LI ON.
:l: Gun;
i Caisson.
This illustrates the manner in which an artillery bat-
talion of three batteries (of six pieces and four caissons
each) comes into action. The rest of the caissons are
concealed further to the rear.
g Battalion Commander;
5 Battery Commander ;
Platoon Commander and
Chief of Caisson;
The greater range of artillery naturally makes
it the arm to open the battle, and the desire to
rapidly overpower the enemy’s artillery, in order
that it may take under fire the point selected
for attack by the infantry, or, on the defensive,
the enemy’s infantry during the attack (the real
duty of the artillery), as naturally leads to the
accumulation of the artillery in masses. The
support of the infantry attack is the true pur-
pose and the real duty of the artillery, and
everything else is only a means for this end.
Consequently, the object which the commander-
in-chief has in view determines the time, place,
and strength in which the artillery is first placed
in position, and he also must give the orders
therefor. The artillery should, of course, en-
deavor to utilize its long range, and if possible
come into position beyond the range of the
enemy’s infantry fire, but since its main duty
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
448
is to support the infantry, then, in order to
give the latter prompt and effective aid, it must
not hesitate to enter the zone of infantry fire, if
required, because only when the infantry is
beaten is the battle lost. On the other hand,
it is the duty of the neighboring troops of
other arms to protect the artillery against in-
fantry fire. This does not, however, relieve the
artillery from the duty of reconnoitring the
ground, especially on the flanks, and artillery
scouts or patrols (under energetic officers or
non-commissioned officers) have become a neces-
sity on the battlefield. The artillery, once in
position, remains there, the losses being made
good from the reserve, the ammunition train,
and finally the drivers, while ammunition when
exhausted can only be awaited. The battery is
never relieved, but constantly strengthened and
supported from the rear. Before occupying a
position the ground must be carefully recon-
noitred, and in selecting positions the principal
condition is effective action, hence the target
should be plainly visible; but more than that,
a clear field of view is desirable because other
targets may appear from time to time. This
indicates that a line of heights is most suitable.
Of course, in many cases some of the batteries
will not be able to see the target, and when the
enemy’s artillery is superior a hidden position
may be preferred; in these cases indirect fire
must be used, but the problem of overpowering
the enemy’s artillery is thereby rendered very dif-
ficult. As to the distance from the enemy, it
can only be stated “as near as possible,” remem-
bering that beyond 3200 yards shrapnel is not
always effective, and observation of fire extremely
difficult; moreover. the enemy’s fire determines
the inferior limit of a position. Nevertheless,
effect is more important than cover; conse-
quently, if artillery finds that its fire from a
good covered position is not effective. it 1nust
enter the danger zone. The great masses accu-
mulated on battlefields to-day limit the choice
of position very much, and in most cases the
problem will be less the selection of a position
than making the best use of a 0iiven position.
The brigade commander rides over the ground,
considers the available space, and with due re-
gard to the targets to be taken under fire, de-
cides what front will be occupied. The regi-
mental and battalion commanders are then
given their orders, and the latter indicate to the
batteries their respective positions. The bat-
teries then enter their position, keeping the
roads as long as possible, and after that utiliz-
ing cover when practicable. On a line of heights
the guns are placed in position close behind the
crest, then moved up so that a man standing
can just see the target. No battery opens fire
until its guns are ready. In large masses it
may be necessary to take up first a preparatory
position under cover, so that, moved to the front,
the batteries may open fire simultaneously, but
this is rarely practicable. The direction of the
fire is so arranged that brigade and regimental
commanders merely indicate the target in gen-
eral, while battalion commanders designate the
special target for each battery and also decide
on a change of targets; the ranging, selection
of kind of firing, and the actual firing is left
to the battery commanders. Changes of position
are. in general, ordered only by the commander-
in-chief. but in special cases the artillery must
act on its own responsibility. In large masses this
change of position takes place by echelons, portions
of the line remaining in position and continuing
the fire while others advance to the new position.
The attack of the infantry must be supported
by the artillery in such wise that the former may
overcome the enemy’s infantry, consequently the
artillery of the attack should be superior to the
enemy’s from the very first. This does not mean
necessarily in numbers, because a smaller force
by greater rapidity of movement into position
and subsequent ranging may gain the upper
hand of a large force. If a weaker artillery
fears being overpowered it can await in a prepar-
atory position the arrival of reinforcements, but
this will not always be possible, because the cir-
cumstances may demand its coming into action
at once. In this case the artillery endeavors
to utilize the ground to the best advantage.
In the attack on a prepared defensive front the
entire artillery must be in position before open-
ing fire. By superiority of fire is not meant
the complete silencing of the enemy’s artillery,
but such an effect that, after the artillery duel,
which first takes place, the enemy’s artillery is
no longer able to direct a destructive fire on the
attacking infantry. As soon as the attacking
infantry approaches too near the enemy the ar-
tillery must direct its fire on the ground beyond
the objective, to prevent the advance of sub-
divisions from the rear. The principal duty of
the artillery of the defense is to take the at-
tacking infantry, even though it may have over-
come by its fire the infantry of the defense,
under such a hail of shrapnel as to cause its
attack to break down. But in the beginning it
will have to take up the artillery duel, and here
it has the advantage of selecting and strengthen-
ing its positions. It will not do. however, to
occupy its positions at the beginning, because if
it should be forced to change it will lose all
its advantages. Consequently. it takes up at
first a preparatory position, until the direction
of the attack becomes known, and this has the
additional advantage of preventing the attacker
from getting an insight into the defends-1’s pl-ans
before the battle opens. The artillery of the
defense, however, cannot devote all its attention
to the attacker’s artillery. VVherever the in-
fantry of the attacker gains a strong foothold it
must be taken under fire. As soon as the at-
tacking infantry prepares for the final assault
the entire situation changes, and the defender’s
artillery takes up its true role. The main effort
is directed against the enemy’s infantry, and his
artillery is only kept occupied by a few guns.
During the artillery duel the guns of the defense
were kept under cover; now they must come out
for their proper work. If the artillery of the
defense is overpowered it may retire to be
placed in position again during the infantry
assault, but this will rarely be possible or ef-
fective. It is better to keep it in position, the
men lying down for better protection, entering
into action again at the decisive moment. Should
the enemy’s attack be successful, the batteries
of the defense remain in position firing to the
last, for the loss of the guns is no longer a dis-
grace on the battlefield, provided the situation
demands it.
Every army will hereafter take into the field
batteries of position, heavy batteries, for break-
ing down obstacles which the ordinary field ar-
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
449
tillery cannot deal with, and for which the ar-
rival of the siege artillery material cannot be
awaited. It must combine great power with a
mobility sufficient. to enable it to keep up with
the troops. Since they are necessarily some dis-
tance behind the other troops on the road, the
arrival of these batteries must be awaited. They
are used very much like the field batteries, but
in the selection of the positions there will usually
be more freedom, and their duties and changes of
position are ordered only by the commander-in-
chief.
TACTICS OF THE THREE ARMS COMBINED.
For most eflicient action all three arms are
combined, although under certain circumstances
and in small bodies infantry and cavalry can
act alone, and under others only two of the-
arms are combined, as infantry and cavalry, in-
fantry and artillery, and cavalry and artillery.
The addition of artillery to the larger bodies
of cavalry confers on the latter the possibility
of preparing its attack by artillery fire and
strengthening its line when fighting on foot; but
the absence of infantry prevents it from fight-
ing an infantry enemy in diflicult round, or in
villages, woods, or intrenchments. It is there-
fore used mainly in reconnaissance and pursuit.
The addition of artillery to infantry greatly in-
creases the offensive and defensive power of the
latter; but absence of cavalry prevents this com-
bination from obtaining timely information of
the enemy or properly screening the forces from
his view. The addition of cavalry to infantry
confers on the latter security on the march and
in battle; but for reconnaissance or pursuit the
presence of the infantry interferes with the mo-
bility of the combination, and for battle it is
weak in offense or defense, due to the absence of
artillery.
The combination of the three arms is, there-
fore, the only complete one for the battlefield.
TROOP LEADING.
The principles of troop leading belong mainly
in the domain of strategy; that of tactics is far
more limited, because the subordinate commander‘
usually receives the plan of operations from
higher authority; nevertheless, he must often
actindependently. Every action of a commander
should be based on a'definite purpose, but often
the original plan may have been based on false
premises, because in war the circumstances are
rarely clear. Even a division commander can
rarely be fully informed of the condition of his
entire division, much less an army corps com-
mander. Moreover, after making dispositions,
the conditions may have entirely changed since
the receipt of the reports on which they were
based, and this is particularly true of cavalry
forces, where events succeed one another so
rapidly. These are some of the difficulties a
commander has to contend with. The position
taken by the commander in person is of great
importance. Aside from the moral effect the
commander must be influenced by the theatre of ~
war and must have his hand on the pulse of
his army; finally, in the critical moments his
position is at the front where the decisive action
must take place. The headquarters mayremain
in rear, but the leader himself must be at the
front. In spite of all the modern aids to recon-
naissance and the transmission of reports, in
spite of telegraph, railroad, bicycle, automobile,
in spite of heliograph, balloon, and carrier
pigeon, the veil covering the enemy has with time
grown more and more impenetrable, due more
particularly to the great masses involved in
modern armies, the immense space covered, the
greater rapidity of movement, and the increased
effect of firearms. Still, the commander who
decides to wait for definite information, espe-
cially as regards the strength of the enemy, will
wait in vain. In this connection it must be
remembered that the value of the initiative for
the successful execution of an undertaking can-
not be overestimated; it often makes up for a
poor plan. The greater the sphere of action the
more difficult it is to get a clear idea of the
entire situation, for the commander must have
in mind a definite conception of the state of
affairs on the enemy’s front, at the heads of his
own columns, and of the entire field, and this
must be derived from the innumerable messages
and reports, regarding the enemy, his own
troops, and the lines of communication, coming
in from all directions. The picture is probably
never perfectly true, but on the whole it must
sum up the situation correctly, for on it are
based the orders issued to the troops, and the
latter must always aim at a decisive action.
Considering all the difficulties, it is evident that
even the ablest leader cannot attend to all the
duties of his position personally, and requires
assistants; in other words, a stafi’. The leader
must be fully responsible for all his decisions;
the rest of the work his staff must relieve him
of. Especially does he need an officer to look
over and arrange the incoming reports of recon-
naissance, and in large commands this is placed
under a separate bureau, where the dispatches
are filed, and only the important ones, or a num-
ber of connected ones, placed before the com-
mander. See STAFF.
In carrying out the various operations and
manoeuvres here described much depends upon
the completeness and efficiency of the organiza-
tion of the army, consequently the subject of
organization is closely associated with tactics.
Therefore, in this connection the reader should
consult the article ARMY ORGANIZATION and the
articles ARMIES ; ARTILLERY; CAVALRY; INFAN-
TRY; MOUNTED INFANTRY; STAFF; AnvANcE
GUARD; Ourrosr; RECONNAISSANCE; and BAT-
TLE. The various arms and materials of war
mentioned will be found treated either under
such collective titles as ORDNANCE and SMALL
ARMS, or under their own heads.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Shaw, The Elements of Mod-
ern Tactics (London, 1894); Wagner, Organiza-
tion and Tactics (Kansas City, 1896) ; Dickhut,
Handbuch der Truppenfiihrung im Krie-ge (Ber-
lin, 1901) ; Hohenlohe, Letters on Infantry, 00/0-
alri , and Artillery (Eng. trans., London, 1890) ;
Wisser, Practical Problems in Strategy and Tac-
tics (New York, 1902) ; Wagner, The Service of
Security and Information (1896) ; De Gruyther,
Tactics for Beginners (London, 1899) ; Guenther,
Abriss der Talctilc (Zurich, 1895); Von der
Goltz, Kriegfithrung (Berlin. 1895); Wisser,
The Second Boer War, a tactical study (Kan-
sas City, 1900); Libbrecht, Attaque ct défense
des places (1888-95); Lauth, L’état militaire
des puissances étrangeres (Paris, 1894) ; Loebell,
J ahresberichte (Berlin, annual) .
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
450
TACTICS, NAVAL. The science of arranging
combinations, groupings, movements, and meth-
ods of handling of ships and other naval weapons,
and the art of carrying these plans into effect.
Roughly speaking, tactics may be said to solve the
question ‘how’ a certain operation may be per-
formed; strategy to furnish the reason ‘why’ it
is likely to be desirable. They are necessarily
mutually dependent; tactics only provides for
effecting conditions found desirable by strategy;
and strategy is confined to operations which are
tactically practicable. In its broad sense naval
tactics includes the manipulation of all naval
weapons—the movements of a ship or of a fleet,
the methods of mounting and placing guns and
of handling them, the placing of torpedo tubes
and their handling, etc. In a narrower and more
usual sense it is understood to mean the handling
of a ship and her weapons or of several ships,
leaving the tactics of the gun per se to be in-
cluded in gunnery, and those of the torpedo to
be studied under torpedo tactics. -
Of the abstract principles of strategy the most
important is to oppose to the enemy at the point
of contact a superior force. This may mean
more pow'erful ships, numerical superiority, or a
better arrangement for attack and receiving at-
tack. The first point must be secured by su-
perior design; the vessel’s guns must be more
powerful, better mounted, better protected, or
she must carry more of them; or her protection
or speed must be superior. Numerical superior-
ity where the opposing ships are equal in num-
ber and supposedly equal in power may be at-
tained only by good manoeuvring and is likely to
be only temporary; but a clever tactician and
strategist would be likely to reproduce the in-
equality whenever opportunity offered. The best
disposition of the fleet for attacking and receiv-
ing attack must depend upon many circum-
stances ; advantage should be taken of the strong
points of your own vessels and the weaknesses of
the enemy’s. For instance, the better protected
ships should seek close action, the others avoid
it; ships having heavy bow and stern fire should
seek action compelling bow and stern fighting if
the enemy is particularly weak in bow and stern
guns but relatively strong in broadside fire, etc.
The battle tactics of to-day resemble more
nearly those of the galley period than those of the
epoch of sail, because steam, like manual power,
enables any sort of combination of ships to be
made and kept with reasonable precision. And
the development of signaling has added to the fa-
cility of effecting these combinations, though the
most experienced naval officers believe that after
a fleet action has begun the changes of formation
should be simple and few in number.
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met.
FIG. 1. FLEET IN LINE, NATURAL ORDER.
Showing numbers of section (S). division (D), and
squadron (Sq).
There are three principal formations, line (Fig.
1), column (Fig. 2), and echelon (Fig. 3). In
England line is frequently called ‘line abreast’
and column styled ‘line ahead.’ In Figs. 1 and
2, a fleet of 16 ships is shown divided into two
'\ \ \
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M10.
‘P’ 0:’
>l’.“Sq.
w_ \4-m-m-
5.__,__.J\~_.v_.__J\__,___/\._,,—J\_,__/-M___,___/
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J
FIG. 2. FLEET IN COL-
UMN, NATURAL
ORDER.
Q’
Showing numbers >FIeet-
of sections (S), div-1-
Bl-011$ (D). and squad- Sms
rons (Sq.). I ‘ '
I0
rand D.
II ths
6 . .
I 1
I2 > 2nd 5
I I q‘
13
fits.
M 4%.
I I
I5
8%.
I
IS J J J
squadrons of eight ships each. If the fleet con-
sisted of 12 ships it might be divided into three
squadrons of four ships each, or two squadrons
of six. In the various navies of the world the
subdivisions of a fleet are different. Some have
A I
I
‘ 2
. 3
‘ 4
‘ 5 FIG. 3. BQUADRON IN ECHELOR,
6 NATURAL ORDER.
I
‘ 7
a
units of two, others of three. I11 the United
States Navy a fleet consists of two or more squad-
rons,‘ a squadron, of two to eight ships; a di-
vision is half of a squadron which consists of
more than five ships; a section is a pair of ships
. 7 5 3 I
FIG. 4. SQUADRON IN IN- .
DENTED LINE, NATURAL '
ORDER. ‘ . . h
8 6 4 2
forming part of a division or squadron. Vessels,
sections, divisions, and squadrons are numbered
from van to rear when in column and from right
to left when in line. When vessel No. 1 is lead-
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
451
ing in column or is on the right when in line the
fleet is said to be in natural order; if vessel No.
16 is leading or on the right the fleet is said to be
in inverted order. Vessels not intended for the
line of battle are separately formed and ma~
noeuvred and constitute the reserve and auxiliary
I
a
FIG. 5. sonnmon IN INDENTED con-
5 . nun, INVERTED onnnn.
4
2
I
squadrons, according to their character or the
circumstances of the case. Vessels which have a
distinct fighting value but are not fast enough or
powerful enough to join the fighting line would
form the reserve; supply ships, colliers, repair
I I I I
I3 9 5 I
I I I I
I4 I0 6 2
I I I I
I5 ' I I 7 3
I I I I
I6 I2 8 4
FIG. 6. FLEET IN LINE OF DIVISION COLUMNS, NATURAL
ORDER.
ships, etc., would form the auxiliary squadron.
The following terms are used:
About. change of course of 180 degrees.
Advance. Distance gained to the front in turn-
ing. Altgn/ment. The direction of the line. Arc
of train or fire. The angle through which guns
may be trained or fired. Column. A formation
in which vessels are in a line which is in the di'
5’ GD 3- 8- 5- =- 3- <0-
G’ -1- 0’ av’ QD up '0’
FIG. 7. FLEET IN DOUBLE COLUMN AT SQUADRON DISTANCE,
OR LINE OF DOUBLE COLUMN.
rection in which they are steering. Double col-
umn is a similar formation except that there are
two parallel lines. In indented column the even-
numbered ships are moved slightly to one side
instead of being directly in rear of the odd-num-
I
J
F1e.8. FLEET m cmsn nounms
commn.
:5» a. 3- am» '51» =I> 6- ‘°-'
cop Q5 mp mp -P’ 0’ N’
FIG. 9. ‘VESSELS, RIGHT
ABOUT ' (EXECUTED ;
FROM COLUMN). .
bered ones. Distance. The linear distance (in
yards) between the centres or foremasts of ships
when in ordinary formation. Half distance is

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F10. 10. ‘SQUADRON, conmm
3 menr, FOUR POINTS.’
&
O
-........_-~‘-'.~.s.....---.-I.-M.-.. -.-.....-......-. W
*1 0'
half this. Double distance is twice distance.
Echelon. A formation in which the line of bear-
ing of the ships makes an angle of about 45 'e-
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
452
grees with the direction in which they are steer-
ing as in Fig. 3. Evolution. The combination of
movements by which a fleet is changed from one
formation to another. Flank. The sea to the
8 7 5 5 4 3 2 1
--.----.- ~---. - -~’ -~ ’ ----_--~ ->-----
/ 2"-d Position .
Q1
l
‘2
is
i
l
FIG. 11. ‘ BQUADRON, COLUMN BIGHT.’
4
1"-‘t Position
5
5
la
right of the fleet is called the right flank;
that to the left is called the left flank. For-
The particular arrangement of the
Simple formations are,
mation.
fleet. column, line,


G. 12. ‘squsnnon, CGLUMH
TWELVE POINTS.’
D-1
echelon, etc. Compound formations are double
column, line of division columns, etc. Front.
The direction in which the fleet is steaming ex-
cept when obliquing. The battle front is the
./”7“M?\/“?<""' I
':g..i;. :1!
: g.-
ii
Ltglililéigl
U 7:$;5E4§3;2il
iiiiii I
8 7 8 5 4 3 21
FIG. 18. Wnssnns, RIGHT ABOUT’ (nxncurnn rnon LINE).
direction of the enemy. Guide. The ship desig-
nated as the one upon which the formation is ar-
ranged for alignment and distance. Interval.
The distance between divisions or squadrons
when in compound formation. Line. A forma-
tion in which the line of bearing of the ships is
at right angles to the direction in which they
are steaming. Line of Bearing. An imaginary
line passsing through the centres or foremasts
\
of ships when in a particular formation. In
compound formations each part has its own line
of bearing. Movement. One of the component
“I
Iii
ll‘
FIG. 14. ‘FORM coumn, RIGHT
vnssnn FORWARD, OTHER vns-
snns RIGHT OBLIQUE.’


9
parts of an evolution. A movement is simul-
taneous when all ships execute it together, and
successive when executed by each ship or group
K
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2
7
' I
0
‘ FIG. 15. "BQUADRON, comma-
“ MARCH-
i.
i‘ 2
_ 4
0° 1
i ! $
i’ '
. i-
lfl *
' 1
of ships in turn. Oblique. A change of course
of less than 90 degrees. The ordinary oblique
is three or four points. Order. The arrangement
TACTICS.
TACTICS.
453
of the fleet (see above). Point.
0nd of a circle or 111/4. degrees. Rear. The di-
rection opposite to the front. Speed. Standard
or battle speed is that designated for battle or
One thirty-sec-



8 7 s s 4 3 2 i
lliiiiiiiiiii
I 2
i l
l i
X \\ X-.‘ i i
\\ ‘\
\\
\ "\ i‘
‘\
FIG. 16. ‘FRONT 1NTo LINE,
LEFT OBLIQUE.’ ‘~.\
.\ ,
\
L
manoeuvres. Full speed is a designated speed
greater than standard; half speed is a desig-
nated speed less than standard; and slow speed
is still less. Tactical Diameter. The perpen-
6-,..." ‘
//
1’
M---.
l,/" 2
1 /
i‘ -...-"I".
l / 3
2 ,.
" _ - ---
. /' 4
3 ,-" FIG. 17. ‘vEssELs, RIGHT
‘ I__,, -, TURN.’
4 /" 5 The manoeuvre changes
1' column to line in this in-
‘ ,.- ~-.6 stance.
s(
_,-“"'“.
1
G
.'
______ ...‘
l ' 0
7 /
dicular distance between the course at the be-
ginning of a turn of 180 degrees and the course
after the completion of the turn. Transfer. Dis-
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- Q - 9---~~?;.--' " /--'-Q, ---D -- ~-
I /' "/ /1’ I I‘ ' /.''’d'
I III I /I
i 6 I I l I i 6
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
FIG. 18. 'vEssELs RIGHT 'I‘URN.°
In this manoeuvre line is changed to column.
tance gained to the right or left (i.e. toward the
flank) in turning. Turn. A turn is a change of
course of 90 degrees; a half turn is a change of

UMN on mvrsrons
FROM COLUMN.
1st. ‘Divisions’ col-
umn right.’ 2d. ‘Ves-
sels, left turn.’
45 degrees. Van. The leading unit of a forma-
tion. Wheel. A movement in line in which the
4 s 2 i s
i i i i
.2‘; J’ ;".:' J
8/.’
' I
25
a‘ s 1 e 5
9 9 9 '
4| '
K.
5. FIG. 19. FORMING con-
sl
si
vessels preserve their relative positions but the
line of bearing is revolved.
,<> <°
06‘/('<.'/)0’
/00 0


rs . i i i i
Position I l I A | I
e 7 s 5 4 3 2 I
FIG. 20. ‘SQUADRON, RIGHT WHEEL, FOUR PoINTs.’
Executed similarly for any given number of points.
In performing evolutions there are two prin-
cipal methods, by rectangular movements and by
4 3 2 1
ljlllii
/ //’J//
1 FIG. 21. FORMING LINE T0 THE FRONT BY
4 RECTANGULAR METHOD.
1st. ‘Squadron, column right.’
sels, left turn.’
2d. ' Ves-
1
I
I 8
direct or oblique movements. Certain evolutions
also admit of movement by isodrome and others
by conversion or wheel. The ease of movement
TACTICS.
TACULLI.
454
attainable With bodies of men is not possible with
ships. There can be no turning with fixed
pivots, because ships must continue in motion
or, they cannot be kept under control; nor are
sudden halts possible, for a heavy ship moving
at high speed cannot be stopped in a less distance
than several times her length. These and other
considerations have led to the general acceptance
of certain rules.
First.—Movements during battle should be
as simple as possible.
91
if
I 3
|4
FIG. 22. FORMING COLUMN TO THE FRONT,
RECTANGULAR METHOD. . 5
1st. ‘ Vessels, right turn.’ 2d. ‘Squadron, 1
column left.’ .
. s
‘7
is
I
_!
0.".
l l l | i 0 A |
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
Second.——-Changes in speed, particularly dur-
ing evolutions, should be avoided as far as pos-
sible.
Third.—Evolutions should be performed by the
method which requires the least time and the
least space.

8 7 B s 4 3 2 I
i Q I l l I I '.
5 E § ‘ E
______________ __ % -..--U g-..---..- s...... v
1 I}, , , 1 ..
2 .‘/'.M.. ---------- --Q ------------------------------------ »-p ------ --I’
35 _ , ,
4‘. ----------------- -- 0- ------ -- ) ------- "t ~--~--'
5', """"""""" "‘ """" "’ """ “' FIG. 23. ‘ FORM LINE
" 5 TO THE FRONT BY
6‘ , ISODROME, vnssnns
.» """"""""" " E‘ '""" msar.’
2" S
' ."
7|, ........... -../
:1
Si
Fourth.-—Ships of like characteristics should
be separately grouped as far as possible; this
is particularly true as regards speed and hardly
less so as regards power and arrangement of
battery and armor.
Fifth.-—When approaching the enemy and until
in position to deliver attack the fleet must be
kept concentrated and in condition to assume any
desired formation.
The accompanying figures show the various
formations commonly used and the method of
passing from one to the other. With the excep-
In
FIG. 24. 'SQUADRON,
FROM THE merrr. "2
FRONT INTO nonn-
LoN.’
'4
'5

.6
iii an
6 5 4 2 I
tions of Figs. 1, 2, 6, and 7, the plans show the
movements of a squadron of eight ships; the
evolutions would be similar for a fleet of sixteen
ships.

Q .-~l*
‘Q --.000o0l0--o------ -
-.m
-~|
'0
"'01
"""-.-b
. Q-“
F“-N
....___,__....
FORMING LINE FROM
COLUMN OF DIVISIONS.
E
i 1st. ‘Vessels, right turn.’
l
:=-.-
-
= I FIG. 25.
. 2d. ‘Second division, vessels,
' leftturn.‘ 3d. ‘ First division,
_ _ vessels,left turn.’ The vessels
.-
oi the second division are
'. ....-_'_’ , " turned to the right and then
' to the left so that all vessels
-' 1' I:
{ l’ =' 5 may cover the same ground
l I Q and preserve a constant
8 1 6 5 speed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For further information in re-
gard to naval tactics and strategy, see: Captain
W. B. Hoff, U. S. N., Eacamples, Conclusions, and
Maxims of M odern Naval Tactics (Washington,
1884); Captain F. A. Parker, U. S. N., Steam
Fleet Tactics (New York, 1863); Admiral Sir
G. Elliot, R. N., A Treatise on Future Naval Bat-
tles, etc. (London, 1885) ; Saint Farret, French
Navy, Etudes compo/ratives de tactique navale
(Paris, 1883) ; also numerous articles in the
Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute,
and in the Proceedings of the Royal United Ser-
vice Institution (London).
TACUBAYA, téi’k'66-Bti’ya. A Mexican town
in the Federal District, the head of the prefecture
of that name, three miles southwest of the City
of Mexico (Map: Mexico, C 9). It is a fashion-
able suburb and is famous for its gaming estab-
lishments and handsome villas. It is pleasantly
situated partly on a plain and partly on a hill-
side which is crowned by an ancient episcopal
palace, now used as one of the national observa-
tories. The population, in 1895, was 15,259.
'.1‘ACU'L’LI (Carriers). A tribe of Athapas-
can stock (q.v.) residing about Stuart and Mc-
Leod lakes, on the headwaters of the Peace and
TACULLI.
TAFT.
455
Fraser rivers, in Central British Columbia.
Their social organization was based on the clan
system. Their canoes were neatly made from
birch bark; they hunted during the winter sea-
son on snowshoes; and their women spun yarn
from the hair of the mountain goat and also
made a coarse pottery. They are all now Chris-
tianized through the efforts of French Catholic
missionaries, who devised for their language a
syllabic alphabet in which nearly all have
learned to read and write, although they have no
schools. They are gathered on small reserva-
tions, and they numbered about 750 in 1903.
The Dene syllabary, as it is called, is the in-
vention of the Rev. Adrien Morice, who began his
mission work among the Athapascan tribes of
British Columbia in 1880. It consists of thirty
characters, which by inversion of position and the
use of accompanying dots or dashes can be made
to indicate nearly two hundred distinct syllables
or sounds common to the Taculli, Chilcotin, and
other neighboring cognate languages. Its printed
literature consists of text-books, religious works,
and the Carrier Review, a monthly journal pub-
lished by Father Morice at Stuart Lake.
TADEMA, tii’de“>-ma, ALMA-. An English
painter. See ALMA-TADEMA.
TAD’MOR. Another name for Palmyra (q.v.) .
TADPOLE (ME. tadpolle, taddepol, from
tadde, tade, toad, AS. tadige, tadie, toad -|— polle,
head, poll). The larval form of anurous am-
phibians. For its metamorphosis see TOAD.
TAEL, tal (Port. tael, from Malay tail, tahil,
weight, tael, from Hind. t6la, weight, from Skt.
tul/a, balance). The name commonly given to the
Chinese liang, a money of account in China, and
worth from .724 to .806 of an American dollar,
but varying in value in different parts of the
Empire.
TENIA. An ammal parasite developed in
the intestines of man and some animals. See
TAPEWORM.
T2E'NIOP’TERIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rawla,
tainia, band, ribbon + rrrepls, pteris, fern). A
genus of fossil ferns found in rocks of late
Paleozoic and Triassic age. They have long
leathery fronds of linguate form with entire mar-
gins, a strong central rib, and numerous closely
parallel veins that run at right angles from the
midrib to the margins. The fruiting frond is
not known. See FERN.
TAENSA, ta-en’sa, or TENSA. An historic
American Indian tribe living, when first known
to the French, about the year 1700, in seven
villages between the Tensas River and the Mis-
sissippi, in the present Tensas Parish of Loui-
siana, about 20 miles from Natchez. ,Like the
neighboring Natchez (q.v.), with whom they
seem to have been closely connected, they were
sun-worshipers and kept a sacred fire constantly
burning in a temple. A part of the tribe, driven
out by the Chickasaw (q.v.), was afterwards
colonized by the French on the west side of
Mobile Bay, in the neighborhood of Mobile,
Ala., where the local name still remains. The
settlement contained one hundred cabins about
1750. At a later period they removed higher
up the Alabama River near the site of the pres-
ent Tensaw. They were probably merged finally
into the Choctaw or the Creek Confederacy.
Nothing is known positively of their language,
the Grammaire et vocabulaire de la langue
Taensa by Haumonte, published in Paris in 1882,
having been proved to be a transparent fraud.
According to contemporary French testimony,
however, the language was cognate with that of
the Natchez.
TAFFETA (OF., Fr. taffetas, from Pers.
t-aftah, taffeta, woven, p.p. of taf tan, to weave).
A term of somewhat general application in silk
manufacture. It was formerly applied to all
plain silks simply woven by regular alternations
of the warp and filling (see WEAVING), and is
by some writers supposed to be the first kind of
silk-weaving known even to the Chinese, from
whom it came to us. Modifications have, how-
ever, been introduced, by varying the quality of
the warp and filling, and by the substitution of
various colors for the single one of the original
taffeta. It has therefore become a sort Of ge-
neric term for plain sills, and other silk fabrics,
and even for some combinations of silk, wool,
and other materials.
TAFFY. See NATIONAL NICKNAMES.
TAF’ILET’. A large oasis in the northwest-
ern part of the Sahara, belonging to Morocco,
and situated at the southern base of the Atlas
Range, 200 miles south of Fez (Map: Africa, D
1). Area, about 500 square miles. The chief
product is dates, but the oasis is mainly impor-
tant as one of the principal trading stations be-
tween Morocco and the Sudan. The oasis includes
about 150 towns and villages, the largest and the
most important commercial centre being Abuam.
Population of the oasis, about 100,000.
TAFT, LORADO (1860-). An American sculp-
tor, born at Elmwood, 111. He was educated
at the University of Illinois (Champaign, Ill.)
and at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1880-
83). In 1886 he became an instructor at the
Art Institute of Chicago, and in 1893 a lecturer
in the university extension department of the
Chicago University. His works include statues
of Schuyler Colfax (Indianapolis) and of Gen-
eral Grant (Fort Leavenworth, Kan.), and the
sculptural decorations for the Horticultural
Building of the World’s Columbian Exhibition
(1893).
TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD (1857 -—). An
American jurist and administrator, son of Al-
phonso Taft, born in Cincinnati. He gradu-
ated at Yale in 1878, and at the Law School
of Cincinnati College two years later. In
1881-82 he was prosecutor of Hamilton County,
and later for a time was a collector of internal
revenue. From 1887 to 1890 he was a judge of
the Superior Court of Ohio, was Solicitor-General
of the United States in 1890-92, and was a judge
of the United States Circuit Court (sixth cir-
cuit) from 1892 to 1900, when at the request
of President McKinley he resigned to become
chairman of the commission appointed to estab-
lish civil government in the Philippines. The
following year, on June 5th, he was appointed
the first civil Governor of the islands. In 1903
Taft resigned this position to accept the appoint-
ment of Secretary of War, as successor of Elihu
Root. Consult: American Monthly Review of
Reviews, vol. xxiv. (1901); and The Outlook,
vols. lxiv., lxix., and lxx. See PHILIPPINE ISL-
ANDS.
TAGABALOYE.
TAHARKA.
456
TAGABALOYE, ta/ga-ba-lo’ya. A tribe of
eastern Mindanao. See PHILIPPINE IsLANns.
TAGABAWA, t£i’g:i-bti’vii. A mixed people in
Davao Province, southern Mindanao. See
PHILIPPINE IsLANns. '
TAGABELIE, raga-ba'1;-1.
people in southern Mindanao.
IsLANns.
TAGABELIE, ta’ga-ba’le-5.
people in southern Mindanao.
ISLANDS.
TAGAL, ta-giil’, TAGALA, re-g:-1'1a, TAGA-
LOG, or TAGALO, ta-gEi’lt>. A Malay people
of the Philippine Islands, having an alphabet
and considerable culture in pre-Spanish times.
They inhabit many provinces in middle Luzon,
and form with the Ilocano (q.v.) and Visaya
(q.v.) the bulk of the Filipino population. Their
language and culture have spread among the
other tribes. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; PHILIP-
PINE LANGUAGES.
TAGANROG, ttig'an-r-og’. A seaport in the
Province of the Don Cossacks, Russia, on the
northern coast of the Sea of Azov, 18 miles north-
west of the mouth_of the Don (Map: Russia,
E 5). The harbor has now become very shallow
and the trade of the town is decreasing. The
principal export is grain. The total trade in
1899 was about $1,800,000. The manufacturing
industries are well developed and the principal
products are flour and tobacco. Population, in
1900; 60,678.
TAGBANUA, tag-bii/ndb‘-a. A Malay-Negrito
people in Palawan Island and the Calamianes
Archipelago. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
TAGHKANIC (ta-kii’nik) MOUNTAINS.
See TAcoNIc MOUNTAINS.
TAGLIACOZZO, tiil’ya-kot’s(‘>. A town in
the Province of Aquila, Italy, 24 miles east by
north of Tivoli, near which, on August 23, 1268,
Charles of Anjou decisively defeated Conradin of
Swabia (q.v.), the last of the Hohenstaufen.
TAGLIONI, ta-ly6’ne. An Italian family of
ballet-dancers, of whom FILIPPO (1777-1871) was
the first to attain prominence. He was born in
Milan, became ballet-master, successively, at
Stockholm, Cassel, Vienna, and Warsaw, and
composed many ballets, of which Sglphide is the
most noteworthy. His daughter MARIA (1804-
84), born at Stockholm, was connected succes-
sively from 1822 with the opera houses in
Vienna, Paris, and Berlin, appeared with enor-
mous success also on all the other principal stages
of Europe, and in 1832 married Count Gilbert de
Voisins. After her last appearance in London,
1847, she retired to Italy. Her brother PAUL
(1808-84), born in Vienna, performed success-
fully at Stuttgart, Vienna, and Paris. and in 1829
secured a permanent engagement in Berlin, where
he was appointed ballet-director of the Royal
Theatre in 1869. As a composer of ballets he
earned world-wide reputation, especially with
Flick und Flock and Fantasca. His daughter
MARIA (1833-91), born in Berlin, made her debut
(1847) in London, was for some time a great
favorite at the Royal Theatre in Berlin, then at
San Carlo in Naples, and married Prince Joseph
Windischgriitz in 1866.
-TAGOSASTI, or TOGASASTI. A shrub (Cyti-
sus proleferus albus) of the natural order
A wild Malay
See PHILIPPINE
A wild Malay
See PHILIPPINE
Leguminosae. It is a native of the Madeira and
the Canary Islands, where it is an important
fodder plant and from whence it has been in-
troduced into southern Australia. It is well
adapted to dry soils and climates, but cannot be
depended upon where there is danger of frost.
TAGUAN (East Indian name). A large Old
VVorld flying squirrel (Pteromys petaurista).
Compare PETAURIST.
TA’GUS (Sp. Tajo, Port. Tejo). The largest
river of the Iberian Peninsula. It rises in the
Sierra de Albarracin on the western boundary of
the Spanish Province of Teruel, 88 miles east of
Madrid, and flows in a general west-southwest di-
rection through Spain and Portugal, emptying into
the Atlantic Ocean shortly after passing the city
of Lisbon (Map: Spain, D 2). Its length is 565
miles. In its upper course it traverses the arid
steppes of New Castile, but at Toledo it plunges
through a wild gorge between high granite cliffs.
Farther west it again flows through sandy, level
country, bordered by oak forests. About 40 miles
above Lisbon it divides into two branches which
inclose a low, marshy island, and which reunite
in the Bay of Lisbon, an expansion of the river
about 18 miles long and 5 miles wide. This bay
is deep and sheltered, and forms one of the best
harbors in the world. At Lisbon the river again
contracts, and enters the ocean through a nar-
row and deep channel, which, but for the bar
at the mouth, would be accessible for the largest
ships. The river is regularly navigated 105
miles to Abrantes, but in Spanish territory navi-
gation is impeded by rapids.
T.AHAR’KA ( ‘Z-c.668 13.0.). The name of the
third King of Egypt of the twenty-fifth or
Ethiopian dynasty, who ruled from about 13.0.
694-693 to 668-667. He is the Tirhakah of the
Bible, the Tcipxos, OI‘ Tapxés, of Manetho, and the
Tarqfi of the Assyrian inscriptions. He seems
to have been a usurper who seized upon the
throne on the death of Shabataka, and strength-
ened his hold upon it by marrying the widow of
King Shabako. In the Old Testament (Isa.
Kings xix. 9) he is said to have
come to_ the aid of Hezekiah, King of Judah,
when Jerusalem was besieged by Sennacherib. It
would seem that no battle took place between the
Egyptian and Assyrian forces, but that the lat-
ter, before they met, were forced to retreat by a
pestilence. In 13.0. 670 Esarhaddon, the son of
Sennacherib, invaded Egypt, defeated Taharka
in several engagements, sacked Memphis, and
marched as far as Thebes, which surrendered
to him. Taharka, in the meantime, retired
to Nubia, but returned in the following year,
and, deposing all the princes and other oili-
cers appointed by the Assyrian King, estab-
lished himself in Memphis. Upon receipt of this
intelligence, Esarhaddon gathered an army and
was proceeding to the relief of his Egyptian
vassals, when he died on the way. His army,
however, continued the march and drove Taharka
out of Lower Egypt. Retreating as far as
Thebes, Taharka seized upon that city and was
preparing to renew the contest when he- died.
Taharka was an active builder and memorials
of him are found in manyparts of Egypt and
Nubia. At Napata (Jebel Barkal) he built a
temple whose sanctuary was hewn out of the
solid rock of the mountain, and he diligently
restored the temples of Thebes, which he made
‘O
(1 TT
xxxvn. U ; 11.
TAHARKA.
TAINAN.
457
his capital. Consult: Wiedemann, Aegyptische
Geschichte (Gotha, 1884-88) ; Budge, A History
of Egypt (New York, 1902) .
TAHITI, ta’he-té or ta-he’te, or OTAHEITE.
The largest of the Society Islands (q.v.) , situated
in latitude 17° 45’ S., longitude 149° 20' W.
Area, 402 square miles (Map: World, Western
Hemisphere, L 6). The island consists of two un-
equal and nearly circular portions connected by a
narrow isthmus. These are the remnants of old
volcanoes, and rise in a succession of concentric
terraces to the summits, the higher of which
has an altitude of 7668 feet. The mountains
are, however, very much eroded by numerous
streams, which have cut large valleys and deep
gorges down the slopes, leaving in many places
isolated crags which make the scenery very ro-
mantic. The climate is warm, but equable, the
temperature ranging from 60° to 90°. The rain-
fall is abundant, and the whole island is covered
with a luxuriant vegetation. The central peaks
are surrounded by a low strip of coastland con-
sisting of volcanic detritus, which, mixed with
coral sands from the surrounding reefs, makes
an extremely fertile soil. Nevertheless agricul-
ture is in a backward state, and only a few
square miles of land are under cultivation. The
population, in 1900, was 10,750. The chief town
is Papéiti, the capital of the French establish-
ments in the Eastern Pacific, with a cathedral,
arsenal, hospital, and a population, in 1900, of
4282, about one-half of whom were French. For
history and political and economic conditions,
see SOCIETY ISLANDS.
The Tahitians are typical Polynesians of the
brown race. Many of them could be called hand-
some, and their general disposition is one of
gayety with an undercurrent of cruelty and de-
ceit, though their bad characteristics have, doubt-
less, been exaggerated. A remarkable institution
of the Society Islanders was the Areois (q.v.) , a
society for the cultivation of poetry, the dance,
and the drama combined with the indulgence of
the sexual passion. Consult: Lutteroth, O-Taiti
(Paris, 1843) ; Vincendon, I les Taiti (ib., 1844) ;
Buschmann, Apergu de la langue des iles Mar-
quises et de la langue taitienne (Berlin, 1843) .
TAHITI APPLE. See Hoe PLUM.
TAHLEQUAH, t'ei’le-kwti'. The capital of
the Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory, 80 miles
northwest of Fort Smith, Ark. (Map: Indian
Territory, J 3). It has the Tahlequah Institute,
Cherokee Academy, male and female seminaries,
and the Cherokee National Library. Tahlequah
was settled in 1836 and was incorporated in 1889.
Population, in 1900, 1482.
TAHOE, ta-ho’, LAKE. A lake in the Sierra
Nevada, on the boundary between Nevada and
California (Map: California, C 2). It is 21
miles long and 8 miles broad, and lies at an alti-
tude of 6225 feet. Its greatest depth is over
1500 feet, and its water is remarkably clear. It
discharges through the Truckee River into Pyra-
mid Lake, and it has been planned to draw its
water through tunnels for irrigation purposes.
TAHPANHES, ta-p‘zin’héz (Heb. Ta7chpan-
khés), or TEHAPHNEHES (Heb. fekhaphnekhes).
A city of Northeastern Egypt mentioned in the
Bible. It is probably to be identified with the town
called by the Greeks Daphnae, which was situated
in the Delta about 25 miles southwest of Pelu-
sium. Daphnae was a military post of some im-
portance in the time of Psammetichus I. (q.v.),
who fortified it and established in it a garrison
of Greek mercenaries. The site, represented by
the modern T ell-Defenneh, was explored by Petrie
in 1886. Consult Petrie, Tanis, Part ii. (London,
1887).
TAHR. See THAB.
TAILLANDIER, ta’yaN'dya’,
PABD ERNEST, commonly called SAINT-RENE
TAILLANDIEB (1817-79). A French writer on
literature and history, born in Paris. He was
professor in the Faculty of Letters in the uni-
versity from 1863 and attracted general attention
by his essays on the literature of Germany,
among which were his Histoire de la jeune Alle-
magne (1848); as well as by his Allemagne et
Russie (1856), a study made timely by the
Crimean War. He wrote also Scot Erigene et la
philosophic seholastique (1843); Etudes sur la
révolution en Allemagne (1853); La comtesse
d’Albany (1862) ; a critical biography of Maurice
de Same (1865); Disc ans de l’histoire d’Alle-
magne (1875) ; and Le roi Léopold et la reine
Victoria (1878).
TAILLE, ti’y’. In mediaeval England and
France, an arbitrary tax enacted by a seignior
from his vassal. In France, specifically a tax
originally imposed for the maintenance of the
national defense, and one which in the course of
time came to fall on the lower classes only, ex-
emption from the tax being in fact the great
mark of distinction between the privileged and
non-privileged classes, the taillables and non-
taillables. See SERF; FRANCE.
TAILLE, JEAN DE LA. See LA TAILLE, JEAN
DE.
TAILOR-BIRD. One of a group of small
Oriental thrushes or warblers of the genus
Orthotomus, which stitch together leaves to
sustain their nest. There are many species and
allies, but the tailor-bird proper is Orthotomus
sutorius, which is common in India and eastward
about gardens. It has a back of olive green, is
white beneath, the crown of the head is chestnut,
and in the male two middle tail-feathers are
greatly elongated. The bill is long and very
straight and slender. Jerdon writes that it
makes its nest of cotton and various other soft
materials, and draws one leaf or more, generally
two leaves, on each side of the nest, and stitches
them together with cotton, either woven by itself,
or threads picked up about a house. The process
has been witnessed, however, by few competent
observers. The fullest account extant is in
Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds (London,
2d ed., 1890). The birds of a related genus,
Cisticola (see FANTAIL), “ply the same trade on
stems of grass, confining them by stitches above
the nest, which is built among them and takes
a globular form.” See Plate of PENSILE NESTS
OF BIRDS accompanying article NIDIFICATION.
TAINAN, ti’n'zin’. A city of southern For-
mosa, known as Tai-wan fu until 1886, and the
capital of the island until 1896. It is on a level
plain of considerable extent. 3 miles east of For-
mosa Channel. with which it is connected by a
canal. Its walls have a circuit of about 6
miles and inclose many open spaces, the princi-
pal markets being in the western suburbs, where
most of the business is done. The Dutch made
RENE GAS-
TAINAN.
TAIRA.
458
it their capital in the seventeenth century.
Tainan was a treaty-port under Chinese rule,
and under Japanese control it has the same
status. It has three steam sugar mills and one
rice mill. Population, about 140,000. The for-
eign population is very small.
TAINE, tan, HIPPOLYTE Anonrnn (1828-93).
A French historian and critic of literature and
art, born at Vouziers, April 21, 1828. He went
to Paris in 1841, entered the Ecole Normale in,
1848, where he showed much independence and
restiveness under its philosophic eclecticism.
In 1851 he was appointed to the chair of phil-
osophy at the College of Toulon, but he immedi-
ately resigned, studied medicine and the sciences,
and so brought himself into touch with the
spirit of the rising generation, with whom his
essays on La Fontaine, Livy, and Les Philosophes
francais du XIXe‘me siecle (1853-56) won im-
mediate recognition, while his Voyage auw eauw
des Pyrénées (1855) showed his mastery of or-
derly and minute observatiori. Thus he compelled
recognition, and the Government that had
thought him dangerous in 1854 made him pro-
fessor in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1864.
Here he gave several series of lectures on the
history of art that are models of philosophic
criticism, and, applying the same principles in
another field, published a monumental Histoire
de la littérature anglaise (1864). Then followed
Idéalisme anglais (1864); Positivisme anglais
(1864), the latter a study of J . S. Mill; Philoso-
phie de l’art‘ (1865); Philosophie de l’art en
Italic (1866); Voyage en Italic (1866-72);
L’idéal clans l’a-rt (1867 ) ; the cynically amusing
Notes sur Paris (1867) ; the important De l’in-
telligenoe (1870); Notes sur l’Angleterre
(1872); and finally his greatest work, Origines
de la France contemporaine, consisting of Ancien
régime (1875), La Révolution (1878-84), and
the Régime moderne (1890). A Life and Let-
ters of H. Taine (1828-52) was published in
French and in English in 1902. .
Taine was the theorist of naturalism, of im-
mense yet systematized erudition, and of a logic
that was almost mechanical. He represents in
criticism the scientific spirit -that was making
itself felt almost simultaneously in all branches
of French intellectual activity, in the poetry of
the Parnassians, the philology of Renan, the
fiction of Flaubert, the dramas of the younger
Dumas, the high art of Meissonier, and the low
art of Forain. The analytic, meticulous spirit
of his generation found in his “little facts, well
chosen, important, significant, amply substan-
tiated, minutely noted, the material of every
science.” He sought to make‘ psychology,
aesthetics, and literary criticism into exact sci-
ences, capable of rigorous analysis and syste-
matic deduction. Physiology determined psy-
chology, environment was the cause of literary
evolution. Moral standards fell under the same
dissection. “Virtue and vice are products like
vitriol and sugar.” His is always the interest
of the naturalist, not of the artist. The style was
like the man and .like the philosophy, grave, sin-
cere, simple, almost always serene. There is in
his work hardly a trace of irony, of strain or of
enthusiasm, none at all of sentimentality or of
mysticism. His system may not have been deep,
but it was wonderfully opportune, and Taine was
a guiding light to the intellectually productive
men of France almost until his death. Oxford
gave him an honorary degree of LL.D. in 1871.
He was tardily elected to the French Academy in
1878, and died in Paris, March 5, 1893. Most
of his works have been translated into various
languages. Consult: Bourget, Essais de psychol-
ogie contemporaine, vol. i. (Paris, 1887); Le-
maitre, Les contemporains, vol_ iv. (ib., 1890-
92) ; Monod, in Contemporary Review (London,
1893) ; Margerie, Hippolyte Taine (Paris, 1894) ;
Boutmy, Taine, Scherer, Laboula-ye (ib., 1901);
Tiraud, Hippolyte Taine (ib., 1901).
TAI-NGAN FU, ti’ntin’fT>l6’. A departmental
city of the Province of Shan-tung, China, sit-
uated at the foot of the famous Mount Tai
(see TAI SHAN), 60 miles south-southeast of
Tsi-nan fu, the capital of the province. The im-
portance of Tai-ngan is due chiefly to the im-
mense numbers of pilgrims who come to visit
Mount Tai. Its suburbs on the south and west,
however, are large, populous, and prosperous. The
most important of the numerous temples of Tai-
ngan is the Tai Temple, covering several acres,
surrounded by a strong wall and containing
many fine old cypresses. Population, with sub-
urbs, about 80,000.
TAI-PEH, ti’pa’, or TAI-PAK, ti'piik’ (pro-
nounced by the Japanese Dai-holmt, di’hok"<TJ.
The capital of the Japanese island of Formosa
(q.v.) . It is a small walled city, about 13 miles
from Tamsui (q.v.), with which it is connected
by rail, as well as‘ with Kelung (q.v.). Near
it is found the large and populous town of
Bangka or Mangka, the centre of the tea trade.
The total population of Tai-peh proper and of the
suburbs is estimated at over 100,000, including
nearly 6000 Japanese.
TAI-PING (ti’ping’) REBELLION (abbre-
viation of Chin. t’ai p’ing chao, great peace
dynasty). The name given by foreigners to the
uprising which threatened the overthrow of the
Chinese Empire (1850-64). See CHINESE EM-
PIRE (section Modern History) and HUNG SIU-
Ts’EUEN. '
TAIRA, t6.'e-rti. A Japanese clan of Imperial
descent, one of the four great families, Fujiwara,
Minamoto, and Tokugawa being the others, which
have been most distinguished in the history of
Japan. The Taira family was established in the
ninth century, when some of its members were
given the control of provinces in the west. In
814 another house, the Minamoto, also of Im-
perial descent, had been put in control in the
east. For centuries the Taira and the Minamoto
were content in their respective spheres, but in the
twelfth century they came into conflict over the
succession to the Imperial throne. The head of
the Taira was Kiyomori, a man of great ability
and of large experience in warfare. He was suc-
cessful in his plans, defeated the Minamoto,
and made himself supreme in the Empire.
He took the office of Prime Minister from the
Fujiwara family, married his daughter to the
Emperor, filled all important offices with his
clansmen, humiliated the Fujiwara nobles, and
attempted the extermination of the Minamoto
family. After his death in 1181 the Minamoto
clan obtained possession of the eastern part of
Japan, and then of _Kioto. The Taira retreated
westward, were pursued by Yoshtsune, and finally
defeated in 1185 in the sea fight of Dan-no-Ura.
TAIRA.
TAJ MAHAL.
459
The clan was all but extcrminated and never re-
gained its importance.
TAIRA. A South American weasel-like car-
nivore. See TAYBA.
TAI SHAN, ti’ shiin’. The most easterly of
the Five Yo or great sacred mountains of China
whose worship goes back into the fabulous period
of Chinese history. It is a great massive com-
plex of rugged limestone ridges, buttressed on
the east and southeast by the mountains and hills
which cover most of the Shan-tung peninsula.
Its highest peak is 4111 feet above the level of
the sea. It is about 60 miles south-southeast of
Tsi-nan fu, the capital of Shan-tung (q.v.), and
is thickly dotted, especially on the south side,
with both Buddhist and Taoist temples, mon-
asteries, and pavilions. It is annually visited by
tens of thousands of pilgrims from all parts of
the country.
TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL (1811-82) . Arch-
bishop of Canterbury. He was born in Edin-
burgh, and was brought up as a Presbyterian.
During his studies at the University of Glas-
gow, to which he went in 1827, he determined to
enter the ministry of the Church of England, and
went up to Balliol College, Oxford, in 1830. He
took his degree there in 1833, was elected fellow
in 1834, and ordained in 1836. He steadfastly
refused to be carried away by the Oxford Move-
ment, and joined with three other tutors in a
famous protest against the principle involved in
Tract XC. In 1842 he succeeded Dr. Arnold
as head master of Rugby, which he left in 1850
for the deanery of Carlisle. In 1856 he became
Bishop of London, and, amid the difficulties of
times full of bitter controversy, won the re-
spect of all by his courage and impartiality.
The same may be said of his administration of
the still more diflicult post of the primacy, on
which he entered at the beginning of 1869. He
took a tolerant position toward the ritualists
throughout the excitement which caused the pass-
ing of the Public WVorship Regulation Act in
1874, and on all questions showed independence
and firmness. -Consult his biography by David-
son (afterwards his successor) and Benham
(London, 1891).
TAIT, JOHN ROBINSON (1834-). An Ameri-
can landscape painter and author, born in Cin-
cinnati, Ohio. He studied art in Florence, Diis-
seldorf, Munich, and the Tyrol. He wrote a Ger-
man comedy Ein aufrichtiges Heiratssgesuch,
and, in English, European Life, Legends, and
Landscape (1859). His paintings, several of
which were exhibited at Philadelphia in the Cen-
tennial Exhibition, include “Siebengebirge,”
“Under the Willows,” “Tyrolean Cottage,” and
“Landscape and Cattle.”
TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE (1831-1901). A Scotch
physicist, born at Dalkeith, Scotland, and
educated at Edinburgh University and Peter-
house, Cambridge, where he was made a fel-
low in 1852. He was appointed professor of
mathematics in Queen’s College, Belfast, in 1854,
and was professor of natural philosophy in the
University of Edinburgh from 1860 to the time
of his death. He carried on many important in-
vestigations in mathematics and physics, par-
ticularly on the mathematical and theoretical
side of the latter science. His most famous work
in mathematics was on quaternions, while his
,.
studies in thermodynamics and thermo-electricity
were of unusual value. His papers on the kinetic
theory of gases are among his many important
contributions to science and his various works
cited below are marked by conciseness and lu-
cidity of statement. He was the author of:
Dynamics of a Particle (1865); Elementary
Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867), with
Lord Kelvin (then Sir William Thomson) ; Qua-
ternions (1867); Thermodynamics (1868); Re-
cent Advances in Physical Science (1876) ; Heat
(1884); Light (1884); Properties of Matter
(1885) ; Dynamics (1895) ; and other works, in-
cluding Scientific Papers (1898) and Newton’s
Laws of Motion (1899). He also wrote in co-
operation with Professor Balfour Stewart The
Unseen Universe.
TAITTIRIYA, ti’te-ré’ya (Skt., from Tait-
tiri, name of an ancient Hindu sage). The title
of a school of the Yajur-Veda and of the redac-
tion of the Yajur-Veda itself, which belongs to
that particular school. See VEDA.
TAIWAN, ti’w'zin’ (Chin., terraced bay). The
name by which the island of Formosa (q.v.) is
known to both the Chinese and Japanese.
TAI-YUEN FU, ti’y‘d5-én’fbU’. A walled city
of China, capital of the Province of Shan-si. It
stands between loess-covered hills near the head
of a fertile plain 30 to 40 miles wide, about 70
miles long, 3000 feet above the level of the sea.
Both coal and iron are worked near the city on
the west, and there are silver mines about 65
miles north. The coal is bituminous and is of
fine quality. The city consists, like Peking, of an
‘inner’ and an ‘outer’ city, the ‘inner’ on the north
and the ‘outer’ on the south. The former measures
2% miles by 1%, is surrounded by walls of mod-
erate height, and has eight gates with towers over
each and on the corners. The outer city is sur-
rounded by mud walls, with three gates, one of
which is kept closed for Imperial use. There
is no extra-mural population. Among the build-
ings worthy of mention is the VVan-Show Kung,
or ‘palace of ten thousand ages,’ arranged as a
temple, roofed with yellow tiles, and containing
one room, in which is the Imperial tablet. There
is an Imperial gun and cannon foundry here.
Population, 200,000.
TAJIKS, ta-zheks’. The term applied par-
ticularly to the rural population of Eastern
Persia, and generally to their representatives
and congeners scattered from Constantinople to
the borders of China, and from Orenburg to the
Indian Ocean. It is sometimes more of a de-
scriptive than a racial epithet. There are ‘moun-
tain Tajiks’ and ‘Tajiks of the Plain’—the Gal-
chas (q.v.) of the Pamir being also known as
‘mountain Tajiks.’ The Tajiks are rather above
the average in height, brachycephalic, and show
traces of Turkish intermixture. It is possible
that the Galchas and Tajiks may represent an
Asiatic section of the so-called Alpine race of
Western Europe. Both peoples are thus Aryan
intruders into their respective areas. who have
more or less mingled with the preexisting non-
Aryan population. Consult: Ujfalvy, Les Aryens
au nord et au sud de l’Hindou Kouch (Paris,
1896) ; Houssay, Les races humaines de la Perse
(ib., 1887).
TAJ MAHAL, tiizh ma-hi-I1’ (Pers., Crown
of Mahal). A white marble mausoleum a mile
TAJ MAHAL.
TALBOT.
460
east of Agra, India, built by Shah J ehan as a burial
place for his favorite wife, who died in 1629. It
is said to have occupied twenty-two years in
building and its cost is variously stated at from
$9,000,000 to $60,000,000. The building is octag-
onal, with sides of 130 feet and a height of 70
feet. It is surmounted by a dome which rises to
the height of 120 feet above the roof, and is
flanked by four minarets 133 feet high. In the
central chamber, above the vault containing the
bodies of the Emperor and his wife, are two
cenotaphs surrounded by a fine marble screen.
The exterior of the mausoleum is covered with
arabesques and passages from the Koran in
mosaic.
TAKAMATSU, ta'ka-m5.t’s66. The capital
of the Prefecture of Kagawa in Japan, on the
northern coast of Shikoku (Map: Japan, D 6).
It was formerly the seat of a daimio and has a
fine landscape garden in its southern suburb.
Population, in 1898, 34,416.
TAKAOKA, tti’ka-o’ka. A town in the Pre-
fecture of Toyama, Central Hondo, Japan, 10
miles by rail ‘northeast of Kanazawa (Map:
Japan, E 5). It manufactures dyes and hard-
ware. Population, in 1898, 31,490.
TAKASAKI, t$i’ka-s2‘i’ke. A town in the
Prefecture of Girnma, Central Hondo, Japan,
situated 63 miles by rail northwest of Tokio
(Map: Japan, F 5). It has manufactures of
cotton and silk. Population, in 1898, 30,893.
TAKASHIMA, tii’ka-shé’ma. A small island
of Japan, about eight miles southwest of the en-
trance to the harbor of Nagasaki (Map: Japan,
J 2). It is noted for its extensive coal mine,
which has been worked since the middle of the
eighteenth century.
TAKATA, ta-k'a’ta. A town in the Prefecture
of Niigata, Northern Hondo, Japan, 42 miles by
rail north of Nagano. It has extensive manufac-
tures of cotton goods (Map: Japan, F 5). The
town was formerly the residence of the daimio
of Sakakibara belonging to one of the most noted
feudal families of Japan. Population, in 1898,
20,315.
TAKIN, or GNU-GOAT. A goat-like animal
(Buclorcas tawicolor) of Eastern Thibet, allied to
the serow (q.v.) , but having horns (in both
sexes) bent at right angles, and resembling those
of a gnu. Little is known of its habits.
TAKOW, or TAKAO, tii'kou’. A village on
the west coast of Formosa thrown open in 1864
by the Chinese for foreign residence and trade and
continued as a treaty-port by the Japanese
(Map: Japan, E 9). It lies 20 miles south of
Tainan (q.v.) , with which it is connected by rail,
and on the edge of a fertile plain inhabited
chiefly by immigrants from Kwang-tung, and
producing good crops of rice, sugar, etc. The
trade of the port is not very important, but there
is a considerable export of sugar. Population,
estimated at 7000.
TAKU, t'zi’l<b‘b". A village in the Province of
Chi-li, Northern China, near the mouth of the
Pei-ho, 30 miles east of Tien-tsin (Map: China,
E 4). It is known for its strong fortifications,
which were taken by the British and French
fleets in 1858-60 and by the allied troops on
June 17. 1900. during the Boxer uprising.
TALAING. See MONS.
TALAVERA DE LA REIN A, ta’la-v:'i’ra da
121 ra’e-na. A town of New Castile, Spain, in
the modern Province of Toledo, 68 miles south-
west of Madrid, on the Madrid-Valencia de Al-
cémtara Railroad (Map: Spain, C 3). It is
charmingly situated on the right bank of the
Tagus, which is here spanned by a quarter-mile
bridge of 35 arches. The town is in a fertile,
well-watered valley. Its former silk-weaving in-
dustry is now fast disappearing, but the town
contains important potteries, and cloth, hat,
leather, soap, and varnish factories. Its popula-
tion in 1900 was 9990. An important battle
took place here July 27 and 28, 1809, in which
Wellington defeated the French under Joseph
Bonaparte, Jourdan, and Victor.
TALBOT. The name of an ancient breed of
white dogs, also called ‘old Southern hound,’
from which have descended many of the modern
breeds. The talbot probably derives its name
from the ancient family of Talbot, whose coat
of arms bears the figure of a dog. See HOUND.
TALBOT, tal’b1'1t, CHARLES, twelfth Earl and
only Duke of Shrewsbury (1660-1718). An Eng-
lish statesman. He was the son of the eleventh
Earl, his mother being the notorious Anna Maria
Brudenell, the mistress of the Duke of Bucking-
ham, who in a duel killed Charles’s father. He
was educated as a Roman Catholic, but after the
‘Popish Plot’ attached himself to the Anglican
Church. Although a prominent official at the cor-
onation of James II. in 1865. he was one of the
seven noblemen who invited William, Prince of
Orange, to England. He was active in securing
the success of the Revolution, and was Secre-
tary of State for the northern province from
1689 to 1690 and again in 1694, on the latter oc-
casion being made a Knight of the Garter and
created Marquis of Alton and Duke of Shrew"s-
bury. In 1710 he was appointed Lord Chamber-
lain by Queen Anne, in 1712 Ambassador to
France, and in 1713 Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
Two days before her death in 1714 the Queen ap-
pointed him Lord High Treasurer. Under George
I. he became Lord Chamberlain. His ducal title
became extinct at his death in 1718.
TALBOT, JOHN, first Earl of Shrewsbury
(c.1388-1453). An English general of Welsh
descent. Henry V. appointed him Lord Lieuten-
ant of Ireland in 1414, where he was engaged in
subduing some of the septs and in other military
operations. In 1419 he went to France and took
an active part at the sieges of Melun and Meaux
and in the battle of Verneuil. In 1424 he re-
ceived the Order of the Garter, and again became
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland under Henry VI. In
1427 he again returned to France, and after nu-
merous successes in Brittany was taken prisoner
at Patay in 1429 by Joan of Arc. The ransom
demanded for his release was so high that he did
not regain his freedom until 1433, and then by
exchange. In 1442 he was created Earl of
Shrewsbury, and in 1446 Earl of Waterford.
Lord of Dungarvan, and Steward of Ireland.
With the exception of an interval of rule in Ire-
land from 1445 to 1447, the rest of his life was
spent in France, where he was distinguished for
the audacity and daring of his military exploits,
and where he was killed at the battle of Castil-
lon in 1453.

THE TAJ MAHAL
TALBOT.
TALCAHUANO.
461
TALBOT, Joan (1645-1727). One of the
early Church of England missionaries in Amer-
ica. He was rector of Freetherne, but resigned
his living to come to America with the first mis-
sionaries sent by the Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel. He was the founder and first
rector of Saint Mary’s Church, Burlington, N.
J., and labored diligently there and in other
colonies. There is considerable evidence for be-
lieving that he was consecrated bishop by the
Nonjurors (q.v.) in 1722, as well as Robert Wel-
ton, who for a time was rector of Christ Church,
Philadelphia—sixty years before Seabury ob-
tained consecration from the Scottish bishops.
Talbot is said occasionally to have assumed the
episcopal dress, and to have administered confir-
mation privately. Consult: Hills, History of the
Church in Burlington (2d ed., Trenton, 1885) ;
id., John Talbot, the First Bishop of North
America (ib., 1878).
TALBOT, RICHARD, Duke and Earl of 'I‘yrcon-
nel. Viceroy of Ireland in the reign of James
11. See TYRCONNEL, Rrcnnnn TALBOT, Duke and
Earl of.
TALBOT, SILAS (1751-1813). An American
naval ofiicer, born in Dighton, Mass. He was
engaged, as a boy, in the coasting service, and in
June, 1775, after the outbreak of the Revolu-
tionary War, entered the American Army as lieu-
tenant, serving at Boston, and becoming a cap-
tain of infantry in January, 1776. At New York
in 1776 he made an attempt, by means of a fire
ship, to destroy a part of the English squadron
in the harbor, and on October 7, 1777, Congress
promoted him to the rank of major. He was
wounded (October 23, 1777) at Fort Miflilin,
served with gallantry at Butt’s Hill (August
29, 1778), and on October 28, 1778, in command
of a small sloop, captured off Newport the Brit-
ish blockading schooner Pigot. For this he was
commissioned lieutenant-colonel by Congress on
November 14th. He became a captain in the
United States Navy September 17, 1779, and was
directed to protect the Long Island coast and to
keep General Gates’s communications open. In
May, while in command of the Pigot and the
Argo, he captured the British schooner Lively
and two privateers, and subsequently defeated
and captured the King George and the Dragon,
the latter after a four hours’ battle. He was taken
by the British i11 1780 and treated with the- ut-
most barbarity, being confined for a time in the
prison-ship Jersey and then in the ‘Old Sugar
House,’ and then being taken to England, where
he was exchanged late in 1781. After the war
he bought the confiscated estate of Sir William
Johnson, and was a member of Congress from
1793 to 1794. The frigate Constitution (q.v.)
was built under his supervision, and in 1799 was
his flagship during a cruise in the West Indies.
Owing to a dispute with Commodore Truxton,
concerning priority in rank, he resigned in 1801,
' and passed the rest of his life in New York.
Consult Tuckerman, The Life of Silas Talbot
(New York, 1850).
TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY Fox (1800-77).
An English photographer and philologist, well
known as one of the inventors of photography.
He was educated at Cambridge, received the
junior chance1lor’s medal in 1821, and subse-
quently became member of Parliament for Chip-
penham. But soon afterwards he gave up poli-
tics, and devoted himself entirely to scientific
investigation. The first problem to attract his
attention was that of fixing shadows, and by
patient research he was gradually led to the dis-
covery of a process of obtaining and fixing sun-
pictures. On the dissemination of a report as to
Daguerre’s successes in the same field, Talbot
secured his just rights by publishing a paper
(Phil. Mag., March, 1839), in which the suc-
cessive steps of his investigation and their result
were detailed. This process was subsequently
improved by his invention (1841) of the calotype
process. His discoveries and inventions in photog-
raphy are described in his Pencil of Nature
(1844-46). Latterly he devoted himself to the
study of philology and archaeology, and was one
of the first to read the cuneiform inscriptions of
Nineveh. Among his works are: Hermes, or
Classical and Antiquarian Researches (1828-39) ;
Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of
Genesis (1839) ; and a work on English Etymol-
ogies (1846). See PHOTOGRAPHY.
TALC (Fr. talc, Sp. talco, talque, from Ar.
_talq, talc). A mineral hydrated magnesium sili-
cate crystallized in the orthorhombic system. It
has a pearly or semi-metallic lustre, is soft, and
is silvery-white to gray or green in color. Talc
seldom occurs in crystals, but is usually found in
foliated or granular masses. It is an exceedingly
common mineral and in some regions is found in
large beds. The granular massive varieties are
commonly known as soapstone and find extensive
use in commerce as slabs for hearthstones, man-
tels, sinks, etc., and when powdered, as a pigment,
in paper-making, as a lubricator, for dressing
skins and leather, etc. The fine granular or
crypto-crystalline varieties are used for mark-
ing purposes under the name of French chalk.
In 1900 27,943 tons, valued at $383,541, were
mined in the United States.
TALCA, t£il’ka. A province of Chile, bounded
by Argentina on the east and the Pacific on the
west (Map: Chile, C 11). Its area is 3678
square miles. It is mountainous, with the Andes
in the east and the lower coast range in the west,
and the central portion is covered with plains
interspersed with low hills. The mountains are
well wooded and the interior is very fertile.
VV’heat is the chief agricultural product and
grazing is carried on extensively. The prov-
ince is crossed by the main railway line of Chile
and has a branch line from the capital, Talca,
to the coast. Population, in 1895, 128,961.
TALCA. The capital of the Chilean Province
of Talca, on the left bank of the Calaro River, a
tributary of the Maule, 140 miles south of San-
tiago on the Santiago-Concepcion Railway, and
45 miles from the coast, with which it has rail-
way connection (Map: Chile, C 11). Extremes in
heat and cold render its climate disagreeable.
The chief industry is the weaving of ponchos
(woolen blankets). Population, in 1901 (esti-
mated), 40,987.
TALCAHUANO, tal’ka-wii’no. A seaport of
Chile, on the Pacific coast, eight miles north of
Concepcion. The town is located on a peninsula
which forms a very safe harbor, the entrance of
which is protected by the island of Quiriquina.
The harbor is equipped with a breakwater and an
extensive system of docks. Wheat grown in the
interior provinces of Santiago and Valdivia, with
TALCAHUANO.
TALFOURD.
462
which the town has railway connection, is export-
ed. Population, in 1900, 15,376. Talcahuano
was founded as a military post in 1780 and was
almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in
1835.
TALENT (Lat. talentum, from Gk. rdhavrov,
talanton, talent, weight, balance; connected with
'rM‘;i-at, tlenai, to bear, Lat. tollerc, to lift, Skt.
tula, balance). The maximum unit of Weight
and value among the Greeks; the equivalent of
60 mince or 6000 drachmae. In the Homeric poems
the word is used in a different sense to signify
a small weight of gold, apparently of no great
value, since two talents are worth less than a
handsome bronze caldron. WVhile the name is
Greek, the weight came from Babylonia and
Phoenicia. Here a system of 60 shekels to a
mina and 60 mince to a talent was employed in
early times, and in two forms, a ‘common’ and
a ‘royal,’ the latter being about one-twentieth
heavier than the common. Furthermore, both
forms had a ‘heavy’ and a ‘light’ system, of
which the latter was one-half the former. More-
over, in weighing gold, 50 shekels were reckoned
to a mina, or 3000 instead of 3600 to a talent.
For silver, again, a new standard was introduced,
so arranged that while the ratio in value of silver
to gold was 1 to 131/2, the ratio of weight should
be 1 to 10 (Babylonian) or 1 to 15 (Phoenician).
The ‘royal’ forms seem also to have varied at dif-
ferent times. The Greeks, in borrowing these sys-
tems, naturally varied them somewhat, and we
therefore find considerable variety among the dif-
ferent Greek States. It is obvious that a very slight
variation in the weight of the shekel, or drachma,
would make a large difference in the talent. Of the
chief Greek systems the Z-Eginetan is not exactly
identical with any of these Eastern standards,
but is perhaps connected with a Babylonian
‘royal’ form, and at any rate seems to have been
adapted to their trade with Asia Minor. This tal-
ent weighed about 37.8 kilograms. The other
common standard was the Euboic-Attic with a
talent of about 26 kilograms, which has been
usually connected with the common light Phoeni-
cian standard, though recent writers prefer to
connect it with the Babylonian. In Athens this
was used in reckoning money, while in the mar-
ket a talent of about 37 kilograms was em-
ployed. The value of the Attic silver talent,
which was not a coin, but a sum of money, was
about $1080. Consult Hill, Handbook of Greek
and Roman Coins (London, 1899).
TALE OF A TUB. (1) A comedy by Ben
Jonson, licensed in May, 1633, and printed in
folio in 1640. The first performance has been
conjectured to have been given either in 1601 or
in the winter of 1603-04. A revised version was
produced in 1634. (2) A religious satire by
Jonathan Swift, published anonymously in 1704.
It deals with the various alterations which three
brothers make in the coat which their father
has bequeathed to them. Peter stands for the
Roman Catholic Church, Martin for the Luther-
ans, and Jack (from John Calvin) for the ex-
treme Protestants.
TALE OF TWO CITIES, A. An historical
novel by Charles Dickens, first published in All
the Year Round, April 30, to November 26, 1859,
and immediately after in book form. Its
scene is laid partly in London and partly in Paris
during the French Revolution, of which it pre-
sents striking pictures. It is regarded as the
most perfect in point of plot-construction of the
author’s works. See DEFARGE, THERESE.
TALESMEN (from Lat. tales, nom. pl. of
talia, such, from the initial word in the summons
of the original Latin phrase tales dc circumstan-
tibus, such of the bystanders -|— Eng. men).
Men called to supply a deficiency in the num-
ber of jurors in a panel. In some jurisdic-
tions a list of competent men is kept by the
proper officials for this purpose, and in many
States, in an emergency, the court may call upon
bystanders to fill the panel. Jurors thus sum-
moned are called talesmen. See JURY.
TALES OF A GRANDFATHER. A col-
lection of historical pictures by Sir Walter Scott,
the first two series (1828-29) dealing with Eng-
land, the third (1830) with Scotland, and the
fourth ( 1830) with France. They are put in ex-
tremely simple and popular form, and were in-
tended by the author for children.
TALES OF A TRAVELER. A series of
sketches and stories by Washington Irving
(London and New York, 1824), the scenes of
which are laid in England and France. A large
part of the Tales is taken up by the autobiogra-
phy of an imaginary personage, Buckthorne, and
an account of his friends and their adventures.
TALES OF A WAYSIDE INN. A collec-
tion of poetical narratives by Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, the first of which is entitled The
Challenge of Thor, and was written in 1849; the
last is entitled The Rhyme of Sir Christopher,
and was written in 1873. The series was pub-
lished in three parts, at Boston, in 1863, 1872, and
1873. The ‘\Vayside Inn’ was an old tavern, the
Howe Tavern, still standing in Sudbury, Mass.
TALES OF MY LANDLORD. The name
given by Sir Walter‘ Scott to four different sets
of his novels. Their publication was begun in
1816 under the fictitious editorship of Jedediah
Cleishbotham (q.v.). The first set contained
The Black: Dwarf and Old Mortality; the second
(1818), The Heart of Midlothian; the third
(1819), The Bride of Lamm-ermoor and The
Legend of Montrose; and the fourth (1832),
Count Robert of Paris and Castle Dangerous.
TALES OF THE CRUSADERS. The name
given by Sir Walter Scott to The Betrothed and
The Talisman (1825).
TALES OF THE GENII. A series of
Oriental stories, modeled on the Arabian Nights,
by James Ridley, published in London in 1764.
TALFOUBD, tal’ferd, Sir THOMAS NooN
(1795-1854). An English lawyer and author,
born at Reading, in Berkshire. He studied law
with Joseph Chitty (q.v.), and was called to the
bar at the Middle Temple ( 1821) . He was eventual-
ly elected to the bench in the Court of Common
Pleas (1849). His famous case was a defense of
Edward Moxon, who was prosecuted for pub-
lishing Shelley’s Queen Mab. Entering Par-
liament in 1835, he won great honor for his
speech in favor of the copyright bill (1837),
which he himself had introducled. In recognition
of his service, Piclcwi-cl: was dedicated to him.
VVith Lamb his name is especially associated by
Letters of Charles Lamb with a Sketch of His
Life (1837) and Final Memorials of Charles
Lamb (1848). In 1875 these two books were
TALFOURD.
TALLAHASSEE.
463
published together under the title, Memoirs of
Charles Lamb. They have since been edited by
Percy Fitzgerald (London, 1892). Talfourd’s
great literary success was Ion, a tragedy per-
formed by Macready (May 26, 1836). It was fol-
lowed by The Athenian Captive (1838) and
Glencoe (1840). Consult the Tragedies (Rout-
ledge’s Pocket Library, London and New York,
1889); Critical and Miscellaneous Writings
(Philadelphia, 1842); and A Memoir of Mr.
Justice Talfourd (London, 1854).
TALIAFERRO, tol’i-ver, WILLIAM Boorn
(1822-98). A Confederate soldier, born at Belle-
ville, i11 Gloucester County, Va. He attended
Harvard College, and then VVilliam and Mary
College, where he graduated in 1841. At the be-
ginning of the Civil War he was made a colonel
in the Provisional Army of Virginia. He partici-
pated in most of the battles fought by the Army of
Northern Virginia prior to March, 1863, and
was promoted brigadier-general in March, 1862.
In March, 1863, he was put i11 command of the
district of Savannah, Ga. In the following July,
at the time of the desperate attacks on Fort
Wagner, he was in command of the defenses on
Morris Island, and in August of those on J ames’s
Island. In 1864 he commanded the Seventh
Military District, comprising a part of South
Carolina, and in December was given command
of the entire State. He was promoted major-
general January 1, 1865. After the war he re-
sumed the practice of law, and served for ten
years in the Virginia House of Delegates. He
contributed “Jackson’s Raid Around Pope” to
Battles and Leaders of the Civil War.
TA-LIEN-WAN, tii’lén’wiin’. A bay on the
eastern coast of the Liao-tung Peninsula in Man-
churia (Map: China, F 4). It is roomy and pro-
tected at the entrance by two islets. It is ice-
free throughout the year. At its head lies the
new Russian port Dalny (q.v.). Ta-lien-wan
with the surrounding territory was ceded to Rus-
sia in 1898.
TALIESIN, tal'i-sin. A British bard, who is
supposed to have lived about the middle of the
sixth century. Nothing definite is known as to
his career, and some scholars hold that he is a
mythical personage. According to legend he was
called ‘the chief of the bards.’ The “Book of
Taliesin” contains 56 poems, which were for-
merly attributed to Taliesin. All are now gen-
erally believed to be of a later date. Consult:
Skene, The Four Ancient Books of Wales (2 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1868) , in which the “Book of Taliesin”
is included; for the legends, Guest, M abinogion
(2d ed., London, 1877).
TALIPES, tr"-il'i-péz.
club-foot (q.v.).
TALIPOT PALM (Hind. t-dlpdt, from Skt.
The technical term for
tdlapatra, palm-tree leaf, from tdla, palm-tree
-1- patra, leaf), GREAT FAN PALM (Oorypha
umbraculifera). The noblest palm of the East
Indies, a native of Ceylon, Malabar, etc. Its
straight cylindrical trunk, 60 to 100 feet high, is
crowned with a tuft of enormous palmate
plaited leaves, divided near the outer margin
into numerous segments, and united to the trunk
by spiny leafstalks. The leaves are usually
about 8 or 10 feet long, exclusive of the leaf-
stalk, which is 7 or 8 feet long. At the age
of thirty or forty years the tree produces a long
pyramidal cluster of whitish flowers rising to
the height of 30 feet from the midst of its crown
of leaves, and dividing into simple alternate
branches, the lower of which sometimes extends
laterally 20 feet. After maturing the numerous
globose fruits about an inch and one-half in
diameter the tree generally dies. The leaves are
used for covering houses, for making tents, and
for many other purposes. The leaves of this palm
are used in Malabar for writing upon, characters
being traced upon them with an iron style. They
are prepared for this purpose by boiling, drying,
damping, rubbing, and pressing. The soft, cen-
tral part of the stem, like that of many other
palms, yields a kind of sago.
TALISAY, tii'lé-si’. A town of Cebu, Philip-
pines, situated 6 miles southwest from Cebu
(Map: Philippine Islands, H 9) . Population, in
1887, 16,055; now 19,000.
TALISMAN (Sp., Port. talisman, from Ar.
ti-lsam, tulsam, tilism, pl. tilsamfm, talisman,
from Gk. ré7\ecp.a, telesma, consecrated object,
talisman, religious rite, completion, from Teheiv,
tclein, to end, to make perfect, from 1-éhos, telos,
end). In its strict sense, a species of charm,
consisting of a figure engraved on metal or stone
when two planets are in conjunction, or when a
star is at its culminating point, and supposed
to exert some protective influence over the
wearer of it by keeping away diseases or bring-
ing luck. While the proper distinctive character
of the talisman thus resides in its astrological
character, in common usage the terms talisman
and amulet (q.v.) are synonymous, referring to
any object used as a charm against evil spirits
or evil influences. Consult Elworthy, The Evil
Eye (London, 1895).
TALISMAN, THE. A novel by Sir Walter
Scott, published, with The Betrothed, in June,
1825. The action takes place in Palestine, dur-
ing the Crusades. The title of the story is de-
rived from an amulet or charmed stone with
which Saladin cures King Richard Coeur de Lion
in his illness and which he afterwards presents
to the hero, Sir Kenneth, finally discovered to be
the Prince Royal of Scotland, on his marriage
with Edith, the sister of Richard.
T‘AL’LADE’GA. _ The county-seat of Talla-
dega County, Ala., 60 miles east of Birmingham;
on the Southern and the Louisville and Nashville
railroads (Map: Alabama, C 2). It is the seat
of State schools for the deaf, dumb, and blind; of
Talladega College (Congregational), an institu-
tion for colored students; and of a Presbyterian
Orphan’s Home. Talladega has considerable in-
dustrial importance. There are cotton mills, a
cottonseed-oil mill, an iron furnace, and ‘manu-
factories of hosiery and fertilizers. Under the
charter of 1901 the government is vested in a
mayor, elected biennially, and a unicameral coun-
cil. The water-works and the gas plant are owned
and operated by the municipality. On the site
of Talladega, General Jackson, at the head of
2000 men, defeated a force of 1000 Creek Indians
on November 9, 1813, the Indians losing about
300, and the Americans, 15 killed and 86 wounded.
Population, in 1890, 2063; in 1900, 5056.
TAL’LAHAS’SEE. The capital of Florida,
and the county seat of Leon County, 165 miles
west of Jacksonville; on the Seaboard Air Line,
the Carrabelle, Tallahassee and Georgia, and the
TALLAHASSEE-.
TALLE-YRAND-PE RIGORD.
464
Georgia, Florida and Alabama railroads (Map:
Florida, D 1). It is finely situated on an emi-
nence, in the vicinity of several picturesque
lakes, and has wide, beautifully shaded streets.
The Florida State College, occupying a site over-
looking the city, the Florida State Normal and
Industrial College for Colored Students, and the
Leon County Academy are the leading educa-
tional institutions. The State Library has 9500
volumes; and there are also in the city the
Supreme Court Library, with more than 7000
volumes, and the David S. “Talker Library (for-
merly the University Library), with 6000 vol-
umes. Other prominent features are the State
Capitol, the court-house, the post-ofiice, and Blox-
ham Park. The vicinity is especially adapted
to the production of cotton, tobacco, and sugar-
cane, and also has important dairying and stock-
raising interests. Cottonseed oil and cigars con-
stitute the principal manufactures. The govern-
ment, under the revised charter of 1869, is vested
in a mayor, chosen annually, and a unicameral
council. Tallahassee was laid out in 1824 on a
site selected two years earlier as the seat of
the Territorial Government, and was incorpo-
rated as a city in’ 1827. Population, in 1890,
2934; in 1900, 2981.
TALLEMANT nns REAUX, t=n'maN/ as
rat’, GEDEON (1619-92). A French writer,
born at La Rochelle, and connected through his
mother with the famous Rambouillet family. He
took his degrees in law, but refused to fulfill his
father’s Wish that he should go into the magis-
tracy. He employed his leisure in literary work,
wrote verses in the taste of the time, and began
a tragedy of Gildipe. But he is ‘chiefly remem-
bered by his Historiettes, a series of biographi-
cal, anecdotal, and character sketches of con-
temporary personages. Light, witty, somewhat
cynical, and usually less restrained than modern
taste demands, they are an invaluable document
of the period, and particularly of the Hotel de
Rambouillet. They have been collected by Mon-
merqué, Levavasseur (1840) and Techener
(1860); Tallement also began the M émoires de
711 D15/-I0/mnn /-7’ /1 MM,» /-7’ /l '
./\/K UIU
win‘-an r]A
vw 4. J 1/0 ul ALI!/Il~U U1 11211011! (102218, ..l.|J.L-C.l1U.C(.]l hght upon the administration of Cardinal Maza-
rin. These, however, have not come down to us.
TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD, ta'la'raN'p5’-
re’gor’, CHARLES MAURICE, Duke de’ Prince
of Benevento (1754-1838). A French states-
man, born in Paris. His father was an officer
in the French Army, and fought through the
Seven Years’ War. Charles Maurice was the
eldest son; on account of an accident in
infancy which rendered him lame for life, he
was trained for the Church at Saint Sulpice, the
Sorbonne, and Rheims. He showed brilliant tal-
ents, but neither moral purpose nor a calling for
the Church. He obtained, however, several ec-
clesiastical benefices, among them the abbacy
of Saint Denis, in the diocese of Rheims (1775),
in the year of his ordination. Appointed agent-
general for the clergy in 1780, a lucrative and
important post which brought him into close
connection with the Government, he began a
serious apprenticeship in public business, leading
at the same time a notoriously licentious life.
In 1788 his administrative abilities secured for
him the bishopric of Autun. As representative
of his diocese in the States-General of 1789. he
favored uniting with the Third Estate, and thus
won the good will of the popular party. He was
appointed one of the commission to draw up a
constitution for the nation. He assisted in fram-
ing the Declaration of Rights; proposed, October
10, 1789, the confiscation of Church property as
belonging of right to the nation; and on Febru-
ary 16, 1790, he became president of the National
Assembly. He was among the first of his order
to take the oath to obey the Constitution, and
urged the clergy of his diocese to follow his ex-
ample. Excommunicated by the Pope, he was
compelled to resign his bishopric. In January,
1792, Talleyrand was sent to London in a semi-
official capacity, the object of his mission being
to conciliate England. It was, however, suspected
that he was a person ‘disposed to serve the King,’
and he was put on the list of émigrés. He remained
in England until January, 1794, then spent
more than a year in the United States, and after
the fall of the Terrorists procured the revocation
of his- banishment, and in March, 1796, reéntered
Paris, having paved the way for a favorable re-
ception by a series of the most adroit and judi-
cious intrigues. He attached himself to the
group of constitutionalists and in 1797, mainly
through the influence of Mme. de Staél, was
named Minister of Foreign Affairs.
With his usual shrewdness Talleyrand saw
the significance of the rise of Napoleon Bona-
parte, attached himself to the fortunes of the
young Corsican, and became his ally and con-
fidant in the coup of the 18th Brumaire, which
resulted in the overthrow of the Directory. After
this Talleyrand, who had been reappointed Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs by Bonaparte, directed
his whole effort toward consolidating the power
and authority of his master. In the diplo-
matic negotiations that followed the vic-
tories of France under the Consulate he had
the principal part; he was the prime mover in
the seizure and execution of the Duke d’Enghien,
and assisted in the establishment of the Empire
and in the organization of the Confederation of
the Rhine. For these services he was made
Prince of Benevento in 1806. He opposed Na-
poleon’s disastrous policy with regard to Eng-
land, and soon after Tilsit (1807) laid down his
office as Foreign Minister, and after some in-
triguing retired from active life (1809), resid-
ing on his estates, and preparing for the turn of
the tide. When after the French disasters of
1812 Europe rose against Napoleon Talleyrand
became the centre of a group of malcontents,
' whose influence grew with the advance of the
allied armies, and finally communications were
opened with the Bourbons. Talleyrand dictated
to the Senate the terms of the deposition of Na-
oleon; and on the restoration of the Bourbons
e became Minister of Foreign Affairs in the first
Government of Louis XVIII. He represented
France at the Congress of Vienna and played
there a game of masterly politics, working on the
jealousies of the powers, and by appealing to the
principle of legitimacy gaining solid advantages
for France. He had succeeded in bringing about a
secret alliance between Austria, Great Britain,
and France against Russia and Prussia when
Napoleon’s return from Elba shattered his plans.
Henceforth he had little part in public affairs.
He resumed the office of Foreign Minister in May,
1814, after the second restoration, but soon re-
signed, owing to the hostility of the old nobility.
TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD.
TALLMADGE.
465
After the July Revolution Louis Philippe em-
ployed him as Ambassador at the English Court,
where he contrived to bring about a friendly feel-
ing between the new monarchy and the English
Government, and negotiated the Quadruple Alli-
ance of 1834 between France, Great Britain, Spain,
and Portugal. He returned to France in 1835,
and died at Valencay, May 17, 1838. Talleyrand
stands out preéminently as the type of the un-
scrupulous diplomat and politician. A skeptic
in religion and a cynic in morals, he possessed
a remarkable insight into the grosser nature of
man and almost unexampled adroitness for play-
ing on the lower motives. He had a rare talent
for caustic epigram, and his disillusioned view of
human nature is attested by numerous witty say-
ings which have become part of the World’s nar-
rower wisdom.
The Mémoires of a man of Talleyrand’s keen
perceptions and close contact with great events
necessarily have considerable historical value.
His plan was to have them published thirty
years after his death, but at that time it was de-
cided to postpone their publication, and they
were finally issued in five volumes (Paris) in
1889-91. Consult, in addition to general works on
the period: Bastide, Vie réligieuse et politique de
Talleyrand! (Paris, 1838) ; Gorrespondance d-u
prince de Talleyrand et du roi Louis XVIII.
pendant le congrrés dc Vienne (ib., 1881) ; Sorel,
Essais d’histoire et de critique——-Talleyrand an
congrés de Vienne (ib., 1883) ; Sainte-Beuve,
“Talleyrand,” in N ouveauw Lundis, vol. xii. (ib.,
1872).
TALLIEN, ta’1yaN’, JEAN LAMBERT (1769-
1820). A French revolutionary leader, born in
Paris. He was educated by his father’s employer,
the Marquis de Berry. He early imbibed the
spirit of the Revolution, was attached to the
M oniteu/r, and started a journal, L’Ami des
Citoyens, in imitation of Marat’s Ami dn Peuple.
He acquired great influence with the people and
became a leader in extreme and sanguinary meas-
ures. On August 10, 1792, he was made secre-
tary to the Revolutionary Commune of Paris, was
later chosen to the Convention and there became
the apologist of Marat, voted for the death
of Louis XVI., and was eager for the
destruction of the Girondists (q.v.). Toward
the close of 1793 he was sent to Bordeaux as the
representative of the Committee of Public Safety.
A passion which he there conceived for Madame
de Fontenay, whom he married December 26,
1794, made him amenable to her influence, which
was exerted on the side of clemency. On March
22, 1794, he was chosen president of the Conven-
tion. Robespierre, who hated him, and felt that
he could not be trusted, denounced him in the
Convention. Tallien recognized his danger and
dexterously rallied the remnants of the Danton-
ist.s, Hébertists, and other factions against the
Government of Robespierre, Saint Just, and Cou-
thon, and brought about the events of the 9th
Thermidor (July 27, 1794), which caused the
fall of the triumvirate. Tallien became head
of the Committee of Public Safety, lent his aid
in suppressing the Revolutionary Tribunal and
the Jacobin Club, and drew up the accusa-
tions against Carrier, Le Bon, and others
of the Terrorists. From 1795 to 1798 he
was a member of the Council of Five
Hundred, where, however, his influence rapidly
diminished. He accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt,
editing the official journal, Décade Egypt-ienne,
and, when returning to l<‘rance, was captured by
an English cruiser, and taken to England, where
he was lionized by the Whigs (1801). Soon af-
ter he returned to France, and was sent in 1805
as consul to Alicante. He died in Paris, Novem-
-ber 16, 1820. Under the Directory Madame Tal-
lien’s salon was one of the most brilliant in Paris.
\Vhile Tallien was absent in Egypt, she was di-
vorced from him and married in 1805 Count de
Caraman, afterwards Prince de Chimay. See
CHIMAY, JEANNE MARIE IGNACE THERESE DE
CABARRUS, PRINCESS DE.
TAI./LIS, THOMAS (c.1510-85). A famous
English organist and composer. He achieved
great proficiency in organ-playing, and was or-
ganist at Waltham Abbey for_ many years. About
1542 he was appointed gentleman of the Chapel
Royal, and served under Henry VIII., Edward
VI., and the queens Mary and Elizabeth. He
was also organist to Elizabeth. In 1575-76 he
obtained, with William Byrd, letters patent, giv-
ing the exclusive right, for twenty-one years, of
printing music and ruled music paper. The first
work printed under this patent was their Can-
tiones quce ab Argwmento Sacraa V ocantur Quin-
que et Sew Partium (London, 1575), containing
34 motets, by Tallis and Byrd, the work being a
beautiful specimen of typography. About this
time he composed his famous song of 40 parts,
originally written to Latin words, but adapted
to English about 1630. Tallis’s compositions
consist of Church music, Order of Daily Service;
Full Cathedral Service; Order for Morning
Prayer, /with the Litany Noted (all of which
have been edited in this century); Te Deums,
chants, hymns, motets, and responses. His manu-
scripts are in the Oxford and Cambridge Uni-
versity libraries, and in the British Museum.
TALUMADGE, BENJAMIN (1754-1835). An
American soldier, born in Brookhaven, N. Y.
He graduated at Yale in 1773; taught school at
VVethersfield, Conn., for three years; and in June,
1776, became lieutenant and adjutant of a Con-
necticut regiment, rising to the rank of captain
in December, 1776, and of major in April, 1777.
On September 5, 1779, without the loss of a single
man, he surprised and captured 500 Tory ma-
rauders at Lloyd’s Neck, L. 1., and in May, 1780,
captured Fort George at Oyster Bay. He was
present, besides, at the battles of Brandywine,
Germantown, and Monmouth, had the custody
of Major Andre until that ofiicer’s execution,
and served at Washington’s headquarters in 1781-
83. After the war he became a successful mer-
chant at Litchfield, Conn. His Memoirs were
printed privately by his son in 1859.
TALLMADGE, NATHANIEL Prrorrnn (1795-
1864). An American legislator and governor,
born in Chatham, N. Y. He graduated at Union
College in 1815, and in 1818 was admitted to the
bar. He was elected to the lower branch of the
State Legislature in 1828 and to the State Senate
in 1830. In the latter body he served until
1833, when he Was elected to the United States
Senate as a Democrat. Afterwards he allied
himself with the VVhigs and served by reélection
until 1844, when he resigned to accept the ap-
pointment of Territorial Governor of Wisconsin
tendered him by President Tyler, and served un-
til removed by President Polk in 1846.
TALLOW.
TALMAGE.
466
TALLOW (MDutch talgh, talch, Dutch talk,
LG. talg, Ger. Talg, tallow; possibly connected
with AS. tcelg, color, Goth. tulgus, fast, firm,
and ultimately with Eng. long). A mixture of
stearin, almitin, and olein (qq.v.) derived from
animal at in the process of rendering. This
fat is generally obtained from beef or mutton by
melting and separation by heat, usually under
pressure. Tallow is a white and almost tasteless
substance in its pure condition, but the commer-
cial article is usually of a yellowish color. It
is soluble in boiling alcohol and has a specific
gravity which varies from .925 in the case of
beef tallow to .937 in the case of mutton tallow.
It melts between 100° and 120° F. Tallow is
employed in making candles (q.v.) and soap. It
may also be used as a lubricant. See FATS.
TALLOW, MINERAL. See MINERAL TALLow.
TALLOW TREE. Various trees which pro-
duce a thick oil or a somewhat resinous sub-
stance, which, like tallow, may be used for mak-
ing candles. The tallow tree of Malabar (Vateria
indica-), a tree of the natural order Dipterocar-
paceaa, has leathery leaves 4 to 10 feet long, and
panicles of white, fragrant flowers. From in-
cisions in the stem, which is often 16 feet in
circumference, east Indian copal is obtained. Its
seeds yield a firm, white, odorless vegetable tal-
low valued for soap and candle making. The
tallow tree of China (Sc-pium sebifernm) belongs
to the natural order Euphorbiacese. The nearly
hemispherical seed and the capsules yield a white
vegetable tallow, which the Chinese obtain by
crushing and boiling both capsules and seed and
skimming off the fluid fat. Three parts wax is
added to ten of tallow to give a firmer con-
sistency. This tree has been introduced into
North America, is cultivated about Charleston
and Savannah, and is almost naturalized in the
maritime parts of the Carolinas. It is very
beautiful at the approach of winter, when the
leaves become bright red, among which hang the
white seeds suspended by threads. The name tal-
low tree is sometimes given to Aleurites triloba,
a species of candlenut (q.v.). The tallow tree,
or butter-and-tallow tree, of Sierra Leone is Pen-
tadesma butyracea, of the natural order Gutti-
ferm, the fruit of which furnishes an oil used as
butter.
TALLY (OF., Fr. taille, cut, size, figure, tax,
from Lat. talea, rod, cutting twig). The name
given to the notched sticks once used in England
for keeping accounts in Exchequer. They were
well seasoned rods of hazel or willow, inscribed
on one side with notches indicating the sum for
which the tally was an acknowledgment, and on two
opposite sides with the same sum in Roman char-
acters, along with the name of the payer and the
date of the transaction. The tally was cleft
through the middle by the deputy chamberlain
with knife and mallet, and one half was retained
by the payer as his receipt, while the other was
preserved in exchequer. They accumulated there
until 1834 when an act of Parliament ordered
them to be burned. The destruction of the houses
of Parliament by fire at the time is supposed to
have arisen from the overheating of the flues in
which the discarded tallies were being burned.
TALMA, tal'ma', FRANCOIS JosEPH (1763-
1826), A distinguished French tragedian, born
in Paris. In 1787 he made his debut on the stage
of the Comédie Francaise. Some time afterwards
in a minor part in the tragedy of Brutus he at-
tracted attention by a novelty of costume. It
was the fashion for actors to appear in the garb
of their own country and even their own time,
and Roman senators stalked about the stage at-
tired as Parisian dandies of the eighteenth cen-
-tury. Talma saw the absurdity of the custom
and, setting out to reform it, appeared clothed in
a Roman toga and with arms bare. His first great
triumph was in Chénier’s Charles IX., produced
in 1789. In the division of the Comédie Francaise
(q.v.) which soon followed in the months of
Revolutionary confusion, Talma and those who
adhered to him went over to the new theatre in
the Rue Richelieu, which was for a time known
as the Theatre de la République. There many of
his greatest successes were won. Though ir-
ritable and often at strife with his fellow ac-
tors, he was a great favorite with Napoleon, of
whom it was jestingly said that he took lessons
of his friend Talma in the art of behaving like
an Emperor. Talma was, however, equally well
received later by Louis XVIII. Consult his
“Quelques réflexions sur Lekain et sur l’art
the-atral,” prefixed to the Mémoires de Lekain
(Paris, 1825) ; Mémoires de Talma, ed. by Alex-
ander Dumas (1849-50); Lumiere, Le Thédtre
Frangrais pendant la Révolution, aoec plusieurs
Zettres inédites de Talma (Paris, 1894).
TAL’MAGE, THOMAS DE WITT (1832-1902).
An American clergyman and pulpit orator, born
at Bound Brook, N. J. After taking a partial
course at the University of the City of New
York (now New York University) he entered
the theological seminary of the Dutch Reformed
Church at New Brunswick, N. J ., where he gradu-
ated in 1856. In the same year he was ordained
and became pastor of the Reformed Church at
Belleville, N. J. He filled pastorates in churches
of the same denomination at Syracuse, N. Y.
(1859-62), and at Philadelphia (1862-69). In
1869 he was called to the pulpit of the Central‘
Presbyterian Church of Brooklyn, N. Y., which,
from the new edifice erected in 1870, came to
be known as ‘The Tabernacle.’ During his occu-
pancy of this pastorate, where he remained until
1894, he became widely known as a sensational
preacher. The Tabernacle Church, after being
twice burned and rebuilt (in 1872 and 1889), was
again burned in 1894, after which the church or-
ganization ceased to exist. Dr. Talmage preached
for a time in the New York Academy of Music,
and from 1895 to 1899 was associate pastor of the
First Presbyterian Church of Washington, D.
C. His wide influence was largely increased by
frequent lecturing tours, both in America and
England, and by the publication of his sermons
in book form, and through syndicates in more
than 3600 weekly newspapers, in the United
States, Canada, and Great Britain. They were
also regularly translated, and published in a
number of foreign languages. He was editor of
The Christian at Work (1873-76) ; The Advance
(1877-78) ; Frank Leslie’s Sunday Magazine
(1879-89); and The Christian Herald (1890-
1902). Of the more than fifty volumes pub-
lished under his name, a majority were pirated
or unauthorized. Among his more important
works were: The Almond Tree in Blossom
(1870) ; Old Wells Dug Out (1874) ; Every Day
Religion (1875) ; Woman: Her Powers and Privi-
TALMAGE.
TALMUD.
467
leges (1886) ; From the Pyramids to the M etrop-
olis (1892); I1"ro'm Manger to Throne (1894);
The Earth Girdled (1895) ; and The Pathway of
Life (1895). Dr. Talmage’s sermons were writ-
ten in a popular vein and were characterized by
extravagant statements and fantastic figures of
speech. For his life and Work consult Adams
(Chicago, 1902).
TALMUD (Aram. talmcid, instruction; con-
nected with Heb. lcimad, to learn). The name
given to the comprehensive compilation of laws
and ceremonial regulations pertaining to Rab-
binical Judaism together with the elaborate dis-
cussion of those laws and regulations. As al-
ready implied in this definition, the Talmud con-
sists of two divisions, which in the compilation
are kept distinct: (1) the laws and regulations
which are technically comprised under the desig-
nation il1‘i8h7l-(7; (literally, teaching, then used
concretely for ‘the law,’ as that which is taught
or which is the outcome of teaching) ; (2) the
discussion and elaboration of the laws, com-
prised under the term Gé/Inter-17, (literally, ‘sup-
plement,’ ‘completion,’ and then also in the sense
of ‘tradition,’ ‘doctrine’). The language of the
Mishna is Hebrew; that of the Gemara Aramaic,
which both in Palestine and Babylonia drove out
Hebrew as the popular speech.
Of these two divisions, the compilation of the
Mislma comes first in the order of time and also
in importance. In its present form it consists of
six main divisions known as Se'ddr/Zm, comprising
63 treatises or Ma.sseht6th. This comprehensive
compilation, which is attributed to Rabbi Jehuda
ha-Nasi (0.219 A.D.) represents the close of an
intellectual and religious process that may be
said to date from the acceptance of the ‘Priestly
Code’ through Ezra and Nehemiah in B.C. 444
as the supreme and sole standard of religious
observances and secular regulations. The accep-
tance of this code definitely established obedience
to a law for which divine origin Was claimed as
the test for fidelity to Yahweh. The observer of
the law was the only type of the faithful Jew
possible under this conception of religious duty.
Such a principle necessarily led to the study of
the law as the highest vocation of the individual.
The law could not be observed unless it was
known and thoroughly understood, and genera-
tions of scholars arose who strove to determine
the exact meaning of the enactments in the codes
and to account for numerous existing practices
not specifically recorded in them, by deduction
from principles underlying the code itself. The
attempts to deduce the established religious prac-
tices and the constantly growing ceremonial de-
tails from the law itself resulted naturally in the
formation of smaller and larger collections, which
may have served either as notes for the pupils or
as guides for the teachers, and despite a certain
opposition that always manifested itself against
committing to writing the large body of oral
tradition, which, according to the theory of Rab-
binic theology, was revealed simultaneously with
the written law at Sinai, it was inevitable, if the
practices established by or based upon this oral
tradition were to maintain their hold as in-
gredient parts of Judaism, that they should be
given a fixed form equally with the ‘written’
law. We have direct evidence for the existence of
‘Mishnaic’ compilations prior to the days of
Rabbi J ehuda ha-Nash but the general acceptance
which his compilation met naturally drove the
earlier (and probably more incomplete) ones
out of the field. Traces of these are to be found
in the supplement to the Mishna, where enact-
ments and observations are referred to which dif-
fer from those found in the Mishna; they are
designated as the Baraytha (i.e. outside). An-
other collection of this kind is known as the
Tosephta (‘addition’), which, however, partakes
of the character of the Gemara.
Passing on to the supplement to the l\Iislma,
its rise represents the natural continuation of
the process which led to the Mishna. In the
course of several centuries there was a large ac-
cumulation of material that could only be pre-
served by being committed to writing. The com-
bination of the Mishna with the Gemara forms
the Talmud proper, and for the Babylonian
schools the first authoritative compilation of the
discussions of the several generations was made
by Rab Ashi, the head of the school at Sura,
who flourished from 375 to 427; but additions
were made by later authorities, such as Rab-
Abina, and the final touches were given to it
about the first half of the sixth century. In a
certain sense, however, the Gemara was never
finished, for of the 63 treatises of the Mishna, 26
have no Gemara. The Palestinian schools also
compiled their discussions, and in this com-
pilation the infiuence of Rabbi Jochanan (189-
279), head of the school at Tiberias, is para-
mount, though the redaction of the Palestinian
Talmud—-—the work of a series of authorities—did
not take place until the fourth century, while
additions continued to be made to it in the fifth
century. Considerable portions of this Palestin-
ian Talmud are lost. In fact, the Mishna of only
the first four Sedarim or divisions has been pre-
served, and a portion of one treatise in the sixth
division. In the second division the Gemara is
not complete, four chapters of one treatise being
wanting, and likewise in the fifth division the
Gemara is lacking to the last chapter of one
treatise and to two other treatises. That the
Palestinian Talmud once existed in a more com-
plete form ‘is certain and it is more than likely that
there was a Gemara to most of the treatises of
the entire six divisions. The loss of such a con-
siderable portion is due in part to the almost
constantly disturbed conditions that prevailed in
Palestine, and in part to the subsequent neglect
of the Palestinian Talmud, which never acquired
the authority that came to be enjoyed by the
Babylonian compilation. The Babylonian Gemara
in fact drove its rival entirely out of the field,
and as a consequence the Babylonian Talmud be-
came the main factor in the history and develop-
ment of Judaism. *‘
To characterize and convey an idea of the
contents of the Mishna is a comparatively simple
matter, but it is almost an impossible task to in-
dicate the heterogeneous character of the Gemara,
more particularly of the Babylonian Talmud.
The discussions on the Mishna led the Rabbis and
their pupils far away from the subject, at times,
indeed, a section coming to a close without a re-
turn to the starting point. In the course of these
digressions, anecdotes, bits of historical gossip,
folk-lore, the popular science of the day, and
mathematical calculations are intermixed with
sober and playful exegesis of the Old Testament
by the application of a series of hermeneutical
principles evolved in the schools of Palestine and
TALMUD.
TALTAL.
468
'(d. 1837).
Babylonia. Sophistry and hair-splitting dia-
lectics are suddenly interrupted by charming
parables and poetic allegories. In a sense, it is
easier to say what the Gemara does not contain
than to summarize its contents. It is a veritable
encyclopaedia of Rabbinical knowledge, and only
the lack of system prevents the justifiable ap-
plication of that term to this remarkable com-
pilation. To distinguish the purely legal from the
extraneous material, a division is commonly made
into Halacha (1it., norm) and Hagada (lit., tale).
The history of the Talmud is the history of
Judaism from about the beginning of our era to
the dawn of the nineteenth century. In that
history we may distinguish the following pe-
riods: (1) To the completion of the Mishna,
during which time the Rabbis bear the name of
Tana'im (‘teachers’); five generations are enu-
merated. (2) The growth of the Gemara, the
Rabbis of this second period being known as
Amoraim (‘speakers’), comprising seven genera-
tions. (3) To the completion of the Talmud, the
Rabbis of this period being distinguished as
Saboraim (‘examiners’). (4) To the struggle
in the ninth and tenth centuries between the
Karaites and the adherents of the Talmud
known as the Rabbanites, marked by the labors
of Saadia (q.v.). (5) The adjustment of Tal-
mudical Judaism to the prevailing form of Aris-
totelianism, which arose under the influence of
Islamic theology. This period extends well into
the thirteenth century and is dominated by the
influence of Maimonides and the Spanish school
of Jewish thinkers. It led eventually, after a
long conflict between the adherents and oppo-
nents of Maimonides’s attempt to codify the Tal-
mudical enactments and regulations in syste-
matic form, to the compilations of the codes of
Joseph Karo (born 1487 ), known as the Shul-
chan Aruch (‘Spread table’), which became the
standard guide implicitly followed by orthodox
Jews to the present time, and may be regarded
as marking a sixth and final period.
In the course of the last two periods the study
of the Talmud spread gradually into Southern
Europe and thence made its way into Germany,
Galicia, Hungary, and Russia. Commentators
arose who devoted themselves to the interpreta-
tion of the Gemara, much as the Amoraim and
Saboraim elaborated the Mishna and super-com-
mentaries were added to these commentaries.
The most notable of the Talmudical commen-
tators was Rabbi Solomon Yishaki (or Isaac),
known as Rashi (q.v.), Whose work, almost in-
variably added to the Talmudic text, is still used
as the basis of Talmudical study. A school of
Talmudists arose in Germany and France during
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries known as
Tosaphists (‘Supplementers’), whose comments
are likewise written on the margins of the Tal-
mud——a method that follows the example of the
Mohammedan theologians. Other commentators
of more recent date whose works acquired a high
degree of authority were Solomon Luria (d.
1573), Elijah Wilna (d. 1797), and Akiba Eger
From Germany, which remained for
several centuries the centre of Talmudical study,
that centre gradually shifted to the east of
Europe, and at the present time the traditional
methods of Talmudical study are still carried
on with vigor in Galicia and Russia, while the
centre of the scientific study of the Talmud
based on adequate philological acquirements and
the application of proper historical principles
may be said to be Germany, whence the study
is spreading into France, England, and the
United States, as the value of the Talmud for the
student of language, of history, and of religion
is coming to be recognized. Christian theologians
are also beginning to take it up, and notable
contributions have been made by some of these.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. No critical edition of the en-
tire Talmud has as yet been published. The
variant readings gathered from manuscripts and
older editions have been published by Raphael
Rabbinovicz, Sefer Dilcduhe Sopherim (15 vols.,
Munich, 1868-86), which constitutes the basis for
a future standard edition. Of translations of
the Talmud into modern languages, it will be suf-
ficient to mention here the French translation of
the Palestinian Talmud by Moise Schwab (7
vols., Paris, 1871), the German translation of
the Babylonian Talmud by L. Goldschmidt (Ber-
lin, 1896 sqq.), and the English translation of
the Babylonian Talmud by Rodkinson (New
York, 1896 sqq.). An English translation of 18
treatises of the Mislma by J. Barclay was pub-
lished in London in 1878. Of general works on
the Talmud, the following may be mentioned:
I. Hamburger, Realencyhlopddie filr Bibel und
Talmud (Leipzig, 1886) ; Ferd. Weber, Jiidische
Theologie au]c Grund des Talmud (ib., 1897).
Of monographs or articles on the Talmud,
consult: Deutsch, “The Talmud,” in Literary
Remains, republished by the American Jew-
ish Publication Society (Philadelphia, 1897);
Arsene Darmesteter, The Talmud (Eng. trans,
Philadelphia, 1897); Bernfeld, Der Talmud,
sein Wesen, seine Bedeutung und seine Ge-
schiohte (Berlin, 1900); Strack, Einleitung in
den Talmud (3d ed., Leipzig, 1901), which con-
tains in concise form the contents of the Talmud,
editions, history, and a valuable bibliography.
Consult also Mielziner, Introduction to the Tal-
mud (2d ed., New York, 1902) ; Rodkinson, His-
tory of the Talmud (New York, 1903). See
GEMARA; HAGGADA; HALACHA; MISHNA.
TALON, ta’loN’, JEAN BAPTISTE (1625-91).
A French oflicial in Canada, born in Picardy.
He entered the civil service, and, after serving in
subordinate capacities in France, was appointed
in 1663 intendant of justice, police, and finance
in Canada, Arcadia, and the other French pos-
sessions in North America. "Talon built ships,
began trade with the West Indies, and built a
brewery to lessen the consumption of brandy.
Exploring parties were sent to Hudson Bay
and to the country of the Upper Lakes, and the
purchase or seizure of New York was urged. In
1668 he returned to France on account of fail-
ing health, but returned in 1670 and remained
until 1672. Later three of his seigniories were
erected into baronies and he assumed the title of
Comte d’Orsainville. His M émoire a la majesté
sur l’état present du Canada (1667) is a valu-
able original source of information.
TALTAL, tal-tiil’. A town of the Province
of Antofagasta, Chile, on the Bay of Taltal,
Pacific Ocean, 527 miles north of Valparaiso
(Map: Chile, C 9). It is the terminus of the
railway of some 95 miles running to the mining
town of Cachinal, and is the point of export
for the nitre-beds and silver and copper mines
of the deserts of Atacama (q.v.). Taltal was
founded about 1855. Population, in 1885, 4761.
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TALUS.
TAMARISK.
469
TALUS (Lat., heel). The heap of fragments
that accumulates at the base of cliffs and moun-
tain slopes. Weathering is the most important
process in the production of such masses, which
tend to move slowly downward until they come
within reach of the valley stream. The inclina-
tion of the surface of the talus varies with the
size of the fragments, but it rarely exceeds an
angle of 35° with the horizontal.
TA’LUS. The squire of Artegal in Spenser’s
Faerie Queene. He is made of iron,_and with
his ‘destroying flail’ overthrows giants and an-
nihilates ‘rascal routs.’ The figure is suggested
by Greek legend, but symbolizes the contemporary
exploits of Lord Grey, himself represented by
Artegal in the allegory, during the Irish rebel-
lion.
TAI/VI. See ROBINSON, THEBESE ALBEBTINE
LUISE.
TAMANACA, tii'ma-nIa’ka. A tribe of Cari-
ban stock (q.v.) who formerly lived on the
Cuchivero River, a southern affluent of the Ori-
noco, Central Venezuela. They were at one time
one of the most powerful tribes of Venezuela
and were Christianized and gathered into mission
villages by the Spanish missionaries before the
year 1780, but by the incessant attacks of the
savage Carib (q.v.) they were so utterly wasted
that before the year 1840 the name had disap-
peared, and they are supposed to be entirely
extinct.
TAMAIWDUA. See ANTEATER.
TAMAQUA, ta-ma’kwa. A borough in
Schuylkill County, Pa., 17 miles northeast of
Pottsville, on the Little Schuylkill River, and
on the Philadelphia and Reading and the Central
of New Jersey railroads, being the western ter-
minus of the latter, and the headquarters of a
division of the former (Map: Pennsylvania, F
3). It is known for its extensive coal-mining
interests, and has considerable industrial im-
portance. The leading manufactures are foun-
dry and machine-shop products, stoves, powder,‘
flour, shoes, furniture, knit goods, and beer. The
water-works are owned by the municipality.
Tamaqua was settled in 1799, was incorporated
as a town in 1832, and was chartered as a
borough in 1852. Population, in 1890, 6054; in
1900, 7267.
TAMAR, ta’miir. A picturesque river which
rises in the north of Cornwall, England, and
after a southeast course of 60 miles enters the
English Channel by its estuary the Hamoaze, at
Plymouth (Map: England, B 6). It forms the
boundary of the counties of Cornwall and Devon
for 45 miles, and is navigable as far as Launces-
ton. Consult Bray, The Tamar and the Tavy
(London, 1879).
TAMARACK (North American Indian
name), Laria: Americana. An American timber
tree common in swamps, valued for posts, poles,
ties, etc. It is less ornamental than its close
relative, the European larch, which is more fre-
quently planted. See LAROH.
TAMARAO, tii’ma-r'zi’o (native name). A
small, sturdily built native buffalo (Bos Mindo-
rensis) of the Philippines. It is about 3% feet
high at the shoulders. is clothed with thick
brown hair, and has short, triangular, massive
horns, which have a lyrate curvature upward
from the face. Compare BUFFALO.
TAMARIN. See MARMOSET.
TAMARIND (l\1L. tamarindus, from Ar.
tamr Hindi, tamr al-Hind, date of India, .from
tamr, date, from tamara, to nourish on dates, and
Hindi, Hindu, Hind, India), Tamarindus indica.
A beautiful spreading tree, of the natural order
Leguminosae, a native of India, very generally
cultivated in warm climates. It bears brown,
many-seeded pods about six inches long and
three-quarters of an inch thick, filled with acidu-.
lous, reddish-brown pulp which is exported in
jam-like masses to Europe. Tamarinds are gen-


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TAMARIND AND FRUIT.
erally preserved by pouring hot syrup on the
ripe pulp; but a better method is to put alter-
nate layers of tamarinds and sugar in a stone
jar, the color and taste being thus more like the
fresh pulp. The wood of the tamarind tree, and
especially of its roots, is extremely hard, but
though worked with difficulty, it is valued for
cabinet work. The tamarind plu1n (Dialium
indum) and the allied brown and velvet tama-
rinds of Sierra Leone
closely related to Tama-
rindus yield a similar
pulp. Tamarind pulp is
used in India as a cool-
ing food, as an ingre-
dient in curries, and
for making sherbet.
Tamarind trees are
grown to some extent
in Florida, but were
_ not satisfactory when
' tested at Berkeley, Cal.
' ' TAIVIARISK (Lat.
tamariscus, tamari./1:,
t a m a ri c e, tamarisk;
perhaps connected with
Skt. tanuilalca, ta-mala,
sort of tree with dark
bark, tamas, darkness),
Trzmaria. A genus of
plants of the natural
order Tamaricaeese. The
common ta m a r i s k
(Tamaria: gallica)
_ grows in sandy places
111 the Mediterranean region and is often plant-
ed for ornament in Europe and the United
States. It sometimes attains a height of 30 feet.

COMMON TA MARISK.
TAMARISK.
TAMETOMO.
470
The twigs were once in repute as a tonic. The
ashes of this and some other species of the
genus contain much sulphate of soda. The
Oriental tamarisk (Tamar-ia: articulata) is one
of the few indigenous trees in the Arabian and
African deserts. It is called atle or ethel. Its
wood is used for fuel and for economical pur-
poses. The galls found on some East Indian spe-
cies are valued in dyeing. Tamariw mannifera,
perhaps a variety of Tamarizv gallica, owing to
the punctures of an insect, yields Mount Sinai
manna. The German tamarisk (Myricaria ger-
manica) belongs to another genus of this order.
TAMASHEK, tiim'a-shek. The name applied
to the Berber and Tuareg languages of Mauri-
tania and the Sahara. It occurs in various dia-
lectic forms as Tamahag, Tahahug, and Tama-
zigt. The last form, T-ama-zig-t, survives in the
Amzigh or Imazighen (q.v.), the common name
of Mauritanian Berbers and thought to be iden-
tical with the Maxyes of Herodotus. Consult:
Freeman, Grammatical Sketch of the Temahug
or Towarek Language (London, 1862); Hano-
tcau, Essai de gram-maire de la langue tamachelc
(2d ed., Algiers, 1896); Kaoui, Dictionna/ire
frangais-tamtzheq (ib., 1894); id., Dictionnaire
pratique tamdheq- frangaise (ib., 1900) .
TAMATAVE, ta'ma-ta’va. The most im-
portant scaport of Madagascar. It is on the east
coast in latitude 18° 10’ S., on a small peninsula
(Map: Africa, J 6). It is fortified. It has a
good roadstead owing to the outlying coral reefs,
but the facilities are not superior for loading
and unloading vessels. South of the city is a
series of lagoons which have been connected by
canals and thus add to the transportation advan-
tages of the town. (See MADAGASCAR. )' A rail-
road at present connects Tamatave with the
neighboring Ivandro. The population is given at
4000. There are about 600 Europeans.
TAMAULIPAS, t5.’mou-lé’p€1s. A maritime
State of Mexico, bounded by Texas on the north,
the Gulf of Mexico on the east, Vera Cruz and
San Luis Potosi on the south, and Nuevo Leon
on the west (Map: Mexico, K 6). Area, 32,128
square miles. The coast is flat, sandy, lined
with lagoons and marshes, and but sparsely in-
habited. The northern part is occupied by
plains, while the southern and central portions
are mountainous. Tamaulipas is watered by
several large rivers, of which the largest are the
Rio Grande and Panuco, forming respectively the
north and south boundaries. The climate is
temperate and healthful in the interior and hot
and unhealthful on the coast. Agriculture is
the principal industry, but is hindered by lack
of irrigation facilities. Grazing is carried on
extensively. The chief exports are hides and
skins, live stock, some fruits, and rubber. There
are three railroad lines in the State. The Mexi-
can Free. Zone, in which imports are liable to
only 10 per cent. of ordinary duties, was first
established by Tamaulipas in 1858. Population,
in 1900, 218,948. Capital, Ciudad Victoria
(q.v.).
TAMBOBONG, tam-bo’bong. A suburb of
Manila, Philippines, situated about 3 miles north
of the capital (Map: Luzon, E 8). Population,
in 1887, 21,827; now about 25,000.
TAMBOURIN, taN'bco'raN' (Fr. tambou-
rine, diminutive of tambour, drum, tabor). An
ancient, lively dance of Provence, in ,2, time. It
was originally accompanied by a flute and a tam-
bour (drum), hence the name.
TAMBOURINE. An ancient musical instru-
ment of the drum type. It is composed of a
piece of parchment, stretched on the top of a
hoop furnished with pairs of small metal plates,
and is sounded by the hands, fingers, or elbow.
TAMBOV, tiim-bof’. A government of Central
Russia, occupying an area of 25,720 square miles
(Map: Russia, F 4). Its surface is mostly flat,
in the basins of the Oka and the Don, and
intersected by numerous river valleys. The re-
gion is watered principally by the Voronezh and
the Khoper (tributaries of the Don) and by the
Moksha and the Tsna (tributaries of the Oka).
Iron is found near Lipetzk, but it is little ex-
ploited. Tambov is one of the most fertile gov-
ernments of Russia and its southern and larger
part is covered with a thick layer of black soil.
Rye and oats are the principal cereals. Flax,
tobacco, and sugar beets are also produced on an
increasing scale. The principal manufactured
products are spirits, cloth, beet sugar, flour, and
tobacco. The annual value of the output is esti-
mated at $12,000,000. Population, in 1897,
2,907,519.
TAMBOV. The capital of the Russian Gov-
ernment of Tambov, situated in a low region on
the Tsna River, about 300 miles southeast of
Moscow (Map: Russia, F 4). Population, in
1897, 48,134. The city was founded in 1636 as
a fortress against the inroads of the Tatars from
the south.
TAM’BURLANE, THE GREAT. A tragedy in
blank verse, by Christopher Marlowe, acted in
1587, and licensed for publication on August 14,
1590. It is in two parts, the first dealing with
the many conquests of the hero, and the second
with his sorrow at the death of his mistress and
his own pathetic end. Its principal source is a
translation of Petro Mexia’s Silva de Varia
Lecion, made by Thomas Fortesque, and pub-
lished under the title of The Foreste in 1571.
It is especially interesting as being among the
first dramas to employ the bold diction and
rhythmical freedom which characterized the
Elizabethan stage.
TAMERLANE. See TIMUR.
TAMERLANE. (1) A tragedy by Rowe, pro-
duced at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, in 1702, and
adapted (1724) for the operatic stage to the
music of Handel. The plot deals with the rivalry
of the title character, who is more subdued than
his prototype in Marlowe’s play, and the vil-
lainous Bajazet. The latter represents Louis
XIV., the former King William III. Owing to
its political significance, the play came to be
produced annually at the Drury Lane, on No-
vember 5th. (2) A poem by Edgar Allan Poe
which gave its name to a volume of verse pub-
lished by him in 1827.
TAMETOMO, tii’me-to’mO. Japan’s most fa-
mous archer. He belonged to the great Mina-
moto family and shared its misfortunes in the
middle of the twelfth century. He is credited
with many feats of strength and skill. He sent
an arrow through the body of one man and
wounded a second who stood behind him. He
shot an arrow through the helmet of his own
TAMETOMO.
TAMMANY HALL.
4.-71
brother without hurting him. Being taken pris-
oner and a sinew of his arm having been ex-
tracted by his foes he came nevertheless to shoot
a stronger bow and sank a boat by shooting an
arrow through its bows. The accounts of his end
are contradictory. After sinking the boat he
fired his house and committed suicide, or he fled
to Riu Kin (Loo Choo) and became its king, the
first of the historic line.
TAM’ILS. A Dravidian people of southern
Hindustan and northern Ceylon, who number
more than 16,000,000. They are, perhaps, the
most important of the civilized Dravidian peo-
ples of India. The Klings of the seaports of
Farther India and certain parts of Malaysia are
Tamils, who have emigrated temporarily or per-
manently from their native land. To the Tamil
group belong also, in all probability, some of
the wilder tribes of the hills and the region of
Tiimevelli and South Travancore.
The Tamil language is the most important of
the Dravidian languages. (See DRAVIDIANS.)
It is spoken in the northern half of Ceylon, and
the territory between Cape Comorin and Pulicat,
north of Madras, extending inland about half-
way, across India. Tamil is divided into Old
or Son Tamil, and Modern or Kodun Tamil.
The differences between the two epochs of the
language are very marked. Of all the Dravidian
tongues Tamil is the most archaic. It has nine
cases, two numbers, and in gender distinguishes
between ‘high caste’ (men, gods, spirits, etc.)
and ‘low caste’ (animals, inanimate things, and
abstract ideas). The verb is formed by sufiixing
the personal pronouns to a predicative verb
stem, The same base, therefore, when case-suf-
fixes are added, serves as a noun, and when the
pronouns are affixed as a verb. The original
tenses are the present, the preterite, and the
future, but periphrastic formations denote the
continuative or durative, the perfect and plu-
perfect, and the future perfect. Moods are alto-
gether lacking. In its vocabulary Tamil is ex-
ceedingly rich, especially in compounds and syno-
nyms. The alphabet, which is closely akin to
that of the Telugu (q.v.), is based on one of the
old forms of the Sanskrit Devanagari script.
(See DEVANAGARI.) Tamil literature is abun-
dant and important. An outline is given under
the title DRAVIDIANS.
Consult: Mateer, Native Life in Travancore
(London, 1883); Caldwell, Tinnevally and the
Tinnevally Mission (Madras, 1869); id., Com-
parative Grammar of the Dravidian, or South
Indian Family of Languages (2d ed, London,
1875); Rhenius, Grammar of the Tamil Lan-
guage (4th ed., Madras, 1888) ; Pope, First Les-
sons in Tamil (5th ed., Oxford, 1891) ; Hultzsch,
South Indian Inscriptions, Tamil and Sanskrit
(Madras, 1890-95) ; Burnell, Elements of South
Indian Palceography (2d ed., London, 1878);
Graul, Bibliotheca Tamulica (Leipzig, 1854-65),.
TAMING OF THE SHREW, THE. A
comedy by Shakespeare, written before 1596,'
produced in 1603. It is adapted from an earlier
play entitled The Taming of a Shrew, of ques-
tionable authorship, produced in 1594. The story
of Bianca is taken from Ariosto’s I Suppositi
through Gascoigne, Supposes, a play of 1566.
The taming of Katherine by her husband is a
form of an old and widespread story found in
the Arabian Nights and in Straparola.
TAMISE, t:i’méz’. A town in the Province
of East Flanders, Belgium, 11 miles southwest of
Antwerp, on the Scheldt, and on the railway
from Mechlin to Saint Nicholas (Map: Belgium,
C 3). Its chief manufactures are cotton and
woolen fabrics, laces, soap, and wooden shoes;
boat-building and jute and flax spinning are
carried on. Population, in 1900, 12,463.
TAMMANY HALL. The name applied (1)
to a powerful political organization in New York
City; (2) to the building which serves as the
organization’s headquarters; and (3) sometimes
incorrectly to the society from which the organ-
ization leases the building. The name is adapted
from that of an Indian chief, Tamanend, of the
Lenni Lenape or Delaware tribe, who was fa-
mous for his virtues and his wisdom, but about
whom little is definitely known. His name ap-
pears on deeds for tracts of land, dated June 23,
1683, and July 5, 1697; and according to tra-
dition he died about 1740, and was buried in
New Britain Township, Bucks County, Pa. Be-
fore and during the Revolutionary War, societies
with Tamanend as their patron saint were
organized in imitation, and to a certain extent
in ridicule, of such societies as Saint Andrew’s
Society, Saint David’s Society, Saint George’s
Society, and the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick.
The organizations were of a patriotic nature,
and were affiliated in spirit with the Sons of Lib-
erty. In Philadelphia the Sons of King (later
Saint) Tammany met almost every year from
1772 to 1791, and later, in 1795, a short-lived
branch of the New York society was established
there.
On May 12, 1789, William Mooney, an uphol-
sterer, who previously had been active as one
of the Sons of Liberty, founded in New York,
ostensibly as a patriotic and social organization,
the secret Society of Saint Tammany or Colum-
bian Order, which in 1805 was regularly incor-
porated as a fraternal aid association. The
ritual and organization of an Iroquois lodge were
followed more or less closely by the founders,
the society being divided into thirteen tribes,
each of which had its separate totem, the
year being divided into four seasons, each
month being called by some distinguishing char-
acteristic, and the officers being known as
the grand sachem, sachems, the sagamore, or
master of ceremonies, and the wiskinskie, or door-
keeper. In 1811 the society built its first hall,
at the corner of Frankfort Street and Park Row,
and in 1867 moved into the present Tammany
Hall on Fourteenth Street. The political organi-
zation is nominally distinct from the society,
but the two may in many respects be regarded
as virtually identical, the leadership of both
being largely in the same hands.
Though the society was ostensibly organized
for patriotic, social, and benevolent purposes, it
early took an active interest in politics and
soon came to stand distinctively for Democracy
and decentralization, identifying itself defi-
nitely (in 1798) with the Democratic-Republi
cans as opposed to the Federalists. Aaron Burr
is supposed to have given the society (indirectly)
its first training in the devious ways of practical
politics, and in 1800 the society first took an
active part in a political campaign, being instru-
mental in carrying New York for Jefferson.
From that time to the present Tammany has
TAMMANY HALL.
TAMMUZ.
472
' tio Seymour,
generally assumed to be the local representative
of the National Democratic Party, and has ex-
erted a powerful influence on the political his-
tory of the State, and a preponderating influence
on the political history of the city. At times
the organization has been bitterly assailed by
rival factions of the Democratic Party, and
on at least one occasion, in 1878, it bolted
the party's regular State ticket, but for the most
part it has controlled a vast majority of the
Democratic voters of the city. After 1834, when
the mayoralty first became elective, it devoted its
attention primarily to securing control of the
city government, and from 1834 to 1903 suc-
ceeded in electing fully two-thirds of the
mayors. Gradually its organization became more
and more perfected, and the inrush of immigrants
after about 1840 added enormously to its
strength, Tammany succeeding largely by its
_ political skill and tact in securing the adhesion of
an immense majority of the foreign-born citizens.
In order to secure proper compactness and dis-
cipline within the organization, great power was
necessarily thrown into the hands of a few indi-
viduals, and in the history of Tammany many of
its oflicers are alleged to have succumbed to the
temptations which such power has brought.
From an early period charges of corruption,
.peculation, and blackmail were made against
Tammany leaders by their political opponents,
and the climax was reached in 1869-71, when
Tweed and his associates were proved to have
robbed the city of untold millions. (See TWEED,
WILLIAM M.). Damaging disclosures concerning
the methods of Tammany were also made during
the investigations conducted respectively by the
State Committee on Cities, headed by J. Sloat
Fassett, in 1890, the special committee of the
State Senate, headed by Clarence Lexow, in 1894,
and the special committee of the State Assembly,
headed by Robert Mazet, in 1899.
Tweed was the first to exercise over Tammany
the powers of the modern ‘boss.’ After the
exposure of his colossal frauds, Tammany was
reorganized by John Kelly (q.v,), who caused
some of the most prominent of Tweed’s prose-
cutors——men like Tilden, Charles O’Conor, Hora-
and August Belmont—to be
chosen as officers, while he, by perfecting the
‘machinery’ of the organization, gained almost
entire control. At his death in 1886 he was
succeeded by Richard Croker (q.v.), who, how-
ever, did not exercise the powers of a rboss’ until
1888, and who in 1901 retired. Lewis Nixon
(q.v.) was then nominally the leader for several
months. Tweed, Kelly, Croker, and Nixon had
each been chairman of the finance committee;
this committee was reorganized in 1903, after the
policy of Tammany had been shaped for a time
by a ‘triumvirate,’ and Charles F. Murphy was
chosen leader, though nominally with greatly
curtailed powers.
In organization, Tammany is highly central-
ized, the power resting ultimately in the hands of
one man or of a relatively small number of men.
There is a captain for each election district in
the city, and a district leader for each Assembly
district. The executive committee of the organi-
zation is generally made up of these various dis-
trict leaders; while in addition each district
elects a certain number of men to the so-called
General Committee, in which ostensibly the power
rests, and in whose name the lease of the build-
ing known as Tammany Hall is held. The men
elected by each district to the General Committee,
whose membership is somewhat in excess of five
thousand, form the General Committee for that
district, and are presided over by the district
leader. The General Committee has standing
sub-committees on finance, printing, naturaliza-
tion, correspondence, and organization.
The power of Tammany is traceable, however,
to something more than mere machine organiza-
tion. It makes a systematic appeal for the votes
of the lower classes, and accomplishes its pur-
pose by numerous acts of real charity; by gratify-
ing the social instincts of the tenement dweller,
the district leaders giving at their own expense
frequent dances, chowder parties, picnics, and ex-
cursions; by bailing unfortunates out of ‘ail;
by systematically ingratiating itself with the
vast numbers of immigrants; by securing work
for the unemployed; by an extensive and gener-
ally astute use of patronage (when Tammany is
in power) ; and apparently by the application of
‘pressure’ and by various acts of virtual intimi-
dation. It also gains tens of thousands of votes
by virtue of its position as the representative
in New York of the Democratic Party; and, by
the lax enforcement of sumptuary laws when in
power, it wins the support of those voters who
on principle or through motives of self-interest
oppose such laws. Arrayed against it are a large
majority of the cultured and well-to-do classes,
the members of the Republican Party, and large
numbers, representing various classes, who are
convinced that Tammany government means a
government of blackmail, of fostered vice, of
police corruption, and, if not of outright dis-
honesty in all respects, at least of general waste-
fulness and inefficiency.
Consult; Myers, History of Tammany Hall
(New York, 1901); Blake, History of the Tam-
many Society or Columbian Order (ib., 1901),
written from the Tammany standpoint; a chap-
ter by Talcott Williams in Historic New York,
vol. i. (ib., 1899) ; several chapters in defense of
Tammany in Thompson, Politics in a Democracy
(ib., 1894) ; a chapter in Bryce, The American
Commonwealth (ib., 1895) ; an article by Davis,
“The Most Perfect Political Organization in the
World,” in Munseg/’s Magazine, vol. xxiv. (ib.,
1901); Jernegan, Tammany Societies in Rhode
Island (Providence, 1895) ; and Cabeen, “The So-
ciety of the Sons of St. Tammany of Philadel-
phia,” in the Pennsylvania Magazine of History
and Biography, vols. xxv., xxvi., and xxvii,
(Philadelphia, 1901, 1902, and 1903).
TAMMERFORS, ttim’me-r-fors. The principal
manufacturing city of Finland, Russia, situated
in the Government of Tavastehus, close to the
falls of Tampereenkoski and 125 miles northwest
of Helsingfors by rail (Map: Russia, B 2). It is
a modern town with extensive cotton, paper, and
iron mills and various other manufacturing es-
tablishments, whose motor power is supplied
chiefly by the near-by rapids. Population, in
1898, 28,725.
TAM’MUZ'. A deity of Babylonian origin
whose cult is referred to'by the prophet Ezekiel
(viii. 14), who describes his horror at seeing wo-
men sitting in the north gates of the temple and
weeping for Tammuz. The worship of Tammuz
(under the form Dumu-zi) may now be traced
TAMMUZ.
TAMSUI.
473
back to the oldest period of the Babylonian
religion, He appears to have been originally
an agricultural deity, whose seat of worship
may have been at Eridu on the Persian Gulf. In
the developed Babylonian mythology, however,
he became the symbol of the decay of vegetation
after the close of the summer season, pictured
as slain by the goddess Ishtar after she has
secured him as her husband. The death of
Tammuz gave rise in Babylonia to the mourn-
ing ceremonies described by Ezekiel and from
Babylonia as a centre the cult spread to the
West. Among the Canaanites and Phoenicians,
'1‘-ammuz was known as Adonai, ‘the lord,’ and
this name survives under the form Adonis (q.v.) .
Among the Phoenicians the chief temple and
worship of Adonis was at Byblus (or Gebal),
and from Phoenicia the Adonis cult was carried
to Cyprus and Greece, where he was connected
with Aphrodite. His festivals were partly the
expressions of joy, partly of mourning. In the
latter the women gave themselves up to the most
unmitigated grief over the ‘lost Adonis,’ shaved
oil" their hair, and sacrificed their chastity in his
temples. The days of mourning were completed
by a solemn burial of an image of the god. This
period was followed by a succession of festive and
joyful days, in honor of the resurrection of
Adonis. The river Adonis (Nahr Ibrahim),
which once a year ‘ran purple to the sea’ from
the Lebanon, was supposed to be tinged by the
blood of the god ; and a vessel sent off from
Alexandria, and carried by the tide to Byblus,
used to inform the mourners by letter that he
had been found again. These feasts were cele-
brated during the summer solstice, The fourth
month in the Babylonian calendar, known as Tam-
muz and adopted by the Hebrews, preserves the
name of the god and furnishes a valuable testi-
mony as to the time when his festival was cele-
brated, since the Babylonian year began in the
spring. Adonis of Byblus was identified at a
later period with Osiris, and the myth under-
went various transformations in thus passing
from one people to the other. Consult: Robert-
son Smith, Religion of the Semites (London,
1894); Frazer, The Golden Bough (London,
1900).
TAM O’ SHANTER. One of the best known
poems of Robert Burns, based on the popular
belief that no evil spirit can pass the middle of
a running stream. The hero is pursued by ‘Cutty
Sark’ for disturbing a dance of imps at Alloway
Kirk, and succeeds in crossing the River Doon
in safety.
TAM’PA. A port of entry and the county
seat of Hillsboro County, Fla., 240 miles south
by west of Jacksonville, at the mouth of the
Hillsboro River, on Tampa Bay, and on the At-
lantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line
railroads (Map: Florida, F 4). There is also
steamship connection by way of Port Tampa
with the principal Atlantic and Gulf ports.
Tampa is favored with an attractive situation
and a healthful climate, and has become a fa-
mous winter resort. Noteworthy are the Tampa
Bay Hotel, one of the largest tourist hotels in
America; De Soto Park, the scene of the en-
campment of the United States Volunteers dur-
ing the Spanish-American War: the old Govern-
ment reservation; and the Convent of Holy
Names. Tampa is an important shipping point
through Port Tampa for phosphate, fruits, vege-
tables, turpentine, rosin, lumber, fish, cattle, and
wheat flour, Tobacco is imported extensively.
In the year ending June 30, 1901, the total trade
of the customs district amounted to $2,834,871,
including exports to the value of $1,321,419. The
industrial interests of the city are confined chief-
ly to the manufacture of cigars, the output of
which in 1902 was valued at nearly $10,000,000.
Fishing also is largely carried on. Under the
charter of 1899, the government is vested in a
mayor, chosen biennially, and a unicameral coun-
cil. Tampa was settled in 1848 as an army post,
and was incorporated in 1886. In the latter year
it became a port of entry. During the decade
1890-1900 the city had a very rapid growth, the
population, in 1890, being 5532; and in 1900,
15,839. _
TAMPA BAY. An inlet of the Gulf of
Mexico on the west coast of Florida (Map:
Florida, F 4). It is about 40 miles long, and
from 6 to 15 miles in width, the northern part
being divided into Old Tampa and Hillsboro
bays. Its entrance is protected by a line of
keys, or low islands, and it forms an excellent
harbor with a depth of 22 feet in the main en-
trance. It contains a number of small islands.
TAMPAN. A tick (q.v.) , of Southern Africa,
remarkable for its very poisonous bite, found in
Angola, and southward, and described by Living-
stone in his Travels. It attacks by preference
the parts between the fingers or toes, attains the
size of a pea, and when filled with blood is dark-
blue, and so tough that it cannot be burst
by squeezing with the fingers, The first effect
of the bite is a mingled sensation of pain and
itching, which ascends the limb until it reaches
the abdomen, ' and soon causes either violent
vomiting and purging, or fever. The tingling
sensation lasts for a week.
TAMPICO, tam-pe’ko. A Mexican seaport in
the State of Tamaulipas, 206 miles northeast
of the City of Mexico, on the Panuco, near its
mouth (Map: Mexico, K 6). The town lies only
25 to 50 feet above sea level, and is surrounded
by lagoons, which make it very unhealthful. It
has broad streets and squares, the largest of the
latter, the Plaza Constituci6n, having a public
garden in its centre. The most notable building
is the parish church of the Jesuits. The harbor
has been improved by the construction of a
breakwater and jetty, so that the trade in wool,
hemp, hides, honey, drugs, Cuba wood, and mining
ores, in exchange for manufactured articles,now
surpasses that of Vera Cruz. The Monterey
and Mexican Gulf and the Mexican Central
branch of the San Luis Potisi railroads connect
the town with the interior States of Northern
Mexico, of which it is the chief outlet. Its
population in 1895 was 11,912. Tampico was
an Aztec city. In 1683 it was destroyed by the
pirate Lorencillo and was not rebuilt till 1823.
It received the name Santa Ana de Tamaulipas
in 1834, and was the scene of a Mexican victory
over the Spanish in 1827.
TAMSUI, tiim’s€>b"é (Chin., Freshwater). A
port on the north coast of Formosa, opened to
foreign residence and trade by the treaty of
T ientsin (1858), and continued as such by the
Japanese. It stands at the mouth of the Tamsui
River, 13 miles from Jai-peh. The principal
TAMSUI.
TANAUAN.
474
exports are tea, rice, sugar, camphor, coal, flax,
hemp, jute, etc., chiefly to China, Hong Kong,
British India, and the United States, and the im-
ports are salt, flour, kercsene oil, cotton and
woolen goods, lead, and other metals, tobacco,
joss-sticks, etc. The population is estimated at
over 6000.
TAM-TAM (Hind., drum, onomatopoetic in
origin). An Indian or Chinese musical instru-
ment. It consists of a metal disk concave in
the middle and is suspended by a loop. The tone
is produced by striking the disk with a stick
having a soft knob made of felt or leather.
TAIVYWORTH. A municipal borough and
market town, on the borders of Stafiordshire and
Warwickshire, England, at the confluence of the
Tame and Anker, 13 miles northeast of Bir-
mingham (Map: England E 4) . Its chief build-
ings are the castle built on the site of a Saxon
fort and the Church of Saint Editha, founded in
the eighth century. It acquired in 1897 the his-
toric castle which had descended through the
female line of the Marmions to the Marquis of
Townshend. Market gardening, brickmaking,
brewing, dyeing, wool-stapling, and manufac-
tures of tapes and small wares are carried on.
From the beginning of the eighth century Tam-
worth was the chief Mercian royal residence.
Burned by the Danes in 911, it was rebuilt by
Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great. Popu-
lation, in 1901, 7271. Consult Palmer, History
of Tarnwortlz (London, 1871-75).
TANA, t£i’nai. A river in British East Africa
(Map: Africa, H 5). It rises in numerous head-
streams in the southwestern slope of Mount
Kenia, and flows southeast after making a long
detour to the north, emptying into the Indian
Ocean in latitude 2° 47’ S. Its length is over
500 miles. Its upper course down to Hameye
is that of a mountain stream, full of falls and
cataracts, Below that point it runs 360 miles
through alluvial plains and is navigable for
light-draught vessels in the rainy season. Its
importance as a waterway into the interior of
Africa is considerably diminished by the bar
which obstructs its entrance.
TANAGER (from Neo-Lat. Tanagra, from
Brazilian t(l’)’L_(](l’I‘Q/, the native name of the bird).
The popular name for the Tanagridze, a family
of birds having a conical beak, triangular at the
base, the upper mandible notched toward the
tip, and its ridge arched. The family is closely
related to the finches and about 350 species are
known, all American and nearly all tropical.
Only five species occur as far north as the United
States and only two of these reach Canada. They
are all birds of moderate or small size, six to
eight inches long or less, but of surpassingly
gaudy plumage,though the brilliancy is frequently
confined to the male sex. They are arboreal birds,
feeding on fruit and insects, and have little power
of song, but a few species are musicians of
some merit, The best known of the three North
American forms is the scarlet tanager (Piranga
erg/thromelas), the most brilliant bird of the
Northern United States. The male is bright
scarlet with black wings and tail; the female
light olive-green above and greenish yellow be-
ncath. The immature males are like the females,
but have the black wings and tail, and the adult
male assumes this plumage in winter. The
scarlet tanager breeds as far north as New
Brunswick and as far west as Kansas, but win-
ters in Central and South America. It
builds its nest near the end of a horizon-
tal limb; the nest is a rather loose, shallow
structure of twigs, weeds, and rootlets. The
eggs are pale bluish with numerous reddish-
brown spots. The scarlet tanager is not a
notable musician, but its song is pleasing. From
New Jersey southward there is found from April
to September the summer tanager (Piranga
rubra), which is rose-red, brighter below, the
wings fuscous margined with rose. The female
is orange olive-green above, bufi’y yellowish
green below. In habits, nesting, and song it re-
sembles the scarlet tanager, From the eastern
foothills of the Rockies to the Pacific there is
found in summer a beautiful bird, the Louisiana
or crimson-headed tanager (Pircmga Ludom'c*i-
ana) . The male is bright yellow, with the whole
head crimson or scarlet, and the back, wings,
and tail black. The female is exactly like the
female scarlet tanager, except for the white or
yellowish markings on the wings. In nesting
and other habits this exquisite bird resembles
the others. Consult Ridgway, Birds of North
and Middle America, part ii. (Washington,
1902) . See Colored Plate of SONG BIRDS.
TA1\T’AGRA (Lat., from Gk. Ta'.11a')/pa, mod-
ern Gremada). An ancient city in eastern
Boeotia close to the Athenian border. It did
not play any part in ancient history, but near it
was fought an important battle between the
Athenians and Spartans in 13.0. 457. Through
the treacherous desertion of the Thessalian cav-
alry the Athenians were defeated, but later in
the same year at (Enophyta in the same district
they won a great victory which made them
masters of Boeotia. During the Hellenistic
and Roman periods Tanagra was a flourishing
agricultural community, -said to produce the best
wine in Boeotia. It is now deserted, though the
line of ancient walls is marked by mounds of
rubbish, and there are remains of the theatre and
other ancient buildings, The chief fame of the
town is due to its extensive necropolis, first
opened in 1874, and since then the scene of count-
less open and clandestine excavations. The
tombs or graves have yielded the long series of
graceful and charming terra-cotta statuettes,
known as Tanagra figurines. In many cases
these were broken before being cast into the
grave and their significance has caused much
discussion, in which an occult symbolism has not
been proved. The high value attached to these
little figures has led to much modern forgery
and it is often hard even for an expert to detect
the imitations.
T.A’N AIS. The ancient name of the DON.
TANANA, ta-na'na (South American name).
One of the singing grasshoppers of the genus
Locusta, common in Brazil, whose music is much
admired by the natives, who keep it in little
cages much as the Japanese keep crickets.
TANANARIVO, ta-na’na-ré'vo. The capital
of Madagascar. See ANTANANARIVO.
TA1\T’AQUIL. The wife of Tarquinius Priscus.
TANAUAN, ta-n5/wan. A town of Leyte,
Philippines, situated 10 miles from Tacloban
(Map: Philippines, J 8). Population, 18,500.
TANAUAN.
TANEY.
475
TANAUAN. A town of Luzon, Philippines,
in the Province of Batangas (Map: Luzon, F
10). It is situated on the principal highway
from Batangas to Manila, about 27 miles north
of Batangas. The town was founded in 1584, on
the shore of Lake Taal, but was destroyed in
1754 by an eruption of the volcano Taal (q.v.),
and later rebuilt in its present position not far
from the lake. Population, over 21,000.
TA1\T’CRED (c.1050-1112). Prince of Anti-
och, a hero of the First Crusade. The first au-
thentic information respecting him is that he
joined his cousin Bohemund in the First Crusade
in 1096. They landed in Epirus, and took the
oath of allegiance to the Greek Emperor, Alexius
(q.v.). Tancred’s exploits on the way to Syria;
his quarrel with Baldwin for the possession of
Tarsus; his valor before Antioch, where he took
an oath that as long as he had forty knights
he would never withdraw from the expedition
to Jerusalem; and the praises of his biographer,
Radulph of Caen, have given him a fictitious im-
portance. After the conquest of Jerusalem he
became Prince of Galilee. A quarrel with Bald-
win, after Godfrey’s death, caused him to give
up his possessions in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
While Bohemund was in captivity he ruled over
Antioch. When Bohemund died in 1111, Tan-
cred became Prince of Antioch, where he died in
1112. Tancred has been made famous by Tasso
in his Gerusalemme Liberata. For the actual
facts during the most important period of his
life, consult Kugler, Boemund und Tankred
(Tiibingen, 1862).
TANCRED AND GISMUNDA. A tragedy
played before Queen Elizabeth in 1586, published
by Robert Wilmot in 1591. Its title page ex-
plains that it was “compiled by the Gentlemen
of the Inner Temple, and by them presented be-
fore her Majestic.” The authors were probably
five in number. It was founded on a story by
Boccaccio, the substance of which makes the plot
of Tale 39 in Painter’s Palace of Pleasure (Lon-
don, 1566-67). It was originally written in
rhymed quatrains, which Wilmot, however,
changed to blank verse on publication.
TANCRED OF HAUTEVILLE, ot'vel'. A
Norman noble, father of several sons who estab-
lished by force of arms the Norman power in
Southern Italy and Sicily. The most celebrated
of the brothers were Robert Guiscard and Roger
I. (qq-V)
TANDOLANO, tan’do-la/no.
tribe in Palawan Island.
ISLANDS.
TA1\T’DY, JAMES NAPPER (1740-1803). An
Irish agitator, born in Dublin. During the
American Revolution he took an active part in the
effort to prevent the use of English goods in
Ireland; was an enthusiast in the ‘volunteer
movement;’ on May 27, 1782, commanded the
corps of artillery that guarded the approaches to
the Irish Parliament when that body met to
receive the answer of the Ministry to the de-
mand for legislative independence; and was one
of the foremost in the volunteer convention of
November, 1783. Ten years afterwards when he
was about to be tried for writing a seditious
pamphlet called “Common Sense,” he fled to the
United States. In 17 98 he went to Paris and was
put in command of a vessel for an invasion of
VOL. XVI,—31. '
A wild Malay
See PHILIPPINE
Ireland. He remained on Irish soil, however,
but eight hours, and then went to Bergen, and
from there by land to Hamburg. At the latter
place he was seized and was delivered to the
English, and upon his arrival in Ireland was
condemned to death. Bonaparte, however,
brought such pressure to bear in his favor that
the prisoner was released. He soon after went
to France and was made a general of division.
He was the hero of the famous ballad, “The
VVearing of the Green.” Consult: Lecky, His-
tory of England in the Eighteenth Century
(London, 1878-90).
TANERA, ta-na’ra, KARL (1849-——). A Ger-
man military writer and novelist, born at Lands-
hut, Bavaria. He entered the Bavarian army in
1866, took part in the campaign of 1870-71, and
was severely wounded during the siege of Paris.
Having frequented the Kriegsakademie in Berlin,
in 1877-80, he was detailed to the department of
military history in the great general staff, in
1882, but retired as captain in 1887 to devote
himself exclusively to his literary work. To the
collective work Der Krieg von 1870-'71, dar-
gestellt non Mitlciimpfern (1888-91) he contrib-
uted vols. i., iii., v., and vii. ; and next published
Deutschlancls Kriege von Fehrbellin bis K6nig-
griitz (1891-94). His novels, military sketches,
essays and reminiscences of his extensive travels
in the East and North Africa include: Durch ein
Jahrhundert, Drei Kriegsgeschichtliche Romane
(1892) ; Schwere Kiimpfe (1897); Aus zwei
Lagern, Kriegsroman (1899) ; Die Eurasierin
(1900) ; Ernste und heitere Erinnerungen eines
Ordonnaneofliziers (1887, 8th ed., 1902) ; Of-
fiziersleben in Krieg und Frieden (1889) ; Hei-
teres und Ernstes aus Altbayern (1895); Aus
drei Weltteilen, Reiseskizzen (1898); Deutsch-
lands‘ Kiimpfe in Ostasien (1901); and Eine
Weltreise (1902).
TANEY, ta’ni, Rocnn Bnooxn (1777-1864).
An eminent American jurist, Chief Justice of the
United States Supreme Court. He was born in Cal-
vert County, Md.; graduated at Dickinson Col-
lege, Pa. ; studied law at Annapolis; and in 1799
was admitted to the bar. In 1823 he removed to
Baltimore, where he succeeded William Pinkney
and Luther Martin ashead of the Maryland bar.
In 1827 he was elected Attorney-General of the
State, and, having become a Democrat and a sup-
porter of Andrew Jackson, was appointed At-
torney-General of the United States in 1831. In
this capacity he became one of Jackson’s most
trusted counselors, encouraged him to remove
the United States Bank deposits, and upon the
refusal of William J, Duane, then Secretary of
the Treasury, to obey Jackson’s orders to this
effect, was appointed in Duane’s stead, though
his appointment was never confirmed by the Sen-
ate. Taney promptly removed the deposits and
thus further won the confidence of his chief. In
1836 he succeeded John Marshall as Chief Justice
of the United States Supreme Court. In this
capacity he sustained in the main the high repu-
tation of his distinguished predecessor for legal
learning and acumen, though as a result of the
passions engendered by the approaching civil
strife some of his opinions were severely criti-
cised. He wrote the opinion of the court in many
important cases. the most notable being that of
Dred Scott. (See DRED Scorr CASE.) During
the Civil War Chief Justice Taney gave opinion
TANEY.
TAN GERMAN N.
476
in the noted case of Ea:-parte M erryma/n in an-
swer to an application for a writ of habeas
corpus in behalf of a citizen of Baltimore who
l1ad been arrested by a United States officer on
a charge of treason, denying in strong and vigor-
ous language the right of the President to sus-
pend the writ of habeas corpus and affirming
that that power was vested in Congress alone.
A memoir of Taney’s life, in part an autobiog-
raphy, was published in 1872 by Samuel Tyler.
T’ANG, tiing. One of the seven most cele-
brated dynasties of China. It lasted from 618
to 907 and was founded by Li Yuan, a soldier
and a descendant of one of the princely houses,
who, after a reign of eight years, during which
many reforms were introduced, abdicated in fa-
vor of his second son, Li Shih-min, the real uni-
fier of the Empire and the most illustrious of
the T’ang rulers (627-649). With the twelfth
Emperor decay began to set in and in 907 the line
came to an end. In 923 a descendant of one of
the T’ang emperors established the Posterior
T’ang, which came to an end in 936 under its
fourth Emperor.
The T’ang is undoubtedly one of the most bril-
liant periods of Chinese history. The Empire
was extended to the Caspian Sea and China
itself was divided into fifteen provinces. ' In 628
a maternal uncle of Mohammed visited China
and built the mosque at Canton, and a century
and a half later 4000 Mohammedan soldiers,
whose descendants now form an important ele-
ment of the population, settled in the country.
Learning and literature were fostered, the Han-
lin Yuan (q.v.) had its beginning, and Budd-
hism, Taoism, and even Nestorian Christianity
flourished under Imperial patronage. Paper
money was then first used and the Peking
Gazette was founded.
TAN GANYIKA, tan’gan-yé’ka. A large lake
in Central Africa, extending from latitude 3°
16’ to 8° 48' S., and from longitude 29° 20’ to
31° 20' E. (Map: Africa, H 5). Its northern end
is 175 miles southwest of the Victoria Nyanza,
and its southern end 190 miles northwest of Lake
Nyassa. It lies in the western branch of the
Great Rift Valley (q.v.), which is interrupted
at the south end of the lake by a plateau, but
continued farther to the southeast as the basin
of Lake Nyassa. Tanganyika extends in a north
and south direction, with a length of 400 miles
and a breadth of 20 to 40 miles. Its area is
estimated at over 12,000 square miles. Its basin,
which includes a narrow strip of fertile lowland
along either shore, is bounded by the high and
steep sides of the Rift Valley, which in some
places form precipitous rocky cliffs, and reach a
height of 4200 feet above the level of the lake,
which is 2700 feet above the sea. The depth is
very great, ranging in the greater portion from
500 to over 2000 feet, and the lake, is remarkably
free from shoals, reefs, or islands. There are,
however, floating islands of vegetation, the shores
being often very densely forested with palms.
Navigation is also rendered dangerous by severe
hurricanes and tornadoes to which the basin is
subject. The lake is fed by numerous small
streams from the surrounding plateau, and dis-
charges into the Congo through the Lukuga,
which leaves it near the middle of the western
shore. This discharge, however, is intermittent,
and the level of the lake is subject to periodic
fluctuations, each of which may range over a
series of years. The fall of the lake level in re-
cent times has amounted to two feet annually.
Though the water is, as a whole, fresh, it has in
some portions a tendency to become brackish.
The fauna of the lake is very rich and peculiarly
interesting. Besides the usual fresh-water fish,
crocodiles, and hippopotamuses, all of which are
abundant, there are a number of peculiar iso-
lated groups of deep-water mollusks and crabs
which are asserted to be of marine origin. This
fact points to the theory that in Jurassic or
Cretaceous times the lake was an arm of the
sea which became isolated by subsequent up-
heavals.
Politically the west shore belongs to the Congo
Free State, the east shore to German East Afri-
ca, and the south shore to the British colony of
Rhodesia. All three powers have trading and
mission stations on the shores, and several
steamers have been launched on the lake. Of the
numerous native towns the largest is Ujiji, on the
east shore. Lake Tanganyika was discovered in
1858 by Burton and Speke, and later explored
by Livingstone, Cameron, Stanley, and others.
Consult Peters, Das deutsch-ostrafrikanische
Schutzgebiet (Munich, 1895) .
TAN GENT ,( Lat. tangens, pres. part. of
tangere, to touch; connected with Goth. télcan,
Icel. taka, AS. tacan, Eng. take). An unlimited
straight line which meets a curve in but one
point, without cutting it. The point is called
the point of contact or point‘of tangency. A
tangent may be thought of as the limiting posi-
tion of a secant, the point of tangency being the
point in which the points of intersection of the
secant with the curve coincide. In the circle
there is but one distinct tangent at any point in
the circumference, and this is perpendicular to
the radius at that point. The segments of two
tangents to a circle from an external point, lim-
ited by the point and the points of contact, are
equal. If the point moves up to the circumfer-
once, the segments become zero and the tangents
coincide; if the point moves inside the circum-
ference, the tangents become imaginary. (See
CONTINUITY.) All conic sections being of the
second class (see CURVE) admit of but two tan-
gents from any point. Curves belonging to high-
er classes admit of a greater number, depending
upon the class. Tangents are of different orders
of contact (see CONTACT) according to the num-
ber of coincident points at the point of tangency,
and thus serve to distinguish various singulari-
ties of curves. (See CURVE.) In coiirdinate
geometry the projection, upon the X-axis, of
the segment of the tangent between the point of
contact and the X-axis is called the subtangent.
An important class of tangents are known as
asymptotes (q.v.). In the geometry of surfaces
the tangent plane corresponds to the tangent
line of curves. The extensive list of properties
involving tangents is best obtained from works
on analytic geometry.
TANGERMANN, tang/ér-man, WILHELM
(l815—). A German Old-Catholic theologian,
known as an author by the pseudonym Victor
Granella. He was born at Essen-on-the-Ruhr
and studied theology at Miinster and Munich.
In 1846 he became priest at Neuss and afterwards
held several prominent positions in his Church.
In 1870 he was deprived of his offices because of
TANGERMANN.
TANJAY.
477
his having refused to acknowledge the Vatican’s
decrees, and afterwards he was prominently iden-
tified with the Old-Catholic movement. From
1872 to 1888 he was in charge of the congrega-
tion at Cologne. His numerous writings include:
Wahrhe-it, Scluinheit und Licbe, Philosophisoh-
flsthetische Stuclien (1857) ; Philosophie und
Ohristentum in ihren Beziehungen sur Kultur
wnd ReZig'ionsfrage (1875) ; and Natar and Geist
(1894).
TANGERMUNDE, t%'mg’ér-1n1_1n'de. A town
in the District of Magdeburg, Prussia, 63 miles
west of Berlin, on the Elbe. The town still re-
tains its old walls, gates, and towers, its twelfth-
century Church of Saint Stephen, an ancient
castle, now the district building, and the old
council house. There are a large sugar refinery,
mills for manufacturing rape-seed oil and bone
meal, and boat-building establishments. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 11,524.
TANGHIN (Malagasy name), Gerbera Tan-
gh.i/n,. A tree of the natural order Apocynaceaa.
The kernel of its fruit was formerly used in
'l\ladagascar, where the tree is native, to de-
termine the guilt or innocence of persons charged
with witchcraft and like odious crimes. If
guilty of anything the fear of the accused was
often so intense that fatal results followed the
taking of even minute quantities of the powdered
kernels and sometimes also when innocuous sub-
stances were substituted; but if innocent the
accused would generally be fearless and eat free-
ly, in which case an emetic action followed by
no serious after effects would result.
TANGIER, tan—jer’, or TANGIERS. The
chief seaport of Morocco, and the capital of the
Province of I-laabat, on the Bay of Tangier, in
the Strait of Gibraltar, 8 miles east of Cape
Spartel and 35 miles southwest of Gibraltar
(Map: Africa, D 1). It is a healthful town in
spite of wretched sanitary conditions. It is
fortified and surrounded by ancient ruins of
walls and by gardened areas. It is picturesquely
Oriental and its life is highly interesting. The
white Moorish houses, amid towers and gates,
rise above one another from the sea in the form
of an amphitheatre, the highest point being
crowned by a castle. The houses are» of one
story; the streets, steep, and too narrow for
wagons or carriages. The main street leads from
the harbor on the east to the new market and to
the Socco de Barra on the southwest. It passes
the Great Mosque, whose handsome gate and
tower are noteworthy. Near by is the Small Soc-
co, with its interesting baz-aars—the business
centre of the town. The Kasba, or castle, dating
from the fifteenth century, stands on the plateau
in the northern part of the city. The plateau ex-
tends from the lofty Marshan toward the sea,
and furnishes a superb view. The castle or cita-
del is a dilapidated mass of buildings. The ad-
jacent palace of the Sultan and the residence
of the Governor are imposing edifices. The
North American Mission and the Gospel Union
of Kansas have their headquarters in Tangier,
and there are a Catholic chapel, several syna-
gogues, and a hospital. Tangier is lighted by
electricity. The harbor is the best in Morocco,
although it is both small and shallow. The an-
nual exports are about $1,300,000. The imports
are about $1,500,000, largely represented by cot-
ton. The shipping entered in 1900 was 424,000
tons. The famous Morocco leather is made here.
Population, about 30,000, including 6000 Chris-
tians and 7000 Jews,
Tangier is the Roman Tingis, and was the
capital of a Roman province. It was held in
turn by the Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, and
Portuguese, who obtained possession of it 1471.
It came to the English in 1662 as part of the
dowry of Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles
II., but was abandoned by them to the Moors in
1684.
TANGLEWOOD TALES, THE. A volume of
stories for children by Hawthorne (1853). The
stories are old Greek myths told in an attractive
style, and supposed to be brought to the author
by Eustace Bright, the assumed narrator of the
stories contained in the Wonder Booh.
TA/1\TIS. The Tyrian name of the goddess
Astarte (q.v.).
TANIS (Lat., from Gk. Tdms, Egyptian
Za‘net, Hebrew Zo‘an). A city of ancient
Egypt in the northeastern corner of the Delta.
It was situated on the right bank of the Tanitie
branch of the Nile, near the site of the modern
fishing village of San. Tanis was the capital of
the fourteenth nome of Lower Egypt, and was a
place of importance in very early times. The
kings of the Sixth Dynasty founded there a great
temple which was subsequently restored and en-
larged by their successors of the Twelfth and
Thirteenth Dynasties, and the city was for some
time the capital of the Hyksos rulers. Under the
Nineteenth Dynasty it was strongly fortified as a
base of military operations against Palestine and
Syria, and Rameses II., who established his resi-
dence there, restored the ancient temples and
greatly embellished the city. The Twenty-first
Dynasty, of Tanitie origin, made the city the
capital of Egypt, and at the time of the Assyr-
ian invasions in the seventh century 13.0. it was
the seat of a prince. Until the founding of
Alexandria it was one of the chief commercial
cities of Eeypt, but the silting up of the Tanitie
mouth of the Nile diverted its trade to the new
capital of the Ptolemics, and it gradually fell
into ruins. Excavations of the site, conducted
by Mariette in 1860, and by Petrie in 1883-84,
brought to light the remains of extensive temple
buildings, many statues and sphinxes, and no less
than fourteen obelisks. Tanis is undoubtedly the
Biblical Zoan, which in Numbers xiii. 22 is said
to have been built seven years later than Hebron,
and it is identified by many Egyptologists with
the city of Raamses, which the Israelites were
obliged to fortify (Ex. i. ll). Consult: Petrie,
Tanis (London, 1885-88); Budge, A History of
Egypt (New York, 1902).
TANISTRY (from tanist, from Ir., Gael.
tana-iste, lieutenant, lord, governor, heir appar-
ent). An ancient Celtic law of succession, com-
mon to both Ireland and Wales, by which prop-
erty or political power descended not to the
children of the deceased, but to the oldest or
most powerful of his collateral relatives. The
rights thus transferred were felt to be vested
rather in the tribe than in the individual.
TANJAY, tan-Hi’. A town of Negros, Philip-
pines, in the Province of VVestern Negros, sit-
uated 19 miles from Dumaguete (Map: Philip-
TAN JAY.
TANNER.
478
pines, H 10). Population, in 1887, 10,293; now,
12,400.
TANJ ORE, tan-j(-)1". The capital of a district
of Tanjore, in the Province of Madras, British
India, 48 miles west of Negapatam, in the val-
ley of the Kaveri River, one of the richest
agricultural sections in India (Map: India, C 6) .
The large temple, dating from the eleventh cen-
tury, is one of the finest examples of the Pagoda
style of architecture in existence. There are sev-
eral concentric rectangles, the outer measuring
415 by 800 feet. The leading architectural fea-
tures are the great gopura, a pyramidal tower
200 feet high, and the handsome embellished
shrine of Kaxttikeya. Another striking edifice
is the palace of the Raja, constructed in 1550. It
has many sculptures and pictures, together with
a library containing valuable Sanskrit manu-
scripts. Schwartz’s Church, the English Church,
Saint Peter’s College, the Prince of VVales Medi-
cal School, and People’s Park are also of interest.
Tanjore has manufactures of jewelry, carpets,
copper utensils, and objects in repousse work.
Population, in 1901, 57,870. Tanjore was the
capital of a Hindu principality until the over-
throw of the Chola dynasty by the Mahrattas in
1678. During its early history it was one of the
most important cities in Southern India. The
English obtained control in 1799.
TANKAGE. A name applied to a product,
used mainly for fertilizing purposes, which is
prepared from the residue resulting from the
treatment of abattoir and slaughter-house re-
fuse with steam and hot water in closed tanks
for the removal of fat, a process commonly
known as ‘tanking’. Tankage is variable in
composition, depending upon the materials used
in its preparation and the process of manufac-
ture, but is generally rich in nitrogen, and it is
this element which mainly determines its value
as a fertilizer. According to Voorhees, two dis-
tinct kinds of tankage are ordinarily prepared,
(1) concentrated tankage, containing from 10
to 12 per cent. of nitrogen with very small per-
centages of phosphoric acid; and (2) crushed
tankage, of which there are several grades, con-
taining from 4- to 9 per cent. of nitrogen, and
3 to 12 per cent. of phosphoric acid. Products
containing more than 12 per cent. of phosphoric
acid are known as bone tankage, and are properly
classed with bone fertilizers (q.v.). The term
tankage is also sometimes applied to the product
obtained by drying, and in some cases partially
charring, city garbage. This garbage tankage is
more variable in composition and less valuable
as a fertilizer than true tankage, although, like
the latter, its value as a fertilizer depends mainly
upon its nitrogen. The nitrogen of meat and
bone tankage of good quality has been found to
be about 60 per cent. as effective as plant food
as that of nitrate of soda, which is taken as the
standard. Tankage is therefore one of the most
valuable sources of organic nitrogen for fer-
tilizing purposes. Tankage is also beginning to
be used with very promising results as a con-
centrated feeding stuff, especially for feeding
hogs. When used in combination with corn it sup-
plies the deficiencies, from a feeding standpoint,
of that grain in protein and ash constituents
and thus furnishes a better balanced ration.
TAN’NAHILL, ROBERT (1774-1810). A
Scottish poet. He was the son of a silk weaver
of Paisley. He was apprenticed to his father
and passed most of his life in Paisley at the
loom. He early showed a talent for verse and
studied Burns, Fergusson, and Ramsay, He he-
came an active member of a literary club at
Paisley, for which he wrote some of his best
songs. To a local Burns club he also contributed
three remarkable birthday odes. As a song writer
he possessed a spontaneity akin to that of
Burns. Among his best songs, known through-
out Scotland, are “Bonnie Wood 0’ Craigielee,”
“Sleepin’ Maggie,” “Brass 0’ Gleniffer,” “Gloomy
Winter’s noo awa’,” and “Jessie the Flower o’
Dunblane.” They all show a genuine lyrical
gift, much tenderness of sentiment, and atrue
eye and feeling for the simple effects of nature.
Suffering from melancholia, Tannahill drowned
himself in a canal near Paisley. In 1874 the
centenary of his birth was observed; and in 1883
a bronze statue was erected to his memory in
the Paisley Abbey burying ground. Consult the
complete edition of Poems, ed. Semple (Glas-
gow, 1873); selections in Miles’s Poets and
Poetry of the Century (London, 1891, et. seq.).
TAN'NER, HENRY OssAwA (1859—).
American historical painter. He was born at
Pittsburg, Pa., the son of a bishop of the African
Methodist Church, and studied in the Pennsyl-
vania Academy of Fine Arts under Thomas
Eakins. Later he went to Paris, where he re-
mained, feeling there to a less degree his racial
disadvantage. He studied under Jean Paul
Laurens and Benjamin Constant; and in 1900
he was awarded the Lippincott prize at Phila-
delphia and a medal at the Paris Exposition.
His pictures are landscapes and religious themes
and in them he exhibits a Southern heartiness of
emotion under a judicious restraint, a realism
of presentation, and especially a rich mastery
of color. His “Raising of Lazarus” hangs in
the Luxembourg. The “Christ and Nicodemus”
and the “Annunciation” are in Philadelphia, one
in the Academy of Fine Arts, the other in Me-
morial Hall, Fairmount Park.
TANNER, HENRY S. (1786-1858).. An Ameri-
can geographer, born in New York City. He stud-
ied engraving and settled in Philadelphia, where,
with his brother Benjamin_. he established an
extensive business in publishing ma.ps, atlases,
and geographical works. He became widely
known as an authority on geography and was
elected to membership in both the London and
Paris Geographical Societies. His publications
included: New American Atlas (1817-23); Map
of the United States of Mexico (1825) ; Map of
Philadelphia (1826) ; Map of the United States
of America (1829); View of the Valley of the 1
Mississippi (1832) ; American Traveller (1836) ;
Description of the Canals and Railroads of the
United States (1840).
TANNER, THOMAS (1674-1735). An English
antiquary, born at Market Lavington, in Wilt-
shire, where his father was vicar, and educated
at Queen’s College, Oxford. He was ordained
deacon in 1694 and was appointed chaplain of
All Souls’ College in 1695. Besides various other
preferments, he became canon of Ely (1713),
canon of Christ Church, Oxford (1724), and
Bishop of Saint Asaph (1732). He is known
chiefly for N otitia M onastica, or a Short History
of the Religious Houses in England and Wales
(1695) and the Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica,
Ann
TANNER.
TANNIN.
479
a valuable account of the authors that flourished
in the three kingdoms up to the seventeenth
century (posthumous, 1748). With him An-
thony a Wood (q.v.) left additional ‘lives,’
which appeared in the second addition of Athena;
Oaronienscs (1721). Tanner bequeathed a large
body of manuscripts to the Bodleian Library at
Oxford.
TANNERY, ta’ne-re/, PAUL (1843—). A
French scholar, born at Nantes. He was edu-
cated in the Paris Polytechnic School; engaged
in the tobacco industry; and devoted his leisure
time to studying the history of science and of
philosophy For two years he gave a course in
the Sorbonne on the history of arithmetic, and
for five years filled Professor Lévecque’s chair in
the history of Greek and Latin philosophy in
the College of France. Aside from a great num-
ber of articles in periodicals and other publi-
cations, he published: Pour Phistoire de la
science hellene (1887); La géométrie grecque
(1887) ; La correspondence de Descartes dans les
inédits des fonds Libri (1893) ; and Recherches
sur l’histoire de l’astronomie ancienne.
TANNHAUSER, t£in'hoi-z’er. A German
knight and minnesinger of the thirteenth century,
probably a Bavarian by birth, who enjoyed the
favor of Duke Frederick 11. of Austria. Little
is known historically of his career, and he dis-
appears entirely after the death of Conradin
(1268). His verses are in the main mocking
and sensuous. One of the latest of them, a
penitential song, may have led to his identifica-
tion with the hero of the old Teutonic legend of
the Venusberg or Hill of Venus. This was a
region within a mountain near the VVartburg,
in the Thuringian Forest, where Venus reigned,
and whence no one save Tannhiiuser ever escaped.
Here Tannhiiuser, in the legend, lived with her
until conscience smote him. He escaped, with
the aid of the Blessed Virgin, and set out on a
pilgrimage to Rome, to obtain pardon for his
grievous sin. According to the story, Pope
Urban IV. refused to pardon the sin until the
staff in the Popc’s hand should sprout. Tann-
hiiuser returned to the Venusberg, but the wand
meantime put forth green leaves by a miracle,
to show the extent of the divine mercy. Modern
versions of the legend were made by Tieck, Heine,
and Geibel; and in Swinburne’s Laus Veneris
Tannhiiuser is conceived as having returned ir-
redeemably to the Venusberg. But better known
than any is the famous dramatic treatment by
Richard Wagner in his opera Tannhiiuser (1845) ,
whose libretto follows Hoffmann in identifying
Tannhiiuser with Heinrich von Ofterdingen and
introducing him into the contest of the minstrels
on the Wartburg. The works of the historic
Tannhiiuser were first edited by Von der Hagen
in his Minnesinger (1848). For these consult:
Oehlke (Kiinigsberg, 1890) and Siebert (Berlin,
1894); for the legend, Baring-Gould, Curious
Myths of the Middle Ages (London, 1884), and
Griisse, Der Tannhfiuser uml der ewige Jude
(2d ed., Dresden, 1890).
TANNIN (from tan, OF., Fr. tan, oak-bark
for tanning, from OHG. tanna, Ger. Tarzne, fir,
oak; probably connected with Skt. dhanoan,
bow), TANNIC Acre, GAr.Lo'rANNro Amp. or Dr-
CALLIC Acm, C,,H2 ( OH),COOC.,H, (OH) 2COOH. An
odorless and almost colorless substance, sol-
uble in water, alcohol, acetone, glycerin, and
various oils, occurring in Turkish and Chinese
gall-nuts and in various other plants. It has a
bitter, astringent taste, and assumes a yellow
coloration if exposed for some time to the action
of light. It is used as an astringent in medicine,
and as a mordant in dyeing, and also finds em-
ployment in the manufacture of ink and of gallic
and pyrogallic acids. Solutions of tannin reduce
silver carbonate to metallic silver; they also re-
duce Fehling’s solution (q.v.), and certain other
substances, and precipitate gelatin and albumen
from their solutions. On the other hand, solu-
tions of tannin may be precipitated by the addi-
tion of various salts and acids, including common
salt, sal ammoniac, the acetate as well as the sul-
phate of potassium, hydrochloric and sulphuric
acids, etc. Tannin is made by extracting the
powdered gall-nuts, which contain it in larger
quantities, with a mixture of alcohol, ether
and water; the layer of water then contains
practically all the tannin; it is separated,
purified by shaking with an excess of ether, and
evaporated at a gentle heat. The residue thus
obtained may be purified by dissolving in a dilute
solution of common salt, and reprecipitating from
this b adding an excess of salt in the solid state.
With ferric salts tannin produces the well-known
precipitate which is the coloring substance of
ordinary black ink.
The names tannin and tannic acid are also
applied to a variety of other substances of vege-.
table origin and having properties more or less
similar to those of gallotannic acid: they are
all astringent, transform hide into leather, give
a blue or green coloration with salts of iron, etc.
Some of the more important of these substances
may be briefly noticed here under their special
names.
ALDER TANNIN, C,,H,.,O,,. This is a reddish-
brown substance soluble in dilute alcohol and
quite soluble in hot water; its solutions give a
green precipitate with ferric salts. It may be
prepared by extracting sawdust from Alnus
glutinosa with boiling water, precipitating the
extract with lead acetate, and decomposing with
sulphureted hydrogen; the precipitate, which
now contains both the tannin and lead sulphide,
is extracted with alcohol, and thus the tannin is
isolated.
CAFFETANNIC ACID, C,,I-I,,O,. This is found in
coffee-berries and in certain other vegetable prod-
ucts. It is soluble in water and in alcohol and
its solutions give a green coloration with ferric
salts. It may be prepared by extracting coffee-
berries with alcohol, diluting with water, filter-
ing, boiling the filtrate and precipitating it
with lead acetate; the precipitate thus obtained
is shaken up with alcohol, in which it is caused
to dissolve by decomposing with sulphureted
hydrogen, and then the caffetannic acid is isolat-
ed by filtering and evaporating the solution to
dryness.
FRAXITANNIC Aom, C,.,H,,O,,. This is found in
the leaves of the ash-tree. From these it may be
obtained by extracting with water, precipitating
the extract with lead acetate, and dissolving the
precipitate in boiling aqueous acetic acid. The
tannin is then isolated by a somewhat elaborate
process, involving fractional precipitation with
ammonia, treatment of the purest fractions with
sulphureted hydrogen, etc. (Consult Manate-
TANNIN.
TANSY.
480
hefte fttr Ghemie, vol. iii., p. 745.) Pure
fraxitannic acid is a golden-yellow powder, whose
solutions give a dark-green coloration and pre-
cipitate with ferric salts.
Qunncrraunm A011), This is a substance, or
perhaps several very similar substances, of un-
certain composition, found in the leaves, bark,
and wood of the oak. It is also probably contained
in tea. Extracts containing quercitannic acid
are largely used in tanning. From these extracts
the acid may be isolated by diluting with water,
allowing to settle, filtering, precipitating the
filtrate with hydrochloric acid, washing and
drying the precipitate, dissolving it in strong
alcohol, and mixing the alcoholic solution with
somewhat more than an equal volume of water;
the precipitate thus produced is rejected; on
filtering, the liquid is evaporated to dryness, the
reddish-white residue being practically pure
quercitannic acid—a substance soluble in dilute
alcohol and sparingly in cold water.
Qumorannrc A011), C,,H,,,(),,. This is a light-
yellow substance, found in cinchona bark. It is
soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and its solu-
tions give a green precipitate with ferric salts.
It may be prepared by extracting cinchona bark
with water, adding burnt magnesia, filtering,
precipitating the filtrate with lead acetate, de-
composing the precipitate with aqueous sulphur-
eted hydrogen again filtering, precipitating this
filtrate with basic lead acetate, dissolving the
precipitate in dilute acetic acid, adding am-
monia, treating this last precipitate with sul-
phureted hydrogen, and, finally, evaporating
the resulting solution to dryness in vacuo.
ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. A number of substances
similar in composition and properties to the
natural tannins have been obtained synthetically
by Liiwe, Schiff, Biittinger, and others.
Consult: Trimble, The Tan-/nxins; a Monograph
on Their Histom , Prepa/ration, etc. With an In-
dex to the Literature of the Subject (Philadel-
phia, 1892-94). -
TANNING. See LEATHER.
TANN-RATHSAMHAUSEN, tan-riit’sam-
hou’zen, LUDWIG SAMSON, Baron von und zu der
(1815-81). A German general, born at Darm-
stadt. He entered a Bavarian regiment of artil-
lery in 1833, was transferred to the general staff
in 1840, and, becoming aide-de--camp to Crown-
prince Maximilian in 1840, was soon afterwards
promoted to the rank of major. In 1849-50 he
took a conspicuous part in the Schleswig-Holstein
campaign, and after his return to Bavaria was
again aide-de-camp to King Maximilian, was
made major-general in 1855 and commanding gen-
eral at Augsburg in 1861, and subsequently at
Munich. In 1866 he was chief of staff of Field-
marshal Prince Charles, commander-in-chief of
the South German contingents, and having been
appointed general of infantry and commander of
the first army corps in 1869, led it with distinc-
tion in the campaign of 1870, at VV5rth, Beau-
mont, and Sedan. Giving command over the com-
bined forces operating on the Loire, he reduced
Orléans, afterwards fought victoriously under
the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg in several bloody
engagements and rejoined the besieging forces be-
fore Paris. For his biography consult Helvig
(Berlin, 1882), and Zernin (Darmstadt, 1883).
TANREC. See TENREC.
_ML. ath-ana-s/ia, tansy, from Gk.
TANSILLO, tan-sil'l€>, LUIGI (1510-68). An
Italian poet, born at Venosa, province of Potenza.
He early entered Court service and in 1535 be-
came one of the bodyguard, formed of one hun-
dred nobles, of Don Pedro de Toledo, the Spanish
Viceroy of Naples, with whom and with whose
son, Don Garcia, he stood in great favor. He ac-
companied them on their expedition against the
Turks and fought with conspicuous bravery. Sub-
sequently he held the post of Capitano di giustizia
at Gaeta and died at Teano. His ingenious but
rather lubrieal poem I l qpemlem/rm'a-tore (1534),
trans. by Mercier as Jardin d’amour, 1798), es-
tablished his literary reputation, but was the
cause of all his writings being placed on the
Index by Paul IV. To atone for it, Tansillo
afterwards resumed his religious epic Le lagr-ime
di San Pietro, begun in 1539, but left it unfin-
ished. Of his didactic poems La balia (trans.
by William Roscoe) and I l podere, the latter is
one of the best of its kind in Italian literature.
His lyrics, inspired by his impassioned love for
a high-born lady, are replete with fervor and fine
descriptions of nature. In the Stanee a Don
Pedro di Toledo (1547) he depicts with consum-
mate art the luxurious gardens of the Viceroy by
the sea. An edition of Poesi-e l'im'.ehe edite ed
inedite, with biography and commentary by
Fiorentino appeared at Naples (1882) ; also
Gapitolt gioeosi e satt¢ic~i, ed. by Volpicella (ib.,
1870).
TANSY (OF. tcmasie, tan/esie, t(ma/isie, tan-
asie, Fr. tao'zai.sie, Sp., Port., It. atananasia, from
dfiavaola, im-
mortality, from d6dvaros, athrmatos, immortal,
from a-, a-, not + Bdvwros, thanatos, death, from
Bvvjoxetv, thnéslcein, to die), Ta-nacetum. A
genus of plants of the natural order Compositw,
natives of the temperate parts of the Old World.

TANSY.
Common tansy (Tanaeetum oulgare), a peren-
nial, has long been cultivated in gardens and~ is
naturalized in many parts of North America.
Q
TANSY, ETC.


1. TANSY fTanacetum vulgare). , 3. ARROW-WOOD (Viburnum ace:-lfolluml.
2. WILD CARROT lDaucus Ca:-otal. 4. THISTLE (Cnlcus lancoolatus).
TANSY.
TANTUM ERGO.
481
The deep green leaves and yellow flowers have a
strong aromatic smell and a bitter taste. The
leaves contain a volatile oil and the younger ones
have been used for flavoring puddings, cakes,
omelets, etc., and were formerly used in medicine,
but are rarely used even in domestic practice.
Some curious Easter customs linger in many
parts of England connected with the use of
tansy cakes and puddings which were originally
intended to represent the use of bitter herbs at
the paschal feast. See Chambers’s Book of Days.
TANTA, tiin’ta, or TANTAH. The capital
of the Province of Gharbieh, Lower Egypt, sit-
uated in the Delta, about 60 miles north of
Cairo (Map: Egypt, E 2). It has a palace of
the Khedive and a fine mosque, and is noted for
its fairs and festivals, which are visited by thou-
sands of Moslem pilgrims and traders. Popula-
tion, in 1900, 35,000.
TANTALITE (from Neo-Lat. tantalum, tan-
talum). A mineral iron tantalate crystallized
in the orthorhombic system. It has a sub-
metallic and often brilliant lustre, and is brown
to iron-black in color_ It occurs in granitic and
feldspathic veins in the form of crystalline
granules and cleavable masses, and is found in
Finland, Bavaria, Italy, Western South America,
and Greenland, and in the United States at vari-
ous localities along the Appalachian Mountain
system, in Colorado, and in the Black Hill region.
The iron in this mineral is frequently replaced
by manganese, giving rise to a variety known as
mangan-otantalite.
TANTALUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. Tantalus,
father of Niobe; so called from its close resem-
blance to the metal niobium). A metallic element
discovered by Ekeberg in 1802. It occurs associated
with columbates in the rare minerals columbite,
tantalite and yttrotantalite. Its separation is
by a long and complicated chemical method, and
the product obtained is believed to be an impure
mixture of oxides. Tantalum (symbol, Ta;
atomic weight, 182.84) is a black powder that
assumes an iron-gray metallic lustre under a
burnisher, and when gently heated ignites in
the air and burns, forming the oxide. It also com-
bines with oxygen to form a pentoxide, which in
turn combines with bases to form a series of
salts called tantalates.
TAN’TALUS (Lat., from Gk. Tdvrahos . In
Greek legend, King of the region about ount
Sipylus in Lydia, son of Zeus and father by
Dione of Pelops (q.v.), Broteas, and Niobe
(q_v.). He was a favorite of Zeus and was ad-
mitted to the gatherings of the gods, but offend-
ed grievously in some way and was in conse-
quence visited with extreme punishments, so that
he became one of the typical figures in Tartarus.
There Tantalus was plunged into a deep pool,
whose waters receded whenever he stooped to
drink, while over his head hung clusters of fruit
which were ever kept just beyond his reach. An-
other version represented him as poised in the
air, beneath a huge rock which constantly threat-
ened to fall and crush him.
TANTIA TOPI, t'zin’té-a to'pe (c.1812-59).
An Indian military commander, conspicuous in
the Sepoy mutiny of 1857-58. He was born at
Bithur, near Cawnpore. He became the chief
lieutenant of Nana Sahib (q.v.) in 1857. After
the defeat of Nana Sahib by Havelock, Tantia
Topi conducted the campaign alone until
the flight of his superior into Oudh and
Nepal made communication impossible. He then
acted under the orders of Rao Sahib, nephew
of Nana Sahib. It was due to his generalship
alone that the rebellion continued after the cap-
ture of Gwalior by Sir Hugh Rose and the death
of the Rani of J hansi, in June of 1858. For nine
months he baffled the English in Central India,
suffering his first serious reverse at Sikar in
January, 1859, The rebels were finally dispersed
in March, 1859, and Tantia Topi, who had taken
refuge in the jungles of Paron, was betrayed
(April 7) to Major Meade by his own friend and
late associate Man Singh. He was tried by court
martial at Sipri and hanged there on April 18,
1859.
TANTRA, t£in'tr:-‘I (Skt., ceremony, woof,
from tan, to stretch, to weave). The Sanskrit
term for a ceremony or a ceremonial treatise,
and thus for a systematic treatise of any kind.
The word is used in English, however, only as the
designation of a late class of Sanskrit works
which are related to the Puranas ( see PURANA)
on the one hand, and to the magic literature in
general on the other (see the section Atharvaveda
under VEDA). The Tantras .are in the main the
sacred works of the worshipers of the androgy-
nous Siva (q.v.) , or of Sakti, the female princi le
itself (see SAKTAS)_ They deal with the creation
and destruction of the world, the worship of the
gods, the attainment of all objects, magical rites
for the acquirement of six superhuman faculties,
and four modes of union with spirit by medita-
tion. Prayers to the gods, especially Siva, some
few of great beauty, are comparatively rare.
Their place is taken by a condensed form of in-
vocation of the divinity by means of a great
variety of honorific epithets, one class, the
‘thousand-name prayers,’ forming a division by
itself. There are also prayers in the form of
amulets, which contain magic and invocation in
their very form, and are therefore regarded as
especially efficacious. Numerous other subjects
are introduced into many Tantras, while certain
ones are limited to a single topic, as the mode of
breathing in certain rites, or the language of
birds and beasts, Siva and his wife, Devi, Uma, or
Parvati, are the chief divinities of the Tantras,
which are nearly always composed in the form of
a dialogue between them, in which the goddess
questions the god as to the mode of performing
various ceremonies, and the mantras or prayers
and incantations to be used in them. These he
explains at length, and under solemn cautions
that they involve a great mystery, not to be
divulged to the profane. The followers of the
Tantras consider them as a fifth Veda, and at-
tribute to them corresponding antiquity. This
claim is entirely imaginary; they are mentioned
in some of the Puranas, and are probably later
than the lexicographer Amarasinha (q.v.), who
lived several centuries after the beginnin of the
Christian Era. No less than sixty-four antras
are mentioned by the Hindu commentator
Sankara (q.v.), yet this important branch of
Sanskrit literature has been scarcely studied by
Western scholars, nor is there, even in India, any
edited text or translation of a single work of
this class.
TANTUM ERGO. The last two stanzas of
the hymn Pange lingua, which are invariably
TANTUM ERGO.
TAO KWANG.
482
sung at benediction in the Roman Catholic
Church.
TANZIMAT, tan-ze’mat (Ar. taneimat, pl.
of tangsim, regulation, inf. of second form of
naeama, to arrange in order). The or-
ganic laws in accordance with which the ad-
ministration of the Turkish Empire is in theory
carried on. They were the result of the reform
movement introduced by Mahmud II. The or-
ganic laws, known as the hatti sherif of Gulhane,
were promulgated on November 3, 1839, by Mah-
mud’s son, Abdul Medjid (q.v.), soon after his ac-
cession. They established the equality of civil
rights for all subjects, limited the power of the
Government officials, guaranteed the free practice
of religion, and introduced radical reforms in the
administration of finance, justice, and the army.
In 1856 the Sultan found it necessary to publish
a new ordinance, in which the complete carry-
ing out of the Tanzimat in all respects was
commanded. Other attempts in 1868 and 1876
to make the Constitution effective were unsuc-
cessful. Consult Engelhardt, La Turquie et le
Tanzimat (Paris, 1882-84). See TURKEY.
TAOISM, ta’o-ism (from Chin. tao, path,
way, proper method, word, principle, reason). A
religion in China which must have existed there
since prehistoric times and has even at present
a very strong hold upon the people. The term
tao itself is clothed with a religious awe and
always spoken of with great veneration, although
it is frequently used in general literature in the
sense of rationality, common sense, and sound
judgment. The Taoists, called Tao-Sse, or teach-
ers of the Tao, are a religious fraternity with
temples, sacred books, and ‘a definite ritual. Their
most sacred book is “The Canon of Reason and
Virtue” (Tao-teh-King) , written by Li Urh, com-
monly called Lao-Tse (q.v.). It is a short
treatise of about five thousand characters, but
full of profound wisdom and sound ethics.
There must have been Taoism, however, before
Lao-Tse, for he does not regard himself as the
founder of a new faith, but quotes in his book
many sayings of his predecessors and claims only
to expound the obscure wisdom of the ancient
sages. Apparently he refers to the popular
traditional religionjthat existed at his time in
China. The difference between Confucianism and
Taoism corresponds to the respective characters
of the two reformers. Confucius was an aspiring
moral teacher and in the prime of life, while Lao-
Tse was famed for his wisdom and about half a
century the senior of Confucius. The ambition
of Confucius was to educate the nation by teach-
ing the people propriety, while Lao-Tse de-
spised all externalities and ceremonies, insisting
simply and solely on a regeneration of the heart.
The moral doctrines of Confucianism rest upon
the recognition of authority under the name
Hsiao (filial piety), establishing in matters of
government the principle of paternalism, but
Taoism condemns all interference with the natu-
ral course of things and thus all statecraft,
especially any and every rule by force, as con-
trary to the Tao, and preaches boldly the maxim
of Laisser-faire. In a sense Confucianism re-
mained victorious, for it became the ofiicially
recognized doctrine of China and the mandarins
are all Confucian scholars. The two greatest
disciples of Lao-Tse and the ablest expounders of
Taoism were Lieh-Tse and Chwang-Tse, the
former of the fourth and the latter of the third
century B.C. The one is more metaphysical and
speculative, the other popular and witty. Espe-
cially Chwang-Tse is very severe on the ‘literati,’
and does not shrink from ridiculing their great
master, Confucius, Taoist ethics are best repre-
sented in the Kan-Ying-P’ien, or “Book of Re-
wards and Punishments,” a production of the
fifteenth century. It first came into prominence
in the sixteenth century, when it was incorpo-
rated in the Tao-Chang, a collection of Taoist
scriptures. It contains 212 moral maxims illus-
trated by stories and references to the history
of the earlier Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644).
The distribution of this book is. deemed a reli-
gious duty, and innumerable editions are pub-
lished at the expense of pious Taoists. Among
the great men who were professed Taoists,
Chang-Liang (died B.C. 189) deserves special
mention for the important part he played in
history as a councilor of Liu Pang, the founder
of the Han dynasty. Taoist legends attribute to
him supernatural wisdom and tell of him many
marvelous occurrences.
The word Taoism might be translated ‘Ration-
alism,’ were it not for the mystic tendencies of
its adherents. Lao-Tse, Lieh-Tse, and Chwang-
Tse are sometimes obscure, but they remain as
sober as the transcendentalists of the nineteenth
century. All later Taoists, however, are mystics,
Either they claim to be in possession of magic
powers, or are engaged in alchemy and other
occult studies. One of them, Shang-Tao-Ling,
became the recognized leader of the Taoist fra-
ternity. He was said to have compounded and
swallowed the elixir of life, whereupon he as-
cended visibly to heaven. He bequeathed his
secrets to his descendants, thereby establishing
an hereditary Taoist papacy. The head of the
fraternity is regarded as the vice-gerent of God
on earth and bears the title ‘The Pearly Emperor
of Heaven.’ Through a host of priests and the
great wealth at his disposal, he exercises an im-
mense power throughout China, which the Im-
perial Government is bound to respect.
The Taoist priests of to-day know very little
of Lao-Tse. They attend to the spiritual needs
of the people, which are not very high. They tell
fortunes, determine lucky and unlucky days, and
regulate popular feasts. For divination, they
use the Kwa, a system of trigrams of broken and
unbroken lines which are determined with Shih
sticks (see PAK-KWA), and for the determina-
tion of days they use an astrological device,
called lo-pan, or table of the net, because it
resembles a cobweb, in which certain symbols are
arranged in concentric circles round a compass.
Consult: Julien, Khan-Ing-Pien, Le livre des
récompenses et des peines (Paris, 1835); id.,
Lao-tseu-Tao-Te-King, Le livre de la voie et de la
vertu (ib., 1842) ; Carus, Lao-tze’s Tao-teh-King
(Chicago, 1898) ; Douglas, Confucianism and
Taoism (London, 1879) ; Legge, Religions of
China (ib., 1881); id., “Texts of Taoism,” in
Miiller, Sacred Books of the East. vols. xxxix., xl.
(Oxford, 1891); Balfour, Taoist Tents. Ethical,
Political, and Speculative (London, 1885) ; Har-
lez, Teactes Trioistes (Paris, 1891) ; ‘Rosny, Le
Taoisme (ib., 1892).
TAO KWANG, tou’ kwiing’ (1781-1850). The
reign-title of Mien-ning, the sixth Emperor of
TAO KWANG.
TAPESTRY.
483
the present Manchu dynasty of China. He came
to the throne in 1820. The first years of his
reign were comparatively tranquil, but disturb-
ances and insurrections soon occurred in Turkes-
tan, in Hainan, in Formosa, and in Kwang-tung.
In 1834 the privileges of the British East India
Company were abolished, and the misunderstand-
ings which then arose, combined with the
high-handed proceedings of Commissioner Lin,
led in 1839-40 to war with Great Britain, the
defeat of the Chinese, and the negotiation of the
Treaty of Nanking in 1842, This treaty provided
for the opening of Shanghai, Ningpo, Foochow,
and Amoy besides Canton to foreign residence and
trade, the cession of Hong Kong to Great Brit-
ain, and the payment of an indemnity of 21,000,-
000 taels, equal at that time to about $35,000,000.
This large payment in addition to the costs of
the war, coming on an impoverished treasury,
created much discontent among the people, the
secret societies became active, and swarms of
pirates harassed the Government. Tao Kwang
died in 1850, and was succeeded by his fourth
son, who reigned as Hien Fung (q.v.) .
TAORMINA, tam-me/na (Lat. Tauromeni-
um). A town in the Province of Messina,
Sicily, 30 miles by rail southwest of the city of
Messina (Map: Italy, K 10). It is majestically
situated on a rocky terrace 390 feet above the
Ionian Sea, but is overhung by the ruins of
the castle (1300 feet above the sea), and again
to the northwest by Mola (2080 feet) and by
Mount Venere (2834 feet). The theatre, founded
by the Greeks, rebuilt by the Romans, and
wrecked by the Saracens, was partially restored
in 1748, and is of great interest. The an-
cient city was named after Mount Toro (an-
cient Taurus), on whose slope it lay, and was
founded by the Siculi in B.C. 396, after the de-
struction of Naxos, near by, which was the oldest
Greek colony in Sicily, having been founded in
B.C. 735, Under the Roman Empire it was a city
of importance. On account of its strong position,
it was long able to keep out the Saracens, who
finally captured it in A.D. 902, killed the people
and burned the buildings. Being resettled, it
was, in 962, again captured by the Saracens, from
whom it was taken in 1078 by the Normans.
Consult: Squillaci, Taormina attraversi i secoli
(Catania, 1892). Population (commune), in
1881, 3128; in 1901, 4351.
TAO-TAI, or TAU-TAI, tou'ti'. A Chinese
oflicial who has the general supervision and con-
trol of the affairs, both civil and military, of a
tao or ‘circuit,’ and usually styled by foreigners
the ‘Intendant of Circuit’——a circuit consisting of
two or more fu or departments. A foreign com-
missioner of customs ranks with the tao-tai, and
all foreign consuls have the rank of tao-tai.
TAPAJ OS, ta-pii-zho."/. A south tributary of
‘the Amazon, flowing entirely within Brazil
(Map: Brazil, F 4). It rises in the western
part of the State of Matto Grosse, near the
Bolivian frontier, and flows north and northeast-
ward till it enters the Amazon at Santarem after
a course of about 1100 miles. Its sources are on
a low and flat divide which separates its
basin from those of the Paraguay and the
Guaporé. The upper course lies on the great
Brazilian frontier, from which it descends to the
forest plains of the Amazon in a series of falls
and rapids which completely obstruct navigation,
The last 200 miles only are navigable for large
vessels. Near its mouth it expands into a large
lake 70 miles long and 12 miles wide, but con-
tracts again just before entering the Amazon.
TAPE GRASS, EEL Guess, WILD CELERY.
Popular names for Vallisneria spiralis, an aquatic
grass-like plant which grows in slow waters,
being common from New England to Minnesota
and south to Florida and Texas.
TAPESTRY (ME, ta-pecery, tapecerye, from
OF. tapisserie, tapestry, from tapisser, to furnish '
with hangings, from tapis, tapestry, carpet, from
ML. tapetium, from Gk. T(l7l"7']Tl0'V, diminutive of
Tdrrns, tapés, figured cloth, tapestry). A decora-
tive textile fabric formed by a process inter-
mediate between embroidery and true weaving.
It differs from embroidery in that the design is
not applied to an existing fabric, but, by being
woven in and out of warp threads, forms a part
of the fabric. It differs from ordinary weaving
in that the filling thread, instead of being shot
back and -forth continuously with a shuttle
through a shed formed by the heddles (see
WEAVING), is worked in and out a few stitches
at a time with a thread held in the hand.
Tapestry weaving is the simplest and appears to
have been the earliest form of weaving. The
Saracens introduced it into Europe and for a
long time the fabric was called Sarraeinos.
Toward the end of the twelfth century tapes-
try weaving was begun in Flanders and Artois,
and here it was continued for many centuries.
The productions of Arras, in particular, became
so famous, both for quality and numbers, that
the name of the town was given to the fabric.
Tapestries were, during the Middle Ages, pro-
duced chiefiy for State and ecclesiastical pur-
poses and for the decoration of royal palaces.
They were used as curtains, wall-coverings, and
less frequently as coverings for tables, beds, and
floors. The scenes portrayed on them were usu-
ally based on Scriptural stories or historical
events. The famous Bayeua: tapestry (q.v.),
which, by the way, is not true tapestry at all,
but embroidery, was contemporaneously executed
to record the events connected with the conquest
of England by William of Normandy. ‘
The Saracenic tapestries were ornamented
with flowers and geometric figures only, but the
Flemish people sought to enrich them with his-
toric subjects. So important did this art become
that the most eminent masters in painting, from
Raphael downward, bestowed some of their great-
est efforts upon cartoons to serve as copies for
the tapestry-workers. After its introduction into
France by Henry IV. at the beginning of the
seventeenth century, the art of making tapestry
does not appear to have made much progress
until the middle of that century, when a small
establishment founded by the brothers Canaye
on the premises formerly occupied by Jean Gobe-
lin, a Parisian dyer of wool, was commenced. It
was afterwards carried on by a Dutchman named
Gluck and his assistants with such success that
it was suggested by Colbert, the minister of
Louis XIV., that it should be taken under the
King’s patronage; in consequence of which the
establishment was bought, and constituted a
royal manufactory in 1667, under the manage-
ment of M. Lebrun, who was the first director.
A royal carpet manufactory had been previously
TAPESTRY.
TAPEWORM.
484
established in 1615; this was called La Savonne-
rie, from the previous use of the buildings for
the manufacture of soap. The Savonnerie and
the Gobelin factories were both carried on with
great spirit by successive sovereigns. They were
formed into one establishment in 1826, when
the works of the Savonnerie were removed to
the Gobelins. During the seventeenth century
two other royal factories were established, one
at Beauvais and one at Aubusson, and these
factories are still maintained by the State. In
1619, during the reign of James I., tapestry
looms were set up at Mortlake, England, and
during the following reign were under the direc-
tion of the painter Francis Crane. Charles I.
introduced skilled weavers from Belgium. This
factory was closed in 1703. In 1872 another
royal factory was established in England, this
time at Windsor, but it was closed in 1888.
Two kinds of looms are used in making tapes-
try: The high-warp vertical looms (haute
Zisse) and the low-warp horizontal looms (basse
lisse). The former is the kind upon which the
finest tapestries are woven and is used exclu-
sively in the Gobelins. In the high-warp loom two
uprights of wood or iron support two movable
cylinders (ensouples), one at each end, on which
the warp threads are stretched at will. The
weaver works at the back of the loom, where
the design is sketched on the warp threads. He
places the cartoon behind him, using it to get
the design and to match his colors. Occasionally
he steps around to the front to get the effect on
the right side. The threads are woven in and
out like basketwork, a little patch of color at a
time, the different colors being wound on dif-
ferent spindles. Each distance must be traversed
twice, as only alternate threads are cov-
ered on the right side. Thus tapestry is a
double cloth. VVhen the thread has been woven
only one way it is called a half-pass; when it is
turned and woven back the other way, completing
the covering of the warp, it is called a woof.
When the weaver has finished using a given color
he does not break the thread, but leaves the
spindle hanging at the back till he shall require
the same color again. It will readily be seen
that in the vertical lines of a design, in weaving
the colors, open slits will be left which must be
afterwards sewed together. For this reason
many of the Oriental tapestries have no lines
running in the direction of the warp, but only'
zigzags. On the low-warp looms the threads are
moved by heddles, connected with treadles, leav-
ing both hands free for the work. Hence the
work can be done more rapidly; but it is not as
satisfactory, since the workman can see it but
imperfectly till it is completed.
Most tapestries are made of wool on cotton
warp. Silk and gold and silver threads are also
used to heighten the effect. The dyeing of the
multitudes of tints required in this work is in
itself an art requiring no little skill. Consult:
Muntz, Short History of Tapestry, trans. by
Davis (London, 1885); also Cole, Tapestry and
Embroidery (ib. 1888).
TAPEWORM. Any w'orm of the group
Cestoda, but popularly used for the Tseniidse or
the Bothriocephalidse. Nearly 200 species of ces-
toid worms have been described, of which the
majority fall into one of the two families just
named. (See CESTODA.) These worms have no
intestine, and are without cilia, but have testes
and ovaries in each segment, together with fre-
quent yolk-glands. They belong to the order
Polyzoa or segmented individuals. They are all




TAPEWOBM8.
1, Taania saginata; 2, segment of teenia solium (showing
generative organs): 11, uterus; t, testes; 0, ovary; d.p.0.,
detached portions of ovary; y.g., yolk gland; s.g., shell
gland; 1'.sen1., receptaculurn seminis; v.d., vas deferens;
gap. genital papilla; c]0., cloaca; c.p., cirrhus pouch; 3,
lidded ova of Bothriocephalus latus.
endoparasitcs, and secure nutrition from the di-
gestive tract of the host in which they live, ab-
sorbing digested food through their body walls.
TPENIA. A taania consists of a scolex, or head,
and detachable segments, or proglottids. Within
the scolex is the brain; on the outer surface of
the scolex are four sucking disks as well as a
ring of hooks. Fixation is secured through the
suckers and hooks. In each proglottid is an
albumin gland; and a uterus and a vas deferens
end in openings on the side of the proglottid.
New proglottids grow behind the head, by di-

TAPE WORMS.
a, head of Tzeniagsolizzm; b. apical surface and circle of
hooks of Taenia solzum; c, hooks of Tzenia soIium—larger,
antenor; smaller, posterior.
vision of its posterior part. The farther from
the head, the larger is the proglottid. The distal
proglottids separate from time to time and are
excreted with the feeces of the host. But the head
must be removed to secure freedom from the
parasite. ‘
TAPEWORM.
TAPEWORM.
485
The embryonic stages of tapeworm are hydatids
(measles, -cysticerci) or cysticercoidi. When a
TC87'l'i(b ovium with mature embryo is swallowed
and reaches the human intestine, it migrates
through the blood vessels or lymphatics into the
tissues and develops .into a hydatid. In man or
pig the embryo of Tcenia solium becomes a measle
(see CYSTICERCUS) ; while the embryo of Tcenia
sag-inata becomes, similarly, a measle in the cow.


BLADDER worms or PIG.
a, Taenia solium (evaginated head) 1), Ta-nia solium (in-
vaginated head) 0, Cysticercus cellulosaa (head formation
completed).
If a cysticercus be ingested by a man, it de-
velops in his intestine into a complete taenia. In
the human digestive tract a Cg/sticercus celluloscc,
or bladder worm, obtained from measly pork, be-'
comes a Tamia solimn in six to ten weeks. The
Tccnia canina develops in man from a cysticercoid
of the cutaneous parasites of the dog. Tcenia
solium was so named by Linnaeus because it is
generally found alone: but in many instances
two or three are found together, and in rare in-
stances as many as 30 or 40 have been expelled
from one patient. The full grown taenia or
strobila is from 10 to 35 feet in length, and may
consist of from 800 to 1000 proglottids. The sex-
ually mature proglottids begin at about the
four hundred and fiftieth segment. The breadth
of the worm is about one-third of an inch at the
widest. The head is very small and globular, or
pear-shaped, is about the size of a small pinhead,
and is dark with pigment. The crown of hooks
numbers about 22 to 28 in, each double row. The
neck is very narrow and about one-half of an
inch in length, and merges into the Wider, seg-
mented part. The impregnated eggs, when dis-
charged into the intestine, do not mature there.
They require the second host; such as, for ex-
ample, the pig, who eats the expelled proglottids
or the ova. The exception to this general rule is
met when a cysticercus is found together with a
tapeworm in a human digestive tract. This is,
necessarily, a source of grave danger: for the
cysticercus may traverse the body as it does in
the hog, and cause threatening or fatal condi-
tions. Hence the imperative necessity of securing
the expulsion of the entozoa as soon as their
presence is known. When fully mature, the
measle resembles a pea or a small kidney bean,
being about one-third of an inch in diameter.
Its great vesicular portion consists of a caudal
extremity, inflated like a bladder, while the head,
neck, and body may be drawn out in vermiform
stvle.
The great source of tapeworm is measly pork,
eaten uncooked, or but partly cooked. The pre-
ventive is to have pork, ham, bacon, and sau-
sage always very thoroughly cooked. It is
also possible to ingest the embryo of the tape-
worm with lettuce or other uncooked green food
which has grown where a filthy stream flows over
it, or which has been watered with liquid manure.
Very scrupulous Washing will prevent danger in
these vegetables.
Taenia saginata (or mediocanellata) has no
circle of hooklets and is about 25 feet in length.
In its case, cattle instead of hogs constitute the
intermediary hosts. It is transmitted through
imperfectly cooked veal or beef. Twnia echino-
coccus is, in its larval condition, probably more
fatally injurious to the human race than all the
other species of entozoa put together. In its
mature (strobila) condition, in which it is found
only in the dog and wolf, it seldom exceeds the
fourth of an inch in length, and develops only
four segments, including that of the head. The
final segment, when sexually mature, equals in
length the three anterior ones, and contains as
many as 5000 eggs. The proscolex or embryo
forms large proliferous vesicles, in which the
scolices or larvae (known also as acephalocysts,
echinococci, echinococcus heads or vesicles, pill-
box hydatids, etc.) are developed by gemmation
internally. The eggs develop in their interior a
six-hooked embryo, and these embryos are intro-
duced into our bodies with food or water into
which the eggs have been carried. It finds its
way into the liver, and later is carried by the
blood current to other organs, including the
lungs, the kidneys, the brain, and the bones. It
grows slowly, many months elapsing after the
ingestion of tapeworm eggs or embryos before the
echinococci appear.
In some countries in Europe hydatids are very
prevalent. It is reported that the disease is
endemic in Iceland to such an extent that one-
sixth of the population suffer from it. The
cause may be found in the great number of dogs
harbored by the Icelanders. Tcenia saginata is
increasingly frequent in France, England, Italy,
and Germany, as well as in Abyssinia, Senegam-
bia, Algeria, and the Cape Colonies, Syria, Si-
bcria, the East Indies, and the Punjab. It is
claimed by investigators that it (and not Tcenia
solium) is the common tapeworm in North
America, as well as in Brazil, Peru, and the
Argentine Republic.
The presence of a tapeworm in the intestines
may be suspected only from the occurrence of
pieces of the entozotin in the dejecta, resembling
flat segments of macaroni. But in most cases it
gives rise to a series of anomalous symptoms,
including vertigo, noises in the ears, impairment
of sight, itching of the nose and anus, salivation,
dyspepsia, and loss of appetite, colic, pains over
the epigastrium and in different parts of the
abdomen, palpitation, syncope, the sensation of
weight in the abdomen, pains and lassitude in
the limbs, and emaciation. In the treatment of
tzenia, prophylaxis is important. All meat must
be so thoroughly cooked that the centre of each
piece is subjected to great heat. Beef is the prin-
cipal host of the entozotin. Rare beef must
therefore be avoided. The medicinal treatment
consists in causing the patient to fast for twen-
ty-four hours and then administering the
oleoresin of Filia: mas (male fern), which must
be followed by a brisk calomel purge. Santonin
is also a reliable anthelmintic. The head must
be sought in the excrement of the patient and
medication must be repeated till the head is
evacuated.
Tapeworms, although rare among horses and
cattle, are common in dogs and sheep. causing
irritability of the bowels, and an unthrifty ap-
TAPEWORM.
TAPPAN.
486
pearance. For dogs no remedy answers so well
as powdered areca nut, of which 30 grains suifice
for a dog weighing about 20 pounds. It is best
given after ten or twelve hours’ fasting, in a
little soup or milk, and should be followed in a
few hours by a dose of castor oil. Neither areca
nor any of the approved remedies used in men
prove effectual in sheep; and one of the best pre-
scriptions for them consists of 40 drops of oil of
turpentine, a dram of powdered green vitriol, and
an ounce of common salt, given mixed in a little
milk or gruel, or, where their bowels are confined,
in linseed oil. A daily allowance of linseed cake
and sound dry food should likewise be given with
the grass or roots, and pieces of rock salt left
within the animal’s reach.
Among other varieties of tacniae are Tceuia
cucumeriua, which infests the dog and cat, and
whose cysticercus is harbored by the flea; Tcenia
uana, which is the smallest tapeworm found in
man, and which is frequent in Egypt and Sicily;
and Tcenia diminuta, first seen in Italy, rarely
found in man. The last named infests rats and
mice, and its cysticercus inhabits caterpillars
and certain of the Coleoptera. The largest tape-
worm, rare in America, but common in Central
and Eastern Europe, is Bothriocephalus latus. It
is sometimes 25 feet long, nearly an inch broad
and with 4000 'oints.
Consult: Co bold, Entosoa (London, 1864),
and Parasites (London, 187 9) ; Braun, Die
thierischen Parasiten des M euscheu (Wiirzburg,
1903).
TAIPIOCA. See CASSAVA.
TAPIR (Sp. tapiro, from Tupi Brazilian
tapyra, tapir). A tropical ungulate mammal of
the family Tapiridae, allied to the horses and
rhinoceroses. It has a bulky form, with mod-
erately long legs; the front feet four-toed, the
hind feet three-toed; the skin thick, the hair
short; the tail very small; the neck thick; the
ears short; the eyes small; the muzzle elongated;
the nose prolonged into a short, flexible pro-
boscis; 6 incisors, 2 canine teeth, and 14 molars
in each jaw. The family includes only five liv-
ing species, with a very peculiar geographical
distribution, as two species are found in South
America, two in Central America. and one in the


DENTITION OF A TAPIR.
Malayan region. The best known is the ‘American’
tapir (Tapirus Americanus or terrestris), which
is about the size of a donkey, and is common
throughout the wooded parts of South America,
east of the Andes. Its color is uniform deep
brown, but the young (as is the case with the
other species) are beautifully marked with yel-
lowish fawn-colored stripes and spots. The skin
of the neck forms a thick rounded crest on the
nape, with a short mane of stiff hair. The tapir
inhabits deep recesses of the forest, and delights
in plunging and swimming in water. It feeds
chiefly on young shoots of trees, fruits, and other
vegetable substances, and sometimes commits
great ravages in cultivated grounds. It is in-
offensive, never attacking man; but when hard
pressed by dogs, shows great cunning, and if
brought to bay, makes a violent resistance, and
inflicts severe bites. It is very easily tamed, and
becomes extremely familiar. Its hide is useful,
and its flesh is eaten.
The hairy tapir (Tapirus Roulini) occurs only
on high levels on the Andes, up to 7000 or 8000
feet. The skin is uniformly covered with hairs
an inch long. There are white marks on the
head and the sides are bluish hazel instead of
brown. The ‘hog’ tapirs of Central America
(Tapirus Bairdi and Tapirus Dowi) are smaller
than the other species, and differ from them in
having the nasal septum ossified. They are
brownish black above, dirty white on the throat
and chest, and more or less rufous on the head.
The Malayan tapir ( Tapirus I ndicus) is found
in the Mala Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, and
other large is ands. It is larger than the Ameri-
can tapir, and its proboscis is rather longer in
proportion. The neck has no mane. The color is
glossy black, except the back, rump, and sides of
the belly, which are white. The colors do not
pass gradually one into the other, but the line of
separation is marked, giving the animal a very
peculiar appearance. The habits of this species
are not well known, but seem to be similar to
those of the American tapir, and it is equally
capable of domestication. The young are striped
and spotted as in that species.
Fossil tapir-like forms are known from the
Eocene onward, and most of them have been
placed in the family Lophiodontidae; but many
species are hardly separable from the modern
family Tapiridae.
Consult: Beddard, M ammalia (London, 1902) ;
Blanford, Fauna of British India; Mammals
(ib., 1875) ; Alston, “Mammals,” in Biologia
Ceutrali-Americana (ib., 1879-82); Ridley, arti-
cle in Natural Science, vol. vi. (ib., 1895) ; and
general works. See Plate of TAPIBS AND HIPPO-
POTAIMUS.
TAP’LEY, MARK. The faithful servant of
Martin Chuzzlewit, in Dickens’s novel of that
name. He accompanies his master to Amer-
ica, nurses him in his illness, and makes him-
self everywhere loved for his high spirits and
joviality under the most adverse circumstances.
TAPTAN, ARTHUR (1786-1865). An Ameri-
can merchant, philanthropist, and reformer, the
brother of Benjamin and Lewis Tappan, born at
Northampton, Mass. He entered business in
Portland, Maine, removed to Montreal, Canada,
and after the War of 1812 established himself
in the importing business in New York City.
In 1827 he associated with himself his brother
Lewis in the publication of the Journal of
Commerce. He was largely interested in various
religious, educational, and philanthropic institu-
tions. It is as an Abolitionist, however, that he
will be longest remembered. He became inter-
ested in the American Colonization Society at its
organization, but having become convinced that
the society was being used by the pro-slavery
party to rid the country of free negroes, in order
to establish slavery more firmly, he withdrew
from it. In 1830 he paid a fine which se-
cured the liberation of William Lloyd Garrison
TAPIRS AND HIPPOPOTAMUS

1. AMERICAN TAP|R (Tapirus Americanus). 2. MALAYAN_TAPIR (Taplrus lndicus).
3. HlPPOPOTAMUS ‘Hippopotamus amphlblusl.
TAPPAN.
TAR.
487
from imprisonment in Baltimore, and the ac-
quaintance which followed led to Tappan’s iden-
tifying himself completely with the Abolition
cause. In 1833 he was one of the organizers of
the New York Anti-Slavery Society and of the
American Anti-Slavery Society, of both of which
organizations he became the first president. In
1840 he became president of the New American
and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, which was or-
ganized by those anti-slavery men who disagreed
with the Garrison party, and believed in carrying
the slavery question into politics and forming a
political party for that purpose. He was there-
fore much interested in the Liberty, Free-Soil,
and Republican parties. He spent the latter
years of his life in retirement in New Haven.
Consult Lewis Tappan, The Life of Arthur Tap-
pan (1871).
TAPPAN, LEWIS (1788-1873). An American
merchant and reformer, brother of Arthur and
Benjamin Tappan, born in Northampton, Mass.
He became largely interested in cotton manu-
facturing and calico-print works in Boston, but
in 1827 he removed to New York City. Thereafter
his career was closely identified with that of his
brother Arthur. In 1827 they established to-
gether the Journal of Commerce, of which Lewis
Tappan became the sole proprietor in 1829. In
1833 he was one of the organizers of the New
York (City) Anti-Slavery Society. In July, 1834,
his house was sacked by an anti-slavery mob. The
firm of Tappan & Co. failed for upward of a
million dollars in the financial crisis of 1837,
and although they afterwards paid their in-
debtedness, Lewis Tappan retired from the firm
and in 1841 established ‘Tappan’s Mercantile
Agency,’ one -of the earliest and best known or-
ganizations of this kind in the country. With his
brother he was one of the organizers of the Ameri-
can and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, and wrote
and spoke in favor of a more rational and con-
servative attitude on the part of the reformers.
He published A Life of Arthur Tappan (1871).
TAPPAN BAY, or TAPPAN ZEE. An expan-
sion of the Hudson River, in New York, lying
immediately north of Irvington. It is about 11
miles long, and over 3 miles wide at the widest
point. .
TAP’PE1\T, FREDERICK D. (1829-1902). An
American financier, born in New York City. He
graduated at New York University in 1849, and
in 1850 became a clerk of the National Bank of
New York, of which in 1868 he was chosen presi-
dent and director. During the great loans in
1873 and 1874 he was chairman of the loan com-
mittee. In 1896 he induced the New York banks
to loan $20,000,000 in gold to the United States.
In May, 1901, he formed a pool of $20,000,000 for
loans and broke the 60 per cent. and 75 per cent.
rate for call money. Again in the last week of
June his efforts to preserve the credit of a totter-
ing clearing-house bank succeeded in calming the
market although the bank, as he had predicted,
failed.
TAPPERT, WILHELM (183C—). A German
writer on music, born at Ober-Thomaswaldau,
near Bunzlau, Silesia. After teaching for sev-
eral years, he studied music (1856-58) under
Kullak and Dehn in Berlin, where he settled per-
manently in 1866, and became professor of the
history of music at the new academy. His name
is favorably known in the musical world through
numerous contributions .to periodicals and the
following publications: Musile und TH/LlSi/&Gl’lSChG
Erziehung (1867) ; M usihalische Studien (1868) ;
Das Verbot der Quintenparallelen (1869) ; Wag-
ner-Leacilcon (1877) ; Richard Wagner,‘se-in Leben
und seine Werhe (1883) ; and Wanderude Melo-
dien (1890).
TAP’PERTIT, SIMON. A locksmith’s ap-
prentice in Dickens’s Barnaby Rudge. He is in
the employ of old Varden and is very much in
love with Dolly, his master’s coquettish daughter,
whom, owing to his position as captain in the
Gordon Riots, he is able temporarily to kidnap.
TAPTI, ttip’té. A river of the Bombay
Province, British India (Map: India, B 4). It
rises in the mountains of the western part
of the Central Provinces, and flows westward,
emptying into the Gulf of Cambay, 160 miles
north of Bombay, after a course of about 450
miles. The greater part of its course is followed
by a railroad, but the river is unnavigable above
Surat, a few miles from its mouth.
TAPUYA, ta-p6Fo"ya (alien). A collective
designation for a group of tribes holding an ex-
tensive area in Eastern Brazil, constituting a dis-
tinct stock, and apparently more ancient in oc-
cupancy than any of the surrounding tribes.
Their general territory extends from latitude 5°
to 20° S., and from the Atlantic coast inland to
the Xingu River. They are sometimes also
known as Oren or Gueren, the ‘Ancient People.’
The Tucano (q.v.) and several other tribes upon
the Uaupes and Yapura, on the Brazil-Colombia
border are also thought to be of the same con-
nection. The Tapuya tribes, among which the
Botocudo (q.v.) are the most noted and typical,
have every characteristic of an ancient primitive
race. They are believed to have been the authors
of the numerous shell mounds along the adjacent
Atlantic coast, and it is even held that skulls and
other human bones found in caves within their
territory, in connection with bones of animals
now extinct, are of the peculiar type belonging
to this people. In physique the Tapuya are of
middle stature, with long arms and short legs,
broad faces, small deep-set eyes, retreating fore-
heads, and projecting lower jaws. Their fea-
tures are frequently disfigured by huge labrets
in the lower lip. Their culture is of the lowest.
In their native forests they go absolutely naked
and have no other dwellings than temporary
shelters of brushwood. They make no pottery,
build no canoes, have no dogs, and apparently
have no tribal organization. Before interfered
with by the Brazilian Government, they were can-
nibals. On the other hand, they are skillful hunt-
ers with the bow and arrow, make polished stone
axes, and weave baskets of rushes. The men have
but one wife at a time. They are much in fear
of ghosts wandering iii the night, and are fond
of dances to the accompaniment of a flute which
is played with the nose. Their language, of
which specimens have been published by Ehren-
reich, is difficult in its phonetics, with a marked
tendency to simple word forms rather than agglu-
tination. The Indians of Tupi descent about
Para and on the Lower Amazon are incorrectly
called Tapuya.
TAR (AS. tearo, tearu, teru, tyrwa, Icel.
tjara, Dutch teer, Ger. Teer, Hessian Ger. Zehr,
TAR.
TARANTISM.
488
tar; connected with Lett. darwa, tar, Lith. darwal,
resinous wood, especially that of the fir-tree, and
ultimately with Eng. tree). A term applied to
the oily, dark-colored products obtained in the
destructive distillation of peat, wood, coal, bones,
and other materials of organic origin. Bone-tar
is described under DIPPEL’S ANIMAL OIL (q.v.).
Coal-tar is likewise described in a special article.
(See COAL-TAR.) Wood-tar is commonly made
from the resinous roots and wood of various
pines. The wood is heaped into a conical stack
depressed at the centre, covered with earth, and
fired. The tar runs to the centre. This distilla-
tion may be more economically conducted in re-
torts. Wood-tar is largely used for Water-proof
ing, preservative, and antiseptic purposes. In
doses of one or two grains it is considered a good
remedy in diseases of the mucous membrane of
the respiratory passages. See ACETIC ACID; ACE-
TONE; METHYL ALooIIoL, etc.
TARA, tti’r2i. A hill in County Meath, Ire-
land, about six miles east of Trim and
nearly the same distance southeast of Navan.
It is noted as the site of the palace of the
ancient kings of Ireland from the prehistoric
Firbolgs (q.v.) down to the middle of the sixth
century. It was here that Saint Patrick began
his great apostolate by preaching to King Lao-
ghaire or Leary in 432. The site was finally
abandoned in 565 on account of a curse pro-
nounced against the reigning King by Saint
Ruadhan. The lines of the ancient palace may
still be traced in the mounds and earthworks
which crown the summit of the hill. Although
the ‘harp of Tara’ has been thus silent through
so many centuries, the place remains a focus and
rallying point for Irish national aspiration.
Here O’Connell, the liberator, held the greatest
of his monster meetings during the Repeal agi-
tation, and here also some forty years later
Parnell erected the monument, which now stands
out prominently above the landscape, to the
memory of the Croppy insurgents who fell in an
engagement near by during the rebellion of
1798.
TARA (Polynesian name), or TARO (Colo-
casia antiquorum, var. esoulenta.) . A plant of
the natural order Aracea-2', cultivated for its

TARA (Colocasia antiquorum).
roots, which are a leading article of food in the
South Sea Islands. The roots, which are from
12 to 16 inches in length, are washed to re-
move their acidity, and cooked like breadfruit,
the rind being first scraped off. See C0000.
TARABLUS, ta-r5i’bo“o-lws. A town of Syria.
See TBIPOLL
TARAFA, tii-rii’f£1 (Ar. Tarafa 'Amr tbn al-
Abd al-Balcrt) (c.560) . An early Arabian poet.
He lived at the Court of the King of Him in
Northeastern Arabia. In consequence of his
satires on royalty, the King had him put to
death. He ranks as one of the six great pre-
Islamic poets of Arabia, and is the author of one
of the seven .11 u‘a-llakat, or prize poems, of that
period, which remain the classic models of
Arabic poetry. The Arabic text is in Ahlwardt,
Diva/ns of the Sta: Ancient Arab/ic Poets (Lon-
don, 1870); there are translations by Riickert,
in Sieben Bttcher der morgcnlandischen Sagen
und Gesohichten (Stuttgart, 1837), and by Van-
dcnhoff, Nonnulla Tarafae ca-rm/ina (Berlin,
1895).
TARA FERN (Pteris (lq“zt'il'ina, var. esculen-
ta. A species of brake (q.v.), the rhizome of
which was one of the principal articles of food
in New Zealand before the settlement of the
islands. The root is cut in pieces about 9 inches
lo11g, placed in stacks, and carefully protected
from rain.
This fern is also distributed in Australia,
Japan, and the Hawaiian Islands. In Japan the
cut rhizomes are macerated to remove the starch.
TARAI, ta-ri', or TEBAI. A low, moist, and
unhealthful region stretching along the south-
ern base of the Himalayas nearly throughout
their length, from Assam in the east to the Pun-
jab in the northwest. In spite of its unhealthful
nature, it is densely populated by tribes who
seem to be immune from malarial diseases.
TARANTELLA, tii’ri1n-tel’la (It., taran-
tula). An Italian dance, written in g time,
contantly increasing in speed, and alternating
between the major and minor modes. It is ac-
companied by castanets and a tambourine. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages the dancing of the tarentella
was thought to be a cure for a form of insanity
which was induced by the bite of _the largest of
European spiders, the Lg/cosa tarantula. From
the fifteenth to the seventeenth century a pecu-
liar nervous disease, called tarantism, existed in
Italy, whose only effective cure was the music
of the tarantella. Of the many songs used for
this purpose but few exist. Specimens are given
in Jones’s Maltese Melodies (London, 1805);
Smith’s Musica Antigua (London, 1812); and
Mendel’s Lexicon (Berlin, 1870-83). The taran-
tellas written by 1nodern composers bear little
resemblance to their prototypes in either form
or rhythm. They are written in g or Q. time,
and, owing to their great rapidity, have become
favorites for brilliant solo pieces. See DANCING
MANIA.
TAR-ANTISM. A dancing or leaping mania
supposed to be due to the bite of a spider, the
tarantula (q_v.), and especially prevalent at
Taranto, in Apulia, Italy. The disease was
essentially a form of contagious emotional
or hysterical excitation. The gesticulatmns,
contortions, and cries somewhat resembled
those observed in Saint Vitus’s dance and other
TARANTISM.
TARAPACA.
489
epidemic nervous diseases of the Middle Ages.
The victims were supposed to have a passion
for bright colors, music, and the dance, and a
class of tunes called turantclla were composed
for the cure of the disease. To these the patient
danced until he was exhausted, and although the
sufl'erers were subjected to other and extraor-
dinary methods of treatment such as burial up
to the neck in earth, none was so successful as
the tarantella (q.v.). Not only dancing but
catalepsy was one of the symptoms, and the
disease appears to have affected all classes, ages,
and both sexes. The disease spread over Italy
and Southern Europe, and affected large numbers
of people.
TARANTO, ta-riin’tt> (Lat. Tarentum, from
Gk. T4/>a§, Taras). A town of South Italy, in
the Province of Lecce, at the northern end
of the Gulf of Taranto. It is situated on a rocky
islet, formerly an isthmus, between the Mare
Piccolo (Little Sea), an extensive harbor on the
east or landward side of the town, and the Mare
Grande (Great Sea), or open gulf, on the west.
The harbor is one of the finest in Italy,
and can be entered safely by the largest vessels.
The principal buildings are a cathedral, dedi-
cated to Saint Cataldo; a fine episcopal palace;
a castle and fortifications, erected by Charles V.;
and two hospitals. The streets are as narrow and
dark as those of an Oriental city. Taranto has
manufactures of velvets, linens, and cottons, and
carries on some commerce in wheat, oats, and
olive oil. The Mare Piccolo is famous for its
abundance of shell-fish, and a considerable por-
tion of the population derives its subsistence from
the oyster and mussel fisheries. Population,
about 40,000.
Ancient Tarentum was one of the most
splendid cities of Magna Graecia. It was
founded, according to very doubtful tradition,
about B.C. 707 by the Parthenians, a body of
Laconian youth. It rapidly grew in wealth and
power, extending its trade even to the Po, and
supplying much of Southern Italy with pottery.
It seems to have steadily reduced its Messapian
neighbors till B.C. 473, when a bloody defeat was
followed by the fall of the aristocratic govern-
ment and the establishment of a pure democracy.
About 13.0. 400 Tarentum appears as the lead-
ing Greek city in Italy. When in B.O.
281 the Tarentines came into collision with
Rome, they invited to Italy Pyrrhus (q.v.)
of Epirus. After his departure, his gen-
eral, Milo, surrendered the town to the Romans,
B.C. 272, who treated it leniently. During the
Second Punic VVar it was captured by Hannibal,
with the exception of the Acropolis, and when in
13.0. 209 it was retaken by the Romans, it was
sacked and 30,000 of the inhabitants sold into
slavery, It continued to be inhabited and later
was the seat of a prosperous Roman colony.
Under the Empire it was quite overshadowed by
Brundusium, on the Adriatic, but rose again dur-
ing the Gothic wars, which left it in the hands of
the Byzantine Empire. It was captured in AD.
661 by the Lombards, and later passed into the
hands of the Saracens, who sacked it in 927. and
of the Greeks, from the latter of whom it was
wrested by Robert Guiseard, the Norman, in 1063.
Later it shared the fortunes of the Kingdom of
Naples. Few relics of the classic Tarentum are
extant, the chief being bits of an amphitheatre
and traces of a Doric temple, which from its form
must be one of the early monuments of that style.
TARANTULA (from It. tarantola, taran-
tella, from Taranto, Lat. Tarentum, Gk. Tcipag,
Taras, a city in Southern Italy, where the
spider is common). A famous species (Taran-
tula fasciventris) of European wolf-spiders
(Lycosidae), the bite of which was supposed to
be fatal or at least to be followed by very serious

THE TRUE TARANTULA.
As a matter of fact the bite of this
symptoms.
spider is not dangerous. The name tarantula is
generally applied in the United States and else-
where to certain of the large bird-spiders, or so-
called American tarantulas of the family Thera-
phosidae_ These are large, hairy spiders occur-
ring in the Southwestern United States, Central
America, and South America, which possess
large, hard polished fangs which move vertically
and are thus used to pin down their prey. They
feed upon insects and all sorts of small animals.
Aname Henteii is a large species of this group
which has the most northern distribution of any
of the so-called American tarantulas. It has a
bite which is quite painful but not dangerous,
and never fatal, so far as accurate records go.
These creatures are nocturnal, usually hiding
during the day in long silken tubes in cracks in
the ground or under thatched roofs or in similar
places. Some of the Central American species
are occasionally brought into the Northern States
in. bunches of bananas and on board vessels con-
taining tropical fruit.
TARANTULA KILLER. A large -and con-
spicuous wasp (Pepsis formosa) common in the
Southwestern United States and in Central
America, which preys especially on ‘tarantulas’
(q.v.). It is more than two inches long. The
head, thorax, abdomen, and long, spiny legs are
black, while the wings are bright reddish brown
with black spots at the tips. It stings the spider,
the result of the stinging being complete paraly-
sis, deposits an egg upon it, then buries it in a
hole five inches deep after the manner of other
mud-wasps (q.v.),
TARAPACA, t':i’ra-pa-ks’. A northern prov-
ince of Chile, bounded by Tacna on the north,
from which it is separated by the Camarones,
Antofagasta on the south with the Loa River as
the dividing line, Bolivia on the east, and the
Pacific on the west (Map: Peru, D 8). Its
area is 19,306 square miles. The coastland
is occupied by a mountain range rising to 6000
feet, and the eastern part belongs to the region
of the Bolivian Andes. The interior is an ele-
TARAPACA.
TARDE.
490
vated arid plain known as Pampa de Tamarugal.
The wealth of the province consists chiefly
in the immense deposits of- nitrate, which
are worked on a very extensive scale. Agri-
culture is carried on to some extent along
the rivers, and there are silver mines near the
capital, Iquique (q.v.). There is a railway line
connecting the capital with Pisagua, the chief
seaport, and the interior. Population, in 1885,
45,086 ; in 1895, 89,751, Tarapaca was taken
by Chile from Peru in 1880 and was formally
ceded in 1884.
TARARE, ta’rar’. A manufacturing town in
the Department of Rhone, France, at the foot of
Mont Tarare, 20 miles northwest of Lyons
(Map: France, L 6). In 1756 the manufacture
of muslins, for which it has since become famous,
was introduced from Switzerland. The chief
products of its mills are muslins, tarletans, silks,
silk plush, and velvets. Population, in 1901,
12,334.
TARASCO, ta-ras’ko. An ancient nation of
Michoacan, Mexico, constituting a distinct lin-
guistic stock. According to their traditions they
migrated from the north about the same
time as the Aztec tribes (see NAHUATLAN
STOCK), and about the year 1200 established
their kingdom in Michoacan, maintaining their
independence against the Aztec, whom they ex-
celled in many culture characteristics. Their
principal buildings, especially in their capital
city of Tzintzuntzan, were of cut stone laid in
mortar. Many of the ruins are still unexplored.
Their calendar was nearly the same as that of
the Aztec, and they had also a pictograph sys-
tem. Their principal god was Curicaberis, the
sun. The dead were cremated and both
their funerals and their religious ceremonials
were accompanied by human sacrifices. They
were famous for their beautiful and dura-
ble fabrics of woven feathers as well as of cot-
ton, and were skillful in the working of gold
and silver. They surpassed all other native
tribes in their defensive armor, which consisted
of helmet, cuirass, and limb protectors, all of
wood covered with plates of copper or gold.
In physique they were considered the tallest and
handsomest people of Mexico. They still con-
stitute the bulk of the population of central
Michoacan, and number about 200,000, and al-
though they have lost the art of feather weaving,
they maintain their reputation for the weaving
of beautiful rebosos and belts with figures of
birds and animals, and for their lacquer work.
The language is vocalic and euphonious. Despite
the fact that they offered no resistance to the
Spanish invasion of Mexico, their last King,
Tangaxoan, was tortured to death by Nufio de
Guzman. In 1810 they were the first to revolt
against the Spaniards, and thus, under Hidalgo,
began the Mexican War for Independence.
TARASCON, ta’ra'skoN’. A town in the De-
partment of Bouches-du-Rhone, France, 13 miles
southwest of Avignon, on the Rhone River (Map:
France, L 8). It is connected with Beaucaire
on the opposite bank by a suspension bridge. The
twelfth-century Church of Saint Martha, a com-
posite of the Romanesque and Gothic, occupies
the site of an old Roman temple. It was rebuilt
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
It has a tenth-century crypt, and the tombs of
Saint Martha and Louis II. of Provence. Other
objects of interest include the old Gothic castle
completed in the fifteenth century, and the town
hall. The leading industries are silk-spinning
and the manufacture of hats. Population, in
1901, 8885. Tarascon is the ancient Tarasco.
(See TARASQUE.) Daudet received here the in-
spiration for his Tarta/rin de Tarascon.
TARASP, tér'rtisp’. A village of Switzerland,
in the Lower Engadine, Canton of Grisons, situ-
ated on the Inn, at an altitude of 3910 feet, 36
miles from Chur and 28 miles from Saint
Moritz. It is a health resort, frequented for its
mineral baths. Population, in 1900, 275.
TARASQUE, ta-rask’. A monster prominent
in the local folk-lore of Tarascon, France, said
to have been subdued by Saint Martha in early
Christian days. The myth was in existence at
least as early as the twelfth century, when the
cathedral was built in memory of the event. On
the fete ‘La Tarasque,’ an efligy of the beast
is carried in procession about the streets of
Tarascon and also at Beaucaire.
TARAXACUM. See DANDELION.
TAR/BELL, EDMUND C. ( 1862- ) . An Ameri-
can painter, born in West Groton, Mass. He
was a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre. Light
and air are what he seems to seek in his out-of-
doors work, and he achieves this, not only
through truth of color, but by a certain freeness
and fragility of touch which contribute much
to the sense of mobility and life in his landscapes
and figures. His color is pure, and at times full
of strength.
TARBELL, IDA MINERVA (l857—). An
American author, born in Erie County, Pa. She
graduated at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pa.,
and from 1883 until 1891 was associate editor
of The Ohautauquan. From 1891 until 1894 she
was in Paris, studying at the Sorbonne and at
the College de France. On her return she be-
came an associate editor of M cOlure’s Magazine.
Her publications include: Short Life of Napoleon
Bonaparte (1895) ; Life of Madame Roland
(1896); Early Life of Abraham Lincoln (in
collaboration with J. McDavis, 1896); Life of
Abraham Lincoln (1900); and History of the
Standard Oil Company (1903),
TARBES, tiirb. The capital of the Depart-
ment of Hautes-Pyrenées, France, on the left
bank of the Adour, 32 miles by rail northeast of
Pan (Map: France, G 8). The cathedral, dating
from the twelfth century with a fine octagonal
lantern tower, and the prefecture, formerly the
episcopal palace, are the most noteworthy build-
ings. The town has also a library (22,000
volumes). It is well known for a breed of light
horses, and has manufactures of woolens, ma-
chinery, and cannon. The town became a bishop-
ric in 420 and in mediaeval times was the capi-
tal of the County of Bigorre. It was occupied
for forty years by the English during the four-
teenth century. Population, in 1901, 26,055.
TARDE, tiird, GABRIEL (l843——-). A French
sociologist and criminologist. Born at the little
town of Sarlat (Dordogne), he passed nearly
twenty years there as magistrate and juge
d’instruction. In 1880 he began to con-
tribute to the Revue Philosophique. and gradu-
ally won his way to reputation, which was as-
TARDE-.
TAB-ENTOLA.
491
sured after the publication of his Lois de l’imita-
tion in 1890. -He is now professor of modern
philosophy at the College de France in Paris.
In a large number of books and articles, Tarde
has elaborated a complete and original theory of
society. It is essentially a psychological theory.
In Tarde’s view, to study society is to study how
the minds of men act, and how they influence one
another. The essence of society, he holds, is that
one man should be so affected by another that the
two should be brought to greater similarity of
thought or action. Social life is a round of in-
vention and imitation; an ‘invention’ being a
new thought or act of any kind whatever, and
‘imitation’ any thought or act of copying or
making after a model. Imitation obeys certain
laws which Tarde makes it his business _to in-
vestigate. Thus it is usually the inferior who
copies the superior, the lower class the upper
class; it is generally true that a new idea has
prestige because of its novelty, though if it be
taken up as a permanent institution it will also
come to prestige through the tradition of age.
Circles of imitation spread from different inven-
tions as do the ripples around stones thrown on
a pond; the circles interfere, oppose, or com-
bine, in complicated ways which Tarde seeks to
analyze. The essentials of his theory were
presented in the Lois de Pimitation, and were
much elaborated five years later in his Logique
sociale, in which extensive illustrations were
given from the whole range of social development.
Along with his sociological theory, Tarde has
gradually developed a philosophical system, best
summarized in his Lois sociales (1898). His
psychological point of view is carried over into
his criminological work. La criminalité comparée
(1886) , his first book, emphasized the purely so-
cial influences upon crime, with much criticism of
the anthropological school of Lombroso. La phi-
losophic pénale (1890) is a more systematic
presentation of his ideas. Tarde’s other works
include: Etudes pénales et sociales (1892) ; Les
transformations du droit (1893) ; Essais et me-
langes sociologiques (1895); L’op/position uni-
verselle (1897); Etudes de psychologie sociale
(1898) ; Les transformations du pouvoir (1899) ;
L’opinion et la foule (1901); Psychologie eco-
nomique (1902); in English translation, Social
Laws (New York, 1898).
TARDIEU, t:'1r'clye’. A French family of en-
gravers. NICOLAS HENRI (1674-1749), born in
Paris, was a pupil of Lepautre and the Audrans.
He became Court engraver, and executed a por-
trait of the Due d’Antin (after Rigaud, 1720);
“Constantine Exhibiting the Cross” (1742) ; and
“The Battle Between Constantine and Maxentius”
(1745). His son and pupil, JACQUES NICOLAS
(c.1716-c.1791) , succeeded him as Court engraver,
and was also appointed engraver to the electoral
Court of Cologne.—JEAN CHARLES (called Co-
chin) (1765-1830), a son of the preceding, was an
historical painter, pupil of Regnault, took the
second Prix de Rome (1790), and was favored
by Napoleon. For the latter he painted “The
Queen of Prussia at Tilsit in 1807,” and two
other pictures (Versailles).-—-JEAN BAPTISTE
PIERRE (1746-1816), a grand-nephew of Nicolas
Henri, was the first to raise the art of geograph-
ical engraving to great perfection, and was ably
followed in its practice by his brothers PIERRE
ALEXANDER (1756-1844) and ANTOINE FRANCOIS
(1757-1822), as well as the latter’s son AMBROISE
(1788-1841), who was equally successful with
portraits and architectural subjects.
TAB-DIGRADA (Lat., slow-going). A group
of little animals of uncertain affinities, repre-
sented by the bear-animalcules. They are
minute, slowly moving, soft-skinned animals,
not more than a millimeter in length, and
are often referred to the class Arachnida,
as distantly related to the mites. The body
is short and thick, not divided into segments,
the head slightly separated from the trunk.
The mouth is provided with a sucking proboscis,
and is surrounded by papillae. The digestive
canal opens by a muscular pharynx into a narrow
oesophagus, which leads to a capacious stomach,
succeeded by a short intestine. There are two
eye-like spots, and the nervous system consists
of a brain succeeded by a ventral nerve-cord of
four ganglia. There are no heart, blood-vessels,
nor any respiratory organs; and the animals are
hermaphroditic. The segmentation of the egg
(which is very large) is complete and regular.
Tardigrades are not uncommon in bog-moss
(Sphagnum), or in fresh and salt water, and
are capable of revivifying after being apparently
dead and dried up, if placed in water.
TARE (of uncertain etymology; possibly con-
nected with ME. tare, brisk, eager). Various
leguminous plants, especially species of Vicia,
weak climbing plants, natives of the temperate
parts of the Northern Hemisphere. One of these,
the wild vetch (Vicia hirsuta), has very small
flowers and pods, pinnate leaves, and small leaf-
lets. It affords nourishing food for cattle. but the
quantity is so small that it is seldom cultivated
and is chiefly known as a weed. One species (Vicia

VETCH.
sativa) , with an upright branching habit, is cul-
tivated in some parts of Europe for its herbage,
which is thought to be rich enough to compensate
for its small quantity. The plant thrives well
in poor sandy soils, where it is valuable for green
manure. (See VETCH.) The tare of the New
Testament is supposed to be darnel.
TAREN"TOLA (It., Tarentine, from Taranto,
from Lat. Tarantum, from Gk. Tdpas, Taras. a
city of Southern Italy), or TARENTE. One of the
commonest geckos (q.v.), or lizards. of the Medi-
TARE-NTOLA.
TARGET.
492
terranean region (Tarentola M auritanica), gray-
ish brown with indefinite markings, and about six
inches long. It has been introduced by ships into
Southern France, and when it takes up its abode
inside a house becomes almost domesticated.
Some other geckos are also mistakenly called by
this name. An interesting account of their habits
may be found in Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles
(London, 1901).
TAREN’TUM. See TARANTO.
TARENTUM. A borough in Allegheny
County, Pa., 21 miles northeast of Pittsburg; on
the Allegheny River, and on the Pennsylvania
Railroad (Map: Pennsylvania, B 3). It is pri-
marily an industrial centre, being interested
largely in the manufacture of plate glass and
bottles. Other products include brick, lumber,
steel and iron novelties, steel billets and sheets,
sack and wrapping paper, etc. Coal is mined in
the vicinity. The government, under the charter
of 1842, is vested in a burgess, elected every three
years, and a council. The electric light plant
is owned and operated by the municipality.
Population, in 1890, 4627; in 1900, 5472.
TARGET and TARGET PRACTICE. By
target practice is meant the method by which
proficiency is attained in marksmanship. In
its military aspect, target practice is de-
signed to give a thorough individual train-
ing to every soldier in the fighting use of his
rifle. The prescribed course of instruction usual-
ly includes (a) preparatory instruction, embrac-
ing the construction, nomenclature, and mechan-
ism of the rifle, the theory of fire, principles of
aiming, pointing and aiming, judging or estimat-
ing distance, gallery practice, and blank car-
tridge firing; (b) range practice, in which the
distances are known, and accuracy and steadiness
of aim are developed; (c) demonstration firing;
(d) collective or volley firing at long range; and
(e) field or combat firing. Throughout Conti-
nental Europe generally, the school target con-
sists of a wooden frame covered with jute cloth
on which the paper targets are pasted. The cen-
tre band is white and the two outer vertical
bands light blue or gray. The bull’s-eye is in the
centre of the target and usually there is also
outlined an oval which represents the limit of
dispersion of correctly aimed shots, aiming at
200 and 300 paces at the lower part, and at 400
paces at the upper part.
Figure targets are frequently colored to show
details, otherwise they are plain light blue in
color. Figure and section targets are used as
fixed, moving, and disappearing targets. For
firing at long ranges large groups of targets are
used representing lines and columns in battle
form; cavalry, guns, caissons, etc., arranged as in
action being made to move or disappear so as to
show different phases of a battle.
Typical of European practice are the perma-
nent German Army ranges which have various
figures arranged as disappearing or moving tar-
gets, manipulated from covers not noticeable
from the front. A target representing a line of
infantry a hundred meters (330 feet) long may
be erected in ten minutes by eight men, while but
one man is necessary to work it. The figures are
so constructed as to be capable of standing erect
or lying on the ground at the will of the operator.
To represent the reéinforcement or thinning of a
line two or more of such lines of targets are
placed close to each other, the figures in the rear
showing through the intervals between those in
front.
Since the Boer War considerable ingenuity has
been exercised in devising a new system of in-
struction in musketry and field firing in the
British Army. The war proved the musketry
regulations of 1898 practically worthless, so that
a new course was devised which was completed
in 1903. The ground used at Aldershot enabled
one battalion to advance to the attack with as
near an approach to the conditions of actual war-
fare as is possible. The battalion performing the
exercise advances in column of route when fire is
suddenly opened upon it by a single gun posted
about 800 yards to the left front. It is required
that development be made at once and the gun
silenced. As the firing line reaches the crest
of a long hill perpendicular to the front, they
are able to recognize the first position of their
supposed enemy about 900 yards distant. The ad-
vance of the firing line is subjected to artillery
fire from a battery about 2500 yards away. The
targets representing the enemy are movable and
can hardly be distinguished, as only the heads
and shoulders are exposed, and that only occa-
sionally. As the advance continues the enemy
is supposed to have retired about 800 yards to a
position which has a deep ravine in its front,
through which runs a main railway line. The
enemy’s object is to destroy this line before the
advance can occupy it, and with this object in
view an armored train is dispatched to cover a
party of men sent down to blow up the tracks,
which they are supposed to succeed in doing. The
advance continues beyond the railway and up the
hill where the enemy is found to have taken his
last position near the guns already mentioned.
The battalion thus makes three positions, cover-
ing about 3500 yards. The targets are merely
dummy figures of the crudest construction. They
are all worked by men in pits by means of ropes
and springs, with the exception of the armored
train and the wrecking party. An elaborate
system of telephones is installed, which con-
nects all the pits and enables the commander of
the range to be in constant connection at every
stage of the firing. The ground is under close ob-
servation of the umpires, who are stationed in
covered pits where they can see the advance by
means of mirrors, in all its movements.
Greatly increased interest has been taken in
the target practice of the various combatant
branches of the United States Army. In 1877
the Creedmoor target with its method of scoring
hits was introduced by General Ord, an innova-
tion which was rendered doubly valuable by an
increase of the ammunition allowance from 10 to
20 rounds a month for each soldier. In 1886
individual skirmish practice was introduced, the
objective being in turn the figure of a standing
man, a kneeling man, and a man lying down,
followed by company instructions in field firing.
Targets and materials differ according to the
scheme of practice issued each year from the
headquarters of the army. In the case of small
arms practice the period selected for practice on
a range is announced annually by department
commanders and all orders containing instruction
governing their preliminary methods or practice
with a rifle, carbine. or revolver are issued each
year from army headquarters. The education of
TARGET.
TARGUM.
493
the men in target practice is the direct respon-
sibility of the company commander, although
post commanders are required to exercise a close
supervision also, and particularly over the
skirmish and field practices. There is an in-
spector of rifle practice in each department se-
lected for his special qualifications, whose duty
it is to examine and report upon the target prac-
tice work of the troops in his department. The
United States Government encourages the hunting
for large game wherever practical. The small arms
practice regulations for the National Guard of the
State of New York are fairly representative of the
best methods employed in the United States. The
Creedmoor bull’s-eye targets are employed for all
classes except in skirmish fire, when the figures of
men standing, kneeling, and lying down are used.
To qualify as marksman, the soldier must obtain
forty-five out of a possible seventy-five points,
making fifteen out of a possible twenty-five at
each of the following distances: 100 yards
(standing) ; 200 yards (kneeling) ; 300 yards
(prone). A sharpshooter is required in addition
to make twenty-two points out of twenty-five at
500 yards and twenty out Of twenty-five at 600
yards. The expert must make twenty out of
twenty-five at 700 yards and at 800 yards must
make a score sufficient to bring his total up to


in or on top of the large gun. In all sub-calibre
work the regular sights of the large gun are
used, an allowance being made for the difference
in range (for a given elevation) of the two
weapons.
Nearly one-half the crew are expected to be-
come sufficiently good shots to receive instruction
and practice in all forms of sub-calibre work, but
only the most proficient are given a chance with
full-calibre ammunition. The number of shots
fired by each man depends upon the class of gun
for which he is being particularly trained; the
larger guns are fired only a few times each year,
the medium and lesser calibres many more times.
For full-calibre practice the target now used
in most navies is 12 to 20 feet high, and 20 to
60 feet long. It is of canvas, supported by two
or more small masts, which are set in the timbers
of a raft or float, as shown in the accompanying
figure.
The target is anchored in a manner to keep it
broadside on and buoys are anchored at certain
distances from it. The ship steams past from
buoy to buoy at a fixed speed (usually more than
6 and less than 12 knots). Firing begins as the
first buoy is passed and stops when the last
buoy is reached. See GUNNERY; also, Gons,
NAVAL.


Q IFEIET -- - .>
i
: TARGET
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A NAVAL TARGET.
forty, for both ranges. A distinguished expert
is required to make the same percentage and
under the same conditions at 900 and 1000 yards.
Skirmish firing is at different distances, and at
figure targets. Shots on the prone figure count
five each, and on the kneeling figure three each,
while on any other place on the targets or on
the standing target each shot counts one.
TARGET PRACTICE, NAVAL. On shipboard
target practice is the culminating feature in the
training of men who are to become gun-firers, or
‘gun-pointers’ as they are usually called. The men
are first taught to aim accurately with small
arms. The promising candidate is advanced to
work with heavy guns-—first simple aiming and
then practice with aiming machines such as the
Scott ‘dotter.’ This instrument has a target
which can be given a vertical movement past the
gun sights which simulates the movement of a
ship or other object past these sights when the
firing vessel rolls, and it has a pencil which
records the point at which the sights are directed
when the firing key is pressed. The next step is
sub-calibre practice. A small-arm rifle is
clamped to the gun or inserted in fixtures in the
bore and fired at a target quite close at hand.
Then larger sub-calibre guns or tubes are fitted
8HlP'S COURSE PAST TARGET
MOVEMENT OF smr IN TARGET PRACTICE
TARGOVITZA, tEir’gO-Vit’s:'1, CONEEDERATION
OF. A union of Polish nobles under the leader-
ship of Felix Potocki, formed at Targovitza
(Russian Government of Kiev) on May 14, 1792,
for the purpose of overthrowing the Constitution
adopted in the preceding year. The organizers of
the Confederation were entirely in the interests
of Russia, and the adhesion of the Polish King
to the Confederation was followed by the second
partition of Poland (q.v.).
TARGUM (Aram. targ/hm, translation, ex-
planation, from targem, to interpret). The gen-
eral term for the Aramaic versions of the Old
Testament, sometimes less correctly referred to
as the Chaldee Paraphrase. The origin of the
Targum is to be looked for in the Persian period of
the Jews, when Hebrew ceased to be the popular
language and gave way to the Aramaic. The first
indication of the practice of explanation is to be
found in Neh. viii. 8, where it is said that Ezra
read the Law to the people while his assist-
ants “caused them to understand the reading.”
The custom grew and gradually there arose a
class of Meturgemans (mod. dragoman, inter-
preter) and finally the system was regulated by
the Rabbis. At first and indeed for many cen-
turies the Targum from its very nature was not
TARGUM.
TARIFF.
494
committed to writing, for the same reason that
the oral law itself was never intended to become
a definitely formulated written code. In the
course of time, however, both yielded to circum-
stances and it was thought preferable to write
them down rather than have them forgotten.
Yet only a small portion of the immense mass of
oral Targums that was produced survived. All
that is now extant are three distinct Targums
on the Pentateuch, one on the Prophets, and Tar-
gums on the Hagiographa, viz. on Psalms, Job,
Proverbs, the five Megilloth (Song of Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Ecclesiastes), on
Chronicles, and on the apocryphal pieces of
Esther.
The Targums are of little help for purposes
of text criticism. Their main claim upon scholars
rests upon the fact that in them there are to be
found hints at the internal and external life of
the people at the time when they Were composed.
The text is in a very corrupt condition, as might
indeed be expected, since no proper care was
taken to secure the purity of the text when the
Aramaic began to decline as the spoken tongue of
the Jews. A translation of the Targums on the
Pentateuch into English was made by Etheridge
(London, 1862-65). The Editio Princeps of Onk-
elos (q.v.) is that of Bologna (1482), of the Tar-
gum on the Former Prophets that of Leira
(1494), and on the Latter Prophets that of
Venice (1517-18). Targums on the Hagiographa
appeared in the Rabbinic Bibles, but the Targum
on Chronicles was not published until 1680. Re-
cent editions of the Targum are: Pentateuch
(Targum Onkelos)by A. Berliner(Berlin, 1884) ;
Prophets (Prophetae Chaldaice) by Lagarde
(Leipzig, 1872) ; Hagiographa (Chaldaice) by
the same (Leipzig, 1873).
TARIFA, ta-re'fa. A seaport town of Spain,
in the Province of Cadiz, on the coast, 21 miles
west-southwest of Gibraltar (Map: Spain, C 4).
It is the most southern town of Europe, is sur-
rounded by tower-embattled walls, and communi-
cates by a causeway with a small island, on
which stand a fortress and lighthouse. The town
is the most thoroughly Moorish in Andalusia; it
is quadrangular in shape, and its streets are
narrow and dark. Tunny and anchovy fisheries
are actively carried on. Tarifa, the Carthaginian
Josa, and the Roman Julia Traducta, received
its resent name from the Arabs, who are said
to ave called it after Tarif ibn Malik, who
landed there to reconnoitre previous to the con-
quest of the country, It was successfully de-
fended in 1812 by 2500 troops (mostly British)
against a French force of 10,000 men, under
Victor and Laval. Its population in 1900 was
11,730.
TARIFF (OF., Fr. tarifie, Fr. tarif, from Sp.
tarifa, price-list, rate-book, from Ar. ta'rifa,
ta'rz'f, notification, inventory, from ‘arafa, to
know). A schedule of duties or imposts levied
upon goods as they pass from one State to an-
other. A tariff may be levied upon foreign goods:
(1) simply as a means of augmenting the reve-
nues‘ of a government, in which case it is a
form of taxation (see TAX; FREE TRADE); or
(2) as a means of retaliating upon foreign gov-
ernments for similar restrictions imposed by
them, in which case it becomes an instrument of
warfare serving a temporary purpose and de-
signed in the end to secure commercial reci-
procity; or (3) as a means of fostering arti-
ficially particular industries by protecting them
wholly or in part against foreign competition.
See Psorncrron. '
GENERAL HISTORY or TARIFF LEGISLATION.
Tariffs for revenue seem to have been usual
among the civilized nations of antiquity,
Among the Greeks, especially the Athenians, a
tariff was regularly resorted to as a means
of revenue. This tariff was laid upon both
exports and imports, and an additional tax
was collected from vessels engaged in foreign
trafiic for the use of the harbors in which they
anchored. The regular export and import duty
at Athens was 2 per cent., though in time of
war, when the State was in pressing need of large
sums of money, it was often considerably aug-
mented.
Import and export duties were regularly levied
by the Roman State also for revenue. The name
for this tax used by the Latin writers is por-
toriwrn, a name applied likewise to transit duties
and bridge tolls. In the provinces and in newly
conquered countries, duties were collected by
Roman oflicials known as portitores and publi-
cani, and the sums were transmitted to the R0-
man treasury. In some cases, however, the central
Government, as a particular favor, allowed the
subject State to make its own customs laws,
stipulating only that Roman citizens should be
exempted from paying any duties that might be
imposed. In RC. 60 all portoria were abolished
by the Lex Caecilia so far as concerned the ports
of Italy; but Julius Caesar soon after restored
them. Augustus Caesar still further increased
the number of dutiable commodities, and a long
list of those which under the later emperors were
subject to the payment of a duty is given in the
Digest of Justinian. The rate of duty at Rome
seems generally to have been 5 per cent_, but
under the later emperors a duty of 12% per
cent. (octane) is mentioned as the ordinary tax
on imports.
In the Middle Ages the feudal lords individu-
ally claimed and exercised the right of imposing
transit duties levied on all goods that passed by
or through their possessions. Hence, says a
recent writer, “the rivers and high-roads were
fairly lined with custom-houses and toll-gates.”
When feudalism gave way to monarchy and
strong central government, the kings transferred
to themselves the rights that had previously
been exercised by the barons. They, too, erected
custom-houses at all their frontiers, and even on
the boundaries of their different provinces. So
universal did these duties, local and national,
become, that every Continental nation was cov-
ered with a network of customs lines. Various
cities also had their local customs duties, of
which the octroi collected at the entrance to sev-
eral cities on the Continent, notably Paris, is
a survival.
In England we first hear of- a tariff for reve-
nue under King Ethelred in or about the year
980. At that time duties on ships and goods
were levied and ordered to be paid at Billings-
gate, London. They were first acknowledged as
a part of the King’s revenue in the reign of
Edward I., who received them by regular grant
from Parliament, if we may accept the assertion
of Sir Edward Coke, quoted by Blackstone. But
wool, skins, and leather were taxable at the royal
TARIFF.
TARIFF.
495
pleasure, these being the ‘hereditary customs’ of
the Crown, known in the law-Latin as custuma
anti-qua. Subsequently, under the same King,
special duties to be paid by foreign merchants
only were levied (custurna nova), which were
protective in their nature and not merely for
revenue. The duty on ordinary goods in this
reign was sixpence in the pound, which was
raised to one shilling (5 per cent.) under Rich-
ard 11., reduced to sixpence and again raised to
eightpence, and finally fixed at the shilling rate,
where it remained as late as the ninth year of
the reign of William III. (1697). The King also
had the right of prisage, i.e. of taking from every
wine-importing vessel of twenty tuns two tuns
for the royal use. This duty was called ‘tunnage’
to distinguish it from the other duties called
‘foundage.’ Customs duties were originally
granted ‘for the defense of the realm,’ and espe-
cially for the protection of traffic on the high
seas, and were at first given for a fixed period.
To Henry VI., Edward IV., and their successors,
they were given for life, until the reign of
Charles 1. whose unconstitutional levy of these
duties without grant of Parliament formed one
of the grievances against him, On the restora-
tion of Charles II. the duties were again granted
for life, and under William and Mary they were
made perpetual and assigned to the payment of
the national debt.
From an early period it was the custom in
England to base tarifi duties upon official valu-
ations of imports and exports. A ‘book of rates’
containing such valuations is known to have
been printed in 1545. The struggle between the
first Stuarts and Parliament over questions of
taxation was precipitated by the arbitrary action
of James I. in raising the official rates without
the consent of Parliament. .In 1642 the latter
body itself issued a book of rates without the
assent of the sovereign. After the Restoration
a new book of rates was issued in 1668 with the
assent of both authorities. This enumerated
as many as 212 articles for taxation ‘outward’
(i.e. export duties) and 1139 articles for im-
port duties. Official valuations continued to be
the basis for tariff purposes all through the
eighteenth century, and this is one circumstance
which makes it difficult to estimate correctly
the value of England’s exports and imports dur-
ing that period. Another confusing practice
which prevailed until as late a date as 1787 was
that of assigning the proceeds from the duties
on imports and exports to a variety of different
purposes or ‘funds,’ As a consequence it was
often very difficult even for customs officials to
determine what was the aggregate rate to which
a particular article was subject. Pitt’s Customs
Consolidation Act of 1787 did away with the
separate funds by assigning all revenue from du-
ties to the ‘consolidated fund.’ In this act some
1200 articles were rated for import duties and
50 for export duties. Another important achieve-
ment of Pitt’s Ministry was the negotiation of a
commercial treaty with France (1786) which
went far toward freeing trade between the two
countries from the restrictions by which it had
long been hampered. The struggle against Na-
poleon caused the abrogation of this treaty, but
it is no exaggeration to describe it as the first
definite step in the direction of that free trade
policy which England was to adopt some sixty
years later. The next simplifications of the Eng-
lish tariff were those effected by Huskisson in
1824 and 1825, which consolidated some 450 trade
and tariff acts into eleven and reduced the rates
of duty on many articles, particularly exports.
One of the most important results of the long
struggle for the abolition of the Corn Laws
(q.v.) was to simplify still further the English
tariff. From 1842 to 1846, 390 duties, including
all those on exports, were abolished and 503 were
reduced; in 1846, 54 were abolished and 112
were reduced; in 1853, 123 were abolished, and
finally, in 1860, 371 more were abolished and
virtual free trade was achieved. An important
incident of the latter year was the negotiation
with France of a new commercial treaty which
lowered the duty on wine and placed such im-
portant French products as silks, gloves, etc.,
on the free list. For both countries the treaty
marked a long step in the direction of free
trade, but in the case of France the policy
appears to have lacked the support of public
opinion and was followed after the France-
Prussian War by a reaction toward protection,
The reduction and abolition of duties continued
in England after 1860, the next important
change being the placing of sugar on the free
list at a sacrifice of some £6,000,000 revenue
in 1872. On,the outbreak of the Boer YVar the
English tariff included only nine principal items,
cocoa, coffee, chicory, dried fruit, tea, tobacco,
wine, beer, and spirits. The extraordinary reve-
nue required in connection with that struggle led
to the restoration of the duty on sugar, to the
imposition of an export duty on coal, and finally
to the restoration of light registration duties on
grain and flour (3d. and 5d. per cwt. respec-
tively).
In the tariff history of France the two com-
mercial treaties with Great Britain that have
been referred to stand out as prominent features.
Down to the time of the first (1786) the tariff
policy of the country had been dictated by ex-
treme mercantilist views of trade. The importa-
tion of many commodities was prohibited alto-
gether, while others were admitted only on pay-
ment of high duties. Nor was the tariff confined
to foreign trade. Each petty province of France
had its system of duties, with the result that it
was not unusual for the prices of even such com-
mon articles as the grains and salt to differ by
100 per cent. or more on the same day in differ-
ent parts of the country. It required nothing
less than the Revolution (decree of 1790) to
free the land from these restrictions on internal
trade. The bitter national hostilities which
grew out of the Revolution and the brilliant
years of Napoleon’s ascendency effectually stifled
the aspirations for freer trade which ushered in
the period. From 1815 until the negotiation of
the second commercial treaty with Great Britain
in 1860, the tariff policy of France was highly
protectionist. The latter treaty was one of the
fruits of the Anglomania of Napoleon III. and
was followed by treaties drafted on equally lib-
eral lines with the more important Continental
States of Europe, including the German Z0ll-
uerein (1865). These reduced the rates of duty
on French imports to from 10 to 15 per cent. ad
valorem. The same liberal policy was continued
substantially until 1881, when an act was passed
substituting specific for ad ualorem duties and
TARIFF.
TARIFF.
496
incidentally increasing somewhat the rates. Pro-
tectionist sentiment increased after 1881 and
by 1892, when many of the commercial treaties
negotiated at an earlier period expired, the coun-
try was ready for an out-and-out protectionist
tariff, including not only high duties on agricul-
tural products and manufactures, but also mod-
erate bounties to producers of silk, flax, and
hemp. At this time also the policy of providing
maximum and minimum duties (see REoIPBoo-
ITY) was introduced. Since 1892 there has been
no perceptible abatement in the demand for
protection in France, and while French duties are
moderate in comparison with those of the United
States, she must be included among protectionist
countries, '
The tariff policy of the States now forming the
German Empire first assumed definite form in
the German Zoll/verein (q.v.). The importance
of this early federation for tariff purposes in
preparing the way for the German Empire is gen-
erally conceded. From the point of view of
tariff history it is interesting because it en-
abled Prussia, which was inclined toward free
trade during this period, to dominate the tariff
policies of her smaller neighbors. A treaty ne-
gotiated with Austria in 1853 reduced the duties
on trade between that country and the Z0”-
/vereiu and the even more liberal treaty with
France, already referred to, secured the same
result for trade with that country in 1865. On
the eve of the Franco-Prussian War the tariff of
the Zolluerein was practically a tariff for reve-
nue only. After the war a reaction toward
protection set in. This is clearly indicated
in the tariff adopted in 1879, by which the
duties on both agricultural and manufactured
articles were increased. The policy continued
to be only moderately protective until 1902, when
an act was passed which made very substantial
concessions to the advocates of protection to
agricultural interests. Among the most notable
changes were an increase in the duties on grains
(the duty on wheat was raised from 32 cents per
cwt. to 90 cents) and on draught animals (the
duty on horses valued at $250 or less was raised
from $2_50 to $22.50). _
The changes in the tariff policies of France
and Germany that have been described have been
paralleled pretty closely in the other countries
of Continental Europe. England’s example and
other influences caused a movement in favor of
free trade to extend all over Europe in the decade
from 1860 to 1870. This was followed by a
reaction toward protection in the more impor-
tant countries, which has gained in volume until
in Germany and Russia, at least, the movement
is comparable with the protectionist movement
in the United States.
Outside of Europe England’s free trade ex-
ample has been followed only by two or three of
her own dependencies (e.g. India). Protective
tariffs are found in Canada, in the Australian
colonies, and in Cape Colony, and are well-nigh
universal among the independent sovereignties.
No country has, however, gone further in this
direction than the United States,
HISTORY or TARIFF LEGISLATION IN THE
UNITED STATES. The earliest tariff in the his-
tory of the United States was that approved
July 4, 1789. It is interesting to note that the
preamble of the act establishing it states that
one of its objects is “the encouragement and pro-
tection of manufactures," at this early period
laying down a principle afterwards adopted as
the tenet of a political party. In 1817, at the
beginning of President Monroe’s administration,
Congress abolished the internal taxes that had
been made necessary by the cost of the War of
1812, and in his message the President recom-
mended the imposition of a protective tariff pure
and simple, A temporary protective duty had in
1816 been laid upon cottons and woolens, and in
1818 this was contiriued for a period of eight
years. The rise of the party of Loose Construc-
tion, headed by Henry Clay, was favorable
to the principle of protection, as the Strict
Constructionists held that Congress could im-
pose a tariff only for revenue. In 1819 a pro-
tective tariff bill passed the Lower House, but
was rejected by the Senate. The election as
Speaker, in 1820, of John W. Taylor, of New
York, a declared high-tariff man, gave great en-
couragement to the Eastern manufacturers, and
indicates the increasing influence of the protec-
tionists, although in 1822 the Strict Construc-
tionists were able again to defeat bills embodying
the protective principle. In 1824, however, the
friends of that principle secured a working ma-
jority in Congress, and after a prolonged debate
adopted a bill whose essential principle was the
exclusion from the American market of such
foreign goods as competed with those manufac-
tured in the United States.
In 1827 a convention held at Harrisburg, Pa.
(July 30th), discussed at length the principle of
protection. Only four of the slave States sent
delegates. The result of the convention was a
petition to Congress praying for an increase of
duties on certain articles then manufactured in
the United States, a request which the Secretary
of the Treasury made prominent in his report of
the following December. By this time a strong
party had been founded to support the protective
system, or the ‘American system,’ as it was popu-
larly called. The famous ‘Tariff of 1828,’ adopted
by Congress after a debate of six weeks, was
the immediate result of this party’s propaganda.
This went further than any act had previously
done in the direction of prohibitive duties. The
chief articles on which protective duties were
laid were woolen and cotton fabrics. At that
time the value of the cotton goods annually im-
ported from Great Britain was fully $8,000,000,
and that of woolen goods about the same. The
exports to Great Britain, on the other hand,
of rice, raw cotton, and tobacco (the chief prod-
ucts of the South), reached the sum of $24,000,-
000 per annum. The Southern producers natu-
rally feared that if the United States should by
a high tariff practically prohibit the importation
of a large proportion of British goods, retalia-
tory measures might lead to a diminution of the
Southern exports to Great Britain. It was dis-
satisfaction with the tariff that led to the fa-
mous nullification movement in the South in
1832, in which year Congress, while modifying
the act of 1828, distinctly recognized and re-
tained the protective principle.
On March 3, 1833, the so-called Compromise
Tariff, introduced by Henry Clay, was passed.
It provided for the gradual reduction of the ex-
isting tariff until 1842, after which year the
duties on all goods were to be 20 per cent. This
TARIFF.
TARIFF.
497
measure for the time allayed the excitement in
the South; but by the year 1842 it was seen
that the financial consequences of the steady re-
duction of the tariff were extremely serious, since
the Government revenues had decreased to such
an extent as to be less than the expenses, A new
tariff was manifestly necessary. The majority in
Congress passed a bill which continued the du-
ties imposed by the tariff of 1833, and provided
for the division of any surplus revenue among
the States. This was vetoed by President Tyler
as being a violation of the compromise reached
in 1833. A revenue tariff was also vetoed, be-
cause it contained the distribution clause, but
on its being again passed, with this clause
omitted,‘ the President signed it (August 9,
1842). In 1846 a revenue tariff that eliminated
altogether the principle of protection was passed,
its aim being merely to provide an adequate reve-
nue for the expenses of the Government. A still
further reduction of duties was made by the
tariff of 1857, which fixed them at the lowest
figures shown by any tariff since that of 1816.
In 1861 the Republican Party passed the
‘Morrill Tariff,’ intended primarily to protect
American manufactures. Twice in the same year
(August 5th and December 24th) the duties were
still further increased, less for protection, how-
ever, than in order to meet the expenses entailed
by the Civil War.
The problems that were injected into politics
by the war, and by the conditions resulting from
it, relegated the tariff question to the background
for many years. During this period duties were
raised with little opposition to an unprecedented
level. After the close of the war other ques-
tions still absorbed public attention, and it
was not until 1880 that the tariff again be-
came an important issue. The Republicans
in nominating General Garfield embodied in
their platform a strong declaration in favor
of maintaining a scale of duties that should
continue to protect American industries against
foreign competition. The Democrats began
to urge the expediency of modifying a tariff
which had been framed to meet the conditions of
a time of war, and which, they claimed, was not
merely hampering commerce, excluding the
United States from the markets of the world, but
fostering monopolies by preventing healthful com-
petition. They therefore declared for ‘a tariff for
revenue only,’ which was afterwards explained as
a tariff that should give ‘incidental protection.’
In 1882 provision was made by Congress for the
appointment of a commission to report upon the
expediency of a reduction of the tariff. This re-
duction became a question of pressing impor-
tance, since the revenues of the Government had
so far exceeded its expenses as to accumulate
in the treasury a very large and increasing sur-
plus, which threatened to disturb seriously the
financial system of the country. The Tariff Com-
mission made its report, and in accordance with
its recommendations the act of 1882, a distinctly
protectionist measure, was passed. In 1884, the
House being Democratic, the bill known as the
‘Morrison Horizontal Reduction Bill’ for lower-
ing the tariff was hotly debated, but by a com-
bination between the Republicans and the Demo-
cratic protectionists led by Mr. Randall, of
Pennsylvania, it was defeated. The campaign of
that year turned to some extent upon the tariff
question, for the Democratic platform, while
evading the question of protection, demanded a
real reduction of tariff duties, as well as legisla-
tion to check the aggression of great corpora-
tions. The election of Mr. Cleveland appeared to
show that the cry of ‘free trade’ had ceased to
alarm the great body of voters, and that they
were willing to hear argument upon the questions
at issue. The new President’s first message
(December 16, 1885) recommended a reduction
of the tariff, and his message in December, 1887,
was devoted exclusively to this topic. In it he
stated that the surplus in the treasury was near-
ly $140,000,000, demanded as a remedy the im-
mediate abolition of the duties upon wool and
other raw materials, and characterized the exist-
ing tariff laws as “vicious, inequitable, and il-
logical.” In accordance with the views of this
message a new tariff measure, the ‘Mills Bill,’
removing the duty on wool, and aiming at an
estimated annual reduction of revenue of fully
$50,000,000, passed the House, The Republican
Senate offered a substitute repealing the tax
upon tobacco and reducing the duty on sugar
one-half, thus securing an estimated reduction of
$65,000,000 per annum. Neither bill became a
law.
The defeat of the Democrats in the Presiden-
tial election of 1888 was possibly due to the
prominence of the tariff question, but as the
majority of the popular vote was on their side,
it was seen that a reform or, at any rate, a
revision of the tariff was sooner or later in-
evitable. Therefore, the Fifty-second Congress
took up the matter in earnest, with the result
that the famous McKinley Bill passed both
Houses of Congress and was signed by President
Harrison (September, 1890). By its provisions
the annual reduction of revenue was estimated
to be some $66,000,000, of which $6,000,000 was
due to a reduction of internal revenue taxes,
chiefly on tobacco. A bounty was provided to
compensate producers of raw sugar for the aboli-
tion of the duty on that commodity.
One very important feature of the McKinley
Act was the section added through the influence
of James G. Blaine, then Secretary of State,
and known as the reciprocity section. This
provided that whenever the President shall be
satisfied that the Government of any country
producing and exporting sugars, molasses, cof-
fee, tea, and hides, or any such articles, imposes
duties upon products of the United States which
in view of the free introduction of such sugar,
molasses, etc., into the United States, he may
deem to be reciprocally unequal and unreason-
able, he shall have the power to suspend by
proclamation the free introduction into the
United States of such sugars, etc.,_ from the
country in question. See CUSTOMS DUTIES;
Rncrenocmr.
On the return of the Democratic Party to
power in 1893, an effort was made to carry out
its promise of tariff reform. A bill framed
by William L. Wilson passed the House, and
after much amendment by the Senate became
a law without the President’s signature, August
27, 1894. It made a considerable reduction in
many duties, admitted wool free, and provided
for an income tax. It was still in the main,
however, a protective measure. As a revenue
law this act was a failure, partly because the
TARIFF.
TARIK.
498
Supreme Court declared the income tax feature
unconstitutional and partly because of the busi-
ness depression which began in the summer of
1893 and caused a marked falling ofi in imports,
The dominant issue in the next Presidential
campaign (1896) was the silver rather than the
tariff question, but the election of the author of
the McKinley Act was naturally construed as
a popular verdict in favor of the policy with
which his name was identified. A special ses-
sion of Congress was called in March, 1897, and
after prolonged debate the Dingley Act, copied
closely in its leading provisions after the
McKinley Act, became a law. The duties on
wool, woolen goods, cutlery, pottery, and a few
other articles were made even higher in this
act than they had been in the act of 1890.
Lumber was restored to the dutiable list, and
hides, which had heretofore been admitted free,
were taxed, out of deference to the wishes of
the so-called ‘Silver Republicans’ in the Senate,
who made this concession a condition to their
adhesion. The sugar bounty provision of the
McKinley Act was not revived, but the reciproc-
ity provisions were, in modified form.
In 1898 (June 13th) the so-called ‘War Reve-
nue Law’ was passed to supply the revenue re-
quired in consequence of the war with Spain. An
interesting feature of this law was that it relied
upon increased internal revenue duties and a
purely revenue duty of ten cents a pound on im-
ported tea rather than on changes in the general
tariff to secure the additional revenue required.
The war taxes were repealed by the acts of
March 2, 1901, and April 12, 1902 (except those
on ‘mixed flour’). During the session of 1902
to 1903 earnest efforts were made in Congress
by members of the Republican Party represent-
ing some of the States of the Middle West (e.g.
Wisconsin) to effect a revision of those clauses
of the Dingley Act supposed to be favorable to
the ‘trusts,’ but without success.
ADMINISTRATIVE Asrnors or THE TARIFF.
There is a marked difference in form between
purely revenue tariffs, such as that of Great
Britain, and protective tariffs like those of the
United States and Germany. In the former only
the few articles subject to duty are enumerated
and unenumerated articles are admitted free.
In the latter all articles that may claim free
admirion are expressly enumerated in the so-
call free list’ and other articles are subject to
duty either under the special schedules or under
the so-called ‘drag-net clause,’ which imposes a
certain rate of duty on unenumerated articles.
'lne German tariff of 1902 enumerated nearly
one thousand different classes of commodities,
while in the American tariff of 1897 the free
list alone contains nearly two hundred and fifty
separate items.
Another difference that has frequently charac-
terized protective and revenue tariffs in the
United States is that the duties in the former
are mainly specific, that is based on the quanti-
ties or the number of units of the commodities
imported, while in the latter they are mainly
ad valorem, that is a certain per cent. of the
value of the commodities imported. The prefer-
ence of protectionists for specific duties is to be
explained partly by the greater certainty of such
duties, since they cannot be evaded by under-
valuations, and partly by their conviction that
since protection rather than revenue is the ob-
ject sought, the ordinary canons of taxation,
which prescribe that taxes shall be in proportion
to the value of the property taxed, may be disre-
garded. The identification of specific duties with
protection appears to be confined to the United
States, since even in free-trade England all the
duties now imposed are specific. The adminis-
trative advantage of such duties, which are prac-
tically self-assessing, need scarcely be dwelt upon.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. McCulloch, On Taarztion (Lon-
don, 1845); Sumner, Lectures on the History
of Protection in the United States (New York,
1877); Ayers, Review of the Tariff Legislation
of the United States (Newark, 1883); Mason,
A Short Tariff History of the United States (Chi-
cago, 1884); Hall, A History of Customs Reve-
nue in England from the Earliest Times to the
Year 1827 (London, 1885); Wagner, Financ-
wissenschaft, especially the section on “Das Zoll-
wesen Frankreichs und Englands” (Leipzig, 1883-
1901); Bolles, The Financial History of the
United States (New York, 1886); Dowell, H18-
tory of Tamation and Taxes in England (London,
1888); Say, Dictionnaire des finances, articles
“Entrepot,” “Douane” (Paris, 1889) ; Goss, The
History of Tariff Adnzinistration in the United
States (New York, 1891); Taussig, Tariff His-
tory of the United States (New York, 1892);
Leroy-Beaulieu, Traité de la science des finances
(6th ed., Paris, 1899); Palgrave, Dictionary of
Political Economy (London, 1899), articles “Im-
port Duties,” “Export Duties;” Conrad, Hand-
wo'rterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (Jena,
1900), articles “Z6lle,” “Zollverein;” Dewey,
Financial History of the United States (New
York, 1903). See FREE TRADE; PRoTEoTIoN;
RECIPROCITY; TAXATION.
TARIJA, ta-ré/Ha. A southern department
of Bolivia, bounded by Argentina and Paraguay
on the south, and Brazil on the east (Map:
Bolivia, E 8). Its boundaries are ill defined.
Area is estimated at 40,000 square miles. The
surface in the western part (one-third of the
area) is very mountainous, and in the east is
fiat, resembling the Chaco of Paraguay, of which
it is a continuation. There are extensive for-
ests and large stretches of grazing land. The
chief river is the Pilcomayo. Agriculture and
stock-raising are the main industries, but both
are only slightly developed, on account of the
sparse population. The civilized population,
largely in the mountain region, was officially
estimated, in 1898, at 65,000, including over 46,-
000 Indians. Capital, Tarija (q.v.).
TARIJA. The capital town of the Depart-
ment of Tarija, Bolivia, on the upper course of
the Vermejo, 180 miles south of Sucre, near the
border of Argentina, with which it has extensive
trade (Map: Bolivia, E 8). The climate is
pleasant. Population, about 9000.
TARIK, ta'rek, IRN ZIAD ('2-c.720). The
leader of the first Moslem invasion of Spain.
He was a Berber, and had been converted to
Mohammedanism by the Emir Musa, who made
him governor of Tangier. It was probably on
April 30, 711, that Tarik landed at Gibraltar
(i.e. Djebel-Tarilc, the hill of Tarik) with a
force of twelve thousand men. He speedily
overran Andalusia, and in July, 711, the Visi-
gothic King Roderick was totally defeated at
TARIK.
TARLTON.
499
Jerez de la Frontera. Musa, however, became
jealous of his successful lieutenant, and joined
him in the summer of 712 at Toledo with about
twenty thousand men. There were frequent quar-
rels between Musa and Tarik, until finally both
were summoned to Damascus by the Caliph Soly-
man. Musa was disgraced, while of Tarik noth-
ing further is known. Consult Burke, History of
Spain, vol. i. (London, 1895).
TARIM, ta-rém’. The principal river of
Chinese or East Turkestan (Map: Asia, H 4).
It rises in the Karakorum Range in the extreme
northern part of Kashmir, and flows north, east,
and southeast through the great desert basin of
Turkestan, emptying into the collection of lakes
and marshes known as Lob Nor (q.v.) at the
northern base of the Altyn-Tagh. Its length is
estimated at over 1000 miles, including the up-
per course, which is generally called the Yarkand-
Darya. After leaving the lofty glaciers of the
Karakorum it pierces the Kuen-lun Mountains,
and then descends to the plain, where it passes the
city of Yarkand. Farther north it receives two
large tributaries, the Aksu from the north and
the Khotan-Darya from the south, below whose
confluence the united stream is known as the
Tarim proper. It soon divides into two arms,
which flow parallel for a long distance. Receiv-
ing no more tributaries, it decreases rapidly in
volume by evaporation and by being used for
irrigation. A number of streams run down from
the Kuen-lun toward the lower Tarim Valley,
but they are lost in the great desert long before
they reach the main stream. As the latter en-
ters the Lob Nor region, however, it receives
the Cherchen from the Tibetan Plateau and an-
other large affluent from the north.
TAIVKINGTON, NEWTON BOOTH (l869—).
An American novelist, born in Indiana, and
educated at Princeton University, where he
graduated in 1893. His first book, The Gentle-
man fro/m Indiana (1899), attracted some atten-
tion, and his Jlonsicar Beaacaire (1900) is an
artistically constructed romance of unusual
charm. In 1902 he published The Two Van-
revels, less meritorious than his preceding works.
He was elected to the Indiana Legislature in
1902.
TARLAO, t'ar’lak. A province of Luzon,
Philippine Islands, bounded on the north by
Pangasinfm and Nueva Ecija, on the east by
Nueva Ecija, on the south by Pampanga, and
on the west by Zambales (Map: Philippine Is-
lands, E 4). Area, 1295 square miles. The
eastern part is level, while the western portion
comprises the slope of the Cordillera de Ca-
busilfm. The northern rivers drain into the Gulf
of Lingayén, through the Agno, and the southern
into Manila Bay, through the Pampanga. The
main highway and the railroad traverse the
province from north to south. Rice and sugar-
cane are the principal agricultural products,
though some tobacco and corn are raised in the
higher altitudes. The forests of the province
are of great value; oranges, lemons. and bananas
are produced in great variety. The languages
are Tagalog, Pampango, and Pangasinéin. The
capital is Tarlac (q.v.). The population of the
province, in 1901, was estimated at 89,339.
TARLAC. The capital town of the Province
of Ttirlac, Luzon, Philippines, on the right bank
of the river of the same name, a tributary of
the Agno, seventy-three miles northwest of Ma-
nila (Map: Luzon, D 5). It is on the Manila
and Dagupan Railroad, and has excellent road
connection with surrounding towns. Population,
about 9,668.
TARLATAN (probably from Milanese It.
tarlantanna, linsey-woolsey) . A thin, gauze-like
fabric of cotton. It is usually dyed or printed
in colors, and is often of a rather coarse quality.
TARLETON, t'zirl’ton, Sir BANASTRE (1754-
1833). An English soldier in the American
Revolutionary War, born in Liverpool, and edu-
cated at Oxford. In 1776 he took part in Clin-
ton’s operations against Fort Moultrie (q.v.).
Later in the year, under Sir William Erskine,
he served in the successful operations in the
vicinity of New York, and early in 1777 was
with Cornwallis in New Jersey. With the army
under Howe, the commander-in-chief, he took
part in the battles of Brandywine and German-
town and the occupation of Philadelphia. In
January, 1778, he was promoted captain, and in
the following year was made lieutenant-colonel
of ‘the British legion,’ a force of cavalry and
light infantry, with which he very substantially
aided the British cause in the South until the
fall of Yorktown in September, 1781. He was
an able and intrepid cavalry leader, but gained
a reputation for cruelty until ‘Tarleton’s quar-
ter’ came to mean general butchery. Dispatched
by Cornwallis, he defeated with great slaughter
the superior force of Lieutenant-Colonel Burford
at Waxham Creek, May 29, 1780; he routed a
part of General Gates’s force at Camden, August
16th, and defeated General Sumter at Catawba
Fords, August 18th. Three months later he was
‘defeated by Sumter, and, January 17, 1781, by
General Morgan at Cowpens. He \\ as with Corn-
wallis at the final surrender and returned to
England in 1782. Representing the opposition,
he was elected to Parliament in 1790, where he
remained, excepting a brief interruption in 1806-
07, until 1812. He was made major-general
(1794), Governor in Berwick and Holy Island
(1808), general (1812), and baronet (1815). He
wrote a History of the Ccrmpaigns of 1780 and
1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America
(1787), a work marred by vanity and partisan-
ship.
TARL’TON, RICHARD (‘?-1588). Anoted Eng-
lish comedian of Queen E1izabeth’s time. Little
is known of his life, but he is said to have been
born in Shropshire and to have been at one time
keeper of a public house. As ‘an actor he be-
came in 1583 one of the Queen’s players who
were called Grooms of the Chambers. A platt
(or plot) exists of the second part of a play
named The Seven Deadlie Sinns, as arranged by
Tarlton. the dialogue of which was probably
largely extemporized. He won such reputation
for his constant jesting that his name was at-
tached to many of the witticisms of the day,
as well as to ballads and other pieces whose
authors thus aimed to profit by his popularity.
A collection of jokes called TarZton’s Jests was
published a few years after his death; repub-
lished as edited by Halliwell for the Shakespeare
Society in 1844. with Tarlton’s New-es out of
Purgatorie, which had appeared in 1590, in the
form of a message from the dead actor in the
other world.
TARN.
TARPON FISHING.
500
TARN, tiirn. A southern department of
France, in Languedoc, bounded on the north by
the departments of Aveyron and Tarn-et-Garonne
(Map: France, J 8). Area, 2217 square miles;
population, in 1891, 346,739; in 1901, 332,093.
The surface is in general elevated and well
wooded, and is watered by the river Tarn. In
the south and southeast are offshoots of the
Cévennes. Coal, iron, copper, and lead are mined
and there are lucrative deposits of gypsum and
porcelain clay. The vine is extensively culti-
vated, and there are manufactures of spirituous
liquors, woolens, cottons and silks, iron, leather,
and paper. Albi is the capital.
TARN-ET-GARONNE, a ga'ron’. A south-
ern department of France, formed mainly out of
the old Province of Guienne (Map: France, H 7).
Area, 1436 square miles; population, in 1891,
206,596; in 1901, 195,669. The surface is
marked by plateaus with an average altitude of
1000 feet, the highest hills not rising above 1600
feet. The principal rivers are the Garonne and
its aflluents the Tarn and Aveyron. Cereals are
raised in great quantities. and the grapevine
and mulberry are extensively cultivated. Mules
and poultry are raised; coal and iron are mined;
marble is quarried, and there are manufactures
of woolens, linens, silk, iron, cutlery, and beet
sugar. Capital, Montauban.
TARNOPOL, tiir’no-pol. A town of Galicia,
Austria, 76 miles east of Lemberg, on the Sereth
(Map: Austria, J 2). Among the industrial
establishments are refineries for spirits, brew-
eries, and steam mills. The population of the
commune in 1900 was 32,082, about half Poles
and half Jews.
TARNOVSKI, tiir-n5v’ski, STANISLAV, Count
(1837-—) . A Polish historian of literature, born
at Dzikov, Galicia. He studied in Cracow and
Vienna, spent nearly two years in confinement,
implicated in the revolt of 1863, was elected to
the Galician Diet and the Austrian Reichsrat in
1867, then devoted himself entirely to literary
studies, and in 1871 was appointed professor of
Polish literature at the University of Cracow.
In 1885 he became a member of the Austrian
House of Lords, and in 1890 president of the
Cracow Academy of Sciences. With Szujski he
established the conservative Przeglad Polshi, in
which he published many of his literary mono-
graphs, distinguished by thoroughness, keen
judgment and elegance of style. His writings
include a History of the Pre-Christian Era, es-
says On the Polish Novel in the 19th Century
and On the Decadence of Polish Literature in
the 18th Century, On the Comedies of Fred/ro,
Schiller’s Dramas, Shakespeare in Poland, but
above all his valuable principal work, Studya do
historyi literatury polshiéj (Studies to the His-
tory of Polish Literature, 1886-92).
TARNOW, tar’nov. A town of Galicia, Aus-
tria, 137 miles west of Lemberg, on the Dunajec,
near its confluence with the Biala (Map: Aus-
tria, G 1). The chief manufactures are of agri-
cultural implements; there are steam, flour,
and saw mills. The population of the commune,
in 1900, was 33,974, of whom nearly two-thirds
were Poles and the remainder Jews.
TARO. A popular name for Colocasia anti-
quorum, and especially for its variety esculen-
tum, a native plant of India which is cultivated
in warm climates, especially in the islands of
the Pacific, where it forms a principal food. Its
starchy, stem-like tuberous root is boiled or
baked, made into bread or into poi, a fermented
product. The young leaves and tender leaf-
stalks are used respectively like spinach and
asparagus.
TARPAN. The Mongolian name for the wild
ass, kiang, or dziggetai, of the high plateaus of
Central Asia. See Ass.
TARPEIAN (tiir-pe’yan) ROCK (Lat.
Rupes Tarpeia) . The name applied to a portion of
the southern part of the Capitoline Hill in Rome.
According to tradition, in the time of Romulus,
Tarpeia (a Vestal virgin), the daughter of
Tarpeius, governor of the Roman citadel on
the Capitoline, covetous of the golden ornaments
of the Sabine soldiery, and tempted by their con-
sent to give her what they wore on their left
arms, opened a gate of the fortress to the Sabine
King, Titus Tatius, who had come to revenge the
rape of the Sabine women. The Sabines crushed
Tarpeia to death beneath their shields, and she
was buried in the part of the hill which bears
her name. From early times criminals were fre-
quently put to death by being hurled from the
Tarpeian rock. The whole southern end of the
Capitoline is marked by scarped cliffs, the height
of which has doubtless been much diminished
by the accumulation of debris at the foot. It is
impossible to determine precisely what portion
of these cliffs is the true Tarpeian Rock.
TARPON (from the North American Indian
name), or TARPUM. A great herring-like fish
(Tarpon Atlanticus or Megalops thrissoides) of
the West Indies and neighboring waters, which,
with a few other species scattered about the
tropical world, represents the isospondylous fam-
ily Elopidee. This fish is regarded by many ang-
lers as affording sport with a rod and line su-
perior to that given by any other fish. The tar-
pon (see Colored Plate of AMERICAN GAME
FISHES, accompanying article TROUT) has some-
thing the shape of a salmon, and great power in
swimming and leaping. It is often six feet in
length and may weigh 100 pounds. It preys
upon other fishes and small fry. The flesh is
poor and not much valued as food, but the great
silvery cycloid scales are much used in orna-
mental work. Another species of the family,
the ‘ten-pounder’ (Elops saurus), is about half
as large; it is abundant about all tropical coasts,
and is known under a great variety of names.
TARPON FISHING. The sport of angling
for tarpon (q.v.) with red and line is the most
skillful and exciting which America affords. The
angler goes in a small boat some distance from
shore, with an experienced man to row it, and
uses a heavy rod, 7% to 8 feet long, with a
multiplying reel, 200-250 yards of linen line,
and a spoon-bait. When a fish weighing per-
haps 100 pounds seizes this, and begins those
rushes and mighty leaps which have given the
‘silver king’ the just title of ‘greatest of game
fishes,’ the power and science of the angler are
both tested in the highest degree. Excellent
tarpon-fishing may usually be obtained all
around the southern coast of Florida and its
reefs; and also along the coast of Texas. Con-
TARPON FISHING.
TARRASA.
501
sult American books mentioned under FISH; and
ANGLING.
TARQUIN’IUS. The family name of two
kings of Rome, with whose history, or rather with
the legends regarding whom, the fortunes of the
city are closely interwoven. Demaratus, a C0-
rinthian noble, emigrated from Greece, and set-
tled at Tarquinii, in Etruria, where he married
an Etruscan wife. A son, Lucumo, married into
a noble Etruscan family, and emigrated to Rome,
where he was hospitably received and soon after
admitted to the rights of citizenship. He took
the name of Lucius Tarquinius, or, according to
Livy, L, Tarquinius Priscus. The Roman mon-
arch, Ancus 1\/Iarcius, appointed him guardian of
his children; and on the death of the King (RC.
616), the senate and the citizens unanimously
elected Tarquinius to the vacant throne. His reign
was a glorious one. He waged successful wars,
forcing the whole of the twelve sovereign cities of
Etruria to recognize his supremacy and do him
homage. To him, also, are ascribed the construc-
tion of the magnificent CZO(LCO?, or sewers, the
laying out of the Circus Maximus, and the build-
ing of shops (tabcrnce veteres) on the Forum; the
institution of the Great or Roman Games; and
the foundation of the Capitoline temple. Tar-
quinius was assassinated after a reign of thirty-
eight years (13.0. 578) at the instigation of the
sons of Ancus Marcius, who considered them-
selves as best entitled to the throne. But their
crime did not avail them, for Servius Tullius,
his nephew, was elected to the vacant throne.
—-LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERRUS, son of Lucius
Tarquinius, having murdered his father-in-law,
Servius Tullius, is represented ill the legend
as audaciously usurping the vacant throne (RC.
534); but as the whole drift of his legislative
policy was to abolish the reforms of Servius,
there can be little doubt that the real sig-
nificance of this part of his career lies in the
fact that it indicates a successful reaction, on
the side of the patricians, against the more
liberal and progressive policy of the preceding
age. That the younger Tarquinius, at least, is
an historical character, seems to be pretty gen-
erally allowed. As far as we can gather from the
ancient annals, the usurpation of Tarquinius was
probably achieved by the help of an enterprising
section of the nobles, who clung tenaciously to
their privileges, and could not endure the consti-
tutional recognition of the plebs. By means of
subtle and unscrupulous intrigues he obtained
or consolidated the Roman hegemony in Latium;
offered sacrifice in the name of all the Latins at
the Alban Mount; fused the contingents of the
Latins with the Roman legion; put to death as
traitors such of their chiefs as opposed him;
and, at the head of the combined forces, suc-
cessfully attacked the Volscians. On his return
he completed the building of the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus, which the elder Tarquinius
had begun, and deposited in the vaults the
Sibylline books he had curiously acquired. (See
SIBYL.) But his lavish expenditure both in war
and peace necessitated the imposition of heavy
taxes, and the patience both of plebs and patri-
cians was beginning to give way. During a war
against the Rutuli Tarquinius laid siege to the
town of Ardea. Here in the Roman camp oc-
curred the famous dispute between Sextus Tar-
quinius, the son of the King, and Collatinus,
about the virtues of their respective wives, which
led to the rape of Lucretia (q.v.). L. Junius
Brutus (q.v.) carried the news of the outrage
to Rome and called upon the people to rise
against the tyrant, who was deposed by the
senate; finally, the army before Ardea revolted.
Tarquinius and his sons were obliged to flee, and
an aristocratic republic was constituted at Rome
(B.O. 509). Three different attempts were made
to restore Tarquinius by force: first, by his own
Etruscan kinsmen of Tarquinii; second, by Lars
Porsena (q.v.) of Clusium; and third, by his
son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius. All these, ac-
cording to the legend, failed; and at length Tar-
quinius, utterly baffled and beaten, retired to
Cumae, where he died.
TARR, RALPH STOOKMAN (1864—-). An
American educator, born at Gloucester, Mass.
He was educated at Lawrence Scientific School,
Harvard, and was assistant professor of geology
at Cornell University from 1892 to 1896, when
he became professor of dynamic geology and
physical geography in the same institution. Be-
sides acting as associate editor of the Bulletin of
the American Geographical Society and the Jour-
nal of Geography, he published: Economic Geol-
ogy of the United States (1893) ; Physical Geog-
raphy of New York State (1902) ; New Physical
Geography (1903); and several text-books on
geography.
TARRAGON. A garden herb. See ARTE-
MISIA.
TARRAGONA, tiir’ra-go’na (L. Tarraco). A
seaport of Spain, capital of the province of the
same name, in Catalonia, situated on the Medi-
terranean at the mouth of the Francoli, 63 miles
southwest of Barcelona (Map: Spain, F 2). On
the land side it is bordered by the beautiful Gampo
de Tarragona, whose agricultural products form
an important part of its trade. The local in-
dustries embrace manufactures of alcohol, liquors,
soap, flour, silks, and paper, and salted fish. Since
1892 it has been an important port of entry. The
town contains a normal school for both sexes, a
museum of archaeology, and several hospitals.
The nucleus of the old city is situated on a steep
hill, now crowned by the cathedral and the bish-
op’s palace. Population, in 1900, 26,281. The
city was probably founded as a Greek colony.
Under the Romans it enjoyed a prominent posi-
tion from the time of the Scipios, being at one
time a residence of Augustus. It gave its name
to the Province of Hispania Tarraconensis. From
this period still survive a portion of the ancient
wall, with ‘cyclopean’ remains, an amphitheatre,
the ruins of the palaces of Augustus and of
Pontius Pilate, and an aqueduct still in use. The
city was destroyed by the West Goth Euric
(475). It was taken by the Arabs in 713 and
partially destroyed, but was restored by Abd-ur-
Rahman (780). In the twelfth century it was
taken by the Christians and became an archi-
episcopal see. In 1811 it underwent a siege and
sack by the French under Suchet.
TARRASA, tar-rii'sa. A town in the Prov-
vince of Barcelona, in Catalonia, Spain, 22 miles
northwest of the city of Barcelona, on the Barce-
lona-Lérida line of the Northern Railway (Map:
Spain, F 2). It is an important industrial cen-
tre. with manufactures of cotton and woolen
cloths. The Romanesque churches of San Pedro
TARRASA.
TARSIER.
502
and San Miguel date from the Christian recon-
quest, but most of its structures are modern, in-
cluding a large royal college, industrial schools,
chamber of commerce, and two theatres. The
population, in 1900, was 15,872.
TARRASCH, tar’rash, SIEGBEBT (1862—).
A German chess master, born in Breslau. He
was educated in medicine at the universities of
Berlin and Halle, and practiced his profession in
Nuremberg, where in 1883 he won his mastership
in chess. His success in chess continued, and at
the international tournaments in Breslau (1889),
Manchester (1890), and Dresden (1892), he won
the first prize with only a single game lost. At
the tournament held in 1898 at Vienna he tied
with the American, Pillsbury, for first prize,
winning on the play-off; and he was sixth at the
International Masters’ Tournament held at
Monte Carlo in 1902. He became distinguished
for careful play and ingenious combinations. An
edition of 300 of his games, edited and analyzed
by himself, appeared in 1894.
TAR/RYTOWN. A village in VVestchester
County, N. Y., 25 miles north of New York City;
on the east side of Tappan Bay, an expansion
of the Hudson River, and on the New York Cen-
tral and Hudson River Railroad (Map: New
York, G 4). It is picturesquely situated on
ground rising from the river and is an attrac-
tive residential place. The vicinity of the vil-
lage, which has been made famous by Washing-
ton Irving (see SLEEPY HoLLow), is of great
interest also through its connection with the his-
tory of the Revolutionary period. Irving’s bur-
ial place is in the graveyard of the old Dutch
Church, about three-fourths of a mile north
of the village. The Dutch Church, dating from
1699, and the Philipse Manor House, built in
1683, are the most noteworthy of the older
buildings. Other features of Tarrytown include
Miss Mason’s School, familiarly known as the
‘Castle,’ the Tarrytown Lyceum, with a library
of more than 4000 volumes, the Institution of
Mercy (Catholic), and Irving Institute. Drill
works and mobile works are the leading indus-
trial establishments. The government is vested
in a president and board of trustees, who hold
office respectively for one year and two years.
The water-works are owned and operated by the
village. Population, in 1890, 3562; in 1900, 4770.
The name Tarrytown is said to have been de-
rived from the hypothetical first settler, one
Terry, who came in 1645. In 1683 Vredryk
Flypse (Frederick Philipse) moved here and ten
years later secured manorial rights to the ad-
jacent territory. Major André was captured here
on September 23, 1780. About two miles south
of the village, at Irvington, is Sunnyside, the
home of Washington Irving. Tarrytown was in-
corporated in 1870. Consult: Bacon, Ohronicles
of Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow (New York,
1897) ; and a sketch by Hamilton Wright Mabie
in Powell’s Historic Towns of the Middle States
(New York, 1899).
TARSHISH, tiir’shish. According to the
Old Testament, a region which was the resort of
Phoenician commerce, and the source of valuable
mineral products. The earliest mention is in
Genesis x. 4, where it is associated with lands
probably identical with Crete, Cyprus,and Rhodes.
Its special trade was with Tyre, which seems to
have had there a colonial factory (cf. Isa. xxii.;
Ezek. xxvii. 12, 25). Certain texts, however,
seem to oppose this western location. ‘Ships of
Tharshish’ are mentioned as starting from
So1omon’s port at Ezion-geber (q.v.) on the
Red Sea (I. Kings x. 22; xxii. 48); while
the Chronicler (II. Chron. ix. 21; x.
36-37) makes them go to Tarshish from
that point. Hence has arisen the view that
the Hebrews and Phoenicians circumnavigated
Africa, or else that there was an Oriental land
of Tarshish in addition to the Occidental one.
‘Ship of Tarshish,’ however, is now generally
supposed to mean some kind of large vessel de-
signed for distant voyages. It is also possible,
as held by some, that Phoenician ships were trans-
ported across the Isthmus of Suez. No identifi-
cation of this Western Tarshish has yet been ac-
cepted by scholars. The oldest view identifies it
with the Tartessus of Herodotus (iv. 152), Strabo
(ii. 158), and other Greeks, at the mouth of the
Guadalquiver, near Cadiz; and the southern part
of Spain in general is largely accepted as the
region of Tarshish. The location in Spain would
agree with the products assigned to Tarshish,
silver, iron, lead, while the tin may have been
brought thither from the British Isles. Also the
jewel called the stone of Tarshish, or simply a
tarshish (translated beryl in Exodus xxviii. 20,
and elsewhere), may represent one of the numer-
0us precious stones found in Spain. On the
ground of etymological comparison, the Tyrrhe-
nian or Etruscan region is accepted by some schol-
ars, and it is to be observed that the term is al-
ways used vaguely. Consult: Bochart, Geo-
graphia Sacra (Caen, 1646); Ritter, Erdlcnnde
(Eng. trans. Comparative Geography, vol.
i., Edinburgh, 1886) ; Meyer, Geschichte des Al-
tertnms, vol. i. (Stuttgart, 1884); Renouf, in
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archae-
ology, vol. xvi.; Winckler, Forschangen, vol. i.
(Leipzig, 1893); Cheyne and W. M. Miiller, in
Orientalische Litteratnrzeitung, vol. iii.; Haupt,
in Proceedings of Thirteenth International Con-
gress of Orlentalists.
TARSIA-WORK (It., from Gk. rapabs, tar-
sos, frame of wickerwork). A beautiful kind
of marquetry made in Italy. It is produced by
inlaying pieces of tinted or natural woods, so
as to represent figures and landscapes. That
of Sorrento is very celebrated. It is usually
applied to the decoration of cabinet-work, and
was largely used during the sixteenth century.
TARSIER (Fr. tarsier, from Neo-Lat. Tar-
sius, from tarsus, from Gk. 1'apo'6g, broad sur-
face, primarily for drying, also rapcbg 11-066;,
tarsos podos fiat of the foot, from répoeoflae,
tersesthai, to dry), or MALMOG. A small East
Indian animal (Tarsius spectrum), closely re-
lated to the lemurs, but set apart in a family
Tarsiidae, which inhabits trees in the Malayan
and Philippine archipelago and has the general
habits of a lemur. It is nowhere common, is noc-
turnal, and feeds upon insects and small reptiles.
In size it is about as large as a rat, has a large,
broad head, with very large eyes, teeth of a
generalized type, very long half naked hind legs
and short fore legs, and the long bony toes end in
large pads beneath the terminal joints. The tail
is long and tufted at the end. It moves about by
long leaps from bough to bough. Compare
TARSIER.
TARTARIC ACID.
503
GALAeo and MOUSE-LEMUR; and consult au-
thorities and Plate under LEMUR.
TAR/SUS (Lat., from Gk. Tapo6g, Tarsos,
Tapooi, Tarsoi). The chief city of ancient
Cilicia, and of Eastern Asia Minor, situated on
both sides of the navigable river Cydnus, in the
midst of a beautiful and productive plain, about
10 miles from the sea. From its situation Tarsus
commanded the pass over Mount Taurus, the
Cilician Gates, which formed the only means of
communication with Northern and Western Asia
Minor, and in almost equal measure the route to
Northern Syria and the East by the Amanian or
Syrian Gates. The first mention of the place as
Tarzi is on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II.,
about the middle of the ninth century B.o., where
its capture by the Assyrians is recorded. It was
the capital of the Kingdom of Cilicia, which was
long ruled, under Persian suzerainty, by a line of
kings who bore the hereditary name of Syennesis,
and later was the residence of a Persian satrap.
With the conquest of Alexander the Great, it
passed into Greek hands, and during the follow-
ing period was usually in the power of the Selen-
cidae of Syria. At the end of that century it passed
under the Roman supremacy, and upon the or-
ganization of the Province of Cilicia (12.0. 64)
it became the capital. Later, Mark Antony made
it a free city, and it was here that in B.C. 38 he
was visited by Cleopatra. Under the Empire the
free city seems to have enjoyed a popular form
of government with a property qualification for
the franchise. This gives additional point to the
claim of the Apostle Paul—a native of this place
——to be a citizen of Tarsus, as that implied a
certain social position. It was a place of conse-
quence even in Byzantine times, but suffered
from its proximity to the Syrian frontier. The
modern town, though large, is dirty and mean,
containing no vestige of its ancient splendor,
and but few ruins. The most conspicuous ruin
is the large concrete foundation of a Roman
building, popularly called the Tomb of Sardana-
palus.
TARTAGLIA, tar-ta'1ya, NIooLo (1500-
1557). An Italian physicist and arithmetieian
whose real name was Nicolo Fontana. He was
born at Brescia, lectured at Verona, and became
professor of mathematics at Venice. Tartaglia
first became generally known through his solu-
tion of cubic equations, and from his suggestions
Cardan (q.v.) probably derived the solution
known as Cardan’s method. His work in physics
is preserved in his Nuova scienza ( 1537 ; French
trans., 1845-46), showing that he studied the
theory of falling bodies and investigated the
range of projectiles at various angles. His
treatise on arithmetic, General trattato de nu-
meri et misure (1556-60), is the chief authority
on the Italian methods of his time. Quesiti et
inventioni dierse de Nicole Tartaglia (1546) is
also well known.
TAB/TAK. According to 11. Kings, xvii. 31,
the name given to a deity worshiped by the
Avites, who were transferred to Samaria by the
Assyrian King after the destruction of the
northern Hebrew kingdom. Jewish tradition
represents Tartak as worshiped under the form
of an ass (Tal. Bab., Sanhedrin 63). No such
deity as Tartak has been found in the Babylonian
or Assyrian literature.
TARTAN (Fr. tiretaine, tirtaine, linsey-
woolsey, from Sp. tiritafza, thin silk or woolen
cloth, from tiritar, to shiver). A well-known
cloth of checkered pattern, also called plaid. The
Scottish Gaelic tartan is a loan-word from the
English; the native name is rather breacan.
These colored plaids have long been in great
favor in the Highlands of Scotland, where each
clan wears a particular kind as its distinctive
dress. Consult: Skene, The Highlanders of
Scotland (new ed. by Alexander Macbain, 1901) ;
Grant, Clan Tartans (1886).
TARTAR (ML. tartarum, MGk. 1-dprapov,
tartar, probably from Lat Tartarus, from Gk.
Tdprapog, Tartarus, Hades; hardly from Ar.
durd, durdiy, dregs, from darida, to loose the
teeth, in allusion to the action of tartar on the
teeth). A mixture of bitartrate of potash and
tartrate of lime, deposited from wine and known
in its crude form as argol.
TARTAR EMETIC. A name applied to the
double tartrate of potassium and antimony,
K(SBO) C,H,O,,-{-1/2H2O. It is prepared by
making a paste of antimonious oxide, acid potas-
sium tartrate and a little water, allowing to
stand for several hours, then boiling the paste
with water, and allowing the resulting solution
to crystallize. Tartar emetic has a sweet taste,
but leaves a disagreeable after-taste in the
mouth. It is moderately soluble in water, but
is insoluble in alcohol. 11; has a powerfully irri-
tating effect on the alimentary canal, and thus
readily causes vomiting; but vomiting is also
due to the action of the compound upon the
medulla, after being absorbed into the blood.
Owing chiefly to its depressing effect on the heart
and nervous system, it is now much less used
than formerly.
TARTARIC ACID, C,H.,O.,. An acid com-
pound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which
four different modifications are known. Ordinary
tartaric acid is usually seen in the form of color-
less, transparent crystals, which are not affected
by the action of the air, have an agreeable acid
taste, and are soluble in water and alcohol. The
crystals when gently warmed become strongly
electric, the opposite sides of the crystals ex-
hibiting the opposite forms of electricity. On
heating tartaric acid to about 167-170° C. it
fuses; and at slightly higher temperatures it be-
comes changed into metatartaric, tartralic, and
tartrelic acids.
Tartaric acid occurs abundantly in the vege-
table kingdom both in the free and combined
states. It is, however, from argol (q.v.), a prod-
uct of the fermentation of grape juice, that
the tartaric acid of commerce is obtained. Argol,
or crude tartar, is boiled with water and hydro-
chloric acid, and the solution is precipitated
with lime. The insoluble tartrate of calcium
thus obtained is purified by washing with water,
then decomposed by treating with sulphuric acid.
This transforms the tartrate into the sparingly
soluble calcium sulphate, white tartaric acid
goes into solution in the free state. The filtered
liquid, when cooled and evaporated, yields crys-
talline tartaric acid.
Being a dibasic acid, tartaric acid can form
both acid and neutral salts. The most important
tartrates are the following: N eatral potassium
tartrate, K,C,H,O,, a soluble salt, which crystal-
TARTARIC ACID.
TARTE.
504
lizes with half a molecule of water. Acid potas-
sium tartrate, or bitartrate of potash,
KHC,H,(),, is prepared from argol by extraction
with boiling water and filtering the solution thus
obtained through charcoal. The salt crystallizes
readily as the hot solution cools. The snowy
white rhombic prisms which are thus deposited
constitute cream of tartar, which is moderately
soluble in cold water and but sparingly soluble
in alcohol. It is an excellent saline purgative
and diuretic and is therefore largely used in
medicine. Calcium tartrate, CaC,H.,O.,+ 4H,O,
is practically insoluble in cold water and but
sparingly soluble in hot water. The insolubility
of the acid tartrate of potassium and of the tar-
trate of calcium often helps to identify tartaric
acid. Tartar emetic is described in a special
article.
Tartaric acid has been known since the earliest
times, in the form of tartar; Scheele was the
first to obtain the acid in the free state and to
determine its principal properties (1769), Like
any other acid, tartaric acid promotes the
secretion of saliva, and may therefore be used to
allay thirst. When taken internally it is de-
composed in the blood with formation of alkaline
carbonates, which cause an increase of the alka-
linity of urine.
A remarkable modification of tartaric acid is
known as racemic or paratartaric amid, C.,H,O6 +
2H,O. It is a frequent associate of tartaric acid,
but is especially abundant in the grapes of the
Vosges district. While in most respects it ex-
hibits a close resemblance to tartaric acid, it
crystallizes more readily from solution; contains
two equivalents of water of crystallization; is
less soluble in alcohol; and the racemate of lime
is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and is precipitat-
ed unchanged on adding ammonia, Its most
important difference, however, is that its solu-
tion does not rotate the plane of polarized light,
while a solution of ordinary tartaric acid exerts
a well-marked right-handed rotation. Pasteur
proved that racemic acid is a mixture of ordinary
tartaric acid (to which, from its optical prop-
erty, he applies the term demtro-racemic acid)
and of an acid which produces left-handed rota-
tion, to which he gives the name Zceco-racemic
acid. (These acids are also known as dea:tro-
tartaric and Zceoo-tartaric acids). He found
that, by saturating racemic acid with soda and
ammonia, and allowing this solution to crystal-
lize slowly, two varieties of crystals are obtained,
which may be distinguished by their form, in
the same way as the image and the reflection of
the image in a mirror differ, or as right-handed
and left-handed. If the two kinds of crystals
are separated, and then dissolved, each solution
is found to act powerfully on polarized light,
but in opposite directions. On separating these
acids from their bases, and mixing equal parts
of concentrated solutions of each, racemic acid is
again formed, which exerts no action on a polar-
ized ray.
Besides the three modifications mentioned
above, viz., ordinary or dextro-tartaric acid,
laevo-tartaric acid, and racemic acid, a fourth
modification of the same chemical composition
and constitution, known as meso-tartaric, anti-
tartaric, or inactive tartaric acid, has been ob-
tained. It may be prepared by heating, in a
sealed glass tube, 30 grams of ordinary tartaric
acid with 3 or 4 cubic centimeters of water, at
165° C., for about 48 hours. In the anhydrous
state it melts at about 140° C.; usually, how-
ever, it is obtained in the form of crystals having
the composition C.,H.,O6 + H20. It is very
soluble in water. Its acid potassium salt, too,
is very soluble in water, and its calcium salt
crystallizes with 3 molecules of water: CaC,H,O,
+3H2O. The different modifications of tartaric
acid have also been prepared synthetically. Their
relation to one another has been explained
stereo-chemically. See STEREO-CHEMISTRY.
TARTARIN, tar’ta’rf1N’. The hero of three
tales by Alphonse Daudet, Tartarin of Tarascon
(1872), Tartarin on the Alps (1885), and Port-
Tarascon (1890). The boastful, expansive,
childlike Tartarin personifies the Gascon type,
with which Daudet was intimately familiar,
TARTARS. See TATARS.
TAR’TARUS (Lat., from Gk. Tdprapos).
According to Homer, a deep and sunless abyss,
as far below Hades as earth is below heaven,
and closed in by iron gates. Into Tartarus Zeus
hurled those who rebelled against his authority,
e.g. Cronos and the Titans. It is to be noted
that such typical sinners as Tityos, who offered
violence to Leto, and after his death by
the arrows of Apollo and Artemis was con-
demned to have his liver perpetually eat-
en by vultures, or Sisyphus (q.v.), Tantalus
(q.v.), and Ixion (q.v.) are represented in the
earlier poems as suffering in sight of the other
shades. In the later conception, when the idea
of a judgment in the other world and a separa-
tion between the good and bad had become well
developed, Tartarus became the place of punish-
ment for all sinners.
TAR’TARY (properly Tatary). The name
which, in the Middle Ages, was applied to the
central part of Eurasia. In later times a dis-
tinction was made between European and Asiatic
Tartary, the former comprising that part of
Russia which was once the Khanate of the
Crimea. The term Asiatic Tartary, first applied
to the whole of Central Asia, has gradually been
confined to the independent portion of Turkestan.
TARTE, tart, Josnrn ISRAEL (18/48-). A
Canadian statesman. He was born in the Prov-
ince of Quebec, was educated at L’Assomption
College, and was admitted to the bar in
1871. Afterwards he became editor of Le Cana-
dien and then of L’Evenement, in Quebec. Po-
litically he was a Conservative until 1891, but
after that date he supported the Liberals. He was
a member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec
in 1877-81, and became one of the active political
organizers of his party in that province. As the
avowed foe of jobbery and corruption in every
form, he had already given dissatisfaction by his
criticism of certain politicians and measures;
but after his election to the Dominion House of
Commons in 1891, as an Independent Conserva-
tive, he vigorously attacked the administration
of Sir John A. Macdonald, his political chief,
alleging corrupt practices by Ministers. This
compelled him to sever his connection with the
Conservative Party, and when the Laurier ad-
ministration came into power in 1896 he was ap-
pointed Minister of Public Works. He held that
position until 1902.
TARTINI.
TASCHEREAU.
505
TARTINI, tiir-té’ne, GIUSEPPE (1692-1770).
An Italian violinist, composer, and theoretician,
born at Pirano, Istria. He discovered the com-
bination tones, about 17l4, and used them in
making perfect purity of intonation. His fame
rapidly increased and in 1721 he was made solo
violinist and conductor of the orchestra at Sant’
Antonio in Padua. From 1723 to 1725 he was
chamber-musician to Count Kinsky at Prague.
Afterwards he again took up his duties at Padua
and founded a violin school there in 1728, which
acquired a world-wide reputation. His composi-
tions include numerous classical concertos,
sonatas, and other compositions for the violin,
and the best-known of his theoretical works are:
Trattato di musica secondo la vera scien.ea dell’
armonia (1754) ; De’ principj dell’ armonia
musicale contenuta nel diatonico genere (1767) ;
and I/arte dell’ arco, reprinted in Choron, Prin-
cipes de oomposition, vol. vi. (Paris, 1816) . Con-
sult Fayolle, “Notices sur Corelii, Tart-int,” etc.
(Paris, 1810).
TARTUFE, tar’tuf’, or TARTUFFE. The
name of Moliere’s most celebrated comedy and
of the chief character in it, who has become the
type in all languages for a hypocritical scoundrel
carrying out his evil designs under the cloak_ of
religion. In the play, Tartufe ingratiates him-
self with a simple-minded gentleman named
Orgon, and nearly ruins both him and his family
before being discovered. Conflicting stories are
given as to the original of the character. The
name is said to have suggested itselfto Moliere
on the occasion of a visit to the Papal Nuncio,
where he saw the pious and solemn countenances
of the Nuncio’s courtiers suddenly lighted up
with ecstatic animation by the appearance of a
seller of truffles—in Italian, tartu/’f'oli. Tartufo
has also been found used in Italian figuratively
for an ill-disposed person, in allusion to the
fancy that truffles were a diseased product of the
earth. The play was written in 1664, presented
once in 1667, then prohibited, and it was not
until 1669 that Moliere succeeded finally in get-
ting the King’s consent, after which the piece had
an uninterrupted run for three months.
TARUDANT, tii’r6-6-diint’. The capital of
the Province of Sus, Morocco, situated between
the base of the Atlas Mountains and the Sus Riv-
er, 125 miles southwest of Morocco. The sur-
rounding country is highly cultivated and the
city, walled and defended by a citadal, contains
many fine mosques, groves, and gardens. The
streets are narrow and crooked and most of the
houses have but one story. Copper, gold, silver,
and iron ores are mined in the vicinity and the
chief industries a.re the manufacture of copper
articles for Central Africa, tanning, leather-
dressing, and dyeing. Population of the town,
about 8500; of the district, 30,000.
TARUMA, tZi’rO'6-niii’. A tribe of Arawakan
stock (q.v.) on the headwaters of the Essequibo
River, British Guiana. They came originally
from the Rio Negro, Brazil. They are of medi-
um stature, but well formed. Their language
differs so much from the cognate dialects that
it was formerly thought to constitute a distinct
stock.
TARUMARI, t;i'rfii-ma’ré, or TARAHUMABI.
A numerous tribe of Piman stock (q.v.) occupy-
ing the Sierra Madre region of Central and
Southern Chihuahua, and extending into the ad-
jacent sections of Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico.
No reliable statement of their number can be
given, but they are variously estimated at
from 50,000 to 100,000. On account of the
broken character of the country which they
inhabit, there is no central organization, each
little valley settlement managing its own affairs
under a local chief or ‘governor.’ The language
is spoken in several dialects and the people gen-
erally are classed by the Mexicans as Christians in
the north and ‘gentiles’ or heathen in the south.
Although peaceful and unwarlike in character,
the T arumari have several times revolted against
the Spaniards and the Mexicans. In 1648 they
rose up and destroyed all the missions, drove
every Spaniard out of their territory, and main-
tained a successful resistance for four years un-
der their chief Teporaca. In 1690 they again re-
belled, destroyed the missions, mines, and haci-
endas, and massacred all the Spaniards, but were
finally subjugated in 1692. A local insurrection
in the neighborhood of Temosachic, northwest of
Chihuahua City, in 1895, led by a native prophet-
ess, was suppressed only after a bloody massacre
by Mexican troops.
Physically, the Tarumari are very dark and
rather undersized, resembling the Pueblo In-
dians, and, like them, they are of remarkable
strength and endurance. They are fond of music
and singing, make pottery and weave elaborate‘
girdles of native cotton, although the men or-
dinarily go naked except for a cloth about the
loins. They are sedentary and semi-agricultural,
but depend largely also upon hunting, fishing,
and wild products. Much attention is given
to the corn crop, nearly all their ceremoni-
al dances being more or less invocations or
thanksgiving for rain. They have a feast of the
dead a year after the funeral, and are devoted to
the peyote rite, going hundreds of miles on foot
to procure supplies of the cactus. Their houses
are small thatched huts of logs or stones laid
in clay mortar, and they frequently utilize the
mountain caves for dwelling purposes.
TASCHEREAU, tash'ro’, EL-ZEAR ALEX-
ANDRE (1820-98). A Canadian prelate and cardi-
nal, born in the Province of Quebec. He was
educated at the Quebec Seminary, with which,
after his ordination to the priesthood in 1842,
he remained connected for nearly thirty years,
first as professor of moral philosophy and from
1860 as director. In 1862 he was made vicar-
general of the diocese, and archbishop in 1871,
In 1886 he became a cardinal, the first Canadian
member of the Sacred College.
TASCHEREAU, JULES ANTOINE (1801-74).
A French author and statesman, born at Tours.
He studied law at Orleans, and then entered
journalism in Paris. He was for a time the edi-
tor of the National; served in the magistracy;
and in 1833 founded the Revue rétrospective,
devoted to the collection of documents upon his-
tory and literature (20 vols., 1833-37). In 1837
he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He
sat in the Constituent Assembly, and then in the
Legislative Assembly: supported the Empire,
and was rewarded with a place in the National
Library, of which he in time became director.
Among his published works are: Histoire de la
vie et des ouvmges de M oliere (1825) ; and His-
TASCHEBE-AU.
TASMANIA.
506
toire de la vie et des ouvrages de P. Oorneille
(1829).
TASHKENT, tash-kent’, or TASHKEND.
The capital of the Governor-Generalship of Rus-
sian Turkestan and of the Territory of Syr-Darya,
as well as one of the most important cities of
Central Asia, situated near the Tchirtchik, a
feeder of the Syr-Darya, about 150 miles north-
east of Samarkand (Map: Asia, F 4). It con-
sists of the new Russian city, built up since the
Russian occupation, and the old native city.
The former is well laid out, abounds in private
gardens, and compares favorably in regard to
public buildings and educational institutions
with most cities of European Russia. It has a
library rich in works on Central Asia. The native
city is still partly surrounded by walls and is
Oriental in appearance, with its narrow crooked
streets and low houses turning toward the street
their blind walls. Tashkent manufactures leather
goods, textiles, metal articles, and footwear.
Agriculture and gardening are carried on. The
trade has greatly increased in importance since
the connection of the city with the Caspian Sea
by rail. Population, in 1897, 156,414, consisting
chiefly of Sarts, Tatars, Kirghizes. The Russians
number about 25,000. The first trustworthy
mention of Tashkent dates from the seventh cen-
tury, although local traditions attribute to the
city very great antiquity. The town has been in
possession of Russia since 1865.
TASK, THE. A descriptive and didactic poem
in blank verse by \Villiam Cowper, written in
the summer of 1783 at the suggestion of Lady
Austin, who had jestingly proposed a sofa as a
possible subject for the poet’s muse and had thus
started him upon his task. The six books are
called “The Sofa;” “The Timepiece;” “The
Garden;” “The \Vinter’s Evening ;” “The Morn-
ing \Valk;” “The Evening Walk.” It was first
published, together with the Epistle to Joseph
Hill, T1'rocim'am, and John Gilpi/n, in London,
July, 1785.
TASMAN, ttis’m2in, ABEL JANszooN (c.1602-
59). A Dutch explorer. He was born at Lutge-
gast, near Groningen, and early went to sea.
He made two important voyages of discovery in
the Pacific. In 1642 he left Batavia in command
of an expedition sent out by Van Dieman, Gov-
ernor-General of the Dutch East India Company,
to circumnavigate the Australian continent. Dur-
ing his voyage of ten months he discovered
(November 24, 1642) Tasmania—which he called
Van Diemen’s Land—New Zealand, and the
Friendly and Fiji Islands. After publishing an
account of his voyage, which was reprinted in
1722 (2d ed. by Jacob Swart, 1860), he made
a second voyage to New Guinea and New Hol-
land and discovered the Gulf of Carpentaria.
His life was written by Dozy, in his Bijdragen
tot de Taal-, Land-, en Vollcenkunde van Neder-
Zansoh Indie (1887), and by Walker (Hobart,
1896).
'I'ASMA’1\TIA. A State of A.ustralia occupy-
ing the island of Tasmania with its neighbor-
ing islands. The island of Tasmania, formerly
called Van Diemen’s Land, lies between latitudes
40° 33' and 43° 39' S. and longitudes 144° 39'
and 148° 23' E. It is separated from the south-
eastern portion of the Australian continent, the
coast of Victoria, by Bass Strait, 140 miles wide;
the Indian Ocean bounds the island on the west
and the Pacific on the east, the two meeting at
its southern extremity. Tasmania is of nearly
triangular shape, measuring 200 miles from
north to south and 245 miles from east to west.
The area of the main island is 24,331 square
miles, and of the State, including the smaller
islands, 26,385 square miles.
Tasmania is an ancient plateau which has been
extensively and irregularly dissected by the
action of running water. In the west central
portion there still remains an extensive plateau
region with a nearly uniform height of 3000
to 4000 feet, though some isolated peaks and
ridges are scattered over it. In the northwest
this plateau reaches an altitude of 5069 feet in
Cradle Mountain, the highest point of the island.
In the northeastern corner of the island there
is a similar plateau remnant, but between the
two there is a series of great valleys extending
from the mouth of the Tamar in the north to
that of the Derwent in the south and affording
the route for the main railroad line. The re-
maining parts of the island are cut up into a
maze of deep valleys and high ridges and peaks,
often of a precipitous character. There are about
20 peaks over 4000 feet high scattered through
nearly every part of the island. The coasts are
generally bold, and in the southeast are irregu-
larly indented with fiords and harbors suggesting,
together with the generally lower level of the
surrounding mountains and the outlying islets,
a subsidence of the land in this direction.
The central plateau is studded with a num-
ber of mountain lakes of considerable size, most
of which feed the Derwent River. The rivers
of Tasmania are large and numerous consider-
ing the size of the island. The most important
are the Derwent and Huon in the south, the
Gordon in the west, and the Tamar in the north,
all of which enter the sea through large, havi-
gable estuaries.
The climate is more temperate and equable
than that of the continent. At Hobart the mean
temperature in summer is 62°, and in winter
47°, the extremes ranging to 100° and 29°. The
rainfall varies greatly in the different localities,
and depends largely on the degree of exposure to
the west winds, which bring most of the moist-
ure. In the east the general average is 22 inches,
in the north 30 inches, and in the west 40 inches,
though some western localities have had 100
inches of rain in a year. In the west and south-
west, where the rocks are granitic and schistose,
the soil is rather poor. In the central valley
and in the northern and southeastern districts the
Tertiary deposits have combined with volcanic
detritus to form a very rich soil of a chocolate
color.
The flora is essentially Australian, a.nd close-
ly related to that of Victoria. There are mag-
nificent forests containing acacias and the gi-
gantic eucalyptus, as well as other valuable
timbers, such as the Huon pine (Dacrg/diam
Franlalzhzi). The conifers are well represented,
there being 9 species peculiar to the island, and
of the 1100 species of angiosperms, or higher
plants, over 250 are restricted to Tasmania. The
fauna, though also distinctively Australian, in-
cludes several mammals unknown on the main-
land. The most remarkable of these are two
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TASMANIA.
TASMANIA.
507
carnivorous marsupials, the Tasmanian wolf
and the Tasmanian devil. See DASYUBE.
The central table land- and the western and
southern portions consist mainly of Archaean
granites, crystalline schists, and quartzites over-
laid by much eroded Paleozoic rocks. Toward
the coast Mesozoic and Tertiary formations ap-
pear, chiefly as sandstones, while throughout,
but especially in the east, there are extensive
volcanic outpourings, dikes of porphyry and
greenstone, and large fields of basalt of Tertiary
age, The latter, capping and protecting the
softer sandstones, are largely responsible for
the rugged and irregular nature of the surface.
Considerable beds of coal and lignite appear in
the Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations. Rich
iron ores occur along the north coast, and tin,
lead, plumbago, and some gold have been found
in various parts of the island.
Copper is predominant. Beginning in 1896, the
copper-mining developed rapidly, until in 1900 the
value of the blister copper mined was £907,288
and copper ore £63,589. The production of gold
more than doubled between 1891 and 1900, being
valued at £316,220 in the latter year. The yield
of silver ore in 1900 was valued at £279,372,
which was much in excess of the average annual
yield. The value of tin mined for the same year
was £269,833, and of coal £44,227. The tin pro-
duction exceeds that of any other Australian
State. The lode mines of Mount Bischoff have
become famous, but elsewhere the tin is got from
alluvial deposits.
The total area under cultivation in 1901 was
560,151 acres. The cereal crops included: wheat,
51,825 acres; oats, 45,073 acres; corn, 9839 acres;
and barley, 4502 acres. There were also 23,068
acres of potatoes, 306,181 acres of green fodder,
and 61,541 acres of hay. There was an average
yield of 18.9 bushels of cereals per acre for the
decade ending with 1901. The island is ex-
ceptionally well suited to temperate zone fruits,
and in 1901 there were 7888 acres in apples
alone. The State is well adapted to stock-raising,
but the industry has not shown much progress
for several years. In 1901 the number of sheep
was 1,683,556, cattle 165,516, and horses 31,607.
At the beginning of 1901 there were 546 miles
of railroad in operation. Of these 108 miles
were private lines, and the remainder were in
the hands of the Government. The imports in
1901 amounted to £1,969,199 and the exports to
£2,945,757. The bulk of the trade is with Vic-
toria, Great Britain, and New South Wales.
Copper is the most important export, other ex-
ports being silver ore, tin, wool, fruit, and
potatoes. In 1900 the tonnage of vessels enter-
ing Tasmanian ports aggregated 618,963. Ho-
bart and Launceston are the leading ports.
Strahan has a large export trade. -
There is a Governor appointed by the British
Crown, who is assisted by a Cabinet of six re-
sponsible members. The Legislature (Parlia-
ment) consists of a Legislative Council of 18
elected members and a House of Assembly of 38
elected members. The seat of government is at
Hobart.
The total receipts from taxation in 1900-01
were £644,510, of which £466,218 were collected
from customs duties and the remainder by ex-
cise taxes, land taxes, income taxes, etc. The
land revenue for the same year was £67,498; the
Von. XVI.-33.
revenue from reproductive public works, £299,-
468; from other sources, £43,504; making a
grand total revenue of £1,054,980. The interest
on public debts, £320,151, was the largest item
of expenditure. The debt of the State was £8,-
511,005, of which £7,480,250 was borrowed in
London.
The population increased from 24,279 in 1830
to 145,290 in 1890, and to 182,509 in 1899, and
then decreased to 174,233 in 1901. In the latter
year there were 89,624 males and 82,851 females.
Almost the whole of the population belongs to
the British race. In 1900 the emigration was
in excess of the immigration. In 1901 the popu-
lation of Hobart was 31,317; Launceston, 21,-
046.
In 1901 the members of the Church of England
numbered 83,812; Catholics, 30,314; Wesleyans,
24,961; Presbyterians, 11,523; besides these
there were a number of minor sects. School at-
tendance is compulsory between the ages of 7
and 13. Small fees are charged. Children who
reside far from school are carried free over the
State railroads. Religious instructionmay be
given only after school hours. In 1901 there
were 319 primary day schools, with 18,693 in
average enrollment, and 14,007 in average at-
tendance. The State extends no aid for secondary
education, but there are two State technical
schools and a school of mines, The University
of Tasmania has its headquarters at Hobart, but
gives lectures also at Launceston.
ETHNOLOGY. The aboriginal inhabitants of Tas-
mania, who are now extinct, were of doubtful
racial affinities, having been regarded by differ-
ent authorities as being variously connected with
the Papuan, Melanesian, and Australian races.
They were of relatively low stature, with broad,
prognathous faces, very flat broad noses, dark
skins, and frizzly hair, the last named feature be-
ing the chief difference from the Australians.
In culture the Tasmanians were probably on
approximately the same level as the more primi-
tive tribes of Australian aborigines. The tale
of the extermination of the Tasmanians, who
never numbered more, perhaps, than five or six
thousand, is one of the blackest pages in the
history of European colonization. The European
settlement began in 1804, and by 1824, when the
first census was taken, there were only 340
natives alive. These had dwindled down to four
by 1865. The ‘last Tasmanian,’ a woman named
Tinganina, is said to have died in 1876.
HISTORY. In 1642 the Dutch navigator Abel
Janszoon Tasman (q.v.) discovered the island now
known by his name, supposing it to be the main-
land of the southern continent, and called it
Van Diemen’s Land, in honor of his friend and
patron, Anthony Van Diemen, Governor of the
Dutch East Indies. It was visited by Cap-
tain Cook in 1777. The next recorded explora-
tion is that of George Bass, a young English
surgeon, who explored the strait which bears his
name in 1798, and thus discovered that Tas-
mania was not a peninsula, but an island. Later
in the year he returned and surveyed the entire
coast. No colonizing was attempted until 1803.
In that year Captain Collins brought out 400
convicts from England, and in 1804 laid out
Hobart Town—so called in honor of Lord Ho-
bart, Secretary of State for the Colonies—the
present capital of Tasmania. In the same year
TASMANIA.
TASSO. .
508
a settlement was founded in the northern part
of the island by colonists from Sydney. In 1806
this colony was transferred to Launceston. From
these two centres the colonization of the island
proceeded steadily. Till 1823 the island was un-
der the authority of the New South Wales Gov-
ernment. In that year it received a separate
Lieutenant-Governor and in 1825 a separate Gov-
ernor. The opposition to convict labor, always
deep-seated, notwithstanding the scarcity of la-
borers, led, in 1835, to the first petition to the
Home Government for its abolition. This, how-
ever, did not take place until 1853. In that year,
too, the colony received its present name of Tas-
mania, In 1854 a constitution providing for re-
sponsible government by a colonial parliament
was framed by the Legislative Council of the
colony, in accordance with the terms of the
Australian Government Act of 1850, and this
bill received the royal assent in 1855. On Janu-
. ary 1, 1901, Tasmania became a member of the
Commonwealth of Australia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Just, The Ofiicial H andboolc of
Tasmania (Melbourne, 1892); Johnston, Sys-
tematic Account of the Geology of Tasmania
(Hobart, 1888); Murray, Tasmanian Rivers,
Lakes, and Flowers (London, 1900); Roth and
Butler, The Aborigines of Tasmania (2d ed.,
Halifax, 1900); for the flora and fauna, Mere-
dith, My Bash Friends in Tasmania (London,
1859); id., Tasmanian Friends and Foes (ib.,
1880) ; id., M Bash Friends in Tasmania. Last
Series (ib., 1891); Fenton, A History of Tas-
maniav (Hobart, 1884).
TASMANIAN VVOLF, TIGER-WOLF, ZEBRA-
WOLF, or THYLACINE. A wolf-like, carnivorous
and savage marsupial of Australia. See DAS-
YURE; Colored Plate of Mnnsorrnns; Plate of
PHALANGEBS.
TAS’1V[AN' SEA. That portion of the South
Pacific Ocean which is included between Australia
and Tasmania on the west and New Zealand on
the east (Map: Australasia, J 6). It is more
than 15,000 feet deep, and contains but few
islands.
TASSE-ART, ta’sIart, ANTOINE (1729-88). A
Flemish sculptor, born and trained in Antwerp.
After working in London and Paris, he was called
to Berlin in 1774 by Frederick the Great, who
made him Court sculptor and rector of the Acad-
emy. He was especially esteemed by Prince
Henry, the King’s brother, for whose Palace the
fashioned many statues and groups. His other
principal works include the busts of the Great
Elector, of Frederick 11., and of Moses Men-
delssohn, and of later date the statues of gen-
erals Seydlitz and Keith, now in the Cadet‘ School
at Gross-Lichterfelde.
TASSAERT, NICOLAS Fmngors OCTAVE
(1800-74). A French historical and ‘genre
painter. He was born in Paris, and St11Cl1Bd. at
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and in the ateliers of
Girard and Guillon Lethiere. In modeling his art
upon Chardin and Greuze, he portrayed, with
powerful realism and able technique, the suffer-
ings of the poor and the unfortunate. His exag-
erated pathos does not appeal to present taste,
gut he was highly regarded by Delacroix, Rous-
seau, and other Barbizon masters. After a
large historical picture, the “Funeral of Dago-
bert” (Versailles), came such subjects as the
“Death of Héloise,” the “Slave Merchant,” “Two
Mothers,” the “Unhappy Family” (Luxem-
bourg) , and the “Old Musician.” He asphyxiated
himself with the fumes of charcoal.
'I'AS’SIE, JAMES (1735-99). An English
modeler. He was born at Pollokshaws, near
Glasgow, and became a stonemason. While
working at his trade he studied modeling in
Glasgow, and in 1763 went to Dublin, where he
entered the laboratory of Henry Quin, a physician
who spent his leisure in making imitation gems.
Together they invented a kind of vitreous paste,
in which they cast wax models of gems and
medallions. In 1766 Tassie settled in London,
where he continued his work with gems, and also
made many casts. The former became very popu-
lar, being made with great skill, color, and trans-
parency, and approaching the originals in beauty.
His personal collection became famous. At the
command of Empress Catharine of Russia he fur-
nished her copies of all his pastes and employed
Rudolph Ra-spe, the creator of Baron Munchausen,
to catalogue them. He was associated with Wedg-
wood in some of his work. He has also consid-
erable claim to remembrance as an original artist,
as he made from life many portrait medallions
of eminent contemporaries. These works, cast
in white enamel, have both charm and verisimili-
tude. A collection of them is in the Scottish
National Portrait Gallery.
TASSO, tas’so, BERNABDO (1493-1569). An
Italian poet, born in Venice and educated at
Padua. The most part of his life was spent in
the service of various ducal and princely rulers,
from 1563 in that of Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duek of
Mantua, who made him Governor of Ostiglia in
1567. His reputation as a poet rests on the ro-
mantic epos L’Amadigi di Ganla (1560), based
on the Spanish prose version of Amadis of Gaul.
An episode of it he treated afterwards separately
in I Z floridante, completed by his son Torquato in
1587. His lyrics Amori (1555) and Rime, odi e
salmi (1560) are now forgotten, but his volumi-
nous correspondence, Lettere (Padua, 1733-51),
is a valuable contribution to the political and
literary history of his time.
TASSO, Tonounro (1544-95). A famous Ital-
ian poet, son of the preceding, born at Sorrento,
March 11, 1544. Accompanying his father on
his various military and diplomatic missions,
he received his early training in Naples,
Rome, Urbino, and Venice. Fired by the re-
ports of the inroads made by the Turks in Hun-
gary and by the accounts of their piratical land-
ings on the coast of Italy, the Christian popu-
lation began to think of a new crusade against
the Moslems, and the young Tasso now conceived
the idea of writing a poem on the Crusades. He
actually did compose on the subject some verses
which he revised and incorporated in the first
cantos of his Gernsalemme liberata. In 1560 he
was sent to the University of Padua to study
law, but he soon gave up law for philosophy
and letters. He was in the meantime at work
upon a poem of chivalrous import, the Rinaldo
(published at Venice in 1562). From Bologna,
where he had been engaged in study for two
years, Torquato had to flee in 1564 in order to
escape a prosecution for certain satires that he
had aimed at professors and fellow students.
Induced by the willingness of Cardinal Luigi
d’Este to take him into his service, he went to
. TASSO.
TASSO.
509
Ferrara in 1565, and there devoting some atten-
tion to his Geramlemme, already begun, he also
played a distinguished part at the Court of the
Duke, Alfonso II.
Tasso was regularly attached to the suite of
Alfonso II. in 1572, and left with full leisure for
his literary pursuits, so that in 1573 he was
able to compose in a short time his excellent
pastoral drama, the Aminta, and to continue work
upon the Gerasalemme, which was finished by
1575. In this same year he was given the sine-
cure post of historiographer of the Court of
Este. Troubles of various kinds now began to
affect his mind, and his mental ailment, made
worse by a blow on the head received during a
quarrel, developed into a mania, which consisted
in a belief on his part that he was inclining to
heretical principles and was therefore watched
and persecuted. In June, 157 7, he drew‘ a
knife upon a servant who seemed to be watching
him as he was conversing with the Princess
Lucrezia d’Este, and by order of the Duke he
was confined in a room of the palace that he
might there receive treatment. Having been later
transferred to the Franciscan monastery in Fer-
rara, he escaped thence one night in July, 1579,
and wandered for a while begging his way about
Italy, and fleeing in turn from the various asy-
lums offered him. During the lucid intervals
of this period he composed several of his best
dialogues.
In 1579 he returned to Ferrara, at a time when
the attention of the Court was wrapt in the
nuptials of the Duke and Margherita Gonzaga.
Having failed on this account to obtain the
audience that he sought, he became frantic and,
bursting into the Court one day, he behaved so
violently that it was found necessary‘ to imprison
him in the insane asylum of Sant’ Anna, He
was treated kindly and was allowed to receive
the visits of princes, persons of the Court and
other friends. At one moment a furious maniac,
at the next he was in perfect possession of his
faculties and could write his philosophical
Dialoghi.
As soon as his confinement in Sant’ Anna be-
came known, pirated editions of his works be-
gan to appear. In 1580 a certain Malaspina
published in Venice a garbled edition of four-
teen cantos of the Gerusalernme under the title
Goffredo, and this induced a friend of Tasso,
Angelo Ingegneri, to publish a more correct edi-
tion at Parma and Casalrnaggiore (1581). Still
better editions are the two that appeared at
Ferrara, also in 1581, prepared by still another
friend of the poet, Bonna, who had access to
Tasso’s own manuscript. But the Gerasalemme
liberata, thus given to the public in its proper
form, no longer pleased its author, who set to
work to correct and remodel it, eventually pro-
ducing the luckless Gerusalemme conqaistata, a
work decidedly inferior to the earlier and in-
spired epic. .
Vincenzo Gonzaga, Prince of Mantua, obtained
of the Duke of Ferrara, in 1586, permission to
maintain the poet in his own household, and
took him away with him. While living with this
patron, Tasso completed his tragedy, Il re Tor-
rismondo (published at Bergamo, 1587), but his
malady regained control of him and, fleeing
again, he resumed his wandering life. I-Iaving
visited Bologna, Naples, Rome, and Florence, he
returned to the Court of Mantua in 1591; but
toward the end of the year he went again to
Rome in company with the Duke, and during the
little while he was yet to live he spent his time
between Rome and Naples. In 1593 the Germa-
lemme conqaistata was published, and in 1594
Pope Clement VIII. summoned Tasso to the Capi-
--tol to be crowned as poet laureate. This ceremony
was prevented, however, by the increasing illness
of Tasso, who died April 25, 1595. Legendary ac-
counts of the adventures of the unfortunate poet
have played a considerable part in the literature
of both Italy and other foreign lands, and have
afforded themes for the imagination of Goethe,
Byron, Lamartine, Espronceda, Leopardi, Prati,
and Carducci; but sober historical investigation
has made clear that the poet was insane and that
Alfonso d’Este was his friend and patron rather
than his tyrannical master.
Tasso’s prose works embrace his correspondence
(Epistolario) , Dialoghi (dialogues on philosophi-
cal, moral, literary, and aesthetical subjects),
Orazioni, Trattati, Discorsi (these last deal with
the nature of heroic poetry, the polemic stirred
up by his Gerasalemme, etc.). The poetical
works include his Rirne (sonnets, octaves, can-
zoni, etc., some of them love lyrics in the Pe-
trarchian manner, others religious and political
in tone); the Rinaldo (his early chivalrous
poem of twelve cantos in octaves, narrating the
adventures of the French hero, Renaut de Mon-
tauban, and thus dealing with the Old French
legendary matter about Charlemagne and his
peers, which had been introduced into Northern
Italy at a very early date—-—to this matter the
poet has added a good deal of his own invention) ;
the Aminta, the best Italian pastoral drama;
the tragedy Torrismondo (notable as being one
of the first literary attempts in Italy to deal
with the Northern Germanic matter that has
since been so important in the romantic move-
ment) ; I l Monte Olineto (a fragment in octaves,
celebrating the origin of the congregation of the
monks of Mount Olivet) ; Le sette giornate del
mondo creato (a philosophical and imaginative
account of the creation written in blank verse) ;
La G-erasalemme liberata (his masterpiece and
one of the greatest glories of Italian literature,
singing in twenty cantos of octaves the crusade
of Godfrey of Bouillon and developing in con-
nection with it many beautiful love episodes).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Solerti’s ed. of the Opere minori
in oersi (vols. i. and ii., Poerni minori, Bologna,
1891; vol. iii., Teatro, ib., 1895; vols. iv.-
vii., Rime) and the eds. of the Gerasalemme
liberata by S. Ferrari (Florence, 1890) and So-
lerti (Florence, 1895). Consult: Solerti, Vita
di Torquato Tasso (Turin, 1895) ; Ferrazzi, Tor-
quato Tasso, stndi biografici-critici-bibZiografici
(Bassano, 1880); Cherbuliez, Le prince Vital,
essai et réc-it d propos de la folie dit Tasse
(Paris, 1864) ; D’Ovidio, “I1 carattere, gli amori
e le sventure di Torquato Tasso,” in the Study’
critici (Naples, 1879); Proto, Sal Rinaldo di
Torquato Tasso (Naples, 1895); Vivaldi, Snlle
fonti della Gerusalem/me liberata (Catanzaro,
1893) ; Multineddu, Le fonti della Gerusalernme
liberata (Sassari, 1895); De Grisy, De T. Tassi
Poernate qnod Inscribitnr Gerasalemme conqnis-
tata (Paris, 1867); Mazzoni, “Della Geru-
salemme conquistata.” in In Biblioteca (Bologna,
1886) ; Guidi, Annali delle edizioni e delle ner-
TASSO.
TATARS.
510
sioni della Ge-rusalemme liberata (Bologna,
1868); Solerti, “Bibliografia delle publicazioni
tassiane in occasione del terzo centenario,” in
the Rivista delle biblioteche c archivi (1895). Of
the English translations of the Gerusalemme
liberata the most noted is that by Fairfax (Lon-
don, 1600).
TASSONI, ta-so’né, ALESSANDRO (1565-‘‘
1635). An Italian diplomat, critic, and poet.
He was born in Modena of an old patrician fam-
ily. About 1595 he published at Rome a dialogue
in defense of Alessandro Magno and Obizzo
d’Este, an effort which was dedicated to Cardi-
nal Alessandro d’Este, and which attracted such
favorable notice from that prelate that young
Tassoni was taken into the service of Cardinal
Ascanio Colonna (1597). His Consideraeioni
sopra le rime del Petrarca (1609) became the
occasion of bitter controversy. In 1613 Tassoni
entered the service of Duke Charles Emmanuel of
Savoy. But his Filippiche contra gli Spagnuoli
(1615; reprinted 1855) incurred the displeasure
of Cardinal Prince Filiberto of Savoy, and Tas-
soni withdrew into private life (1622). After-
wards he became secretary to Cardinal Ludovisi,
and then councilor and chamberlain at the Court
of Duke Francis 1. of Modena (1632). The
work by which the poet achieved his greatest
fame was La secchia rapita (“The Stolen
Bucket,” written 1614; printed in Paris 1622;
edited by Carducci 1861, etc.). This is a
‘mock heroic poem in twelve cantos, founded
upon an actual incident of the Modenese wars.
Precursor of Boileau’s Lutr-in (1673) and Pope's
Rape of the Loch: (1712), it is perhaps the first
example of modern humor. Not its entertaining
mixture of wit and seriousness alone, but the
Tuscan purity of its language and the perfec-
tion of its versified form, have made it an Italian
classic. A selection of Tassoni’s letters was pub-
lished by Gamba (Venice, 1827), and Casini
edited his Rime (Bologna, 1880). Consult:
D’Ancona and Bacci, M anuale della letteratura
italiana (Florence, 1893) ; Muratori, Vita di
Alessandro Tassoni (Modenese edition of the
Secchia, 1744) ; and Bacci, Le considerazioni sul
Petrarca d-i. Alessandro Tassoni (Florence, 1887).
TASTE (OF. taster, Fr. tater, to taste, from
Lat. *tamitare, frequentative of taa-are, to touch,
intensive of tangere, to touch; connected with
Goth. tekan, Icel. taha, AS. tacan, Eng. take).
The tongue is supplied with nerve endings which
not only (like those of the skin) mediate sensa-
tions of pressure, temperature, and pain, but also
furnish sensations of taste. The nerve endings
concerned in gustatory sensation are the taste
bulbs or beakers, many of which are clustered
together in the sides of each circumvallate and
fungiform papilla (the filiform papillae are in-
sensitive to taste). Taste sensations enter con-
sciousness highly fused with pressure, tempera-
ture, and notably with smell sensations; e.g.
the flavor of wine is largely smell. Hence it is not
strange that the number of elementary taste
qualities has but recently been determined.
Linnaeus gave a list of 20 qualities; another early
writer 10; modern methods have lowered the
number to 4: sweet, bitter, sour, and salt, to
which Wundt adds, doubtfully, alkaline and
metallic. See TONGUE and accompanying illus-
trations.
If the tongue be experimentally explored by
stimulating individual papillae with four solu-
tions (usually sugar, quinine, tartaric acid, and
salt), it will be discovered that most papillae
are selective; e.g. one may react only to sweet,
another only to salt and sour, a third to sweet,
salt, and sour, etc. That such differences should
appear is but natural, for each papilla is, in
reality, a cluster of taste cells. Now it is possi-
ble so to treat a papilla which has yielded more
than one taste as to destroy temporarily its re-
action to one of these tastes without destroying
its sensitivity to the others; thus-a 20 per cent.
solution of cocaine hydrochlorate will eliminate
bitter alone. From these facts, it is warrantable
to assume that the doctrine of specific sense en-
ergies applies to the tongue. The recent work
of Kiesow and Nadoleczny (stimulating the
chorda tympani at a point near the internal ear)
seems to establish the possibility of inducing
specific taste sensations by inadequate electrical
stimulation; pressure yields more doubtful re-
sults.
Kiesow has shown that the tongue is not
equally sensitive over all its surface; the tip is
best for sweet, the base for bitter (pressure here
seems at times to arouse bitter), the sides for
sour. Sensitivity to salt is about equal over all
the surface. Recent experimentation has estab-
lished beyond much doubt the existence of taste
contrasts, both simultaneous and successive. The
contrasting pairs are sweet-salt, sweet-sour, salt-
sour: bitter does not contrast with any taste. The
stimulation of the tongue by one member of these
pairs increases its sensitivity to the other mem-
ber, or causes distilled water to give the con-
trasting taste. As in the cases of vision and
smell (qq.v.), taste contrasts imply taste com-
pensations. A mixture of sugar and salt in
proper proportions is insipid. From these facts,
Kiesow has constructed a two-dimensional taste
continuum—a square whose opposite corners are
sweet and salt, bitter and sour. Mixtures of
adjacent terms will, then, give an intermediate,
mixtures of opposite terms, an insipid taste.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Kuelpe, Outlines of Psychology
(London, 1895) ; Hofman and Bunzel, Pflilger’s
Archiv, lxvi. (1897); Kiesow and Nadoleczny,
Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie und Physiologie, xxiii.
(1900) ; Kiesow, Philosophische Studien, x.
(1894), xii. (1896) ; Titchener, Experimental
Psychology (New York, 1901); Vintschgau, in
Hermann’s Handbuch der Physiologic, iii.
(1880); Zeyneck, Centralblatt fitr Physiologic,
xii. (1898).
TATAR BAZARJIK, ta-t':ir' ba'zar-jék’, or
PAZARJIK. A district town in Eastern Rumo-
lia, Bulgaria, situated on the Maritza, 74 miles
southeast of Sofia (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E
3). It lies in a low region and suffers from in-
undations. Population, in 1892, 16,343, mainly
Bulgarians. The place was founded by Tatars
in the fifteenth century.
TATARS (less correctly Tartars, Fr. Tartare,
from ML. Tarta-rus, from Pers. T-atar, Chin. Tah-
tar, TO/h-dZ"ll, Tatar, possibly from a Tungusic or
Manchu word meaning archer, nomad; probably
confused by popular etymology with Lat. Tar-
tarus, hell, on account of their atrocities). A
term loosely applied to certain Tungusic tribes
originally inhabiting Manchuria and Mongolia,
and now represented by the Fishshin Tatars of
Northern Manchuria, the Solons and Daurians
TATARS.
TATIAN.
511
of Northeastern Mongolia, and the Manchus of
China. In the course of the westward movement
of the Mongols the term Tartar obtained vogue
among the civilized peoples of Western Asia and
Eastern Europe, and came to be applied with
little discrimination to the hordes of Mongols
who descended from time to time upon the fron-
tiers of Occidental civilization and to the kindred
peoples subdued by them. Ultimately it came to
be used almost, if not quite, as a synonym for
Turkish (Turki), in which sense it is still em-
ployed by some modern ethnologists.
The ‘Tatars of Siberia’ (Baraba, Irtish,
Tobol, etc.) are probably of very mixed origin.
In Western Siberia some fragments of the Osti-
aks, etc., have been styled Tatars, probably from
their adoption of Tatar customs, etc. The Tatars
of European Russia are of diverse origins. The so-
called Kazan and Astrakhan Tatars are fragments
of the Golden Horde. The Tatars of the Crimea are
probably composed of the Nogai-Tatars of the
steppes and the Tatars of the mountains and coast
regions. There are besides the Tatars of the Cauca-
sus. It will easily be seen that most of these peo-
ples styled Tatars are, linguistically at least, of
Turkic stock, but very mixed physically. Con-
sult: Wolff, Geschichte der Mongolen oder Tar-
taren (Breslau, 1872) ; Howorth, History of the
Mongols (London, 1876-80) ; Vambery, Ety-
mologisches Wiirterbach der tarho-tatarischen
Sprachen (Leipzig, 1878) ; id., Die primitive
Ualtar ales tarko-tatarischen Vollces (ib., 1879) ;
De Harlez, La religion nationale des Tartares
orientaaw (Brussels, 1887) ; Chantre, Recherches
anthropologiques dans le Gaacase (Paris, 1885-
87).
TATE, Sir HENRY (1819-99). An English
philanthropist and art patron. He was born at
Chorley, Lancashire; entered early on a com-
mercial career in Liverpool, and in 1874 went
to London, where he acquired a large fortune in
sugar-refining. His chief claim to distinction
is as founder of the National Gallery of British
Art, popularly known as the Tate Gallery, on
the Thames Embankment, near Vauxhall Bridge.
This originated in his private collection of mod-
ern British pictures. His desire to have this
collection preserved prompted his offer of $240,-
000 for a building purely devoted to British art,
if the Government would provide the site. The
building was completed and opened in 1897.
TATE, NAHUM (1652-1715). An English
poetaster, born in Dublin. He graduated at
Trinity College, Dublin, in 1672, and five
years later he was settled in London. In
1692 he succeeded Shadwell as poet laureate.
With the exception of Pye (q.v.), he is the
tamest of the laureates. He passed his last days
in the Mint in Southwark, then a privileged
sanctuary for ,debtors. Tate composed several
plays and much poor verse, including elegies and
birthday odes. His best poem, composed inde-
pendently, is Panacea, or a Poem on Tea (1700).
With some success he wrote a second part to
Dryden’s Absalom and Achttophel (1682). The
best passages, however, were by Dryden. In lit-
erary history Tate has gained unenvied fame as
an adapter of several plays by Shakespeare and
other Elizabethans. Among them are Richard
II. (1681), King Lear (1681), and Ooriolanas
(1682). His version of Lear, in which Cordelia
survives and marries Edgar, held the stage till
1840. Tate is also known as the joint author,
with Nicholas Brady, of the New Version of the
Psalms (1696; supplement 1698). To Tate is
ascribed the beautiful Christmas hymn “While
Shepherds Watched.”
TATE, RALPH (1840-92). An English geolo-
gist and paleontologist, born at Tenwick. He
was educated at the Cheltenham Training Col-
lege and Royal School of Mines. In 1861 he
entered the Philosophical Institution of Belfast
as a teacher of natural sciences, and during the
following years devoted himself to the study and
description of the Liassic fossils of Ireland. In
1867 he joined an expedition for the exploration
of Nicaragua and Venezuela, and upon his re-
turn to England published a series of papers on
the geology and paleontology of those countries.
He received an appointment as professor of nat-
ural sciences at Adelaide, South Australia, in
1875, where he passed the remainder of his life.
He established the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia, and was otherwise active in the formation
of geological science. The list of his publica-
tions includes several hundred papers and mono-
graphs.
TATIAN, t:1’shan. A Christian apologist of
the second century. He was a native of Assyria,
received a Greek education, and came to Rome
in the time of Justin Martyr, with whom he
was intimately associated, probably about the
year 152. Under the instruction of this first
Christian philosopher, Tatian early became a
Christian, and wrote thereupon his first impor-
tant work, The Address to the Greeks. After
Justin’s death he turned toward views which
caused him to be identified with the Gnostics, al-
though comparison of the different accounts leads
to the suspicion that party spirit may have ex-
aggerated his departure from the commonly re-
ceived Christian doctrines and practices. Tatian
returned to Mesopotamia, where he was wel-
comed heartily and performed valuable services
for the Church. He prepared here a harmony
of the Gospels in Syriac, under the name of
Diatessaron, or The Foarfold Gospel, Which early
attained a wide circulation among the Syriac-
speaking churches, and was made the subject of
a commentary by Ephrem Syrus. The Syriac
original cannot have been prepared long after
Justin’s death (about 166), and therefore gives
important testimony to the general acceptance of
the Fourth Gospel at that time, and hence to its
considerably earlier origin. The Diatessaron
has accordingly been an object of great interest,
but the text has been until recently regarded as
hopelessly lost. In 1883 a description of an
Arabic translation of the Diatessaron existing in
the Vatican Library, previously but imperfectly
described by others, was put forth by Ciasca, a
‘scriptor’ in that library, and in 1888 he pub-
lished an edition of the text with a Latin trans-
lation. A second manuscript of the same trans-
lation had meantime been presented to the li-
brary (1886). This Latin version has been
translated into English by Hill (Edinburgh,
1894), and an English translation from the-
Arabic has been made by Hogg (ib., 1897).
Consult: Zahn, Forschangen ear Geschichte des
neat-estamentltche Kanons, vol. iv. (Erlangen,
1891) ; Harris, The Diatessaron of Tatian (Lon-
don, 1890); id., Fragments of the Commentary
of Ephrem Syras on the Diatessaron (ib., 1895) .
TATIAN.
TATTAM.
512
Both the extant works of Tatian may be found
in translation in the Ante-Nicene Fathers, vols.
ii. and iv. (New York, 1885 et seq.).
'1‘ A T I S H T C HE FF, ta-tish’chef, VASSILI
NIKITITCH (1686-1750). A Russian historian,
born in the Government of Pskov. He was edu-
cated in the Moscow School of Artillery and En-
gineering and in Germany. For many years he
was superintendent of the mines of the Ural re-
gion, and Governor of Astrakhan. He wrote a
valuable History of Russia. His Testament
(1775) is a didactic work addressed to his son.
TATIUS, ta’shi-us, ACHILLES. A Greek
writer. See ACHILLES Txrrus.
TATLER, THE. A penny paper published at
London by Sir Richard Steele, issued three times
a week and running through 271 numbers, be-
tween April 12, 1709, and January 2, 1711. Its
original purpose was merely to describe events
of the day; but with the contributions of Addi-
son, which began in number 18, it gradually as-
sumed a more didactic tone and eventually be-
came a set of essays on various social and quasi-
political topics. Its sudden withdrawal was
probably occasioned by the exception taken by
Steele’s superiors in Government offices to cer-
tain statements printed in it and the editor’s
consequent dismissal from the gazetteership.
His pseudonym of Bickerstaffe had also by this
time been penetrated. Steele wrote 188 of the
papers and Addison 41. The remainder were
mostly Written by both in collaboration. The
successor of the Tatler was the Spectator
(q.v.).
'I‘AT’NALL, Josmn (1795-1871). An Ameri-
can naval officer, born at Bonaventure, near Sa-
vannah, Ga. He was educated in England, and
entered the United States Navy in 1812. He
served with Decatur in the Algerine War, became
a lieutenant in 1818, had charge in 1829 of the
surveys of the Tortugas reefs, received command
of the mosquito division in the Mexican VVar,
participated in the capture of Vera Cruz, and
led the attack upon the forts at Tuxpan, where
he was wounded. In 1850 he was promoted to
a captaincy, and in 1857 became flag-ofiicer on
the Asiatic station. In June, 1859, he actively
aided the British gunboats accompanying the
British envoy sent to Peking to exchange ratifi-
cations of the treaty made in the preceding year,
and helped to tow the British marines to a point
whence they attempted to storm the Taku forts.
During a visit made by Tatnall to the British
flagship for the purpose of offering the services
of American surgeons, some of the men who had
‘accompanied him served, without his knowledge
at the time, one of the forward guns of the Brit-
ish flagship. In extenuation of this technical viola-
tion of international law he declared that “Blood
is thicker than water;” and his action was sus-
tained both by public opinion and the Govern-
ment. On the outbreak of the Civil War in
1861, he resigned and became a captain in the
Confederate Navy, charged with the defense of
Georgia and South Carolina. In March, 1862,
he was given command of the M errimac (Vir-
ginia), and the defenses of Virginia; destroyed
this vessel in order to escape capture; was
later court-martialed for this, -but was ac-
uitted; was unsuccessful in his defense of
Savannah, and was in January, 1865, obliged to
destroy his fleet. He was included in Johnston’s
surrender to Sherman, was paroled, and in 1866
removed with his family to Halifax, but returned
in 1870 and was inspector of the port of Savan-
nah until his death. Consult the Life of Com-
modore Tatnall, by C. C. Jones and Tatnall’s son,
J. R.'F. Tatnall (Savannah, 1878).
'1‘ A T R A F U R E D, tii’tra-fu’réd (Ger.
Schmeks). A noted Hungarian watering-place
and health resort in the county of Zips, situated
in the midst of pine forests on the southern slope
of the Hobe Tatra, at the foot of the Schlagen-
dorf peak at an elevation of 3340 feet above the
sea. It has mineral springs, pine-cone baths,
and a cold-water cure. Near by are the health
resorts of Uj Tatrafiired (Neuschmeks) and Also
Tatrafiired (Lower Schmeks) .
TATRA (ta/tro) MOUNTAINS. See CAB-
PATHIAN Mounrnms.
TATS, tiits. An agricultural people of ex-
treme Western Persia and the Caspian region
of the Caucasus. Although they may possess
some Mongolian blood, they are not Tatars either
somatically or linguistically. Some authorities
class them with the Persian Tajiks (q.v.) . They
are closely related to the Gurans. The Caspian
Tats number between 30,000 and 40,000. Their
language is a dialect of Persian.
TA TS’ING, téfltsing’ (or CH’ING). The dy-
nasty on the throne of China at the opening of
the twentieth century. It is of Manchu origin and
begins with the year 1644. The name——Ts’ing-—
means ‘pure’ or ‘purity,’ and is said to be synony-
mous with the word Manchu. Ta means ‘great’
and is prefixed to almost all dynastic names.
It is to be remembered that the personal name of
a Chinese Emperor is never used during his life-
time. When he comes to the throne a name for the
period of years during which he reigns is chosen;
but it is convenient at times to transfer this name
to the man himself; hence we sometimes speak of
the Emperor K’ang-hi, or the Emperor" K’ien-
lung, though strictly speaking these names de-
note only certain periods of years. After death
a ‘temple-name’ is chosen for each, and this is
the name by which he is spoken of in history.
THE REIGN-Pnmons on THE TA 'I‘s’mo CH’A0 on ‘GREAT
PURE’ Dvnxsrr or CHINA



NAME on REIGN Began Ended
1. Shun-chih .... .. 1644 1661
2. K’ang-hi or K’ang-hsi ............ .. 1662 1722
3. Yung-ehing, or Yung-cheng .... .. 1723 1735
4. K’ien-lung or Ch’ien-lung ........ .. 1736 1795
5. K’ia-K‘ing or Ohia-ch’ing ....... .. 1796 1820
6. Tao-Kwang ........................... .. 1821 1850
7. Hien-fung or Hsien-feng .......... .. 1851 1861
8. T’ung-chih ............................... .. 1862 1874
9. Kwang-sii or Kwang-hsii ........ .. 1875 .... ..
TAT’TAM,, HENRY (1788-1868). A dis-
tinguished Coptic scholar. He was born in Ire-
land and was educated at Trinity College, Dub-
lin, and at Giittingen and Leyden; he was or-
dained in the Church of England; and was rector
of Saint Cuthbert’s, Bedford, 1818-45; arch-
-deacon of Bedford, 1844; and rector of Stamford
Rivers, Essex, 1849. He traveled in the East and
became distinguished as an Orientalist, in which
department he published various works. Among
the ancient Syriac manuscripts which he found
at a convent in Egypt were the Ecclesiastical
History of John, Bishop of Ephesus, and the
TATTAM.
TAULE-R.
513
free discussion of his love affairs.
Epistles of Ignatius. He published a Coptic
grammar (1830, 2d ed. 1863), and a dictionary
(1835), besides versions of the prophets (1836-
52) and of the Apostolical Constitutions (1849)
in that language.
T.A.T"1‘ERSALL’S. A famous English mar-
ket for riding and carriage horses, situated in
Grosvenor Place, London. It was established
about 1780 by Richard Tattersall, a groom to the
Duke of Kingston. It consists of a large and
handsome building in the centre of which is a
large court under a glass roof. It is the centre
of all business relating to horse-racing and bet-
ting throughout the country.
TATTLE. A vicious and hypocritical fop in
Congreve’s Love for Love, who boasts that he
never “kisses and tells;” but he is not above a
He is smitten
with the charms of Angelica, but is gulled into
marriage with an aged coquette, Mrs. Frail. The
character may have been an elaboration of Mal-
agene in Otway’s Friendship in Fashion.
TATTOOING (from tattoo, from Tahitian
tatu, tattooing, tattooed). The practice of deco-
rating the surface of the body by introducing
pigments under the skin. The process consists
in pricking the skin with a sharp instrument
and inserting the pigments, usually powdered
charcoal, in the punctures. The design appears
in a deep blue color and is indelible. In the
modern development of the custom otherv pig-
ments have come into use, '
As a primitive mode of ornamentation, tattoo-
ing is very widespread, its distribution as com-
pared with the related custom of scarification
being determined by the color of the skin. In
general, light-skinned races tattoo, while dark-
skinned peoples practice scarring.
The original significance of tattooing is dis-
puted. It has been held by some authorities
that it had a religious or social meaning, but the
best evidence goes to show that it was at first
purely ornamental in character. It must indeed
be admitted that in many instances the tattooed
designs have a tribal or clan or even a religious
meaning, but this usage is probably a derivative
of the decorative.
The patterns range from simple lines and dots
to complex designs. Probably the highest de-
velopment of the custom among primitive peoples
is in New Zealand, though it is also much prac-
ticed in various parts of the East Indian archi-
pelago and in Polynesia. The tattooing of the
natives in North and South America and in
'parts of the world other than those mentioned
above is, as a rule, of simple character. In
modern times and among higher races the
Japanese have brought the art to its highest
state of perfection. The prevalence of the prac-
tice among sailors of all nationalities is well
known, but in both these cases the patterns in
use have entirely lost their primitive character-
istics and are of civilized origin. Consult La-
cassagne, Les tatouages (Paris, 1881); Joest,
7161'-towieren, Narbenzeichnen und Kdrperbemalen
(Berlin, 1887).
TAUBERT, tou'bért, WILHELM (1811-91). A
German pianist and composer, born in Berlin. He
studied philosophy at the university there, at the
same time studying composition under Berger and
Klein, and afterwards taught music until 1831,
when he became conductor of the Court concerts.
In 1841 he was appointed conductor of the royal
opera. He was a member of the Academy of Arts
from 1839 and president of the musical section of
the same from 1882. His works include the operas:
Die Kirrnes (1832), Macbeth (1857), Oesario
(1874), music for the Medea of Euripides, and
Shakespeare’s Tempest. His songs were popular-
ized by Jenny Lind and other noted singers.
TAUCHNITZ, touK’nits, CHRISTIAN BERN-
HARD, Baron (1816-95). A German publisher,
born near Naumburg, a nephew of the follow-
ing. His firm, founded in Leipzig (1837),
was noted for its accurate classical and biblical
texts, its dictionaries, and other works of ref-
erence. In 1841 Tauchnitz began a Collection of
British Authors, now extending to some 3500
Volumes and widely read on the Continent. Eng-
lish authors were paid a royalty by Tauchnitz,
who thus helped to establish the present inter-
national copyright law. A similar collection of
translated German Authors was begun in 1866
and Students’ Tauchnitz Editions of English
and American works began to appear in 1886
with German notes and introductions. Tauclmitz
was made Baron in 1860, British Consul General
for Saxony in 1872, and member of the Saxon
House of Peers in 1877.
TAUCHNITZ, KARL CHRISTOPH TRAUGOTT
(1761-1834). A German publisher, born in Gross-
pardau. He began to print books in 1797 at
Leipzig, He was the first to use stereotype
plates (1816) in Germany. His stereotyped
editions of the classics were once widely famed
alike for their cheapness, their convenience, and
their accuracy. He thus printed a Bible in
Hebrew and the Koran in Arabic. By his will
Leipzig received 4,500,000 marks for charitable
ends. The business was continued by his son
Karl Christian (1798-1884).
TAUERN, tou’érn. A division of the Eastern
Alps, including the principal section of what
was known to the ancients as the Noric Alps
(Map: Austria, D 3). It lies between the riv-
ers Drave and Mur on the south and the Enns
on the north, and extends from the eastern part
of Tyrol through the Austrian crownlands of
Salzburg and Carinthia into the northern part
of Styria. The system consists of two main di-
visions, the Hohe (high) Tauern in the west, and
the Niedere (low) Tauern in the east. The
whole system has a length of about 150 miles
and a width of 28 miles. It is wholly of Archae-
an formation, consisting chiefly of gneiss in
the west and mica-slate in the east, with some
granite. The western or Hohe Tauern, as their
name implies, are considerably higher and more
rugged than the eastern. Their main range
forms a sharp ridge with steep sides rising above
the snow line and carrying over 250 glaciers,
from which numerous mountain torrents fall in
cataracts down the steep valleys. The highest
peak in the system is the Grossglockner, with
an altitude of 12,461 feet,
TAULER, tou’lér, JOHANN (1300-61). A
German mystic. He was born at Strassburg and
when fifteen years old entered the Order of the
Dominicans. When the ‘black death’ . visited
Strassburg in 1346, he stuck to his post and
comforted the people. Excepting preaching tours
into the Rhineland, he remained in Strassburg
TAULE-R.
TAURUS.
514
until his death. Tauler was an emotional yet
practical mystic and left a large number of ser-
mons full of evangelistic life. He preached in
German and wrote The Boole of Spiritual Pov-
erty, which, as well as many of his sermons, was
translated by Susanna Winkworth, but not
literally. Of the various editions of Tau1er’s
works, the Frankfort edition of 1826 is the most
complete. Consult: Schmidt, Johannes Tauler
(Hamburg, 1841) ; id., N ioolas /con Basel, Bericht
con der Belcehrung Taule-rs (Strassburg, 1875) ;
Preger, Geschichte der deu-tschen Mystilc, vol. iii.
(Leipzig, 1893); Susanna Winkworth, Tauler’s
Life and Times (London, 1857).
TAUNTON, ttin'ton. The capital of Somer-
setshire, England, in the valley of the Tone, 38
miles southwest of Bristol (Map: England, C 5) .
The streets are wide and are well paved. The
Church of Saint Mary is of Perpendicular archi-
tecture, and is famous for its ornamented tower;
that of Saint James was the conventual church
of Taunton priory. Taunton is the headquarters
of the Somerset Archaeological and Natural His-
tory Society and has an extensive museum in the
remains of the Norman castle. It owns the
water and electric lighting plants, and sewage
works, and maintains parks, pleasure and recrea-
tion grounds. It has manufactures of silk and
hosiery. Ina, King of the West Saxons, built a
castle in Taunton about A.D. 700. This was
soon after destroyed, but another fortress was
built on the site soon after the Conquest, at
which period the town had a mint. Population,
in 1891, 18,961; in 1901, 21,078. Consult Toul-
min, History of Taunton (Taunton, 1822).
TAUNTON. One of the county-seats of
Bristol County, Mass., 36 miles south of Bos-
ton; on Taunton River, and on the New York,
New Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: Mas-
sachusetts, E 4). It is regularly laid out with
finely shaded streets, and has many handsome
residences, Among its institutions are the State
Insane Asylum, Morton Hospital, the Old
Ladies’ Home, and Bristol Academy. The Pub-
lic Library contains 47,000 volumes. Other im-
portant collections are the Bristol County Law
Library and that of the Old Colony Historical
Society. The city hall, county court house, the
post-office, and the jail are buildings of merit.
There are several pleasure grounds, of which
Taunton Green and Woodward Springs Park are
the more noteworthy. The Bristol County Agri-
cultural Society has extensive grounds and build-
ings here.
Taunton carries on a large trade, being the
business centre of a number of towns in the vi-
cinity. It has also important industrial inter-
ests, the various establishments in the census
year 1900 having $11,737,399 capital, and an
output valued at $12,594,814. The principal
manufactures are cotton goods and silverware.
There are stove foundries, locomotive works,
wood-working establishments, and manufactories
of copper ware, tacks, wire nails, stove lining,
carriages, buttons, boxes, oilcloth, brick, etc.
Herring fishing is another industry of consider-
able importance.
The government, under the charter of 1882, is
vested in a mayor, chosen annually, and a bi-
cameral council, and in subordinate oflicials, the
majority of whom are elected by the council. The
school committee, however, is chosen by popular
vote. For maintenance and operation, the city
spends annually about $462,000, the principal
items being: schools, $116,000; interest on debt,
$81,000; streets, $41,000; police department,
$40,000; charities, $33,000; and fire department,
$27,000. The water-works, which represent an
‘expenditure of $1,288,129, and the electric light
plant, are owned by the municipality. Popula-
tion, in 1890, 25,448; in 1900, 31,036,
Settled in 1638 as Cohannat, Taunton was in-
corporated under its present name in 1639. It
was made a shire town in 1746 and was chartered
as a city in 1865. The first permanent settle-
ment in Vermont was made by a company from
Taunton in 1736. Consult: Quarter-Millennial
Celebration of the City of Taunton (Taunton,
1889); Emery, History of Taunton (Syracuse,
1893). -
TAUNUS, tou’nus. A mountain range of
Western Germany, in the Prussian Province of
Hesse-Nassau, extending about 55 miles in a
northeast direction from the right bank of the
Rhine near its confluence with the Main. It
consists mainly of schists and quartzites, and
reaches its highest elevation, 2713 feet, in the
northeast. It is steepest, however, in the south-
west, where it falls into the Rhine in precipitous
cra-gs crowned with ruined castles. The higher
portions of the range are forest-clad, and the
lower slopes are covered with vineyards yielding
some of the best of Rhenish wines. The range is
also famous for its numerous mineral springs,
including those of Wiesbaden.
TAURIDA, tou’ri-da. A government of
European Russia, consisting of the peninsula
of the Crimea (q.v.) and a portion on the
mainland connected with the peninsula by the
Isthmus of Perekop (Map: Russia, D 5). Area,
about 24,550 square miles. The region north of
the isthmus is-mostly flat and its climate is con-
siderably colder than that of the peninsula. The
principal river of the mainland portion is the
Dnieper, which forms its northwest boundary.
This part of the government is well adapted by
its steppe-like surface for stock-raising. Large
numbers of merino sheep are reared. VVheat, rye,
barley, and cats are produced extensively. The
cultivation of industrial plants and fruits is
confined principally to the peninsula. The chief
manufactures are flour, tobacco, and some iron
products. Population, in 1897, 1,443,566, of
whom the Russians constituted about 71 per
cent. and the Tatars over 12 per cent. The capi-
tal is Simferopol. See CRIMEA.
TAURIN (from Lat. taurus, bull, so called
- because first discovered in the bile of the ox), or
AMIDO-ETHYL-SULP1-ioNIo Acrn, C,H, (NH,) SO,H.
A remarkable substance occurring, as a con-
stituent of tauro-cholic acid, in the bile and in
other animal products and tissues. In a state
of purity it forms six-sided glistening prisms,
which are perfectly transparent, neutral, de-
void of odor, readily soluble in water, but in-
soluble in alcohol and ether.
TAU'RUS. A mountain range in the southern
part of Asia Minor forming the southern bound-
ary of the Anatolian Plateau, which covers the
central part of the peninsula (Map: Asia, C 5).
It follows the Mediterranean coast from the
Euphrates in the east toward the ZEgean Sea.
On the north it slopes gradually toward the
plateau, but on the south it falls in steep ter-
TAURUS.
TAVOY.
515
races toward the sea. The Taurus rises to a
height of 7000 to 10,000 feet, being highest near
the eastern end. It is broken by a number of
river valleys, the principal being that of the
Sihun, which separates from the main range a
northeastern extension known as the Anti-
Taurus.
TAUSIG, tou’siK, KARL (1841-71). A German
pianoforte virtuoso, born in \Varsaw. He be-
came famous for technique and interpretative
ability, and won a world-wide reputation
by the concert tours that occupied his short
life. He was connected with the musical
life of Dresden (1859-60), Vienna (1862), and
Berlin (1865), in which latter city he founded a
‘Schule des h6heren Clavierspiels,’ Which he
gave up in 1870. Of his composition and ar-
rangements the great proportion are classical
pianoforte works which he edited. He also pre-
pared and edited a new edition of Clementi’s
Gradus ad Parnassum, and arranged the piano
score of Wagner’s Mei-stersiuger. He composed
and published two Etudes de eoneert (F11; and
Ab), also Ungarisehe Z'igeun-erweisen, Nouvelles
sotrées de V/lenne, and Valses-(Japriees on themes
from Strauss.
TAUS’SIG, FRANK WILLIAM (1859—). An
American political economist, born in Saint
Louis, Mo. He graduated at Harvard in 187 9,
and became full professor of economics there in
1892. His publications include: The Tariff‘
History of the United States (1888; 4th ed.
1898), a standard work on the subject; a His-
tory of the Present Tariff, 1860-83 (1885), and
Protection to Young Industries as Applied to the
United States (1883), in the “Questions of the
Day Series;” The Silver Situation in the United
States (1892); and Wages and Capital (1896).
He also edited State Papers and Speeches on the
Tariff (1892); and for some years was editor-
in-chief of the Quarterly Journal of Economics.
TAUTENHAYN, tou’ten-hin, JOSEPH (1837-
-—). An Austrian medalist and sculptor, born
in Vienna, where he studied at the academy
(1854-60) under Radnitzky (1818-1901) and
sculpture under Franz Bauer (1798-1872), then
in the engravers’ academy of the Imperial mint.
After his return from a study trip through Italy,
France, and England, undertaken in 1869-72, he‘
was appointed Imperial engraver of coins and
medals, and in 1881 professor at the academy.
Among a large number of choice medals those
commemorating the Coronation of Francis Joseph
as King of Hungary (1867), the Imperial Silver
Wedding (1879), and the Bicentennial of the Re-
lief of Vienna from the Turks (1883), are the
most noteworthy. His plastic work on a large
scale includes a group of the “Birth of Athens,”
and statues for the university, also statues for
the Art-Historical Museum and the Houses of
Parliament.
TAUTOG (Massachusetts Indian tautauog, pl.
of taut, sheep’s head, the Indian name of the
fish). An American food-fish (Tautoga onitis)
of the family (Labridze) to which the wrasses
of Europe belong. It is found from Maine to
South Carolina, especially along the coast of
Southern New England, on rocky and weedy bot-
toms, where it lives on mollusks, crustaceans.
worms, sand-dollars, etc. It is abundant, is of
considerable importance as a food-fish, and is
locally known as ‘blaekfish’ and ‘oyster-fish.’
It may attain an extreme weight of 22 pounds,
with a length of three feet, but the average
weight is about three pounds. The annual catch
is about 1,500,000 pounds, valued at $60,000.
The tautogs spawn in May and June, and are
very prolific, a large fish yielding over a million
eggs, which are small and buoyant, and hatch in
four or five days. Consult Goode, Fishery In-
dustries, sec. i. (Washington, 1884). See Col-
ored Plate of Foon-FISHES.
TAV’ER1\TER, RICHARD (c.1505-75). An
English religious writer. He Was born at Bris-
ley, Norfolk; graduated at Oxford in 1529; was
clerk of the signet under Thomas Cromwell, and
managed to retain Court favor after Cromwell’s
fall (1540). In 1545 he was returned to Par-
liament, and by the King’s gift came into pos-
session of much property. Under Edward VI.
he maintained his position. Early won for the
Reformation and the author of a translation of
the Augsburg Confession (1536) and other origi-
nal and translated works in the interest of
Protestantism, and a licensed lay preacher under
Edward VI., he still was unmolested by Mary, al-
though he lost his oflice. Under Elizabeth he
came again into royal favor and was high sheriff
of Oxford (1569). Taverner’s principal literary
work was a revision of Thomas Matthew’s Bible
of 1537, upon the suggestion of Thomas Crom-
well. Some of the happiest renderings, as ‘para-
ble’ for ‘similitude,’ ‘the love of many shall wax
cold,’ ‘the Israel of God,’ in the current version
are due to Taverner. It was the first complete
Bible ever printed in England (London, 1539).
TAVERNIER, ta’var'nya’, JEAN BAPTISTE,
Baron d’Aubonne (1605-c.89). A French trav-
eler, born in Paris. He became a dealer in
precious stones, and between 1638 and 1663 made
a number of journeys to Persia, China, India,
and the East Indies. His Voyages en Turquie,
en Perse, et auae I ndes, edited by Chappuzeau and
La Chapelle, went through several editions, of
which the best is that of 1679.
TAVIRA, ta-ve’ra. A seaport town of the
Province of Algarve, Portugal, 136 miles south-
east of Lisbon, on both sides of the river Gilao,
at its mouth (Map: Portugal, B 4). The harbor
is navigable for small vessels and affords an im-
portant commerce in mineral waters and white
wines. The town is of much less importance
than during the Middle Ages. Population, in
1900, 12,178.
'I.‘AV’ISTOCK. A market-town in Devonshire,
England, picturesquely situated on the western
border of Dartmoor, about 35 miles southwest of
Exeter, and 12 miles north of Plymouth, in the
fertile valley of the Tavy, which is crossed by
two bridges within the town. There are iron
foundries and mining works, copper, lead, tin,
and iron being found in considerable quantity
in the neighborhood. The parish church, dating
from 1318, is a handsome edifice. Tavistock
was formerly of great importance, owing to its
abbey, the largest and most magnificent in
Devonshire, which was founded in the year 961,
for the Benedictine Order. The refectory and
abbey gateway still exist. Population, in 1901,
5043.
TAVOY, ta-voi’. The capital of a district of
the same name in Tenasserim, Lower Burma,
TAVOY.
TAX.
516
160 miles west by north of Bangkok, on the
Tavoy River, 30 miles from its mouth (Map:
Burma, G 4). It is the shipping point for the
rice and fruit of the surrounding region, and
manufactures earthenware and salt. Tavoy has
been a British possession since 1824. Popula-
tion, in 1901, 22,371.
TAVRIS, ta-vrés’.
TABRIZ.
TAWING, See LEATHER.
TAWNY, or TENNE. The term for orange
color in heraldry (q.v.).
TAX Y(OF., Fr. tawe, from‘ML. tame’, tasca,
taxation, tax, from Lat. taware, to touch, rate,
appraise, estimate), and TAXATION. A tax is a
compulsory contribution from private income or
wealth to meet the general expenses of govern-
ment. The purpose of taxation is primarily the
securing of revenue, although it may incidentally
subserve political, social, or moral ends. The
common element in all forms of taxation is the
destination of the revenue derived from them—to
cover general expenses of government. This char-
acteristic serves to distinguish from taxes such
compulsory payments as fees and special assess-
ments (q.v.), which are primarily payments to
meet costs incurred in affording special public
services to the individuals who pay them.
Taxation, while it is to-day by far the most
important source of public revenue, is of com-
paratively recent origin. The medieeval State
depended for its revenues largely upon the prod-
uct of the public domain. (See FINANCE.)
It was in the cities that taxation first developed.
Payment of taxes was generally regarded as pre-
requisite to citizenship. With the increase in
public needs which accompanied the development
of the national State, various forms of indirect
taxes——tolls, impost duties——were levied; and
with the extension of citizenship characteristic
of the modern State, the duty of paying taxes
has become practically universal. The broaden-
ing of the functions of the State, noted under
FINANCE, has had the effect of making taxation
an increasingly important element in economic
life. In general, the higher the social and eco-
nomic development of a nation, the heavier is the
burden of taxation -upon its citizens.
PRINCIPLES on TAXATION. Writers on finance
are accustomed to lay down certain general prin-
ciples of justice and of administration to which
practical systems should conform. Taxes should be
capable of yielding a large revenue; they should
be economical, i.e. the cost of collection should
not materially increase the burden imposed upon
the taxpayer; they should be elastic, capable of
responding to a sudden demand for revenue; they
should not impair their source through discour-
aging industry. So far as possible, they should
be collected in such a way as to cause the tax-
payer the least inconvenience; they should be
certain, so that each man might know what he
might be expected to pay and make provision
accordingly. Most important of all, they should
be equitably distributed. ,
On what principle the distribution of taxes
should be made is a question on which financial
theorists are far from an agreement. In the first
half of the nineteenth century most writers re-
garded a tax as a payment to the State for pro-
tection, or for the privilege of securing an in-
come under the laws of the State. It followed
A town of Persia. See
from this view that taxes should be distributed
according to the benefit received, or according to
the cost incurred by the State in affording the
benefit. Such a principle proved unsatisfactory,
since both benefit and cost are indeterminable.
In recent years the doctrine which has the widest
following teaches that since civilized existence
is conditioned by the State, each individual is
born with the duty of contributing to the needs
of the State in proportion to his ability or
faculty. This theory more nearly than any '
other corresponds with public sentiment and
with the actual practice of taxation.
PROPORTIONAL, Paoeanssrvn, AND DEGRESSIVE
TAXATION. A system of proportional taxation
is one in which the contribution from income or
wealth remains a constant percentage, whatever
the size of the latter may be. It is defended on
the ground that it approximates the ideal of
taxation according to ability. Progressive taxa-
tion, in which the contribution increases rela-
tively to income or wealth, may be defended on
the same ground, since one who possesses a large
income is obviously more able to surrender a cer-
tain percentage of it than one who has a small
income is to surrender an equal percentage.
More often it is advocated as a measure of social
equalization. Degressive taxation, in which the
contribution diminishes relatively to income or
wealth, has no valid defense; it exists only be-
cause of the imperfection of the taxing machin-
ery, which finds less difliculty in levying upon
small aggregates of wealth than upon large.
An ideal system of taxation would be a single
tax on incomes. Such a tax would have to take
account of the necessary expenditures of indi-
viduals, since these affect faculty; it would also
take account of the character of income, whether
funded or unfunded, since the former, being more
certain, places its recipient in a better econom-
ic position than the latter. Income taxes, how-
ever, have proved practicable to only a limited
extent. (See below.)
A tax on all property would approximate the
same end, since the value of property is closely
dependent upon the income it yields. This tax
was practicable enough when almost all property
was tangible and incapable of concealment. It
is the most unsatisfactory of systems when, as
at present, a vast amount of property consists in
intangible personality. For these reasons, a mul-
tiple system of taxation, direct and indirect, is
necessary to provide satisfactory revenues and
to approximate fairness in distribution.
SHIFTING AND INCIDENCE or TAXATION. The
problems of taxation are immensely complicated
by the fact that a tax may not rest upon the
persons who pay it in the first instance, but may
be shifted in Whole or in part through price
changes. A tax upon the output of a factory
would naturally result in an equal rise in price.
The manufacturer might pay the tax, but its
ultimate incidence is upon the consumer. A
tax on houses might temporarily be borne by
the owner, but in the nature of the case it would
ultimately result in higher rents, since it‘ would
put a check upon building. A tax on land value,
on the other hand, could not be shifted, since it
would not affect the amount of land available for
use, and hence could not raise rents.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT TAXES. A classification
of taxes of much practical importance is that
TAX.
TAX.
517
which distinguishes between direct and indirect.
The distinction cannot be sharply drawn; but it
may in general be said that direct taxes are
those which are levied upon the persons or
property of those upon whom they are expected
to rest, while indirect taxes are levied upon com-
modities or industrial processes with the expec-
tation of their further diffusion. Examples of
the former kind are the poll tax, the general
property tax, and the income tax. Examples of
indirect taxes are customs duties and excise
taxes. The practical advantage of indirect
taxation lies in its ease of collection, and
in the fact that it creates a minimum of opposi-
tion on the part of the taxpayer, who does not
recognize that he is paying a tax through the
enhancement of price of articles which he may
purchase or not as he chooses. This very fact
gives rise to one of the chief disadvantages of
such taxation: namely, that it encourages waste-
ful administration, since the financier is not held
to such strict account for funds raised in this
way. A further objection to indirect taxation is
that it weighs most heavily upon the poor, since
it is only commodities in general use which can
yield a considerable revenue through indirect
taxation.
Forms or TAxATIoN. The simplest form of
taxation is the poll tax, a head tax levied equal-
ly upon all citizens or inhabitants. This tax
was not uncommon in England toward the close
of the Middle Ages; it was an important form of
taxation in the New England colonies. Where it
still exists it is of minor importance. A tax
on general property was developed in the north-
ern colonies of America. Taxes on houses are dis-
cussed under the title HOUSE TAX (q.v.).
Land is in some countries, as in the United States,
taxed at the same rate as other forms of prop-
erty; in other countries a special land tax is
levied. A tax on land if permanent has the
peculiarity of diminishing the value of the land
by the capitalized value of the tax; it may
therefore be said to be borne wholly by the one
who owns the land at the time when the tax is
first imposed. In New Zealand the tax on land
is graduated with the size of the holding. The
aim of this system is to prevent the accumulation
of holdings in a few hands.
For inheritance tax, see that title.
The chief forms of indirect taxes are customs
duties (see TARIFF) and excise taxes, or taxes
upon the production or sale of commodities. The
latter are common wherever business is highly
developed. They are employed in England to
offset duties on imports, which would otherwise
serve to protect the native producer.
TAxATIoN IN THE UNITED STATES. There are
no constitutional restrictions upon the power of
the Federal Government over taxation save that
“no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid
unless in proportion to the census or enumera-
tion,” “no tax or duty shall be laid on articles
exported from any State,” “no preference shall be
given to the ports of one State over those
of another,” and “that all duties, imposts, and ex-
cises shall be uniform throughout the United
States.” The power of the States to tax is also
practically unlimited, except that they may not
tax interstate commerce, or levy import or ex-
port duties, or exercise the right of taxation in
a manner to impair the obligation of a contract
or to confiscate property without due process of
law. The State Constitutions in many cases
place further limitations upon the power of
taxation exercised by the State Governments.
The two fields of National and State taxation
have been on the whole well defined and separate
since the adoption of the Federal Constitution.
While there is no legal objection to the right of
the State to levy excise taxation, the prohibition
of taxation of like commodities entering the
State by interstate commerce renders this right
nugatory; the States are therefore practical-
ly confined to direct taxation, and the Federal
Government has refrained from entering this
field of taxation except in periods of great na-
tional emergency.
STATE TAXATION. In the majority of Ameri-
can States the basis of the fiscal system is found
in the general property tax, levied both for State
and local purposes, upon the realty and per-
sonalty of the inhabitants of the State. This
tax, although general, is now being abandoned or
at least limited in application, this being true
of Vermont, Connecticut, Delaware, Pennsyl-
vania, and Wisconsin. The tax has been fre-
quently condemned on account of its inadequacy
as a test of ‘faculty’ or ability to pay taxes and
because of its failure to reach personal property.
According to a report of a special committee of
the California Senate on taxation and revenue
(January, 1901) there is but one opinion
throughout the whole country of the practical
working of the tax, and this is “that it is in-
equitable, unfair, and positively unjust.” The
tax leads to understatement, to widespread per-
jury, and to numerous forms of evasion and
dodging. Through the inefficiency and occasional
dishonesty of assessors, and through their fre-
quent dependence upon popular favor, property
of all sorts, and more especially personal prop-
erty, escapes its just burdens, while in many
cases the system of basing the taxation of the
State upon the local assessment leads to a com-
petition among the various districts of the State
to keep their local assessment unreasonably low
and thus evade, as far as possible, the burden of
the State general property tax. The resulting in-
equalities are only partially remedied by the
various State Boards of Equalization which now
exist in about one-half of the States and which
exercise the right to raise or lower the assess-
ment of counties and in cases even to alter the
assessment of individuals. It has, moreover, been
found impracticable to secure good results by
imposing severe penalties for evasion or by
paying portions of the tax to persons discovering
such evasions. Remedial legislation has been
proposed in several States, but the Industrial
Commission in its final report went beyond such
palliative measures and recommended “that the
States abandon the general property tax”——but
“that local revenues be raised by taxes on real
estate and personalty under the general property
tax system, as at present.”
Mortgages are taxed in most States together
with the other forms of personalty, and as no
deduction is usually made in the assessment of
mortgaged property, the imposition of the tax
on mortgages usually amounts to double taxa-
tion. Attempts have been made in Massachu-
setts, California, Oregon, and elsewhere to pre-
vent this double taxation of mortgaged property
TAX.
TAX.
518
as well as in some cases to shift the burden of
the tax from the borrower to the lender. The
tax in its present form is also criticised on the
ground of its frequent evasion.
The general property tax, while practicable for
a new, homogeneous, agricultural country, be-
comes objectionable in a more highly developed
community owing to the escape of personalty,
which has grown more rapidly in value than
real property. The legal exemption of intan-
gible personal property has been advocated
(notably by the Massachusetts Tax Commission
of 1897) because of its practical escape under
present conditions and because it is claimed to
be usually nothing but an evidence of ownership
or of an interest in tangible property already
taxed. The proposal to exempt intangible per-
sonal property has never met with the ap-
proval of the farmers or owners of rural prop-
erty, unless it is accompanied by some means of
reaching the property or income of which the
intangible personal property is the title or evi-
dence of ownership. There are also advocates of
the exemption of taxes on improvements on land
as well as adherents of a single tax on land
values that will absorb the whole value of the
land. See SINGLE TAX.
In connection with the general property tax,
many of the Southern States also depend upon
a number of license or privilege taxes upon vari-
ous forms of business, exhibitions, etc., and in
1901 a special committee of the Senate of Cali-
fornia advocated like taxes for that State. In
the South the tax is not graduated, but is usually
a fixed charge, and according to Seligman (Es-
says in Taxation) is the natural result of the
economic constitution of the South in the past.
The aristocratic landed interest did not desire
to tax themselves by a land or poll (slave) tax,
but attempted to shift the burden in colonial
days by taxing imports and exports, and, after
the adoption of the Constitution of the United
States, by levying business taxes or licenses.
A few States levy an income tax, in some
cases instead of the general property tax, in
others in connection with it. The income tax
law of Massachusetts has survived from colonial
days. It exempts incomes under $2000, taxing
only the excess, and exempts also the income
from property already taxed. It is laxly admin-
istered. There are also incomes taxes, or, as they
are sometimes known, occupation taxes, in Louisi-
ana, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, and
South Carolina.
The assessment of the property of corpora-
tions by local bodies under the general property
tax has everywhere been found to be inadequate,
and the expedient has commonly been resorted to
of assessing the property of such corporations
by a State board instead of by local assessors.
Corporations are taxed, however, on another
basis than that of the value of their property.
According to Professor Seligman, the basis of
taxing corporations in the United States has
been: ( 1) the value of the property; (2) the
cost of the property; (3) the capital stock at
par value; (4) the capital stock at market
value; (5) the capital stock plus the bonded
debt at market value; (6) the capital stock plus
total debt, both funded and floating; (7) the
business transacted; (8) gross earnings; (9)
dividends; (10) capital stock according to divi-
dends; (11) net earnings; (12) value of fran-
chise. Several States have accepted gross revenue
or net earnings as a basis for taxation, and in
several States, Wisconsin, Michigan, etc., this
tax is progressive. A feature of recent taxation
is the so-called special franchise tax. A tax of
this sort, which falls upon “franchises for the
use of streets granted by municipalities to pub-
lic-service corporations” was passed by the New
York Legislature in 1899, and a somewhat simi-
lar tax was levied in New Jersey in 1900. One
of the most serious drawbacks to the just and
equitable taxation of corporations lies in the in-
terstate location of their property and the in-
terstate character of their business and the con-
sequent frequent conflicts of jurisdiction. To
prevent this Prof. Henry C. Adams advocates
the Federal taxation of interstate commerce,
while another authority on finance (Professor
Seligman) urges uniformity of State action or,
in default thereof, taxation by the Federal Gov-
ernment and subsequent redistribution of such
revenue among the States.
FEDERAL TAXATION. The revenue of the Fed-
eral Government has been obtained principally
from customs and internal revenue duties. From
1875 to 1898, inclusive, the receipts from inter-
nal revenue fluctuated between $111,000,000 and
$171,000,000, then during and after the Spanish
VVar they rapidly rose to $307,000,000. Of this
amount $254,000,000, or over four-fifths, were ob-
tained from spirits, fermented liquors, and to-
bacco in the order named, $39,000,000, or 13 per
cent., from the stamp taxes, and the remainder
from legacies and distributive shares of per-
sonal property, oleomargarine, playing cards,
special taxes not otherwise enumerated, pen-
alties, etc.
The following table shows the receipts of the
Federal Government from taxation for the ten
years 1892-1901:


Customs Internal
revenue revenue
1892 .................................... .. $177.452,964 $153,971,073
1893 ................................. .. 203, 355. 017 161,027,624
1894 ....................................... .. 131,818,530 147,111,233
1895 ...................................... .. 152,158,617 143,421,672
1896. ......................... .. 160,021,752 146,762,865
1897 ............................. .. 176,554,127 146,688,574
1898 .................................... .. 149,575,062 170,900,641
1899 .................................... .. 206,128,482 273,437,162
1900 .................................... .. 233,164,871 295,327,927
1901 ...................................... .. 238,585,456 307,180,664

In 1894 and from 1898 on, the internal revenue
has been more productive than the customs
revenue, this having been also true during the
fiscal years from 1864 to 1868, inclusive. The
cost of collecting the customs revenue in 1901
was 3.23 per cent. and that of collecting the in-
ternal revenue was 1.43 per cent., or $1 of cost
for $70 collected. '
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best works in English
which cover the general subject of taxation are:
Adams, Public Finance (New York, 1898) ; Selig-
man, Essays in Tamation (New York, 1895);
Bastable, Public Finance (London, 1895). For
American conditions, see Ely, Taxation in Ameri-
can States and Oities (New York, 1888). See
also: Seligman, Shifting and Incidence of
Tawation (Baltimore, 1892); id., Progressive
Tawation (Baltimore, 1894); Cohn, Science of
Finance (trans., Chicago, 1895). Taxation is
TAX.
TAXILA.
519
treated in most of the standard works on Politi-
cal Economy; for references, see that article.
See also references under FINANCE.
TAXATION OF COSTS. The official review
and confirmation of the amount of costs due a
successful litigant. In England the court de-
termines the way in which the costs shall be
taxed, and this is done before a taxing master,
or registrar. The official performing similar
duties in Scotland is known as the auditor.
In the United States the clerk of each court
usually taxes the costs of successful parties.
His rulings may be reviewed by the court upon
motion. See COSTS.
TAX DEED. A properly authenticated in-
strument by which a public officer transfers land
sold for taxes. As it does not represent the free
act of the owner of the land, its validity depends
upon the constitutionality and regularity of
the tax sale, the proceedings in which it usually
recites. The deed may run in the name of the
State, or in the name of the officer executing it
in his ofiicial capacity. Delivery of the deed may
be compelled by mandamus. See TAX SALE.
TAXIDERJVIY (from Gk. 1-dim, taxis, ar-
rangement -|— 5ép,ua, derma, skin). The art of
skinning, preserving, and stuffing the skins of
animals, and of mounting them for exhibition.
Before skinning all animals should be carefully
measured. When possible make the measure-
ments prescribed by taxidermists. Also make
drawings and if possible casts of those parts
whose form and expression are characteristic and
can adequately be expressed in no other way.
These precautions have reference to the mount-
ing of the animals in a truly life-like attitude
and form. The mounting of animals requires
experience and, for the greatest success, an art-
ist’s eye for form and a sculptor’s skill in model-
ing. The skin should be carefully removed from
the body to the tips of the toes and to the bill in
the case of the bird. Directions as to where and
how far to cut the skins of the various sorts of
animals may be found in taxidermists’ guides.
Do not cut the skin at the claws and beak, and
in the case of birds, leave the skull within the
skin. Clean the leg and skull bones of all flesh,
clear out the brain, and preserve .the skin and all
it contains by anointing it thoroughly on the
inside with arsenical soap. Many taxidermists
prefer to have the entire pelvic and pectoral
girdles preserved at least. ‘
The subsequent treatment of the skin depends
somewhat on whether the specimen is to be
mounted, and upon the facilities at hand and the
ease and cost of transportation. Except in the
case of young, and of certain species, the skins
of mammals, whether preserved in the field or in
the laboratory, should if possible be preserved
wet—in a salt and alum bath. The proportions
recommended by Homaday are: to one gallon of
water add three-fourths of a pound alum (one
pint) and 1% pounds salt (1 quart); heat to
near the boiling point until the crystals are all
dissolved. When possible test with a salometer,
where liquid should stand at 15°. Do not allow
the liquid to remain in a zinc or galvanized ves-
sel. Immerse the skins in the cooled solution.
For the first two or three days do not allow the
skins to crumple or fold, and to facilitate the
penetration of the fluid to all parts of the skins
stir them about in the fluid. Keep greasy skins
I
by themselves and replace a dirty and bloody
preservative by a clean one.
Skins for mounting should be preserved dry
only when the lack of facilities and the cost of
transportation render the wet method prohibi-
tive. By the dry method the skins may be pre-
served with arsenical soap. When the soap is all
absorbed the skins should be dusted with finely
powdered salt and alum in equal proportions.
Very good skins may be prepared with salt alone
in an emergency; but such skins should be
guarded against the attacks of insects, rats, mice,
cats, dogs, etc.
Bird skins may be preserved either with pow-
dered arsenic and alum or with arsenical soap.
Before removing the skin of a bird plug the vent
and nostrils with cotton. Dirt and blood-spots
should then ‘be washed out with water and the feath-
ers dried with generous and repeated sprinkling
of meal, plaster of Paris, or sawdust. The skin hav-
ing been removed and anointed with the preserva-
tive, replace the skull (using great care here as
elsewhere not to stretch or tear the delicate
skin) ; gently fill the eye-sockets and throat with
cotton to their natural fullness; wind the wing-
bones and legs with cotton to an amount equal
to the muscles removed, and gently draw them
down into the skin of the arms and legs, which
should be placed in a natural position. Then
make as close an imitation of the body as pos-
sible (of cotton for little birds and of tow for
large ones), insert it into the skin, packing it
in just sufficiently to fill out all the natural
roundness and no more, and draw the skin over
it. Next smooth all the feathers carefully, lay
the wings naturally beside the body, and tie them
there by many windings of thread round and
round the whole length of the body. This done
lay the bird on its back on a board, stretch out
the beak and tail, and fasten them in position if
necessary and leave the specimen in an airy place
until thoroughly dried. A light label should be
attached to the leg. Skins so preserved are bet-
ter for study purposes than when mounted, as
they are easily handled, take less room in a
cabinet, and are more easily cared for. When
properly preserved they may be prepared for
mounting at any time by softening, by means
gf wrapping in damp cloths for several hours or
ays.
The mounting of skins is a very elaborate
process, and good results depend not only upon
acquired skill, but upon a knowledge of anatomy,
bionomics, and good artistic taste. In the case
of the smaller birds and animals it consists of
arranging wires lengthwise of the body and the
limbs, so connected as to support the body in a
life-like attitude; but large animals must have
the substance of the body replaced by some firm
material, such as clay or some plastic composi-
tion, which must be modeled with great intelli-
gence if the figure, after the skin has been drawn
over it and fastened, is to be satisfactory.
Consult: Hornaday, Tawidermy and Zoiilogical
Collecting (New York, 1892) ; Rowley, The Art
of Taaridermy (New York, 1898).
TAXILA, t'z'ik’se-la (Lat., from Gk. Td.E0\a,
Chin. Chu-sha-shi-lo, from Skt. Taksakaéila, rock
of Takshaka, a Naga king, or, less probably,
Tahsaéila, carved rock, or from Pali Takkasila,
rock of the Takkas, a tribe living between the
Indus and the Chenab). A famous city of ancient
TAXILA.
TAXONOMY.
520
India. It was situated near the modern village
of Dheri Shahan, on the little stream Tabranala,
in the District of Rawalpindi, in the Punjab. It
was one of the most populous and wealthy of all
the cities of India. It was the residence of
Asoka (q.v.) while he was Viceroy of the Pun-
jab. During the early part of the second cen-
tury B.C. Taxila probably formed part of the
dominions of the Graeco-Bactrian King Eucra-
tides. The Sus or Abars became its masters B.C.
126, only to lose it at the beginning of the next
century to Kanishka, King of the Kushans. Con-
sult: McCrindle, I noasion of India by Alexander
the Great (Westminster, 1896) ; id., Ancient
India as Described in Classical Literature (ib.,
1901).
TAXONOMY (from Gk. -rd£¢s, taais, ar-
rangement + 1/6p.0s, nomos, law, from vé,u.ecv,
nemein, to distribute) IN PLANTS. The classi-
fication of plants. Probably the first scientific
study of plants was the attempt at classification.
Artificial classifications, beginning with the most
ancient one into herbs, shrubs, and trees, and
culminating in the Linneean system (see
BOTANY) in the middle of the eighteenth century,
were at first necessary on account of lack of
knowledge of the structure of plants. Such
classifications simply catalogued and pigeon-
holed the rapidly accumulating material, in
preparation for a classification based upon nat-
ural relationships. Natural systems have been
evolving since the eighteenth century; being
modified by every advance in morphological
knowledge, none are abreast of current opinion,
and no final classification seems to be in sight.
Each newly proposed system, however, ap-
proaches to it. The present system is a com-
posite one, not being referable to any single
systematist, but having had a somewhat nat-
ural and very slow development. In its larger
outlines it is presented below. All of the groups
mentioned are described under their several
titles.
At present four primary divisions of the plant
kingdom are recognized, as follows:
IV. Spermatophytes or Seed-plants.
III. Pteridophytes or Fern-plants.
II. Bryophytes or Moss-plants.
I. Thallopbytes or Thallus-plants.
These categories are distinct enough, and there
is no difliculty in assigning all plants to them,
but the question arises, Are they equivalent
groups? Some think there should be more pri-
mary groups, and others fewer. Beginning with
the lowest great division, there is an increasing
complexity. An easy differential way of separat-
ing the groups is as follows: Thallophytes have
thallus-bodies but no archegonia (q.v.); bryo-
phytes have archegonia but no fibro-vascular
bundles; pteridophytes have fibro-vascular
bundles but no seeds; spermatophytes have seeds.
I. THALLOPHYTES, the least natural group of
the four, comprise what seems to be a heteroge-
neous mass of forms. They are divided into two
great parallel series, algae and fungi, the former
containing chlorophyll (green pigment) and be-
ing independent plants, the latter containing no
chlorophyll and being parasites or saprophytes.
The algae are usually subdivided as follows:
Rhodophycese or red algae.
A1 Phaaophyceze or brown algae.
8&3 Chloropbycese or green algae.
Cyanophycese or blue-green algae.
It is a serious question whether the Cyano-
phyceae should be included in this way with the
other algae, for they appear to be far more nearly
related to the bacteria, a group of fungi. The
classification of the fungi is in a very unsatis-
factory state, but the plants are for the most
part being treated under the following heads:
Basidiomycetes or basidium fungi (toadstools
and their allies, including rust-s and smuts).
Ascomycetes or sac-fungi (mildews, lichen-
fungi, etc.).
Phycomycetes or alga-like fungi (molds,
downy mildews, etc.).
Schizomycetes or fission-fungi (bacteria).
Myxomycetes or slime molds.
The first three groups are regarded as true
fungi; the last three are problematical as to
their relationships, the last two especially often
bemg regarded as distinct from the fungi.
II. BRYOPHYTES form a very natural group,
the two great series being liverworts (Hepaticse)
and mosses (Musci). Their principal subdi-
visions are as follows:
Fungi
. Bryales.
Muse! Sphagnales.
Bryophyta
Anthocerotales.
Hepaticm J ungermanniales.
M arch antiales.
III. PTEBIDOPHYTES also form a natural group,
though the main divisions are very dissimilar in
appearance. They are as follows:
Lycopodiales or club-mosses.
Pteridophyta Equisetales or horsetails.
Filicales or ferns.
IV. SPEBMATOPHYTES should probably be di-
vided into two primary groups, although at pres-
ent they are treated as one. The two great di-
visions, gymnosperms and angiosperms, differ
more in essential features from one another than
does the former group from pteridophytes, but
they are held together at present by the common
character of seed production. The existing
gymnosperms are grouped as follows:
Gnetales.
Coniferales (pines and their allies).
Ginkgoales (maiden-hair tree).
Cycadales (cycads).
The angiosperms comprise a vast assemblage of
forms that are easily separated into two great
series, monocotyledons and dicotyledons, but
whose further division is at present in a some-
what chaotic state. Most of the subdivisions
heretofore suggested are confessedly artificial,
and probably as far as one may go safely with
natural groups is as follows:
Dicotyled ones { 1S13i'cI'.Il11Ii)<(ilJila.Jeii'ii-3'deae.
Monocotyledones
The unit of classification used by taxonomists
is the species, a group very difficult to define, but
understood in a general way. The species always
bears two names, as Quercus alba, the systema-
tist’s name for white oak, ‘alba’ indicating the
species, and ‘Quercus’ the genus to which the
species belongs. In some cases forms of a spe-
cies may be distinct enough to be characterized,
and are called varieties, being designated by
adding a third name to the species binomial.
The next higher taxonomic group is the genus,
which comprises one or more species. For ex-
ample, ‘Quercus’ is the oak genus, containing one
or many species. The next higher taxonomic
category is the family, which comprises one or
more genera, and is indicated except in a few ex-
ceptional cases by the common termination
Gymnospermae {
Angiospermeeé
TAXONOMY.
TAYABAS.
521
‘aceee,’ as ‘Rosacese,’ the rose family. The next
higher category is the order, the form of whose
designation is not so fixed as that of the family,
but which is increasingly indicated by the ter-
mination ‘ales,’ as ‘Coniferales.’ Still higher
categories are often employed, but the usage is so
variable that nothing definite can be stated in
reference to them. All of these categories have
their intermediate subdivisions, which general
usage has in the main established. For example,
a genus may have its species grouped into sub-
genera; a family may be broken up into tribes,
each containing its own genera; and an order
often has its suborders.
The literature of taxonomic botany is vast in
extent, and a complete list of even the most im-
portant works cannot be cited. No work as yet
contains a systematic presentation of all the
known species of plants. The most extensive
current works are as follows: Engler and Prantl,
Die natitrlichen Pflcmzenfamilien (Leipzig),
completed in four sections, each containing nu-
merous parts, and including all known genera;
Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum (Lon-
don, 1863-83), including all known genera of
flowering plants; Engler, Das Pflanzenriech
(Leipzig), a few parts of which have appeared,
and which is planned to be completed in twenty
years, including descriptions of all known species
of plants.
Each country has its own manuals containing
descriptions of its flora. The current manuals
dealing with the flowering plants and in some
cases the fern plants of the United States are as
follows: Gray, Manual of Botany (6th edition,
revised by Watson and Coulter, New York,
1890), including Northeastern United States;
Britton and Brown, Illustrated Flora of the
Northern United States and Ganada (ib., 1896-
98) ; Britton, Manual (ib., 1901), including the
same range; Chapman, Flora of the Southern
United States (3d edition, Cambridge, Mass.,
1897); Small, Flora of the Southeastern States
(New York, 1903); Coulter, Manual of Rocky
Mountain Botany (New York, 1885) ; id., Botany
of Western Tezcas (Washington, 1891-94) ; Brew-
er, Watson, and Gray, Botany of Galifornia
(Cambridge, Mass., 1876 and 1880); Greene,
Manual of the Bay-Region Botany (San Fran-
cisco, 1894), including region south of Maryland
and Kentucky west to 100th meridian; Howell,
A Flora of Northwest America, not yet complete
(Portland, Oregon, 1897—) ; Rydberg, Flora
of Montana (New York, 1900). The only at-
tempt to include in a single work the whole
flora of North America is Gray’s Synoptical
Flora of North America, incomplete (1878-95).
For pteridophytes (fern-plants) of the United
States, consult: Underwood, Our Native Ferns
and Their Allies (New York, 1888) ; Clute, Our
Ferns in Their Haunts (New York, 1901). For
mosses of the United States, see Lesquereux and
James, Masses of North America (1884; out of
print) ; Barnes, Keys to North American M osses
(Madison, Wis., 1896); Grout, Mosses with a
Hand Lens (Brooklyn, 1900; revised and en-
larged, 1903). For the important taxomonic lit-
erature of algae and fungi, see articles on the
principal groups.
TAX SALE. A public sale of land by proper
oificials acting under authority of law, to collect
the amount due for unpaid taxes. The requisites
and details to be followed vary widely in the
different States, but certain general principles
are common. The taxes must be constitutional
and be legally assessed; they must be due and un-
paid; a proper return of the fact of the dc-
linquency must have been made; the land must be
advertised for sale at a definite time and place,
and must be sold at public auction to the highest
bidder. In some States, if it is practicable to sell
a portion of the land for enough to satisfy the
unpaid taxes, it is mandatory on the tax collect-
ors to advertise and sell it in that way. How-
ever, it is usual to sell tracts of land as they
are assessed. Most States allow the owner to re-
deem the land within a specified period, usually
upon payment of the amount paid by the pur-
chaser and a fixed rate of interest. Accordingly,
immediately after the sale it is customary to give
the purchaser merely a certificate which will en-
title him to demand a tax deed upon the expira-
tion of the time for redemption. See TAXATION;
TAX DEED; TITLE.
TAX TITLE. The interest or title acquired
by a purchaser of land at a tax sale. If the sale
be valid, the validity of the title depends upon
the failure of the owner to redeem within the
proper time. Until the expiration of the time al-
lowed for redemption, the purchaser has practi- -
cally only a right in the nature of a lien on the
property. See TAX SALE.
In most States the deed is prima facie evi-
dence of title in the purchaser. In many States,
after the expiration of the time for redemption,
a tax title is made superior to all other claims.
In a few States, however, the purchaser gets only
the right of the delinquent taxpayerand, there-
fore, the title may be very precarious. When the
tax title of a purchaser in good faith proves to
be invalid for any reason, he is generally allowed
to recover back the purchase price, and may re-
cover from the owner the actual value of any rea-
sonable improvements he may have made. See
TAXATION; TAX SALE; TITLE.
TAY, ta. A river of Scotland draining the
greater part of Perthshire (Map: Scotland,
E 3). It rises as the Dochart on the border of
Argyllshire, and flows first eastward, traversing
the beautiful Loch Tay, then southeast, and final-
ly northeast as the Firth of Tay, a broad tidal
estuary through which it enters the North Sea,
10 miles below Dundee. It is 118 miles long and
navigable for small vessels to Perth, though the
mouth of the estuary is obstructed by sand banks.
The estuary is spanned by an iron railroad bridge
over 3000 yards long.
TAY, LOOH. A lake in West Perthshire, Scot-
land, situated in a mountain basin, 355 feet above
the sea-level. It is about 15 miles long, with an
average breadth of one mile, and varies from 100
to 600 feet in depth (Map: Scotland, D 3). Its
picturesque features and salmon fishing make it
a favorite tourist and angling resort. Ben Law-
ers, on its western side, rises 2945 feet.
TAYABAS, ta-ya’Bas. A province of Luzon,
Philippine Islands, occupying the isthmian por-
tion between the central and southern part of
the island, and the region along the east coast of
Central Luzon, formerly included under the dis-
tricts of Infanta and Principe (Map: Luzon,
H 10). These two districts and the large island
of Polillo (q.v.) lying to the east of them were
TAYABAS.
TAYLOR.
522
annexed to the province in 1902. Total area,
4429 square miles, of which the dependent islands
take up 491, and of these the island of Polillo
294 square miles. The entire mainland portion
is occupied by a high coast range covered with
forests and generally inaccessible and unexplored
except in the isthmian region, where alone there
are means of communication. The northern dis-
tricts are undeveloped, but in Tayabas proper
there are some agriculture and cattle-raising, and
considerable mechanical industries, including
weaving, the manufacture of hats, cigar-boxes,
and cocoanut oil, and boat-building. Popula-
tion estimated in 1901 at 131,045, consisting of
Tagalogs in the south and Ilongotes and Negritos
in the north. Capital, Lucena.
TAYABAS. A town of Tayabas Province,
Luzon, Philippines, situated on the east bank
of the river of the same name, sixty-five miles
southeast of Manila (Map: Luzon, H 11). It is
the centre of a large inland and coast trade, and
has a dockyard for native vessels. Population,
about 15,000.
TAYGETUS, ta-ij'e-tus (Lat., from Gk.
Ta'l")'ye1'os), now called PENTEDAKTYLON. The
principal mountain range of the Peloponnesus,
Greece (Map: Greece, D 5). It extends south-
ward through the middle of the peninsula and
forms the central one of the three promontories
in which Southern Greece terminates. It is an
almost unbroken ridge, and reaches in Mount
Hagios Elias an altitude of 7903 feet. It formed
the ancient boundary between Laconia and
Messenia.
TAY’LER, JOHN JAMES (1797-1869). An
English Unitarian. He was born at Church Row,
Newington Butts, Surrey; graduated B.A. at the
University of Glasgow, 1818; and was minister
of a Unitarian congregation at Manchester, 1820-
53. In 1840 he became professor of ecclesiastical
history in Manchester New College, and in 1852
also professor of theology. When the college was
removed to London (1853), he became principal.
He was co-pastor with Rev. James Martineau of
the Unitarian congregation in Little Portland
Street (1850-60). He published Retrospect of
the Religious Life of England (1845; 3d ed.
1876); Christian Aspects of Faith and Duty
(2 series, 1851-1877) ; Attempt to Ascertain the
Character of the Fourth Gospel (1867 ; 2d ed.
1870). Consult his Life and Letters by J. H.
Thom (London, 1872).
TAY’LOR. A city in Williamson County,
Tex., 35 miles northeast of Austin; on the Mis-
souri, Kansas and Texas and the International
and Great Northern railroads (Map: Texas, F
4). The buildings and grounds of the Fair As-
sociation and artesian wells are noteworthy fea-
tures of the city. Taylor is the centre of ex-
tensive cotton interests, and also has consider-
able trade in farm produce, live stock, wool, etc.,
and manufactures of flour and cottonseed oil.
The International and Great Northern Railroad
maintains repair shops here. Population, in
1890, 2584; in 1900, 4211.
TAYLOR, ALFRED SWAINE (1806-80). A cele-
brated English medical jurist, born at Kent. He
studied in the united hospitals of Guy and Saint
Thomas in 1823, and upon their separation at-
tached himself to Guy’s, where he studied under
Sir Astley Cooper and Joseph H. Green. In 1831
he began to deliver at Guy’s Hospital the first
English course of lectures on medical jurispru-
dence. In 1832 he became joint lecturer with
Aikin on chemistry at Guy’s, and he held this
chair alone from 1850 to 1870. His great work,
Elements of Medical Jurisprudence (1836), had
passed through twelve editions by 1891, and during
this period was the standard work on the subject.
This work won for him in 1859 the Swiney prize.
He first drew attention to the great incentive for
secret murder offered by life insurance, and to
the possibility of arsenical poisoning from wall
papers and other fabrics. His Handbook on Poi-
sons (1848) is his other notable work.
TAYLOR, [JAMES] BAYARD (1825-78). An
American poet, man of letters, journalist, and
traveler, born at Kennett Square, Chester Co.,
Pa. His education was obtained in the common
schools of the neighborhood. He became, in 1842,
the apprentice of a printer, and here he published
his first volume, Ximena; or the Battle of the
Sierra Morena, and Other Poems (1844). In
1844-45 he made a pedestrian tour through
Europe, describing his experiences in Views
Afoot; or Europe Seen with Knapsaclo and Stafi‘
(1846). The following year, 18-17, he joined the
New York Tribune, and remained on the staff
of that paper as long as he lived, publishing in
its pages the sketches of many of his subsequent
books. As its special correspondent, he visited
California in 1849, where he spent five months
among the gold-diggers; two years later he was
in Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria; in 1852-53 in
India, crossing from Bombay to Calcutta, and
then going to China to join the expedition of
Commodore Perry to Japan. From 1862 to
1863 he was secretary of the United States
legation at Saint Petersburg, and later chargé
d’ufiaires there, and was influential in securing
for the Northern States the sympathy of Russia.
In 1874 he was again in Egypt, and the same
year at the Millennial Celebration in Iceland.
For several years previously he had lived in Ger-
many, and there in 1870-71 he brought out the
work for which he is best known, his excellent
translation of Goethe’s Faust. In 1876 he
wrote the Ode in honor of the opening of the Cen-
tennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. In February,
1878, he was appointed Minister to Germany,
and returned again to that country, but died
there toward the end of the same year, leaving
unfinished biographies of Goethe and Schiller.
He was married in 1850 to Miss May Agnew, and
in 1857, to Miss Marie Hansen of Gotha, Ger-
many, who survived him, reiédited his works, and,
with H. E. Scudder, wrote his Life and Letters
(1884).
Tay1or’s work is very voluminous, and varied
both in kind and in quality. He wrote books of
travel, of which the chief are: El Dorado; or
Adventures in the Path of Empire (1850); A
Journey to Central Africa (1854); A Visit to
India, China, and Japan (1855); The Lands of
the Saracen (1855); Northern Travel (1858);
Travels in Greece and Russia (1859) ; At Home
and Abroad (1859 and 1862) ; Colorado, a Sum-
mer Idyl (1867) ; By-Ways of Europe (1869) ;
Egypt and Iceland in the Year 1874 (1874) ; and
others. His novels include: Hannah Thurston
(1863): John Godfrey/’s Fortunes (1864); The
Story of Kennett (1866) ; Joseph and His Friend
(1870). His poems were also very numerous;
TAYLOR.
TAYLOR.
523
besides Ximena, the chief volumes are: Rhymes
of Travel, Ballads, and Other Poems (1849) ; The
American Legend (1850), delivered before the
Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard; A Book of
Romances, Lyrics, and Songs (1852) ; Poems and
Ballads (1854); Poems of the Orient (1855);
Poems of Home and Travel (1855) ; The Poet’s
Journal (1863) ; The Picture of Saint John
(1866) ; The Ballad of Abraham Lincoln (1870) ;
The Masque of the Gods (1872); Lars, A Pas-
toral of Norway (1873) ; The Prophet, A Trag-
edy (1874) ; Home Pastorals, Ballads, and
Lyrics (1875); and The National Ode (1876),
all showing variety in subject and manner. He
had a distinct lyrical faculty, as his beautiful
“Bedouin’s Song” proves, but he never seemed
able to bring his varied powers under full ar-
tistic control. The public persisted in regarding
him as a traveler and journalist rather than as
a poet, and, despite the remonstrances of some
friendly critics, it is probable that the public was
right. At most he is a minor poet, a good
translator, and a versatile writer of prose. Be-
sides the biography by his wife, there is a Life
by Albert H. Smythe, in the “American Men of
Letters” series (1896), and a sketch of his per-
sonality is to be found in W. D. Howells’s Liter-
ary Friends and Acquaintance (1900).
TAYLOR, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1819-87).
An American author and journalist, born in Low-
ville, N. Y. During the Civil War he was with
the Western armies as correspondent of the Chi-
cago Evening Journal, and his letters attracted
so much attention that many of them were trans-
lated and published in European papers. After
the war he traveled and lectured for several
years. He wrote many books, including several
volumes of verse and a novel, Theophilus Trent
(1887). He is probably best known by his poem
“The Isle of Long Ago.”
TAYLOR, BROOK (1685-1731). An English
mathematician, born at Edmonton, Middlesex.
He was educated at Cambridge. In 1712 he was
made a fellow of the Royal Society, and two
years later became its secretary. Taylor is
chiefly known for a theorem which bears his
name, and which appeared in his Methodus In-
crementorum Directa et Inversa (1715), the first
important treatise to deal with the calculus of
finite differences. Taylor also contributed in a
valuable way to the problem of the centre of
oscillation (Philosophical Transactions, xxviii.),
to the theory of vibrations of a string, and other
questions of mathematical physics. His Linear
Perspective (1715) and New Principles of Linear
Perspective (1719) were a notable advance in
the theory. They also contained an enunciation
of the principle of vanishing points, the first in
English and the most complete to that time. For
biography consult the preface to his posthumous
work, Contemplatio Philosophica (1793).
TAYLOR, CHARLES FAYETTE (1827-99). A
celebrated American orthopaedic surgeon, born
in Williston, Vt., and educated at the University
of Vermont. The year 1857 he spent in London,
studying the Swedish movement cure under Roth.
Subsequently he settled in New York City, and
was one of the first to introduce the movement
cure (q.v.) into this country. Dr. Taylor early
became a specialist in orthopaedic surgery, in
which he was very successful. He was especially
skillful in devising original appliances to meet
Von. XVI.-34.
deformities. Among his inventions are the Tay-
lor splint for treatment of curvature of the spine
and the long extension hip splint. He was the
founder of the New York Orthopwdic Dispensary
and Hospital, of which he was the executive sur-
geon for many years. Taylor established in New
York City an institute for the treatment of
deformities, which was successfully operated
for many years, previously to the organization
of the hospital. His publications include: Prin-
ciples and Practice of Hygeio-Medical Science,
with George H. Taylor (1857); The Movement
Cure (1858); The Theory and Practice of the
Movement Care, or the Treatment of Lateral
Curvature of the Spine, etc. (1861); The Me-
chan/ical Treatment of Angular Curvature, or
Potts’ Disease of the Spine (1865) ; “Spinal Ir-
ritation” or the Causes of Backache Among
American Women (1864); Infantile Paralysis
and Its attendant Deformities (1867); and On
the Mechanical Treatment of Disease of the Hip-
Joint (1873).——DR. HENRY LING TAYLOR, son of
C. F. Taylor, is an orthopaedic surgeon of note,
and professor of orthopaedic surgery in the New
York Post-graduate Medical School and Hospital.
TAYLOR, Sir CHARLES PURCELL (1863—).
An English marine engineer. He was largely
self-educated, but gradually became distinguished
as a consulting engineer, especially in connec-
tion with marine practice. During the Civil
War in Chile in 1891, he served successfully as
an intermediary between the United States and
Chile in the Baltimore affair. His principal pub-
lications, which have appeared as reports, in-
clude the following: The Docks and Harbors
of the World; Coal Mines and Iron IVorks of
the World; Briquettes and Smokeless Fuel;
The First Transatlantic Steamer; The Steering
of Ships; Smokeless Powder; and The Choice and
Use of Motor Cars.
TAYLOR, DAN (1738-1816). Founder of the
New Connection of General Baptists. He
worked in the mines of Yorkshire till 1762. Af-
ter having been for a year one of Wes1ey’s
preachers he seceded, but continued preaching. In
1763 he united with the General Baptists and
rose to prominence as a preacher among them.
In 1769 he headed a secession from that body.
(See BAPTISTS.) His better known works em-
brace: A Compendious View of Christian Bap-
tism (1772) ; Fundamentals of Religion (1775) ;
and The Eternity of Future Punishment (1789,
written against the Universalist Elhanan Win-
chester). Consult his biography by Adam Tay-
lor (London, 1820), and by W. Underwood (ib.,
1870).
TAYLOR, EDWARD Tnorrrson (1793-1871).
An American preacher, widely known as ‘Father
Taylor.’ He was born in Richmond, Va.; was
taken in charge by a lady near that city; ran
away to sea at the age of seven, and for ten years
was a sailor. In the War of 1812 he served
on a privateer, the Black Hawk, was captured,
and was confined first at Melville Island and
then in Dartmoor Prison, where he became the
chaplain to his fellow prisoners, having joined
the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1811. After
his release from prison he was successively a
peddler of tin and ironware and a buyer of rags,
and a farmer; was regularly licensed to preach in
1814; and in 1819 became an itinerant Metho-
dist minister. In 1829 he was chosen minister
TAYLOR.
TAYLOR.
524
of the newly established Seamen’s Bethel in Bos-
ton, which position he held until 1868, when he
resigned. He visited Europe in 1832 and Pales-
tine in 1842, and was chaplain to the United
States frigate sent with relief to Ireland during
the famine of 1846. By his warmth of heart, his
native wit, and his natural eloquence he gained
a remarkable influence over his sailor auditors,
and throughout the United States he was re-
garded as in some respects the most eloquent
preacher of his day. Numerous anecdotes have
been told to illustrate his wit and his power as
a public speaker, and accounts of his eloquence
may be found in Miss Martineau’s Retrospect of
VVestern Travel, in Buckingham’s America, His-
torical, Statistic and Descriptive, in Dickens’s
American Notes, in Miss Bremer’s The Homes of
the New World, and in Mrs. Jameson’s Common-
place Book of Thoughts, Memories, and Fancies.
Walt Whitman spoke of him as an “essentially
perfect orator.” Consult Haven and Russell,
Father Taylor, the Sailor Preacher (Boston,
1872).
TAYLOR, GEOBGE (1716-81). A signer of
the Declaration of Independence, from Pennsyl-
vania. He was born in Ireland, emigrated to
America as a redemptioner in 1736, and, after
serving a wealthy manufacturer as a clerk,
married his employer’s widow. He became very
wealthy, was a member of the Provincial Assem-
bly from 1764 to 1770, and on July 20, 1776, was
chosen a member of the Continental Congress.
He served only a short time, retiring in March,
1777. Consult: Sanderson, Signers of the Dec-
laration of Independence (Philadelphia, 1825-27).
TAYLOR, HANNIS (1851—). An American
lawyer and diplomat, born at New Berne, N. C.
He was educated at the University of North
Carolina. From 1893 to 1897 he was United
States Minister to Spain. In 1899 he published
the first volume, followed in 1898 by the second
volume of The Origin and Growth of the English
Constitution, a work in which he attempted not
only to trace the history of the English system
of government, but also the growth therefrom
“of the Federal Republic of the United States.”
TAYLOR, Sir HENRY (-1800-86) . An English
oet, born at Bishop-Middleham in Durham. He
egan writing verses in the Byronic manner and
was soon contributing clever articles to the
Quarterly Review. Encouraged by Southey,
whom he visited at the Lakes, he settled in
London as a man of letters (1823). In 1824
he was given a clerkship in the Colonial Office,
a post which he filled with great ability till his
resignation in 1872. He made warm friendships
with Mill, Lockhart, Rogers, Carlyle, Spedding,
Aubrey de Vere, and many other literary men.
In recognition of his services to the Government
and to literature, he was made K.C.M.G.
(1869). His last years were passed at Bourne-
mouth. Taylor’s literary fame rest.‘ secure
on Philip Van Artevelde (1834; performed
by Macready, 1847), one of the most poetic trag-
edies since the Elizabethan age. Other tragedies
in the same style but of less merit are Isaac Com-
nenus (1827), Edwin the Fair (1842), and Saint
Clement’s Eve (1862). The Virgin Widow, a
dramatic poem (1850), is an experiment in ro-
mantic comedy. In 1847 Taylor published The
Eve of Conquest and Other Poems. His strong-
est prose is represented by The Statesman
(1836), a collection of ironical discourses on
success, which were taken seriously; and by a
charming Autobzography (1885; but privately
printed, 1877), containing carefully drawn por-
traits of his early contemporaries. Consult his
Works (Author’s edition, 5 vols., London, 1878) ;
selection from poems in Miles’s Poets and Poetry
of the Century (ib., 1891) ; and Correspondence,
ed. by Dowden (ib., 1888).
TAYLOR, HENRY CLAY (1845-—) . An Ameri-
can naval ofiicer, born in Washington, D. C. He
graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863, was
assigned to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron,
and.took part in the battle of Mobile Bay
(August 5, 1864). After the Civil War he spent
two years in the South Pacific Station, and on
his return home was detailed for duty at the
Naval Academy. In 1868 he was promoted to
the rank of lieutenant-commander, and after
taking part in a surveying expedition (1870-71),
he again spent two years at the Naval Academy.
In 1879 he was advanced to the rank of com-
mander, and from 1881 to 1884 he commanded
the Swata'ra on the Asiatic station. Two years
_ after his return he was appointed commandant
of the Norfolk Navy Yard, a post which he
held two years. From 1893 to 1896 he was presi-
dent of the Naval War College at Newport, R. I.,
and he was also for several years superintendent
of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In 1897 he
was again ordered to sea service, and was ap-
pointed commander of the battleship Indiana.
In the spring of 1898 he joined Admiral Samp-
son’s fleet at Key West, and in May he took
part in the bombardment of San Juan. The next
month, with the Indiana and other war vessels,
he conveyed General Shafter’s army from Tampa
to Santiago, and on July 3d, when Cervera came
out of the harbor, his vessel took an important
part in the destruction of the Spanish fleet.
After the war he was placed in command of the
receiving ship Vermont, and in 1902 he was ap-
pointed chief of the Bureau of Navigation.
TAYLOR, IsAAo (1787-1865). An English
miscellaneous writer, inventor, and artist, born at
Lavenham, in Suffolk. He studied engraving
under the direction of his father, with whom
he executed the plates for Boydell’s Illustrations
of Holy Writ (1820), commended for their orig-
inality by Rossetti. Turning to literature, he
joined the staff of the Eclectic Review (1818),
for which he continued to write for many years.
Some time before this he had begun the study
of patristic literature and of Lord Bacon. He
was known as the great lay preacher of his time.
Of his publications we may mention: The Ele-
ments of Thought (1823; 11th ed. 1867), which
grew out of his early studies of Bacon and the
Church Fathers; a translation of the Characters
of Theophrastus (1824) with etchings by him-
self; The Natural History of Enthusiasm (1829;
10th ed. 1845) ; Saturday Evening (1832), a de-
votional volume which had an immense sale in
England and the United States; Home Education
1838; 7th ed. 1867); a translation of the Jew-
ish Wars of Josephus (1847 and 1851) ; Ancient
Christianity and the Doctrines of the Owford
Tracts (8 parts, 1839-40; 4th ed. 1844); and
The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (1861). His sisters
JANE (1783-1824) and ANN (1782-1866), after-
wards Mrs. Gilbert of Nottingham, became well
known for their children’s verses. Their Original
. TAYLOR.
TAYLOR.
525
Poems for Infant Minds (1804-05), which ran
through more than fifty editions in England and
America, were also translated into German,
Dutch, and Russian. Equally popular was
Rhymes for the Nursery (1806), containing from
Jane the familiar “Twinkle, twinkle, little star.”
The sisters also produced Hymns for Infant
Minds (1810), which has passed through about
one hundred editions. Ann wrote the hymn be-
ginning “I thank the Goodness and the Grace.”
Consult: the Taylors of Ongar, by Isaac Taylor
(London, 1867) ; the Autobiography of Mrs. Gil-
bert, ed. by Josiah Gilbert (ib., 1874) ; and the
Poetical Works of Ann and Ja/ne Taylor (ib.,
1877).
TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901). An English
ecclesiastic, born at Stanford Rivers. In 1885
he became canon of York Minster. He was the
author of The Liturgy and the Dissenters (1860) ,
and one or two‘ other theological pamphlets; but
was best known by his works on philology. His
Words and Places, or Etymological Illustrations
of History, Ethnology, and Geography (1864; 2d
ed. 1865) was awork of great research as well
as erudition. In Etruscan Researches (1874)
Taylor tried, but unsuccessfully, to prove that
the Etrurians were allied to the Mongolian
races. In 1876 Taylor published The Etruscan
Language; in 1883 his best known work, The Al-
phabet (2d ed. 1899) ; and later The Origin of
the Arya/as (1890) and Names and Their Histo-
ries (1896). He died at Settrington.
' TAYLOR, IsAAo EBENEZER (1812-89). An
American gynsecologist. Educated at Rutgers
College and at the medical department of the
University of Pennsylvania, Dr. Taylor received
his degree from the latter institution in 1834.
He was professor of obstetrics and of the dis-
eases of women and children in Bellevue Hos-
pital Medical College, 1861-67; president of the
same, 1861-89; professor emeritus, 1867-89. He
is credited with the introduction, in connection
with Dr. I. A. Washington, of the hypodermic
use of medicines.
TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-67). An English
prelate and author. He was born at Cambridge,
the son of a barber, and educated at Caius Col-
lege. He was ordained before he had reached
his twenty-first year, and attracted the atten-
tion of Laud, who procured him a fellowship at
All Souls’, Oxford. About the same time he was
made chaplain to the King, and in 1638 rector
of Uppingham. His first notable publication
was Episcopacy Asserted (1642). His stand on
the Church-and-King side cost him his living. For
a while he accompanied the royal a-rmy, and
then retired into Wales, where he opened a school
at Newton in Carmarthenshire. During the
thirteen years of his enforced seclusion, he pro-
duced his most memorable works-—the Liberty of
Prophesying, on behalf of the expelled Anglican
clergy, in 1647 ; the Life of Christ and the Holy
Living in 1649; the Holy Dying in 1652; and a
number of other devotional and controversial
books. In 1660, with a dedication to Charles II.,
appeared his Ductor Dubitantium, or the Rule
of Conscience in All Her General Measures, the
most learned, subtle, and curious of all his works.
Promotion was a matter of course to one who was
at once a stanch royalist, a profound theologian,
and a consummate writer; and before the year
was out he was made Bishop of Down and Con-
nor. He was not happy in his Irish see, from
which he prayed to be delivered as from ‘a place
of torment.’ The Scotch Presbyterian ministers
who had occupied the livings under the Common-
wealth disputed his belief in the invalidity of
their ordination, and were only ejected with
difficulty. He remained at his post, however, un-
til his death. Taylor, sometimes styled the Eng-
lish Chrysostom on account of his golden elo-
quence, has few equals for richness of fancy. His
inexhaustible imagery, full of tender beauty,
touched with the characteristic melancholy of
the age, reminds us of Shakespeare and Spenser
and Fletcher rather than of a sober theologian.
With Sir Thomas Browne, he is the best repre-
sentative of the ornate and florid prose of the
seventeenth century. His style is perhaps seen
at its best in his sermons, though his Holy Lin-
ing and Holy Dying, for their deep and practical
piety, have been popular devotional manuals for
each generation since his time. The best com-
plete edition of his works is that by Eden in ten
vols. (London, 1847-52), with a memoir by
Bishop Heber, revised by the editor. Consult
also the essay by Dowden, in Puritan and Angli-
can (London, 1900).
TAYLOR, JOHN (1580-1653). An English
writer, styled by himself the ‘King’s water poet.’
He was born at Gloucester. After studying there
at the grammar-school, he was apprenticed to a
London waterman. Pressed into the navy, he
served under Essex at Cadiz (1596), and, accord-
ing to his own statements, he made many voy-
ages in the Queen’s ships. Retiring from the
navy with a lame leg, he became a famous water-
man on the Thames. -He frequently superin-
tended the river pageants. A-s trade waned, ow-
ing largely to the fashion for coaches, he began
writing doggerel, which attracted great attention
and secured him the patronage of men of letters.
He also made‘ many tours, which furnished him
with material for amusing sketches. On the
outbreak of the Civil War (1642) he went to
Oxford, where he opened a public house. Re-
turning to London (1645), he took the Crown
Tavern in Long Acre. There he died. Though
Taylor cannot be taken seriously as a poet, his
work is interesting as a picture of contemporary
manners. Of his separate publications, number-
ing about 150, may be mentioned the Penniless
Pilgrimage (1618), an account of a trip to Scot-
land; Laugh and Be Fat (1613), a burlesque of
Thomas Coryate’s Odcombian Banquet; Praise of
Hempseed (1620), an account of a voyage from
London to Queensborough, in Kent, in a brown-
paper boat; and Travels in Germanie (1617). In
1630 Taylor brought out an edition of his writ-
ings under the title, All the Works of John Tay-
lor, the Water Poet, being 63 in number. This
folio was reprinted by the Spenser Society (three
parts, London, 1868-69). Other pamphlets not
contained in the edition of 1630 were also re-
printed by the same society (five parts, 1870-78).
For a selection consult his Early Prose and Poet-
ical Works (Lond.on, 1888).
TAYLOR, JOHN (1750-1824). An American
legislator and writer, born in Orange County, Va.
He graduated at William and Mary College in
1770, and was a member of the United States
Senate from 1792 until 1794, for two months in
1803, and from 1822 until his death.
In 17 98 _.
he moved in the House of Delegates the famous '
TAYLOR.
TAYLOR.
526
“Virginia Resolutions.” (See VIRGINIA AND KEN-
TUOKY RESOLUTIONS.) He published: An In-
quiry into the Principles and Policy of the Gov-
ernment of the United States (1814); Aratos;
being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practical
and Political (6th ed. 1818) ; Construction Con-
strued and the Constitution T/indicated (1820) ;
Tyranny Unmasked (1822); and New Views of
the Constitution of the United States (1822). In
his political works he was an ardent advocate
of strict construction of the Constitution.
TAYLOR, JOHN (1808-87). The successor of
Brigham Young (q.v.) as President of the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. (See Mon-
MONS.) He was born in England, became a
Methodist local preacher, and emigrated to
Canada in 1829. In 1836, under the ministra-
tion of Parley P. Pratt, he joined the Mormon
Church and was elected one of the Twelve
Apostles. At the assassination of the Prophet
Joseph Smith, Jr. (q.v.), he was himself
wounded, but was one of those who counseled the
Mormons to keep the peace. Opposing the claims
of Sidney Rigdon (q.v.) to the headship of the
Church, he started with the first emigrants for
the Salt Lake Valley. Appointed in 1849 to the
European mission, he published a Mormon month-
ly in Paris and translated the Book of Mormon
into French and German. Returning to America
in 1854, he was stationed in New York as super-
intendent over the Eastern cl.urches and there
published the Mormon. Having served as as-
sociate justice of the inchoate State of Deseret,
as a probate judge of Utah County, and a mem-
ber of the Utah Legislature, in 1858 he was in-
dicted for treason against the United States
Government. On October 6, 1880, he was elected
President of the Church.
TAYLOR, JOHN Louis (1769-1829). An
American jurist, born in London, England. He
removed to Fayetteville, N. C., and Was ad-
mitted to the bar. From 1792 to 1794 he was a
member of the State Legislature, in 1798 was
elected a judge of the Superior Court, and was
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1810
until his death. In 1817 he was appointed a
commissioner for the revision of State statutes,
the work being published in 1821. His publica-
tions include: The North Carolina Law Reposi-
tory (1814-16); Term Reports (1818); and On
the Duties of Eacecutors and Administrators
(1825).
TAYLOR, JOSEPH (1586 ?-1653?) . An English
actor, mentioned in the Shakespeare folio of 1623
as one of those who appeared in Shakespeare’s
plays. His Hamlet, which he acted after Bur-
bage, is interesting on account of the tradition
that Shakespeare himself trained him in the part.
At different times he was a member of the com-
pany at the Globe Theatre and elsewhere, and
later in life he was appointed to the Government
office of Yeoman ‘of the Revels. Consult Collier,
Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of
Shakespeare (London, 1846) .
TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858).
An American Congregational theologian. He was
born at New Milford, Conn.; graduated at Yale
College in 1807. He studied theology five years
with Dr. Dwight and was ordained pastor of the
First Church (Congregational), New‘ Haven, in
1812, as successor of Moses Stuart. In 1822 he
Was elected Dwight professor of didactic theology
in Yale College, and held the position till his
death. In 1828 he preached in New Haven the
concio ad clerum, presenting views on native de-
pravity which were denounced as heretical, and
led to a protracted discussion between him and
Dr. Tyler. The controversy attracted much at-
tention in New England and elsewhere. After
Dr. Taylor’s death, four volumes of his works
were edited by President Noah Porter: Practical
Sermons (1858) ; Lectures on the Moral Govern-
ment of God (1858) ; Essays, Lectures, etc., upon
Select Topics in Revealed Theology (1859). His
Life was published at New Haven in 1858.
TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808-76). An
Anglo-Indian officer and novelist. He was born
in Liverpool, England, and when fifteen years old
went to India to enter a commercial firm in Bom-
bay, but instead received a commission in the
Nizam of Hyderabad’s army. In 1841 he was
commissioned to pacify the State of Shorapore
and was appointed administrator during the
minority of the ruler, a task that he accom-
plished with satisfaction both to the natives and
to the British Government. After the Raja’s ac-
cession he was appointed administrator of the
ceded districts in the Western Deccan, his rule
during the perilous time of the Mutiny being
eminently successful. He returned to England in
1860 and in 1869 was made a companion of the
Star of India. Besides his brilliant administra-
tive services Taylor was widely known by his
popular novels illustrative of stirring periods in
the history of India; the chief of them are:
The Confessions of a Thug (1839) ; Tippoo Sut-
taun, a Tale of the Mysore War (1840) ; Tara,
a Mahratta Tale (1863); Seeta (1872); and A
Noble Queen (1878), the last two descriptive of
the Indian Mutiny. Consult his autobiographical
Story of My Life (London, 1877).
TAYLOR, RICHARD (1826-79) . A Confederate
soldier, familiarly known as ‘Dick’ Taylor. He
was the son of President Zachary Taylor, and
was born at New Orleans. He graduated at Yale
in 1845, and was for a time with his father in
the Mexican War. He was a member of the
Louisiana seceding convention, and later became
colonel of the Ninth Louisiana regiment. He was
soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general;
fought under Stonewall Jackson in the Shen-
andoah Valley campaign, and then in the
Seven Days’ Battle before Richmond; was pro-
moted to the rank of major-general, and was put
in command of Louisiana, the western part of
which he recovered for the Confederacy. On
April 8, 1864, he defeated General Banks at
Sabine Cross Roads, and captured 22 guns and
about 2500 prisoners, thereby making it neces-
sary for the Federal general to give up the Red
River Expedition and to retreat. On the follow-
ing day, however, Taylor himself sustained a
severe repulse at Pleasant Hill. On May 4, 1865,
he surrendered to General Canby. He published
Destruction and Reconstruction (1879).
TAYLOR, ROWLAND (?-1555). An English
martyr. He was born at Rothbury, Northumber-
land, and was educated at Cambridge, where he
became principal of Borden Hastel about 1531. He
Was associated with Cranmer as domestic chap-
lain, and received in succession numerous eccle-
siastical appointments. At Cambridge he had
become acquainted with the Protestant manual
Unio Dissidentium and was a firm believer in,
TAYLOR.
TAYLOR.
527
and adherent to, its doctrines. As rector of the
living of Hadleigh, Suffolk, to which he had been
presented by Cranmer in 1544, he opposed the
performance of mass by a priest in 1554, was im-
prisoned by order of Queen Mary, condemned to
death, and on February 9, 1555, was burnt on
Aldham Common, near Hadleigh.
TAYLOR, SAMUEL Comnmcn. See COLERIDGE-
TAYLOR, SAMUEL.
TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835). An English
classic scholar known as ‘the Platonist.’ He was
born of humble parents in London. He studied at
Saint Paul’s School, taught school, and at length
obtained a clerkship in a London bank. His
spare time he gave to study of chemistry,
mathematics, and especially Greek philosophy;
and soon after 1780 he began his lectures on
Plato, Plotinus, and the Neo-Platonists. Twelve
of them were delivered at the house of Flaxman,
the sculptor. On receiving an annuity of £100
from a friend, he resigned his place in the bank
and began translating and expounding the an-
cient classical authors, a work for which he
was ill equipped. Among his translations are:
Plato (1804); Aristotle (1806-12); the Orphic
Hymns (1787); Apuleius; Celsus; Iamblicus;
Julian; Maacimus Tyrius; Pausanias; Plotinus;
Porphyry; and Proclus. Among his miscellanies
are: Vindication of the Rights of Brutes (1792) ;
The Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries (1790);
and Theoretic Arithmetic (1816). Taylor enjoyed
the friendship of Peacock, Romney, and Langton.
He died at Walworth, London. He figures as a
character in Isaac D’Israeli’s novel Vaurien.
Consult W. E. A. Axon, Thomas Taylor, the Pla-
tonist (London, 1890).
TAYLOR, THOMAS GLANVILLE (1804-48). An
English astronomer, born at Ashburton, Devon-
shire. In 1830 he became director of the East
India Company’s observatory at Madras, where
he collected valuable meteorological and magnetic
data, and determined the longitude of Madras.
His observations are the first satisfactorily ac-
curate ones made within the tropics. He pub-
lished the valuable Madras General Catalogue
(1844), containing the places of 11,015 stars.
TAYLOR, Sir THOMAS WARDLAW (1833—).
A Canadian lawyer and judge, ‘born in Auchter-
muchty, Scotland. He studied at Edinburgh
University, and was admitted to the Upper
Canadian bar in 1858. From 1872 to 1883 he was
Master of Chancery, and from 1883 to 1887 puisne
judge of the Manitoba Court of Queen’s Bench.
In 1887-99 he was Chief Justice of Manitoba, and
in 1890 and 1893 was administrator of the pro-
vincial government. He made extensive study
of equity jurisprudence, on which subject he pub-
lished a volume of Commentaries (187 5). His
further works include Chancery Statutes and
Orders and The Public Statutes Relating to the
Presbyterian Church.
TAYLOR, TOM (1817-80). An English play-
wright and journalist, and editor of Punch, born
at Bishop-Wearmouth, near Sunderland. After
attending the University of Glasgow he entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow of his college (1842). He tutored at
Cambridge for two years and was then appointed
professor of English literature in London Uni-
versity. He also studied law at the Inner
Temple, where he was called to the bar in 1846.
On the creation of the Board of Health in 1850,
he became its assistant secretary and afterwards
its secretary. He began early to write for vari-
ous London periodicals, but chiefly for Punch,
of which he became. editor in 1874. Much in-
terested in art, he wrote biographies of Benjamin
Robert Haydon (1853), and of Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds (1865), and edited Charles Robert Leslie’s
Autobiographical Recollections (1860) and Pen
Sketches by a Vanished Hand (1879), a collection
of essays by Mortimer Collins. He also wrote or
adapted more than a hundred dramatic pieces.
In them he showed himself a great master of
stage craft. Among the most popular were:
Still Waters Run Deep (1855); The Overland
Route (1860) ; ’Tw/lat Ame and Crown (1870);
The Ticket-of-Leave Man (1870); and Lady
Clancarty (1874). In Masks and Faces (per-
iprnged in 1852) he collaborated with Charles
ea e.
TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836). An English
philologian, known sometimes as William Taylor
of Norwich. He was born in Norwich, England.
He became an enthusiast for the literature of
Germany, and devoted most of his life to making
it known to his countrymen. His finest produc-
tion was a translation of Biirger’s Lenora in bal-
lad metre (completed 1870 ; published 1796) ,which
led to Scott’s version. He also translated Les-
sing’s Nathan the Wise (1791), Goethe’s
Iphigenia (1793), and some of Wieland’s Dia-
logues of the Gods ( 1795). By this time he was
writing on German literature extensively for the
reviews. These articles were collected under the
title Historic Suroey°of German Poetry (1828-
30). Though interesting for his many eccen-
tricities, Taylor has a place in literary history
as the first interpreter of German literature for
England. He died at Norwich. Consult: the
Memoir by Robberds (London, 1843) ; and Herz-
feld’s valuable monograph, William Taylor /von
Norwich (Halle, 1897).
TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1821-1902). A mission-
ary bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
He was born in Rockbridge, Va., and entered the
Baltimore Conference in 1843. He was mission-
ary to California (1849), and organized the first
Methodist church in San Francisco. He was an
evangelist 1856-61, and left America, visiting
England, Ireland, and Palestine in 1862. He Was
evangelist in Australia (1863-66) ; South Africa
(1866); ‘Vest Indies (1867); Australia (1869-
70); Ceylon (1870-76), establishing the South
India Conference on a self-supporting basis; and
South America (1877-83) , with brief intervals in
the United States. He was elected Missionary
Bishop of Africa in 1884, and retired in 1896. He
wrote the following works: Seven Years’ Street
Preaching in San Francisco (1857) ; The Model
Preacher (1859) ; Christian Adventures in South
Africa (1867); Reconciliation, or How to Be
Saved (1867); Election of Grace (1875); In-
fancy and Manhood of Christian Life (1875);
Four Years’ Campaign in India ( 1875); Our
South American Cousins (1878); Self-Support
ing Missions in India (1882) ; The Story of My
Life (1895) ; Flaming Torch in Darkest Africa
(1898).
TAYLOR, WILLIAM MAOKERGO (1829-95). A
Congregational minister. He was born at Kil-
marnock, Ayreshire ; graduated at the University
of Glasgow (1849) ; and at the divinity hall of
TAYLOR.
TAYTAY.
528
the United Presbyterian Church, Edinburgh
(1852). He was ordained pastor of the United
Presbyterian Church at Kilmaurs (1853) ; pastor
of the United Presbyterian Church at Derby
Road, Liverpool (1855) ; pastor of the Broadway
Tabernacle (Congregational), New York (1872),
and so continued till 1893, when he retired in
consequence of a paralytic stroke. Besides bi-
ographies of Rev. Matthew Dickie (1872) and
of John Knox (1885), he published numerous
volumes of sermons and discourses, of which
those of a biographical character on Joseph,
Moses, David, Elijah, Daniel, Paul, were very
popular. He delivered the Lyman Beecher lec-
tures at Yale in 1876, The Ministry of the Word;
the L. P. Stone lectures at Princeton, The Gospel
Miracles in Their Relation to Christ and Chris-
tianity (1880) ; also published The Scottish Pal-
pit from the Reformation to the Present Day
(1887). A brief memoir appeared in New York
in 1895.
TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850). The twelfth
President of the United States. He was born in
Orange County, Va., on November 24, 1784, and
was the son of Col. Richard Taylor, an officer of
the Revolutionary War and one of the first set-
tlers of Louisville, Ky.,whither Zachary was taken
in early childhood, and where he lived until his
twenty-fourth year, working on a plantation and
receiving only an elementary education. His
elder brother, who had received a lieutenancy in ~
the army, died in 1808, when Taylor was ap-
pointed to the vacant commission. In 1810 he
was promoted to a captaincy; and in 1812, with
50 men, two-thirds of whoin were ill of fever, he
defended Fort Harrison, on the Wabash, against
a large force of Indians led by Tecumseh. Pro-
moted to the rank of major for his gallantry,
he was employed during the war in fighting the
Indian allies of Great Britain. In 1822 he built
Fort Jesup; in 1832 he served as colonel in the
Black Hawk War; and in 1836 was ordered to
Florida, where he gained an important victory
over the Seminole Indians at Okeechobee, for
which he was appointed brigadier-general, and
was made commander of the United States forces
in Florida. In 1840, having been appointed to the
command of the Southwestern Department, he
purchased a, plantation near Baton Rouge, La.
On February 28, 1845, Congress passed the reso-
lution for the annexation of Texas, formerly a
province of Mexico, and for some time an inde-
pendent republic. Texas claimed the Rio Grande
for her southwestern boundary; Mexico insisted
that there could be no claim beyond the Nueces,
and prepared to defend the disputed territory,
even if she could not reconquer the whole of
Texas. General Taylor was ordered to Corpus
Christi. This point he occupied in November
with a small force which was increased by re-
enforcements to 4000 men. On March 28, 1846,
he had moved to the Rio Grande, across the dis-
puted territory, arid had begun to build Fort
Brown, opposite and commanding the Mexican
port of Matamoros. General Ampudia, the Mexi-
can commander, on April 12th, demanded that he
should retire beyond the Nueces, pending negotia-
tions; and on the refusal of General Taylor, his
successor, General Arista, crossed the Rio Grande
with a force of 6000 men and 10 pieces of
artillery. On May 8th he was defeated at Palo
Alto by General Taylor, with a force of 2300;
and on the next day was driven from a
new position at Resaca de la Palma across the
Rio Grande. War was declared first by the
President, and later by Congress, to exist by the
act of Mexico; and 50,000 volunteers were called
for. Taylor was made major-general, was re-
enforced, and ordered to invade Mexico. On
September 9th, with 6600 men, he attacked Mon-
terey, which was defended by about 10,000 regu-
lar troops. After ten days’ siege and three
days’ hard fighting, it capitulated. General
Scott, having been ordered to advance on the City
of Mexico by Vera Cruz, withdrew a portion of
the troops of General Taylor, leaving him only
5000 volunteers and 500 regulars, chiefly flying
artillery, to meet an army of 21,000, commanded
by Santa Anna. He took a strong position at
Buena Vista, fought a desperate battle, on Feb-
ruary 22 and 23, 1847, and won a decisive vic-
tory. (See MEXICAN WAR.) This victory,
against enormous odds, created the utmost en-
thusiasm. General Taylor, popularly called ‘Old
Rough and Ready,’ was nominated by the Whigs
in 1848 for President of the United States, and
was elected, receiving 163 electoral votes, while
General Cass, the Democratic candidate, received
127 electoral votes, and Martin Van Buren, the
Free Soil candidate, received none. Entering
upon the Presidency in 1849, he found a Demo-
cratic plurality in Congress, with a small but
vigorous Free-Soil Party holding the balance of
power, while the most exciting questions con-
nected with the extension of slavery, as the ad-
mission of California, the settlement of the boun-
daries of Texas, the organization of the other
newly acquired Mexican territories, etc., were
agitating the country, and threatening a disrup-
tion. On July 4, 1850, sixteen months after his
inauguration, he was attacked with bilious colic,
and died on the 9th. Consult Howard, General
Taylor (New York, 1892), in the “Great Com-
manders Series.” See UNITED STATES.
TAY’LORVILLE. The county-seat of Chris-
tian County, Ill., 26 miles southeast of Spring-
field; on the Wabash and the Baltimore and Ohio
Southwestern railroads (Map: Illinois, C 4).
It has a public library (Carnegie), and a fine
court-house. Taylorville is surrounded by a pro-
ductive section engaged in farming, stock-raising,
and horse-breeding. There are also coal mines in
operation near the city. Paper, chemicals, brick,
tile, wagons, bags, and agricultural implements
constitute the principal manufactures. The gov-
ernment is vested in a mayor, chosen biennially,
and a unicameral council. The water-works are
owned and operated by the municipality. Taylor-
ville was settled about 1839, and was incorpo-
rated in 1882. Population, in 1890, 2829; in
1900, 4248.
TAYRA, or TAIRA (South American name).
A plantigrade, weasel-like carnivore of Central
and South America (Galictis barbara), closely
allied to the grisons (q.v.). It is about three
feet long, nearly half of this belonging to the
bushy tail; dark brown above, yellowish below;
preys upon small animals, and often gathers into
small bands which hunt in company, usually in
the early morning.
'1‘AY'TAY. A pueblo and the chief town of
the Province of Paragua, Palawan Island, in the
Philippines; situated in the southwestern angle
of the bay of the same name in the northeastern
TAYTAY.
TCHERNIGOV.
529
part of the island, in latitude 10° 50' N., longi-
tude 119° 30' E. The bay of Taytay is about 11
miles long and 6 miles wide, and affords good
shelter in the southwest monsoon. There is a
fort with walls 30 feet high and accommodations
for 700 men. In the neighborhood of the town
are large tracts of cultivated ground. A bridle
path connects Taytay with the harbor of Malam-
paya, 4 miles away, on the western coast of the
island. Population, about 1750.
TAYUG, ta-y6‘6g’. A town of Luzon, Philip-
pines, in the eastern part of the Province of
Pangasiném, situated 28 miles east of Lingayén
(Map: Luzon, E 2). Population, in 1887, 9954;
now 19,600.
TAZE’WELL, LITTLEToN WALLEB (1774-
1860). An American political leader, born at
Williamsburg, Va. He graduated at William and
Mary College in 1792; was admitted to the bar
in 1796; was a member of Congress in 1801-03;
and then devoted himself to the practice of law.
From 1824 until 1833 he was a member of the
United States Senate. As a member of the Com-
mittee on Foreign Relations he wrote the famous
report on the Panama mission. He opposed most
of the acts of Adams and of Jackson; was an
enemy to the policy of protection; denounced
nullification, but was not in sympathy with
Jackson’s method of suppressing it; and at-
tacked the Administration for removing the de-
posits from the United States Bank. In 1834 he
was elected Governor of Virginia, and after serv-
ing his term withdrew from public life. His
principal published work is Review of the Nego-
tiations Between the United States and Great
Britain Respecting the Oommerce of the Two
Countries (1829).
TCHAD. A lake of Central Africa. See CHAD.
TCHAIKOVSKI, chi-kof’ski. See TSOHAI-
KOWSKY.
TCHEKHOFF, cheK’of, ANTON PAvLovIToH
(1860—). A Russian novelist, born of former
serfs at Taganrog (Southern Russia). In 1884
he received the degree of M.D. at Moscow, but
never practiced medicine, as his literary career
(begun in 187 9 in humorous periodicals) held
out promise of great success. His collected
Humorous Stories and In Twilight (1887) and
M orose Folks (1890) attracted general attention,
and from that time his reputation increased
rapidly, until at present he occupies with Gorki
the front rank of the younger Russian writers.
The latest edition of his works appeared in eleven
volumes (Saint Petersburg, 1900). The Memoirs
of a Stranger, Fires, Ward N 0. 6, A Tedious Story,
and Steppe are the best of his longer works.
The general tenor of all his works, bristling with
sallies of humor, stinging wit, and often verging
on caricature or the farcical, is pessimistic
anger. But in all his writings the native humor
is so pronounced that they are read by all classes
with the greatest avidity.
TGHELYABINSK, chel-ya-binsk’. An im-
portant district town in the Government of
Orenburg, Eastern Russia, 363 miles northeast of
Orenburg (Map: Russia, K 3). As the western
terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway the town
has considerable commercial importance. Popu-
lation, in 1897, 19,891.
TGHELYUSKIN, chél-yws'kin, CAPE.
Snvnno CAPE.
See
TCHEIR/EMIS’SES. A Finnish tribe of East-
ern Russia, living in the region on the left bank
of the middle Volga—Pyatka, Kazan, and the
adjoining governments. They number ‘about
250,000. Their average height is 1.61 meters,
the cephalic index 79. In general, they have red
hair and a full beard of the same color; their
eyes are sunken and of blue, greenish, or chestnut
shade; the complexion is fair and freckled, the
cheek bones prominent, the face and lips thin, the
chin round, and the nose straight. Some au-
thorities believe that they received through the
Bulgarians the Tatar influences displayed in their
social life, their houses, costumes, social organi-
zation, and religious ideas. They believe in
evil and good gods, the former called ‘Y o’
and the latter ‘Yurnon Bairan,’ and there is
evidence that they believe in life after death and
in spirits. While the corn blossoms they will not
work, and at the end of the period they sacrifice
cows, sheep, and fowls in a curious ceremony in
which they put the head, heart, and liver of the
sacrifice in a bowl and offer it up with prayer
before the fire. For three days they eat and
pray, and at the end of the ceremony throw what-
ever is not consumed into the fire, which is kept
continually burning. They have also many magi-
cal rites to ward off the evil influences of the
spirits of the wood, river, and snow and to keep
the ghosts of the dead in their graves. Consult
Smirinov, M ordves et Tcheremisses (Paris, 1895).
TCHERKASSY, chér-ktis'sé-. A district town
in the Government of Kiev, South Russia, situ-
ated on the Dnieper, about 200 miles southeast of
Kiev (Map: Russia, D 5). It trades in grain,
tobacco, and sugar. Population, in 1897, 29,619.
TCHERNAYA, cher-n3/ya. A small river in
the Crimea, Government of Taurida, Southern
Russia, flowing into the Black Sea near Sebasto-
pol. On August 16, 1855, the Russians, num-
bering 74,000 men, who were besieged in
Sebastopol, advanced against the Allies, num-
bering 39,630, and on the banks of the Tchernaya
were repulsed with heavy loss.
TCHERNAYEFF, cher-nIa’yef, MIKHAIL
Gnreonrnvrron (1828-98). A Russian general.
He fought in the Crimean War and in the Can-
casus and went to Turkestan in 1864 as major-
general and captured Tashkend. He left the
army in 1867, commenced the practice of law at
Moscow, and became an ardent advocate of Pan-
slavism (q.v.). In 1876 he was given the com-
mand of the Servian army on the Morava and
was defeated by the Turks at Alexinatz, October
29th. In 1879 he tried to organize a revolution
in Bulgaria and was sent as prisoner to Adri-
anople and thence brought to Russia. From 1882
to 1884 he was Governor-General of the military
department of Tashkend in Turkestan.
TCHERNIGOV, cher-ne’gef. A government
in the southwestern part of Russia. Area, 20,233
square miles (Map: Russia, D 4). The surface
is level, and in the north marshy. It is watered
by the Dnieper and the Desna. The chief occupa-
tion is agriculture and the principal products
are rye, buckwheat, potatoes, wheat, and tobacco.
Stock-raising is also important. There is an
abundance of porcelain clay, which is used ex-
tensively for the production of porcelain ware;
wooden ware is also largely manufactured. There
are a number of sugar refineries and distilleries.
5
TCHERNIGOV.
TCHUVASHES.
530
Population, in 1897, 2,322,007, consisting largely
of Little Russians. Capital, Tchernigov (q.v.).
TQHERNIGOV. The capital of the Govern-
ment of Tchernigov, Russia, situated on the
Desna, 476 miles southwest of Moscow (Map:
Russia, D 4) . It has two cathedrals dating from
the eleventh and the twelfth centuries and re-
mains of an old castle. Population, in 1897, 25,-
580. Tchernigov rose to political and commercial
importance as early as the eleventh century.
TGHERNYSHEFF, che“-.r’ni-shef’, ALEXANDER
IVANOVITCH, Prince (1786-1857). A Russian
general. He served against the French at Aus-
terlitz and Friedland, and on the side of Napoleon
at Aspern and Wagram. He bore an important
part in the campaigns of 1813-14; was made a
count in 1825 and Minister of War in 1828.
Nicholas I. created him a prince in 1841.
TCHERNYSHEVSKI, chér'ni-shéf'ské, NIK-
OLAI GAVRILOVITCH (1828-89). A Russian pub-
licist and author, born at Saratov. He went in
1846 to the Saint Petersburg University, and
soon after devoted himself to literary work. In
1862 he was put into prison for his radical
views, and there he wrote in 1863 his novel
What’s to Be Done? which became the po-
litical gospel of the Nihilists. He was in exile in
Siberia until 1883 when he was allowed to settle
at Astrakhan, and at his native town in 1889,
a few months prior to his death. Tchernyshev-
ski’s historical mission lies in shaping the liberal
thought of Russia. His works, which include a
translation of Mi11’s Political Economy, were
published in Switzerland in 1868-70, in 4 vol-
umes. Consult Plekhanoff, Tcherny/shecski
(Stuttgart, 1894).
'I'C'HETCH’EN, or CHECHEN. One of the
eastern groups of the peoples of the Caucasus,
dwelling between the Kabards and Lesghians
and numbering about 225,000 (cephalic in-
dex, Eastern Tchechen, 84.5). Tchetchen is
the name given them by the Russians; the
Georgians call them Kisti, but their native ap-
pellation is Nakhtche, or ‘people.’ They are one
of the most primitive peoples of the Caucasus
and in their mountain fastnesses even now re-
sist Russian conquest. Their religion seems to be
Islamism imposed upon an earlier crude form of
Christianity with a heathen background. By
language they rank as an independent stock.
TCHIGORIN, chig’o-rin, MICHAEL (1850——).
A Russian chess master, born in Saint Peters-
burg. He was engaged for a time in the Rus-
sian civil service, but early became interested
in chess, and at the Berlin tournament of 1881
increased his local fame as an expert by follow-
ing Blackburn and Zukertort in the list of vic-
tors. He was defeated by Steinitz at Havana in
1889, although two years afterwards he won two
cable matches. In 1892 he made an unsuccess-
ful attempt to win the world’s championship.
At the Moscow tournament of 1899 he won first
prize, divided the first honors in 1900 at the
National Russian Tournament, and was third in
the International Masters’ Tournament held at
Monte Carlo in 1901.
TCHIKHATCHEFF, ché/Ka-chéf’, PETER
ALEXANDROVITCH (1808-90). A Russian geol-
ogist and traveler. In 1842, with Elie de Beau-
mont, Heppert, and Verneuil, he investigated the
Altai Mountains, the result being Voyage scienti-
fique dons l’A ltai oriental et les parties adjointes
de la frontie‘re de Chine (1845). An attaché in
the Russian Embassy at Constantinople (1845-
47), he mastered Turkish, and during 1847-63
traversed Asia Minor, making large geological,
paleontological, archaeological, zoiilogical, and
botanical collections. He embodied the results of
his studies in Asie Mineure (1853-69). Among
his other works are Etudes de géographie et d’his-
toire naturelle (1890).
TCHISTOPOL, chés-to’pol. A district town
in the Government of Kazan, Russia, situated
on the Kama, 90 miles southeast of Kazan (Map:
Russia, H 3) . It has flour mills, distilleries, and
cotton mills. Population, in 1897, 20,161.
TCHITA, ché’ta. The capital of the Territory
of Transbaikalia and an important centre of
Eastern Siberia, on the Tchita River and the
Trans-Siberian Railway, 532 miles by rail east
of Irkutsk (Map: Asia, L 3). Population, in
1897, 11,480, largely Buriats.
TCHITCHAGOFF, che-cha’gof, PAVEL VAS-
SILIEVITCH (1765-1849). A Russian admiral.
He served under his father, Vasili Yakovlevitch
(1726-1809), a Russian admiral, and completed
his studies in England (1792-93). As head of
the Navy under Alexander I. he greatly promoted
the efficiency of the service. In 1812 he received
an Important military command, but failing to
prevent Napoleon’s recrossing the Berezina he
fell into disgrace and left Russia. His Memoirs
(1886-88) are valuable.
TCHORLU, ehor’lo'o'. A town of the Vilayet
of_ Rodosto, in European Turkey, on the Tchorlu
River, a tributary of the Ergene, 20 miles north-
east of Rodosto (Map: Balkan Peninsula, F 4).
There are Christian churches and mosques. Wine
and fruit are produced; native carpets and
woolen cloth are manufactured. Population,
about 11,500.
TCHUKTOHI, ch5ok’che, or CHUKCHI
(from chciwtcg/, rich in reindeer). A people liv-
mg In the extreme northeast of Asia, numbering
some 15,000. The ‘reindeer Tchuktchi’ dwell in
the interior about the Kolyma River; the ‘sea
(or_ fishing) Tchuktchi,’ who form the great
majority, inhabit the coast of the Arctic from
Bear Island to East Cape, while on the Pacific
side they have mingled with the Eskimo. They
are tall, well built, rather light-skinned, decided-
ly brachycephalic in part (there seem to be two
physical varieties among them), and differ some-
what in form and features from the typical Mon-
golians, with whom they are allied by speech.
Besides an interesting Shamanism, the Tchuk-
tchi have a wealth of folk-lore and mythology not
Without traces of Eskimo influence. Among
them, as among several other savage tribes, the
old men commit suicide with great ceremony.
TCHUST, ch“oTo'st. A town in the Territory of
Ferghana, Russian Turkestan, 110 miles northeast
of Khokand (Map: Persia, M 1). The natives
manufacture knives and saddles. Population, in
1897, 13,686.
TGHUVASHES, ch'5‘5-ve1sh'éz. A people of
Eastern Russia, probably of Finnic origin, and
now with a strong Tatar admixture. Their
seat 1s near the Volga and they number
somewhat over 500,000. Their language, which
is distinct, is assigned to the Ural-Altaic
stock. They are industrious and orderly, their
TCHUVASHES.
TEA.
531
> by the natives to be indigenous.
tians, but more primitive Shamanistic beliefs and
practices are still prevalent among them. Con-
'sult Schott, De L/ingua Tschuwaschorum (Berlin,
11841).
TEA (from Fuhkien Chin. te, Chin. ts’a, ch’a,
tea), Ca'melZz'a, Thea, or Thea Sinens/is. A
shrub, the dried leaves of which are one of
the most important articles of commerce, and
yield one of the most esteemed and exten-
sively used of all non-alcoholic beverages.
The tea shrub, which is a native of sub-
tropical Asia, but is grown in tropical climates
also, is 20 to 30 feet high, but under cultivation
only three to six feet high, with numerous
branches and lanceolate leaves, two to six inches
long. The flowers are axillary, rather large,
white, and fragrant. Numerous varieties have
been produced in China, where tea is grown chief-
ly on the southern slopes of hills in the regions
between latitudes 24° to 35° N., and longitudes
115° to 122° E. A new plantation is made by
sowing two or three seeds at proper distances.

TEA (Thea Sin en sis).
K The first crop is obtained in the third year, when
the shrub is still small. When about seven years
old, it yields only a scanty crop of hard leaves,
and is out down, to induce new shoots to sprout
from the root. This is frequently repeated till
the plant dies at about thirty years of age.
HISTORY AND COMMERCE. Tea appears to have
been used for ages in China, where it is believed
At the end of
the sixteenth century it is mentioned by Mai-fei,
a Portuguese writer, in his Histomlce Indicaa, as
a product both of China and Japan. On June
27, 1615, a Mr. VVickham wrote the first English
record of it. His letter is among the documents
of the East India Company. From this time it
became gradually known to the wealthy citizens
1 of London, who received presents of small quan-
tities from China via India, or by small, exorbi-
tantly dear lots in the marl<ets—sometimes as
much as -£10 a pound. In 1657 a rather large
consignment was received by Thomas Garraway,
a London merchant, who established a house for
selling the prepared beverage.
The tea-farms of China are usually small, and
“require careful cultivation and much attention;
for the plant will thrive only inflwell-manured or
'-chief loccupat-ions being agriculture and cattle-
jbreeding. The Tchuvashes are nominally Chris-
very rich soil. Although an evergreen, the leaves
are useful only at certain seasons. Some of the
new leaves, which appear in April, are made into
young hyson of such fine quality that it has rare-
ly been used for distant export because it is said
to lose flavor by the sea-voyage. Much is, how-
ever, sent overland to Russia, where it commands
an exorbitant price. The ordinary picking begins
in May; and later in the season, a third picking
of an inferior, more bitter woody grade is ob-
tained and sold mainly to poor people. The odor
and flavor of dried tea are developed by the oxida-
tion which the leaves undergo in the process of
drying. Moreover, different qualities and colors
are prepared from the same leaves, which may
also be roasted and scorched to produce the dif-
ferent varieties distinguished by odor and taste.
For green teas the leaves are roasted in pans for
about five minutes almost immediately after they
are gathered. After being rolled with the hands
upon a table they are returned to the pans, and
kept in motion by the hands for about an hour.
They are then dull green, but become brighter
afterwards. For black teas, they are spread and
tossed in the air till they become flaccid; they are
then roasted for a few minutes, rolled, exposed
to the air for a few hours while soft and moist,
and lastly dried slowly over charcoal fires, till
they become almost black. Hence their dark
color and distinguishing flavor seem due to the
long exposure to the atmosphere in the process of
drying, and the oxidation of certain inherent
ferments acting rapidly upon the juices of the
leaf, and especially upon the astringent principle
during this exposure. For the purpose of giving
special odors to different varieties of tea, nu-
merous odoriferous plants are employed in dif-
ferents parts of China, the blossoms of the sweet-
scented olive (Osmanthus fragrans) being fre-
quently used. In China spurious teas have been
prepared and exported under the name of ‘lie
teas,’ but they have not been popular. The Chi-
nese color (‘face’) the export green teas with
Prussian blue, turmeric, etc., to please the eye.
Facing is not regarded as adulteration, which is
unlawful in the United States.
In 1836, after some difliculty in- obtaining
plants, the culture of tea was attempted on a
large scale in India. Plantations had been
formed at an earlier period in Assam and had
made great progress. In Ceylon the culture of
tea has extended. Large quantities are also pro-
duced in Java, the industry being carried on by
wealthy companies. The growth of this plant
has been attempted in South Carolina, with con-
siderable success, and experiments are being made
in several other Southern States.
Among the numerous varieties of tea used in
the United States are the following: GREEN.
Ch-inese.—-(1) Gunpowder sorts—Shanghai, Ping-
suey Moyune, Imperial Moyune, and Canton; (2)
Hyson sorts—Shanghai, Shanghai young, Moyune,
Moyune young, Canton young, and Twankay or
Imperial Hyson. Japanese-—-Gunpowder and
young Hyson. Java—Gunpowder. BLACK. Ohi-
nese.—-(1) Conjou sorts—-Canton Foo-chow-foo,
Hung-muey, Oopack Kaison, and Oonam; (-2)
Pekoe sorts—plain orange Foo-chow, scented
orange, Canton scented orange and flowery Pekoe,
Oblong, and Souchong. Assam—Conjou orange
Pekoe, and Souchong. Java/—Conjou and, rarely,
Imperial. , -
The use of teas as a beverage is general i
TEA.
TEA INSECTS.
532
among the British, the Russians, and the Dutch.
Among other European peoples its use is much
less general, and is chiefly confined to maritime
districts, towns, and the wealthy.
Where tea is difiicult to obtain substitutes of
two sorts are used: those, such as Maté, guarana
(qq.v.), coffee leaves and kolanut, which con-
tain theine or caffein (q.v.), and which conse-
quently have the stimulating effect; and those,
such as Siberian tea (Sawifraga crassifolia), Ap-
palachian tea (Viburnum cassinoides), Labrador
tea (Leiophyllum buwifolium), Chilean tea
(Myrtus Ugni), Trinidad pimento tea (Pimenta
offioinalis), which resemble the true tea in flavor
or smell, or which possess some other stimulating
principle. See Plate of BEVERAGE PLANTS.
TEACH, or THATCH, EDWARD ( ‘?-1718). An
Anglo-American pirate, popularly known as
Blackbeard. Probably he was born at Bristol,
England, and in his youth went to the West
Indies. He became widely known and feared
for his robberies and atrocities, throughout the
West Indies and along the coast of Carolina and
Virginia. For winter quarters he built him-
self a house which is still standing, on the upper
bank of the Pasquotank, N. C., accessible only
from the Sound. There on November 22, 1718,
he was attacked by two small sloops under the
command of Lieutenant Maynard of the British
Navy, and by a successful ruse led to board the
vessels, when he with several of his men was
killed, and of the 15 prisoners taken, 13 were
subsequently hanged. His Life is included in
Charles Johnson’s Lines of the Pyrates (1724),
and he appears in Howard Pyle’s Jack Ballister’s
Fortunes (1894).
TEACHERS COLLEGE. An institution in
New York City for the training of teachers and
school administrators, founded in 1888, and made
a part of the educational system of Columbia
University (q.v.) in 1898, taking academic rank
with the schools of law, medicine, and applied
science. The college is represented in the Colum-
bia University Council by its dean and an elected
representative of the faculty, but maintains its
separate corporate organization, with a board of
trustees who assume the entire financial respon-
sibility for its maintenance. The departments
of instruction are history and philosophy of
education, educational administration, educa-
tional psychology, elementary and secondary edu-
cation, English, French, and German, Greek and
Latin, history, biology, geography, physics and
chemistry, mathematics, kindergarten, fine arts,
domestic art, domestic science, manual training,
music and voice training, and physical educa-
tion. No department undertakes work for which
adequate provision is made in other faculties of
the university. The college maintains two schools
of observation and practice: the Horace Mann
School, with kindergarten, elementary and high
school departments, and the Speyer School, con-
sisting of a kindergarten, an elementary school,
and special classes in sewing, cooking, and man-
ual training. The large demand for university
extension work in 1902-03, when 45 courses were
given, led to the establishment of an extension
department, beginning in September, 1903. The
buildings, five in number, were valued in 1903
at $2,000,000, when the endowment was $190,000,
and the gross income $230,000. The total regis-
Southeastern Asia, and has become prevalent
tration was 3018, including 729 collegiate stu-
dents, l093 in the Teachers College schdols, and
1196 extension students. The Bryson Library
contains 22,000 volumes.
TEACHING OF THE TWELVE APOS-
TLES (Gk. didaxij T69 ddrdexa drroaréhwv, di-
dache to‘n d6delca apostol6n), also called the
DIDACHE. An ancient Christian document, writ-
ten in Greek, probably before 150, of great value
for the study of organization, belief, and worship
in the early Church. It was found in 1873 by
Bryennios (q.v.), Metropolitan of Nicomedia, in
an eleventh-century manuscript in the Monastery
of the Holy Sepulchre in Constantinople, and was
published by him ten years later. Modern edi-
tors include it, by general consent, among the
Apostolic Fathers (q.v.) . The Teaching was ap-
parently compiled from earlier material, for use
as a church manual. It contains a description of
the Two Ways, one of life, the other of death, in
the form of rules for Christian conduct, some-
what akin to the Decalogue, but longer. Whether
or not this part of the Teaching was originally
separate from the rest, it is evident that it was
used in catechetical instruction, to prepare con-
verts for baptism. The second portion of the
Teaching sets forth the proper observance of the
rites of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, with di-
rections for their administration, and prayers
and forms for use in the same. It further defines
the office and duties of the Christian leaders, es-
pecially apostles, prophets, teachers, bishops, and
deacons. Ceremonial and organization are alike
extremely simple. The whole concludes with
a paragraph announcing the speedy second com-
ing of Christ and the final judgment.
The Teaching was held in high honor in the
early Church, falling short, however, of canonici-
ty. It forms the basis of the seventh book of the
Apostolic Constitutions (q.v.), and bears some
literary relationship to the Shepherd of Hermes
and perhaps to the Apology of Aristides. Most
critics are inclined to attribute it to Syria or
Egypt, but no decisive argument exists for either.
By the fourth century the Teaching had taken
its place definitely among the ‘ecclesiastical’
as distinguished from the ‘canonical’ books,
and it was thenceforward employed only for edifi-
cation, not for authoritative teaching in the
Church. Consult: Schaff, The Teaching of the
Twelve Apostles (3d ed., New York, 1889) ; Har-
ris, The Teaching of the Apostles (Baltimore,
1887 ; contains facsimiles of the manuscript) ;
Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christianity
(London, 1893; contains an English transla-
tion) ; Kriiger, History of Early Christian Lit-
erature (New York, 1897 ). The text will be
found critically edited, in Funk, Patres Apostol-
ici (2d ed., Tiibingen, 1901),
TEAGUE. A faithful and humorous footman
in Howard’s Committee, who gave his name
for some time afterwards to many Irishmen in
the literature of the later Stuarts. The part,
said to have been drawn from a servant of the
author’s, was most successfully created by the
actor Lacy.
TEA INSECTS. The tea plant is attacked
by several injurious insects, as the faggot-worm
(Eumeta Carmerii) , one of the bagworms, whose
larva carries a case made up of fragments of
twigs and feeds upon leaves of the plant. The
tea borer (.Zeuzera cofieae) is the larva of a
TEA

1. THE LAST PICKING. 2. DRYING THE. LEAVES IN A TEA-HEATER.
TEA INSECTS.
TEASEL.
533
cossid moth; it bores into the stems of both cof-
fee and tea plants. Three species of bark-lice
(Aspidiotus thew, flavescens,
and transparens) also oc-
cur commonly upon tea,
and the first named is
one of the most serious
enemies of the growing
plant, very noticeable at
the time of pruning. Three
mites feed upon the leaves,
one of them a ‘red spider’
(Tetranychus bimaculatus) ,
another the five-legged tea-
mite (Typhlodromus cari-
natus), closely related to
the rust-mite of the orange.
'.;‘,'f It feeds upon the lower


1-"; ;'_lfli-=-?-‘I15-.-7->I’."‘* - »
;:*~‘.-2 WP .,_
. -“--“ _f' -~ ‘
--H


,./l/"1. leaves. The yellow tea-
("J mite (Acarus translucens)
'(;""' feeds upon the buds
i /if and produces the condition


5'1
-1 l
, . called ‘sulky.’ Consult Watt,
' The Pests and Blights of
GT5?-‘;°3l§§§¥.v$3§.§SN §'§g8)T@a Plant (Calcutta,
TEAK (Malayan tekka, Tamil tekku, teak-
tree). Two kinds of timber, valuable for ship-
building and other purposes. Indian teak (Tec-
tona grandis) belongs to the natural order Ver-
benaceee; African teak or African oak (Old-
fieldia Africana) , to the Euphorbiaceee. The for-
mer is found in the mountainous parts of Mala-
bar and other parts of Southeastern Asia. The
teak forests of India are mostly under govern-
mental control and yield a considerable revenue.
The usual practice is to girdle the trees and al-
low them to stand for two years to season thor-
oughly before felling. Teak has been introduced
in some parts of India in which it is not in-
digenous. It is a beautiful tree which rises
above all the other trees of the East Indian for-
ests, sometimes attaining a height of 200 feet.
Silk and cotton stuffs are dyed purple by the
leaves. The timber, which will sink in water un-
less dry, is one of the most valuable produced in
the East; it resembles coarse mahogany, is eas-
ily worked, strong, durable, and not liable to the
attacks of insects. It is largely used for furni-
ture, some of which is handsomely carved, and
for shipbuilding, for which purpose it is exported.
The teak generally grows rather in clumps in for-
ests than in forests of itself. African teak is
adapted to the same uses as the Indian teak,
through it is not quite as durable.
TEAL (connected with Dutch teling, teal,
brood, telen, to breed, and perhaps with AS.
tilian, Eng. till, OHG. ail, Ger. Ziel, object). One
of a group of small beautiful fresh-water ducks,
mostly in the genera Nettion and Querquedula.
They are migratory, going to the tropics for the
winter, and when in the United States are shy
and silent, feeding chiefly at night on water-
plants, seeds, worms, and insects. They make
their nests usually at some distance from water
and lay greenish, or in some species cream-colored
eggs. Species of these two genera are known
in all parts of the world. The commonest North
American species is the green-winged teal (Net-
tion Carolinense). This fine bird is nearly the
same as the ‘common’ teal (Nettion crecca) of
the northern parts of the Old World. About a
dozen other species are met with in Asia, Africa,
and South America, all favorites among gunners
and epicures. The blue-winged teal (Querque-
dula discors), represented in Europe by the gar-
ganey (q.v.) , is very abundant in many parts of
North America. It is rather larger than the com-
mon teal. The head and neck are blackish with a
large white crescent in front of the eye. The
wing-coverts are sky-blue and the under parts are
purplish gray with black spots. The cinnamon
teal (Querquedula cyanoptera) is also blue-
winged, but the general color is rich purplish
chestnut and there is no white on the head. This
is a South American duck, which is also common
west of the Rocky Mountains as far north as
Oregon. Two other species belong to South Amer-
ica. Consult authorities and Plate under DUCK.
TEANO, ta-a/no. A city in the Province of
Caserta, Italy, 42 miles north-northwest of
Naples, at the foot of the extinct volcano Rocca
Monfina. It was one the leading cities of Cam-
pania. The present town is interesting for its
old ruins, among them a castle. Population
(commune), in 1901, 13,326.
TEARSHEET, DOLL. A vicious and vigorous
female character in the second part of Shake-
speare’s Henry IV.
TEARS OF THE MUSES. A poem by Ed-
mund Spenser, published in 1591, by Ponsonby.
It is a discussion of the mediocrity of the litera-
ture of the day, and is put into the mouths of the
various muses, who thus deplore the decay of
their power. Its source is a Latin poem by Har-
vey (1588). In the Midsummer Night’s Dream,
V. i., Shakespeare describes the work as ‘a piece
sharp and satirical.’
TEASEL (AS. toesel, tcesl, OHG. zeisala,
teasel, from AS. tcesan, Bavarian‘ Ger. zaisen, to
tease wool), Dipsacus. A genus of plants of the
natural order Dipsacacew. The only valuable
species is the fuller’s or c1othier’s teasel (Dip-
sacus fullonum), a native of Southern Europe,

TEASEL (Dipsacus sylvcstris).
naturalized in the United States. It is a bien-
nial, several feet high, with sessile serrated
leaves, prickly stems and leaves; and with cylin-
drical heads of pale or white flowers, between
TEASE-L.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
534
bracts. The plant is cultivated for the heads,
Which are cut off when in flower, and are used for
raising the nap of cloth, a purpose for which no
mechanical contrivance has, been found to equal
them. The split heads are fixed on the circum-
ference of a cylinder, which is made to revolve
against the surface of the cloth. The wild teasel
(Dipsacus sylvestris), from which fuller’s teasel
is supposed to have originated, has straight in-
stead of hooked prickles on the heads. It is a
common and troublesome weed in some parts of
the United States.
TEA TREE. See CAJEPUT.
TEA-WATER PUMP. A spring famous in
New York during the eighteenth and part of the
nineteenth century. It was situated north of the
present City Hall Park, on Chatham Street, and
was for a long time the chief source of supply
for drinking purposes, owing to the purity of its
water.
TEAZLE, té’z’l, LADY. A sprightly country-
bred girl who is married to an elderly and ex-
acting but kind-hearted old gentleman, in Sheri-
dan’s School for Scandal. She falls in with a
set of society gossips and her head is turned by
the keenness of their acid speech. She is courted
by the hypocritical friend of her husband, Joseph
Surface. The role was created by Mrs. Abingdon.
TEAZLE, Sir PETER. The husband of Lady
Teazle (q.v.). The r6le was created by Mr.
King.
TECHE, tesh. A bayou in Louisiana (Map:
Louisiana, D 3). It leaves the Red River near
Alexandria and flows southeast in a course of
175 miles, during which it sends off numerous
branches to the Atchafalaya Bayou, and finally
empties into that bayou below Grand Lake, send-
ing also several widely separated arms directly
to the Gulf of Mexico. It is interesting as hav-
ing been anciently a main outlet of the Red
River, and is lined with high and extensive al-
luvial banks which form excellent agricultural
lands~ safe from inundations. The bayou is
navigable for steamers to Saint Martinsville,
about 90 miles.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION (from techn/ic,
from Gk. Tex!/ucbs, technilcos, relating to art or
handicraft, from réxvn, techn/e‘, art, handicraft,
from rlxrcw, tihtein, to bring forth, produce).
The term technical education, strictly speaking,
embraces all instruction that has for its object
the direct preparation for a career or vocation.
In common use, the designation is applied to
such instruction as bears directly upon the
industrial arts. The field of such education
ranges from instruction in the arts and sciences
that underlie industrial practice in its broadest
and most complex relations to the simple train-
ing in manipulation needed for the prosecution
of some productive trade. This wide province
naturally calls for numerous and widely diver-
gent types of schools.
Technical schools may conveniently be di-
vided into three classes: (1) Institutions. of a
collegiate or university grade to which the
titles engineering schools, institutes of tech-
nology, polytechnic institutes, and schools of ap-
plied science are variously given, and which are
devoted to instruction in advanced mathematics
and science, and the theory and practice of indus-
‘which are oblong, hook-pointed, acuminated, rigid
trial operations. (2) Schools in which the pur-
pose is to prepare for practical work in some par-
ticular field of industry and which afford in-
struction in those branches of science and art
that underlie its special problems. This class is
represented by schools of weaving, dyeing, build-
ing, and machine construction and draughting.
The term ‘technical school’ l1as been used in a
specialized sense in this article to denote institu-
tions of this character. In this class may be
grouped schools of industrial art in which the
study of design is supplemented by training in
manipulation. Evening continuation schools
which afford instruction in science, art, and tech-
nical methods may also be considered in this
group. (3) Trade schools which supply a train-
ing in the practice of some productive trade.
The function of the first type of school is to edu-
cate its students for managers and superintend-
ents of industrial establishments, consulting and
designing engineers and architects, etc.-—in other
words, to supply leaders and organizers for the
industrial world; that of the second, to provide
foremen, designers, and experts in special lines
of industrial practice; and that of the third,
to train craftsmen for practical work at a trade.
ENGINEERING Scnoor.s; SCHOOLS or APPLIED
SCIENCE; INSTITUTES or TECHNOLOGY. The ear-
liest establishment of this type of school occurred
in France and Germany. In France, the Ecole
des Ponts et Chausées, originally started in 1747
as a drawing school, was organized in I7 60 for
the training of engineers for the Government ser-
vice. In 1794 the celebrated Ecole Polyteclmique
was founded, primarily to fit men for the engi-
neer and artillery corps of the French Army.
Not only has this school done much to set the
standard of scientific training for the State ser-
vice, but from the fact that many of its gradu-
ates have engaged in private work, it has exerted
a strong influence upon general industrial prac-
tice. Other special engineering schools have been
established at different times by the French Gov-
ernment, and in 1829 the Ecole Centrale des Arts
et Métiers was founded as a private institution.
The standards of this school have always been of
the highest character. In Germany the first in-
stitution that approached a modern engineering
school was the School of Mines founded at Frei-
berg in 1824, in order to develop engineers for
working the mines in the neighborhood. Later in
the century came the great development of pure
science in the German universities, and following
this came an era of equal activity in the field
of applied science, which quickly resulted in the
widespread establishment of polytechnics or
Technische H ochschulen. Rivalry between the
various States played a part in the spread of
these schools, each striving to outdo the others
in magnificence of buildings and completeness of
equipment. These institutions, which often had
their beginnings in secondary technical or
trade schools, have now become foundations co-
ordinate with the universities, requiring equal
academic preparation for admission, and repre-
senting specialized courses in engineering, archi-
tecture, industrial chemistry, and agriculture.
Schools of this kind are uniformly supported by
the governments of the various States, and pre-
sent a very highly developed organization. The
splendid Technische Hochschule at Charlotten-
burg, and similar institutions at Munich, Dres-
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.-
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.-
535
den, Darmstadt, and Hanover, are foremost ex-
amples of this class. Engineering schools of a
high grade are maintained also by the govern-
ments of Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Sweden,
and Russia. Great Britain awakened more slow-
ly to the need of technical education than other
European countries. In 1881 a Royal Commis-
sion on Technical Instruction was appointed to
investigate the entire subject. Among other re-
sults of this awakening was the foundation of the
City and Guilds of London Institute, formed by a
union of many of the wealthy corporations of the
old London uilds. The scope of the Institute
activities inc udes the support and management
of three institutions in the city of London, and
the direction of a system of examinations dealing
with the work of technical classes throughout
England and Wales, and represents a system that
touches all the important phases of technical in-
struction with the single exception of the tra 1e
school. The most important of the three schools
established in London, the Central Institution of
the City and Guilds of London Institute, is a
well-organized school of technology. The Institute
gave £100,000 for buildings and equipment, and
annually contributes £10,000 to its support.
Courses are provided for training engineers, ar-
chitects, industrial chemists, and technical teach-
ers. Other schools of an advanced character and
several university departments of applied science
have come to the front in Great Britain, promi-
nent among which are Owens College (q.v.),
Manchester; Mason College, Birmingham; York-
shire College, Leeds; and Bradford Technical
College.
In the United States the development of the
school of technology has been exceedingly rapid,
and has resulted in a type of institution
that in some respects is the superior of any-
thing to be found abroad. The Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute (q.v.), founded in 1824 by Ste-
phen Van Rensselaer as a school of theoretical
and applied science, was the first establishment
in this field. The work of this school has been
almost exclusively devoted to the training of
civil engineers. In responseto the growing de-
mand for scientific instruction, the Sheflield
Scientific School (1847) at Yale and the Lawrence
Scientific School ( 1848) at Harvard were founded.
Most of the technical schools, however, date
from the later years of the Civil War. In 1861,
through the efforts of Prof. William B. Rogers,
' the charter of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (q.v.) was granted, and in 1865 the
first classes were organized. The Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (q.v.) was opened to stu-
dents in 1867. This was the first school of tech-
nology in the United States to provide systematic
instruction in workshop practice as an element
of the course in mechanical engineering. In 1864
the first courses in the School of Mines, Columbia
University, were organized, and from this have
developed the several schools of applied science of
that institution. In 1871 the Stevens Institute
of Technology (q.v.) at Hoboken was opened. The
beginnings of the Sibley College of Mechanical
Engineering and the Mechanic Arts were made at
Cornell University in 1872, and other courses in
applied science were soon established there. In
the next twenty years a large number of schools
of the first rank were founded either as separate
institutions or as departments of universities.
Notable among those of the first kind are Purdue
University (q.v.), Lafayette, Ind. ; Rose Poly-
, technic (q.v.), Terre Haute, Ind.; the Michigan
School of Mines, Houghton, Mich.; the Case
School of Applied Science (q.v.) , Cleveland,Ohio;
and the Armour Institute of Technology (q.v.),
at Chicago, Ill. Prominent among the second
group are the engineering departments of Lehigh
University, the Ohio State University, - Wash-
ington University (Saint Louis), and the uni-
versities of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Pennsylvania, and California.
The history of these schools has been marked
by the development of a number of very signifi-
cant features of instruction. To begin with,
emphasis has from the first been placed upon the
laboratory method of instruction, as opposed to
sole reliance upon text books. Following the
organization of instruction in pure science came
that in applied science. Another feature that has
characterized the instruction in many of these in-
stitutions is the degree of specialization in the
instructing staff made possible by the large num-
bers of students. The courses of study of Ameri-
can schools of technology almost universally ex-
tend through four years.
TECHNICAL AND APPLIED ART SoHooLs; CoN-
TINUATION SCHOOLS. All the types of this group
of institutions have reached a high point of or-
ganization on the Continent of Europe. Tech-
nical schools, in which to practical training in
the methods of a special craft is added instruc-
tion in the scientific principles upon which they
are based, appear in greatest numbers in Austria,
Germany, and France. Some have been estab-
lished by guilds or masters’ societies, some by a
union of manufacturers of a town or city wishing
to improve the efiiciency of their establishments,
and others by action of the local authorities or
by the Government. A steady tendency toward
Government control and support is apparent in
all the Continental countries. Prominent among
schools of this type are the special schools for
weaving and dyeing, of which frequent examples
are found in various parts of Germany. The
most famous institution of the kind is located at
Krefeld, in Prussia. In this model institution
very thorough study is made of the chemistry
and technology of dyeing, and of the mechanism
and pattern designing involved in weaving. The
Advanced School of Weaving at Lyons, France,
the School of Silk Weaving near Zurich, Switzer-
land, the School of Weaving and Dyeing at York-
shire College, Leeds, and the textile departments
of the Manchester Technical School and of the
Bradford Technical College, are other examples
of this type of school. In the United States
similar schools are the textile and dyeing schools
of the School of Industrial Art of the Pennsyl-
vania Museum, at Philadelphia, and the textile
schools at Lowell and New Bedford, Mass.
Another type of technical school found in Ger-
many and Austria is the Baugeuwrkschule or
building trades school. These schools are gen-
erally open during the winter months alone. Only
students are admitted who have had practical
experience in some branch of the trade, and the
courses deal with the principles and practice of
building construction, the nature of materials,
mechanical and freehand drawing, modeling,
science, mathematics, a.nd bookkeeping. The
courses generally run through four terms and
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
536
ilre strictly professional in character. Many of
the Fachschulen of Austria, although aiming at
trade instruction, might well be classed as tech-
nical schools on account of the character and ex-
tent of the technical instruction that is offered in
addition to the practical work. Another form of
technical school is represented by a class of in-
stitutions of the secondary grade, which aim to
prepare rather for entrance into industrial work
than for direct mastery of any one special branch.
In these schools the courses commonly include
instruction in the elements of a general educa-
tion, as well as the study of applied science and
practical training in a number of representative
industrial processes. The Industrieschulen and
Gewerbeschulen of Germany and Austria are ex-
amples of this type. Courses in these schools are
generally from three to five years in length, and
embrace, besides practical industrial work, in-
struction in mechanical and freehand drawing,
geography, business forms, mathematics, book-
keeping, science, and technology. Schools of
this kind are found at Chemnitz, Cologne, Ko-
motau, Munich, and Nuremberg. In Austria the
School of the Technological Industrial Museum,
at Vienna, is the foremost example, and serves
as a model for all other schools of this class
throughout the Empire.
France has a very important and highly or-
ganized system of State schools for the training
of foremen and superintendents in mechanical in-
dustries at Chalons, Aix, Angers, and Lille. The
courses are three years in length. The instruc-
tion, both practical and theoretical, given in these
schools, has been of so thorough a character that
the result in large part has been to' train man-
agers and mechanical engineers rather than fore-
men. Other technical schools of an advanced
character in France are the Industrial Institute of
the North of France, at Lille, and the Institution
Livet, at Nantes, which is a private foundation.
A school of a special type exists at Lyons, the
Ecole Martiniere. Distinct courses are provided
for boys and girls. In the former the sciences
and arts are studied in their relation to commerce
and industry. The object is not to prepare for
any special trade, but to develop general
capacity for an industrial or commercial
career. The course, which lasts for three years,
is very similar to those of the American
manual training schools. The courses for girls
aim to furnish a trade training in commercial
accounting, embroidery, industrial drawing, and
women’s tailoring, together with a general
education. The Finsbury Technical College, in
London, is the most important institution of this
class in England. Several well-equipped schools
of this general type exist in other parts of Eng-
land, among which are the Manchester Technical
School, the Birmingham Technical School, and
the Sheffield Technical School. In the United
States the manual training high schools (see
MANUAL TRAINING) approach quite close to this
last category of schools, but devote a larger
proportion of time to general branches.
Schools of industrial or applied art have also
reached their highest point of development on
the Continent of Europe. In Austria and Ger-
many the Kunstgewerbeschule, often connected
with an extensive and admirably filled museum,
is found in all the large cities. Courses in draw-
ing, painting, modeling, and design are provided,
leading to some special branch of applied art.
In some schools, notably those at Munich and
Vienna, the handicraft side is prominent and
much attention is given to practical work at
carving, metal-chasing, stained glass, leather-
embossing, fresco painting, embroidery, porcelain-
painting, lithography, smithing, and other lines.
In France are to be found not only the first
schools of painting, sculpture, and architecture
in the world, but also the most thoroughly organ-
ized provision for instruction in decorative and
industrial art. The Government lends liberal
support to the art schools, and assists in estab-
lishing new ones when the need of such is mani-
fest. Some are supported entirely by the State,
and others are assisted through grants. All are
under the direction of the Minister of Public
Instruction and Fine Art. Excellent schools of
applied art are to be found in all parts of France,
often with a distinct trend of instruction to-
ward the industries prominent in the locality, as
in the case of ceramics at Limoges and textiles
at Roubaix. In Paris there are three schools
which afford instruction in industrial art—the
Ecole Nationale des Arts Décoratifs, the Ecole
Germain-Pilon, and the Ecole Bernard-Palissy;
the first to teach the principles of design in
relation to industrial art as a whole, the last with
direct reference to certain trades, with a lib-
eral amount of workshop and laboratory practice.
The great schools of the Government Science and
Art Department (now under the Board of Educa-
tion for England and Wales) at South Kensing-
ton represent the most important provision for
instruction in industrial art in Great Britain.
The work of these schools consists largely of
drawing, painting, and modeling, and although
the application of art to industry is counted as
the main purpose of the institution, no practical
work is attempted. A large number of smaller
schools patterned upon the same model exist in
other parts of Great Britain under the guidance
and financial assistance of the Science and Art
Department.
In the United States schools of applied art
are not numerous, and in few cases is a training
in the practical application of design attempted.
Prominent among the institutions affording in-
struction in this field are the Cooper Union
(q.v.), of New York City; the School of Indus-
trial Art of the Pennsylvania Museum; Pratt
Institute (q.v.), Brooklyn, N. Y.; Drexel Insti-
tute (q.v.), Philadelphia; the Maryland Insti-
tute, Baltimore; the Art Academy, Cincinnati;
the Chicago Art Institute; the Rhode Island
School of Design, Providence; and the Lowell
School of Design, Boston.
Evening classes in science, drawing, design, and
technical studies may well be considered in this
second general group of schools. The Fortbild-
ungsschulen of Germany and Austria are both
day schools and evening schools. Many communi-
ties make attendance upon such schools compul-
sory for both boys and girls between fourteen and
seventeen years old, and such attendance is often
a condition of employment. Freehand and me-
chanical drawing, and special instruction relating
to the trades of the locality, are the principal
subjects taught in such schools. In Vienna
every prominent trade is represented by a special
Fortbildungsschule, and Berlin supports a great
number and variety of similar schools. Even-
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
537
ing industrial schools play an important part
in the thickly populated manufacturing centres
of Belgium, where, in such towns as Liege, Brus-
sels, and S_eraing, thousands of workmen nightly
receive scientific and technical instruction hear-
ing on their trades. There are many technical
schools in Paris and other cities and towns of
France that provide evening instruction. In most
cases such evening classes are supported by
commercial or industrial societies and bear upon
the local industries.
Nowhere else is the organization of evening in-
dustrial classes carried to so high a point as in
Great Britain. Through the system of examina-
tions and grants directed by the Science and Art
Department, classes in drawing, modeling, design,
mathematics, and many branches of science, are
maintained throughout the United Kingdom.
From 187 9 to 1890 the City and Guilds of Lon-
don Institute performed a similar function for
technical and industrial classes. By their liberal
financial assistance through examination grants,
not only were all manner of technical courses
organized throughout the country, but practical
trade classes were opened to broaden and further
the experience of those engaged in the trades.
The act of 1889 which authorized local author-
ities to build and maintain technical schools, and
to contribute to evening technical classes out of
the local rates, followed by the law of 1890 which
set aside a portion of the excise duties for the
support of such schools, rendered the financial
assistance of the Institute no longer essential,
and since 1890 that association has confined its
grants to classes in the city of London. The
Institute continues its functions as an examining
body, and is recognized as setting the standard
for all work in this field.
In the United States such evening schools are
rapidly assuming an important place. The free
evening classes of the Cooper Union have pro-
vided an opportunity for thousands of young men
to advance themselves. The evening classes of
the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., represent
an important and highly developed example of
such instruction. Worthy of mention are also
the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia; the General
Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, New York
City; the drawing school of the Franklin Insti-
tute, Philadelphia; the Lewis Institute, Chicago;
and the evening classes conducted by Young
Men’s Christian Associations all over the country.
THE TRADE SCHOOL is an institution that has
come into existence almost entirely since the mid-
dle of the nineteenth century. The industrial
conditions produced by an era of quantity of pro-
duction and division of labor have developed the
real problem of the trade school. In the days
of the old guilds, when both production and
exchange were in the hands of the master-
Workman, the natural provision for trade train-
ing was found in the apprenticeship system. As
soon, however, as the master-workman ceased to
be both merchant and craftsman, the apprentice
began to lose his natural position in the indus-
trial order. In most trades the masterwork-
man has developed on one side into the director
of an industrial establishment. or has become
the foreman of a large number of workmen. From
this situation, and from the fact that the special-
ization of labor in most trades dependent upon
machinery renders any comprehensive training
in such trades under ordinary conditions imprac-
ticable, and also because of the restrictive regu-
lations of trades unions as to apprentices, arise
the modern demand for the trade school. Manual
dexterity and knowledge of processes are natu-
rally the primary object in such schools. Ex-
amples of this kind of school, in spite of a
general notion to the contrary, are not numerous
even on the Continent of Europe.
In Germany and Austria it is considered un-
wise to introduce purely technical instruction
into the period of the common school, so that all
schools for technical training admit only pupils
more than fourteen years of age. Beside the
Gewerbeschulen, of a secondary grade, are the
Fachschulen, or schools which deal with the train-
ing for some one special trade. These schools are
distributed in industrial centres throughout the
two empires according to local needs. In some
of these schools the courses range from two to
four years, and include instruction in drawing,
elementary mathematics, science, and the tech-
nology of the particular trade. From the nature
and range of instruction, many of these would
be more properly classified as technical schools,
and even in the cases where the object is simply
to combine the elements of a general education
with the training of a craftsman, the length of
time required prevents any large attendance of
the artisan class. The actual effect is conse-
quently to train a few foremen and superior
workmen, rather than to feed the ranks of the
large army of workers. In some of the large
cities, notably in Berlin, numerous evening trade
classes are maintained, which afford the learner
already apprenticed at a trade most practical
opportunities to increase his skill, as well as to
broaden his knowledge. In Belgium several dis-
tinctive trade schools exist, among which those
at Tournay and Ghent are prominent. To these
schools are admitted boys from thirteen to six-
teen years old, who spend three years in the prac-
tice of a particular trade, together with study
of general branches and drawing. Trade schools
for girls have also received much attention in
Belgium. In certain special trade schools in
Belgium the experiment of paying the pupils for
coming to the schools, in order to compensate
for the loss of wages, has been made.
But it is in France that the question of train-
ing for the trades has received the greatest of-
ficial attention and that the organization of
schools for such training has reached the highest
point. By the law of 1880, provision was made
for the establishment of écoles manuelles d’ap-
prentissage as a distinct class of the écoles pri-
maires supérieures. These schools were intended
either to prepare for or to shorten the period of
apprenticeship, and were placed under the joint
control of the Ministry of Public Instruction and
the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. In them
workshop training plays a prominent part, but a
liberal amount of general instruction is also given
during the three years’ course. Pupils are ad-
mitted when twelve or thirteen years old. By
an administrative blunder, the feature of the law
of 1880 creating such schools remained inoper-
ative until 1888, except in Paris, where the mu-
nicipality early equipped and developed three
successful trade schools, one for wood and metal
working, one for furniture-making, and one for
the book industries. After 1888 apprenticeship
schools began to appear in the provinces, but in-
asmuch as no common programme has been de-
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
TECUMSEH.
538
fined, the amount of practical instruction varied
considerably, and in many cases was far too small
to serve as a substitute for apprenticeship. In
1892 the failure of these provincial schools to
fulfill their intended function led to a new law,
which provided that all the écoles primaires pro-
fessionelles, in which practical work formed an
important part, should be made into a new class
of schools called écoles pratiques de commerce ou
d’industrie, to be placed under the sole control
of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The
organization of such schools, in which the amount
of practical instruction is increased to thirty
or thirty-three hours a week, represents a delib-
erate attempt to establish a comprehensive sys-
tem of primary trade schools under State control.
In Switzerland the State and municipalities
support numerous trade schools, mainly for
watchmaking, in which the training both practical
and theoretical is of a very thorough character.
Another feature connected with trade training
in Switzerland, and one that has to some ex-
tent been copied in Germany, is a system of
apprentice examinations supervised and sup-
ported by the State. These examinations in many
cantons are made obligatory upon every appren-
tice, and consist of an examination held at the
end of the term of apprenticeship upon the prac-
tice and theory of his trade. The trade school can
hardly be said to have gained a foothold in Great
Britain, where the sentiment almost universally
prevails that the shop is the only proper place
for learning a trade.
In the United States a distinctive type of trade
school was developed in the foundation of the
New York Trade Schools in 1881. Both day
and evening classes are conducted in this institu
tion. The evening classes, although admitting
beginners, are largely made up of young men
already started at their trades. In the day
classes young men are admitted only at an age
—-from seventeen to twenty-five—when they will
be able to learn rapidly, and so acquire sufficient
skill in short courses of four months to enter
at once upon practical work. The purpose is to
give a thorough grounding in the practice and
theory of a trade which may be perfected by
later experience in regular work. The school
instruction is confined entirely to practical work.
Evening schools similar to those of the New
York Trade Schools have been established by the
Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, the Philadelphia Mas-
ter Builders’ Exchange, and the Massachusetts
Charitable Mechanics’ Association of Boston.
To these should be added the first instance of
public support of such an institution in the
Evening School of Trades at Springfield, Mass.
Another type of trade school has made its ap-
pearance in the United States in the Williamson
Free Schools of Mechanical Trades (q.v.) near
Philadelphia. Institutions similar in plan to
some of the European trade schools, in which
the aim is to combine the teaching of a trade
with a general education, are represented by the
California School of Mechanical Arts and the
Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts of San
Francisco.
In addition to the regular institutions, noted
above, several instances exist in Europe and the
United States of factory or employees’ schools.
These schools are almost uniformly conducted in
the evening, and in the main provide instruction
of a nature related to the practical work of the
employees, such as drawing and mathematics.
Examples of such schools in the United States
are those conducted by R. Hoe & Co., printing
press manufacturers, of New York City, and the
Cleveland Twist Drill Co. The Ludlow Manu-
facturing Co., of Ludlow, Mass., which employs
large numbers of women and girls, supports an
evening school giving instruction in cooking, sew-
ing, and physical culture. Somewhat similar
classes are carried on by the National Cash Regis-
ter Co., of Dayton, Ohio. Employees’ schools in
which specialized technical instruction is given
are conducted by several associations of em-
ployees and also by individual manufacturing
concerns in various parts of France. Quite dif-
ferent from such schools are the schools for the
children of employees, which are maintained by
a number of large industrial corporations in
Great Britain, France, and Germany. Notable
among these are the schools of Lever Brothers,
Port Sunlight, England; of the Krupp Works,
Essen; and the Trade School of the Northern
Railway Co., Paris.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. It is impossible to indicate
even in the most limited way a satisfactory bib-
liography of technical education. Some of the
more important data are contained in the fol-
lowing: Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of
Education, 1895-96, vols. i. and ii.; 1896-97, vol.
i.; 1897-98, vol. i.; 1898-99, vol. i.; 1899-1900,
vol. i.; Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S.
Commissioner of Labor; “Education in the In-
dustrial and Fine Arts in the United States,” U.
S. Bureau of Education; Report of the Royal
Commission on Technical Education for Great
Britain; Proceedings of the International Con-
gresses for Technical, Commercial, and Industrial
Education; Magnus, Industrial Education
(London, 1888); Ntirdling, Ueber das technische
SchuZ- und Vereinswesen Franhreichs (Vienna,
1881) ; Mortimer d’Ocagne, Les grandes écoles de
France (Paris, 1887) ; Schoenhof, Industrial Ed-
ucation in France (Washington, 1888) ; Holzap-
fel, Die technishen Schulen und H ochschulen und
die Bediirfnisse der deutschen I ndustrie (Leipzig,
1897); Rein, Encyhlop-iidisches Handbuch der
Piidagogilo (Langensalza, 1902).
TECUCIU, ta-l<o'o’che. A town of Rumania, in
Moldavia, 40 miles northwest of Galatz, on the
right bank of the Berlad River (Map: Balkan
Peninsula, F 2). It has an active trade. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 13,405.
TECUMA PALM. See ASTBOCABYUM.
TECUIVFSEH (Flying Panther, Meteor), TE-
CUMTHE, or TECUMTHA (c.1775-1813) . A famous
Indian chief, born near the site of the present
town of Springfield, Ohio. His father was a
Shawnee warrior, and his mother a Creek or
Cherokee squaw captured and adopted by the
Shawnees. Having by his unusual talents for
leadership gained great influence among his peo-
ple, Tecumseh, when about thirty-five years of
age, formed a plan for a great confederaey of
the Indians against the whites, which should
have jurisdiction, among other things, over the
alienation of Indian lands. In this work he
was assisted by his brother Elkswatawa, com-
monly known as ‘The Prophet.’ He was also
assisted by British agents, and found the Indians
the more willing to adopt his schemes because of
the general dissatisfaction over the continual en-
croachments of the whites upon the Indian lands-
TECUMSEH.
TEETH.
539
In the summer of 1808 Tecumseh and his brother
~ established a village near the mouth of Tippe-
canoe Creek in Indiana, and here Tecumseh put
into practice some of his ideas for returning to
the virtuous primitive condition of the Indians
by prohibiting the use of whisky and other de-
moralizing practices introduced by the whites.
Two years later he went on a visit to the south-
ern Indians, especially the Choctaw, Creek,
Cherokee, and Seminole, and by his wonderful
eloquence is considered to have kindled among
them the flame that in 1813 burst into the'
Creek War. In his absence, however, his fol-
lowers were defeated on November 7, 1811, by
a force under General William Henry Harrison.
(See TIPPECANOE, BATTLE OF.) In the follow-
ing year he joined the British at Malden, and
early in August routed a force of Ohio militia,
but was defeated and wounded in the skirmish of
Maguaga. Despite his defeat, however, he was
commissioned a brigadier-general in the British
Army, and with several hundred Indians assisted
in the capture of Detroit. In January, 1813, he
played an important part in the siege of Fort
Meigs (q.v.), and prevented the massacre of
prisoners taken in the sortie from the fort. After
Perry’s victory on Lake Erie Tecumseh protested
against the British retreat from Malden. He
accompanied the retreating army, however, and
at the battle of the Thames (q.v.) was killed
While bravely resisting the attack of the mounted
Americans under Colonel Richard M. Johnson.
Tecumseh was a man of many high qualities,
with impressive manners and wonderful natural
eloquence. The part he played in the War of
1812 was an exceedingly important one. Indeed,
as a Canadian historian has pointed out, it is
quite conceivable that had it not been for Te-
cumseh, the Americans would have conquered
Canada. Consult: Drake, Life of Tecumseh and
His Brother, the Prophet, with an Historical
Sketch of the Shawnee Indians (Cincinnati,
1841) ; and Eggleston, Tecumseh and the Shaw-
nee Prophet (New York, 1878).
TEDAS, ta'daz. The northern division of the
Tibbus (q.v.), living in Tibesti and the adjoin-
ing oases of the Eastern Sahara, and connected
with the outside world by the main camel route
between the city of Tripoli and Lake Chad. In
this portion of the Great Desert are inex-
haustible supplies of rock salt, and the Tedas em-
ploy thousands of camels in conveying this mate-
rial throughout Central Africa.
TED’DINGTON. A town in Middlesex, Eng-
land, on the Thames, 2% miles southwest of
Richmond (Map: London and vicinity, F 4).
The municipality maintains reading rooms and
recreation grounds, and provides garden allot-
ments. The National Physical Laboratory was
inaugurated here in 1902. Population, in 1891,
10,052; in 1901, 14,029.
TE DEUM. A well-known hymn, so called
from its opening words (Te Deum laada/mus, te
dominum confitemur, We praise Thee, O God, we
acknowledge Thee to be the Lord), commonly
sung on all occasions of triumph and thanks-
giving, and a theme upon which the most
celebrated composers have exercised their mu-
sical genius. The hymn is one of the most
simple, and at the same time the most sol-
emn and majestic and most admired in the
Von. XVI.—35.
whole range of hymnology. Its authorship is
uncertain. Picturesquely and uncritically it has
been described as the joint production of Saints
Ambrose and Augustine, into which they both
burst forth by a common inspiration on occasion
of the baptism of Augustine. From this supposed
origin, the Te Deum is commonly called the Am-
brosian hymn. It is ascribed by other author-
ities to Hilary of Poitiers, but is most prob-
ably considerably later. Besides its general use
on occasions of joyous celebrations, the Te Deum
forms part of the daily matins of the Roman
breviary, and is recited at the end of matins on-
all festivals, and on all Sundays except those of
Advent and Lent. With a similar exception,
it forms part of the morning prayer of the
Anglican Prayer Book, being sung after the first
lesson. Its use dates from the sixth century.
TEES. A river of Northern England. It rises
on Cross Fell, Cumberland, and flows east be-
tween the counties of Durham and York. It
enters the North Sea 10 miles below Stockton,
to which town it is navigable for small vessels.
Length, 80 miles (Map: England E 2).
TEETH (AS. taP,Goth. tun]? as, OHG. sand,
can, Ger. Zahn, tooth; connected with OIr. det,
Bret., VVelsh dant, Lith. dantis, Lat. dens, Gk.
6606:, odoas, 660611, od6n, Skt. clanta, tooth, probably
originally the pres. part., with loss of the initial
vowel, of Skt. ad. Gk. o’.-"dew, edein. Lat. edere, to eat,
OChurch Slav. yami, Lith. cdmi, edi, I eat, OIr.
ith, Goth. itan, OHG. eezan, Ger. essen, AS. 'etan,
Eng. eat). Calcareous organs imbedded in the
skin within or 11ear the mouth in most verte-
brates, acting primarily for the prehension and
trituration of food. Some teeth, such as the
tusks of the wild boar or of the elephant, have
secondarily acquired another function, namely,
that of offensive and defensive organs, especially
with reference to combats between rival males.
Teeth are dermal structures, homologous with
the placoid scales or denticles which cover the
entire body of fishes (q.v.). At the anterior end,
say of the body of a dogfish, the skin turns in
to form the lining or mucous membrane of the
mouth and with it the scales are carried. In
fishes these dermal denticles appear in the skin
very early both in their ontogenetic and phylo-
genetic history, but do not occur in Amphioxus
or in cyclostomes. They first appear in selachians
in the form of small denticles or spines arranged
in longitudinal and transverse rows, each at-
tached to a basal plate, and directed caudad.
Both ectoderm and mesoderm take part in the
formation of these dermal denticles, as in the
case of the teeth of the higher vertebrates. The
_name ‘tooth-germ’ is given to the tissue that is
destined to develop into the teeth. The meso-
derm forms a papilla which secretes dentine in its'
outermost layer. Within the dentine there is a
cavity filled with mesodermal tissue and blood
vessels. From this cavity fine tubules pass into
the dentine. Outside the dentine is a layer of
enamel secreted by ectodermal cells. The first
impulse toward tooth-formation seems to reside
in the derma. As the dermal papilla grows it
comes to be covered by a layer of large columnar
cells from the epidermis. The enamel is secreted
from the lower surface of these epidermal cells.
As the dermal cells multiply, they give rise to
an elongated papilla which projects backward.
The deep-lying connective-tissue layers of the
TEETH.
TEETH‘.
540
derma at the same time secrete salts of lime
and thus a sort of connective-tissue bone (the
so-called ‘tooth-cement’) is produced, and by
means of it the spine gains a firm support. The
basal plates of tooth-cement form a shield of
considerable protective value, and in some fishes,
such as the bony ganoids, a hard protective skele-
ton is thus produced. In the higher vertebrates
this bony covering is lost over most of the body,
but persists in the head region, and becomes some
of the most important bones of the skull.
In fishes the teeth are usually abundant, and
‘are either spiny or blunt, and may beset close
together like a -cobble-stone pavement (see CES-
TRACIONT) to fit them for grinding up shells.
In the swordfish they form the teeth of the
sword. Amphibians possess few teeth. They
are conical, end in a single or double apex, and
are usually present on the premaxilla, maxilla,
mandible, vomer, and palatine bones, and occa-
sionally on the parasphenoid. They occur in
additional locations in the larvae of some forms.
Teeth are present in all groups of reptiles ex-
cept the Chelonia, and even there exist for a
time in the embryonic stage of Trionyx, showing
that the toothless state has been secondarily ac-
quired by the turtles. The reptilian teeth are
usually larger and stronger, and are limited to
more special regions, than among lower verte-
brates. The teeth of reptiles, as well as those
of fishes, are in general ‘homodont,’ or alike
throughout the series. In reptiles the teeth are
connected with their support in two ways: either
the teeth are firmly fused to the bone, or else they
lie in cup-shaped sockets of the bone, the ‘al-
veoli.’ This condition exists in the so-called
‘thecodont’ reptiles. The teeth, which are fused
to the bone may either lie in a furrow at the
inner side of the jaw-bone (‘pleurodont’ type)
or else they arise from its free upper edge (in
the case of the lower jaw), and are ‘acrodont.’ In
many kinds of snakes certain of the maxillary
teeth of the upper jaw are differentiated into
organs of offense and defense. These are the
‘fangs’ or poison-carrying teeth. (See SNAKE.)
Birds have no teeth. Fossil birds (q.v.), how-
ever, possessed teeth, which were either imbedded
in grooves (Hesperornis) or in definite alveoli
, (Ichthyornis) .
The dentition of mammals is highly variable,
and the differentiation of the teeth in the various
forms is to be explained by adaptation to the
character of the food. All the teeth are im-
bedded in alveoli of the jaw-bones, to which the
growth of teeth is confined. The teeth are so
arranged that those of the upper and lower jaws
alternate. The teeth of one jaw oppose the inter-
spaces between the teeth of the other jaw. Thus.
each tooth presses against a ortion of two teeth
of the opposite set. When a l opposing pressure
fails the tooth thus rendered functionless tends
to be extruded. This alternating arrangement pre-
vents the loss of one tooth from greatly affecting
the teeth of the opposite set. Most mammals
are ‘diphyodont’——that is, possess two sets of
dentition—namely the deciduous or ‘milk’ den-
tition and the permanent teeth. In most of the
fishes as well as in many of the Amphibia and
reptiles the teeth can be renewed indefinitely. A
few mammals, namely the Cetacea and Edentata,
are ‘monophyodont,’ that is, possess only one
set of teeth. The milk teeth are supplanted by
a process of absorption which goes on in certain
cases to such an extent that the root is prac-
tically removed. This removal is effected by gi-
ant cells analogous to, if not identical with, the
osteoclasts that tear down bone. The teeth usu-
ally cease to grow after being fully formed, but
in edentates and rodents growth continues
throughout life, and is necessary in order to sup-
ply the wear on the teeth brought about by the
gnawing habits of these animals.
Mammalian teeth are classified according to
their shape and function into incisors, canines,
premolars, and molars. The four front teeth in
the case of man are blunt, flattened, and chisel-
shaped, and are fitted for cutting or dividing the
food. They are the ‘incisors.’ In recently cut
incisors the cutting edge is raised in three scal-
lops, which soon wear away. The edge of the
incisor is formed by a beveling off of the dentine
on the inner or lingual surface. The two central
upper incisors in man are slightly larger than
the two laterals. This difference is more marked
in anthropoid apes. The lower central incisors
are narrower than those of the upper jaw. The
lower lateral incisors are larger than the lower
central pair. The two canines or ‘eye-teeth’ on
each jaw are stronger both in root and crown
than the incisors. The crown is blunt and
pointed. The canines are succeeded by two pre-
molars or ‘bicuspids’ on each side of the jaw,
which correspond to the three and four premo-
lars of the typical mammalian dentition. Their
crowns possess two cusps. The root is normally
single, but is often grooved or cleft by a longitu-
dinal furrow into two or even three roots. The
premolars of the lower jaw are smaller than those
of the upper. The molars are three in number
on each side of the jaw. The form of the first
molar is the most constant. The roots are three
in number. The third molar, or ‘wisdom tooth,’
is the most variable as to its time of appear-
ance; it may be out almost as soon as the other
molars, or many years later, or not at all.
In existing mammals there is a certain degree
of gradation between the forms of the teeth. The
typical number of mammalian teeth is 44. The
human number is 32 in the permanent set and
20 in the milk set. In the human set the third
incisor and the first two premolars of the typical
mammalian set are absent, hence at the canines
in man there is an abrupt change both in front
and behind. For convenience and brevity the
number and kinds of teeth of mammals are usu-
ally designated by means of a formula as follows:
For marsupials:
715-0 1 m-3-'m.4:4-4.
For eutherian3 mgr7i)1ma3.ls: I
i%c{-pm%m%:44.
For man:
i%c-L m%;m-3-1:32.
It is often very difficult to determine which
teeth are to be accounted incisors, canines, etc.,
and the following rule is sometimes employed:
Incisors, upper jaw, on premaxilla.
Incisors, lower jaw, correspond to upper.
Canines of upper jaw, next tooth immediately
behind suture of maxilla and premaxilla.
Canines of lower jaw, close in front of upper
canme.
Premolars replace milk molars.
Molars, behind milk molars (when present).
A tooth is usually described as consisting of
three parts—tne crown, neck, and root——-and is
composed of three hard secretions—-the dentine,
TEETH.
TEGEA.
541
enamel, and cement—and a central pulp cavity.
The human tooth fits into the jaw-bone much
like a peg into its socket. This manner of union
is termed ‘gomphosis.’ The tooth does not, how-
ever, occupy the entire socket, for there is be-
sides a lining of periosteum, which at the root
turns upward around the tooth as far as the
neck, where it becomes continuous with the
gums. This packing around the tooth is some-
what elastic and allows of slight motion. The
elasticity of the packing doubtless diminishes
the shock which would be caused in mastication
were the teeth rigidly attached in their bony
sockets. \Vhen the periosteum is inflamed the
swelling pushes the tooth outward in the socket
and loosens it. The dentine forms the great
mass of the tooth, surrounds the pulp cavity,
and is covered, in the human .tooth by a layer of
enamel, the hardest of animal tissues; in other
mammals this layer of enamel may cover all or
only a part of the exposed portion of the tooth,
or may be absent. The condition that more
commonly prevails is that the enamel envelops
the entire crown of the tooth and stops rather
abruptly at about the level of the gum.
In its finer structure dentine is in some cases
difficult to distinguish from true bone. Typical
dentine, such as exists in human teeth, differs
from bone both in structure and in chemical
composition, and is known as ‘hard’ or ‘unvascu-
lar’ dentine. It is hard, elastic substance with
a yellowish white hue, which is made up of a
number of minute, wavy, branching tubules,
parallel to one another and opening internally
into the pulp cavity. These tubuli contain finely
cylindrical prolongations (dentinal fibres) from
cells in the pulp cavity, intimately connected
with the nerves of the pulp. The different kinds
of dentine have been classified as (1) hard or
unvascular dentine; (2) plici-dentine; (3)
vaso-dentine; (4) osteo-dentine. The unvascu-
lar dentine has been described above. In the
second class the pulp cavity is irregular in out-
line, with many tubes and canals traversing the
dentine in various directions, some carrying blood-
vessels. Such a condition obtains in many of
the lower vertebrates and in some mammals. The
osteo-dentine closely approaches bone in struc-
ture. In it pulp and calcified tissue are mixed
up, for there is no distinct pulp cavity. Such
dentine is found in the teeth of many sharks.
The cement forms a coating over the roots of
the teeth and when unusually thick may even
unite the roots of contiguous teeth. In the hu-
man teeth it extends upward to cover the edge
of the enamel. It covers, at first. the entire
teeth of certain vertebrates, such as the elephant,
and covers the crowns -of the teeth of ruminants.
It is derived from the tooth-follicle and is closely
allied to bone. ‘
The cavity of the tooth is filled with the tooth-
pulp, which is composed of a gelatinous matrix
and contains cells, nerves, and blood-vessels.
The outermost cells, known as ‘odontoblasts,’
form a layer next the bone. These cells are con-
nected by processes with one another and with
deeper lying cells and on the periphery the pro-
cesses extend into the dental tubuli. -
The gums are continuous with the mucous
membrane of the mouth, but are much thickened.
Within the gums aretendinous faciculi. and
others extend up into them from the periosteum.
These give the gums hardness. They are richly
supplied with blood-vessels, but have few nerves.
The gums are continuous with the periosteum of
the alveoli, a connective tissue richly supplied
with blood-vessels and nerves.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Tomes, Manual of Dental An-
atomy, H uman and Comparative (London, 1876) ;
Owen, Oclontography (London, 1840-45). See
INTEGUMENT ; SKELETON; DENTISTRY.
TEFFT, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1813-85). A
Methodist Episcopal clergyman. He was born
near Utica, N. Y., and graduated at Wes-
leyan University, Middletown, Conn., 1835. He
taught in the Maine Wesleyan Seminary, Kents
Hill, Me., 1835-1839; was principal of Providence
Conference Seminary, East Greenwich, R. I.,
1841; professor of Greek and Hebrew languages
and literature in Indiana Asbury University
(now De Pauw University), Greencastle, Ind.,
1843-1846; editor of The Ladies’ Repository, Cin-
cinnati, 0., 1846-50; president of Ge'nesee Col-
lege, Lima, N. Y., 1851-1854; chaplain of First
Maine Cavalry, 1861; United States consul at
Stockholm and acting Minister to Sweden, 1862;
Commissioner of Immigration from the North
of Europe for the State of Maine, 1864; and edi-
tor of The Northern Border, Bangor, Me., 1873-
1878. He wrote: The Shoulder Knot (1850);
Hungary and Kossuth (1851) ; Webster and His
Masterpieces (1854); Methoclism Successful
(1860); The Present Crisis (1861).
TE’GEA (Lat., from Gk. Teyéa). An ancient
city of Southeastern Arcadia, Greece. Its ter-
ritory included the southern part of the great
eastern plain of Arcadia, of which the northern
part was occupied by Mantinea (q.v.). It was
a place of considerable size, and it appears to
have included the modern villages of Hagios Sos-
tis, Palaeo-Episkopi, Piali, and Ibrahim Effendi,
south of Tripolitza, though but few remains are
visible, partly because of a deep deposit of al-
luvium, and partly from the destruction due to
the later inhabitants. The most important ruins
are those of the great temple of Athena Alea,
built by Scopas (q.v.), and now (1904) in pro-
cess of excavation by the French School at
Athens. The dimensions of the temple (about 163
X 70 feet) and important fragments of its sculp-
tures were determined by Milchhiifer in 1879. The
city was celebrated in the heroic legends, and for
a long time seems to have opposed Sparta on
equal terms, but during the sixth century 13.0.
was forced to join the Spartan league. At Ther-
mopylae, we are told, were five hundred Tegeans,
and at Platma three thousand, of whom one-half
were hoplites. Later they were again involved
in war with Sparta, and after two defeats re-
mained true allies until the invasion of Epami-
nondas (B.C. 370), when a democratic govern-
ment replaced the aristocracy, and the city joined
in the foundation of Megalopolis. Later we find
Tegea in the ./Etolian League, in alliance with
Sparta, forced into the Achaean League, at war
with Sparta, and sharing in the confused politics
which mark the history of the lesser Peloponne-
sian cities during the third and second centuries.
A good account of the place was given by Pau-
sanias in the second century of our era, and it
seems to have been one of the most flourishing
towns of Arcadia till it was sacked by Alaric.
Consult, besides the larger works on the Pelo-
ponnesus (q.v.) by Dodwell, Leake, Curtius, and
TEGEA.
TEHE-RAN.
542
others, and Schwedler, De Rebus Tegeaticis
(Leipzig, 1889).
TEGERNSEE, ta’gern-za. A village in Up-
per Bavaria, charmingly situated on the lake
of the same name, with an imposing castle,
formerly a Benedictine abbey, founded in 719
and suppressed in 1804, and now the property
of Dr. Charles Theodore, Duke of Bavaria, who
is a skillful oculist and has established an
ophthalmic infirmary in the village, where he
examines and performs operations on patients
gratuitously. The beautiful walks in the en-
virons attract numerous visitors in the summer.
A favorite point is the Grosse Parapline, 2680
feet high and affording an admirable view of the
lake and the encircling mountains. At the
northwestern end of the lake lies Kaltenbrum,
the model farm of Duke Charles Theodore.
TEGETMEIER, teg’ét-mi’er, WILLIAM B.
(18l6—). A British naturalist and author.
He received a medical education, but turned his
attention to natural history, and became a co-
worker with Darwin in experiments and obser-
vations on the question of variation (q.v.) and
other scientific problems. To these he contrib-
uted mainly by study of domestic animals and
especially of pigeons, and was instrumental in
advancingythe breeding and improvement of car-
rier pigeons and of fine poultry. In 1857 he be-
came a leading editor and essayist of The Field
(of London). He wrote several important works
on. ornithology and the rearing of domestic
animals.
TEGETTHOFF, teg’et-hof, WILHELM, Baron
(1827-71). A distinguished Austrian admiral,
born at Marburg, in Styria. He entered the
Austrian navy, distinguished himself in the na-
val encounter with the Danes off Helgoland in
1864, became rear-admiral, and in the war of
1866 commanded the Austrian fleet in the Adriatic.
On the 20th of July he attacked and defeated
the Italian fleet under Admiral Persano off‘ the
island of Lissa, although the Italian fleet was
superior in the number of iron-clads to the
Austrian. For this brilliant victory Tegetthoff
was promoted vice-admiral. In 1867 he was sent
to Mexico to obtain from the Government the
body of the Emperor Maximilian, and in 1868 he
was made commander-in-chief of the navy.
TEGNER, teg-niir’, ESAIAS (l78_2-1846). A
Swedish poet, born at Kyrkerud, in \Vermland.
Tegnér graduated from the University of Lund
(1802) and in 1805 became sub-librarian of the
university and lecturer on aesthetics. In 1811
his poem on Sweden (Soea) won him universal
admiration and an academic prize. Already
his war-songs and national odes had attracted
the attention of the King and Government.
In 1812 he was made professor of Greek at
Lund, and for the next decade gave himself al-
most wholly to clerical duties and theological
studies. During these years he wrote the remark-
able religious idyls, The Priest’s Consecration
and The Children of the Lord’s Supper (Natt-
vardsbarnen, 1820) , as well as the fine romantic
poem Aa-el (1822). His fame, however, rests
on the Fr-ithjof’s Saga, finished in 1825, which
remains the most popular poem in Swedish,
though it lacks originality and unity, adhering
very closely to the legend on which it is founded
and being less an epic than a series of ballads
and odes. Even while unfinished it had sulficed
to secure for Tegner the nomination of the clergy
to the Bishopric of Wexiii (1824). In 1840 the
insanity that afiiicted his family unmistakably
asserted itself. After a period in an asylum he
returned for a little while to active work, but
soon became paralytic and so lingered till death.
Thus it appears that Tegner’s significant pro-
duction is confined to the years 1811-25, and
more strictly speaking to the last six of these,
which saw The Priest’s Consec-ration, The Chil-
dren of the Lord’s Supper, Awel, Frithjof. Frith-
jof has been rendered into many languages and
nineteen times into English, best by Longfellow,
who also translated Nat-tnardsbarnen. It was
effective in banishing classical French taste from
Sweden and in introducing the literary ideals of
the Romantic school, though Tegner always kept
the clearness and artistic finish that go with
calm objectivity. His verse is melodious, grace-
ful, dignified, yet fresh, vigorous, and not without
national or religious enthusiasm, in spite of its
impersonality. See SWEDISH LITERATURE.
TegnC-.r’s lVorlcs were collected in 7 vols.
(Stockholm, 1847-51). Three volumes of supple-
mentary writings were printed (ib., 1873-74),
and a new collected edition made of the works
in 8 vols. (ib., 1882-85). The more important
poems are in English. French and German trans-
lations. A Life by B6ttiger is prefixed to the
first collected edition of the W orlcs. Consult also
Brandes, Eminent Authors, trans. (New York,
) ; and Erdmann, Esaias Tegnér (Stockholm,
).
TEGUAN. One of the local names of a fly-
ing phalanger of New South Wales (Petanrista
polans), which is black and about the size of
the large Indian flying squirrels. It resembles
the other flying phalangers (q.v.) in the posses- ‘
sion of an effective parachute, and in its habits.
Also spelled ‘taguan.’
TEGUCIGALPA, t:i'g'66-se-giil’p:i. The capi-
tal of Honduras, Central America, situated on
the left banks of the upper course of the Cholu-
teca, seventy-eight miles from its seaport, Ama-
pala, on the Gulf of Fonseca (Map: Central
America, D 4). It has a healthful location on a
table-land 3250 feet above sea-level, in the most
thickly populated portion of the Republic. The
region is known for its agricultural resources
and its mines of gold and silver and marble,
though the latter have largely lost their former
Importance. ‘ During the closing years of the
eighteenth century their annual output averaged
$25,000,000. The most important structure in
the Republic is its cathedral. There are a na-
tional university and a ladies’ seminary. Tegu-
cigalpa was an Aztec city and a place of some
importance during the eighteenth century. It
became the capital of Honduras in 1880. Popu-
lation, about 18,000.
TEHERAN, or TEHRAN, té-h’-riin’. The
capital of Persia and of the Province of Teheran,
70 miles due south of the Caspian Sea, in lati-
tude 35° 41' N., longitude 51° 25' E., on a sandy
and stony plateau, 90 by 40 miles in extent (Map:
Persia, D 3) . Its elevation is 3800 feet. In
1869 the Shah caused the mud walls of the city to
be torn down and five years later it was surround-
ed by a ditch and 58 bastions, after the method of
Vauban. It is now in the form of an irregular
TEHE-RAN.
TE-IGNMOUTH.
543
octagon, inclosing 7% square miles, and having
twelve gates. Several broad, handsome boule-
vards have been laid out, and are lighted by gas,
and a beginning has been made in the VVestern
style of architecture. The sanitary conditions
have likewise become improved. The bazaars are
the centre of life. There are seven miles of
tramways, and a railroad to Shah-Abdul-Azim,
six miles south of the capital. The ‘Ark’ or forti-
fied palace of the Shah, in the northern quarter
of Teheran, contains prisons, a military school,
beautiful gardens, baths, kiosks, and several
other handsome buildings, including the harem.
The wealthy citizens dwell in elaborate and
costly establishments with lovely gardens, tiny
ponds, and ventilating towers. The town has a
library, founded in 1850, a normal school, a mili-
tary college, and Kings’ College, a polytechnic
school, dating from 1849, with European profes-
sors, where Arabic, English, French, and Russian,
mathematics, telegraphy, engineering, military
tactics, music, and painting are taught. To some
of the many mosques are attached ‘Madrasahs’
(colleges). The mosque called Masjid-i-Shah
(mosque of the King) with a beautiful enameled
facade, and the Masjid-i-Madar-i-Shah (mosque
of the King’s mother) deserve mention.
There are many baths, Mohammedan and Arme-
nian, the Europeans using the latter. During the
summer, on account of the unhealthfulness of
the town and the intolerable heat, the embassies,
as well as the wealthier inhabitants, move to the
slopes of the neighboring mountains.
Water is furnished by numerous underground
watercourses leading from the mountains. The
supply, however, is not regulated, because of
the private ownership of many of these canals.
The town accordingly suffers from a lack of
water in summer and has a superfluity in winter.
Irrigation is thus provided for, however, and the
surrounding country has been made highly pro-
ductive. Teheran manufactures cotton, linen,
carpets, shoes, hats, and ironwork, but is not a
leading centre of manufacturing. It has, how-
ever, an important general caravan trade. An
excellent highway 217 miles long, constructed by
Russian capital, and completed in 1899, extends
from Resht on the Caspian to Teheran. To the
south lie the ruins of Rei, the birthplace of
Harun-al-Rashid, known in the time of Alex-
ander the Great as Ragae, the Rhages of Scrip-
ture, the capital of Parthia. The population
varies from 160,000 in summer to 250,000 in
winter.
Armenians, and 4000 Jews. There is a Catholic
mission school. Teheran, according to Morier,
is the Tahors of the Theodosian Tablets.
TEHRI, ta'ré, or, more properly, GARHWAL.
A native State of British India included terri-
torially in the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh. It borders upon Tibet, and lies wholly
within the Himalayas, around the sources of the
Ganges, being a highly elevated and rugged moun-
tain region. Area, 4180 square miles. Popula-
tion, in 1901, 268,885. Capital, Tehri.
TE-HUANTEPEC, ta-\va'.n'ta-pék’, Is'rI-IMUS
OF. The narrowest portion of Mexico as well as
of the American continent north of Costa Rica.
It stretches in an east and west direction be-
tween the Gulf of Campeachy, an arm of the
Gulf of Mexico west of Yucatan, on the north,
and the Gulf of Tehuantepec, an arm of the Pa-
This includes 500 Europeans, 4000
cific Ocean, on the south. Its least width, from
Coatzacoalcos to the head of the Lago Superior,
is 120 miles. The plateaus of Mexico and Guate-
mala are here separated by a depression falling
to an altitude of 680 feet. This fact as well as
the geographical position of the isthmus has led
to numerous schemes for some means of inter-
oceanic communication at this point, including
projects for a ship canal. (See TRANS-ISTIP
MIAN CANALS.) A railroad across the isthmus
was completed by the Mexican Government in
1894, and recently large sums have been ex-
pended upon it in order to bring it up to the
needs of a great traffic.
TEHUELCHE, ta-wel’cha. A general term
for several difierent Patagonian tribes, who are,
however, probably closely related. There is some
evidence that the Tehuelches are immigrants from
the more northern portions of. South America,
but their origin is still doubtful. Within recent
years the encroachments of Europeans and
Gaucho mixed-bloods have driven the Tehuelches
far to the south until now they occupy a rela-
tively small territory between the Strait of Ma-
gellan and the Santa Cruz River. They are
noted chiefly for their very tall stature, being
often considered the tallest of human races. Ac-
curate observations on this point are few, but it
is probable that the average stature of male
Tehuelches is not far from 1.75 m. They are
also very brachycephalic in head form. In cul-
ture they are low. Consult: Masters, At Home
with the Patagonians (London, 1871); Lista,
Viage al pais de Tehuelches (Buenos Ayres,
1878).
TEIGNMOUTH, -tin’mi1th. A seaport and
watering place on the south coast of Devonshire,
England, situated on the English Channel, at
the mouth of the Teign, 15 miles south of Exeter
(Map: England, C 6). The harbor is safe and
commodious, though difficult of entrance. There
is a considerable sea and river fishery. An aver-
age of 1200 vessels clear the port annually. The
town received a market grant from Henry III.
It was burnt by the Danes in 970 and by the
French in 1340 and 1690. Population, in 1901,
8636.
TEIGNMOUTH, JOHN SHORE, First Baron
(1751-1834). An Anglo-I-ndian statesman. He
was born in London, was educated at Harrow,
and in 17 69 entered the civil service of the East
India Company. From 1775 to 1780 he was a
member of the revenue council at Calcutta, and
was appointed by Warren Hastings one of the
committee of revenue which superseded the coun-
cil. After a visit to England in 1785-86 he re-
turned to India in 1787 as a member of the
supreme council of Bengal. The organization of
the revenue and judicial systems of Bengal and
the measure on Zamindari proprietorship of the
soil which was ratified-by Lord Cornwallis, were
largely due to Shore’s initiative, and on Corn-
wallis’s retirement in 1793 Shore was made
Governor-General of India. He was created a
baronet in 1792. On his retirement in 17 98 he
was raised to the peerage as Baron Teignmouth.
He was the first president of the British and
Foreign Bible Society from 1804 until his death.
He wrote Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and
Correspondence of Sir William Jones (1804).
Consult Teignmouth, Life and Gorrespondence of
TEIGNMOUTH.
'1‘ELAUTOGRAPH.
544
Joim Shore, first Baron Teignmouth (2 vols.,
London, 1842).
TE’JA., or TEIAS. The last King of the
Ostrogoths. He was chosen King after the death
of Totila (q.v.) who fell in battle against the
Byzantines under Narses, at Tadino, AD. 552.
The Gothic kingdom received its death blow in
that battle and it was left to Teja only to prolong
the hopeless struggle. He sought to gain the aid
of the Frankish King Theudebald, but failed.
While marching to the relief of Cumae he was
met by the Imperial army under Narses and
thereupon took up an impregnable position near
the foot of Mount Vesuvius, where the Goths
were invested by the enemy. After two months
want of food compelled the Goths to abandon
their position and they retired to the Lactavan
Hill, whence they made a desperate onslaught on
the Romans. In the two days’ battle Teja per-
ished after performing wonderful deeds of valor
(553). The remnant of the Goths were per-
mitted to leave Italy. See GOTHS. <
TEJADA, ta-H'zi’1)a, LERDO DE, President of
Mexico. See Lnnno DE TEJADA.
TEJ ON. The Mexican name of the local
species of badger (q.v.) .
TEJ U (abbreviation of Tejuguacu, the native
name). One of the large and powerful South
American lizards of the family Tejidae, and espe-
cially of its principal genus, Tupinambis. This
family comprises nearly 40 genera with more
than 100 species, and exhibits great diversity,
as might be expected when it is known that its
range covers the whole of South and Central
America, the West Indies, Mexico, and the South-
western United States. The largest of the family
(Tupinambis teguewin) is three feet long to the
end of its long, terete, tapering tail; is bluish
black with irregular yellow cross-bands, and
reddish yellow underneath. They frequent wood-
lands and plantations, and live in burrows They
are carnivorous and are able by their swiftness
and agility to capture most small animals.
TEKELI, ték’é-li.
See T6Ki)'LY.
TEKIYE, ta-ké’ye. A Mohammedan mon-
astery inhabited by dervishes (q.v.) or other
ascetics. It is usually built about a court in-
closed by a colonnade, beyond which are the
chambers, sometimes covered with domes. Well-
known examples are the tekiye of the dancing
dervishes at Pera and the one built near Damas-
cus by Sultan Selim in 1516.
TEKNONYMY (from Gk. 1'éK1/ov, teknon,
child + dvvua, onyma, duo/rm, onoma, name). A
custom found among certain savage groups
whereby a father (in some cases both parents)
after the birth of a child gives up his own name
and is known by the name of the child. The
custom is seen most completely developed in
Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and the neigh-
boring islands. It is also found among Arabs
and Persians, in Alaska, Polynesia, Australia,
and in isolated groups in other parts of the
world. The more commonly accepted explanation
of the custom is that the assumption by the
father of his child’s name is an assertion on his
part of his fatherhood and is indicative of the
growth of the patriarchal idea. The chief op-
posing view is that it is nothing more than an
An Hungarian patriot.
expression of the desire, prevalent in all stages
of culture, to be distinguished by one’s most
valued possession. The probabilities are that
a number of customs of diverse origin are in-
cluded under the term.
TEKUTCHIU, ta-k%’ché. A town of Ruma—
nia. See Tnouoru.
TEI/AIVION (Lat., -from Gk. Te7\apuév). In
Greek mytholog , the son of A/Eacus. Having
been driven out of fEgina for helping Peleus to
kill their half-brother Phocus, he married Glance,
daughter of the King of Salamis, a_nd became
King of the island. He was the father of Ajax,
took part in the Calydonian Hunt and the Argo-
nautic Expedition, and went with Hercules
against Troy and the Amazons.
TELAUTOGRAPH (from Gk. Tfihe, téle,
afar + az’rr6s, autos, self + 7pd.¢eav, gmphein,
to write). An instrument invented by Elisha
Gray for electrically reproducing at a distance
handwriting, drawings, figures, and the like. A
transmitter and receiver are associated together
for use at each station, and are connected by two
line wires with a similar set at the distant sta-
tion or with a central exchange. Power cor-
responding to the amount used in two ordinary
incandescent lamps is taken at each end from
the electric lighting circuit. The motion of a
pencil in writing is resolved into two component

ll
TEL AUTOGRAPH.
motions by connecting to the pencil points two
light levers, hinged at their junction tothe
pencil. The motion of these rods is communicat-
ed to two rotary shafts, to which are attached
arms, carrying at their outer ends contact rollers,
which move to and fro upon the surfaces of two
arc-shaped plates, upon which are wound re-
sistance wire, forming part of the power circuit.
The motion communicated to the rollers by the
pencil serves to cut resistance in or out of two
circuits, and thus two independent, variable cur-
rents are obtained, which depend for their
TE-LAUTOGRAPH.
TELEGRAPH.
545
strength upon the position of the pencil on its
writing surface. At the receiver are two strong
electro-magnets, each one having one of its
poles inclosed by the other, forming two an-
nular spaces, across which the magnetic fields
are uniform and constant. In these annular
spaces are suspended two light coils of copper






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TELAUTOGRAPH WITH CASE REMOVED SHOWING MECHANISM.
wire attached to bell-crank devices and light
rods to a set of shafts and levers, similar to
-those at the transmitter. The pull of each mag-
netic field upon these suspended coils is opposed
by a retractile spring, and the pen at the re-
ceiver is thus caused to take a position in its
writing field exactly corresponding to that of
the transmitter pencil. The switching on of the
transmitter by means of a switch at the trans-
mitter end automatically brings fresh paper to
the writing surface from a roll beneath the
transmitter, throws the receiver at the distant
end into operating position, shifting its paper
and raising the pen from the ink-well ready to
write. When the transmitter is switched off
no current is consumed at either end. A small
switch placed beneath the writing surface at the
transmitter is opened and closed by the pressure
of the pencil thereon, and serves to control by
means of induced vibratory currents and a suit-
able relay, the receiving pen, causing it to be
raised from the paper or lowered to it, in unison
with the movements of the transmitting pencil.
The ink is automatically supplied to the receiver
pen, and when not in use the pen rests with its
tip immersed in the ink, and thus is always
ready for service. The writing field is 2 inches
by 5 inches, thus affording space for three lines
of ordinary writing, each 5 inches long. Upon
this field the writing is done and when filled
a simple movement of the switch at the transmit-
ter brings fresh paper into service at both ends
of the line. A small push button serves to oper-
ate a call bell, by which all signaling is done.
The instrument is used by the United States
Army in transmitting messages from the range-
finding stations in the coast defenses to the high-
power guns, telephones having been found un-
satisfactory for this service, because disabled by
the unavoidable shock. In commercial work the
telautograph can be conveniently employed, as
it makes a double record of each message, one for
the sender and one for the person addressed.
TE-LAV, tyé-laf’. A, district town in the Gov-
ernment of Tiflis, Russian Transcaucasia, 63
miles east-northeast of Tiflis (Map: Russia,
G 6). It was formerly the capital of Kachetia
and has ruins of old palaces. Population, in
1897, 11,810, chiefly Armenians and Georgians.
TELEDU. See BADGER.
TELEG-’ONUS (Lat., from Gk. T’I)l\é’Y01/OS‘).
The son of Odysseus by Circe. Having been sent
to Ithaca to find his father, he failed to recognize
him in combat and slew him, afterwards taking
the body home, together with Telemachus and
Penelope, whom he married. He was looked up-
on as the founder of Tusculum and Praeneste,
and, through his daughter Mamilia, as the an-
cestor of the Roman Mamilii. His story is the
theme of the Telegonia. See TROJAN WAR.
TELEGONY (from Gk. rfihe; tele, afar +
-')/ovla, -gonia, generation, from 76110:, gonos,
seed, from 'yl"/1/e0'0a|., gignesthai, to become, to be
born). The influence of the first or of a previous
sire on the subsequent progeny obtained by other
sires. That the first impregnation has a lasting
influence has been generally accepted by breed-
ers. Weismann, however, states that the most
competent judges in Germany, such as Stettegast,
Nathusius, and Kiihn, in spite of their extensive
experience in breeding and crossing, have never
known a case of telegony, and doubt its reality.
TELEGRAPH (from Gk. ri)7\e, tele, afar —l—
7pd¢ew,‘ graphein, to write). The transmission
of messages by means of electricity. With the
discovery that electric currents could be trans-
mitted instantly over long distances came the idea
of employing them for signaling, and in 1774
Bishop Watson made some experiments in dis-
chargmg Leyden jars through 10,600 feet of wire,
suspended on wooden poles, in the neighborhood of
London. In the Scots Magazine in 1753 a detailed
description of a plan for electric telegra hy
is given, and in 1774 a telegraphic ine
Was erected by Lesage at Geneva, Switzerland,
which consisted of twenty-four wires connected
to pith-ball electroscopes (q.v.), each represent-
ing a letter. When the connection between the
frictional machine or charged conductor and any
electroscope was made the pith-ball was repelled.
The difficulty of using frictional machines, the
only method for producing electricity then known,
however, prevented the attainment of any prac-
tical results in this direction before the discovery
of the voltaic cell. In Germany the invention
of the telegraph is credited to Siimmering of
Munich, whose original apparatus, constructed
about 1809, was exhibited in operation at the
Congress of Electricians at Frankfort in 1891.
This instrument consisted of a series of volta-
meters each corresponding to a certain letter or
signal. On closing the key in any circuit the
signal was transmitted to the corresponding
voltameters and the-water in the appropriate
tube was decomposed. A similar plan was pro-
posed about the same time by Dr. J . R. Coxe, of
Philadelphia. Immediately after the discovery
TELEGRAPH.
TELEGRAPH.
546
of electro-magnetism by Oersted, in 1820, Ampere
determined to apply the idea to telegraphy, and
read a paper before the Paris Academy of Sci-
ences on the use of coils of wire surrounding
magnetic needles instead of voltameters for this
purpose. Baron Schilling in 1832 exhibited a
telegraphic model in Russia in which the letters
were represented by the deflections of a single
needle. Weber and Gauss modified this plan by
using a magnet suspended horizontally, to which
a mirror was attached. This arrangement enabled
the passage of extremely weak currents to be ob-
served as a beam of light from a lamp was re-
flected from the mirror mounted in connection
with the suspended needle and produced a
bright spot which moved along a screen with
any deflection of the needle under the in-
fiuence of the current‘. The idea was sub-
sequently employed by Thomson in the reflecting
galvanometer. Steinheil of Munich was the first
to notice the important fact that by using the
earth as a conductor no return wire was needed.
He also invented a code of using but two ele-
mentary signals in different combinations, and an
instrument for recording the characters on a
moving strip of paper in the shape of two rows
of dots. In America the invention of the tele-
graph is generally attributed to S. F, B. Morse
(q.v.), though the principles on which it is
based were first discovered by Joseph Henry
(q.v.) , who, however, failed to make any practi-
cal application of his discoveries. The electro-
magnet on which the action of the telegraph de-
pends was devised by Sturgeon of England and
consisted of a piece of iron of horseshoe form
surrounded by coils of wire. Henry, however,
was the first to construct electro-magnets in a
useful form, so that they were able to sustain
considerable weights and to produce this magnet-
ic effect by the action of a distant battery. In
the Albany Academy in 1832 he had a mile of
wire strung, through which he passed a current
which flowing through an electric magnet caused
it to attract an armature and strike a bell, thus
giving an audible signal. In 1835 at Princeton,
where he became professor, he used one circuit
with an electro-magnet to open and close another
circuit containing a battery and powerful mag-
net. He also had a wire stretched across the
campus through which he transmitted the cur-
rent, using the ground for a return. In 1832
Morse first conceived his idea of the tele-
graph, and for a number of years was en-
gaged in bringing the invention to a successful
outcome, it being publicly shown in 1837 in New
York and other cities. In the development of
the invention Morse was assisted by Alfred Vail,
who was a partner in the enterprise and sup-
plied much of the mechanical skill necessary for
the construction of the apparatus, as well as
capital, and many of the most important
features are due entirely to his ingenuity, The
telegraph was established as a commercial
enterprise in Germany with Steinheil’s system,
in America with Morse’.-3, and in England
with Wheatsone and Cool<e’s. The first
telegraph line in commercial operation was
between Paddington and Drayton, in Eng-
land, in 1837, and was thirteen miles in length.
This antedated by about seven years the Morse
line, which was constructed between Washington
and Baltimore and successfully inaugurated in
1844. The printing telegraph was first sug-
gested by Val , in 1837, and in 1841 Wheatstone
made an instrument for this purpose, though in
neither case did the invention come into ex-
tended use. The Wheatstone apparatus did
not work well, except through comparatively
short distances, and at a very low rate of speed,
being altogether inferior to the Morse telegraph.
The superior efficiency of the latter in working
direct through long distances was caused by
the application of the relay and local circuit.
In October, 1851, a convention of deputies from
Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, and
Saxony met at Vienna to decide upon a common
and uniform telegraph system. By this conven-
tion it was decided that the Morse system was
practically the best, and it was therefore adopted,
and at the present time this Morse system, or a
modification of it, is in general use throughout
the world.
In the Morse system the temporary magnetic
attraction produced when a current of electricity
sent along the wire is passed through a coil
was used to impart a slight movement to a lever
placed near the magnet, thereby giving a visible
indication each time the current was sent
through the wire at the distant station. Different
combinations of current, each impulse being of
momentary duration, were arranged to represent
the letters of the alphabet, and by this means
messages were spelled out over the wire from
\Vashington to Baltimore. This is the founda-
tion of all electric telegraphs, though the appli-
cation of the principle is modified in innumerable
ways, for the purpose of permitting the trans-
mission and the reception of messages to be done
in various methods that are convenient for
special places and uses. The numerous instru-
ments so employed may be classed under two
heads—name1y, those which record the signals
so that they may be read at any time after the
message is received, and those which give only
a passing signal, indicated by a sound or a
motion, and which, therefore, require the constant
attention of a receiving operator. Among the
former are several kinds—namely, those giving
a record in arbitrary signs—i.e. in the dots and
dashes of the Morse alphabet; those which print
the message in ordinary type, such as the modern
type-printing instrument, and lastly, a class of
instruments giving a facsimile of the message,
which, however, are not much used. See TELAU-
TOGRAPH.
THE Monsn TELEGRAPH AND Monsn INSTRU-
MENTS. The leading principle in the Morse in-
struments is that by the depression of a key, or
by other means, at the sending station an electric
circuit is ‘closed’ or completed, and a signal is
transmitted along the wire to a distant receiv-
ing station, where on its arrival it reproduces the
signal by the action of an electro-magnet, or
otherwise.
In its simplest form the Morse telegraph in-
cludes a battery or other source of current, a key
to break the circuit, and a line wire connecting
with a sounder or recording apparatus at the
distant station, the return circuit to the battery
being formed either by another wire or by the
ground. To send signals in either direction a
sounder and key must be provided at each sta-
tion.
THE SOUNDER or receiver used is shown in the
TELEGRAPH.
TELEGRAPH.
547
illustration, and consists of an electro-magnet of
horseshoe form firmly mounted on a base. The
coils are wound with insulated wire and are in-
clbsed in cylinders of hard rubber or vulcanite.
Supported by an upright casting of brass is a


SOUNDER.
lever balanced 011 the points of two screws, which
carries transversely to its length an armature
of soft iron. This piece of iron is directly above
the poles of the electro-magnet, so that when
the current passes through the coils it is at-
tracted with sufficient force to produce a sharp
click when a screw at its end strikes the sur-
face of the metal. By means of a spring, whose
tension can be adjusted, the lever is held in such
a position that the armature does not come in
contact with the poles of the electro-magnet until
the latter becomes magnetized by the passage of
the current and attracts it. VVhen the current
ceases to flow and the core is demagnetized, the
spring brings the lever back to its former po-
sition and another click results as the lever
strikes a screw in the frame. If the sounder is
to be used on a local circuit, as will be explained
below, its resistance is generally about four ohms,
but when it is on a main line where there are no
relays it has a resistance of about twenty ohms,
though these resistances are varied to suit con-
ditions of line and battery or dynamo. In order
to obtain a clear, loud click from the sounder it
is necessary to have about one-quarter of an
ampere of current flowing through the coils.,
THE TRANSMITTING KEY. The ‘key’ by which
signals are transmitted from the operator at the
sending office is shown below in its usual
form. It consists of a lever pivoted near the mid-


AMERIOAN MORSE KEY.
dle and carrying at one end a knob by which it
is manipulated by the operator in sending signals.
Two platinum contacts are fastened respectively
to the under side of the lever and to an insulated
piece on the upper side of the base. These con-
tacts are exactly opposite to each other, so that
they come together every time the key is de-
pressed. The lever is held up, when the key is
not depressed by the operator, by a small spiral
spring. One end of the line wire is connected
to the sounder and then to the metallic base of
the key from which the current passes through the
pivots to the lever and the small contact point
attached to its under side. One terminal of the
battery is connected with the small insulated
piece supporting the lower contact while the
other goes to the ground or return wire. By this
arrangement no current can pass through the line
until the key or lever is depressed, since the
terminal of the wire which is fastened to the
contact is insulated and the current has no
means of reaching the other part of the wire.
When it is desired to send the current the knob
is depressed, and the current from the battery,
finding a passage between the two contacts,
passes from one end of the wire to the other and
proceeds upon the line wire to the distant station,
The length of -time during which the key is de-
pressed determines the length of time between
the upward and downward clicks of the sounder
at the other end of the line. Thus if the operator
presses down the handle and releases it quickly
the keeper of the sounder will go down and up,
immediately indicating a ‘dot’ or the letter ‘E,’
while if he presses the key and holds it down a
moment before releasing it, there will be a longer
interval between the downward and upper clicks
of the sounder, and a ‘dash’ or the letter ‘T’ will
be produced. In early instruments, before the
operators read the messages by the clicks, the
receiving instrument was arranged to make a
record of the signals upon a moving strip of
paper. For this purpose a pen or sharp point was
attached to a lever, and a strip of paper, kept in
motion by clockwork, was arranged to pass un-
der the pen, so that a mark was produced by the
pen every time the lever was pulled down by the
magnet. If the lever was immediately released
a dot was recorded, but if the lever was held
down a moment a longer mark called a dash
was produced.
The signals used at first were arranged for
making a record with a crude instrument of
this kind, and while the increasing skill of the
operators soon enabled them to read the signals
directly from the clicking of the instrument with-
out looking at the tape, the signals are still
spoken of as consisting of so many dots and
dashes, as if recorded on paper. These registers
are to-day but little used, being seen occasionally
in district telegraph stations or with fire-alarm
apparatus,
THE Mossn ALPHABET. Before going further
the details of the alphabet may be given. The
only elements which can be combined for making
telegraphic signals in the Morse system are the
dot, the dash, and the space, and the alphabet
is made up of the simplest combinations of these
that can be made. The preference of the shortest
combinations is given to the letters which are
most frequently used. This alphabet or code
of signals was due to Morse’s assistant and col-
laborator, Alfred Vail, and was based on the
frequency with which the different letters occur.
This was verified by consulting with printers
and examining their type cases. The simplest
signal, a dot, was given to ‘E’ and the next
simplest, a dash, to ‘T,’ those letters occurring
most frequently in our language. Between the
separate signals of every single letter comes the
space which is equivalent to a dot except in the
case of C, O, R, Y, Z, when a lengthened space
equivalent to two dots is used.
TELEGRAPH.
TELEGRAPH.
548
AMERICAN Monsn CHARACTERS
E —T
I --—-M
S -—--5
H —-—-——L
P cipher
O O O I II 6
__A .__....3
_U — N
V — D
...._-4 _ I B
O - F —— G
R ._ Q --_ I
- dz —- 3 -—- 7
C — X —— W
- Z — 2 —— 1
. Y —- -"Period
-- — K
— — J
— -—“Comma”
— —— 9
—- — ?
Owing to the fact that in some of the early
telegraphs used in Europe the space could not
be employed as part of any of the signals without
causing confusion, it was necessary to rearrange
the combinations of dots and dashes, so as to
form the whole alphabet with the dot and dash
without the use of the space. This alphabet is
known as the Continental Morse alphabet. It is
used throughout Europe and in all submarine
telegraphy, having been adopted by an interna-
tional conference.
CONTINENTAL Monsn ALPHABET
- E — T
. I __ M
s -_- o
H ————%
_ A -- N
__ W _I.. D
__n_ J —-OI B
00- U __ G
- - v -- z
— R —~— K
_ L —-—. C
-- P ---- Y
_ F _H_- X
—- — Q
1,I—__--__— 6,-“II
a -—— L-— ~
3,...___ 3,_.____.
4’.lC._- 9’___
6,oo|oo 0, _u____-_
THE BATTERY.' For the generation of power
in the electric telegraph, the gravity batteries
(see VoLTAIc CELL or BATTERY) are chiefly em-
ployed in the United States. Various forms of the
Daniell battery are also used, especially in
Europe. The number of cells employed varies
with the length of the line, the conditions of the
wire as regards insulation, and the nature of the
instruments used. It is quite common in the
United States, especially in cities where many
lines centre, to employ dynamos driven by steam
engines for generating the current in place of
batteries, or to make use of storage batteries.
THE CIRCUIT. The mode of joining up two or
more stations by means of the line wire is shown
in the figure. It being necessary to furnish a
complete circuit or path for the current from the
battery over the line and back to the battery, a
return connection is required. In practice, this
return connection is made by simply connecting
the instruments at each station with the earth.
Assuming S‘ and S’ to be the telegraph stations,
with the wires grounded at P and P’ (see subse-
quent paragraph), B and B’ are the batteries, M
and M’ the sounders, while K and K’ are the
transmitting keys. The connection at the key
is always completed by a supplementary switch,
when the key is not being used to send a mes-
sage, in order that the path may be complete for
the reception of any message from the other

office.
s ,2 , § 3’
K M , M K’
“*5” -;==—'
P P
In sending a message the switch is first opened
and then the key is depressed. A current of
electricity will pass from the battery along the
line wire, around the magnets, drawing down
the armature and making a click; thence down
to the earth plates and through the earth back to
the battery.
The operator at the sending station in trans-
mitting a message opens his switch and de-
presses his key, so as to send a series of dots and
dashes corresponding to the letters to be sent
to the distant station. These are heard by the
receiving operator, who writes down their mean-
ing as fast as received. The above represents the
closed-circuit system, such as is employed in the
United States and Canada. In the open-circuit‘
system the current flows over the wires and
through the instruments only when the send-
ing operator depresses his key. This involves a
battery at each station, which is used, however,
only when signals are being transmitted.
HE LINE. The wire or series of wires are
usually supported on poles placed along the sides
of a road or railway. In cities the wires are
sometimes carried over houses or in underground
pipes or conduits, the conductors in the latter
case being insulated by means of a gutta-percha
or other suitable covering. In pole and over-house
lines, the wires are kept from each other and
the current from escaping to the earth by in-
sulators of glass. In Europe white porcelain
and brown stoneware insulators are used, and the
former substance, when of good quality, well
glazed and well burned, is perhaps the most per-
fect of all insulating materials, and does not de-
teriorate with age. The fewer the poles on which
the wires are suspended, the better is the insula-
tion and the less the cost, but the liability to ac-
cident is greater. The number of poles used varies
from 30 to 50 per mile, and is governed by the
number of wires carried, the con guration of the
road or track, and other considerations. On
road lines, the number of poles is generally larger
than in the case of wires carried alongside rail-
ways, the greater level and straightness of the
latter reducing the number of supports required,
and thirty-five to forty to the mile is considered
an average. The wire chiefly used for overland
telegraph purposes is of iron, galvanized, and of
No. 8 (1-8 inch) or No. 6 (1-6 inch) gauge,
or copper of somewhat‘ smaller diameter, the lat-
ter being preferred on account of its greater con-
ductivity. The conductivity of a wire increases
in the ratio of the square of its diameter (the
resistance decreasing in inverse ratio), and the
TELEGRAPH.
TELEGRAPH.
549
advantage of using a thicker wire on the longer
lines is thus seen. No. 4 wire is, for this reason,
used on some of the longer lines.
THE EARTH——EARTII CURRENTS. Mention has
been made of the ‘earth’ in the preceding descrip-
tion. This is the technical term used in relation
to the fact, discovered by Steinheil in 1838, that
the earth itself serves the purpose of completing
the circuit, and renders the employment of a sec-
ond or return wire unnecessary. The ‘earth’ may
consist of a buried plate of metal connected with
the battery or line wire, and of sufficient surface
to afford the necessary contact, with sufficient
earth to make a good connection, it being under-
stood that a small quantity of earth does not
connect well. Gas or water pipes form excellent
‘earths,’ care being taken that the connection is
made with the main pipe itself, and not with a
branch, where a badly made point might spoil
the connection. Where similar ‘earths’ are in use,
as, for instance, a copper plate at one end and an
iron pipe at the other, a quasi battery is created,
and minute currents pass along the line, these,
however, are too weak to be of consequence. The
earth, being of great size, offers no sensible resist-
ance to the passage of the current, in the same
way that a large wire offers less resistance than
a thin one. While this quality of the earth is
one of the most valuable aids to telegraphy (re-
ducing so materially the cost of wire erection),
it presents at times those embarrassing inter-
ruptions known as earth currents. These cur-
rents, at all times unwelcome visitors to a tele-
graph oflice, are very variable, changing rapidly
from positive to negative, altering their direction
with the hour of the day, and leaving one circuit
to appear on another in a manner not explain-
able.
THE RELAY. There are several methods by
which the transmission of signals is facilitated
or accelerated. First among these may be placed

‘-1
Y
i-31)
RELAY.
the relay. In the previous description of the
Morse system, we have assumed the instrument
to be worked directly by the current sent along
the line. On long circuits, however, direct work-
ing could only be accomplished by great battery
power, owing to inevitable loss by leakage, ex-
perienced by a current before it reaches its
destination. Consequently what is known as a
receivin instrument connected to the line, in-
strumen is worked by a ‘local current’ derived
from a local battery at the receiving station.
This is accomplished in the following way: The
receiving instrument connected to the line in-
stead of being made heavy enough to give an
audible sound by which the signal may be under-
stood, is made extremely light and delicate so
that it can be operated by a weak current.
This relay consists of an electro-magnet wound
with a large number of turns of insulated wire
and an armature on a lever to which is attached
a contact point which strikes another stationary
contact when the lever is drawn toward the mag-
net, closing a circuit through these extra points
in precisely the same way that the usual signal-
ing key is worked. These contacts are connected
by short wires with a regular sounder and a
small battery. Whenever the lever of the relay
is attracted it closes this extra or local circuit
and causes the sounder to respond to every signal
precisely as if it were connected directly to the
main line.
DUPLEX-WORKING. The first suggestion of
using a single line for more than one message
was due to Moses G. Farmer of Boston, who in
1852 devised a method for this purpose and car-
ried on successful experiments on a small scale.
In 1853 Dr. Wilhelm Gintl first made use of the
differential relay, and on the line between Vienna
and Prague worked a method from which the
modern practice of duplex telegraphy may be
said to date. This system was rendered more
successful in the following year by Carl Fischen
of Hanover, and his invention was acquired by
Siemens and Halske of Berlin, who had almost
simultaneously devised a similar method. This
improved system was introduced into Austria and
from time to time there followed improvements
devised by Stark and others. In England a du-
plex system was invented by Preece, while in
other countries various methods from different
inventors were forthcoming. In 1868 J. B.
Stearns of Boston invented a system of duplex
telegraphy which has since been used most suc-
cessfully on many lines throughout the United
States. The theory and practice of modern du-
plex telegraphy are somewhat complex and diffi-
cult to understand, but an outline of the prin-
ciples involved may be given. In the differential
method, which is largely used on land lines, there
is what is known as a differential relay, that is
a relay wound with two sets of coils in each of
which the current flows in a different direction.
Consequently when two currents of equal inten-
sity pass through such a relay their effects are
neutralized and the wire does not become mag-
netized. At each station a relay of this kind is
provided, and there are two complete circuits,
one of which includes the line wire, while the
other consists of resistance coils equivalent in
resistance to the line and known as the artificial
line. The key and battery are common to both
circuits, the points of divergence being at the re-
lay and at the ground. If the key at one
station is depressed the current will flow througn
both sets of coils of the relay at this station
without producing any magnetizing effect, but
at the distant station it will traverse but one set
of coils and will accordingly cause the relay to
operate the local sounder. The same thing of
course holds good for the distant station. If
both keys are depressed simultaneously the two
batteries will combine to produce an increased
strength of current flowing through one set of the
differential coils of each relay, and by virtue of
this preponderance of current the armature of
the relay will be magnetized. A modification of
this method is known as the polar duplex sys-
tem and employs at each station two batteries
or dynamos, so arranged that the direction of the
current flowing in the line depends on whether the
key is at rest or depressed. The current divides
TELEGRAPH.
TE-LE GRAPH.
550
as before at the relay, which, instead of being
wound differentially, is known as a poor relay.
l\'ormally the currents going to the line flow from
each station in such directions that they neu-
tralize each other, while the other portions of the
divided circuit flow over an artificial line and
into the ground. Now when a signal is to be
sent, the operator by means of a key or pole
changing instrument reverses the direction of the
current, which passes through his relay without
effect, but disturbs the conditions in that instru-
ment at the distant station and causes an in-
creased current in one of the sets of coils. This
moves the armature and closes a local circuit,
producing a click from the sounder. When both
keys are depressed the currents in the two sets
of coils of the relay connected with the line are
neutralized as before, but the current flowing
through the coils connected with the artificial
line is greater and in the opposite direction, so it
affects the relay and closes the circuit of the
sounder. In addition to these methods there is
also the bridge method, founded on the principle
of the VVheatstone bridge. This method is used
in the operation of the submarine cables. Du-
plex-working led to diplem, that is, two messages
passing over a wire in the same direction at once,
and this was followed by quadruplex and multi-
plex telegraphy. Quadruplex-working, whereby
four messages were sent over one line, was the
next development, and was first used by the VVest-
ern Union Telegraph Company in 1874, and is
now employed on all busy lines, particularly
those between large cities. The first invention
and one that has been most used was that of
Edison, but improvement and new methods have
been devised by Prescott, Gerrit Smith, and
others.
One of the principal instruments used for the
purpose of distinguishing different messages
which are sent over a wire at the same time is
the polarized relay, which has already been men-
tioned. The object of the instrument is to dis-
tinguish between messages sent with a positive
current and those sent with a reversed current.
Thus two such instruments can be placed in an
office, connected to the same wire and adjusted so
that one will respond only to the messages sent
with the positive current, while the other will re-
spond only to those sent with a negative current.



_W--p
'
_l/;"/1 _-1 » - I
POLARIZED RELAY.
The way in which this is arranged will be
seen from the illustrations. In the diagram
n. s. is a hard steel permanent magnet, whose
south end, s, has a slit in which the soft iron
armature a is pivoted. To this armature a thin
aluminum tongue, I), is attached, which by mak-
ing contacts on either side completes either of
two local circuits, and operates either of two
sounders, according to which side the tongue is
attracted. The coils on the magnet are so con-
nected that a positive current attracts the tongue
to one side, while a negative current attracts it
to the other.



DIAGRAM SHOWING ACTION OF‘ POLARIZED RELAY‘
AUTCMATIC TRANSMISSION. The speed of the
ordinary Morse instrument is limited to the
rapidity with which the hand of the operator can
move the key, and averages about 25 to 40 words
a minute. To increase speed automatic appa-
ratus is used which trebles, and in some cases
quadruples the carrying capacity of a wire, se-
curing at the same time mechanical accuracy in
the relative size of the dots, dashes, spaces, etc.
To effect this, three different instruments are
required: First, there is a perforator, by which
holes are punched in a paper slip to correspond
nith the signals required. The operator strikes
three punches, the central one producing a central
hole, which is of no avail electrically, only car-
rying forward the paper; the left-hand disk pro-
ducing two holes, directly opposite to each other,
on the sides of this central row, and that on the
right producing two holes, placed diagonally to
each other. The passage of the electric current
is regulated by the position of the outer holes;
those opposite each other admit of a momentary
passage of the current through the ‘transmitter’
used in sending the message, while the holes di-
agonally placed produce a lengthened mark cor-
responding to the dash. The following diagram
represents the word ‘and,’ as shown on the
punched slip:

OO O O O OO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
O 0
O0 OOO

mncrunnn TAPE.
This would be printed
a n d.
The third portion of this instrument is the ‘re-
ceiver,’ in which the currents sent by the action
of the punched slips in the transmitter are re-
produced in the dots and dashes of the Morse
code—the printing being, moreover, done with
a mathematical accuracy which keying by hand
cannot attain. The speed of transmission de-
pends on the length of the line and state of the
atmosphere; but the movements of the clock-
work, both of the transmitter and receiver, are
capable of adjustment to any speed below 120
words per minute.
A system of multiplex telegraphy invented by
Delany and employed in Europe provides for the
simultaneous transmission of a number of mes-
sages either in the same direction or part in one
direction and the remainder in the opposite di-
rection. The apparatus consists of a number of
TELEGRAPH.
TELEGRAPH.
551
contact pieces arranged on a circular disk or
table, some of which are connected with the
separate sending or transmitting instruments,
while others are connected with local relays and
batteries and the ground. A trailer or rapidly
revolving arm connected with the line wire passes
over these contact points so that the circuit is
successively completed through the different in-
struments at one station, while a similar device
at the other station, revolving synchronously
with the first, makes connections with an equal
number of instruments. The speed of revolution
of the trailers is regulated by two tuning forks
or vibrating reeds of the same pitch, and an in-
genious synchronizing device keeps them always
in unison. In this way it is possible to operate
twelve different sets of Morse transmissions over
one wire, and it is accomplished in the following
manner. The first operator closes his key, and
as the trailer passes around, it will make con-
tact with the line wire and his instrument will
be connected about 36 times in one second, thus
transmitting that number of impulses. Now, if
he desires to send a signal corresponding to
a dot, he would close his key for a brief
interval, which may be one-twelfth of a second,
thus allowing three impulses of current to be
transmitted over the line wire to the correspond-
ing instrument at the other station, which is
only in a position to receive the signals from the
one transmitter. The same is true for the other
operators and their instruments, each one employ-
ing the wire for a certain fraction of the time.
Numerous other systems have been devised, im-
portant among which is the multiplex printing
telegraph of Rowland, which has been successful-
ly used in Europe. It employs an alternating
current and four transmitters and receivers can
be used in connection with one wire. There is a
mechanical keyboard somewhat similar to that of
a typewriter, while the signals are received and
printed on a tape or upon ordinary letter pages
in ‘typewriting’ characters.
In the United States the telegraph is entire-
ly in the hands of private companies. The first
company was organized in 1845 under the name
of the Magnetic Telegraph Company by Morse’s
supporters and associates. In that year the tele-
graph was constructed between Philadelphia and
Morristown and in the following year it was ex-
tended to New York. The House printing tele-
graph was patented in 1846, and soon after nu-
merous companies were formed to exploit both
systems. This was the case all over the United
States, and soon the competition became most
sharp and the lack of thorough organization ap-
parent. In 1856 the Western Union Company
was formed by the Erie and Michigan Telegraph
Company uniting with the New York and Missis-
sippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company. From
this time combination and consolidation was
carried on, the efficiency of the service increasing
continually. In 1816 the telegraph across the
North American continent was completed and
in operation. By 1866 consolidation had taken
place to such an extent that there were three tele-
graph companies which enjoyed the largest part
of the business in the United States. These were
the Western Union, the American Union, and the
United States. In 1881 the Western Union ab-
sorbed the American Union and the Atlantic and
Pacific, and at later periods purchased or leased
the lines of the New York Mutual Telegraph
Company, the Baltimore and Ohio Railway Tele-
graph, American Rapid Telegraph, and the North-
western Telegraph Company, all of which are
now operated as part of the Western Union sys-
tem. The telegraph business of the United States
is at present controlled by the Western Union
and Postal Telegraph-Cable companies. The
former in 1901 had 193,589 miles of poles and
cable, 972,766 miles of wire, 23,238 oifices, trans-
mitted 65,657,049 messages, had receipts aggre-
gating $26,354,151, expenses amounting to $19,-
668,903, and profits of $6,685,248.
The average
toll per message in 1870 was 75.5 cents, while
the cost of transmission was 51.2 cents.
these figures were 30.8 cents and 25.1 cents, re-
spectively.
In 1900
The Postal Telegraph-Cable Company in 1901
had in its system 43,850 miles of poles and
cables, 243,423 miles of wire, 14,870 offices, and
transmitted 17,898,073 messages. '
LAND TELEGRAPH Srsrnms OF THE WORLD (1902)
STATEMENT SHOWING LIILEAGE OF LINES AND
MESSAGES DELIVERED IN EACH COUNTRY OF THE WORLD;
ALSO THE NUMBER OF MESSAGES PER CAPITA
NUMBER OF



. N o. of Messa es
COUNTRIES Mllilggsof messages perg
sent eapita
United King-;do111 ............. .. 46,295 89,576,961 2.15
United States .................. .. 219,938 83,555,122 1.08
France ............................. .. 90,170 48,144,151 1. 25
Germany ......................... .. 81,303 38,342,455 .68
Austria-Hungria ............. .. 47,304 29,427,615 .65
Russia ............................. .. 98,570 18,376,969 .14
Japan .............................. .. 14,734 16,737,150 .38
Commonwealth 0 f Aus-
tralia ............................ .. 44,501 8,987,846 2. 39
New Zealand .................... .. 7.249 9,898,128 5.05
Italy ................................ .. 26,427 7,896,081 .24
Belgium ........................... .. 3,975 *14,411,487 2.15
Spain ............................... .. 19,885 +5,058,104 .28
Argentina ........................ .. 27,584 3,427,664 .71
India ............................... .. 52,909 6,237,301 .03
Netherlands ..................... .. $3,831 i5,393,87 2 1.04
Mexico ............................. .. §32,486 2,604,710 .19
Canada ............................ .. 35,628 5,181,680 .96
Switzerland ..................... .. 5,698 3,950,162 1.19
'1‘urkey ............................ .. 23,440 3,624,775 .14
Bulgaria .......................... .. 3,270 1,356,041 .36
Egypt .............................. .. 2,365 4 250571 .44
Roum ania ........................ .. 4,344 2,224,539 . 38
Cape Colony .................... .. 7,467 3,562,039 1 51
Sweden ............................ .. 5,958 2,580,258 50
Denmark ......................... .. 12,413 12,317 ,97 9 94
Norway ........................... .. 79,040 2,267,915 1 01
Portugal ......................... .. 5,180 3,420,453 63
Brazil .............................. .. 12,630 2,662,711 02
Chile ................................ .. 14,592 ||1,286,936 41
Greece .............................. .. **5,300 1, 506 73
Servia .............................. .. 2,550 1,079,435 43
Guatemala ...................... .. 3,400 796,192 51
Cuba ................................ .. 2,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Uruguay .......................... .. 4,601 397,493 42
Colombia ......................... .. 8,600 -H-555,000 14
Persia .............................. .. 4,800 152,837 . 08
Peru ................................ .. 1,933 121,492 .03
P araguay ........................ .. 600 83,560 16
Venezuela ........................ .. 3,882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
* Including oflicial dispatches. 1- Includinginternational
and oflicial messages. i:State ofiices and State lines, re-
spectively, only. §Of which 19,085 miles were owned by
the Federal Government. 1[ Including telephone lines and
wires. ll Sent over State lines only. “Including sub-
marine lines. it Estimated.
In striking contrast to the system of private
companies of the United States is the govern-
mental control of the telegraphs as practiced in
Great Britain and other European countries. In
Great Britain previous to 187 0 the telegraph busi-
ness was controlled by_ private corporations, but
in 1868 a bill was introduced into Parliament
and passed in the following year whereby the
lines and property were acquired by the Gov-
TELEGRAPH.
TELEGRAPHY.
552
ernment at an expense of £6,750,000. In 1869
there were about 7,000,000 messages sent, a num-
ber which increased to 22,459,775 in 1879, and
90,415,123 in 1900. In this la.st year the receipts
from telegraphs were £3,460,492 and expenditures
£3,748,930, leaving a deficit of £288,438. This
deficit is due largely to the reduced rate at which
newspaper messages are transmitted, there being
an actual loss of over £250,000 on this class of
business. \\’ith governmental ownership have
come improved service and reduced rates. Where
in 1870 it cost from 3 to 6 shillings to send a mes-
sage from London to Dublin, now a message of
12 words can be sent anywhere in the United
Kingdom for 6 pence. In 1867 the average charge
for a message was a little over 50 cents; now it
is slightly more than 15 cents. In 1900 the Post-
oliice Department controlled ll,l88 telegraph of-
fices, including 2337 railway ollices, while the
mileage of line is stated at 44,970, with 329,660
miles of wire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Houston and Kenelly, Electric
Telegraphy (New York, 1896) ; Loring, A Hand
Book of the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph (New
York, 1900) ; Maver, American Telegraphy: Sys-
tems, Apparatus, Operation (2d ed., New York,
1899); id., Qaadraplem, with Chapters on the
Dynamo Electric Machine in Relation to the
Quadraplea: (New York, 1893); Pope, .l1odcrn
Practice of the Electric Telegraph (16th ed., New
York, 1899) ; Prescott, Electricity and the Elec-
tric Telegraph (New York, 1892) ; Culley, Hand-
book of Practical Tclegraphy (8th ed., London,
1885); Preece and Sivewright, Tewt Book of
Telegraphy (9th ed., London, 1891) ; Bright,
Submarine Telegraphy (London, 1898); Reid,
History of the American Telegraph (New York,
1882). See also ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH; TELEG-
RAPHY, SUBMARINE; and WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
TELEGRAPHERS’ CRAMP. See NEU-
ROSIS.
TELEGRAPHY, SUBMARINE. In submarine
telegraphy there are many variations from the
practice on land lines. (See TELEGRAPIIY.) This
is the case because the length of the line between
stations is usually great and certain conditions
attend the construction and laying of the cable
bearing the conductor. The problem then in-
volves the transmission of current along a con-
ductor of great length and necessarily small
cross-section with of course considerable resist-
ance. In a long cable we have to consider the
effect of the electrostatic inductive capacity as
well as its conductivity. The cable acts as a con-
denser (q.v.), the core or conductor forming one
of the plates or conducting surfaces, while the
metallic sheathing acts as the other.
As it takes a perceptible time for the
cable to be charged and discharged
when a current is sent through it,
there is a certain limit to the speed
of transmission of signals without
their becoming confused and unintel-
ligible. As the length of the cable
increases, so does the time required
for charging, and it was demonstrated
by Lord Kelvin (1853) that the rate (:5
of signaling would vary inversely
as the square of the length of the cable. So
small is the current passing over the cable
that it is impossible to use ordinary telegraph
instruments on -lines greater than 500 miles in
Galvanometer
Switch
P--—-O.__


Batter
arth y
length, and only up to 150 miles can an ordinary
rate of signaling be maintained. It is necessary,
therefore, to use some sensitive device such as a
mirror galvanometer or a Thomson siphon re-
corder to receive the transmitted signals. The
galvanometer (q.v.) or some modified or special
form of this instrument when used in cable teleg-
raphy is of high resistance and considerable sen-
sitiveness. The ordinary mirror receiver re-
sembles the Thomson refiecting galvanometer, and
has one coil and a suspended mirror to which the
magnets are attached. The action is precisely
the same as in the galvanometer, the amount and
direction of the deflection depending on the in-
tensity and direction of the current. A gal-
vanometer with a suspended coil may also be
used, or, what is more usual, some form of siphon
recording receiver. The siphon recorder was in-
ven-ted by Lord Kelvin in 1867 and has since
been greatly modified and improved by various
cable engineers. It consists essentially of a coil
of light wire suspended between the poles of a
powerful magnet, capable of being deflected from
its position of rest upon the passage of a cur-
rent. As the coil moves its motion is transmitted
to a siphon formed by a fine glass tube, one end
of which dips into a vessel containing ink, while
the other is near or in contact with a strip of
paper which is moved through the apparatus by a
motor, either electrical or clockwork. This glass
pen will trace on the tape a line where the move-
ments of the coil are indicated by curves or waves
marked on the paper. These curves are above
or below the line of rest, depending upon the di-
rection of the current which passes through the
coils. Thus to produce a dot a positive current
is sent over the wire and an upward curve is pro-
duced on the record. Reversing the current gives
a dash, and employing the Continental Morse al-
phabet described under TELEGRAPHY, the various
signals can be transmitted. With such recorders
are employed either simple keys or automatic
transmitters. The simple key consists of a pole-
changing device by which a current in either di-
rection can be sent over the circuit by simply
pressing one of two keys. In automatic trans-
mission, which is used on the transatlantic
cables and other busy lines, the operator first
punches in a paper strip holes corresponding to
the proper signals, and then contact is made
through the agency of rods or brushes as the tape
is passed through the transmitter. These devices,
however, can only be used on cables having heavy
cores, but by their use a rate of 50 words or
more a minute may be obtained.
In working cables it was soon found that their
Cable Switch
Condenser Condenser
’/.->.----_


Pole - changing Switch --~-M


Galvanometer
Earth Earth
DIAGRAM or smpnn CABLE cmcurr.
efficiency was increased and the effect of earth
currents eliminated by inserting a condenser
(q.v.) between the transmitting instrument and
TELEGRAPHY.
TELEGRAPHY.
553
the line. This idea, originated by C. F. Varley,
was embodied in a patent in 1862 and put _in
practice in 1866. When first used at the receiv-
ing end it was found that the speed was consider-
ably increased, and when placed at both ends the
efficiency of the cable was practically doubled.
Greater distinctness in the transmission of the
signals was obtained as well as increased rapid-
ity. The operation of a simple cable circuit Wlll
be seen from the preceding diagram of the con-
nections.
The cable connected with a condenser at either
end is shown above. From the opposite plates of
the condenser connection is made with a switch
through which the current may pass either to the
earth through a galvanometer or recorder or to a
transmitting key, K, and then to the battery and
earth, depending on whether signals are be-
ing sent or received at the particular station.
At K and K’ either pole of the battery can be con-
nected at will to the line, or rather to the con-
denser, and the cable charged inductively. The
corresponding signals are produced at the distant
station, the galvanometer being connected to the
line by the switch. Cables can also be worked du-
plex-with facility and an increased speed_ of 90
per cent. attained, but as yet it is. not possible to
employ the quadruplex method In use on land
lines. The duplex system was devised in 1875
and 1876 by Muirhead and Taylor and was first
used on the Atlantic cable in 1878. Previously
in 1873 experiments in this field had been car-
ried on by J. B. Stearns.
HISTORY AND STATISTICS. The feasibility of
laying a line for the transmission of signals
along the bottom of the ocean seems to have
been first suggested in 1795 by a Spamard
named Salvia. Eight years later a nephew of
the famous electrician Galvani performed ex-
periments of a similar nature in the deep sea off
Calais. The first really important experiments,
however, bearing directly upon this subject are
believed to have been those of Stimmering and
Schilling, who in 1811 applied a soluble insulat-
ing material to a conductor which was laid across
the river Isar near Munich. These investigators
also used a submarine conductor to explode gun-
powder by an electric current. In 1813 an Eng-
lishman named John Sharpe transmitted signals
through seven miles of insulated copper wire laid
on the bottom of a pond, but the first practical
attempt to use such a conductor to transmit
telegraphic signals was by Colonel Paisley of the
Royal Engineers at Chatham, England, in 1838.
He surrounded his conductor with strands of
tarred rope and wrapped the whole with pitched
yarn. In 1839 Dr. W. O’Shaughnessy at Cal-
cutta laid across the Hugli River copper wire cov-
ered with bamboo and then coated with cotton
and tar. In 1840 Wheatstone proposed a scheme
similar to those of the last two inventors, and
later suggested the use of gutta-percha as a cov-
ering for the wire, but was unable to put his idea
into practice. Prof. S. F. B. Morse, of New York,
laid an insulated cable between Castle Garden
and Governor’s Island, and as a result of his
experiments came to the conclusion “that a tele-
graphic communication on his plan might with
certainty be established across the Atlantic.”
The idea that submarine conductors for tele-
graphic purposes could be constructed was rapid-
ly taking root, and in 1845 the Messrs. Brett,
who were active in the construction of the first
telegraphic lines across the English Channel and
the first Atlantic cable, registered a ‘General
Oceanic Telegraphic Company’ for the purpose of
establishing telegraphic communication between
England and America. In 1850 an experimental
line was laid across the English Channel by the
Messrs. Brett, and this was followed in 1851 by a
permanent cable of such excellent construction
that it survived for a number of years. Several
longer lengths of submarine cable were laid
within the next few years. Italy was connected
with Corsica and Sardinia, and Sardinia with
Africa. A Black Sea cable was laid in 1855, but
operated only a short time.
Thus far attempts to lay submarine tele-
graph lines had been confined to comparatively
short distances. In 1858, after repeated un-
successful experiments, telegraphic communi-
cation was established across the Atlantic. After
something over a hundred messages had been sent
back and forth, the cable ceased to work. Al-
though this cable was a comparative failure, yet
its brief success proved two things: ( 1) That a
cable could be laid through 3000 miles of deep
sea; ( 2) that the electric current could be
transmitted through a wire of that length. It
was not until 1866 that a permanent cable was
laid across the Atlantic. (The detailed history
of this undertaking is described under ATLANTIC
TELEGRAPH.) A second Atlantic cable was in-
augurated immediately after, the one which had
broken in-the laying in 1865 having been re-
paired. In 1859, after the first Atlantic cable
had ceased to work, the Red Sea and East Indian
Telegraph was laid, over a route 3043 miles long,
but this also proved a dismal failure and was
finally abandoned. The Malta-Alexandria cable
was laid i11 1861, and was in use till 1872, when,
from repeated breakages in shallow water, its use
was discontinued. The core consisted of a strand
of seven copper wires, covered by three layers of
gutta-percha; outside of this was a serving of
tarred yarn; and, finally, 18 iron wires, constituted
the sheathing. This was the first long cable suc-
cessfully laid (its total length, in three sections,
being 1331 miles); and it was also the first
properly tested under water before being laid,
and carefully constructed with constant watch-
fulness as to its electrical and mechanical con-
ditions. In 1869 a cable 2328 miles long was laid
from Brest, France, to the island of Saint-Pierre,
south of Newfoundland; in 1873, one from Lisbon
to Pernambuco, Brazil. In 1874 a third British
Atlantic cable was laid, from Ireland to New-
foundland, and in 1875 a fourth, from Ireland to
New Hampshire. In 1903 there were 19 cables
across the Atlantic, of which three were no longer
in use. Of these, two distinct lines, one of which
is duplicated, connect Europe with South
America.
In 1902 the British Pacific Cable between
Australia and British Columbia, 7800 nautical
miles in length, was completed, and in 1903
the first American cable was laid across the
Pacific, with a length of 7846 nautical miles,
by the Commercial Cable Company, between San
Francisco and the Philippines, touching at Ha-
waii, Midway Island, and Guam. In 1903 the
total length of submarine cable was estimated
at over 250,000 miles, representing an outlay
of over $300,000,000.
TELEGRAIPHY.
TELE-OLOG-Y.
554
CONSTRUCTION or CABLE. A submarine cable
consists of three parts: (1) The central conduc-
tor, or core, to carry the current. This is made of
copper wire, either solid or in strands. (2) A cov-
ering of insulating material to prevent the cur-
rent from being dissipated. This is usually made
of gutta-percha, although recently, in submarine
telegraphy in the Philippine Islands, rubber has
been used instead. (3) An outer covering to
protect the insulating material from injury.
This is usually of yarn, tape, or canvas. The
cable is generally divided into three sections: the
deep-sea section, the intermediate portion, and
the shore end. The last portion has to be con-
structed with greatest care and strength, as in
shallow water there is more danger of injury
from rocks and other causes. It is estimated
that a deep-sea cable weighs about one ton per
nautical mile. Cables cost from $350 in deep
sea to $1500 at the shore e- d per mile. The cost
of maintenance is often heavy and requires the
services of a fleet of vessels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult Bright, Submarine
Telegraphy (London, 1898), a thorough and in-
teresting treatment of the subject from both the
historic and scientific sides; also, “Submarine and
Land Telegraph Systems of the World,” in
Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of
the United States, July, 1903 (\\’ashington,
Treasury Department) .
TELEGRAPHY, VVIRELESS.
TELEGRAPHY.
TEL EL-AMARNA, tel el-a-1n§ir’na. A
place in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile, about midway between Thebes and Memphis.
It includes the Arab villages Hagg-Kandil and
Et-Tell and is the site of the ancient city of
Khut-Iten (Horizon of the Sun) , founded by the
heretic King Amenophis IV. (q.v.), who aban-
doned Thebes and removed his residence thither.
A splendid temple and palace were built, and
the city increased so rapidly that it soon ex-
tended to the opposite bank of the Nile; but it
had only a brief existence. After the death of
Amenophis and the triumph of the orthodox re-
ligion, the royal residence was transferred to
Thebes and the new city fell into decay as rapidly
as it had risen. Fifty years after its foundation
it was in ruins, and has never since been inhab-
ited. The ruins of the temple and palace are
still to be seen, and in the vicinity are a number
of interesting rock-hewn tombs, richly adorned
with sculptures and paintings, constructed for
the courtiers of the royal founder of the city.
In the winter of 1887-88 the archive chamber
of Amenophis was discovered by some natives,
and in it were found a number of cuneiform tab-
lets containing the Asiatic correspondence of the
King and of his father, Amenophis III. (See
AMARNA LETTERS.) The site was explored by
Petrie in 1891-92. Consult Petrie, Tel el-Amar-
na (London, 1897); Baedeker, Aegyptcn (Leip-
zig,'1897).
TEL EL-KEBIR, tel 51 kii-bér'. A village of
Northeastern Egypt, on the Sweet Water Canal,
18 miles east by south of Zagazig, noted as the
scene of a battle between the English under Lord
VVolseley and the Egyptian insurgents under
Arabi Pasha (q'.v.), September 13, 1882. See
EGYPT.
TE-LEMACHUS, te-lem'a-kus (Lat., from Gk.
Tnhéuaxos). In Greek legend, the son of Odysseus
See WIRELESS
(see ULYSSES) and Penelope (q.v.) . At the opening
of the Odyssey he is represented as led by Athena
in the guise of Mentor, a trusted Ithacan friend
of Odysseus, in search of tidings of his long-
absent father, since he was unable alone to expel
the insolent suitors of his mother. Having visited
Pylos and Sparta, Telemachus returned home to
Ithaca, Where he found his father in the guise of
a beggar, at the hut of the faithful swineherd
Eumaeus. After Odysseus had revealed his iden-
tity to his son, they carried out a plan for the
slaying of the suitors. In post-Homeric legend
it was told how, after the death of Odysseus,
Telemachus and his mother accompanied Tele-
gonus to the island of Circe, where Telegonus
wedded Penelope, and Telemachus Circe.
TELEMACHUS. A Syrian monk who in A.D.
404 leaped into the arena of the Coliseum dur-
ing a gladiatorial combat, attempting to separate
the contestants. He was stoned to death, but his
heroic protest led Honorius to suppress gladia-
torial fights; at least there is no evidence of
theintaking place after this time.
TELEMAQUE, ta’la’mak’, AVENTURES DE
(Fr., Adventures of Telemachus). A romance,
with -some political significance, by Fénelon
(1699), founded on the adventures of the son of
Odysseus and largely influenced by Barclay’s
Argenis (q.v.). The principal character repre-
sented the author’s conception of an ideal youth
and was meant as a model for his pupil, the son
of Louis XIV.
TELEMETER (from Gk, rfihe, tele, afar +
/.ié1-pov, metron, measure). An instrument for
measuring the distance to a remote object, used
in surveying and in military operations by engi-
neers and artillerists. In the Boulenge telemeter,
the distance from the observer to a cannon or ex-
ploding shell is ascertained by measuring the
time consumed by the sound in reaching the car.
There are many forms of telemeter, which consist
for the most part of telescopes and mirrors by
means of which angles can be read and the dis-
tance computed. Gautier’s telemeter is a type of
this class of instruments, and depends upon the
double reflection of a beam of light, as in the case
of the sextant, and the measurement of a short
base line at the point of observation. The tele-
meter of the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey is more generally known among American
engineers as the stadia(q.v.), and in Great Brit-
ain as a tachometer. It consists of a mounted tele-
scope with two extra horizontal cross wires that
intercept a certain number of divisions on the
image of the graduated rod held upright at the
distant point. The distance of the rod from the
instrument is obtained by multiplying the read-
ing by a constant factor which depends upon the
construction of the telescope. Stadia measure-
ments are particularly useful in making a rapid
survey or reconnaissance and are accurate to
about one part in 700. The name telemeter is
also applied to an instrument which is connected
electrically with indicating apparatus such as a
meter or gauge and furnishes a similar record at
a distant station. See RANGE-FINDER. Con-
sult Baker, Engineer’_s Surveying Instruments
(New, York, 1892) .
TELEOLOGY (from Gk. réhos, telos, end,
completion + -Aoyla, -logia, account, from
7\é'yew, legein, to say). A term used in philos-
ophy to denote any theory which explains the
TELEOLOGY.
5 A TELE-PATHY.
55
world as in some way controlled by intelligent
purpose. The question teleology answers in the
aflirmative is whether in the universe as a whole,
or even in the phenomena of terrestrial organic
life, there is some actually conscious being con-
trolling the cause of events and shaping it to the
realization of preconceived ends. It is certain
that the tendency to interpret actions teleologi-
cally appears in very early childhood. But as
the child grows older he has a right to criticise
the interpretation he previously gave to these ac-
tions. The mere fact that it is natural for him in
early childhood to do a thing is no proof that
in mature life he is justified in continuing to do
that thing. The criticism he gives to his early
personifications results in the confirmation of
some. He is confirmed, for example, in his con-
viction that all normal human beings have much
the same mental constitution and much the same
conscious control over their actions as he. But
the increase in knowledge, which bears out his
early interpretation of the actions of human be-
ings, tends to discredit much of his interpreta-
tion of other phenomena. Fetishes tend to dis-
appear with mental culture, while, in regard to
the animal world, the child-fashioned, rough-
and-ready explanation of instinctive action as
consciously purposed has become obsolete in
scientific circles. But the depersonifying ten-
dency of scientific knowledge has been generally
offset by the attempt to attribute to the universe
at large a purpose which many individual parts
of the universe are no longer alleged severally to
show.
In fact, in its metaphysical aspect the question
is removed to a plane where science and scientific
considerations are only of secondary importance.
In the old argument that the natural world re-
veals adjustments which could only have been
provided for by the foreseeing wisdom of God, the
teleological hypothesis was a form of scientific
theory—that is, it was as much a description of
the course of events as an interpretation of their
causes. As treated in its broadest scope, how-
ever, teleology becomes an interpretation of the
facts which it is the business of science to de-
scribe. Teleology is an interpretation of a par-
ticular kind; it argues that the facts which
science describes can be adequately accounted for,
causally, only by the assumption of an intelligent
purpose of which human purpose furnishes the
only analogy which we can understand. This does
not mean that the purpose of the universe must
be like human purpose, but that a purpose re-
sembling human purpose is all that can make
it intelligible to us.
Teleology, in this sense, and scientific theory in
no way conflict. As a matter of fact, they are
based upon very different rational principles.
Science proceeds in its explanations upon the law
of parsimony (q.v.), assuming the fewest pos-
sible hypotheses for the maintenance of its struc-
tures; teleology, on the other hand, proceeds on
the principle of sufficient reason, which requires
the fullest and most satisfactory explanation of
phenomena as the probable truth-. Again, science
is primarily concerned only with the delineation
of phenomena, with description of fact; teleology
strives to discover a significance in these phe-
nomena and facts which shall satisfy all the
needs of the human mind. The same facts are
dealt with in each case, but the form of their
consideration is entirely different. This may be
VOL. XVI.-36. _ -
illustrated in the case of the doctrine of evolu-
tion, which, for science, is simply the specific
statement of certain hypotheses—as, for ex-
ample, the struggle for existence, the law of the
survival of the fittest, etc.-—which are supposed
to describe the actual descent of animals; teleo-
logically, however, evolution is viewed as a proc-
ess planned and controlled by a foreordained
intelligence analogous to ours. Frequently sci-
entific theory, as in this case, contains ele-
ments of teleology, but this is due rather to the
failure of exact description than to the proper
character of scientific treatment. There is no
logical interconnection of science and teleology
and no possibility of any real contradiction be-
tween them. See MATERIALISM; MECHANISM.
TEL’EOSAU’RUS (Neo.-Lat., from Gk.
réheos, teleos, réheios, teleios, complete + oafipos,
sauros, lizard). An extinct crocodile, fossil
skeletons of which are found in the Jurassic rocks
of Europe. The animal was small and had a
much elongated tube-like snout armed with nu-
merous small outward-curving teeth. The body
Was covered by tuberculated scutes. See CROCO-
DILE.
TELEP’ATHY (from Gk. 'r'rj7\e, téle, afar +
vrd6em, -patheia, from qroidos, pathos, feeling).
A term coined by members of the Society for
Psychical Research: “We venture to introduce
the words Telazsthesia and Telepathy to cover
all cases of impression received at a distance
without the normal operation of the recognized
sense organs.” (See PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, So-
CIETY FOR.) E. Gurney, F. Myers, and F. Pod-
more in Phantasms of the Living (1886) say that
“under particular conditions of excitement——the
rationale of which we probably do not under-
stand, though insensibility and the near approach
of death are apparently some of the most effec-
tual of these conditions—certain persons seem
to have the faculty of communicating to other
persons at a distance what is happening to them,
often without any intention or consciousness of
doing so on their own parts,” and further, that
“certain small experimental results can be pro-
duced,” and that “certain impressive spontaneous
phenomena are shown to belong to the same
class.” It seems now to be clearly enough dem-
onstrated that only the experimental results are
worthy of attention. There are many accounts
of telepathic phenomena of earlier date. Thus
the hypnotized subjects of Mesmer were said to
have frequently obeyed the silent will of the
operator; but all such reports are useless as evi-
dence, on account of the lack of sufficient data,
the neglect of suitable precautions, and the
ignorance of the extreme suggestibility of the
hypnotic subject. So, too, the countless stories
as to the feats performed in the popular game of
‘mind-reading’ are of little significance, once
the possibilities of ‘muscle-reading’ are clearly
understood. The actual evidence upon which
telepathy now rests is of an extremely fragment-
ary nature. It may be classified as (1) experi-
mental, the communication from ‘agent’ to ‘per-
cipient’ of simple visual impressions—diagrams,
and color, suit, and number of playing cards,
etc.; (2) certain striking cases of the induction
of sleep at a distance, notably that of Madame B.
or ‘Léonie,’ reported by J. Ochorowicz; (3) sta-
tistics of what are known as ‘veridical hallucina-
tions,’ i.e. apparitions of a person to some dis-
TELEPATHY.
TELEPHONE.
556
tant friend at the time of the person’s death;
(4) the performances of certain ‘test mediums,’
especially of one, Mrs. Piper, whose case has
been investigated at length by the Society for
Psychical Research. (See their Proceedings,
1890, 1892, 1895.) All this evidence rests upon
the assertion that the number of coincidences
exceeds the number attributable to chance ac-
cording to the law of probability; e.g. veridical
hallucinations are said to be 440 times more nu-
merous than they should be according to chance
alone. The verdict of science is still, however,
‘not proven.’
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Proceedings Society for Psychi-
cal Research, pass1'.m,' Beard, The Study of
Trance, Muscle-Reading, and Allied Nervous
Phenomena (New York, 1882); Jastrow, Fact
and Fable in Psychology (Boston, 1900) ; Flam-
marion, The Unknown (Eng. trans., New York,
1900); Ochorowicz, De la suggestion mentale
(Paris, 1887) ; Parish, Zur Kritllc des telepathi-
schen Bewelsmatenials (Leipzig, 1897) ; Podmore,
Apparltions and Thought-Transference (New
York, 1895).
TELEPHONE (from Gk. 'r'?]7\e, tele, afar +
qbwmfi, phone‘, voice, sound). An instrument for
the transmission of speech or musical or other
sounds by means of electrical vibrations corre-
sponding to the original sounds. The first use
of the word telephone is in a description of ex-
periments by Wheatstone where sound was trans-
mitted through wooden rods. In 1837 Page, of
Salem, Mass., noticed that an iron rod suddenly
magnetized and demagnetized would emit certain
sounds which were due to a rearrangement of
the molecules, and this phenomenon has since
been known as Page’s effect. Bourseul of France
in 1854 conceived the fundamental idea of the
telephone, but did not, however, put it into actual
practice. He proposed a device in which a cur-
rent interrupted by a vibrating disk under the
influence of the voice would produce a similar
vibration of a disk at the end of a conductor
through the agency of an electro-magnet. In
1860 Philipp Reis, of Frankfort, invented an ap-
paratus which he named ‘Telephone,’ with which
he was able to reproduce sound at a distance.
Reis’s telephone, about which there has been
much controversy, in his hands at least was able
to transmit articulate speech, and he is entitled
to credit for the principle of the instrument. For
the practical development of the idea and the in-
vention of an actual working telephone the honor
must be given to Alexander Graham Bell, who,
‘March 7, 1876, received letters patent for new
and useful improvements in telegraphy in which
a method for the transmission of vocal sounds is
one of the most important of the claims. Few
patents for inventions have been subject to more
litigation than the telephone, and the literature
on the subject is quite exhaustive; but Bell’s
rights have been sustained by the highest courts,
and though he was closely followed by other in-
ventors, notably .Elisha Gray, he may fairly be
entitled to the honor of the invention.
The Bell telephone, which has survived as the
modern receiver, served both as transmitter and
receiver in the early apparatus. A reference to
the accompanying diagram showing a cross sec-
tion of a modern unipolar receiver will make
clear its action. There is a hard rubber case hol-
lowed at its upper extremity and containingr the
soft iron diaphragm about -I-%-U inch thick and
two and a quarter inches in diameter, with free
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SECTION OF RECEIVER WITH COMPOUND UNIPOLAR MAGNET.
part one and three-fourths inches across, which is
tightly held at its circumference, but its centre
is free to vibrate. A bar magnet, either single or
compound, carries at its upper end a coil of fine
silk-covered wire (No. 38 B. & S. gauge general-
ly) with resistance of about 75 ohms, whose ter-
minals connect with the binding posts. A more
powerful receiver can be constructed by employ-
ing instead of a single magnet a horseshoe mag-
net with coils on each pole. In the Ader bipolar
receiver, used extensively in Continental Europe,
the horseshoe magnet is ring-shaped and outside
of the diaphragm, and in front of the pole pieces
a soft iron ring is placed with the object of
strengthening the field of force between the poles.
The diaphragm of a telephone receiver is in close
proximity to the pole or poles of the magnet,
but not in contact. When used as a transmitting
instrument this diaphragm will vibrate under
the influence of the voice, its movement being
caused by the movement of the air known as
sound waves. The diaphragm rapidly approach-
ing and receding from the magnet consequently
produces currents by induction in the wire of the
coil. These currents will be transmitted over the
line wire, and, flowing through the coil of the re-
ceiving instrument, will cause its magnet to be-
come more strongly magnetized and the dia-
phragm to be attracted. The diaphragm of the
receiver will accordingly move in unison with
that of the transmitter, and consequently the
sound wave which impinges on the latter will
be reproduced. The ground can be used as a re-
turn or the circuit can be of wire throughout.
The currents of electricity that were transmitted
TELEPHONE.
TELEPHONE.
557
in this way were too feeble to produce satisfac-
tory sounds at the receiving instrument when
there was a line of any considerable length, and
it was necessary to find a better transmitter.
Accordingly there followed the carbon transmit-
ter, where the change of resistance of carbon un-
der pressure produces pulsations in the current
corresponding to the vibration of the sound
waves.
Previous to this, however, came Elisha Gray’s
transmitter, consisting of a needle mounted at
the centre of a vibrating diaphragm and dipping
into a liquid of rather low conductivity. The cur-
rent passed through the needle and the liquid and
the resistance of the circuit varied with the vi-
bration of the diaphragm. This transmitter al-
lowed variable but continuous currents to pass,
and did not interrupt them entirely, as did the
transmitter of Reis’s telephone. The next trans-
mitter was that of Berliner (1877), based on the
variation of resistance with pressure, a
diaphragm vibrating in contact with a metal
knob; and then came that of Edison, where a
button of compressed carbon was in contact with
a small disk of platinum on the diaphragm. The
microphone of Hughes (187 8), where two bodies
are in loose contact, has furnished the type of
modern transmitters, where the carbon is in the
form of finely divided granules held between two
conducting plates, one of which is the diaphragm
on which the voice strikes. The Edison form Was,
however, used for a number of years, but the
Hunnings form or some modification was found
necessary when long-distance telephoning came
into practice. With such transmitters it was
found necessary to introduce a secondary circuit
instead of having the varying currents flow in
the main circuit as was the case originally. The
change in resistance then was small in compari-
son with the total resistance of the circuit and
the effect on the receiver was not as marked as
desired. Accordingly Edison conceived the idea
of using an induction coil in the circuit with the
transmitter. This induction coil consists of a
primary coil with a few layers of coarse copper
wire wound around a bundle of soft iron wire
and a secondary coil of a large number of turns
of fine wire. The diagram below, where the re-
ceiver has been removed from the hook (hook
up), shows the general arrangement of the cir-
cuit. The current from the battery flows through
the transmitter and the primary of the induction
coil. Any difference of intensity in current
caused by a change of resistance in the trans-
mitter will give rise to induced currents in the
secondary, which will affect the receiver corre-
spondingly, and the original vibration of the
sound waves will be reproduced. The addition
of the coil renders the apparatus far more sensi-
tive and the increase in voltage caused by the
many turns of the secondary enables the sound to
be transmitted to a much greater distance. The
Blake transmitter, the invention of Francis Blake,
of Boston, was used in the United States almost
universally until the adoption of the transmitter
with the granulated carbon, and is familiar in the
older instruments, being incased in a wooden
box. Its action depends upon the pressure on a
button of a compressed carbon by a point in con-
nection with a metal diaphragm. The trans-
mitter in most general use at present is
the White or solid back transmitter il-
lustrated in the accompanying diagram.
The construction of the transmitter will appear
from the diagram. Between two disks of carbon
is placed granular carbon. One disk is in con-
tact with the solid back of the instrument, while


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the other is in contact with the diaphragm on
which the sound waves impinge. The back of
the transmitter forms one electrode, while the
front plate is insulated from the rest of the ap-
paratus and is connected with the other conduc-
tor. There are numerous other forms of trans-
mitter, which are constantly increasing with the
extending use of the telephone for interior use
and by independent companies. These trans-
mitters, require batteries, of which the Leclanche,
some form of dry cell, or the Fuller bicl1romate
of potash cell are generally employed, while for
central stations and wherever possible storage
cells are very desirable and useful.
With the telephone must be included some sort
of call-bell, and for this purpose a magneto-bell
is usually employed. This consists of a small
magneto-generator in which the armature is re-
volved by a few turns of a crank and a cur-
rent of considerable voltage (that is, compared
with the battery) is transmitted to the distant
station, where there is what is known as a
polarized bell. The current transmitted is al-
ternating and the bell used is of the polar-
ized ringing form, where the armature is alter-
nately attracted by one pole and the other, de-
pending on the polarity of the passing current.
In the older form of circuit still in use in many
exchanges where the central station must be
called up by turning the crank the magneto ma-
chine and hell are in circuit as long as the re-
ceiver hangs on a hook which forms a switch. The
circuit is shown below. When the handle of the
magneto is turned a current is sent out through
the bell and hook to the line. Then the receiver
is taken down and placed at the ear and the bell
circuit is broken, merely the telephone circuit
being in connection with the line wire. With a
number of subscribers an exchange or central sta-
tion is necessary where the wires connecting the
various subscribers or other stations can be
joined at will. At these stations an annunciator,
which may be either a falling flap with the ap-
propriate number or an incandescent lamp, in-
forms the operator of the call and by means of
the switchboard to which all the wires are led
the connections desired by the subscriber are
made. Improvements in switchboards and their
increased size to meet the growing demands of
TELEPHONE.
TELEPHONE.
558
cities have been most marked, and this form of
apparatus is now so complex as to be quite un-
intelligible except to a telephone engineer, as
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variation in the current caused by the action of
the sound waves on the transmitter of one circuit
will produce similar effects in the other circuit
by inductive action. Such is the
case when the line is arranged for
talking. 'I‘o signal the central sta-
tion the subscriber removes his re-
ceiver from the hook, thus closing
a circuit which acts upon a relay
and causes a small incandescent
lamp to glow. This gives the
signal to the central operator, who


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circuit first with her own trans-
mitter and receiver, and then with
that of the desired subscriber. The
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TELEPHONE CIRCUIT WITH HOOK DOWN AND WITH HOOK UP.
The post b forms the
ground connection for lightning. The dotted lines indicate that part of the
a and 0 binding posts connecting with the line.
circuit cut out by the hook switch.
almost every part of the apparatus has been sub-
jected to important improvements.
The use of a common battery at the central
station has been one of the most important de-
velopments of recent years. as it does away nith
the magneto call at the subscriber’s instrument,
a saving of no small dimensions, as the magneto


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DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE METALLIC CIRCUIT SWITCHBOARD.
When a call is received the current coming in on the line
wires causes the drop to fall, thus announcing the number
of the subscriber. The central operator then inserts the
answering plug in the jack, and, pressing the listening key,
puts her instrument in circuit. She then inserts the call-
ing plug in the jack belonging to the line of the desired
subscriber, and by pressing the ringing key sends a signal
to the latter’s instrument.
machine was the most expensive part of the
equipment, the mere removal of the receiver in-
forming the central operator of the subscriber’s
presence at the telephone. In the Hayes system,
which is extensively employed in the United
States, a device known as a repeating coil is
used, and the battery is bridged across the circuit
at the central station. The repeating coil con-
sists of a transformer or induction coil formed
by two coils of wire of equal length and size, it
being customary to wind the four coils required
for two repeating coils on the same core. There
are two sets of windings in each circuit "and the
current of the battery divides and passes through
a single coil before reaching the line or main cir-
cuit wires. In other words, the negative pole of
the battery connects with the two sets of wind-
ings of one repeating coil, one of which joins the
wires leading to each station, while the positive
pole is similarly connected on the other side. Any
circuit. Another central energy
system is that of Stone, where im-
pedance coils, or wire windings
of considerable self-induction, are
placed in the circuit instead of the
repeating coils of the Hayes system.
The effect of these coils is to pre-
vent the rapidly alternating current in the tele-
phone circuit flowing through the battery and to
have it travel along the line to the other station
where the impulses are reproduced. In the Dean-
Carty System an impedance coil is employed
bridged across the main circuit at the plugs and to
the centre of it is connected one pole of a battery
whose other terminal is grounded. There is also
an impedance coil at each station connected with
both sides of the circuit and its centre point is
connected with the transmitter and the primary
of the induction coil which are connected with
the ground. All of the various systems for cen-
tral energy in actual practice are necessarily
exceedingly complex and are subject to im-
portant modification and improvement, but the
foregoing are the more important. There are
also methods where storage cells are used at the
subscriber’s station and where a thermopile is
employed in connection with an ordinary lighting
circuit.
Long-distance telephony was first made pos-
sible in 1885, when the American Bell Telephone
Company organized the American Telephone and
Telegraph Company. For several years previous-
ly experimental lines with metallic circuits of
hard drawn copper were operated between New
York and Boston. In 1885 a regular line between
New York and Philadelphia was constructed, and
so great was its success that within two years
long-distance lines were established between New
York and Boston, Albany and Buffalo, Chicago
and Milwaukee, Boston and Providence, and New
York and New Haven. The New York and Chi-
cago circuit, 950 miles distance, 1900 miles of
wire, was opened October 18, 1892, and long-dis-
tance telephoning between New York and Mil-
w'aukee and Saint Louis is also carried on. The
American Bell Telephone Company in 1900 ac-
quired the rights of patents of M. I. Pupin, by
which the limits of long-distance telephony are
greatly increased and conversation over circuits
where there are submarine conductors of consid-
erable length is possible. This is accomplished
TELEPHONE.
TELE-IPHUS.
559
by inserting coils of self-induction at regularly
recurring intervals along the line obtained by
calculation.
The American Bell Telephone Company prac-
tically controls the telephone business of the
United States, though a number of strong inde-
pendent companies have been organized, whose
business is increasing.
success of the plant, but apparently the advice
of the engineer was not followed during construc-
tion, while subsequently the plant suffered from
poor management. It is said that the municipal
plant resulted in a marked reduction of rates and
that when sold it yielded a profit. It should be
added that in 1911 all telephone licenses granted
to private companies in Great Britain will ex-
STATISTICS OF THE AMERICAN BELL TELEPHONE COMPANY FROM 1894 (JANUARY lsr) TO 1900





1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901
Exchanges ........................................ .. 838 867 927 t 967 1,025 1,126 1,239 1,348
Branch oflices ................................... .. 571 572 686 832 937 1,008 1,187 1,427
Miles of wire on poles ........................ .. 214,676 232,008 260,324 286,632 327,315 396,503 509,036 627,897
Miles of wire on buildings ................. .. 16.492 14,525 12,861 12,594 13,776 15,329 15,087 16,833
Mi'es of wire underground ................ .. 120,675 148,285 184,515 234,801 282,634 358,184 489,250 705,269
Miles of wire submarine .................... .. 1,637 1,856 2,028 2,818 2,675 2,973 3,404 4,203
Total miles of exchange service wire.. 353,480 396.674 459,728 536,845 626,400 772,989 1,016,777 1,354,202
Total circuits .................................... .. 205,891 212,074 237,837 264,645 295,904 338,293 422,620 508,262
Total employees ............................... .. 10,321 11,094 11,930 12,425 16,682 19,668 25,741 32,837
Total subscribers .............................. .. 237,186 243,432 281,695 325,244 384,230 415,180 432,946 800,880
PUBLIC OWNERSHIP 0E TELEPHCNES. In Eu- pire, and that all such companies pay 10 per
rope public ownership of telephones exists to a
certain extent and there has been agitation in
this direction in the United States. For the
most part, such public ownership of telephones is
national, rather than municipal, and is chiefly
confined to countries where private ownership of
franchises is far less common than public owner-
ship. Actual statistics are not readily available,
and are constantly changing, but an admirable
summary of the ownership of telephones in vari-
ous countries, made by U. N. Bethell, general
manager of the New York and New Jersey Tele-
phone Company (see Bibliography below), is as
follows:
“All over Europe, with a few exceptions, the
industry at present [early in 1903] is controlled
and owned by States or municipalities. In Bel-
gium, France, Switzerland, Germany, Austria,
and Hungary the central Government operates the
industry. In Holland the State operates the
trunk lines; in the two principal cities, Amster-
dam and Rotterdam, the municipalities operate
the local systems; and at The Hague a private
company operates. In Denmark and Norway
private enterprise under Government control op-
erates the industry, while in Sweden the State
operates it, except that in Stockholm and vicin-
ity a private company since 1890 has been in
active competition with the State. In Great
Britain, in most places, private enterprise oper-
ates the local systems under license from the
State; in a few places municipalities operate or
are preparing to operate local systems; the State
operates the trunk lines. In the United States
private enterprise, under Govermnent control, op-
erates both the local systems and the trunk
lines.”
Among the municipal telephone systems in
use or under construction in Great Britain
early in 1893 were those at Glasgow, Portsmouth,
Swansea, Brighton, and Hull. The general
movement for municipal telephones in Great
Britain followed a Parliamentary act of 1899,
authorizing municipal construction. Tunbridge
Wells and Glasgow, in 1901, were the first to in-
stall and operate systems under the act, but after
an active campaign against public ownership in
Tunbridge Wells the municipal plant was sold to
its private competitor, in the latter part of 1902.
There were conflicting reports as to the financial
cent. of their gross receipts to the Post-Office De-
partment, which has had a monopoly of the tele-
graph business since 1869. The policy of the
Post-Office Department is to monopolize the tele-
phone as well.
The general question of municipal ownership
has been discussed at length under that head.
The public_ interests demand that the business
shall be conducted as a monopoly, under public
control. The latter does not exist in the United
States to the extent that might be inferred from
the closing sentence of the above quotation, but
that is largely the fault of the legislative and
executive departments of the several States, and
to some extent of the municipalities also.
Finally, the long-distance lines would be a
troublesome factor in municipal ownership in
America, unless they, as in some countries
abroad, were owned by the general Government. _
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following list contains
‘some of the more important works on the tele-
phone to which the reader is referred for further
information: Miller, American Telephone Prac-
tice (New York, 1899); Alsopp, Telephones,
Their Construction and Fitting (London, 1900) ;
Houston and Kenelly, The Electric Telephone
(New York, 1896) ; Webb, Telephone Hand-book
(Chicago, 1894; new ed. 1901); Hopkins, Tele-
phone Lines and Their Properties (New York,
1898); Prescott, Bell’s Electric Speaking Tele-
phone (New York, 1884; 2d ed. 1890) ; Thompson,
Philipp Reis, Inventor of the Telephone (London,
1883). For discussion of the public ownership
of telephones consult some of the references
under MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP; also papers by
Bethell (against), Parsons (for) and Bennett
(as to Great Britain) in “Proceedings of Na-
tional Convention upon Municipal Operation
and Public Franchises,” published in Municipal
Afi°airs (New York, vol. vi.. No. 4, 1902-3; also
Hemenway on Municipal Telephones,” Proceed-
ings Seventh Annual Convention League of Amer-
ican Municipalities (Des Moines, Iowa, Novem-
ber, 1903). '
TEL’EPHUS (Lat., from Gk. Trihe¢os). In
Greek legend, a king of Teuthrania, in Southern
Mysia. Ange, the daughter of King Aleos of
Tegea, was loved by Hercules and bore him a
son, Telephus. In anger‘her father incloscd
mother and child in a chest and cast them into
TELEPHUS.
TELESCOPE.
560
the sea. The chest floated across the £Egean to
the mouth of the Oaeus, where Teuthras married
Auge and brought up Telephus, who succeeded him
on the throne. This early version was modified
by the tragedians. Auge became priestess of
Athena, and the child was born, or at any rate
exposed, on Mount Parthenion, where it was
suckled by a doc, and (in one version) found by
Hercules. Auge meanwhile was cast into the
sea and brought to Mysia, where she was adopted
by Teuthras. Later, Telephus came to Mysia on
account of an oracle, helped Teuthras against
powerful enemies, and was rewarded by the hand
of Auge. On the marriage night mother and son
recognized each other. \Vhen the Greeks were
on their way to Troy, they landed by mistake in
the territory of Telephus and harried the coun-
try. Telephus defeated the invaders, but was
himself wounded by Achilles. As an oracle in-
formed him that only he who had wounded him
could cure, he went to Greece, and as the Greeks
needed his guidance to reach Troy, they yielded
and Achilles healed the wound with rust from his
spear. Telephus then guided the Greeks to Troy,
set to work to produce such an instrument. His
telescope, similar in form to the modern opera
glass (q.v.) and composed of a convex object glass
and a concave eyepiece, as first constructed had
a magnifying power of 3 times, but this was sub-
sequently increased to 30 times, and Galileo was
able to discover the satellites of Jupiter,
the mountains of the moon, and other celestial
objects. To Kepler we owe the discovery of
the principle of the astronomical telescope with
two convex lenses, and the description of such
an instrument is contained in his Oatoptrics
(1611). This idea was actually employed in a
telescope constructed by Father Scheiner (Rosa
Ursina, 1630), and such telescopes were used in
increasing numbers until the middle of the sev-
enteenth century, when they were practically
universal, and improved construction made pos-
sible Huygens’s discovery of Titan, the brightest
satellite of Saturn.
In order to appreciate the development of the
telescope it may be worth while to consider some
of the fundamental principles on which its action
is based. A convex lens will give an image of a
E


DIAGRAM OF ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE.
but refused to take part in the war, since his
wife, Astyoche, was a daughter (or sister) of
Priam. The Whole story of Telephus was repre-
sented on the smaller frieze of the Great Altar of
Pergamon, and his battle with Achilles in the
west pediment of the Temple of Athena Alea at
Tegea. Consult: Pilling, Quomo-do Telephi fabu-
lam ct soriptores et artifices veteres tractaverint
(Halle, 1886) ; Jahn, Telephus und Troilos
(Kiel, 1841) ; id., Telephus und Tro-'ilos wnd kein ,
Ende (ib., 1859).
TELESCOPE (from Gk. 1'17>\e0K61ros, téle-
skopos, far-seeing, from -r1')>\e, téle, afar +
0'K01reZ‘v, skopein, to look). Essentially a lens or
mirror to form an image of a distant object and a
miscroscope to enable the observer to examine
this image in detail. The invention of the tele-
scope was doubtless accomplished in Holland, but
there is no little confusion and controversy to be
encountered in attempting to determine the origi-
nal inventor. Tradition has it that about the
beginning of the seventeenth century one Jansen,
a spectacle-maker of Middleburg, Holland, con-
structed a telescope about 16 inches in length
which he exhibited to Prince Maurice and the
Archduke Albert, who, appreciating the impor-
tance of the discovery, paid him a sum of money
to keep it concealed. Another spectacle-maker,
Lippershey, made application (1608) to the States
General for a patent for a telescope, as also did
Metius, a professor of mathematics, but in the
former instance, at least, it was refused, as the
apparatus was already known. It seems certain
that the instrument was known more or less
about Europe, but the honor of its invention is
usually given to Galileo, who was the first to
describe the instrument and exhibit it in a com-
plete form (May, 1809). Galileo having heard
that a device to magnify distant objects had been
constructed in France or Holland, immediately
distant object which can be received on a screen,
as in the camera obscura (q.v.). If instead of
the screen we use a simple microscope or lens to
observe this image which is formed in the air, we
have an astronomical telescope. This will ap-
pear from the accompanying diagram.
C represents a convex lens, the object glass
of a telescope; A is a distant object and B is a
real and inverted image formed by the lens. The
size of this image depends upon the ratio of the
two conjugate foci or distances from the lens to
the image and the object. As the distance of the
lens from the object is necessarily fixed, depend-
ing of course on the positions of the object and
the observer, in order to obtain as large an im-
age as possible, it is necessary to increase the
focal length of the lens. From the discussion
of lenses in the article on LIGHT (q.v.) it will
appear that in order to obtain a large focal
length for a telescope an object glass with large
radii of curvature is essential. This, however,
is not feasible in actual practice, as was found
by the early astronomers after experiences with
telescopes having focal lengths as great as 600
feet; and lenses of shorter focal length but of
improved construction were adopted. The next
question involved is the size of the object glass,
or, as it is technically expressed, its aperture.
The larger the lens the greater will be the
amount of light transmitted. The pupil of the
eye through which the light producing an im-
age passes normally is about 1-5 of an inch in
diameter, consequently as much more light will
pass through the telescope as the square of the
diameter of the object glass is times greater
than the square of the diameter of the pupil.
But if the image formed is too large, then the
light will be distributed and the image will
lack brillianey and not be plainly visible. Taking
these facts into consideration, it would appear
TELESCOPE.
TELESCOPE.
561
that the greater the focal length of the lens and
the greater its surface, the more satisfactory
would be the image produced. This would be the
case were it not for the fact that both spherical
and chromatic aberration (q.v.) increase with
the aperture of a lens, and that the larger the
piece of glass, the greater the difficulty of secur-
ing homogeneity and freedom from imperfections.
Increasing the focal length increases the diffi-
culties involved in mounting the telescope as well
as in the manufacture of the objective itself.
To observe the image formed by the objective an
eyepiece is used, whose action is simply to mag-
nify the image.
The image furnished by the object glass is in-
verted and is merely magnified by the eyepiece.
In what is known as the terrestrial telescope there
is an additional lense or lenses added to erect or
invert the image so that it will appear to the
eye in its natural position. This lens merely
forms a new image which is then viewed by the
eyepiece as in the case of the astronomical tele-
scope, the action being shown in the accompany-
ing diagram, the erecting lens and the eyepiece
being in reality a compound microscope to view
the image furnished by the objective.
In the diagram C is the object glass, B is the
inverted image formed by the rays coming from
a distant object in the direction A, E and G
serve merely to invert the image B and form it
anew and erect at H where it is observed by the
eyepiece D.
scope, while. we have the erecting lens which in-
verts the image to its proper position, yet the
image is not as bright as in the case of the
opera glass, where there is far less magnifying
power.
The difficulties due to spherical aberration
were early experienced by Opticians and astron-
omers, and in an attempt to obviate them
astronomical telescopes were constructed of
considerable focal length and power. From ob-
servations made with such instruments by Huy-
gens, who was the pioneer in this line, he was
able to present the first explanation of Saturn’s
rings (1659). He constructed a telescope 300
feet in length which magnified 600 times, while
the telescope used by Cassini to discover the
fifth satellite of Saturn (Rhea) was built by
Campani of Rome and magnified about 150 times.
The diameter of Venus was determined in 1722
by Bradley with a telescope of 212 feet focal
length. These telescopes of extreme length were
known as aérial telescopes, and naturally their
mounting and manipulation presented many diffi-
culties. In -spite of these awkward conditions,
valuable observations were made and ingenious
appliances introduced to facilitate the operations.
The invention of the achromatic object glass by
Dollond in 1757-58 and the improvement of
optical flint glass, which commenced in 1754,
soon made possible the construction of improved
telescopes, but these were all of modest dimen-
sions, and until well into the nineteenth


DIAGRAM SHOWING TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE.
Other arrangements of the terrestrial eyepiece
could be mentioned, but the one described is
one of the earliest and simplest.
While the greatest care must be expended on
calculating and constructing the object glass,
the eyepiece is by no means unimportant. As
the magnifying power of the telescope (the
ratio of the angles formed by lines drawn to
the extremities of the image and the object) is
equal to the quotient obtained by dividing the
focal length of the objective by that of the
ocular, it would be of advantage to use a
lens of comparatively large curvature, but
here again chromatic and spherical aberration
must be considered, for sharpness and distinctness
are as essential as high magnification. In prac-
tice eyepieces vary considerably, depending on
the use to which they are to be put. Generally
they consist of two achromatic lenses, one convex,
known as the field lens, which brings together the
outer rays of the beam, while the lens nearest
to the eye may be either positive (convex) or
negative (concave). In case a micrometer is used
to measure the image a positive lens is employed
and the combination, which is known as a Rams-
den eyepiece, though not quite achromatic, has a
flat field. For mere observation the Huygenian
eyepiece, with a negative lens of one-third of the
focal length of the field lens, is preferable. The
addition of lenses to the eyepiece acts to cut off
the supply of light and to destroy the brightness
of the image. Accordingly in the terrestrial tele-
century few if any object glasses were
constructed greater than twelve inches in
diameter. The discovery of methods of mak-
ing large disks of flint glass was made
by Guinand, a Swiss mechanic, who then became
associated with Fraunhofer (q.v.) , and telescopes
as large as 10 inches aperture were readily
made. His successors made instruments with
object glasses 15 inches across. The next suc-
cessful manufacturer of telescope lenses was Al-
van Clark of Cambridgeport, Mass., who from
the time when an object glass manufactured in
his shop was purchased by the Rev. W. R.
Dawes of England, gradually achieved the highest
rank as a maker of telescope lenses. At the
Cambridgeport works have been constructed the
lenses not only for the leading American ob-
servatories, but also for the Imperial Russian
Observatory at Pulkova, and other European
institutions. The manufacture of telescope
lenses is to be regarded as a fine art, and the
ability to work the disks of glass with the requi-
pite precision and delicacy is possessed by but
ew.
The formation of an image by a concave mir-
ror has been made use of in the reflecting tele-
scope, of which numerous varieties have been
devised and with which many of the most
important astronomical discoveries have been
made. The principle of this instrument will be
apparent from the following diagram and ex-
planation:
TELESCOPE.
TELE-SCOPE.
562


DIAGBAIMI~ SHOWING FORMATION OF AN IMAGE BY A CONCAVE
MIRROR.
C is a concave mirror on which rays from a
point of a distant object, A, fall. Following the
law of reflection, these rays will be reflected and
will be united at B, the focus for rays from the
given point. The object A is made up of a num-
ber of such points; consequently at B there will
be a number of points where the rays from A
are collected and an image of the original object
will be formed. If the rays come from an object
infinitely distant, or in other words are parallel,
they will converge at the principal focus, which
is one-half of the radius of curvature. This will
be the case in a mirror of large radius and for
rays that are incident, not far from the axis; but
if the mirror is large, then the rays near its cir-
cumference will not be brought to a focus at
the point B, but nearer to the mirror, and conse-
quently a blurred image will be produced. This
is known as spherical aberration and is discussed
under that head. Theoretically this could be
remedied by the construction of a mirror of para-
bolic section, as the configuration of such a
mirror is such that all parallel rays are brought
to a focus in the same point. In practice, how-
ever, this is extremely difiicult of attainment, as
to secure a properly shaped mirror the most
minute amounts of material must be removed
from a spherical surface in order to make it
parabolic. When an image is formed in this
way it can be viewed either by being received on
a screen or it can be observed with an eyepiece
or a simple microscope. This is done in several
ways in the reflecting telescope, and the chief
points of difference in the various instruments
are mainly in this respect. A concave mirror,
according to tradition, was used by Ptolemy Eu-
ergetes on a lighthouse at Alexandria to discover
distant ships. The Romans were acquainted
with the power of collecting or concentrating
rays of ‘light possessed by such a mirror, but
there does not seem to be any well-authenticated
record of the application of the idea to the pur-
poses of a telescope.
Father Zucchi, an Italian Jesuit, was the first
to use an eye lens to view the image produced
by a concave mirror (1616-1652), but to Gregory
is due the first description of a telescope with
a reflecting mirror, and the instrument has since
been known by his name. Gregory, along with
others, realized the shortcomings of a telescope
with lenses and believed that the Inanufacture
of concave mirrors would be attended with far
less diflieulty. An actual working instrument
based on this principle was devised and con-
structed by Isaac Newton. With a telescope
formed by a mirror of 61/2 inches focal length,
which magnified 38 times, he was enabled to
make important observations. In these tele-
scopes the great difiiculty was viewing the image,
as the eyepiece and the head of the observer
would cut off a large portion of the incident rays.
In the Gregorian telescope this was obviated by
the interposition of a second concave mirror,
which reflected the rays to the eyepiece, as is
shown in the following diagram:





GRE GORIAN TELESCO PE.
Newton used a plane mirror placed at an angle
of 45° to the axis, which reflected the rays into
an eyepiece arranged as in the following dia-
gram:





NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE.
Draper used a total reflection prism instead
of the plane mirror with considerable success, be-
ing one of the few astronomers in the United
States to construct a reflecting mirror. Casse-
grain employed a convex mirror instead of a con-
cave one. '
Herschel obtained satisfactory results by tilt-
ing his mirror and placing the eyepiece below the
axis of the instrument, so thatit was not in the




HERBCHEUB TELESCOPE.
way of the incident rays. Hersehel’s mirrors
were as large as four feet in diameter, with a
tube forty feet in length.
The reflecting telescope was extensively used
because there was no chromatic aberration caused
by refraction. Spherical aberration was, however,
present and was a serious drawback. According
to geometrical calculations, as has been said, there
would be no spherical aberration if a parabolic
mirror was used, as all the rays from a distant
object would come to a focus at one point. The
grinding of a parabolic mirror, however, was
attended by many difficulties and was practically
impossible except to a few opticians.
Perhaps the most celebrated reflecting tele-
scope was that of Lord Rosse, whose mirror was
six feet across. This was completed in 1842 and
erected at Parsontown in Ireland. While fa-
mous for its size, this telescope has never been
used in making discoveries of prime importance,
and has not been used during recent years, being
so mounted as not to be available for photo-
graphic work. Second to this, as will be seen
from the table at the end of this -article, is the
reflector of Dr. A. A. Common at Ealing, Eng-
land. Using the largest glass disk that could be
obtained, five feet in diameter, Dr. Common pro-
duced a perfect mirror, which is mounted equato-
rially. This telescope is of the Newtonian type
and has been particularly useful in celestial
photography. The mirrors for reflecting tele-
scopes were usually made of speculum metal,
TELESCOPE

THE FORTY-INCH YERKES TELESCOPE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CH1CAGO.
TELESCOPE.
TELESCOPE.
563
which is composed of ‘a mixture of copper and
tin, until Leibig discovered the method of de-
positing a film of silver on a glass surface.
The use of silvered glass for mirrors was sug-
gested by Steinheil and later by Foucault, and
has met with general adoption, as it not only fa-
cilitates the construction of the mirror, but
makes possible its resilvering at any time with-
out the destruction of its configuration. The
reflecting telescope is available for photographic
or spectroscopic work, as well as for visual ob-
servation, but the chief defects are the difficulty
of grinding the metal or glass to true parabolic
shape and the deformation of the mirror in its
mounting owing to its great mass. In recent
years the most important use made of a reflect-
ing telescope has been to photograph the Nebulae
with the Crossley reflector of the Lick Obser-
vatory (q.v.), which is the largest telescope of
this description in the United States. It was
made by Dr. A. A. Common and was presented
. to Lick Observatory by Edward Crossley. Pro-
fessor James T. Keeler, the director, remounted
this instrument and in 1899 made a remarkable
series of photographs.
The mounting of telescopes has also kept pace
with the improvement of lenses and mirrors.
Newton used a ball and socket joint to mount
his small reflector, and then various arrange-
ments of framework were employed for the aerial
telescopes and later for the large reflectors. The
first equatorial (q.v.) mounting is ascribed to
Lassel. In England telescopes were mounted by
having the polar axis supported at each end, but -
the German system, where the mounting is in the
centre and the weight of the telescope is balanced
by counterpoises, is now generally used for large
refractors. The modern telescope is not merely
an instrument for visual observation, but in con-
nection with photography and the use of the spec-
troscope its field has been widely increased.
Fraunhofer, who first used the spectroscope in-
stead of the visual eyepiece, was able to record
the spectra of Venus and Sirius, and since that
time the combination of telescope and spectro-
scope has made possible some of the most im-
portant advances in astronomy. One of the earli-
est applications of photography was to the heav-
ens, and the object glass of the telescope was
used with the eyepiece removed, the image
being formed directly on the plate. In the early
stages of this work both reflecting and refracting
telescopes were used, but with the latter it was
found that special lenses were necessary in which
the correction for chromatic aberration was ar-
ranged with regard for the actinic rather than the
visual rays. The green, yellow, and red rays,
which affect the human eye the most, do not pro-
duce the chemical effects on the photographic
plate, which must be placed at the focus of the
violet rays, and consequently a photographic ob-
jective is constructed so as to bring the blue and
violet rays to a single focus. One of the first
telescopes constructed for this purpose was by
Lewis M. Rutherfurd (q.v.), with which many
fine pictures of the moon were made. At the
Lick Observatory photographic work with the
large telescope has been accomplished most suc-
cessfully by using an extra lens at the objective,
which brings the photographic rays to a focus
instead of the visual rays. At the Yerkes Ob-
servatory of the University of Chicago this dif-
ficulty has been overcome by the use, of color
_the mechanism for driving the telescope.
screens, and photographs made in 1900 indicate
the general usefulness of the method. The color
screen is mounted in the plate-holder and is of a
greenish yellow tint, which cuts off the blue rays.
Orthochromatic plates are used and are affected
by the rays in the middle part of the spectrum.
So important is the photographic use of the tele-
scope that in 1900 there were 18 photographic
telescopes in various parts of the world engaged
in making photographs for an International Star
Chart to cover the entire heavens.
Of the modern telescopes of interest the instru-
ment known as the equatorial coudé of the Paris
Observatory is worthy of mention. In this in-
strument the observer is comfortably situated in
an ordinary building, while mirrors are -so ar-
ranged as to reflect the light into the telescope
and then to the eyepiece. The tube of the
telescope is in the form of an elbow, whence its
name, with one arm forming the polar axis. At
the point of intersection of the two arms there
is placed a plane mirror, while in front of the
object glass is a second plane mirror which is
movable and enables light from any portion of
the sky to be reflected into the tube. Very suc-
cessful photographs of the moon have been made
with this instrument, which has both visual and
photographic object glasses 23% inches in diam-
eter. The great telescope of the Yerkes Ob-
servatory of the University of Chicago at Will-
iams Bay, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, is the largest
telescope with an equatorial mounting, and until
the construction of the Paris Exposition telescope
was the largest refractor in existence. This in-
strument was mounted in a special observatory
(for illustration, see OBSERVATORY) and both
lenses and mounting represented the best
work of modern opticians and mechanicians.
The objective, which is 40 inches in diameter
and has a focal length of nearly 62 feet,
weighs when mounted in its cell about 1000
pounds. The crown-glass lens, which is 2% inches
thick at the centre and 3% inches at the circum-
ference, weighs 200 pounds, and is separated from
the flint-glass concave lens by 8% inches. The
latter weighs over 300 pounds and is about 1%
inches thick at the centre and 2- inches thick at
the edges. The lenses are mounted upon alumi-
num bearings in a cast-iron cell. The telescope
itself is mounted on a cast-iron column of four
sections bolted together and resting on a cast-
iron foot, which in turn rests on a concrete
foundation. The clock room is located in the
upper part of the cast-iron column and contains
The
instrument is in perfect balance, a mechanical
feat of no little difiiculty when it is remem-
bered that there is a weight of 1000 pounds at
the object-glass end. The observatory is provided
with a rising floor for the convenience of the
observer, who is thus able to use the telescope in
comfort, irrespective of its elevation. The most re-
cent as well as the largest telescope is that built
for the Paris Exposition of 1900 by M. Gautier,
which differs materially from the large telescopes
previously constructed. The object glasses of
this great instrument are 49 inches in diameter
and the tube 197 feet in length. Instead of be-
ing mounted equatorially, as are the large tele-
scopes at the Lick and Yerkes Observatories, the
Exposition telescope is fixed in a horizontal po-
sition. its axis being due north and south. Light
is reflected into the tube by a siderostat on which
TELESCOPE. 564- TELFORD.



the direct rays from the heavens fall. The side- Edinburgh --15-1
rostat, which was invented by Foucault, is a M1,':d“;'§“ movable mirror with a plane surface‘ mounted Rio de Janeiro ................. .. ' 15
on such a mechanism the on P_8il‘lS..... .............. .._. ....................................................... ..15
the mirror from a given portion of the heavens 8“ wmlam Huggms """"" " 15
will always be reflected to the object glass of REFLEOTOBB {FEET 6 INCHES AND UPWARD
the telescope. In other words, instead of the it ins-
telescope being moved about its Polar axis, as ................................................... would happen with an equatorial, the mirror is Melbourne ................................................................. ..4
given Such a motion that it neutralizes the move_ APgarig ......................................................................... ..4
me-Ht 0f the e‘-‘~1't11- This idea is said to have sdiiiii) 8
blilaen Sllggfested by Robert Hooke at a time when (érossleyl(1Lick Observatory).............................:...::::.g 6
t e 10ng_ Ocus lenses of Huy ens were bein ‘reenwic .............................................................. ..
used and the difliculties attendingg their mounting South Kensmgton .................................................... ..2 6
were under consideration. On the occasion of BIBLIOGRAPHY. Drude, Theory of Optics
the transit of Venus in 1882 Lord Lindsay em-
ployed a heliostat in connection with his 40-foot
telescope, while for taking photographs the Amer-
ican observers used the same method most suc-
cessfully. When it was proposed to erect at the
Paris Exposition a telescope larger than any
previously attempted, it was realized that an
equatorial of greater size than those of the great
observatories in the United States was prac-
tically impossible, and accordingly the fixed form
was adopted. Both visual and photographic ob-
jectives are provided, and with the latter the
largest photographs of the moon yet produced
have been taken. Each lens weighs half a ton
and they were constructed by M. Gautier, who
also made those for the University of Chicago
telescope. Although in this form of telescope there
is no elaborate mounting with mechanical devices,
yet as much care must be expended on the side-
rostat as on the object glasses. The mirror form-
Ing the essential part of this instrument is 78%
Inches in diameter, is 11 inches in thickness, and
weighs 3600 kilograms (nearly 8000 pounds).
_It is believed by astronomers that for direct
yisual observations the refractor is the better
Instrument, while for the study of stellar, plane-
tary, and nebular spectra and the photography
of these bodies the reflector is the more useful.
Also the latter instrument can be used to advan-
tage in photometric and radiometric investiga-
trons of the moon and the planets. The reflector
1s free from chromatic aberration, and there is not
the absorption of light which occurs when lenses
of large apertures are employed. Larger angular
and linear apertures can be used and the mount-
mg is far more simple than for a refractor of
corresponding size. The development of the fixed
refracting telescope is at present being awaited
by astronomers, as it will obviate many difficul-
ties of construction, mounting, and expense.
Lrsr on LARGE TELESCOPES IN Ex1sTENoE IN 1900
REFRACTORS 15 monns AND UPWARD





Inches
Paris (Exhibition) 50
Yerkes... .......... ..40
Lick ........... .. . 36
Pulkova (Russia) .... ..30
Nice.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..29.9
Paris ............................................. .. 28.9
Greenwich... 28
McCormick Observatory. Virginia .. ‘26
_Washington, United States... . .....26
Newa]l’s, Cambridge, England ..................................... ..25
Cape of Good Hope . ....... ..24
Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..24
Princeton, N. J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..23
Mount Etna , 21.8
Strassburg ....... .. -.19-1
Milan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..19.l
Dearborn. Chicago ....................................................... ..18.5
Warner Observatory, Rochester, United States .......... ..16

Washburn Observatory, Madison, Wis 15.5
(London, 1902) ; Chauvenet, Spherical and Prac-
tical Astronomy, vol. ii. (Philadelphia, 1863);
for history and theory, consult Lockyer, Stargaz-
ing, Past and Present (London, 1878). For
more recent developments consult various arti-
cles in the Astrophysical Journal, especially by
the following: Wadsworth, 1897 and 1902; Reese,
1902; Ritchey, 1901.
TEL’ESIL’LA OF AR’GOS (Lat., from Gk.
Te>u-‘o-0\7\a) c.5l0 12.0.). A Greek poet. She was
born at Argos and is said to have served in the
Argive army against Sparta. Even if these deeds
are mythical, her name became a symbol for pa-
triotic enthusiasm and her statue was placed in
the Temple of Aphrodite. Her lyrics are lost ex-
cept for two lines found in Bergk’s Poetaa Lyrici
Grceci (vol. iii., 4th edition).
TELETS LAKE. A lake of Siberia. See
ALTIN.
,TEL’FORD, THOMAS (1757-1834). An emi-
nent Scottish engineer, born in Eskdale, Dumfries-
shire. At the age of fourteen he adopted the trade
of a stone-mason. In 1780 he removed to Edin-
burgh, and in 17 83 he repaired to London, where
he was appointed in 1784 to superintend the erec-
tion of the resident commissioner’s house at
Portsmouth dockyard. In 1787 he was appointed
surveyor of public works for Shropshire; and
his two bridges over the Severn at Montford and
Buildwas and other works gained for him the
planning and superintendence of the projected
Ellesmere Canal, to connect the navigation of the
Severn, Dee, and Mersey——a work which occupied
ten years (1795-1805) . In 1801 he received a com-
mission from the Government to report on the
state of Scotland, and on the desirable public
works for that country. As a consequence, the
plan of a canal from Inverness to Fort William
was revived, and its planning and construction
intrusted to Telford. (See CALEDoNIAN CANAL.)
In the same capacity he constructed more than
1000 miles of road in the Highlands, Lanark-
shire, and Dumfriesshire and about 1200 bridges,
besides chur'ches. manses, harbors, etc. In 1808,
and again in 1813, he was invited to Sweden.
to report on the projected scheme for connecting
Lake Vener with the Baltic, and superintended
the construction of the Giita Canal, by which
this was effected. His next great work was the
construction of the road from London to Holy-
head, including the erection of numerous bridges
—-among others, of the Menai suspension bridge.
For the last few years of his life he re-
tired from the active duties of his profession,
employed himself in collecting and arranging
materials for a complete history of his various
works, and had the greater portion of the MSS.
TE-LFORD.
TELLUS.
565
. folk-plays on the subject.
ready when he died suddenly at Abingdon street,
Westminster. His life, entitled The Life of
Thomas Telford, Civil Engineer, written by him-
self, was published in 1838. In America Telford
is now chiefly known as a famous road-builder,
and particularly for introducing the system of
road improvement that bears his name. See
Ronns.
TELL, WILLIAM. The hero of a Swiss legend,
which in its main features is common to all Ar-
yan peoples. It is found in the Icelandic Thi-
dreksaga, in Saxo Grammaticus, in old English
ballads, in Persian poetry, and elsewhere. These
all tell of a master marksman and of a tyrant
who compels him to pit faith in his skill against
his natural instinct as a father. The Swiss leg-
end, narrated with much circumstance, is that
a mythical Austrian bailiff, Ges-sler, demanded
homage to the cap of Austria in the market place
at Altorf. Tell refused this homage, was con-
demned to death, but permitted to ransom him-
self by shooting an apple from the head of his
son. On signifying his intent to have killed Gess-
ler if he had killed his son Tell was fettered and
carried to the bailiff’s boat. A storm arose and
Tell was released that he might save the boat.
This he did, then leaped ashore, and killed Gess-
ler. The story then speaks of a revolt in which
Tell takes part and by which the Forest Cantons
gain independence.
est chroniclers know nothing of the tale. It
appears timidly, late in the fifteenth century,
in Das welsse Buck, and more boldly in Tschudi’s
Chromlcon (c.1550). The numerous Tell monu-
ments are all relatively modern. The most
famous version of the stor is Schiller’s drama
Wilhelm Tell (1804). T e Swiss had many
Consult Rothe, Die
aramatlschen Quellen des Schillerschen Tell, in
Foraehung zur deutschen Philologie (1894) ; and
for historical criticism of the saga, consult Roch-
holz, Tell uncl Gessler (Heilbronn, 1877).
TEI/LER, HENRY Moonn (1830—). An
American politician and Cabinet officer, born at
Granger, N. Y. He was educated at Alfred Uni-
versity, was admitted to the bar in 1856, and
began practice at Binghamton, N. Y., but in
1858 removed to Illinois, and in 1861 to Colorado.
He was a Republican member of the United States
Senate from 1876 until April 17, 1882, when he
entered the Cabinet of President Arthur as Secre-
tary of the Interior. At the close of Arthur’s
administration, he again entered the Senate and
was reelected in 1891 as aRepublican, but, being
a strong advocate of free silver,_ left the Repub-
lican national convention in 1896 after it had
adopted a gold standard plank and supported
W. J. Bryan for the Presidency. In the same
year he was returned to the Senate as an inde-
pendent Silver Republican, and in 1903 was re-
elected as the regular Democratic nominee.
TELLEZ, tél’yath, GABRIEL (c.1571-1648). A
Spanish dramatist. It is probable that he early
became a member of the Order of La Merced at
Toledo. He was well known as a comic play-
wright before 1610, and had become the superior
of a monastery of his Order at Trujillo by 1619.
At his death he was prior of the monastery at
Soria. The most important compositions of
Tellez are the dramas which he produced
under the pseudonym of Tirso de Molina.
His best tales are contained in the collection
The date is 1307. The old-.
entitled Oigarrales ole Toledo. A second collec-
tion is the Deleltar aproveehanclo (1635), which
in addition to some pious stories has a few re-'
ligious dramas or autos. About eighty plays are
known to be extant. The B’lM‘l(ldO’I‘ de Se-
oilla, the first work of great merit to bring Don
Juan on the boards, has long been attributed to
Tellez, yet some competent critics contest his
authorship of it. Tellez was one of the best
dramatists of the period of the greatest glory
of the Spanish theatre; he is surpassed only by
Lope and Calderon. Consult his Teatro escogldo,
ed. by Hartzenbusch (12 vols., 1839-42); his
Comedies escogidas, also ed. by Hartzenbusch, in
the Biblioteca ole autores espafioles, vol. v. (3d
ed., 1885). .
TEL'LIOHER’RI, or TEL'LICHER'RY. A
seaport in the District of Malabar, Madras, In-
dia, 90 miles south by e-ast of Mangalore, on the
Arabian Sea (Map: India, C 6). Population, in
1901, 27,883. ‘
TELLURITE. A mineral tellurium dioxide
crystallized in the orthorhombic system. It has
a sub-adamantine lustre, and is of a yellowish-
white or yellow color. It occurs as an incrus-
tation with native tellurium in Transylvania and
at various localities in Boulder County, Colo.
TELLURIUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tellus,
earth). A non-metallic element discovered by
Reichenstein in 17 82. This element is found na-
tive in small quantities at various localities in
Hungary, Transylvania, Virgina, and California.
It is also found as tellurium dioxide or tellurite,
as silver and gold telluride or syloanite, as bis-
_muth telluride or tetmdymite, and in the form
of other minerals, of more complex composition.
It may be prepared by cautiously heating tetra-
dymite with potassium carbonate and charcoal in
a covered crucible, extracting the resulting po-
tassium telluride (K2Te) with water free from
air, and then passing a current of air through
the solution, the metal being thus deposited in
the form of a powder.
Tellurium (symbol, Te; atomic weight,
127.49) is a white, shining, crystalline, brittle
solid that has a specific gravity of 6.24, and
melts at about 452° C. (about 846° F.). Like
selenium, which it greatly resembles, it ex-
ists in amorphous and crystalline modifications,
the conversion of the former into the latter being
accompanied by the absorption of heat. There
is also an increase of electric conductivity
under the influence of light, though not so
marked an increase as in the case of selenium.
Tellurim combines with oxygen to form a mon-
oxide (TeO), a dioxide (TeO,), and a trioxide
(TeO,,), the last two of which combine with water
to form tellurous and telluric acids (H,TeO3
and H2TeO, respectively), which in turn yield
series of salts called respectively tellurites and
tellurates. See PERIODIC LAW.
TEL’LUS (Lat, earth), more commonly
TELLUS MATER. The R.oman goddess of the field.
She was invoked to protect and develop the seed.
Her chief festival was the Forelieidia, celebrated
on April 15th, when pregnant cows were sacri-
ficed to her. On other occasions connected
with seed-time and harvest she was worshiped
jointly with Ceres. In later times the goddess
is more commonly called Terra M ater. See also
GJEA.
TE-LMAN N .
TEMPE.
566
TE-I/MAN’N, KONBAD. The pseudonym of the
German poet and novelist Ernst Otto Konrad
Zitelmann (q.v.).
TELPHERAGE (from telpher, from Gk.
rfihe, te'le, afar + ¢épew, pherein, to bear). The
automatic transportation of materials by elec-
tricity. Usually it is aerial transportation, and
is employed for a car or truck operated by one
or more electric motors which travels by means
of grooved wheels on a tightly drawn wire
cable. This truck receives its operating cur-
rent by means of a short trolley pole and
wheel from a wire conductor suspended over the
track cable. The movement of the truck or tel-
pher, as it is usually termed, may be controlled
by an operator manipulating switches located
at points along the line, or they may take place
automatically. See CABLEWAYS for other meth-
ods of aerial transportation.
TEL'UGUS. The northeastern division of the
Dravidian family, numbering more than 20,000,-
000. They present the typical aspect of the race
——medium statured, mesocephalic to dolichoceph-
alic in head-form. The Yanadis of Nellore, con-
sidered by some authorities to be the primitive
Telugus, both with respect to physical character-
istics and general culture status, are markedly
dolichocephalic, broad-nosed, short-statured, and
dark-skinned. The castes of the Telugus, adopt-
ed through Hindu influence, run down from the
Brahmans to the despised Madigas, who are
leather-workers, Other divisions are the Palay-
yakkarans and Tottlyans (cultivators), the lat-
ter of whom practice cousin-marriage; the K0-
matis (traders),who have their sacred book, the
Kanyakapuran; the Boyas (hunters); the Bes-
tas (hunters and fishers). Hinduism has large-
ly, even among such primitive tribes as the
Yanadis, superseded the old ‘animistic’ religion
of the Telugus, though ancestor-worship and
other relics of more ancient faiths appear here
and there. About the middle of the sixth century
some of the Telugus made their way into Ceylon,
forming part of the advance-guard of the large
Dravidian element in the island.
The Telugu language is second in importance
of the. Dravidian dialects, the first being Tamil
(q.v.). In its linguistic structure Telugu coin-
cides in the main with Tamil, although it differs
widely from its older cognate in phonology and
vocabulary. The alphabet is derived from one
of the old forms of the Sanskrit devanagari
script. (See DEVKNAGART.) The vocabulary is
strongly influenced by Sanskrit, from which
about one-third of the literary Telugu words are
borrowed. While Telugu is less primitive than
Tamil, it far exceeds it in euphony, and is some-
times called the Italian of the East. The litera-
ture, which is outlined under the title DBAVID-
IANS, is abundant and of much stylistic -merit.
Consult: Caldwell, O'omparatiue Grammar of
the Dravidian, or South Indian Family of Lan-
guages (2d ed., London, 1875) ; Arden, Progres-
sive Grammar of the Telugu Language (Madras,
1873); Morris, Simplified Grammar of Telugu
(London, 1890); Brown, Telugu-English and
English-Telugu Dictionary (ib., 1852-54); Sank-
aranarayana, English-Telugu and Telugu-Eng
lish Dictionary (ib., 1900); Carr, Collection of
Telugu Proverbs (ib., 1868); Burnell, Elements
of South Indian Palceography (2d ed., ib., 1878).
'1‘EM’BULA1\TD. A dependency of Cape
Colony (q.v. ) , situated south of Griqualand East.
Area, 4122 square miles. In 1891 it had a popu-
lation of 180,415, including about 5200 Euro-
peans.
TEMERAIRE, ta'ma’rar', THE. A French
battleship captured by the English in the battle
of the Nile in 1798, In 1805 she took part in the
battle of Trafalgar and was destroyed in 1838.
The “Fighting Téméraire,” a painting by Turner,
exhibited in 1839, hangs in the National Gallery,
London.
TEMESVAR, tem’esh-viir. A royal free city
and capital of the County of Temes, Hungary, on
the Béga Canal, 62 miles southeast of Szegedin
(Map: Hungary, G 4) . It consists of an outer
and an interesting inner town or ‘fortress.’ There
are a Catholic cathedral built by Marie Theresa,
a Greek cathedral, immense barracks, and an
arsenal (the castle built by Hunyady in 1442),
the commander’s palace, the Greek Catholic
Bishop’s palace, and a Gothic column (40 feet
high), by Max, erected to the memory of the
town’s defenders of 1849, are among the note-
worthy structures. There is a museum of art,
natural history, and antiquities. The town has
a royal tobacco factory and manufactures cloth,
paper, and leather. Temesvar became a town in
the thirteenth century. It was destroyed by the
Tatars in 1242. From 1552 to 1716 it was held
by the Turks, from whom it was taken by Prince
Eugene. In 1849 it successfully resisted the at-
tack of the Hungarian insurgents under Vecsey.
On August 9, 1849, the Hungarians under Bern
and Dembinski were defeated near Temesvtir by
the Austriansunder Haynau. Population, in
1890, 43,483; in 1900, 53,033, mostly German
Catholics. '
TEMME, tem’me, J onocus DONATUS HUBERTUS
(1798-1881). A German criminalist, politician,
and novelist, born at Lette, VVestphalia.. He
studied law at Munster and Giittingen, entered
upon his judicial career in 1817 at Paderborn, and
after holding various judicial offices became vice-
president of the Provincial Court of Appeals at
Miinster in 1848. His attitude as a leader of
the Extreme Left in the Prussian as well as the
German National Assembly involved him in a
trial for high treason, and, although he was
aquitted by the jury, caused his dismissal from
Government service, in 1851. In the following
year he accepted the professorship of criminal
law at Zurich. Whatever success attended his
legal publications was outstripped by his repu-
tation as the author of more than 150 novels
and stories dealing with criminal plots, among
which may be mentioned Deutsche Kriminal-
nouellen (1858-59), Kriminalnovellen, 10 vols.
(1860-63), Dunhle Wege (1862), Schwarzort
(1863), Die Heimat (1868), and Die Generalin
(1877).
TEMTE (Lat., from Gk. Té,u/rrn). A narrow
mountain defile, about four and a half miles
long, in the northeastern part of Thessaly, be-
tween the precipitous sides of Mount Olympus
(q.v.) and Ossa (q.v.), through which flows
the River Peneus. At places the rocky walls
retire, leaving room for little glades and open-
ings. Tempe was celebrated as one of the favor-
ite haunts of Apollo. It was from the earliest
times noted for its beauty and picturesqueness
TEMPE.
TE-MPERAMENT.
567
and was constantly praised in song. The name
finally came to be applied to any beautiful and
sequestered vale.
TEMPELTEY, tem’pel-ti, EDUARD (1832-).
A German dramatist, born in Berlin. He studied
at the University of Berlin, and subsequently
took up journalism, In 1862 he entered the
service of the Duke of Coburg. Among his
other duties was the superintendence ‘of the
Court theatre. He was the author of several
popular dramas, among them Clytemnestra
(1857) and Cromwell (1883).
TEMPERA (It., from Lat. temperare, to
proportion, modify), or DISTEMPER. In its or-
iginal sense tempera signifies any fluid medium
with which pigments may be mixed; but the
term is usually restricted to a glutinous medi-
um such as egg, size, or gums, as distinguished
from oil; and especially to that in which the
yolk of eggs is the chief ingredient. In Italy
the egg was diluted with the milky juice of young
sprouts of the fig tree; in Germany and the
North with vinegar and honey. Tempera dif-
fers from fresco in that the pigments are not
applied to the fresh plaster, but to the dry sur-
face; they may be applied to any kind of surface.
When tempera paintings have been coated with
an oil varnish for purposes of preservation, it
is difiicult to distinguish them from oils. They
are usually clear and brilliant in color, precise
in form and outline; the rapid drying of the
color preventing any blending of color or out-
line.
Tempera is probably the most venerable kind
of painting, having been used in ancient Egypt,
Babylon, and Ninevah, and by the Greeks for
interior decoration. It was the favorite medium
throughout the Middle Age, even for wall decora-
tion. During the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries the increased technical skill led to the
more frequent use of fresco, which had to be
executed with great rapidity
but tempera was used for the finishing touches,
even by such a consummate master of fresco as
Michelangelo. It continued to prevail for panel
paintings until the perfection of the new oil
medium by the Van Eycks (q.v.) displaced it in
the North. In Italy its use lingered until about
1500, nearly all of the greatest paintings of the
early Renaissance which are not frescoes being
executed in this medium. Tempera painting
has been lately revived, with some success, by
Baron von Pereira at Stuttgart. A form of
tempera in which the colors are mixed with
glue is employed in scene painting and house
decoration. Consult Hamerton, Graphic Arts
(London, 1882) ; Pereira, Leitfaden f-iir de Tem-
pera malerei (Stuttgart, 1893).
TEMPERAMENT (Lat. temperamentum,
due proportion, from temperare, to proportion,
modify, from tempus», time, season; connected
with Ice]. amb, an out-stretching, Lith. tempiu,
I extend). Emotional constitution, i.e. dispo-
sition toward a given type of emotional reaction.
An individual’s temperament is said, e.g. to be
‘impulsive’ if the individual responds, as a rule,
quickly and with feeling to situations; the
temperament of the oposite type is said to be
‘cold and sluggish.’ The usual classification of
temperaments is that formulated by Galen:
choleric (energetic, ‘objective’), sanguine
(warm, impressionable, changeable), melancholic
(see FRESCO) ; '
(sentimental and ‘subjective’), and phlegmatic
(quiet, slow, and persistent). The manner in
which these differ both in strength and in the
rapidity of alteration in the affective ‘reaction
may be expressed as follows:
Strong Weak
Quick . . . . . . . . .Choleric . . . . . . . . . . . ..Sang11fine
Slow . . . . . . . . . .Melancho1ic . . . . . . . . .Phlegmatic
The word temperament is also used more wide-
ly to cover any general mental characteristic or -
aptitude; e.g. ‘nervous’ or ‘musical’ or ‘artistic
temperament.’ V
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sully, Human Mind (New
York, 1892); Lotze, Microcosmus (Eng. trans.,
4th ed., New York, 1890) ; Wundt, Physiologische
Psychologie (Leipzig, 1893) ;‘ Kiilpe, Outlines of
Psychology (New York, 1895) ; Galton, Natural
Inheritance (ib., 1889). See TENDENCY; MENTAL
CONSTITUTION; DISPOSITION.
TEMPERAMENT. In music, a system of
compromise in keyed instruments for the avoid-
ance of the necessity presupposed by the strict
relation of musical intervals of having a sepa-
rate row of keys corresponding to each tonic.
Taking C as keynote, the ratios of the notes of
the diatonic scale, as derived from the number
of vibrations in a given time of a string sound-
ing that note, are:
C D E F Q A B C
24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48
The intervals between these notes are by no
means equal, and may be thus expressed in
numbers by logarithms:
C D E F G A B C
\-Y_/\'Y--/\'Y_/\-w-_-/&-Y-_/\_'-Y-_/\,w_/
51 46 28 51 46 51 28
We have here three species of intervals, of which
those represented by 51 are called major tones;
those by 46, minor tones; and the smaller in-
tervals represented by 28, semitones. These in-
tervals will evidentlyonly serve with C as key-
note. If, for example, we start from D instead
of C, we find E a tolerable, though not quite
correct, second to D; but the third and seventh
of the scale are entirely wrong. Were the
major and minor tones equal, and each Semitone
exactly half a tone, the insertion of a note in
the middle of each tone dividing the seven in-
tervals would make it immaterial- where the
scale began, any one of the twelve notes
becoming alike available as a keynote; and
though such equality is contrary to the im-
-mutable principles of harmony, an arrangement
based on it is found practically to give but little
offense to-the ear. In what is called the equal
temperament, the twelve intervals are all of the
same length, and no advantage is given to one
key over the rest. This is, in theory at least,
the temperament adopted in the pianoforte. By
means of this equal temperament it is possible to
start from any tone of the scale and, going
always by the interval of a fifth, arrive at the
same tone six octaves above or below the start-
ing-tone. Acoustically, c5 is 74-73 higher than
the sixth octave of C. Instead, therefore, of using
the acoustic fifth the tempered fifth is used,
which makes b No. 4 identical with c‘, Hence
the possibility of free modulation through all
keys, which in recent times has led to the recog-
nition of tonality (q.v.) . As soon as the principle
of equal temperament was understood the mod-
TEMPERAMENT.
TE-MPERANCE.
568
ern system of major and minor modes displaced
the old Church modes. Two of the most active
cham ions of equal temperature were Rameau
and . S. Bach. The former was chiefly the theo-
rist, the latter the practical composer. Bach’s
immortal Wohltemperiertes Klamler was writ-
ten with the special purpose of introducing the
new system of equal temperament.
TEMPERANCE (Lat. temperantia, modera-
_tion, sobriety, self-control, from temperare, to
proportion, modify). Primarily, a moderate use
and enjoyment of all good things. In modern
days the word is often used to designate great
moderation in the use of alcoholic beverages, or
even total abstinence from them,
Among uncivilized races, ancient and modern,
intoxication has been associated with religious
ideas and has been encouraged as an incident of
religious festivity. As a common vice of appe-
tite it has always been condemned, and in almost
all communities in one way or another punished.
The earliest attempt at temperance reform is
claimed by the Chinese, who affirm that in the
eleventh century B.C. one of their emperors or-
dered all the vines in the kingdom to be uprooted.
Early reforms are attributed also to the priests
of India and of Persia. The Carthaginians for-
bade wine in their camps, and to magistrates hold-
ing public office. Among the Hebrews there were
various sects and orders which abstained from
the use of intoxicants. The Buddhists taught
total abstinence. The Christian Church made
some attempt to bring about a more moderate
use of the wine-cup. Saint Gildas dealt out severe
punishment to any churchman guilty of drunken-
ness. Dunstan is said to have labored in the
cause of temperance in England to the end that
King Edgar at his instance restricted the num-
ber of taverns and the quantity of intoxicants
that might be sold, By a law of 1285 taverns
in London were required to close at curfew.
From 1603 legislation against ale-houses and
drunkenness increased. In 1736 Parliament at-
tempted to restrict the use of gin by means of
a prohibitory tax, which, however, only brought
about an illicit trade.
UNITED STATES. In April, 1808, a society was
formed at Moreau, Saratoga County, New York,
consisting of 43 members, and providing in
their Constitution that “no member should
drink rum, gin, whisky, wine, or distilled
spirits, except by advice of a phy-
sician or in case of actual disease (also except-
ing at public dinners), under penalty of twenty-
five cents; provided that this article
shall not infringe on any religious rites.” This
society existed for fourteen years, but accom-
plished little. The American Temperance Society
was founded in Boston, February, 1826, and the
New York State Temperance Society in 1829.
By 1830 the latter society numbered 100,-
000 members. In 1833 prominent members of
Congress organized the Congressional Temper-
ance Society. Before the Civil War a number
of secret societies were established for the pro-
motion of temperance. They required a pledge
of total abstinence, advocated prohibition, and
tried to educate public‘ sentiment in favor of
reform. They also provided the usual beneficiary
features and opportunities for self-culture. The
Sons of Temperance, founded in 1842, grew
rapidly in membership and influence. _( See TEM-
PEBANCE, SoNs or.) The Independent Order of
Good Templars was started in New York in 1851.
It spread over the whole world. (See Goon TEM-
PLARS, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF.) The Templars of
Honor and Temperance (1845) were strong in the
South. Later benefit but non-secret societies are
the Royal Templars of Temperance (Buffalo,
1869), and the Templars of Temperance, an or-
der strong in England and the Scandinavian coun-
tries. After the Civil War the consolidation of so-
cieties began. In 1865 the National Temperance
Society and Publication House was organized at
Saratoga, as a non-partisan and non-sectarian so-
ciety, advocating total abstinence. This society
published and distributed pamphlets, text-books,
and papers, held public meetings, and called
national and international conferences. The
Women’s Crusade led to the organization in 1874
of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union
(q.v.). In 1868 a prohibition party was or-
ganized in Illinois and a temperance political
party in Michigan. The call for a convention
came from the Grand Lodge of Good Templars.
The National Prohibition Party was organized
in Chicago in September, 1869. (See PROHIBI-
TION.) Law and Order Leagues were established
to see that existing legislation is properly en-
forced (Chicago, 1872; New York, l877; Phila-
delphia, 1880; Massachusetts, 1882). In 1883
the general society—the Citizens’ Law and Order
League of the United States—was formed.
GREAT BRITAIN. In August, 1829, a temper-
ance society was started at New Ross, County
of Wexford, Ireland, whose members pledged
themselves to abstain from liquors, except
as medicine. At the same time a similar move-
ment began in the north of Ireland. Within
twelve months there were sixty societies, with
3500 members. The Glasgow and West of Scot-
land Temperance Society was founded in Novem-
ber. Up to this time the moderate use of liquor
was permitted, but John‘ Dairé and others of
the Society of Dunfermline pledged themselves
to total abstinence and began to form total ab-
stinence societies. The first societies in Eng-
land were established at Bradford, Warrington,
and Manchester in 1830. The British and Foreign
Temperance Society, founded in London (June,
1831), through the influence of William Collins
of Glasgow, was for some years the leading tem-
perance society in England, It was the first to
start a crusade against beer. The movement for
total abstinence had its beginning at Preston in
Lancashire. After the formation of the Youth’s
Temperance Society at Preston in 1834, and its
extension to other forms, a conference was held
at Manchester, resulting in the organization of
the British Association for the Promotion of
Temperance, on the Principle of Total Absti-
nence from all Intoxicating Liquors. Thereup-
on the total abstinence element struggled for
recognition in the British and Foreign Temper-
ance Society. In August, 1836, the teetotal so-
ciety was merged into the New British and For-
eign Society for the Suppression of Intemper-
ance. The later periods of temperance work in
Great Britain may be designated by: (1) the
Father Mathew crusade in 1838, during which in
two years 1,800,000 people took pledges in Ire-
land; (2) the beginning of work among children
through the formation of Bands of Hope, in 1847 ;
(3) the John B. Gough (q.v.) mission in 1858;
TE-MPERANCE.
TEIMPERANCE.
569'
(4) the introduction of Good Templarism, in
1868; and (5) the organization of Blue Ribbon
Army in February 10, 1878, now the Blue Ribbon
Gospel Temperance Movement with branch or-
ganizations, the Help Myself Societies for men
and the Help One Another Societies for women.
The United Kingdom Alliance (1853) urges pro-
hibition upon Parliament.
The temperance movement in America and
Great Britain has been characterized by the
emotionalism of religious revivals. Prayer and
conversion were offered as aids to reform. Many
religious organizations as such have interested
themselves in temperance work. The Methodist
Church from the days of the Wesleys has ad-
vocated total abstinence. The Friends were op-
posed to drinking, and among the Dunkards ab-
stinence was a test of fellowship. Since the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, Baptists, Con-
gregationalists, and Presbyterians have been op-
posed to drinking. In the United States church
members are more often connected with non-sec-
tarian organizations. Among the general church
organizations are: _The Congregational Total
Abstinence Association (1874) ; The Baptist
Total Abstinence Association (187 4) ; the Total
Abstinence Society of the Presbyterian Church
of England (1892); a number among various
Methodist sects; Church of England Temperance
Society (1862, reorganized 1873), formed to pro-
mote temperance, to study the causes of the
abuse of alcohol, and to do rescue work. The
Roman Catholic Church advises moderation, but
where this is impossible, total abstinence. In
1902 the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of
America (q.v.) contained about 80,000 members.
In Great Britain the League of the Cross was in-
augurated by Cardinal Manning in 187 3.
Medical men have formed societies such as
the British Medical Temperance Association
(1872) advocating total abstinence and making
investigations, and the American Medical Tem-
perance Association (1891) . Some labor unions,
especially the Knights of Labor, have discour-
aged the use of intoxicants. Farmers’ associa-
tions, such as the National Farmers’ Alliance
and the National Grange, have put themselves on
record as opposed to the liquor traflic. Among
the many -children’s societies that have been or-
ganized are: the Cold-Water Army (1828) ;
juvenile branches or cadets of secret societies;
Bands of Hope; and the Loyal Temperance Le-
gions of the W. C. T. U. Ir. opposition to temper-
ance reformers, liquor manufacturers and deal-
ers have organized to prevent hostile legislation.
In 1862 the United States Brewers’ Association
was formed to oppose the internal revenue taxes
and prohibition. In Illinois the brewers or-
ganized, purchased saloon sites in Chicago, and
established cheap saloons conducted by agents.
The Liquor Dealers’ and Manufacturers’ State
Protection Association of Illinois is another as-
sociation of liquor men,
In August, 1846, a World’s Temperance Con-
gress was held in London, at which 302 delegates
were present. Since then there have been other
international conventions, notably the World’s
Temperance Congress of 1893 at Chicago. At
this meeting the economic aspects of the problem,
especially the cost to the workingman, were em-
phasized. There was a general feeling in favor
of total abstinence among English and Ameri-
cans, while the Europeans advocated moderation
and the drinking of wine. In Canada and Aus-
tralia the movement has progressed along the
same line as in England and America.
SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. Drunkenness has
-been a serious vice in Sweden and Norway. Vari-
-ous temperance societies have been organized,
and the efforts to solve the question by means
of the Bergen system of monopoly in Norway
and the Gothenberg system (q.v.) in Sweden
have received much comment.
GERMANY, The German Temperance Society
-was organized in 1837 , but the national custom
of beer-drinking lessens the importance of the
liquor problem in that country.
AUSTRIA. Only recently has a temperance
movement been organized. The Society for
Checking Inebriety was started in 1884.
BELGIUM has several temperance societies,
among them the Association Against the Abuse
of Alcohol (1878).
SWITZERLAND has a total abstinence movement,
superseding societies advocating moderation.
The Blue Cross Federation was founded in 1877.
LATIN COUNTRIES. Spain, up to 1860, was a
sober country, Since then a slight increase in
drunkenness has been due to the adulteration of
wines, which has caused the people to use spirits.
There is no active temperance movement, how-
ever. Since the destruction of the vines has led
the poor of France to drink adulterated spirits,
drunkenness has increased, ‘and there is a decided
temperance movement in favor of moderation
rather than total abstinence.
RUSSIA. Drunkenness has been a great vice in
Russia. The peasant drink vodka is particularly
intoxicating. Various temperance societies ex-
ist. Since January, l89,5, the Government has
-acted as middleman, not maintaining a monopoly,
but regulating and limiting the sale of liquor,
and analyzing it to ascertain its purity. A
large revenue is obtained in the provinces where
-this system has been established, and the system
is being extended to other provinces,
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. (1) Economic
Aspects.—A large amount of capital is in-
vested in the liquor business—vast manufac-
turing plants (breweries and distilleries) and
the property, fittings, and money paid for
bonds and licenses necessary for the retail
trade. For example, in June, 1896, there were
6187 distilleries in the United States, producing
89,992,555 gallons, and 1866 breweries, produc-
ing 1,111,636,750 gallons. The capital invested
by 1924 firms was $269,270,249, and 41,425 peo-
ple were employed. National, State, county, and
municipal governments often have an interest in
the traflic, through the levying of taxes upon it.
In 1896 liquor taxes amounted to $164,016,-
40l.68. These taxes are important as revenues,
especially to smalllocalities. The cost of liquor-
drinking to the consumer is great, since the
money spent on liquor is diverted from more use-
ful expenditures.
was $70,000,000. In 1896 the consumption per
capita in the United States was 16.42 gallons.
An important economic consideration for the
community is the cost of maintaining criminals
and paupers made so by the abuse of intoxicants.
(2) Relation to Poverty.—Drunkenness makes
greater ravages among artisans than among
paupers. Warner’s tables show that it was
Chicago’s drink bill in 1894'
TEMPERANCE.
TE-MPERANCE.
570
the direct cause of distress only in 15.28 per
cent. of the cases investigated. Drinking to
excess is rather a symptom and source of de-
generation, and develops in a people of natural
strength exhausted by vice, overwork, and con-
ditions of life that undermine health. The chil-
dren of drunkards are frequently idiots or in-
sane,
(3) Legislative Aspects.-——Various attempts
have been made to control the liquor traffic by
legislation, while certain regulations have al-
ways been considered necessary. The national
Government, since 1789, has placed internal reve-
nue taxes and some customs duties upon liquors.
Congress also has passed laws regulating the
sale of liquor to Indians and soldiers and the
sale in the District of Columbia, and requiring
the scientific study of temperance in the schools
of the District of Columbia, military, Indian,
and Territorial schools. In the States the meth-
ods used to control the liquor trafiilc are: (1)
licenses; (2) local option; (3) prohibition; (4)
dispensary system. It has been customary from
the earliest times to license the sale of liquor.
The modern issue has been that of high license
($500.00 or more), which its advocates claim
lessens the number of saloons and improves their
character. High licenses prevail in large cities.
The laws of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania
are considered the most successful. Local option
has the advantage of the support of public
opinion, The earliest laws were those of Con-
necticut (1839) and New York (1845). Prohi-
bition exists in Maine (1846; in Constitution
1884) , and Kansas (in Constitution 1880), Iowa,
and North and South Dakota. Kansas, how-
ever, has practically local option. There is no
attempt at concealment, and since the hard times
of 1890 the fines for breaking the law have been
regularly counted upon as revenue by some
cities. Vermont and New Hampshire, after a
long experience with prohibition, have adopted
local option. Where prohibition exists the ques-
tion of compensation for those engaged in the
liquor traffic has come up for judicial decision.
As a result the National Anti-Nuisance League
was organized in 1888 to push cases. South Caro-
lina alone has the dispensary system, or State
monopoly of the liquor traffic. The law was
passed December 24, 1892. The advantages
claimed for this system are: that personal profit
is eliminated; purity and an honest measure are
guaranteed; treating is impossible; sales are
made in the daytime and for cash, and the con-
comitant temptations are removed. Other laws
relating to the liquor traffic regulate the hours of
closing and the sale on Sunday, the sale to
minors and drunkards, the situation of saloons
and their accompaniments in the way of pool,
games, theatres, or other attractions.
REMEDIES. The arguments advanced against
the use of alcoholic drinks have been: (1)
Scriptural, based on a supposed distinction in the
Bible between fermented and unfermented wine,
as shown by the use of the Hebrew words yayin
(Prov. xxi.) and tirosh; (2) physiological,
which claims alcohol to be a poison and which
shows that temperance conduces to health; (3)
social, viewing alcohol as a cause of crime, vice,
and poverty; and (4) economic, in that the
manufacture and consumption of alcohol are non-
productive and a great waste of material. The
remedies offered by the early temperance move-
ment were reformatory and preventive. Moral
suasion was used, and drinkers were urged to
sign the pledge and to strengthen themselves by
the aid of prayer and religion. Total abstinence
was demanded of the strong to help the weak.
Prohibition was urged in order to remove tempta-
tion. Homes and asylums were established, as
the Washingtonian House in Chicago and the
Franklin Home, Philadelphia. The preven-
tion work was largely educational through
the distribution of literature, lectures, the
formation of societies, and the prepara-
tion of textbooks for use in the public
schools. Business considerations now exert an
important influence, In positions of responsibil-
ity or where accidents are likely (such as en-
gineers, foremen, watchmen) drinking is pro-
hibited. The habits of applicants for employ-
ment are carefully scrutinized, especially in the
business of transportation. Even where moder-
ation is overlooked, excess is never tolerated.
Saloon property pays a higher insurance rate.
Some life insurance companies refuse to insure
men engaged in the liquor business.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Important contributions to the
study of the liquor problem have been made by
the Committee of Fifty formed in 1893 and com-
prising representative men in the fields of educa-
tion, religion, and sociology. The committee had
its origin in a group of men who, beginning in
1889, had associated themselves for the purpose
of pursuing the study of practical problems in
sociology. Papers written by various members
and criticised by all were published in the Gen-
tury Magazine and the Forum. Meetings of the
committee take place twice a year in New York.
Four sub-committees deal with the different as-
pects of the liquor problem, physiological, legis-
lative, economic, and ethical. The publications
of the committee comprise: (1) Wines and
Koren, The Liquor Problem in Its Legislative
Aspects (Boston and New York, 1897); (2)
Koren, Economic Aspects of the Liquor Problem
(ib., 1899); (3) Calkins, Social Substitutes for
the Saloon (ib., 1901); (4) Billings, Physiologi-
cal Aspects of the Liquor Problem (ib., 1903) ;
Twelfth Annual Report of United States Oom-
missioner of Labor (1897) ; “Economic Aspects
of Liquor Problem,” Cyclopedia of Temperance
and Prohibition (New York, 1891) ; Temperance
of All Nations, edited by Sterns (Papers of
World’s Temperance Congress, 1893, New York,
1893) ; Tracts, Publications, and files of papers
of W. C. T. U. and temperance societies; Samuel-
son, The History of Drink (London, 1880).
TEMPERANCE, SONS OF. An order founded
in New York in 1842 with the object of making
the great temperance movement of that period
permanent. It has life insurance, sick and
funeral benefit features. There are male and
female members and there is a cadet branch for
boys of sixteen years, who are known as the
Cadets of Temperance, and who subscribe to a
pledge which binds them to avoid all connection
with the use, sale, or manufacture of spirituous
liquors. There are four grand divisions of the
order, one in England, where it was introduced
in 1846, two in Australia, and one in North
America. About one-half of the members are in
the United States and it is estimated that 3,000,-
coevmcnr, 1902, BY oooo, new A comemv.
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TEMPERANCE.
TEMPERATURE VARIETIES.
571
000 members have been on the rolls since the
organization of the order. The ritual is very im-
pressive. The order is now established in Great
Britain, Ireland, the Bahamas, Liberia, New
Zealand, Australia, Scotland and Wales.
TEMPERATURE. See HEAT.
TEMPERATURE, TEBBESTR-IAL. The distri-
bution of heat in the atmosphere depends to
some extent on its direct absorption of solar
radiations, and especially the absorption at the
upper surface of the clouds, but is principally
governed by the angular altitude of the -sun
and the contact of the air with the ground
and the ocean. The numerous irregularities
give rise to the great currents of air as well
as to the local winds, and the latter carry
the heat and the temperature rapidly from one
part of the globe to the other, so that ultimately
the atmospheric temperature is almost equally
'controlled by the winds on the one hand and the
oceans, continents, rain, snow, and cloud on the
other. The typical continental climates experi-
ence great diurnal and annual ranges of tem-
perature, and the typical oceanic_climates show
a small range.
The distribution of temperature on any level
surface at any depth below or height above sea
level is shown by means of isotherms which are
drawn through all places that have the same
temperature at any moment, or the same month-
ly or annual mean temperature. Charts show-
ing these isotherms have been published by vari-
ous meteorological services for the air and the
land, and by various hydrographic oflices for the
oceans. The highest mean annual temperatures
occur within the tropics and especially over the
land areas of Northern Africa and Southern
Asia, with corresponding small regions in Cen-
tral America and the northern portion of South
America. The lowest mean annual temperatures
are found in Northern Siberia and the northern
portions of British America, which represent
the southern extension of a large Arctic area
of low temperature. See CLIMATE.
TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. The
temperature in the healthy human adult aver-
ages from 98.4° to 98.6° F,, but 97.5° and 99°
F. are within normal limits. In the new-born
child the temperature is slightly above the aver-
age, as it is in old age. Race has but a slight
influence, a difference of .29° F. being observed
between the nations of Southern Europe and
those of the northern part. The temperature
rises slightly after a meal and during exercise.
During the day the body heat varies about half
a degree, being highest between 5 and 8
P.M. and lowest between 2 and 6 AM. In
childhood the temperature is easily and rapidly
influenced, slight ailments causing marked
febrile reaction. The temperature is registered
by means of the clinical thermometer (q.v.),
which is self-registering, placed in the mouth,
axilla, fold of the groin, rectum, or vagina. The
-surface of the body is slightly cooler than the
interior. A temperature below 93° or above
108° F. is almost always fatal. The usual range
in fevers is between 99.5° and 105° or 106° F.
As a rule there is a constant relation between
the amount of fever and the rapidity of the
pulse (q.v.) in many people. A pulse of 80
indicates a temperature of 100° F.; a pulse of
VOL. xvr.-37.
90, a temperature of 101° F., etc. A rise of
temperature between 99° and 102° F. is termed
slight or moderate pyrexia; from 101° to 105°
severe pyrexia; and above this point hyper-
pyrexia, Many chronic and a few acute diseases
are characterized by a subnormal temperature.
This is observed in hemorrhage, starvation, and
wasting from chronic diseases. In the melan-
cholia of certain mental troubles there may be
great depression both of the general and sur-
face heat. An elevation of temperature attends
by far the greater number of diseases. In the
great class of the acute general infections (see
NOSOLOGY) an elevation of the body heat is the
most important symptom and is proportional to
the severity of the disease. Very marked ele-
vation of temperature (hyperpyrexia) is seen in
tetanus, acute rheumatism, pernicious malarial
fever, and after injuries to the spinal cord. In
tetanus the thermometer may register as high
as 112.5° F. In sunstroke or heat-stroke, an
equally high point has been reached. Lastly, the
temperature may rise just before death, and
after it, in rigor rnortis. See ANIMAL HEAT;
Fnvsns; etc.
TEMPERATURE VARIETIES. Varieties,
races, or sub-species are largely differentiated by
variation resulting from being subjected to dif-
ferent influences, principally in the nature of
temperature and comparative moisture. It is a
matter of universal observation that widespread
species present a great range of variability in
size, proportion of parts, color and other char-
acteristics, so that it is often a matter of doubt
whether a variant ought to be classed as a
geographical sub-species, or as a distinct species.
When it appears that the same kind of variation
affects all or nearly all of the animals of a
certain class in a region, coincidently with the
character of the local climate, it is fair to as-
sume that the change from the normal noted
is due to local climatic influence. Temperature
seems to act most directly in producing the
common form of seasonal dimorphism, which
affects most of the higher animals that dwell in
the temperate zones, and are called upon to en-
dure the cold of winter as well as the heat of
summer. This causes a semi-annual change in
mammals and birds from a comparatively thin
and short coat of hair or feathers in the warm
half of the Year to a thicker and longer cover-
ing more suitable to the cold season. In ad-
dition to this there is always a greater or less
change of color, the bright dress of summer, as-
sumed after the spring molt, falling out in the
autumn and being gradually succeeded by a
plainer, less conspicuous suit for the winter
months. The difference is often very great; and
in the arctic regions amounts to a change from
decided colors in summer to pure white in win-
ter.
The comparative degree of average moisture
in the air of two regions will be reflected in the
colors and other features of the same species
of animals inhabiting them; those of the moist
region will have darker colors, and a tendency
to larger size and proportionality longer ex-
ternal parts, as bills, legs, and tails, than the
dry land species, which will be more pale in
color and compact in form. Dr. J . A. Allen has
shown this very conclusively in his investigations
upon North American birds. Let one of these
TE-MPERATURE VARIETIES.
TEMPLE.
572
districts be severed for a considerable period
from the others and the results accredited to
isolation (q.v.) would follow; but the species
so formed might well be called ‘temperature
species’ in reference to their origin. Geographical
races may therefore be regarded as incipient
species.
That changes from heat to cold, wetness to
dryness, or the reverse, in the climates of re-
gions of the world in the course of its history
since animal life appeared upon it, have been
efficient factors in species-making, may well be
believed.
See EVOLUTION; MELANISM; ISOLATION; and
consult authorities there mentioned.
TEMPERIN G STEEL. A peculiar effect is
produced upon steel by heating it to redness, and
then suddenly cooling it. By this means, ex-
treme hardness is obtained. Steel is so suscep-
tible to this process, called tempering, that al-
most any degree of hardness and brittleness can
be obtained. If, for instance, we make a piece
of steel red hot, and then plunge it into cold
water, it becomes hard and brittle when cold,
and is actually, though slightly, increased in
bulk. But if we reheat the metal, and allow it
to cool slowly, it again becomes soft and malle-
able as before. Moreover, if we again reheat it,
but not to redness, and cool it suddenly, it is still
further softened. If, before reheating, the sur-
face has been polished, a beautiful shade of col-
or is produced by the heat, which is varied ac-
cording to the temperature employed; and so
exactly is this the case, that the experienced
manipulator is guided by the color produced,
instead of by nice regulations of the heat ap-
plied. For ordinary operations, the metal is
cooled by plunging it in cold water; but oil, mer-
cury, and saline solutions are used for special
purposes, An exact series of experiments has
proved that the following colors are produced
at the temperatures given: very pale yellow-
ish, by 430° F.; pale straw, 450°; yellow, 470° ;
brown, 490°; mottled brown, 510°; purple, 530°;
bright blue, 550°; blue, 560° dark blue, 600°.
See ANNEALING; IRON AND STEEL.
TEMPEST, THE. A play by Shakespeare
first acted in 1610, though Fleay suggests that
its present form was abridged perhaps by Beau-
mont about 1613 for a Court performance, the
wedding of the Princess Elizabeth. Sidney Lee
also doubts that it was originally written for
this occasion. It was first printed in the Folio
of 1623. The sources are principally books of
travel: Eden’s History of the Tra/vaile (1577),
Raleigh’s Discovery of Guiana (1596), and S.
Jourdan’s Discovery of the Bermudas (1690),
telling of Sir George Somers’s fleet at Bermuda in
1609.
TEMPESTA. See MULIER.
TEMPLARS, KNIGHTS. A religious and
military order of the Middle Ages, the great
rival of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem.
In 1119 Hugues de Payens and Geoffrey de Saint-
Adémar (Saint-Omer), with seven companions,
formed a military band to protect pilgrims in
Palestine. They adopted the rule of Saint Au-
gustine, and took the name Knights of Christ.
But as quarters were assigned to them in the
palace at Jerusalem, known as Solomon’s Temple,
they soon were called Knights of the Temple, or
Knights Templars (rni-lites templi). In 1128 at
the Council of Troyes a rule, inspired by Saint
Bernard, and closely following the Cistercian,
was given them.
The order grew rapidly. At the end of the
thirteenth century it had about fifteen thousand
members, and in the middle of the same
century it is said to have owned nine thousand
castles and manors.
and was under the jurisdiction of the Pope
alone. As the order had to make regular trans-
fers of supplies and money from Europe to Pal-
estine, they developed an effective banking sys-
tem. Their strong and well-manned ‘temples’
were the safest places for depositing treasure
and documents and for a time the Templars were
the bankers of Europe, There were three ranks
in the order, knights, chaplains, and servants.
The knights, few in number, were the real
Templars. They directed the affairs of the or-
der, and they alone could wear the white mantle
with its red cross. At the head of the order
was the grand master. The capital of the order
was at Jerusalem till 1187, and then successively
at Antioch, Acre, and Caesarea, and after the ex-
tinction of the Christian power in Syria (1291),
in Cyprus. The standard of the order, called
Beauséant, was half black, half white, with
the motto Non nobis Domine. The Templars’
wealth, pride, and power brought them into con-
flict with Church and State. With the decay of
the crusading spirit their activity was more
feared, and in the latter half of the thirteenth
century opposition grew rapidly. They had made
enemies in other military orders and among the
monastic orders. Their adoption of Oriental
customs and the secrecy of their rites impressed
popular imagination. They were‘ charged with
many evil and sacrilegious practices. The direct
attack on them came in France. Philip IV., un-
der the influence of Guillaume de Nogaret,
saw his chance to be rid of an insubordinate
order, and to increase his wealth. He got Pope
Clement V. to aid him. On October 13, 1307,
the grand master, Jacques de Molay (q.v.) , with
all the Templars, was arrested without warning.
Their trial was in charge of the Inquisitor for
France. Most of them under torture confessed to
some or all of the charges against the order.
Many of them afterwards retracted, including
Molay. A large number were burned at the
stake, Molay himself being spared for a number
of years. In 1311 Clement called the General
Council of Vienne, chiefly for the purpose of sup-
pressing the order. When the council persisted
in demanding that the question should be tried
strictly as a judicial question without any re-
gard for policy, Clement held a secret consistory,
March 22, 1312, at which the suppression was
decreed. On April 3d the bull Vow in ewcelso was
published declaring the reasons for the Papal
condemnation. On May 2d the bull Ad providam
was issued decreeing the final abolition of the
order. Its property went to the Hospitalers;
but the seizures of Philip were confirmed to him.
Jacques de Molay was burned in 1314.
Consult: Curzon, Lu regle du Temple (Paris,
1886) ; Gmelin, Schuld oder Unschuld des Tem-
pelordens (Stuttgart, 1893) ; Lea, History of the
Inquisition, vol. iii. (New York, 1888).
TEMPLE. A building consecrated to religious
worship, especially among pagan peoples. The
It was free from all taxes‘
TEMPLE.
TEMPLE.
573
term is also applied to the chief sanctuary of the
Jews (see TEMPLE or JERUSALEM), to Christian
churches belonging to the Knights Templars,
and in France to Protestant places of worship.
A temple was usually dedicated to some deity,
whose image it contained; the interior was acces-
sible to priests, but not to the general body of
worshipers. Among most ancient peoples the
temple was the principal architectural feature,
as in Greece, where the history of temple con-
struction is practically the history of architec-
ture. The subject is therefore best treated under
the subdivision ARCHITECTURE, in such articles as
AssYRIAN, BABYLCNIAN, EGYPTIAN, GREEK, Ro-
MAN, INDIAN, CHINESE, and JAPANESE ART; also
under ARCHITECTURE, ANCIENT AMERICAN.
TEMPLE. A city in Bell County, Tex., 35
miles south by west of Waco; on‘ the Gulf, Colo-
rado and Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas
and Texas railroads (Map: Texas, F 4). It
has a public library, King’s Daughters’ Hos-
pital, and the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe
Railroad Hospital. Temple is the shipping
centre for the cotton, corn, oats, and live stock
of the surrounding country. Cottonseed-oil mills,
cotton gins and compresses, foundries and ma-
chine shops, bottling works, a large cold storage
plant, fiouring mill, and a candy factory are
among the leading industrial establishments.
The Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railroad main-
tains shops here. The government is vested in a
mayor, chosen biennially, and a unicameral coun-
cil. Temple was settled in 1881. Population, in
1890, 4047; in 1900, 7065.
TEMPLE, THE. (1) A former stronghold of
the Templars in Paris, built in 1212. When the
order was suppressed in 1312 it was used as a
royal treasury and subsequently as a prison.
During 1792 and 1793 Louis XVI, and his family
were confined in it. The last remains of the
building were removed in 1871 and its site is now
occupied by the Marché du Temple. (2) A
former lodge of the Templars in London, dating
from the end of the twelfth century, and now
represented by the Temple Church and the Inns
of Court, known as the Inner and Middle Temple,
which stand on the site of the ancient building,
the former within the precincts of the city.
The Temple became Crown property when the
order was dissolved, was presented to the Earl
of Pembroke, and then passed to the Knights of
Saint John, who leased it to law students.
TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902). Arch-
bishop of Canterbury. He was born at Leukas,
in the Ionian Islands, and was educated at Bal-
liol College, Oxford. He was principal of Kneller
Hall, and then inspector of church training-col-
leges, until he was elected head-master of Rugby,
where his administration was very successful.
In 1860 his name was prominent as one of the
authors of Essays and Reviews, a. book supposed
to have a rationalizing tendency, though
Temple’s own essay on “Education and the
World” contained little that would be considered
dangerous nowadays. The suspicion of hetero-
doxy, however, clung about him and found ex-
pression when Gladstone, in 1869, nominated
him as Bishop of Exeter, in a formal protest
against his confirmation. This distrust died
away afterwards and he acquired a great repu-
tation for absolute justice and impartiality,
while in many respects his later career associat-
ed him rather with the High Church party than
with the Broad. In 1885 he was translated to
the see of London, and in 1896 he was made
Archbishop of Canterbury, and a year after-
wards, with his brother primate of York, stood
out as a champion of the Church of England
in a learned and dignified reply to the Papal
decision declaring the invalidity of Anglican
ordination, He died in London soon after
officiating at the coronation of Edward VII.
His most important published work is The Re-
lation Between Science and Religion (1884), be-
ing the Bampton Lectures for that year. Con-
sult biographies by Aitken (London, 1901) and
Dant (ib., 1903).
TEMPLE, HENRY JCHN, third Viscount Pal-
merston. A British statesman. See PALMERS-
TON.
TEMPLE, Sir RICHARD (1826-1902). An
English politician and author, born. at Kemp-
sey, near Worcester. Having entered the Indian
service in 1848, he rose quickly, becoming Finance
Minister of India (1868), Lieutenant-Governor
of Bengal (187 4), and Governor of Bombay
(1877-80). On his return to England in 1880 he
became financial member of the London School
Board (1886-94), and president of the Social
Science Congress. From 1885 to 1895 he sat in Par-
liament as a Conservative. For his services he was
made a baronet in 187 6. His publications com-
prise: India in 1880 (1881) ; Men and Events of
My Time in India (1882) ; Oriental Experience
(1883) ; Cosmopolitan Essays (1886) ; Palestine
Illustrated (1888); Memoir of John Lawrence
(1889); Life in Parliament (1893); Story of
My Life (1896); A Bird’s-Eye View of Pictur-
esque India (1898); and The House of Com-
mons (1899).
TEMPLE, RICHARD TEMPLE GRENVILLE, Earl
(1711-79). An English statesman. He was the
eldest son of Richard Grenville of Wotton Hall,
Buckinghamshire, and was educated at Eton and
privately. In-1734 he was returned to Parlia-
ment for Buckingham. On the death of Viscount
Cobham in 1749 his mother was created Countess
of Temple and at her death in 17 52 Grenville suc-
ceeded to the Temple earldom. He was a politi-
cal associate of William Pitt, who married
Grenville’s sister Hester, and he held the position
of First Lord of the Admiralty, 1756-57, and
Lord Privy Seal, 1757-61. He was afterwards
in frequent opposition to the King, Pitt, and his
brother George Grenville, supported Wilkes, and
was one of the many to whom the authorship of
the Letters of Junius was attributed. Consult
the Grenville Papers (1852-53), which consist of
the correspondence between Pitt and George and
Richard Temple and throw much light on the
political and Court life of the period.
TEMPLE, Sir WILLIAM (1628-99). An Eng-
lish statesman and essayist, born in London.
He was reared by an uncle, Dr. Henry Hammond,
rector of Penshurst, in Kent. He entered Em-
manuel College, Cambridge, in 1644; but he left
four years later without a degree, and set out
for France. On this journey he met Dorothy
Osborne (1627-95), the daughter of a stanch
royalist, whom he married in 1655. Dorothy’s
letters during the last years of the courtship
possess great charm. In 1665 Temple was sent
TEMPLE.
TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM.
574
to Westphalia on a secret mission to the Bishop
of Miinster. On his return (1666) he was
created a baronet, and appointed resident at the
Court of Brussels, His most important diplo-
matic success was the famous treaty of 1668,
known as the Triple Alliance, by which Eng-
land, Holland, and Sweden bound themselves to
unite in curbing the ambition of France. Temple
was long Ambassador at The Hague and helped
to bring about the marriage of the Prince of
Orange with the Princess Mary (1677). In 1679
Charles II. urged him to become his Secretary
of State. Though Temple refused this post, he
attempted to reform the government by estab-
lishing a privy council of thirty members, by
whom the King promised to be guided in all ‘public
affairs, but this council proved an utter failure.
Temple soon abandoned politics and retired, first
to Sheen, and then to Moor Park in Surrey,
where for the last ten years of his life he de-
voted himself to landscape gardening and to lit-
erature. During this period he received into
his household as amanuensis, and afterwards as
secretary, Jonathan Swift (q.v.), who ultimately
became his literary executor.
As a writer Temple is now known chiefly by
his historical Memoirs (unauthorized ed, 1691;
1709) and his Miscellanea (1680; 1692). In
the series of 1692 first appeared the famous
essay on Ancient and Modern Learning, which
deals with the comparative merits of ancient
and modern literature. The outcome of the
spirited controversy in England was Swift’s
Battle of the Books (1704). Temple has been
considered one of the reformers of English style.
According to Dr. Johnson he was “the first
writer to give cadence to English prose.”
Temple’s English was particularly pleasing to
Charles Lamb, who comments upon it in his
Essay on the Genteel Style. Consult his Works
(London, 1814); the Life, Works, and Corre-
spondence by T. P. Courtenay (ib., 1836); and
Macaulay’s article on this biography in the Edin-
burgh Reoiew for October, 1838 (reprinted in
Essays) ; the Letters of Dorothy Osborne, ed. by
Parry (London, 1888) ; and Battle of the Books.
For the controversy on ancient and modern
learning, see also the articles RICHARD BENTLEY,
Roenn BOYLE, JONATHAN SWIFT, WILLIAM Wor-
TON, and BATTLE or THE Booxs.
TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. The central
shrine of Judaism after the establishment of
the Davidic monarchy, situated on Mount Mo-
riah in Jerusalem. The first ‘house of God’ was
the Tabernacle or Tent of Meeting, described
in Exodus xxv.-xxvii.; but this was replaced
during Solomon’s reign (c.977-937 13.0.) by a
permanent structure of great magnificence. This
is described in great detail in II. Chronicles iii.-
iv. (more briefly in I. Kings vi.) ; but, although
certain features of the design are clearly set
forth, others are wholly passed over, so that
efforts to restore it from these descriptions have
produced an extraordinary variety of results.
It is, however, evident from the descriptions
that the Temple followed the general plan of the
Tabernacle with its inclosures, but on double
the scale. The arrangement of the Tabernacle,
with its outer court, inner court, sanctuary or
Holy Place, and Holy of Holies, resembled in its
general scheme that of the Egyptian temples
(see EGYPTIAN ART) ; but the Tent itself was of
modest dimensions, the Holy of Holies forming
a cube of 10 cubits or about 15 feet, and the
sanctuary a double cube 10 by 10 by 20 cubits.
The Temple proper of Solomon measured 60
cubits in length, the outer sanctuary or Holy
Place being 20 by 40 cubits in size and the
Holy of Holies 20 by 20 cubits; both were 20
cubits high. Within the latter was the Ark of
Testimony under two cherubim with outspread
wings; in the Holy Place were the altar of in-
cense, the show-bread table, the seven branched
candlesticks, and ten smaller tables and candle-
sticks. Both chambers were wainscoted with
cedar and wholly covered with gilding; they
were separated by a ‘veil’ or fixed curtain fitted
with an olive wood doorway and doors. It was
this veil that was ‘rent in twain’ at the cruci-
fixion (Matt. xxviii. 51; Mark xv. 38; Luke
xxiii. 44). The golden candlestick carried by
Titus to Rome in A.D. 70 is figured in a relief on
the Arch of Titus.
In front of the Temple porch were two columns
of bronze, ‘Jachin’ and ‘Boaz,’ 23 cubits high;
and against its side and end walls were three
stories of small chambers for the priests. The
court immediately surrounding the Temple was
reserved for the priests, and contained the brazen
altar of burnt offering and the great bronze
‘Sea,’ or tank, borne on twelve bronze oxen;
these, with the cherubim in the Holy of Holies,
being the only examples of free sculpture in
Jewish art. A second court was the place of
general assembly for all Jewish worshipers; it
preceded or surrounded the first; but whether
built by Solomon or encircled at a later date
is not certain. Solomon’s palace and the ‘House
of the Cedars of Lebanon’ adjoined the Temple
court. Dependencies and outbuildings were add-
ed at various times to the main group. Of the
architectural style of the Temple there is little
hint in Scripture; but we know that its builders
were chiefly Phoenicians, and the combination of
an Egyptian type of plan with such Assyrian
decorative details as palms, cherubim, and ‘knops
and flowers’ is quite in harmony with the mixed
style of Phoenician work in general.
Solomon’s Temple was destroyed by Nebuchad-
nezzar B.C'. 586. Upon the return of the Jews
from the Babylonian captivity by permission of
Cyrus a new edifice was erected under the direc-
tion of Zerubbabel and finished B.C. 516. The
vision of this second temple given by Ezekiel
(chapters xl.-xliii) is generally recognized as
something more than a mere creation of fancy.
Though vague in many points, it is consistent
and detailed in others, representing a far more
elaborate system of courts, inclosures, gates, and
porticoes than the first temple possessed. The
temple proper was a reproduction of the original
edifice, but far inferior to it in splendor of orna-
ment and gilding. Both the first and second
edifices were, however, surpassed in architectural
splendor by the third temple, erected by Herod,
B.C. 18. The area of the temple terrace was
greatly enlarged by new substructures built with
masonry of colossal magnitude, a section of
which forms the present ‘place of wailing’ of
the Jews. Marble was profusely used for colon-
nades, gates, and walls, and the magnificence of
Roman carved decoration and architectural de-
tail was blended with the Oriental arrangement
of the plan, which reproduced essentially the
TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM.
TEMPLE BAR.
575
disposition of the two preceding structures, but
with an additional exterior ‘Court of the Gen-
tiles.’ A new stoa basilica or three-aisled por-
tico of vast dimensions occupied the south side
of the inclosure; ‘Solomon’s porch’ was re-
erected in the form of a colonnade along the
east front, in which was perhaps the ‘Gate Beau-
tiful’ (Acts iii. 2). This temple was the one
from which Christ expelled the money-changers
and merchants. It was destroyed during the
pillage of the city by Titus, A.D. 70, but con-
trary to his orders. Under Constantine an effort
on the part of the Jews to rebuild it was se-
verely punished, and a contemporary writer
states that a later attempt by the Emperor
Julian to rebuild it was frustrated by “flames
which burst from the foundations.” On the
temple area, called by the Arabs Haram-esh
Sheri, one of the early caliphs (probably Abd-
el-Melek, who reigned from 685 to 705) erected
a splendid mosque, the Kubbet-es-Sakhrah, com-
monly known as the ‘Mosque of Omar,’ and the
place has ever since remained in the possession
of the Moslems.
All three temples must have presented an
aspect of mixed architectural styles, due to the
general lack of skill in the plastic arts among
the Jews, and their consequent dependence on
the arts of neighboring nations. Solomon’s
achievement was, under these circumstances,
amazing in the grandeur of its general conception
and the splendor of its gilding, decoration, and
furniture. But it was far surpassed in scale and
in magnificence of external architecture by
Herod’s temple.
THE TEMPLE SERVICE. The Solomonic temple
was primarily intended to be a Yahweh-sanc-
tuary, as is evident from 1. Kings viii. 13. But
during the period of the Davidic dynasty many
other divinities were worshiped in it. (See e.g.
Ezek. viii., 11. Kings xviii., xx.) The temple of
Zerubbabel appears to have been devoted solely
to Yahweh. In B.C. 168 the sanctuary was ded-
icated to Zeus Olympius and remained a Zeus
temple for three years (I. Mace. i. 54; iv. 52).
The magnificent temple of Herod was until the
fall of Jerusalem the great centre of the Jewish
sacrificial cult, having no rival except Onias’s
Temple (q.v.) ,at Leontopolis, and was devoted
exclusively to the imageless worship of Yahweh.
In the regal period the King was the chief
priest officiating in the temple. Whether there
was a ceremony corresponding to the ‘seizing of
the hands of Bel’ by the Babylonian kings, can-
not be determined. But the annual entrance into
the Holy of Holies by the high priest of the
Persian period may have developed out of such
a custom. David set the example of appointing
his own sons as priests (II. Sam. xviii. 8). There
was no distinction yet between priests and Le-
vites. Even in the Deuteronomic code, introduced
about B.C. 620, the Levites are priests whose func-
tion it is to offer sacrifices. In the Persian
period a high priest was at the head of the
hierarchy; and only families claiming descent
from Aaron were permitted to offer sacrifices.
The Levites were a class by themselves and were
not allowed to present the sacrifices, while mu-
sicians and doorkeepers formed a still lower
class. The Levites as well as the priests were
divided into twenty-four ‘courses.’ Next to the
high priest ranked the Segan, or captain of the
temple police, then came the heads of the twenty-
four courses, and a large number of other ofiicials.
While in earlier times even the common people
seem to have had access to the inner court, in
later times the Levites and lower ministers were
forbidden to enter it. Non-Israelites were not
permitted to enter any part of the temple, but
representatives of the people of Israel were re-
quired to attend in turn the daily offerings in the
outer court.
The Tamid, or the daily offering, presented
every morning and evening, was the most im-
portant of the many sacrifices of a public charac-
ter. The number of sacrifices was increased on
Sabbaths and festivals. The ceremony was pre-
ceded by lustrations and solemn choice of offi-
ciating priests. It consisted of the slaughter of
the victim, the sprinkling of the blood on the
altar, the removing of the blood from the altar of
incense in the Holy Place, the trimming of the
lamps on the candlesticks, the carrying of the dif-
ferent parts of the victim to the foot of the altar,
the presentation of the flour-offering, the baked
meal, and the libations of wine. During the cele-
bration of this sacrificial Service, the Shema Is-
rael (Deut. vi. 4-9; xi. 13-21; and Num. xv.
37-41), the Ten Commandments, and three bless-
ings were pronounced by the priests. The offer-
ing of incense was accompanied with prayer.
Then the Levitic choir, to the accompaniment of
stringed instruments, sang the psalm of the day,
divided into three sections. At the end of each,
priests blew three blasts on the silver trumpets,
and the people prostrated themselves. This ritu-
al goes back at least to Maccabean times, and the
music and singing no doubt formed a part of the
daily service long before sections of the present
Psalter were in use. After the public sacrifice,
private sacrifices began.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of the Temple
is considerable. Among attempts to restore it one
of the earliest is that of Villalpandus in Pradi’s
In Ezechielum Emplicationes (1596). Of recent
discussions and restorations we may mention
Meyer, Der Tempel Salomos (Berlin, 1830) ;
Canina, Ricerche sull’ architettura degli antichi
Giudei (Rome, 1845); De Vogiié, Le temple de
Jérusalem (Paris, 1866) ; Edersheim, The Temple,
Its Ministry and Services in the Time of Christ
(London, 1874) ; Fergusson, Temples of the Jews
and OtherBuildings ontheHaram Area(ib., 1874) ;
Robins, article in British Architect (January,
1886) ; and the elaborate and superbly illustrated
discussion of the first and second temples in
Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de l’art en Judée,
etc. (Paris, 1889). The restoration of Zerub-
babel’s temple, by Chipiez, in this work, is a re-
markable example of constructive archaeology.
See also Friedrich, Tempel and Palast Salomos
(Innsbruck, 1887); Schmidt, Solomon’s Temple
in the Light of Other Oriental Temples (Chicago,
1902).
TEMPLE BAR. A noted gateway between
Fleet Street and the Strand, London, built in
1670 by Wren, and marking the boundary of the
City. Here the sovereign, on entering the City,
was obliged to ask from the Lord Mayor per-
mission to pass. The structure was removed in
1878 to make a way for the enormous traflic
and its place was supplied by the memorial bear-
ing statues of Queen Victoria and of Edward
VII., then Prince of Wales.
TEMPLE CHURCH.
TEMRYUK.
576
TEMPLE CHURCH. The church connected
with the former house of the Knights Templars
in London, and the only portion of the original
group of buildings remaining. It consists of a
Norman Round church, 58 feet in diameter, dat-
ing from 1185, with a choir added in 1240. It
has a richly painted ceiling and interesting tiled
flooring, and contains nine monuments of
Templars.
TEMPO (It., time). The degree of rapidity
with which a piece of music is to be executed.
_ The rhythmical proportions of notes, as indicated
by their form, give them only a relative value,
and have no reference to the absolute speed at
which the entire composition is to be played.
The varying rates of speed at which different
compositions, or portions of compositions, are to
be played is usually indicated by certain terms
called tempo marks. These terms are not, how-
ever, always used with exact precision, and some-
times apply more to the character than to the
absolute speed of performance. The following
table gives the most usual tempo marks with
their approximate significances:

BLOW MODERATE FAST
Largo Andante Animato
Grave Moderato Allegro
Lento molto Allegretto Vivace
Lento Adagietto Vivo
Larghetto Allegro moderato Allegro molto
Adagissimo Sostenuto Allegro vivo
Adagio Commodo Presto
Andantino N 0 ii troppo al- Prestissimo
legrO
Maestoso
Indicating retard alofégfggatalogn
Rallentamento Accelerando
Rallentando Stringendo
Rltardando Affrettando
Largando Veloce
Rltenuto Ravvivando il
Tempo
Tardando D o p p i o movi-
mento
Lentando Sempre acceler-
ando
Meno mosso Pin mosso

The tempo is indicated with far greater ex-
actness by references to the beats of the metro-
nome (q.v.). It is not, however, uncommon for
composers to express the tempo by reference to
some well-known musical form which has a char-
acteristic movement, as ‘tempo di marcia,’ ‘tempo
di valse,’ ‘tempo di minuetto,’ etc. Schumann and
Wagner discarded the Italian nomenclature and
indicated the tempo by means of German terms.
In this they have been followed by a few other
composers, but the German terms are not well
enough known to be free from a certain vague-
ness. The Italian terms came into use at the be-
ginning of the seventeenth century. Before that
time the means of expressing the general speed
at which a composition was to be played were
very limited. In mensurable music (q.v.) each
note had a certain average time value (integer
valor); but in the course of years the unit of
measure changed so frequently that great con‘-
fusion ensued. In transcribing works of the six-
teenth century in modern notation all notes
must, as a rule, be reduced to about half their
face values; while in still older works the reduc-
tion should be to a quarter or an eighth of the
original value. Tempo rubato (stolen time) is
the name given to a mode of performance to
which a restless character is imparted by pro-
tracting one note beyond its proper duration, and
curtailing another so that the aggregate duration
of each measure remains unchanged. Modifica-
tion of tempo is a term first used by Richard
Wagner, in his article “Ueber das Dirigieren,” to
indicate that a composition cannot be played
throughout in strict metronome time. This is
especially true in dramatic music, and throws
the responsibility for the interpretation of the
music upon the conductor (q.v.).
TEMPORAL POWER (Lat. temparalis, re-
lating to time, from tempus, time, season; con-
nected with Icel. Pamb, an out-stretching, Lith.
tempia, I extend) OF THE POPE. The sovereign
power which the Pope possessed as ruler of the
Papal States (q.v.), which, although modified in
its exercise by his spiritual character, was in
substance the same as that of any arbitrary sov-
ereign. The question as to the necessity or
utility of such a power vested in the hands of a
spiritual ruler, and even of its lawfulness and its
compatibility with his spiritual duties, has been
very warmly debated. Many of the medieeval
sectaries put forward the principle of the in-
compatibility of the spiritual with the temporal
power in the same person, not only in relation to
the Pope, but also as to the other ecclesiasti-cs
who were feudal lords. Such were the doctrines
of the Va-udois, of Pierre de Bruys, and above
all of Arnold of Brescia (qq.v.). Through
the centuries which followed, the anti-Papal con-
troversies turned so entirely upon doctrine that
there was little room for the discussion of this
question, and it is a mistake to suppose, as has
not unfrequently been done, that it entered in
any way into the conflict of Gallican and Ultra-
montane principles. Even the great Gallican
champion Bossuet (q.v.) not only admitted the
lawfulness of the Pope’s temporal sovereignty,
but contended that it was in some sense neces-
sary to thefree exercise of his spiritual power,
and to the independence of his ecclesiastical gov-
ernment. It was not until the aggression of the
French Republic upon Rome, and the annexation
of the Papal provinces called the Legations to
the Cisalpine Republic, and afterwards to the
Kingdom of Italy, by Bonaparte, that the con-
troversy assumed any practical interest. For a
few years all of the Papal territories were in the
hands of Napoleon. More recently, upon the
incorporation of the whole of the Papal States
in the Kingdom of Italy, the question once more
agitated the entire Catholic world, and is still,
a generation later, a. practical one. Most Roman
Catholics, while admitting that the possession of
temporal sovereignty is no essential part of the
privileges of the successor of Saint Peter, regard
the possession of a sovereignty independent of
any particular sovereign as the means provi-
dentially established for the protection of the
spiritual independence of the Pope, and of the
free exercise of his functions as spiritual ruler
of the Church.
TEMRYUK, tyém-ry'o'6k'. A seaport in the
Territory of Kuban, Ciscaucasia, Russia, situ-
ated on an inlet of the Sea of Azov, 90 miles
west of Ekaterinodar (Map: Russia, E 5); It
has an extensive export trade in grain and flour.
Population, in 1897, 14,476.
TEMUCO.
TENDAI-SEU.
577
TEIVIUCO, ta-mo"ok’ko. The capital town of
the province of Cautin, Chile, 140 miles southeast
of the port of Concepcion, with which it has rail-
way communication, on the north bank of the
river Cautin (Map: Chile, C 11). The town has
tanneries and breweries and carries on an im-
portant trade with the Arucanians of the vicinity.
Its population in 1895 was 7078.
TENAILLE, te-nal’. See FORTIFIOATION.
TENANCY AT SUFFERANCE (OF. ten-
ance, from ML. tena/nt’ia.,‘a holding, retaining,
from Lat. tenere, to hold, retain; connected with
Gk. Teivecv, teineln, Skt. tan, Goth, uf-Panjan,
AS. Penlan, OHG. denen, dennen, Ger. dehnen, to
stretch) out). A continued but wrongful occu-
pation of land by a tenant whose original pos-
session was with the consent of the owner, after
his term has expired and without permission of
the landlord. By the common law, the landlord.
may enter at any time and forcibly eject him,
-and he cannot maintain an action against the
landlord for assault and battery, if the latter ex-
pels him from the premises without using un-
necessary force or violence. He may be sued for
use and occupation, but not for rent. See TEN-
ANCY AT WILL. Consult the authorities referred
to under LANDLORD AND TENANT.
TENANCY AT WILL. An occupation of
land by a person under a demise or agreement
with the landlord that the tenancy shall not be
for a fixed term, but shall be determinable at
the will or caprice of either party. By the com-
mon law, a tenant at will could not assign or
convey his estate, and was obliged to pay rent
only for the time he remained in actual occupa-
tion. A tenant at will is entitled to notice to
quit, and in the absence of statute this notice
should generally be given for a time equal to the
period between two rent days, in advance of the
date set for removal. Where such a tenant receives
notice to quit and has growing crops at the time,
he is entitled to enter later and gather them, and
he must always be given a reasonable time in
which to remove. See TENANCY AT SUEEERANCE.
TENANCY IN COMMON. See CoMMoN,
TENANOY IN; JOINT OWNERSHIP. .1
TENANT FOR LIFE. See LIFE ESTATE.
TENANT RIGHT. In English law a cus-I
tom which is recognized in some districts in Ire-
land, under which a tenant is conceded the right
to continue to occupy land, upon which he has
made improvements, practically indefinitely
Without the payment of an increased rent. By
the ‘Land Act’ of 1870 the custom was recog-
nized. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. E
TE1\TAS’SERIM. The southernmost division
of Lower Burma (see BURMA), bordering on
Siam, and comprising -the districts of Salwin,
Amherst, Tavoy, Thatori, Toungu, and Mergui
(Map: Burma, C 4). Tenasserim is a narrow
strip of coast about 500 miles long, with a vary-
ing breadth of from 40 to 80 miles, extending
from the Pakchan River northward to the Sal-
win. Area, 36,086 square miles. Population, in
1891, 912,051; III 1901, 1,137,776. The chief
town is Maulmein.
TEN’ BRINK. See BRINK.
TENCH (OF. tenche, Fr. tanche, from ML.
tenca, Lat. ti/nca, tench). A small European
cyprinoid carp-like fish (Tinca culgaris), an in-
habitant of ponds and stagnant waters. It is
deep yellowish brown and usually about a foot
long. Its flesh is poor. See Plate of CARPS AND
ALLIES.
TENCIN, taN'saN', OLAUDINE ALEXANDBINE
GUEBIN DE (1681-1749). A French novelist,
prominent in the literary society of the Regency.
She was born at Grenoble, and was placed in
the Convent of Montfleury as a novice, whence a
sympathetic Lothario rescued her from seclusion.
She next appeared at Paris as an unscrupulous
friend of Cardinal Dubois (1714), gathering
about her a crowd of admirers, among them
Fonetnelle, Law, and the Regent. With the
death of the Regent Orleans (1723) her influ-
ence waned. In 1726 she sufi’ered a brief im-
prisonment in the Bastille because a desperate
lover had killed himself in her house. Later
her reputation revived; she became decorous
and popular with the now also aging ‘pets of the
menagerie’ of her youth, among them Duclos,
Lamotte, Marivaux, Marmontel, Montesquieu.
She wrote three novels, all mingling history with
fiction: Les mémolrs cln comte de Oommlnges
(1735) ; Le siege de Calais (1739) 3 and Les mal-
henrs cle l’amowr (1747), the last a bit of psychic
autobiography. The strength of all these tales
lies in their scenes of dread and gloom, some of
which were then unrivaled in French fiction.
Her nearest literary analogue is Madame de La-
fayette (q.v.). Tencin was mother, through one
of her many illicit connections, of D’A1embert
(q.v.) Her correspondence with her brother,
Cardinal de Tencin (1680-1758) appeared in
Paris in 1780, that with the Duke de Richelieu
in 1806. Alleged Mémoires secrets were pub-
lished by Barthélemy (Grenoble, 1790) . Tencin’s
(Ewvres, with those of Madame de Fontaines,
were published by Garnier (Paris, 1864).
TEN COMMANDMENTS. See DECALOGUE.
TENDA, tén’da, COL DI. A pass over the
Maritime Alps in Italy near the French boundary,
and 25 miles from the Mediterranean coast
(Map: Italy, B 3). Its altitude is 6145 feet,
and it carries the railroad from Cuneo to Venti-
miglia. The carriage road from Cuneo to Nice
passes here through a tunnel nearly two miles
long and lighted by electricity.
TENDAI-SHUT, ten-di’sh~'o_6’ (Chin. T’/Zen-tai;
Tsnng, name of a mountain in China where the
founder of the sect studied). A sect of Japanese
Buddhists, established toward the end of the
eighth century by a Japanese priest named Den-
gyo Daishi. Like all Japanese sects, it is of the
Northern School, and is based upon the Sad-
dharma Pnndarllca, or ‘Lotus of the Good Law.’
Salvation lies in the perception of the original
and absolute Buddha, of whom the historic
Buddha is one manifestation. The means of sal-
vation are meditation and wisdom. It has an
exoteric teaching for the vulgar, while its eso-
teric doctrines are reserved for the monks, al-
though the highest truths are recognized as trans-
cending human comprehension. The sect is
eclectic, and various Buddhas are worshiped in
its temples. It completed the triumph of Bud-
dhism in Japan by declaring that the Shinto
deities are manifestations of Buddha. As it
attempted in its teaching to reconcile contradic-
tory doctrines, it gave rise to schism and became
the mother of many sects. Its centre was on the
TEN DAI-SHU.
TENDBIL.
578
mountain near Kyoto called Hiyei-zan. Its
priests, though devoted by profession to medita-
tion, became very warlike in the Middle Ages.
Nobunaga (q.v.) in A.D. 1571 destroyed the mon-
astery, and killed the inhabitants. The sect
never regained its commanding position.
TENDENCY (from Lat. tendons, pres. part
of tendere, to stretch, tend ; connected with Gk.
relvew, teinein, Skt. tan, to stretch, OHG. dunni,
Ger. Dunn, AS. Pynne, Eng. thin). A term in
psycho-physics denoting the nervous disposition
which underlies mental constitution. It may be
termed ‘psycho-physical tendency’ if attention is
to be directed to the trend of consciousness which
is given by a peculiarity of organic structure, or
‘mental tendency’ if emphasis is to be laid on the
fact that different minds are attracted by differ-
ent sources of stimulation and persist in reacting
differently to like stimuli.
Tendencies are either natural or acquired. (1)
Natural tendencies are based on inheritance and
are transmitted through the medium of the nerv-
ous system, which tends to discharge by prefer-
ence in a certain direction. (2) Acquired ten-
dencies are permanent impressions, ‘sets’ which
are given the nervous system, especially while it
is plastic. Such a tendency exists as a liability
to discharge through certain channels which form
lines of least resistance under stimulation. A
habit started quite incidentally or even in the
face of constitutional reluctance may become in
time a distinctly ‘ingrained’ tendency toward a
particular action or mode of thought. (See
MUTUAL CONSTITUTION, Drsrosrrrou, Mnmosr,
TEMPERAMENT and HABIT.) W. James speaks of
‘feelings of tendency’ when a meaning is adum-
brated but not fully realized, in the state of
expectant attention. See FRINGE and SUBooN-
SCIOUS.
TENDER (from tender, OF., Fr. tendre, from
Lat. tendere, to stretch, extend; connected with
Gk. 1-cl:/ew, teinein, Skt. tan, Goth. uf-Panjan,
AS. Fenian, OHG. denen, clennen, Ger. clehnen, to
stretch out). As a legal term, the formal offer
to perform some legal obligation incumbent on
the person tendering performance under such
circumstances as to make no further act neces-
sary froin the party making the tender. The
term is most frequently used with reference to
the payment of money due, but it is not limited
to that application. If the obligation is simply
to pay money, all that the debtor is required to
do is to plead that he duly tendered the money;
and if he pay into court the sum formerly ten-
dered, the other party must discontinue the ac-
tion or proceed with it at his own risk. See
MOBTGAGE; PLEDGE.
In some States the rule that a tender must be
made in lawful money has been relaxed and a
tender made by a check or bill of exchange is
good unless the debtor rejects the tender on the
ground that negotiable paper is tendered instead
of lawful money. The creditor may also dispense
with the necessity of tender on the part of the
debtor by preventing a tender. In many States
there are statutory provisions permitting a debt-
or in case action is brought against him by the
creditor, to pay the sum due into court, or to
offer to permit the creditor to take judgment for
the amount due. the effect being, as in case of
tender, to stop the running of interest and to
prevent the creditor from recovering further
costs.
United States notes issued under act of Con-
gress of 1862 are legal tender for all public and
private dues except duties on imports and inter-
est on the public debt. Those issued under act
of July 14th, 1890, are legal tender in payment
of public and private debts. Gold and silver cer-
tificates of the United States are legal tender
under the same condition as gold and silver
coinage respectively. Notes issued for circulation
by national banks are legal tender in payment
of all debts and dues, public or private, except
duties due the United States on imports, and in-
terest due on the public debt and in payment
upon redemption of the national currency. They
are generally not legal tender for any debt due
any national banking association. See LEGAL
TENDER.
TENDON (from ML. tendo, tendon, from
Lat. tenclere, to stretch, extend). A term em-
ployed in anatomy to designate the structure
of white fibrous tissue reaching from the end
of a muscle to bone or some other structure which
is to serve as a fixed attachment for it, or which
it is intended to move. In accordance with their
form, tendons have been divided into the three
following varieties: (1) Funicular, or rope-like,
as the long tendon of the biceps muscle of the
arm; (2) fascicular, as the short tendon of that
muscle, and as most tendons generally; and (3)
aponeurotic, or tendinous expansions, sometimes
of considerable extent, and serviceable in
strengthening the walls of cavities, as, for ex-
ample, the tendons of the abdominal muscles.
The tendons begin by separate fasciculi from
the end of each muscular fibre, and they similarly
terminate by separate fasciculi in distinct depres-
sions in the bones besides being closely incor-
porated with the periosteum. Tendons, to-
gether with their sheaths, are subject to
acute and chronic inflammations and to
tumor formation. The ordinary acute form of
inflammation known as acute teno-synouitis is
usually brought along by injury such as a blow
or by over-use. The chronic form of inflamma-
tion is usually tubercular, though a rheumatic
diathesis sometimes occurs. The tumors usually
observed in tendons are small fibres and cartila-
ginous enlargements. Such growths occasionally
assume malignant character. When separation
of a tendon occurs either by rupture or incision,
if the ends of the divided tendon are not too
widely separated, repair takes place by the depo-
sition of new fibrous tissue, closely resembling
true tendon tissue. This repair is usually com-
plete at the end of three weeks.
TENDRIL (Fr. tenclrille, from tendre, tender,
from Lat. tener, delicate; connected with tenuis,
Gk. ravabs, tanaos, Skt. tanu, OHG. dunni, Ger.
diinn, AS. Pynne, Eng. thin). A slender‘,
usually cylindrical organ of higher plants used
for climbing. As to their origin, tendrils may
occupy the position of leaflets, or of leaves,
normally subtended by branches, or of branches
usually subtended by leaves. The last two sorts,
however, are not always easily distinguished.
Some tendrils are coiled when young, unrolling
as they mature; others are merely bent, or
straight, or variously folded. At maturity they
are usually slightly hooked near the apex.
Structurally, tendrils contain vascular bundles,
TE-NDRIL.
TE-NEMENT HOUSE PROBLEM.
579
surrounded by a cortex of thin walled and some-
what elongated parenchyma cells, covered by_ a
delicate epidermis. (See HISTOLOGY.) Physio-
logically, they are sensitive to friction, often
remarkably. Sensitiveness is ordinarily greatest
on the concave side of the curved tip, though
some tendrils are more sensitive on the flanks
and others equally sensitive on all sides. Ten-
drils of Cyclanthera under favorable conditions
will respond to a stimulus in less than ten sec-
onds, those of Passiflora in about 30 seconds,
while those of some other plants may only re-
spond after 30 to 90 minutes. The response con-
sists in a curvature of the,tip. This is first due
to the shortening of cells on the concave side and
the lengthening of those on the convex side. This
temporary curvature is maintained by the ac-
celerated growth of the convex side, so that the
part of the tip beyond the object with which it
has come into contact is coiled around the sup-
port, provided this be of sufficiently small diam-
eter. If large and rough the tip may be ap-
pressed to the surface, growing closely into the
irregularities, and so adhere more or less firmly
in that way. The petioles of some leaves, e.g.
Clematis, show a similar but less acute sensi-


TENDRILS O F BRYONY.
a, a tendril that has attached itself and is coiling, with
reversal of coils in centre; b, a recently attached tendril,
the unequal growth just beginning; c, one just attached;
g, (qne just straightened out; e, one still coiled from the
ll .
tiveness to friction, making one turn about a
support. Uncaria has short conical hooks which
are stimulated by contact and friction to grow
in such a way that they enlarge greatly and
curve about a support. After a tendril has laid
hold of an appropriate support the portion be-
tween the support and the axis of the plant is
brought under strain, to which it responds by
unequal growth on one side. By this means it
is thrown into a spiral with one or more points
of reversal (a mechanical necessity when a once
straight cylindrical body elongates on one side
and so coils up). The coils develop mechanical
tissues, and the most perfect tendril thus becomes
astrong, uniformly coiled, elastic spiral spring
which supports the plant. See LIANAS.
TENEBRE (Lat., darkness). A service in
the Roman Catholic Church; the matins of
Thursday, Friday, and Saturday in Holy Week,
generally sung on the preceding evening. The
name is taken from the opening of the Respon-
sorium following the fifth lesson on Good Fri-
day, Tenebrae factae sunt. The service consists
of sixteen Psalms and a Canticle from the Old
Testament, sung with their proper Antiphons in
fourteen divisions, nine Lessons, nine Respon-
series, the Canticle Benedictus, and the M iserere.
Most of the service is in unisonous plain chant.
At the conclusion of each Psalm and Antiphon
one of the fifteen candles in the triangular candle-
stick used for this special service is extinguished
with ceremony. During the singing of the Bene-
dictus the six altar candles are put out one by
one. The only light remaining is the candle at
the apex of the candlestick. This is removed and
carried behind the altar. After the singing of
the Antiphon, Christus faetus est pro nobis oeedi-
ens usque ad mortem, a silence follows, during
which the Paternoster is whispered in secret;
after the Miserere, a prayer is made and the
candle is brought from behind the altar. Then,
according to the rubric, “all rise and depart in
silence.”
TEI\T’EDOS. An island in the ZEgean Sea,
situated five miles from the northwestern coast
of Asia Minor, near the entrance of the Darda-
nelles (Map: Greece, G 2). Area, 16 square
miles. The only town which bears the name
of the island is inclosed by walls and has
an old castle and remains of the storehouses
erected by Justinian. The surface of the island
is uneven and rocky, but the soil is fairly fer-
tile. Wine is the most important product, about
5,000,000 gallons being annually exported. Pop-
ulation, about 4000, one-third of whom are
Mohammedans. Originally settled by £Eolians,
Tenedos was successively under the control of
Persia, Athens, Rome, the Byzantine emperors,
and Venice. Since 1322 it has been a Turkish
possession, and is included in the Archipelago
Vilayet.
TENEMENT (Lat. tenementum, a holding,
fief, from tenere, to hold, retain). In the strict
legal sense, anything of a permanent nature,
corporeal or incorporeal, which may be held or
be an object of tenure (q.v.). The term is now
used in a very broad sense and denotes any
estate or interest in lands. The word is also
popularly used to denote a rented house, espe-
cially one which is occupied by several fam-
ilies. See REAL PROPERTY.
TENEMENT HOUSE PROBLEM. The
problem of the making possible a healthful hu-
man existence under the conditions of dense popu-
lation in our modern cities. With the growth
of great cities, a double movement of population
takes place. The well-to-do are driven from
former residential districts by the encroaehments
of business, while working people crowd into
their vacated houses. Rear tenements are built
behind the old houses; new structures are put
up solely for use as tenements; and the whole
process is left in the hands of private builders
and landlords, ill-regulated by the municipality,
until its two most obvious evils, the danger from
epidemics and the danger from fire, force them-
selves upon public attention.
The fundamental evil of the tenement is crowd-
ing under unsanitary conditions. Houses built
for one family cannot be adapted to hold four or
more, sanitary conveniences become increas-
TENEMENT HOUSE PROBLEM.
ingly inadequate, needed repairs are not made,
the tenants deteriorate, and the slum is formed.
A district built up fully with new tenements and
more crowded than the slum may be less de-
graded, but is hardly more wholesome. A high
death-rate, especially among infants, is a normal
characteristic of tenement districts. In New
York in 1894 the general death-rate for the city
was 22.75, but it was as high as 33 in some
crowded wards. Jewish quarters, densely popu-
lated as they are, are exceptional in usually hav-
ing a death-rate below that for the whole city.
In certain rear tenements in New York the death-
rate for children under five years has been at
times over 200 per 1000. ‘
The personal and social evils of tenement life
are more far-reaching than the physical. See
HOUSING PROBLEM.
A first step in reform is legislation compelling
the destruction or renovation of existing dwell-
ings that are unsanitary, but it is equally im-
portant to provide for rehousing the displaced
population, and to see that new tenements are
properly built. The British act of 1890 permits
municipal condemnation of unsanitary areas, but
requires that all persons displaced shall be re-
housed on or near the same site. Ordinary
laborers must live near their work, or in the
central area of the city, and it is thought a mis-
take to build in such areas model tenements at
a cost requiring rents that only the skilled arti-
san can pay. To house the artisan in the outer
belts, the clerk and similarly paid workers in
the suburbs, and to provide quick and cheap
transportation, is the effective mode of attacking
the housing problem. Such a process is neces-
sarily slow. So long as old houses stand, and
new ones are put up for private profit, a good
sanitary and building code is essential, but with
it should be provided, as has not usually been
done in American cities, a proper force for in-
spection and enforcement. Private initiative has
proved that model tenements can be commer-
cially successful in housing either artisans
or more poorly paid laborers. As the more
obvious evils of over-crowding, malconstruc-
tion, and insanitation are corrected, the pure-
ly social aspects of the problem are attacked
more and more directly, both by the municipality
itself and by private philanthropy. In Great
Britain housing improvements on a large scale
have been undertaken by the municipalities. Pri-
vate companies also have been active. The
Housing of the Working Classes Act (1890), con-
solidating and improving a series of laws reach-
ing back to 1851, permits cities to condemn and -
acquire economically areas adjudged unsanitary,
and to erect and manage new dwellings on the
premises. Under this act London spent $1,400,-
000 in clearing 15 acres of one of its worst slums
in Bethnal Green, laid out the area attractively,
and rehoused upon the same site practically all
the 5700 people displaced. The County Council
later undertook other schemes involving the hous-
ing of 25,000 persons, and in accordance with the
amendment of 1900 began to build workmen’s
cottages outside the county limits. Several large
private foundations, such as the Peabody Fund,
have built and successfully run model tenements
on a large scale.
In Continental Europe construction of tene-
ments by the city is less common than in Eng-
580
TE-NEMENT HOUSE PROBLEM.
land, but general sanitary reform has been very
marked. In Berlin, where over 99 per cent. of
the population live in apartments or tenements,
the chief activity centres in efficient sanitary
measures and the removal of congestion through
rapid transit and supervision of the suburbs. In
many German towns, and in Belgium, Holland,
Scandinavia, and France, municipal effort has
gone along similar lines, while many model
tenements have been built by private societies.
In Paris sanitary conditions are carefully super-
vised, and questionable tenements are in the
hands of a special commission.
Conditions differ widely in the large cities of
the United States. Most have slum districts;
not many, as yet, have developed a serious tene-
ment house problem. Chicago’s rapid and ill-
regulated growth has given her several deplor-
able areas, with a great number of old, neglected
and unsanitary houses. Jersey City has some of
the worst tenement districts in the country. In
Boston conditions are similar to those of New
York, where the tenement problem has long
been pressing, and, owing to the confined land
space of Manhattan Island, is unique in diffi-
culty. The Board of Health was roused to
criticise housing conditions as early as 1834, and
after 1843, when the Association for Improving
the Condition of the Poor was founded, the mat-
ter was frequently brought to public notice. A
legislative inquiry in 1856 and an investiga-
tion by the Council of Hygiene in 1864 led to
the first tenement-house ordinance in 1867. New
York has long had a model sanitary code, but
provision for enforcement has been wholly insuf-
ficient for this, as with its tenement laws. Up
to 1879, the date of the next revival of public
interest, tenement dwellings in New York were
modified private houses or rear tenements built
behind such, or buildings put up solely for tene-
ment purposes, covering 75 to 90 per cent. of the
lot’s area. In 1879 appeared the typical New
York tenement, the ‘double-decker’ or ‘dumb-
bell.’ Built five stories high on a lot 25 feet
wide, it covers from 86 to 90 per cent. of the lot’s
depth, and 75 per cent. of its area, with 14 rooms,
for four families, on each floor. Its typical fea-
ture is the laterally indented air shaft, usually
28 inches wide in the widest part, or 56 inches
when two similar houses are together. All rooms
except the four outside ones open upon this
shaft, which gives little daylight and no ventila-
tion below the fourth story, is the source of
greatest danger during fires, and has been de-
scribed, hygienically, as a ‘culture tube on a
large scale.’ Under such conditions -perhaps a
million New Yorkers live.
The commissions of 1884 and 1894 improved
the tenement laws in various points, but little
progress was made in enforcement. Model tene-
ments, beginning with the ‘Riverside’ dwellings in
Brooklyn, erected by Alfred T. White in 1876,
have been built in many places in New York City,
notably by the City and Suburban Homes Com-
pany (founded 1896). These undertakings have
been commercially successful, paying dividends of
4 to 7 per cent. No American city has followed
the English policy of building tenements on its
own account, but the plan of condemning prop-
erty for small parks has found favor. New
York s-pends at least $1,000,000 yearly in this
way. It thus abolished its worst slum, at Mul-
berry Bend, and——onc example among several--.-
TENEMENT HOUSE PROBLEM.
TENIERS.
581
in 1903 it opened 21/2 acres between Hester and
Division streets, with playgrounds and public
conveniences in the heart of one of the most
crowded areas in the world. The results of the
work done by the Tenement House Commission
of 1900 have been substantial. Under the new
law, new tenements may not cover more than 70
per cent. of the lot’s area, and discretionary
power to mitigate this restriction has been taken
from the Building Department. The old form of
air shaft is no longer legal in new tenements,
open courts being required instead. Encourage-
ment is given to tenement building on ‘Wide?
units than the 25-foot lot; provisions for sanita-
tion and for protection against fire are improved,
and, above all, a special Tenement House Depart-
ment has been created to enforce the law concern-
ing old houses as well as new. New York’s tran-
sit question is yet far from solved, but progress is
making. Tremendous as the city’s tenement prob-
lem is, the outlook for the near future is en-
couraging.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. United States Commissioner
of Labor, Eighth Special Report (“The Housing
of the Working People”) (1895) ; Seventh Spe-
cial Report (“The Slums of Great Cities”)
(1894); Shaw, Municipal Government in Great
Britain (New York, 1895) ; id., Municipal Gov-
ernment in Continental Europe (ib., 1895) ; Raf-
falovich, Le logement ole l’oucrier (Paris, 1887) ;
Reynolds, “Housing of the Poor in American
Cities,” American Economic Association (1893) ;
Riis, How the Other Half Lices (New York,
1890); id., A Ten Years’ War (ib., 1899); Re-
ports of New York’s Tenement Commissions of
1884, 1894, and 1900; Veiller, Tenement Reform
in New York (New York, 1900) ; Hunter, Tene-
ment O'onditio_ns in Chicago (Chicago, 1901);
Masterman and others, The Heart of the Empire
(London, 1902) ; De Forest and others, Housing
Problems, American Academy of Political and
Social Science Publications (Philadelphia, 1902).
TENERANI, ta’na-ra’ne, PIETRO (1789-1869).
An Italian sculptor, born at Torano, near Car-
rara. -He was a pupil of Canova and later of
Thorwaldsen, to whom he became a favorite as-
sistant. He resided almost altogether at Rome,
was professor in the Academy of San Luca, and
held the post of director of all the museums and
galleries of that city. His works are fair and soft
in form, and smooth in execution. ‘ His “Psyche
and Pandora’s Box,” in the Palazzo Lenzoni,
Florence; a large relief of the “Deposition from
the Cross,” in the Lateran; an “Angel of the
Resurrection,” in Santa Maria sopra Minerva;
and the tomb of Pius VIII. in Saint Peter’s are
among the best of his sculptures. Other speci-
mens are to be found in many Italian churches
and cemeteries. He executed a statue of Bolivar
for Colombia, South America.
TEN’ERIFFE' (Sp. Tenerife). The largest
of the Canary Islands (q.v.), situated a little
west of the centre of the group, between the isl-
ands of Palma and Gran Canaria (Map: Spain,
F 5). Area, 782 square miles. It consists of a
nearly circular main portion from which a
peninsula projects toward the northeast. The
latter consists of ancient, much eroded, and for-
est-covered mountains, while the main portion
rises into the magnificent Peak of Teneriife or
Pico de Teyde, a dormant volcano 12,192 feet
high. The base of this enormous cone consists
of pasture land interspersed with forests of
chestnut and oak, but the upper slopes, which
are steep and difficult of ascent, are covered with
volcanic scoriee, while the summit is capped
with snow in winter. The last serious eruption
of the volcano occurred in 1704. The climate is
mild and healthful, and dates, cocoanuts, and
other tropical and northern fruits are culti-
vated, as well as grain, cotton, sugar, and grapes.
Population, in 1887, 109,417; in 1900, 137,302.
The capital of the island, as well as of the whole
archipelago, is Santa Cruz de Tenerife (q.v.).
'.I‘E1\TES’MUS (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tenesmos,
from Gk. 'rewe0',u.6s, teinesmos, a straining at
stool, from relvew,
Pain referred to the rectum or bladder, due to
the spasmodic contraction of the sphincter ani
or sphincter vesicee, and associated with an un-
successful desire to evacuate the bowels or blad-
der. Rectal tenesmus is a constant symptom of
dysentery (q.v.), and may accompany hemor-
rhoids, fissure, fistula, or malignant disease of
the lower part of the rectum. Causes of vesical
tenesmus are chiefly cystitis (q.v.) and pressure
on the bladder. Treatment will depend on the
disease of which tenesmus is a symptom, but cold
or hot applications, enemas containing lauda-
num, or suppositories of opium, cocaine, bella-
donna, or hyoscyamus will relieve the pain.
TENIERS, te-nérz’ Fr. pron. te-nya’, DAVID,
tl1e Elder (1582-1649). A Flemish genre and
landscape painter, born at Antwerp, pupil of
his brother Julian (1572-1615). He studied
under Rubens and in Rome was influenced by
Elsheimer, in whose manner he painted land-
scapes with mythological figures, eight of which
are preserved in the Vienna Museum. After-
wards he turned to fantastic subjects and rustic
genre scenes in the prevailing taste of the times,
such as the “Temptation of Saint Anthony” (Ber-
lin Museum), “Peasants Carousing in Front of
a Tavern” (Darmstadt Gallery), and “A Dutch
Kitchen” (Metropolitan Museum, New York).
TENIERS, DAVID, the Younger (1610-90).
The principal genre painter of the Flemish
school, born at Antwerp, son and pupil of the
preceding. Before he was twenty his work bore
the stamp of maturity, and in 1633 he entered
the guild as master. His early manner and
choice of subjects is represented by such ex-
amples as “The Prodigal Son” (Pinakothek,
Munich), “The Five Senses” (Brussels Museum),
“A Merry Repast” (Berlin Museum), and “The
Misers” (1634, National Gallery, London) . The
delineations from peasant life, which henceforth
constituted the keynote of his productions,
showed the influence of Adrian Brouwer. Of
more than 100 such pictures which Teniers
painted, some of the most characteristic are: the
“Interior of Village Inn,” “Flemish Tap-Room”
(1643) ; “Peasants’ Dance” (1645) ; “The Smok-
ers” (1650, all in the Pinakothek, Munich);
“Hour of Rest” (Amsterdam), “Smoking Club”
(Dresden), and “Backgammon Players” (1641,
Berlin). Brouwer’s spirit also prevails in sub-
jects like “The Dentist” and “The Barber Shop”
(both in Cassel), “The Village Doctor” (Brus-
sels), and “The Bagpipe-Player” (Buckingham
Palace, London) ; also in various treatments of
“The Alchemist” (The Hague and Dresden), and
teinein, to stretch, strain).
TE-NIERS.
TE-NNENT.
582
of the “Temptation of Saint Anthony” (Brussels,
Dresden, and——dated 1647--Berlin).
In 1637 Teniers married Anna Breughel, the
daughter of Jan Breughel and ward of Rubens,
who was one of the marriage witnesses. Soon
after the death of Brouwer in 1638 the influence
of Rubens became apparent in Teniers’s coloring,
which changed from a general brownish tint to a
warm golden tone with rich and luminous local
colors, and in the dramatic life animating
his large compositions, extremely rich in
figures. This phase is well exemplified by a
“Peasants’ Da-nce”(l640, Berlin), and the “Flem-
ish Kirmess” (1641, Dresden, Vienna, Madrid,
1652, Brussels and Amsterdam). Especially re-
markable for the number of figures is “The Great
Fair in Florence” (Munich), and interesting por-
trait groups are represented in “The Artist and
His Family” (c.1645, Berlin), and “Teniers in
Front of His Castle Near Perck” (National Gal-
lery, London). In 1642 he was commissioned to
paint for Saint George’s Guild an “Archers’ Fes-
tival” (now in the Hermitage, Saint Petersburg),
containing 45 characteristic portrait figures. A
few scenes from military life are depicted in the
splendid “Guard Room” (1641, Amsterdam),
“Robbers Plundering a Village” (1648, Vienna),
and “Relief of Valenciennes by the Spaniards"
(Antwerp). Among several biblical episodes, the
most attractive is “Abraham’s Sacrifice” (1653,
Vienna).
After Teniers had, about 1643, become lord of
the manor of Dry Toren (Three Towers), near
Brussels, he seems to have been more than ever
absorbed in rural life and work; witness such pro-
ductions of his brush as “The Sausage-Maker,”
“Cow-Stable,” and “Goat-House” (all in Vienna),
the last two especially noteworthy for their fine
chiaroscuro. In 1650 the artist was appointed
Court painter to Archduke Leopold William,
and removed to Brussels, where he superintended
that art-loving Prince’s picture gallery and de-
picted notable events in his life and that of his
consort, Isabella. The most interesting of these
pictures is “The Shooting Match at Brussels,
1652” (Vienna), containing more than 470 fig-
ures. As director of the gallery he painted a
series of interiors, faithfully representing its
contents to the minutest detail. Of these there
are four in Munich, and one each in Vienna
(1656), Madrid, and Brussels (1657), the last
being characteristic of the delicate silvery tone
which prevailed in the painter’s coloring for
about a decade from 1650 on. Among the works
of his later period are rural scenes and land-
' scapes, besides his inimitable parodistic monkey-
pictures, notably “Monkeys in a Tavern Smok-
ing,” “Repast in the Kitchen,” and “Monkey Con-
cert,” all in the Pinakothek, Munich. Unique
among his works is the “Sacrament of the
Miracle of Saint Gudule” (Berlin), painted on
white marble, the grain of which is visible
through the colors. The.Metropolitan Museum,
New York, possesses a “Marriage Festival” and
a “Temptation of Saint Anthony.”
Teniers left about 800 paintings, which in
searching observation of nature, wondrous har-
mony of color, and their whole artistic combi-
nation entitle their author to undisputed su-_
premacy in his sphere. Consult: Rosenberg,
Teniers der Jiingere (Leipzig, 1895) ; Wurzbach,
in Dohme, Kanst and Kilnstler, i. (ib., 1877).
'.l.'ENIM’BER. A group of islands in the
Malay Archipelago. See TIMORLAUT.
TENINO, ta-né’no. A tribe of Shahaptian
stock (q.v.) formerly claiming most of the
Deschutes ‘River country of northern Oregon,
and now gathered with other tribes upon Warm-
spring reservation in the same region. They
originally lived farther to the northeast, upon
the Columbia. In 1855 they made their first
treaty with the Government, and agreed to come
upon their present reservation. Their language
is also that of several smaller tribes formerly
occupying both banks of the Columbia.
TEN KATE. See KATE.
TEN’1\TANT, WILLIAM (1784-1848). A Scot-
tish poet. He was born at Anstruther, Fifeshire,
Scotland. A cripple almost from his birth, he
naturally turned to study. In 1799 he entered
the University of Saint Andrews, which he left
after two years to become clerk to his brother, a
corn-agent. The business proving unsuccessful,
he was glad to accept in 1813 the situation of
parish schoolmaster at Dunino, a small village
about four miles from Saint Andrews, with a
salary of £40 a year. In 1812 he had ub-
lished his Anster Fair, a poem of much sprig tli-
ness and humor. The piece gradually made its
way, aided by a highly laudatory notice in the
Edinburgh Review, from the pen of the then
omnipotent Jeffrey. In 1816 Tennant became
teacher of a school at Lasswade, near Edinburgh,
whence three years afterwards he was trans-
ferred to the Dollar Academy in Clackman-
nanshire. His attainments as a linguist were
by this time extraordinary. In 1834 he was ap-
pointed professor of Oriental languages in the
University of Saint Andrews. In _ connection
with his new duties, he published a Syriac and
Chaldee Grammar, (1840). He died at Devon
Grove, October 14, 1848. Besides other miscel-
lanies in verse, Tennant published: The Thane of
Fife, a Poem( 1822) ; Cardinal Beaton, a Tragedy
(1823) ; and John Baliol, a Drama (1825). None
of these later productions increased the literary
reputation which his first work had won for
him. Consult Conolly, Life of William Tennant
(Edinburgh, 1861).
TE1\T’NE1\TT, GILBERT (1703-64). A Presby-0
terian minister. He was born in County
Armagh, Ireland; came to America with his
father, William Tennent, in 1718, and aided him
as a teacher in the ‘Long College.’ He studied
medicine and theology; was ordainedpastor of a
Presbyterian church in New Brunswick, N. J ., in
1726, continuing the connection until 1743,
though traveling and preaching with Whitefield
in New England for several months ; founded and
became pastor of a church in Philadelphia, with
which he remained connected until his death. In
1753 he visited England with President Davies to
obtain aid for the College of New Jersey and
raised £1500. He published many sermons.
TENNENT, Sir JAMES EMERSON (1804-69).
A British traveler, politician, and author, born
at Belfast, Ireland. He traveled through the
Levant and Greece in 1824-25, and was a mem-
ber of Parliament from 1832 to 1845. In 1842
he secured the passage of the bill granting copy-
rights to designers. He was secretary to the
India Board (1841-43); civil secretary to the
Ceylon colonial Government (1845-50); and
Io_z:_>_ .v_mI._.o§_z_n_ H.:._._. z_ _oz_.rz_<n_ m:._._. 205
Oz_n_n_m>> O_._.mDm wI._.|m.mm__z|“_._. n:><0

TENNENT.
TENNESSEE.
583
shortly after his return to England, again en-
tered Parliament (1852) . There he was succes-
sively secretary for the Poor Law Board (1852),
and a joint secretary of the Board of Trade (1852-
67). After resigning the latter post, he was made
a baronet. Under his original name of Emerson,
to which he had added his wife’s name, Tennent,
Sir James published a number of books, includ-
ing: A Picture of Greece in 1825 (1826) ;
Christianity in Ceylon (1850); Ceylon: An Ac-
count of the Island (2 vols., 1859); Sketches of
the Natural History of Ceylon (1861); and The
Story of the Guns (1865).
TENNESSEE’. A South Central State of the
United States, popularly called ‘The Volunteer
State.’ It lies between latitudes 35° and 36°
36' N., and between longitudes 81° 37 ’ and 90°
28' W., and is bounded on the north by Ken-
tucky and Virginia, on the east by North Caro-
lina, on the south by Georgia, Alabama, and
Mississippi, and on the west by Arkansas and
Missouri. The western boundary is formed by
the Mississippi River, the eastern by the crest
of the Unaka Mountains, while the southern
boundary is a straight line. Tennessee has an
extreme length from east to west of 432 miles,
and an extreme breadth of 109 miles. Its area
is 42,050 square miles, giving it the thirty-first
rank in size among the States.
TOPOGRAPHY. The surface features fall into
eight natural and well-marked topographical re-
gions. The easternmost is the Unaka or Great
Smoky Mountains, forming a belt of bold ridges.
The average elevation of the main ridge is near-
ly 5000 feet, but a number of peaks within the
State rise above 6000 feet, and Mount Guyot has
an altitude of 6636 feet. Along the western base
of the mountains stretches the Eastern Valley of
the Tennessee, forming a succession of almost
unbroken parallel minor ridges and valleys with
an average elevation of 1000 feet. The valley is
bounded on the west by the abrupt and rugged
escarpment of the Cumberland Plateau. This is a
nearly level table-land, rising about 1000 feet
above the East Tennessee Valley, and falling on
the western edge in a somewhat less rugged slope
to a lower plateau known as the Highland Rim.
This occupies the central portion of the State
as far west as the north course of the Tennessee
River, with an altitude of nearly 1000 feet. As
its name implies, it forms a rim encircling the
Central Basin, a large oval depression lying sev-
eral hundred feet below the surrounding high-
land. The Highland Rim, though generally level,
is cut by deep river valleys, and it is separated
by the narrow Western Valley of the Tennessee
from the Western Plateau Slope. The latter
slopes gradually toward the Mississippi River,
near which it ends abruptly in a line of bluffs
bounding the Mississippi Flood Plain, a low and
almost unreclaimed region covered by large la-
goons and heavily forested cypress swamps.
HYDROGRAPHY. Tennessee belongs wholly to
the Mississippi Valley, and its western quarter
is drained directly into the Mississippi through
a number of streams, the largest of which are the
Obion and the Big Hatchie. The remainder of
the State is drained by the two great tributaries
of the Ohio. the Cumberland and the Tennessee.
Both enter the State across the northern bound-
ary in the east, and both leave it over the northern
boundary in the west after making a large semi-
circular curve in which the Tennessee passes be-
yond the southern State limits. Both of them
are large, navigable waterways, and the Ten-
nessee has, besides, a number of navigable head-
streams within the State, such as the Clinch,
the French Broad, the Holston, and the Hiawas-
see. There are no lakes except the lagoons and
cut-offs in the Mississippi bottomland. The
largest of the lagoons is Reelfoot Lake, 25 miles
long and 5 miles broad.
CLIMATE. The climate is in general mild,
equable, and, except in the western lowlands,
remarkably healthful and pleasant. The mean
temperature varies but slightly in the different
sections of the State, being scarcely two degrees
lower in the east than in the west, excepting, of
course, on the high mountains in the extreme east.
For July the mean temperature is 77°, and for
January 38°. The maximum may reach 104°,
but the minimum is seldom lower than 10°, though
it occasionally falls below zero in the moun-
tains. The rainfall is also nearly equally dis-
tributed both as to seasons and localities, being
somewhat heavier in the spring than in the
autumn and heavier in the middle section than
in the east and west. The normal average for
the eastern section is 47 inches, for the middle
section 52 inches, and for the west 50 inches,
while the highest and lowest normals are re-
spectively 61 and 42 inches._.
SoIL. There is great diversity in the soils of
the State, depending on the character of the rock
formations, whose outcrops are coincident with
the topographical regions. The alluvium of the
Mississippi bottoms is the richest soil. It is
followed beyond the bluffs by a brown loam be-
coming sandy and barren toward the Tennessee
River. The Highland Rim has a siliceous soil
of indifferent quality, but the Central Basin has
a very fertile calcareous soil. The Cumberland
Plateau is sandy and unproductive, but good
magnesian limestone soil again occurs in the
East Tennessee Valley.
FLCRA. Numerous species of oak, as well as
beech, hickory, walnut, locust, the tulip tree
(Liriodendron tulipifera), and persimmon are
common throughout the State. On the moun-
tains the pine, hemlock, sugar maple, and ash
are abundant, though pine also grows in the
sandy belt of the western plateau. Red cedar
is especially common in the Central Basin, and
in the swampy lowlands of the west are found
the cypress, larch, swamp cedar, and papaw.
Tennessee still has a very large forest area,
chiefly distributed over the extreme eastern and
western sections and in the southwestern and
northeastern parts of the middle section.
For FAUNA see under the UNITED STATES.
GECLCGY AND MINERALS. The outcrops of the
geological formations of Tennessee correspond
with the topographical regions described above.
In the western three-fourths of the State the
strata lie nearly horizontal and undisturbed, and
the Central Basin and Cumberland Plateau are
formed by the wearing away in the one case of
the overlying, and in the second case of the sur-
rounding portions of the strata. East of the
Cumberland Plateau the strata are upturned so
that their exposed edges form the ridges of the
East Tennessee Valley and the mountain ranges.
The great eastern Archzean area comes but slight-
lv within the State limits in the extreme east.
The Unaka Mountains are mostly of the Ocoee
TENNESSEE.
TENNESSEE.
584
formation of the Cambrian system. The minor
ridges and depressions of the East Tennessee
Valley consist of successive outcrops of Potsdam
sandstone of the Cambrian, and Trenton lime-
stone, shales, and dolomite belonging to the
Lower Silurian age. The Lower Silurian strata
pass under the Cumberland Plateau and High-
land Rim, and reappear as the surface rock of
the Central Basin, and again in the bottom of the
Western Tennessee Valley. The plateau strata
are Carboniferous, the Highland Rim being Sub-
Carboniferous, while the Cumberland Plateau
belongs to the Upper Carboniferous system. West
of the Western Tennessee the Paleozoic strata
disappear, and on their edges the Cretaceous
and Tertiary strata rest unconformably. The
Cretaceous outcrop is narrow, the greater part of
the Western Plateau Slope being Tertiary. Be-
tween the bluffs and the Mississippi River the
surface is of recent alluvial formation.
There are two great iron belts in the State,
one occupying the western part of the Highland
Rim, and the other stretching along the west-
ern slope of the Unaka Mountains. The ore is
chiefly limonite, with some magnetite in the
northeast. Copper occurs in the metamorphic
rocks in the extreme southeastern corner of the
State, and zinc and lead are found in various
parts of the East Tennessee Valley. The coal
measures of the Cumberland Plateau contain sev-
eral seams of bituminous coal of workable thick-
ness. Other minerals of importance are hy-
draulic limestone and marble of a good quality,
as well as other building stones derived chiefly
from the Silurian strata.
MINING. Tennessee is beginning to acquire
considerable importance as a mining State. Coal
is excavated in the mountain counties west of the
Upper Tennessee River. For several years prior
to 1899 the annual value of the coal output was
about $2,300,000; subsequently it rose until in
1901 it was valued at $4,067,381, the amount
being 3,633,290 short tons. Over 9000 men are
employed. There were 404,017 short tons of coke
manufactured in that year. The iron ore mined
in 1901, 789,494 long tons, was an increase over
former years and made the State sixth in rank.
Of the total amount, 474,545 tons was brown
hematite. The mining of phosphate rock began
in 1894 and theoutput of 1901 was worth $1,192,-
090, which was less than in the previous year.
The marble quarried in the State each year is
usually worth between $300,000 and $400,000; in
1901, however, the amount rose to $494,637. The
value of limestone quarried for that year was
$330,927, a sum larger than usual. Clays found
in the State are extensively utilized in the manu-
facture of brick and tile.
AGRICULTURE. The State has a great diversity
of physical conditions with a corresponding
variation of soil and crops. The river valleys
are generally fertile. The region known as the
Central Basin contains a limestone soil of great
fertility. In 1900 20,342,058 acres were included
in farms, a little over half of this area being
improved. While the farm area was but lit-
tle greater in 1850 than in 1900, the improved
area‘ had almost doubled. The average size of
farms decreased meanwhile from 261 acres’ to
90.6 acres. In 1900 12.6 per cent. of the farms
were rented for cash, and 27.9 per cent. share
rent, the latter having made a large gain during
the decade ending with that year. Over one-
seventh of the farms are operated by negroes,
but only 22.4 per cent. of the negro farmers own
their farms.
By far the largest and most valuable crop is
corn, the acreage of which increased very con-
siderably in‘ the decade 1890-1900. Wheat is
also an important cereal and much more than
regained in the decade 1890-1900 what it had lost
in the preceding decade. The cultivation of oats,
the only other important cereal, has decreased.
Cotton is one of the leading crops in the south-
west corner of the State, and it is of much impor-
tance also in some of the northern counties. The
area in hay and forage has increased more than
threefold since 1880. Dry peas and sorghum
cane are noteworthy products, as are also Irish
and sweet potatoes. Peanuts are grown in large
quantities in the Tennessee Valley. The climate
is favorable to fruit culture, and in 1900 there
were over 11,700,000 fruit trees, of which 7,700,-
000 were apple trees. There was a large increase
in the number of all varieties of fruit trees in the
decade ending with 1900. Of the 12,944 acres
reported in small fruits in 1899, 11,548 acres
were in strawberries. Watermelons and various
vegetables are extensively raised. The following
table is self-explanatory:



1900. 1890,
CROP acres acres
Corn ........................................... .. 3,374,574 2,791,324
Wheat ......................................... .. 1,426,112 877,361
Oats ............................................ .. 235,313 588,138
Bye .............................................. .. 16,556 26,443
Hay and forage ........................... .. 645,617 571,553
Cotton ......................................... .. 623,137 747,471
Tobacco ...................................... .. 71,849 51.471
Peanuts ....................................... .. 19,534 16,244
Dry peas ..................................... .. 82,841 .......... ..
P otatoes ..................................... .. 27,103 36,992
Sweet potatoes ........................... .. 23,174 23,746
Sorghum cane ............................. .. 31,364 40,303
STOCK-RAISING. The number of cattle in-
creased between 1870 and 1890, but decreased in
the following decade. Both horses and mules in-
creased in each decade from 1870 to 1900. Sheep,
on the contrary, fell off in numbers. In 1899
$1,510,183 was received from sales of dairy prod-
ucts. The following table gives the number of
stock for two census years:


I 1900 1890
Dairy cows .................................. .. 321,676 345.311
Other cattle ................................. .. 590,507 620,028
Horses ......................................... .. 352,388 311,842
Mules and asses 262,509 203,639
Sheep ........................................... .. 307,804 540,996
Swine ........................................... .. 1,976,984 1,922,912
FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS. Tennessee
stood first among Southern States in 1900 in the
value of its lumber products. It is estimated
that the State contains 27,300 square miles of
wooded area. Increased activity in the lumber
industry began after 1880. The value of prod-
ucts more than doubled between 1890 and 1900.
The value of planing mill products decreased dur-
ing the same period.
MANUFACTURES. Since 1880 the manufactur-
ing industry has grown rapidly, the value of
products increasing 95.2 per cent. in 1880-90,
and 48.5 per cent. in the subsequent decade, the
value in 1900 being $107,437,879. There were in
oo 3 so c as ‘




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mPYRlGHT, 1891 AND 1903, BY D000, MEAD a COMPANY-
AREA AND POPULATION OF TENNESSEE BY COUNTIES. AREA AND POPULATION OF TENNESSEE BY COUNTIES.






(Oontz'naed.)
_ Population.
_ M Area 111
, Population. County. 541) County Seat. square
Ma Area, 111 Index. miles-
C0l1nty- Indeg County Seat square 1890. 1900.
mlles' 1890. 1900.
Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G g C%llI1lli;)Il . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 350 15,128 17,634
KM - ----------- -- H 4 Knoxville ------------ -- 59-557 -4-302 %Z3€3£4:::::::::::::::: 34 3.3.31‘. .‘?'.: :t::::::::: 223 143533 23$
. . . . . . . . . . 'keville . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 400 6 134 6 626
Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 4 Tiptonville ........... .. 5.304 "',368 Bleds°"""""' F 5 P1 - .2 1
kauderdale _ . _ _ . _ _ O _ . H B 5 Ripley _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ . _ . _ H 18,756 21,971 Blount. . . .. .. .. . .. H 5 Maryville . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 11,589 19,206
awfence """"""" " D 5 La“’re“Ceb“r=‘1’ -------- -- 1212 151402 Bradley . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Cleveland ............ .. 325 13,607 15 759
Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 5 Hohenwald.. . . . . . . . . . .. 2,555 4,455 Campbell , _ _ _ _ , , _ _ , _ . .. 1% 4 J ack(s1ll))oro . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 477 13,486 17,317
- ' - C on. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 W00 ury . . . . . . . . . . . .. 325 2,19” 12,12
E,‘,‘,‘f,°é§ ------------ " E 2 Egggggvllle ----------- --
393% lo.-$511 .............. .. o 5 Huntingdon .......... .. 824 23,630 24,250
. . - - . e - - . . - - - - 44 I -...----........ , , ' ' 8 -~
lilacllatinn . _ . . _ . . . _ _ _ ‘ _ _ H G 5 gtlhens _ . ‘ _ . _ O . _ _ . ‘ _ . - N 171890 71163 Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 4 Ehzabethton .. . . . . . . . .. 345 13,389 16,688
°*‘4i1'Y' - " C 5 emer -------------- -- 151510 1 176 Cheatham ...... o 4 Ashland City ......... .. 347 8,845 10,112
Macon ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ‘ ‘ ' F 4 Lafayette‘ ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' 10378 12381 Chester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C 5 Henderson ............ . . 300 9,069 9,896
W... ............ .. 18. 5...... .............. .. 3g,ie1i7 39.33;. <>1g;,b1m<1 ------------ -- 9: '&4:,‘;B“ ------------- -- 3%: egg; 23-:9;
anon . . . . . . . . .. 5 asper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 , 1 . ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' " .‘ ’ .
alarshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Lewisbburg . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,906 13,763 Cooke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 5 Newport . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 420 16,523 19,153
a_11ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 5 Colum ia.... . . . . . . . . .. 38,112 .703 Coffee . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Manchester . . . . . . . . . . . .. 442 13,827 15,574
Me1gS . . . . . - - - . . . . - . . . . . G 5 Decatllr . . - . . - . - . . - ~ . . . ,CrOckett. ' H I ‘ - . . ' . _ _ £3‘ 2 A1a'mO_l.1 . ‘ ‘ - ‘ . . . . . . . . . .
- - C be lan . . . . . . . . . .. Crossvi e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5,3” ,
§gg§;g;,;,,~,-,_.,- ---- -- ' Si 1(‘,4,§§{§S°vIi‘1v1§]e --------- --
,13g1(5,‘13.§ .niiir[idei>n ............ .. E 4 Nashville ............. .. 522 108,174 122,815
ggoore _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ H E 2 LynC%bm,g_ . _ . . 5:975 517%? Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 5 Decaturvflle . . . . . . . . . . .. 281 8,995 10,439
°?gan -------------- -1 G W4." ‘nig ------------ -- 71639 915 Dekalb . . . . . .. F 5 Smithville ............ .. 322 15 650 18,480
Ohm ------------ 1- B 4 Umon C145’ --------- 1- 2712‘ 281286 Dickson..... . . . . . . . . .. 1) 4 Charlotte ............. .. 800 131843 18,635
- - D er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. B 5 Dyersburg . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 19,87 23,776
iqggyion """"""" " ii: £lI‘llII:3gIlBt0n """"" " ' $335 ,;Fzlyette .............. .. B 5 Somervllle ........... .. 818 28,878 29,701
gnigett . ' . . _ _ . I . _ . _ _ . F 4 ]];yrdstOwn.'.'_'H'_ U I __ $536 ;Fentress . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Jamestown . . . . . . . . . . . .. 445 5,226 6,106
0' . . . . . . . .. . G5 enton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,61 , , ~ -
Putnam ............. .. F 4 Cookeville ............ .. 13,683 18,890 g§{‘;‘B1(1)‘,l‘_‘f_-_ I I I I I 1:: 104 2 I 1: 2:2 @323 ggflgg
. Giles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D 5 Pulaski . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 605 34,957 33,035
Eggie . . . ' . ' ' I . . . ‘ . ‘ ' . g 5 ]Ki11i,gs)th-Ii . . ' ' . . ' . . ' ' ' ' ‘ ' Grainger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H 4 Rutledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 13,196 15,512
Robgrtioné ‘ _ . . _ _ . . _ . _ -_ D 4 ilpriiqgfiekd _ _ _ _ ' _ _ _ _ _ _ H I,-Greene .... . . . . . . . . . .. B 5 Greenville . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 615 26,614 30,596
Rut er °" """"" " E 5 ‘1r're‘?S Oro ------- -~ 1. 7 1' Grundy .............. .. F 5 Altamont ............. .. 375 6,345 7.802
Scott . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 4 Huntsville .. . . . , . _ , . , . , , 9,794 11,077 Hamblen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 4 Morristown . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘1165 11,418 12,728
- Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 5 Chattanooga . . . . . . . . . . . 27 53,482 61.695
Sggigitcme """ " E5 3832131113 """""" " 13781 tflancock. .. .... .. H 4 sne_edvi11e‘.’ ........... 208 10,342 11,147
Shellily ................. -I B 5 Menilphis-H H H 1132 ; Hardeman . . . . . . . . . . . . . B 5 Bohvar ...... . .p . . . . . . . .. 655 21,029 22,976
Sm“ ---------------- ~ F 4 04“ age ------------- -- 1 1 ~ ~Hardin . . . . . . o 5 Savannah . . . . . . . .. 587 17 898 19,246
. . . . a - - - - - - - - - . D 4 ' . n - n I u ' u - . - . . u - I 0 vi ' ' . I ' . . . . . ' . . . E 4 ' . - . . . I . ‘ . . ‘ .
. . ,., »‘ aywoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Brownsvi e . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 55 .
gumvan ------------- -- J 4 B1°“ni"1“e ----------- -- 2°18’-9 241935 Henderson ............ .. o 5 Lexington ............ .. 515 181338 18.11?’
umner . . E 4 Gallatm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,668 26,072 Hem, C 4 Paris 625 21 070 24208
giptoni. 1 ............. .. B 5 (E3[ovingti<1)n ............ .. 2g,% 23,332 Y - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - ‘ - -- 1 1
4914. 4 6 ------------ -- E 4 arisvi 8 ------------ -- 1 1 Hickman ....... . . .. 1) 5 Centcrville ...... .. 655 14 499 18,387
Unicoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J 4 Ervm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,619 5,851 i goustgn . _ _ . _ O _ I _ . . H 10) 2 Erinui. _ H 5,390 13,276
Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. H 4 Maynardville . . . . . . . . . . . 11,459 12,894 ' “mp rays "' ' '. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' Waiver Y ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ " 111720 N
Van Buren _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ ‘ . H F 5 %%)encer__1ii ' _ _ _ _ _ _ ‘ _ __ 12,52,133 lzgxlfig Jackson. . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Gamesboro . . . . . . . . . .. 325 13,325 15,039
Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 cMinnv' e . . . . . . . . . .. , , J-ames_ _ F 5 Ooltewah 160 4 903 5 407
Washlngton ---------- -1 J 4 Mesboro ----------- ~-
Jefferson ............. .. H 4 Dandridge ........... .. 310 181478 18,590
Wayne---~ D 5 Waynesboro ---
757 1 ‘ 1 Johnson ..... J 4 Mountain City ........ .. 290 8,858 10,589
Weakley . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 Dresden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 28,955 32,546
hite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 5 Sparta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370 12,348 14,157
Williamson . . . . . . . . . . . . D 5 Franklin ...... .. . . . . .. 500 26,321 26,429
Wilson................. E4 Lebanon.. .. 552 27,148 27,078


TENNESSEE.
TENNESSEE.
585
the latter year 50,167 persons engaged as wage-
earners in the industry. The recent growth is
‘noteworthy in that textile manufacturing, the
most prominent industry in a number of other
Southern States, is not here important. The
basis of the State’s manufactures is its wealth
of grain, timber, and minerals, together with its
water power and advantages for river and rail-
road transportation. Flouring and grist mill
products (whose value increased 74.8 per cent.
between 1890 and 1900) and timber products
each rank by far the first among the manufac-
turing interests. The abundance of coal and iron
ore has given rise to a flourishing iron and steel
industry, and to the manufacture of foundry and
machine-shop products. The manufacture of cot-
tonseed oil and cake is of greater importance
than that of cotton textiles. The value of leath-
er products in 1900 was more than twice that in
1890. There was a very large increase in the
manufacture of tobacco products. The follow-
ing table shows the relative importance of the
leading branches for 1890 and 1900:
of Tennessee followed, with the State as one of
the stockholders. A second Bank of the State
of Tennessee was in existence from 1820 to 1832.
The State funds were transferred to the new
Union Bank of Tennessee, with a capital of
$3,000,000, of which $500,000 were subscribed
by the State. The tendency to intrust the bank-
ing business to the State was still alive, and
in 1838 the third venture was made by the
organization of the Bank of Tennessee, with a
capital of $5,000,000, all of which was to be
supplied by the State, partly from funds on
hand and partly by sale of bonds. It started
with an actual capital of only $2,073,355, which
Was all the State could get together. The fol-
lowing twenty years were comparatively profit-
able for the banking business of the State, but
the panic of 1857 forced many concerns into
liquidation, and before they recovered from it
the great political conflict came, almost destroy-
ing the banking institutions. In 1866, by order
of the Legislature, the Bank of Tennessee was
formally placed in liquidation, when its assets





Number of Average Value of prod-
. number ucts, mcludmg
INDUSTRIES Year es1I3I‘i“‘(:’I}i[_ssh' wage- custom work
earners and repairing
Total for selected industries for State ..................................... ..{ Increase, 1890 to 1900 .......................... .. . . .... .. 1,685 6,882 $23,540,385
Per cent. of increase ............................................................................. .. 80.2 31.9 54.0
Per cent. of total of all industries in State ................................. .. { :73 29:2 23:2
. . . 1900 1,618 1,154 $21,798,929
Flounng and grist-mill products ............................................... .. { 1890 918 1,417 12,474,284
Foundry and machine-shop products ........................................ 900 6 1,979 5,080,6
Iron and steel ............................................................................ .. { 1890 15 1,472 4,247,868
' 1900 72 4,251 3,907,279
- - . ~ . . . . . . - - - - - e . - - . . . . - . - . - . - . . . . . - . . . - . . . . . . . - - . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - . - . .. { 1900 17 2,108 1,994,935
CO13t0I1 gOOdS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. { ,.
Hosiery and knit goods ........................................................ .. { 4° _ 'W 1 d 1900 51 1,632 1,517,194
00 8 . - I Q . Q n - - n ' ‘ . I o a o ~ o u Q . Q - . - . . I n - - ' o | - - I - o v o - I ' . . ' Q - | ~ - - o - o - I - - - - . . I . - - - - IO on, cottonseed and cake ..................................................... ...... .. { 3338 1&2,-1; §:§§2:‘.}§
900 92 1, 7 ,010,6
. - . - - . - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . - . - - . . . . . . . - . - - - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 , 1, 5
Chewmg, gmoklng, and snuff ......................... .. 1 géméég
. - 900 35 1 290,
(hgarg and clgarettefl ..................... .. 1890 25 139 236,807
. . 2 461 1,178,480
Stemmmg and rehandhng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. { g 30 39,032
Leather, tanned, curried, and finished .................................... { :3 Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam ra1l- 1900 16 2,817 3,113,053
road companies ....................................................................... .. 1890 10 1,772 1,605,778
Lumber and timber products ..................................................... .. 1’gg(2) Lumber, planing mill products, including sash, doors, and blinds {


TRANSPORTATION. The State has the advan-
tage of water transportation afforded by the
Mississippi and Tennessee rivers. A number of
trunk line railroads cross the State, most of
them centring in the State’s chief port, Mem-
phis. Among the railroads are the Nashville,
Chattanooga and Saint Louis, the Louisville and
Nashville, the Illinois Central, and the Southern.
The mileage increased from 1253 in 1860 to 1843
in 1880, 2767 in 1890, and 3184 miles in 1900.
BANKS. The first bank in the State was the
Nashville Bank, established in 1807, with a capi-
tal of $200,000. In 1811 the Bank of the State
of $12,478,483 were found to consist mainly of
Confederate bonds, certificates, treasury bonds,
etc. In 1883 the State finally assumed the liabil-
ity for the bank notes, and they were redeemed
for special certificates of indebtedness. The de-
positors of the bank, including the State school
fund, never realized anything. In 1869 there
were 13 national banks and one State bank. The
State banking system regained its ground after
1890. The present free banking law is lax.
There is no system of bank examinations and no
governmental control, and the liability of stock-
holders is strictly limited. The Constitution
TENNESSEE.
TENNESSEE.
586
prohibits the State forming a bank or even hold-
ing stock in one. The condition of the various
banks in 1902 is shown below:



National State
banks banks
Number of banks ......................... .. 69 153
Capital ........................................ .. $7,140,000 $6,463,000
Surplus ........................................ .. 1.845.000 1,554,000
Cash, etc ...................................... .. 2,615,000 4,791,000
Deposits ...................................... .. 26,780,000 24,714,000
Loans .......................................... .. 26,339,000 19,949,000
GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution was
adopted in February, 1870. Proposed amend-
ments must receive a majority vote of the mem-
bers elected to each House of two consecutive
Legislatures, followed by a majority approval of
all the citizens voting for Representatives. The
Legislature cannot propose amendments oftener
than once in six years. The Legislature can at
any time submit to the people the question of
a new constitutional convention, a majority of
the votes cast being decisive. Voters must be
United States citizens who have resided in the
State twelve months, in the county six months,
and have paid poll taxes.
There is a maximum limit of 99 to the number
of Representatives and the Senators are limited
to one-third the number of Representatives. Both
are elected for a term of two years, elections be-
ing held on the first Tuesday after the first Mon-
day in November of the even years, and the Leg-
islature meeting on the first Monday in the fol-
lowing January. Members receive $4 per day
and mileage, but the wage shall not exceed
seventy-five days for a regular session, or twenty
days for an extra session. Ministers and priests
are ineligible to the Legislature, and atheists
and duelists to any civil office.
The executive power is vested in a Governor
who is chosen every two years; a Secretary of
State, elected by the Legislature for four years;
a Treasurer and Comptroller of the Treasury,
elected in the same manner for two years; an
Attorney-General, appointed by the Supreme
Court judges, and who serves six years; and a
State Superintendent of Schools, nominated by
the Governor and confirmed by the Senate, serv-
ing two years. The Governor can call extra
sessions, and has the pardoning and veto power.
His veto, however, is overridden by a majority
vote of the members elected to each House. There
is a Supreme Court of five judges, elected for
eight years. Judges of the circuit, chancery, and
other inferior courts are elected by their re-
spective districts for eight years. Nashville is
the capital. The State has 10 Representatives in
the Lower House of Congress.
MILITIA. In 1900 the State had 384,249 men
of militia age. The organized militia in 1901
numbered 1304.
FINANCES. The history of the public debt con-
stitute-s the most important and interesting part
of the financial history of the State. The first
debt was created in 1832 and 1838 for the purpose
of establishing State banks. Between 1840 and
1850 the State inaugurated the system of public
improvements. Bonds were issued to turnpike and
railroad companies for construction, and first
mortgages were the usual guarantees. In 1861
the total amount of bonds outstanding was over
$18,000,000, and a war loan of $3,000,000 was
added. The four years of the Civil War destroyed
the sources of State income, made payment of
interest impossible, and swelled the total indebt-
edness considerably. In 1865 it rose to $25,277,-
406, out of which $5,169,740 was interest over-
due. The current interest charges alone
amounted to $1,185,048, while the revenue was
far below it, taxation inadequate, and the amount
actually collected considerably less than the sum
assessed. Most of the companies to which the
bonds were issued failed to pay the interest. The
carpet-bag regime that followed the Civil War
did not improve matters. New bonds to the
amount of $3,408,000 were issued to 14 rail-
road companies in 1868, interest remained un-
paid, and in 1869 the total debt reached $39,-
896,504. Measures of relief were then passed
by the Legislature; sale of the delinquent roads
was authorized, and the solvent railroads were
permitted to pay their debts in State bonds which
were below par. By these means the debt was
rapidly reduced to $27,920,386 in 1874. Yet
even then the State was unableto meet its‘ obli-
gations. Repudiating began to be talked of toward
1880, and, frightened by this agitation the bond-
holders began to offer various plans of settle-
ment. A plan of refunding at 50 per cent. was
agreed to by the bondholders and the Legislature
in 1879, but was rejected by popular vote.
In that year the debt question was the main
campaign issue, and the repudiation party lost.
A final settlement was reached in 1883, when the
State debt proper was scaled down 20-24 per cent.
and the railroad guarantee bonds 50 per cent.
The total debt was reduced by this operation
from $28,000,000 to about $15,000,000. The con-
version was completed in 1890. In 1900 the
public debt was $17,023,600. The general tax
is at present the main source of income (about
50 per cent.). Licenses give 25 per cent. and
a tax on railroad and other corporations about
15 per cent. The net receipts in 1900 (omitting
the operations of the loan accounts) were $2,-
069,624, the net disbursements $1,801,911.
POPULATION. The population increased from
35,691 in 1790 to 422,823 in 1820, 1,002,717 in
1850, 1,109,801 in 1860, 1,258,520 in 1870,
1,542,359 in 1880, 1,767,518 in 18.90, and 2,020,-
616 in 1900. From lowest in rank among the
States it rose to fifth in 1850 and declined to
fourteenth in 1900. The negro population in 1900
numbered 480,430, showing an increase of less
than 200 over 1890. There were 17,746 foreign
born. The population per square mile in 1900
was 48.4. In that year there were nine cities
which had more than 4000 inhabitants each. In
1900 Memphis had a population of 102,320;
Nashville, 80,865 ;_ Knoxville, 32,637; Chatta-
nooga, 30,154; and Jackson, 14,511.
RELIGION. About two-fifths of the church mem-
bership is Methodist and about one-third Baptist.
The Presbyterians and the Disciples of Christ also
have strong followings.
Eoucxrron In 1900, 20.7 per cent. of the
population over ten years of age were illiterate.
This was a reduction from 38.7 in 1880- The
per cent. for the native white population was
14.2 and for the colored 41.6. In 1900 there
were 573,287 whites and 195,556 colored persons be-
tween the ages of 6 and 21. The school enrollment
for that year was 485,354 and the average at-
tendance 270,662 whites and 67,904 colored. Be-
TENNESSEE.
TENNESSEE.
587
tween 1875 and 1900 much progress was made,
and the State is in advance of most Southern
States. There is a State Superintendent of Pub-
lic Schools nominated biennially by the Governor
and confirmed by the Senate. For local supervi-
sion a superintendent for each county is chosen
by the County Court biennially; and in each dis-
trict there are three directors, elected by the
people for three years, one going out each year.
The law requires State and county superintend-
ents to be persons of literary and scientific attain-
ments and of skill and experience in the art of
teaching. The county courts may elect boards
of education in their respective counties, and
these boards have authority to establish one or
more high schools in their county. The text
books used are uniform throughout the State.
In the country districts the primary course cov-
ers six years, but two additional years may
be taken in many districts in the so-called sec-
ondary school. In 1900 there were 4960 male
and 4235 female teachers. The expenditure upon
the country schools for the year was $1,751,047,
of which $1,403,848 was for salaries of super-
intendents and teachers. There was an additional
$597,006 expended for city schools. Normal
school training is provided for by the Peabody
College for Teachers (q.v.) at Nashville. A large
number of students at this institution are aided
by the grants of scholarships. The higher in-
stitutions of learning include some of national
reputation. See TENNESSEE, UNIVERSITY or;
NASHVILLE, UNIVERSITY OF ; VANDERBILT UNIVER-
SITY; FISK UNIVERSITY.
CHARITABLE AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS. There
is an unsalaried Board of Charities appointed
by the Governor which investigates the whole
system of public charities and correctional in-
stitutions, and reports thereon to the Legislature.
The plans for new buildings, modifications, etc.,
must be submitted to it for suggestions and
criticism. The State maintains three hospitals
for the insane, namely, the \Vestern Hospital
near Bolivar, the Central Hospital near Nash-
ville, and the Eastern Hospital near Knoxville.
There is a State school for the deaf at Knox-
ville, one for the blind at Nashville, and an in-
dustrial school at Nashville. The State also
maintains a Confederate soldiers’ home near
Nashville. The main prison at Nashville had
on December 1, 1902, 923 convicts, and the branch
prison at Petros had 7 convicts on the same
date. Over two-thirds of the total number are
negroes. The prisoners at the branch prison are
worked in coal mines, but are not leased to con-
tractors. The revenue from convict labor is
greater than the cost of maintaining the con-
victs. '
HISTORY. Probably De Soto (q.v.) reached the
Mississippi at the present site of Memphis in
1541. La Salle, about 1682, built a fort at this
point, and called it Fort Prud’homme. The place
was again occupied by the French in 1714. The
grant by Charles II. to the Lords Proprietors of
Carolina of the territory between latitudes 29°
and 36° 30’ N. in 1665 included this territory.
(See Nonrn CARQLINA.) The first English set-
tlement was Fort Loudon, built in 1756, at the
suggestion of Governor Loudon of Virginia, and
garrisoned by royal troops, but afterwards cap-
tured by the Cherokees. Before this, however, Dr.
Thomas Walker with a party of Virginians had
Von. XVI.—38. -
named the Cumberland River and Mountains,
and Daniel Boone (q.v.) and others had entered
the wilderness, which was regarded as a common
hunting ground by the Cherokees, Creeks, Mia-
mis, Choctaws, and Chick-asaws. In 1768 the Iro-
quois, who claimed sovereignty by conquest, ceded
their claim to the English, and in 1769 William
Bean’s cabin on the VVatauga marked the be-
ginning of real settlement. James Robertson
(q.v.) and others came in 1770, another settle-
ment was made near Rogersville in 1771, and
soon after Jacob Brown opened a store -on the
Nollichucky. After the defeat of the Regulators
(q.v.) in North Carolina, a great number of
settlers came, supposing the territory to be Vir-
ginia soil. When the territory was found to be
within North Carolina, the inhabitants of the
first two settlements met in 1772 and formed the
Watauga Association (q.v.), which served‘ as a
form of government for several years. In 1775
Col. Richard Henderson (q.v.) bought from the
Indians the territory between the Cumberland
and the Kentucky Rivers. More settlers came in
1778-79 and in 1780 a compact of government
was drawn up at Nashborough, by Col. Hender-
son, who had been Chief Justice of North Caro-
lina, and James Robertson, who had been one of
the signers of the VVatauga Association. These
two compacts were much alike and served their
purpose excellently.
The VVatauga settlers in 1775 or 1776 gave
the ‘name VVashington District to their colony,
and in 1776 it was annexed to North Carolina,
though some had dreamed of a separate State.
The number of settlers increased rapidly and
nearly 500 men under John Sevier (q.v.) and
Isaac Shelby (q.v.) went across the mountains
and took part in the attack on the British un-
der Ferguson, at King’s l\Iountain (q.v.), in
1780. All this time the settlers were harassed
by severe Indian wars. In 1784 North Caro-
lina ceded to the General Government all the
territory of the present State on condition that
the cession be accepted within two years, but
retained until that time full sovereignty. The
inhabitants, indignant at being transferred
without their consent, and thinking that they
had been abandoned, elected delegates from
each military company, who met at Jonesboro,
August 23, 1784, and formed the State of
Franklin, or Frankland; John Sevier was
chosen Governor. Congress ignored the request
to be recognized as a State and North Carolina
promptly repealed the act of cession and asserted
its jurisdiction. Civil war was averted by the
tact of the North Carolina Governors. Confu-
sion, however, reigned, as there were two bodies
of oflicers, and many settlers neglected to pay
taxes to either, though furs, skins, and other
articles were made legal tender by the infant
State. At the expiration of Sevier’s term in
1788, the State of Franklin ended. In this at-
tempt at Statehood the Cumberland settlers did
not join. Davidson County was laid out in 1783
and the Davidson Academy (now the Univer-
sity of Nashville) was founded in 1785. Indian
troubles threatened the life of the settlement,
and the intrigues of the Spaniards, who still held
Louisiana and the Mississippi, made the position
more diflicult. See MCGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER.
In February, 17 90. North Carolina again ceded
the territory to the General Government, stipulat-
TENNESSEE.
TENNESSEE.
588
ing that all the advantages of the Ordinance of
1787 (q.v.) should be preserved to the inhabit-
ants, except that slavery should not be prohibited.
The act of government for the ‘Territory South
of the Ohio’ was passed in April, 1790, and the
seat of government was moved from Rogersville
to Knoxville. The Indians were severely pun-
ished in 1794 and the Spanish influence was
broken. In the same year the first Territorial
Assembly met. In 1795, as the territory was
found to contain more than 60,000 white in-
habitants, a constitutional convention was called,
which met in January, 1796. A constitution for
the ‘State of Tennessee’ modeled after that of
North Carolina was adopted without submission
to popular vote; the first General Assembly met
March 28th, and the State was admitted June 1,
1796. Almost from the date of admission there
was a sharp distinction between East and Middle
(West) Tennessee, which was recognized in the
appointment of the judiciary. In wealth and
material progress the mountainous eastern part
lagged behind. The western part of the State
began to fill up after 1818, Memphis was laid
out in 1819, and three sections came now to be
recognized in law. The progress of the State
was rapid, though the growth was almost en-
tirely along agricultural lines. The State early
began to construct internal improvements.
Turnpike roads were built in 1804, and after
1823 reads and canals were pushed forward.
The first railroad was chartered in 1831, but the
Memphis and Charleston road was not built until
1857. Much State aid was voted to the railroads,
and the redemption of the bonds issued for this
purpose was a political issue as late as 1882.
The eastern part of the State did not share
equally in these benefits.
There was a strong Union party in the State
at the outbreak of the Civil War, and in Febru-
ary, 1861, the people refused to hold a convention
to consider secession, but with President Lin-
coln’s call for troops sentiment changed, and
through the influence of Governor Harris the
State declared itself by popular vote out of the
Union, June 8th, though East Tennessee had
voted against secession more than two to one.
On June 17th a Union convention of delegates
from the eastern counties and a few middle
counties met at Greeneville and petitioned to be
allowed to form a separate State. The request
was ignored by the Legislature, and the presence
of a Confederate army prevented further action
on the part of the Unionists. During the war
the State furnished about 115,000 soldiers to the
Confederate cause and 31,092 to the Federal
army; When the advance of Federal troops
drove Governor Harris from Nashville, Andrew
Johnson (q.v.), who had refused to resign his
seat in the United States Senate on the secession
of the State, was appointed military governor. He
attempted to reorganize the State in 1864, and
sent up Lincoln electors, who were rejected by
Congress. In 1865 the Radical Legislature pro-
ceeded to extreme measures. Suffrage was ex-
tended to negroes under the Constitution of 1834,
which gave that right to every freeman. The
State was readmitted July 23, 1866, but there
was much disorder. The Ku-Klux Klan (q.v.)
appeared, and in 1869 nine counties in Middle
and West Tennessee were declared under martial
law. For a time after the war the recovery of
the State was slow, but the development of the
past twenty years has been exceedingly rapid.
The principal events have been the conflicts be-
tween convict and free labor in the mines in
1891-93, and the Tennessee Centennial Exposition
(q.v.), held at Nashville in 1897.
In the Presidential elections Tennessee chose
Democratic-Republican electors from 1796 to
1824. In 1828 and again in 1832 the only issue
was Jackson, and the voters were almost unani-
mous for him. In 1836, however, Hugh Lawson
White, the States-Rights Democrat, was success-
ful in spite of Jackson’s efforts. From 1840 to
1852 Whig electors were chosen, Clay receiving
the vote in 1844, though Polk was a resident of
the State. In 1856 the vote was cast for
Buchanan. The Constitutional Union ticket
headed by John Bell was successful in 1860. The
State voted for Grant in 1868, but since that
time has been Democratic by large majorities.
From the State have come many men of national
reputation, including three Presidents, Jackson,
Polk, and Johnson.
GOVERNORS on TENNESSEE
STATE on FRANKLIN
John Sevler .............................................................. ..1785-88
TERRITORY SOUTH OF THE OHIO

William Blount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1790-96
STATE OF TENNESSEE
John Sevler .......... ..Democratic-Republican .......... ..1796-1801
Archibald Roan..... " “ ............. ..1801-03
John Sevier .......... .. “ “ ............. . .1803-09
Willie Blount ........ .. “ “ ............. . .1809-15
Joseph MCMIIIII .... .. “ “ ............. ..1815-21
William Carroll..... " “ ............. .1821-27
Sam Houston ...... .. “ “ ............. ..182‘7-29
William Hall (acting) .............................................. ..1829
William Carroll .......... ..I)emocrat ............................ ..1829-35
Newton Cannon....States-Rights Democrat ............. ..1835-39
James K. Polk ........... ..Demoerat ............................ ..1839-41
James C. Jones ............... ..Whig ............................... ..1841-45
Aaron V. Brown ......... ..Democrat ............................ ..1845-47
Neil S. Brown ................. ..Whig ............................... ..1847-49
William Trousdale. .... ..Democrat ............................ ..1849-51
William B. Campbell ...... ..Whig ............................... ..1851-53
Andrew Johnson ........ ..Democrat ............................ ..1853-57
Isham G. Harris ......... .. “ ............................ ..1857-62
Andrew Johnson ......... ..Military .............................. ..1862-65
Interregnum ............................... ..4th March-5th April. 1865
William G. Brownlow...Republican ......................... ..1865-69
De Witt C. Senter. . Conservative-Republican ........... ..1869-71
John C. Brown ........... ..Democrat ............................ ..1871-75
James D. Porter ......... .. " ............................ ..1875-79
Albert S. Marks .......... .. “ ............................ .1879-81
Alvin Hawkins .......... ..Repub1ican ........................... ..188]-83
William B. Bate ......... ..Democrat ............................ ..1883-87
Robert L. Taylor ....... .. “ ......... .; ................. ..1887-91
John P. Buchanan. .... .. "“ ............................ ..1891-93
Peter Turney .............. .. “ ............................ . .1893-9'7
Robert L. Taylor ....... .. “ ............................ ..1897-99
Benton McMillin ......... .. “ ......................... ..1899-1903
James B. Frazier ....... .. “ ............................ ..1903-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Killebrew and Safford, Intro-
duction to the Resources of Tennessee (Nashville,
1874) ; Killebrew, Tennessee, Its Agricultural
and Mineral IVealth (ib., 1877) ; Wright, “An-
tiquities of Tennessee,” in Smithsonian Institu-
tion Report for 1871; (Washington, 1875) ; Jones,
“Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of Ten-
nessee,” in Smithsonian Institution Contributions
to Knowledge, vol. xxii. (Washington, 1876);
Gates, West Tennessee, Its Advantages and Its
Resources (Jackson, Tenn., 1885) ; Thruston, The
Antiquities of Tennessee (2d ed., Cincinnati,
1897). For history, consult: Roosevelt, The
Winning of the West (New York, 1889-96) ; Put-
nam, History of Middle Tennessee (Nashville,
1859); Phelan, History of Tennessee (Boston,
1889) ; Haywood, Civil and Political History of
Q
TENNESSEE.
TENNIS.
589
Tennessee (Nashville, 1891); Caldwell, Studies
in the Constitutional History of Tennessee (Cin-
cinnati, 1895); Allison, Dropped Stitches in
Tennessee History (Nashville, 1897) ; McGee,
History of Tennessee (New York, 1899) ; Temple,
East Tennessee and the Civil War (Cincinnati,
1899); Fertig, Secession and Reconstruction of
Tennessee (University of Chicago Press, 1898) ;
Tennessee Historical Society Papers.
TENNESSEE, THE. A formidable Confederate
ram crippled by the Hartford of Admiral Far-
ragut’s fleet, and taken in Mobile Harbor on
August 5, 1864.
TENNESSEE, UNIVERSITY or. A coeduca-
tional State institution at Knoxville, Tenn.,
founded in 1794 as Blount College. Its title was
changed in 1807 to East Tennessee College, in
1840 to East Tennessee University, and in 187 9
to its present name. The institution comprises
the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts
and the university proper. The college has an
agricultural department with a four years’ course
and a short course for farmers; an engineering
department with four years’ courses in mechan-
ical, electrical, and civil engineering and
chemistry; a literary department; and an indus-
trial department for colored students (Knoxville
College). The university consists of an academic
department with courses for the graduate de-
grees of M.A. and M.S. and professional courses
in engineering, law, medicine, and dentistry, the
medical and dental departments being situated
in Nashville. University extension work is car-
ried on by means of teachers’ institutes,
farmers’ institutes and conventions, and confer-
ences on education. A summer school and a
department of education have also been estab-
lished. The university has a liberal system
of accredited scholars whose certificates are
accepted in place of the entrance examinations.
The State has established 275 free scholarships
in the academic department, and one free scholar-
ship is given to each accredited school outside
the State. The attendance in 1903 was 756 and
the faculty numbered 120. The library con-
tained about 20,000 volumes. The endowment
in that year was $425,000 and the income about
$103,716.29. The grounds and buildings were
Valued at $491,929.98.
TENNESSEE CENTENNIAL EXPOSI-
TION. An exposition held in Nashville, Tenn.,
May 1 to October 30, 1897, to celebrate the orie
hundredth anniversary of the admission of the
State into the Union. The site covered about
200 acres, and a characteristic feature of the
landscape plan was the sward planted with the
famous blue grass of the region. The buildings,
of which there were over a hundred, in-
cluded those devoted to agriculture, commerce,
education, fine arts, history, machinery, minerals
and forestry, and transportation, as well as those
in which the special exhibits pertaining to chil-
dren, negroes, the United States Government, and
women were shown. The total attendance was
1,786,714, of which the total paid attendance
was 1,166,692. The total receipts were $1,101,-
285, and the disbursements $1,101,246. Consult
Justi, C/ficial History of the Tennessee Centen-
nial Ewposition (Nashville, 1898).
TENNESSEE RIVER. The largest tributary
of the Ohio. It is formed by the union of the
Holston and the North Fork, which rise in the
Alleghany Mountains of southwestern Virginia,
and unite near Kingsport in the northeastern
part of Tennessee (Map: Kentucky, C 4). Ac-
cording to some authorities the Holston extends
to the junction with the French Broad River at
Knoxville, and according to others even to the
Clinch River at Kingston. The river flows first
southwest between the Alleghany ridges, and then
makes a great waving curve through north-
ern Alabama from its northeastern to its
northwestern corner. Reiéntering Tennessee,
it flows northward across the State, then
northwest across Kentucky to its confluence
with the Ohio at Paducah. Its length, including
the Holston, is 1200 miles. Its chief affluents
are the French Broad, the Clinch, Hiawassee, Se-
quatchie, Elk, and Duck. Except at the Muscle
Shoals in Alabama, navigation is unobstructed
from the mouth of the river to Chattanooga, :1.
distance of 450 miles. The Muscle Shoals are
a series of rapids, where the river flows over
limestone rocks from Florence to Decatur, a dis-
tance of 23 miles, but navigation around them
has been effected by means of a canal and locks,
completed by the United States Government in
1889. Above the Shoals small steamers may
ascend the river to Knoxville. Besides Knoxville,
the chief cities along its banks are Florence and
Decatur in Alabama, and Chattanooga in Ten-
nessee.
TENNIEL, ten-nél’, Sir JOHN (1820-——). An
English painter and illustrator, born in London.
He was practically self-taught. In 1845 he won
a prize in the competition for the decoration of
Westminster Palace, with a cartoon, “Allegory
of Justice,” the success of which also secured
for him the commission to paint a fresco, Dry-
den’s “Saint Cecelia,” in the House of Lords.
His most successful work, however, has been in
black-and-white. From 1852 to 1901 he was car-
toonist for Punch, executing over 2000 cartoons.
His reputation rests chiefly upon his book illus-
trations. Among the principal are his drawings
for Esop’s Fables
(1848) ; Moore’s Lalla
Rooleh (1861); Lewis
Carrol1’s Alice’s Adven-
tures in Wonderland
(1866), and its sequel,
Through the Looking
Glass (1870) ; the In-
golsby Legends; and his
classical illustrations to
Penthouse above
G ri I I e


ack-wall
HAZARD SIDE
Ta mbour
(Bufiress)
(Main-wall)
._;_,g-, E the Legendary Ballads.
3; In the statuesque and
= ideal character of the
g Jfigures, his work recalls
5, 1e German influence
SERWCE SIDE prevalent at the middle
/ of the nineteenth cen-
. tury.
g_§ack-wa"],__, TENNIS (of uncer-
Dedans tain derivation; possibly
Pen//rouse above from OF. tenez, impv. of
Plan of the right-hand
side wall or main wall
looked at from above at
the dedans.
tenir, to seize, take, i.e.
the ball). A game played
with racquet and ball in
a covered court. It has
been well described as the mother of lawn tennis.
It is usually played by two players, a four-handed
game being rarely met with in modern tennis. The
TENNIS.
TENNYSON.
590
racquet is of the large-headed, large-handed variety.
It has a smaller face but is heavier than the lawn-
tennis racquet, in order to counteract the ball,
which is heavier than the lawn-tennis ball, al-
though about the same size. The court has
walls on all its four sides, and a penthouse along
three sides. The spectators are accommodated in
the dedans. A -ball played over the net into this
dedans counts as a winning stroke to the striker.
In front of the deda/ns, over the net and down
the right-hand wall, is a tambour or protruding
buttress. Past the tambour in the wall directly
opposite the dedans is the grille. A ball played
over the net into this grille makes a winning
stroke. In the left-hand side wall there are many
openings protected with nettings called galleries,
the last gallery being known as the winning gal-
lery, owing to the fact that a ball played over
the net into it counts as a winning stroke. All
the way down the left-hand -side of the court runs
the penthouse above the galleries. The penthouse
also extends over the dedans and the grille. In
tennis, the set consists of six games, though
‘deuce’ and ‘vantage’ games may be played,
while ‘faults’ and ‘double faults’ score as in
lawn tennis. The ball must be hit over the net
before it is bounded twice, and the scoring is
the same as in the better known forms of the
game, e.g. 15 love, 15 all, 30-15, 30 all, 40-30,
deuce, vantage, deuce, vantage, game.
TEIWNYSON, ALFRED, first Baron Tennyson
(1809-92). The most representative English
poet of Victoria’s reign. He was born on August
6, 1809, at Somersby, in Lincolnshire, avillage of
which his father was rector. Two of his brothers
also displayed no slight poetic gifts, Frederick
(q.v.) , and Charles, afterwards known as Charles
Tennyson Turner (q.v.) . Alfred spent four years
(1816-20) at the grammar school of Louth, a
few miles from his home, and for the next eight
years his_ education was directed by his father,
a man of some literary talent. He roamed
through the woods, laying the foundations of
that knowledge of nature for which his verse is
conspicuous, read extensively, and tried his hand
in the manner of Pope, Thomson, Scott, Moore,
and Byron. Fragments of this early work found
their way into Poems by Two Brothers (1827;
reprinted 1893), written in conjunction with his
brother Charles. In 1828 the two brothers en-
tered Trinity College, Cambridge, to which Fred-
erick had gone a year earlier. At the university
Tennyson was associated with a remarkable
group of young men, most of whom formed the
famous society known as ‘The Apostles.’ To
this group belonged Thackeray, Spedding, Trench,
Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton,
Merivale, Alford, and Arthur Henry Hallam, son
of the historian, who discerned his friend’s genius
and in 1829 told Gladstone that Tennyson “prom-
ised fair to be the greatest poet of our genera-
tion, perhaps of our century.”
In that same year, with Timbuctoo, a poem in
blank verse, Tennyson won the Chancellor’s gold
medal, and while still in residence published the
epoch-making volume of Poems, Chiefly Lyrical.
In 1830, when the slim little book appeared, po-
etry seemed to be dead. Murray had given up
_publishing verse, and the novel, under the impulse
of the unprecedented success of the .Waverley
series, held the field. Showing the influence of
Coleridge and Keats, the poems in this volume
were in no sense imitative; rather, they contain
in germ nearly all of Tennyson’s great original
qualities. In the same year he traveled in the
Pyrenees with Hallam, and there, in the Valley of
Cauterets, he wrote parts of “(Enone.”
He left Cambridge without a degree in Feb-
ruary, 1831, for various reasons, but chiefly the
ill health of his father, who died a few weeks
later. The family, however, remained at Som-
ersby for six years longer. The second volume
of Poems (1833) contained many of his choicest
minor pieces: “The Lady of Shalott,” “The Mil-
ler’s Daughter,” “The Palace of Art,” “The L0-
tos-Eaters,” and “A Dream of Fair Women.” Be-
yond the circle of the poet’s friends, the collection
was not well received; Lockhart wrote an espe-
cially brutal review in the Quarterly for April. In
September a life-long sorrow fell upon the poet
in the death _of Hallam, his dearest friend, who
was at that time engaged to his sister Emily.
For ten years he remained -silent, reading largely,
revising old poems, and writing new ones. By
1836 he had definitely given his heart to his fu-
ture wife, Emily Sarah Sellwood, the sister of his
brother Charles’s wife. But, though deficiency
of income seemed an insuperable bar to mar-
riage, and though her relatives forbade even
correspondence, Tennyson had no thought of de-
serting the art to which his life belonged to take
up any profession more lucrative than poetry.
In 1842 he gained his public with Poems in two
volumes, representing a wide range of theme and
metrical structure. Here first appeared “Morte
d’Arthur,” the first sketch of the Idylls of the
King,‘ “Ulysses,” “Locksley Hall,” “Godiva,”
“Break, break, break,” and “The Two Voices.”
Tennyson’s place in English poetry was
now secure; but fortune seemed far off.
His little capital was shattered by a
strange investment in wolid-carving machin-
ery ; and in 1845 Peel was moved by Lord Hough-
ton to grant him a civil-list pension of £200. In
1847 appeared The Princess, a romantic medley
in musical blank verse, marked at every point
by his “curious felicity” of style, and containing
some wonderful lyrics. The year 1850 has been
called his arinns mira-bilis. In June he published
In M emoriam, a tribute to the memory of Arthur
Hallam. At first not well understood, it has now
definitely taken its place with Lycidas, Aclonais,
and Thyrsis at the head of English elegies. In
the same month he married Miss Sellwood (with
whom, he said afterwards, “the peace of God
came into my life”); and in November he was
appointed poet laureate in succession to Words-
worth. -
He settled with his bride at Twickenham,
where he lived for three years. Then he leased
and shortly afterwards purchased the estate of
Farringford, near Freshwater, in the Isle of
Wight, where he lived until 1870. After that
he divided his time between Farringford and
Aldworth, a house which he built on Blackdown
Hill, near Haslemere. ,
In 1855 appeared Maud, and Other Poems.
“Maud,” a great favorite with Tennyson, puzzled
the critics, who tried to find in it the result of
the author’s own experience, though it is rather
a vivid dramatic conception, rare with Tennyson.
“No modern poem,” said Jowett, “contains more
lines that ring in the ears of men.” The same
volume contained the popular “Brook” and “The

TENNYSON -
mom AN ETCHING BY PAUL RAJON
TENNYSON.
TENOE.
591
Charge of the Light Brigade.” Returning to
Arthurian legend, Tennyson published in 1859
four of the I dylls of the King; others were added
in 1869, and in 1872 they were arranged in se-
quence, with a completion in “Balin and Balan”
(1885). Though his conception of the Arthu-
rian romances has been severely criticised, the
Idylls are probably his highest achievement.
Enoch Arden (1864) was the most immediately
popular of all his volumes; sixty thousand copies
were sold, and the title poem was translated
into eight languages. From the epic Tennyson
turned to the drama, producing Queen Mary
(1875), Harold (1876), and Becket (1884). Be-
sides these magnificent historical pieces are The
Falcon (1879), The Cup (1881), The Promise of
May (1882), and The Foresters (1892), of which
The Cup was the most successful as an acting
play. Tennyson’s productive imagination con-
tinued active throughout his last years. His last
volumes were Ballads and Other Poems (1880),
containing “Rizpah” and “The Northern Cob-
bler;” Tiresias and Other Poems (1885) ; Dem-
eter and Other Poems (1889), containing “Cross-
ing the Bar ;” and the posthumous Death of
Cfinone and Other Poems (1892).
In 1884, after some hesitation, the poet ac-
cepted a peerage. He died at Aldworth October
6, 1892, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
No English poet has produced masterpieces
in so many different kinds as Tennyson; and he
is the supremely representative figure in litera-
ture of the Victorian era, because he touched
and reconciled a greater number of its‘ diverse
interests~ than any other writer. Yet he is in
constant protest against the individualism which
that period inherited from the Romantic revival.
The most salient feature of his mental attitude
is his sense of law; it is the ‘reign of law’ as
shown by modern science which most attracts him .
to scientific subjects. The consummate artistic
excellence of his verse, resembling in many of
its qualities that of Vergil, gives him an abiding
place in literature. No better example exists in
English of the ‘eclectic’ style made up of ele-
ments inherited from many of his great pred-
ecessors, emulating “by turns the sweet felicity
of Keats, the tender simplicity of Wordsworth,
the straightforward vigor of Burns, the elusive
melody and dreamlike magic of Coleridge, the
stormy sweep of Byron, the large majesty of
Milton;” and he expressed, with such an instru-
ment, a teaching which was uniformly pure,
noble, and consoling. '
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The authorized life of Tenny-
son is the Memoir by his son Hallam (London,
1897). The standard editions of the works as
revised by the author are the Cabinet Edition
(ib., 1898) and the one-volume Globe Edition
(ib., 1898). Books devoted to the study of his
poetry are numerous. Consult particularly Stop-
ford Brooke, Tennyson, His Art and Relation to
Modern Life (London, 1894); Van Dyke, The
Poetry of Tennyson (New York, 1889; 10th ed.,
revised, 1898); Sneath, The Mind of Tennyson
(ib., 1900); Stedman, in Victorian Poets (re-
vised ed., ib., 1887); Frederic Harrison, Tenny-
son, Ruskin, and Mill (London, 1899), corrected
in some particulars by Andrew Lang, Alfred Ten-
nyson (New York, 1901); Collins, Illustrations
of Tennyson (London, 1891); Anne Thackeray
Ritchie, Records (ib., 1892); id., Tennyson and
His Friends (ib., 1893) ; Gwynn, A Critical Study
of Tennyson (ib., 1899); Luce, Hand-book to
Tennyson’s Works (New York, 1896) ; Dixon, A
Tennyson Primer (ib., 1896) ; Napier, The Homes
and Haunts of Tennyson (London, 1892) ; Rawns-
ley, Memories of the Tennysons (Glasgow, 1900) ;
Masterman, Tennyson as a Religious Teacher
(London, 1900); Collins, The Early Poems of
Tennyson, with bibliography and various read-
ings (ib., 1900); Maccallum, Ten/n/yson’s Idylls
of the King and the Arthurian Story (New York,
1894); Bradley, Commentary on In M emoriam
(London, 1901); Lyall, Tennyson, in “English
Men of Letters” series (New York, 1902) ;
Brightwell, Concordance (London, 1869) ; Shep-
herd, Bibliography (ib., 1896).
TENNYSON, CHARLES. See TURNER, CHARLEs
TENNYSON.
TENNYSON, FREDERICK (1807-98). An
English poet, brother to Alfred Tennyson (q.v.),
born at Louth, in Lincolnshire. In 1827 he
left Eton, as captain of the school, and went up
to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gradu-
ated in 1832. He passed most of his time
for many years on the Continent, living for a
long period at Florence. I1__i ;l8‘_5_9-*he settled in
the Isle of Jersey, where he -rémain“ed until 1896.
He then removed to Kensington, ..where he died.
With his brothers, Alfred and Charles, Freder-
ick wrote verse before his college days. To their
Poems by Two Brothers (1827) he contributed
four poems. In 1854 he published Days and
Hours, which contained several beautiful and
noble lyrics. He published no more until 1890,
when appeared The Isles of Greece. This volume
was followed by Daphne and Other Poems
(1891) and Poems of the Day and Year (1895),
in part a reprint of Days and Hours. Quoting
the sonnet on “Poetic Happiness,” Alfred Tenny-
son said that his brother’s poems “were organ-
tones echoing among the mountains.”
TENNYSON, HALLAM, second Baron Tenny-'
son (1852—-). Eldest son of the poet Alfred,
Lord Tennyson (q.v.). He was born at Twicken-
ham. He was educated at Marlborough School,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied
law at the Inner Temple. To the Contemporary Re-
view for November, 1876, he contributed a trans-
lation of the Old English song of Brunanburh,
which was afterward turned into verse by his
father. In 1880 he edited, with an introduction,
the sonnets and lyrics of his uncle Charles Ten-
nyson Turner (q.v.) ; and in 1897 he published
the authorized life of his father, under the title,
Alfred Lord Tennyson, a Memoir. He was made
Governor of South Australia in 1899. In 1902 he
became Governor-General of the Australian Com-
monwealth, but resigned in the following year.
TENOCHTITLAN, ta-n5ch’tet-liin'. The
ancient capital of the Aztecs, occupying the
site of the present City of Mexico (q.v.).
TENOR (OF. tenour, teneur, from ML. tenor,
chief melody, highest male voice to which this
was assigned, Lat. tenor, a holding, tone, accent,
from tenere, to hold, retain). In music, one of
the four classes into which voices are divided in
respect to their compass. It is the higher adult
male voice, with an appropriate range from c
to a1. Music for tenor voices is generally written
in the treble clef, or an octave higher than its
true pitch. The sign of the C clef is also often
TENOR.
TEN TAO ULITES.
592
used, but it is not placed on the second line, but
second space, so that the music is read as in the
treble clef,‘ but an octave lower. Two classes of
tenors can be distinctly recognized, the heroic
and lyric tenors (tenore robusto, tenore di
graeia). The heroic tenors have something of
the sonorous quality of the barytone in the lower
register.
TE’NOS, or TINOS, te/n5s. An island in the
2Egean Sea belonging to the Cyclades (q.v.)
(Map: Greece, G 4). It has an uneven surface
and covers an area of 79 square miles. On the
south coast is the little town of the same name,
called also Hagios Nikolaos (Saint Nicholas).
It is on the site of the ancient town of Tenos, the
remains of whose Temple of Poseidon were laid
bare in 1902. The chief industries are- wine-
making and marble-quarrying. Population of
the island, about 12,000. Tenos played an active
part in the struggle between the Greeks and
Persians, as well as in the Greek Revolution of
1821-27.
TENOT'OMY (from Gk. révwv, tenon, tendon,
from relvew, teinein, to stretch, strain + row),
tome, a cutting, from re-‘,u.1/cw, temnein, to cut).
The division of a tendon; a surgical procedure
which usually has for its object the relief of
some variety of deformity by severing a perma-
nently contracted muscle at its tendinous portion.
The affections in which tenotomy is most fre-
quently found useful are club-foot (q.v.), con-
tractions of the extremities following paralysis,
deformity from contraction of the palmar fascia,
wry-neck (q.v.), ankylosis of the points, and
strabismus (q.v.).
TENREC (Malagasy name). An insectivore
of the African family Centetidee. Of the seven
genera and many species, the best known is the
tenrec (also spelled ‘tendrac’ and ‘tanrec’) , which
is about a foot long, and owes its specific name
(Gentetes ecaudatus) to having no tail. Its hairs
are rather spiny-, but actual spines appear only
in the young, which have three lines of them
along the back, shed at the time of the arrival
of the permanent teeth. The tenrecs are noc-
turnal animals, natives of Madagascar and the
Ma'scarene isles. Three other species exist. They
feed mainly on earthworms, aestivate during the
hot season, and produce many young, sometimes
more than 20. The flesh is edible, and the ani-
mal is so useful in the destruction of worms and
insects that it has been introduced into Manu-
ritius and Bourbon. See Plate of POBCUPINES
AND HEDGEHOGS.
TENSE. In grammar (q.v.), the change in
the form of a verb which marks the time of the
action. See CDNJUGATIDN; VERB.
TENSKWATAWA, ‘ten-skwii'ta-wa (The
Open Door) (c.1775-1834). A Shawnee prophet,
younger brother of Tecumseh (q.v.). He at-
tracted no special notice in his tribe until No-
vember, 1805, when, at the ancient Shawnee
town of Wapakoneta, in what is now north-
western Ohio, he made public proclamation of a
wonderful vision during a recent trance, in which
he claimed to have been taken up to the spirit
world and to have received there a revelation
from the God of the Indians, by which they were
commanded to return to their primitive condition
and customs. In a very short time his follow-
ers were numbered by the thousands throughout
the region of the Ohio Valley and the upper
lakes. He was believed to be the living incar-
nation of Manabozho (q.v.) , the great culture god
of the Algonquian race. In the spring of 1808
he removed, together with his brother, from
Greenville, Ohio, to a more central location on
the Wabash just below the entrance of the Tip-
pecanoe, the new settlement being familiarly
known as ‘Prophet’s Town.’ Here the prophet
continued to preach, but the battle of Tippe-
canoe, November 7, 1811, broke his power and
prestige. His followers scattered to their tribes
until again summoned to battle by the English.
Everywhere denounced as a liar and deceiver, he
finally found refuge with the Wyandot. On the
outbreak of the War of 1812 he crossed over
into Canada, but returned when peace was de-
clared and rejoined his tribe in Ohio, removing
with them to the West in 1827.
TENT. ' A portable structure of canvas, skin,
rugs, or other fabrics, designed for shelter. Ani-
mal skins and foliage doubtless formed the earli-
' est coverings, for which textile fabrics were sub-
stituted as civilization advanced. In the Book
of Genesis the patriarchs .are represented as
dwelling in tents, probably much the same as
the modern Arab tents, large structures, rude in
form, of small height, but covering a consider-
able space of ground. The early Greek and Mace-
donian military tents were small coverings of
skin, each tent sheltering two soldiers. The Ro-
mans used two sorts of tents, one of canvas, con-
structed with two upright poles and a ridge
pole between them, a type familiar to the camp-
ing tent of to-day; the other resembling a light
hut, a wooden skeleton, covered by bark, hides,
mud, straw, or any other material which afforded
warmth or protection. This latter type, it may
be presumed, was only employed in the winter
or for the more permanent camps. Each tent
sheltered ten soldiers with their deco/nus. Pos-
sibly the tent has reached its highest perfection
in Persia, where there are many tribes who
dwell in them. They are nearly hemispherical,
over a wooden framework, and covered with felt,
with worked hangings covering the entrance. The
Chinese lower classes also live much in tents, and
while their construction is invariably of mat-
ting, they are usually of great size and exceed-
ingly comfortable in design. The modern mili-
tary tents‘ are made of linen or cotton canvas,
and latterly since the discovery of khaki (q.v.),
and its wide use in military uniforms, tents
made of this material have been very largely
employed both in England and in America. The
largest military tents are those used for hospital
purposes. They are oblong in shape with high
side walls. The tent most commonly used in mili-
tary camps usually is round, about twelve feet
in diameter, and ten feet high, affording sleep-
ing accommodation to about sixteen men. Many
other ‘forms are in occasional use throughout
the world, some designed to cover one or two
men and so constructed as to be easily carried
by the men, others by baggage animals or mules.
The ‘dog tent’ of the United States soldier is
a small easily carried contrivance which affords
a degree of shelter for one or two men. See EN-
CAMPMENT for description and illustration of
a United States Army common wall tent.
TENTACULITES, ten'tak-1'1-li’tez (Neo-Lat.
nom. pl., from tentaculum, tentacle, feeler, from
TENTACULITES.
TENURE.
593
Lat. tentare, to touch, test, try). An important
genus of fossil shells found in Silurian and De-
vonian rocks and often so abundant that they
constitute the greater portion of thin limestone
beds. The shells are of delicate, elongate conic
form with the outer surface marked by regular
transverse striations of either the same or alter-
nate sizes, and also by very delicate longitudinal
lines in the hollow between the striations. The
species range from one-quarter to three inches
in length. See Prnnorona.
TENT CATERPILLAR. The larvae of four
species of silk-spinning moths of the genus Mala-
cosoma (formerly Clisiocampa). The female of
the apple-tree tent caterpillar (M alacosoma Amer-
icana), a dull reddish brown moth with two
oblique pale stripes on the fore wings, lays eggs
in ring-like masses fastened to small twigs of
apple, cherry, thorn, etc. The caterpillars hatch
in the early spring in the nearest fork of the
twigs, and spin a web or tent in which they live
in company, but which they leave when hungry,
to feed upon the surrounding leaves. The tent
is enlarged as the creatures grow. They hiber-
nate in the egg stage. The eggs are easily seen
in the winter time and may be pruned and de-
stroyed, and the caterpillars may be killed just
at nightfall within the tents by burning or
spraying with kerosene. The so-called forest tent
caterpillar, or forest army-worm (fllalacosoma
disstria) , has similar habits, but the ring of eggs
is perfectly cylindrical instead of being rather
elliptical as with the former species. Both of
these species are of Eastern distribution. On
the Western coast the larva of M alaeosoma con-
strieta infests fruit trees in the late summer, and
the larva of Malacosoma Oaliformlca is found
upon oaks early in the season.
TEN'TERDEN, CHARLES ABBOTT, first Baron
(1762-1832). An English lawyer. born at Canter-
bury. Abbott graduated at Corpus Christi Col-
lege, Oxford, in 1785, and soon afterwards was
made a fellow. After being a student of the
Inner Temple he was called to the bar in 1796.
He joined the Oxford circuit, and rapidly ac-
quired a lucrative practice. He published,
in 1802, his treatise on Merchant Ships and
Seamen, in all respects the best written book
which had till then appeared on one department
of English law and still a standard authority.
In 1816 he accepted a puisne judgeship in the
Court of Common Pleas; and in 1818 he was
knighted. and chosen to succeed Lord Ellenbor-
ough as Chief Justice of the King’s Bench. He
was raised to the peerage in 1827 as Baron Ten-
terden of Hendon.
TEN THOUSAND, RETREAT or THE.
ANABASIS and Xnuornon.
TEN THOUSAND A YEAR. A novel by
Samuel Warren (1841). The hero is a vulgar
draper’s clerk, Tittlebat Titmouse, who suddenly
becomes rich through sharp legal practice.
TENURE (OF., Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere,
to hold, retain). The manner in which a person
holds or owns real property. The word implies
something less than an absolute and unqualified
ownership. Before the development of the feudal
system, an individual could own a piece of land
absolutely, and such allegiance as he might owe
to a superior power was a personal matter. How-
ever, at the very basis of the feudal system were
See
the ideas of protection and service, of the do-
minion of the King and the dependence and sub-
ordination of the subject. Out of these ideas
originated the feudal doctrine that the King
should own all the land, and that his subjects
were only entitled to hold such portions of it as
he might parcel out to them, and on such con-
ditions as he might impose. The Anglo-Saxons
held their lands allodially, that is, by absolute
and unqualified ownership; but when the Con-
queror assumed the throne he parceled out the
country among his followers as if it were his
private estate, and introduced the intricate feudal
tenures which had grown up on the Continent.
See FEUDALISM.
With respect to their character and dignity,
tenures under the feudal system in England may
be classified as free and base or non-free tenures.
The most common of the free tenures was that
by km'ght’s service, which involved allegiance,
military service, and other duties to the King or
over-lord. This tenure was created by a solemn
ceremony, in which the prospective tenant was
said to pay homage to his lord, who thereby be-
came bound to protect him in exchange for his
promises of service and fealty. The chief service
was performed by actual military duty when
necessary, although at a later period a practice
of making payments or sending substitutes, in-
stead of the personal service, was sanctioned.
Other heavy burdens incident to this tenure were
known as reliefs, aids, wardships, and marriage
(qq.v.), which yielded a large revenue to the
great men of the realm.
Less common. but of greater dignity, was the
tenure by grand sergeanty, which involved some
personal service to the King, usually something
other than military duty, as to be his cup-bearer,
chief justice, standard-bearer, etc. Petty ser-
geanty did not usually involve personal service,
but some tribute, such as rendering to the King
annually a weapon, or a pair of spurs. See
GRAND SERGEANTY.
Lands were frequently conveyed to the clergy
on condition that they sing masses for the souls
of the poor or distribute alms at certain in-
tervals. This was known as tenure by franlcal-
moign or ‘free alms.’ In early times such land
also remained subject to the burdens of feudal
tenure.
As the rigor of the feudal system relaxed ten-
ure by socage became the common and popular
manner of holding land. See Sooxen.
Gavellcind, borough English, and bargage ten-
ures were merely forms of socage tenure. changed
somewhat by local custom. The Statute of Mili-
tary Tenures in 1640 converted the military ten-
ures into free and common socage.
During the Norman era there existed in Eng-
land a large class of people known as villeins,
who were practically serfs, and were generally
attached to the land. They were given small
plots to cultivate, and were required to perform
the most menial services for the lord at his will.
This was known as the tenure of oilleinaqe, and
was a base or non-free tenure. It became the cus-
tom, however, to note the succession of a son to
his father, and the character of services per-
formed by the latter, on the rolls or records of
the Court Baron of the manor. By this custom
the services required of villeins in each manor
assumed a more certain and definite character,
TENURE.
TEPEHUAN.
594
and they were said to hold by virtue of a ‘copy of
the rolls of the court.’ At a later period the pay-
ment of rent in some form was substituted for
menial services, and the copyhold tenant, as he
came to be called, became a respectable member
of the community. Many copyhold tenures still
prevail, and the old practice of resorting to the
‘custom of the manor’ to ascertain their character
or incidents still obtains.
In the United States most of the lands origi-
nally granted by the Crown and proprietors of
‘plantations’ were held in free and common
socage, and a modified form of this tenure still
obtains in a few States. In most of the States,
however, all feudal tenures have been abolished
and lands are held allodially, that is, absolutely
and subject only to the right of eminent domain
in the State. See Blackstone and Kent, Oom-
mentartes; Pollock and Maitland, History of the
English Law (2d ed., Boston and London, 1899) ;
Encyclopaadia of the Laws of England (London,
1897-98); Degby, History of the Law of Real
Property (2d ed., Oxford, 1884) ; Williams, Real
Property (19th ed., London, 1902).
TENURE OF OFFICE ACT. A term some-
times applied to an act of Congress passed in
1820, chiefly through the influence of W. H. Craw-
ford, Secretary of the Treasury, creating a four-
year tenure for a large number of Federal oflices,
previously held by an indefinite tenure of good
behavior. This act is usually regarded as having
prepared the way for the introduction of the spoils
system (q.v.). The name Tenure of Office Act,
however, is most commonly associated with the
important act of 1867, which grew out of the
controversy between Congress and President
Johnson. It had been the practice from the es-
tablishment of the Government in 1789 to con-
cede to the President the right to dismiss with-
out the consent of the Senate all Federal ofiicers
appointed by him, inasmuch as the Constitution
did not expressly require such consent, and in
view of his sole responsibility for the execution
of the laws. But on account of President John-
son’s opposition to the Congressional policy of
reconstruction it was feared by Congress that he
would use his great power of dismissal to impede
its plan of reconstruction, and accordingly the
Tenure of Oflice Act was passed over his veto
on March 2, 1867, providing that the consent of
the Senate should be necessary to the dismissal
of any oflicer appointed by and with the advice
and consent of that body. Cabinet ofl‘icials were
also included in this. This was a complete re-
versal of the policy of the Government with
regard to removals from oflice, and the Presi-
dent’s disregard of the law in removing Secretary
Stanton was the main cause of his impeachment
by the House of Representatives. (See IMPEACH-
MENT.) With the accession of General Grant to
the Presidency in 1869, the more objectionable
features of the act were stricken out, and finally,
in 1887, the act as a whole was repealed.
TENZON, or TENsoN (Prov. tenso, from Lat.
tensio, stretching, contention, from tendere, to
stretch). In Provengal poetry, a debate in verse
between two poets, and hence a special metrical
form adopted for the purpose. See PROVENQAL
LITERATURE.
TEOCALLI, ta'6-kiilflvé (Nahuatl, house of
the god). The ancient Mexican term for a tem-
ple and place of sacrifice and worship. The
teocallis were commonly low, truncated, four-
sided pyramids of earth, stone, or brick, a small
temple building being placed on the flat summit.
There was also as a rule a sacrificial stone on
the summit, where public sacrifices were made.
The term has come to be applied more specifical-
ly to the teocalli of the City of Mexico. This
structure, as described by the early writers, had
the usual pyramidal form, and was somewhat
more than 80 feet high with a summit surface
of 325 by 250 feet. This summit was reached by
a terrace winding spirally five times around the
pyramid. The great sacrificial stone from this
teocalli is still preserved in the City of Mexico.
TE’OS (Lat., from Gk. Téws). An ancient
Ionian city on the west coast of Asia Minor; on
a peninsula projecting into the Gulf of the
Cayster, northwest of Ephesus. Here was a cele-
brated temple of Dionysus, and a theatre, of
which remains still exist, while the walls of the
modern town of Sigliajik contain many interest-
ing inscribed stones from the ancient site. Teos
was prosperous till the Persian conquest, when
a large part of its inhabitants withdrew to their
colony of Abdera in Thrace. It was the birth-
place of the lyric poet Anacreon.
TEOSINTE (Mexican name), Eachlama M east-
cana or Euchlcena luaiarians. A tall, stout,
leafy plant closely related to and greatly re-
sembling maize or Indian corn. It is a native
of the warmer parts of Mexico and Central
America, from whence it has been introduced as
a forage crop. In its native habitat it grows
rapidly, often attaining a height of 10 to 15 feet
in a few months. The stalks bear ‘tassels’ of
staminate flowers, and a number of small, flat-
tened, poorly filled ears, the grain of which sel-
dom matures farther north than the Gulf
States. On account of its extensive tillering
(30-50 stalks often springing from a single root)
and its Very leafy habit, teosinte produces as
much green fodder upon a given area as any
other grass. The Louisiana Experiment Station
reports 50 tons of green forage per acre. The
stalks are tender and the whole plant is readily
eaten by stock. The plants may be cut several
times during the season, but a single cutting just
before the advent of autumn frosts will yield
about as much forage as the more frequent cut-
tings. Teosinte withstands drought fairly well
and has been successfully grown as far north as
Kansas and Pennsylvania, but has not proved
satisfactory at the experiment stations of Michi-
gan, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine. An
analysis of the green fodder shows it to contain
water, 66.77 per cent.; ash, 3.97 per cent.;
protein, 2.54 per cent.; fibre, 12.33; nitrogen-free
extract. 13.60 per cent.; and fat, 0.79 per cent.
TEPEHUAN, ta’pa-hwtin’ (mountaineer. or
conqueror) . A brave and warlike tribe of Piman
stock (q.v.) formerly occupying a considerable
territory in the Sierra Madre. south of the Tarn-
mari (q.v.), but now restricted to the moun-
tainous region in the extreme northwestern por-
tion of Durango. with adjoining portions of
Chihuahua and Sinaloa, Mexico. Informer
times they were reputed the bravest people of
Mexico, and they still are extremely jealous of
their tribal rights. They are an industrious. agri-
cultural people, living in houses of logs or stone
TEPEHUAN.
TERBORCH.
595
set in clay mortar, or frequently utilizing the
mountain caves for shelter. They cultivate cot-
ton, which they weave into fabrics of beautiful
texture and colors. They are now reduced to a
mere remnant.
TEPIC, ta-pek’. A territory in the western
part of Mexico, bounded by the States of Sina-
loa and Durango on the north, Jalisco on the
east and south, and the Pacific on the west
(Map: Mexico, G 7) . Area, 11,275 square miles.
The surface is low on the coast and mountainous
toward the eastern frontier. The population,
mostly semi-independent Indians, includes 30,000
Nayarits, engaged chiefly in agriculture. Popu-
lation, in 1895, 147,776. Capital, Tepic (q.v.).
The Nayarit population long resisted the Span-
ish sway and were not subdued until 1722, and
then only nominally. In 1872 they rebelled
against the Mexican Government, but were sub-
dued after a bloody struggle. The Territory of
Tepic was organized in 1889.
TEPIC. The capital of the Territory of
Tepic, Mexico, 28 miles east of the port of San
Blas, with which it is connected by a railway
(Map: Mexico, F 7). Situated on a plateau
2900 feet above the sea, it commands a fine view
of the Pacific; its climate, mild and healthful,
attracts many summer residents from San Blas.
The streets are straight and lined with well-
constructed houses. It has cotton and cigar
manufactures. It was founded i11 1531 by Nufio
de Guzman. Population, in 1895, 14,560.
'I‘EP’LITZ, or 'I'orLITz, tF>p’lits. A town of
Bohemia, Austria, 46 miles northwest of Prague,
in the valley of the Biela, between the Erzgebirge
and the Mittelgebirge ranges (Map: Austria, C
1). It is a favorite watering place, famous for
its hot springs, which range in temperature from
97° to 120° F., and are almost free from min-
eral properties. The most important building
is the Castle of Prince Clary, which, with its
surrounding park and gardens, constitutes the
chief resort of the town. Teplitz has important
manufactures of buttons. cotton and india-rubber
goods, chemicals, glass, pottery, and sugar. The
springs have been celebrated since the eighth
century. The town is known for the treaty of
alliance signed here September 9, 1813, by the
monarchs of Russia, Prussia, and Austria against
Napoleon. Population, in 1900, 24,117.
TERAMO, ta’ra-mo. The capital of the
Province of Teramo, Italy, 32 miles northwest of
Chieti, at the confluence of the Tordino and
Vazzola Rivers (Map: Italy, H 5) . It lies amid
attractive mountain scenery. and has interest-
ing Roman remains. The fourteenth-century
cathedral has been recently restored. The
Church of Sant’ Agostino is a handsome Gothic
structure. Pottery, leather, fine furniture, straw
hats, and cream of tartar are manufactured.
The Gran Sasso d’Italia is often ascended from
here. Population (commune), in 1901, 24,563.
TEB/APHIM. A Hebrew word, plural in
form but of obscure origin, and designating a
certain kind of images used for oracular pur-
poses. The teraphim appear to have been of
various shapes, in some instances small enough
to be hidden in the camel-litter—as in the story
of Rachel’s theft of the teraphim belonging to
her father, Laban (Gen. xxxi. 19, 34), while in
others they had a human form and were large
enough to be used as a substitute for a man, as
in the story of Michal’s successful deception of
her father, Saul, by placing a teraph in David’s
bed (I. Sam. xix. 13-16). The reverence paid
to the teraphim as household deities lent a per-
sistence to the practices connected with them
that survived even Josiah’s reform (II. Kings
xxiii. 23) , and we find teraphim in vogue during
the exile (Zech. x. 2). Connected in some way
with ancestor-worship, it is not unlikely that
there is some relationship between teraphim
and Rephaim (q.v.)—-the ‘shades’ of the dead.
Consult Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode
(Giessen, 1892) .
TER’ATOL’OGY. That portion of biological
science which treats of the unusual or grotesque
forms which the organs or the whole body may
assume. See MALFoRMATIoN.
TERBIUM (Neo-Lat., from Yt-terb-y, in
Sweden). A metallic element discovered by
Mosander in 1843. It was originally found with
erbia, yttria, and other rare earths, in the min-
eral gadolinite from Ytterby, Sweden, but its
existence was subsequently disputed, until in-
vestigations by Cleve, about 1878, seemed to sub-
stantiate its elementary nature. It is, however,
still doubtful whether terbium is a single sub-
stance or a mixture. The metal itself has never
been isolated; its oxide is a dark-orange powder.
TERBORCH, ter’borK (TER BORCH, TERBURG) ,
GERARD (1617-81). An eminent genre and por-
trait painter of the Dutch School. Born at Zwolle,
he was first instructed by his father, a draughts-
man and etcher of some ability, and went,
in 1633, to Haarlem, where he became the pupil
of Pieter de Molyn. In the selection of sub-
jects he favored scenes of a peaceful and refined
domestic life, occasionally disconcerted by the
vicissitudes of love, the favorite theme of his
pictures. Only exceptionally he_ descends into
the lower strata of society, as for instance in his
earliest picture preserved to us. the “Backgam-
mon-Players,” in the Kunsthalle at Bremen.
The influence of the grand master of Haarlem,
Frans Hals, is noticeable in his first dated pic-
ture, “Consultation” (1635, Berlin Museum). To
the same period may be assigned the “Knife-
Grinder’s Family” (ib.) and “Boy with a Dog”
(Pinakothek, Munich). In 1635 he went to Lon-
don and is virtually lost sight of until 1645, when
we find him painting portraits at Amsterdam.
Thence he went to Miinster, where he painted his
most celebrated work, the “Peace Congress of
Miinster” (1648, National Gallery, London), con-
taining sixty likenesses, perhaps the most per-
fect specimen of miniature portrait-painting.
Accompanying the Spanish envoy to Madrid, he
found much favor at Court and painted several
portraits of Philip IV., by whom he was knighted.
In 1650 he was back in Holland, where he married
a widow, and settled at Deventer, in 1654. From
about that period probably date the portraits of
himself and wife in the Amsterdam Museum. A
later full-figure portrait of himself is in the
Hague Gallery, which also contains the charming
picture known as “The Dispatch” (1665).
From 1650 to 1660 he painted most of those
conversation pieces which have chiefly made
Terborch’s name popular, to wit: “The Reading
Lesson” (c.1650), “An Offer of Money,” and
“The Concert” (all in the Louvre); “Paternal
‘ TERIBORGH.
TERENCE.
596
Admonition” (c.1655, Amsterdam and Berlin);
“Trumpeter Delivering Love-letter” (Munich);
“Officer Writing Letter,” and “Officer Reading
Letter” (both in Dresden); and the “Guitar-
Lesson” (National Gallery, London). All these
have in common a forcible treatment of light
and coloring, in which a pronounced lemon tint
prevails beside a vigorous brownish red or deep
scarlet. During the last two decades of his life
his technique reached the height of its develop-
ment. Minutely correct in drawing, rich and
highly original in coloring, unsurpassed in the
rendering of fabric, always harmonious and deli-
cate in tone, the creations of his last period
may well be ranked with those of the greatest
colorists. They include: “The Music Lesson”
(1660, Louvre), “Lute-Player” (in Antwerp,
Cassel, and Dresden), “The Concert” (Berlin),
“Lady VVashing Her Hands” (Dresden), “Paring
an Apple” (Vienna), and “The Letter” (Buck-
ingham Palace, London),one of his most distin-
guished delineations. A striking example of fine
modeling and masterly stuff-painting is “The
Smoker,” in the Berlin Museum, which also pos-
sesses four small full-length portraits of superior
merit. His “Meeting of the Town Council”
(1667, Town Hall, Deventer) ranks next to his
Miinster picture as regards the number of fig-
ures. In the Metropolitan Museum, New York,
may be seen a portrait of himself and another
portrait of a gentleman. Consult: Michel, Ter-
burg et sa famille (Paris, 1888); Rosenberg,
Terborch and Jan Steen (Leipzig, 1897); and
Lemcke, in Dohme, Kunst /und Kzlnstler, ii. (ib.,
1878).
TERCE. See BREVIARY.
TERCEIRA, tér-sa’é-ra.
island of the Azores (q.v.) (Map: Portugal,
B 4). Area, 164 square miles. It is of volcanic
origin. The coast is lined with precipitous cliffs
of lava, and the diversified surface attains a
maximum altitude of 3500 feet in Caldeira de
Santa Barbara. Wine, lumber, and archil are
produced and largely exported. Angra do Hero-
ismo (q.v.), the chief town of the island, is also
the seat of government for the entire group. The
population of Terceira in 1900 was 56,548.
TER/EBRAT’ULA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., di-
minutive of Lat. terebratus, p.p. of tcrebmre, to
bore, pierce). A large number of fossil shells,
chiefly in the Mesozoic formations, have been
called Terebratula, but the name appears to be
properly applicable only to certain species of
the Mesozoic and Tertiary, which are closely
allied to Terebratula Phillipsi of the Middle
Jurassic. This group appeared in the Devonian,
and, with a great expansion during the Mesozoic,
it continues to the present day. As a rule the
shells have a pentagonal or oval outline, with
both valves convex, the ventral beak prominent
and arching over the dorsal beak and perforated
by a usually large foramen. The surface of the
shell is always punctate, but in most species this
character can be seen only with the aid of a
lens. The earlier species are, as a rule, smooth-
surfaced shells, while those of the Mesozoic are
sometimes striated and in a few instances pli-
cated.
TEREDO. The generic name of a small bi-
valve marine mollusk, colloquially called ‘ship-
worm’ and ‘borer,’ which perforates woodwork
under water, especially ship’s timbers and piling,
The second largest
devouring it and making long, shell-lined tun-
nels, many being crowded close together, and so
weakening the timber that at last it breaks
apart. See SHIPWORM.
TEREK, ter’ék. A river of Southeastern
Russia, one of the chief streams flowing from
the Caucasus (Map: Russia, G 6). It rises in a
glacier near the summit of Mount Kazbec at an
altitude of nearly 14.000 feet, and descends the
north slope of the Caucasus in a tumultuous
course through deep and narrow gorges. It then
turns east, and after a total flow of 400 miles
enters the Caspian Sea through a large delta.
It carries down enormous quantities of detritus,
and its delta is advancing into the sea at the
rate of over 100 feet a year. The river is navi-
gable 25-1 miles for small vessels.
TEREK. A territory in the eastern part of
Northern Caucasia (see CAUCASUS), bordering
on the Caspian Sea. Area, about 28,150 square
miles (Map: Russia, F 6). It is bounded on
the south by the Caucasus Mountains, many
of whose highest peaks it contains. The in-
terior is occupied to a large extent by the off-
shoots of the main chain and slopes toward the
Terek and the coast, which is low and marshy.
The region is watered by the Terek and its tribu-
taries, and abounds in mountain lakes. In the
lowlands along the coast and the Terek the cli-
mate is very unhealthful, and most of the set-
tlements are found in the mountainous districts.
Terek produces few minerals aside from pe-
troleum, which is obtained in increasing quan-
tities in the Grozny chain. At Pyatigorsk
(q.v.) are the best known of the mineral springs.
Agriculture gives occupation to about 80 per
cent. of the inhabitants, but only a small portion
of the cultivated land is utilized. The chief
products are wheat, corn, rye, and hemp. The
output of wine is extensive. The natives keep
large herds of horses and sheep. Population, in
1897, 933,485. Capital, Vladikavkaz (q.v.).
TER’ENCE (PUBLIUS TEBENTIUS AFER)
(c.l85-c.159 B.o.). A Roman writer of comedies.
He was born at Carthage, and was perhaps of
African (not Phoenician) origin. He was brought
to Rome and there became the slave of the
Roman senator Publius Terentius Lucanus, who,
out of regard for his handsome person and un-
usual talents, gave him a good education, and
finally manumitted him. On his manumission, he
assumed his patron’s prcenomen and nomen. His
first play was the Andria, which was put upon
the stage in BC. 166. Its success was immediate,
and introduced its author to the most refined
society of Rome, where his engaging address and
accomplishments 1nade him a particular favorite.
His chief patrons were Laelius and the younger
Scipio, after living with whom in great intimacy
for some years in Rome he went to Greece, where
he spent a year in studying the Greek comedies
of Menander, Diphilus, Apollodorus, and others,
and adapting them in Latin for the Roman stage.
He never returned; and the accounts of how he
came by his death are conflicting. He is sup-
posed to have died by drowning in B.O. 159. Six
comedies are extant under the name of Terentius,
which are perhaps all he produced: Andria,
H ecym, H canton-timoroumenos, Ewnuchus, Phar-
mio, and Adelphi. Terence preserved a sort of
charmed life throughout the dark ages when
TERENCE.
TERMINI IMERESE.
597
classical literature was almost forgotten, and
on the revival of letters was studied as a model
by the most accomplished playwrights. His lan-
guage is pure, almost immaculate, and though
inferior to Plautus in comic power, he is more
than his match in consistency of plot and char-
acter, in tenderness, in wit, and in metrical skill.
The best editions are those of Wagner (Cam-
bridge, 1869), Umpfenbach (Berlin, 1870),
Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1884), and Fleckeisen (ib.,
1901). There are good English translations by
Colman (London, 1841) and Riley (New York,
1859).
TERENTIANUS MAURUS, te-rén’shi-5/nfis
ma/rus. A Roman poet referred with probability
to the end of the second century A.D. His name
indicates that he was an African, and he may be
identical with the Terentianus, governor of
Syene, praised by Martial (i., 87). There is
an elegant poem extant by him on prosody and
the various metres, De Literis Syllabis, Pedibus,
Metris. It has been edited by Santen and Van
Lennep (Utrecht, 1825), Lachmann (Berlin,
1836), and Gaisford (Oxford, 1855).
TERE’SA, SAINT (1515-82). A famous Car-
melite nun and mystical writer. She was born
at Avila, in Old Castile. In her eighteenth year
she entered a convent of the Carmelite Order
in her native city, making her solemn vow on
November 3, 1534. In this convent she con-
tinued to reside for nearly thirty years. After
a time her religious exercises reached a most
extraordinary degree of asceticism. She began
her work of reforming the Carmelite Order in
concert with a few zealous members of her
own sisterhood in the Convent of Avila, but
afterwards obtained permission from the Holy
See, under the direction of Peter of Alcantara,
to remove with her little community to Saint
Joseph’s, a small and very humble convent in
the same city, where she established in its full
rigor the ancient Carmelite rule, with some ad-
ditional observances introduced by Teresa her-
self. This new convent was established in 1562.
The general of the Carmelite Order, J . B. Rossi,
was so struck with the condition of the convent
over which Teresa presided that he urged upon
her the duty of extending throughout the Order
the reforms thus successfully initiated. Teresa
entered upon the work with great energy, and
succeeded in carrying out her reforms. (See
CARMELITES.) She died at Alba, October 4,
1582, and was canonized by Gregory XV. in
1622, her feast being fixed on October 15. The
third centenary of her death was celebrated with
great splendor in 1882. Her works consist,
besides her famous letters, mainly of ascetical
and mystical treatises. Complete editions in
Spanish were published at Madrid in 1877 and
1881; an excellent French edition is that of
Bouix (Paris, 1859). There are several biog-
raphies in English, by Mrs. Cunningham Gra-
ham (London, 1894); Whyte (1897); anony-
mous, with an introduction by Cardinal Manning
(Dublin, 1872); the best is Coleridge, Life and
Letters of Saint Teresa (London, 1881-96).
TEBEUS, te’re-ns. See PHILOMELA.
TERGOES, ter'e6T)'s’. A seaport of the Neth-
erlands. See GOES.
TERGOVISTE, ter’g6-v‘1'sh’te, or TARGU-
VISHTEA. The capital city of the District of
Dimbovitza, Rumania, 50 miles northwest of
Bucharest, on the right bank of the Jalomitza
(Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 2) . As the former
capital of Wallachia it had a population of 60,-
000, in the sixteenth century. The town is now
an important strategic point. Population, in
1900, 9398.
TERHUNE, ter-him’, MARY VIRGINIA
(HAWES) (183l—). An American novelist and
journalist, born in Richmond, Va., of New Eng-
land ancestry. She married in 1856 Rev. Edward
P. Terhune of Brooklyn, was editorially connected
with Babyhood, Wide Awake, Saint Nicholas,
and The Home-Maker, and published under the
name of rMarion Harland’ many domestic man-
uals, social essays, sketches of travel, novels, and
short stories, among which may be noted: Alone,
A Tale of Southern Life and Manners (1854);
The Hidden Path (1855); Moss-Side (1857);
Miriam (1860) ; Nemesis (1860) ; Husks (1863);
Sunnybank (1866); At Last (1870); Common
Sense in the Household (1871), one of her best
known books; Our Daughters, and What Shall
We Do with Them? (1880); Sketches of Euro-
pean Travel (1880) ; Judith (1883) ; and A Gal-
lant Fight (1888).
TERLIZZI, ter-lit’sé. A town in the Prov-
ince of Bari delle Puglie, Italy, 20 miles west
by north of Bari and about 7 miles from the
Adriatic (Map: Italy, X 6). It has an ancient
castle. It is active commercially.
almonds are leading products.
mune), in 1901, 23,232.
TERM (OF. terme, from Lat. terminus, OLat.
termo, termen, boundary, limit). In the law of
real property, the time during which a tenant is
entitled to enjoy an estate, according to his
lease. The word is also sometimes employed to
denote the estate or interest of the tenant, itself.
TERM, OF COURT. In practice the word term
denotes a period in which a court holds a ses-
sion. Under the common law system in England
the judicial year was divided into four terms,
the names of which indicated the time of the year
in which they were held, viz.: Hilary Term, Eas-
ter Term, Trinity Ter1n, and Michaelmas Term.
These terms were abolished by the Judicature
Acts. In the United States the terms of court
are arranged with reference to the number of
judges available and the probable volume of judi-
cial business to be disposed of. It is usual, how-
ever, to have a vacation of several months during
the summer.
TERMINI IMERESE, ter’me-né e’ma-ra'za.
A city on the north coast of Sicily in the Prov-
ince of Palermo, on the San Leonardo, 21 miles
east-southeast of Palermo (Map: Italy, H 9).
The busy port is dominated by a plateau on
which rise the houses of the well-to-do. In the
rear are picturesque hills. Here also is the
medieeval castle (now a prison), commanding a
fine view. The Ospedale dei Benfratelli contains
an historical museum with collections of Greek
and Roman antiquities, and paintings by Sicilian
artists. The city has a school of navigation
and a library. There are extensive tunny and
sardine fisheries. The exports include Sicilian
macaroni (for which the town is famous), be-
sides wine, olive oil, fruits, grain, and rice. The
warm saline springs are much frequented for
bathing. Population (commune), in 1881, 23,-
Wine and
Population (com-
TERMINI IMERESE.
TERN.
598
148; in 1901, 18,650. Termini Imerese, the
Roman Termes Himerenses, was founded by the
Carthaginians in B.C. 407, after the destruction
of the ancient Himera (q.v.), the ruins of which
are still to be seen. It had become largely Hel-
lenized when it was captured by the Romans in
‘the First Punic War.
TER/MINUS (Lat., boundary, limit). A
Roman divinity presiding or er public and private
boundaries; His only sanctuary was in the Tem-
ple of Jupiter, on the Capitol, where he was
honored in the form of a boundary stone, above
which was an opening in the roof, that his rites
might be performed, as ritual required, in the
open air. According to the divergent theories
as to the Roman religion, Terminus may be re-
garded as an early god who later yielded to the
growth of the worship of Jupiter, or as a later
schematizing offshoot from the original concep-
tion of Jupiter as the guardian of all boundaries.
The Terminalia seems to have been simply a festi-
val of neighbors at their common boundary lines.
We also hear of annual sacrifices at the frontier
(real or assumed), but dedications to Terminus
are unknown before the days of the Empire.
TERMITE (from Lat. termes, tarmes, wood-
Worm; connected with terere, Gk. relpew, teirein,
Lith. triti, trinti, OChurch Slav. tryeti, truti, to
rub). Any one of the insects of the order
Isoptera, comprising those forms known as white
ants. They are not at all related to the true
ants, but their general appearance and the fact
that they live in societies have given them the
popular name. For an account of the community
life and of the different castes of the termites,
see INSECTS, paragraph 011 Social Insects.
The order Isoptera, which is most numerously
represented in the tropics, includes only the
single family Termitidae, from which the com-
mon name ‘termite’ is derived. They undergo
practically no transformation. The young when
it hatches from the egg is an active, crawling

AMERICAN NORTHERN WHITE ANT (Termes flavipes).
1, adult male: 2, worker; 3, soldier; 4, supplementary
queen. (After Marlatt.)
creature with six legs, much resembling the
adult except in size. All species are social and
the communities consist of both wingless and
winged individuals. The males and females
which are winged have very long membranous
longitudinally veined wings which when in re-
pose lie fiat along the back, extending far beyond
the tip of the abdomen. The hind wings are of
nearly the same shape and size as the front
Wings, and across the base of each wing is a line
of weakness indicating where the wing breaks
off after the nuptial flight. The nests, which are
often built of earth, are hard and persistent, and
are sometimes more than 12 feet high. These
‘ant-hills’ are divided into chambers and galleries,
and there are generally two or three roofs within
the dome-shaped interior. The thick walls are
perforated by passages leading to the nurseries
and storehouses. Termites sometimes attack the
woodwork of houses and soon reduce the thickest
timbers to a mere shell. Those species which live
in trees sometimes construct nests of great size,
like sugar casks, of particles of gnawed wood
cemented together and so strongly attached to the
branches as not to be shaken down even by vio-
lent storms.
In the United States there are comparatively
few species, and only one (Termes flauipes)
which has a northward range. This is the com-
mon white ant found frequently living in the
joists and other large timbers of houses. In
these they make innumerable tunnels, running
usually with the grain of the wood, so that, al-
though a great deal of the substance of the wood
is devoured, the main longitudinal fibres support
the building structure for a long time. In fact,
their presence in many houses would not be
noticed except for the spring flight of the winged
males and females. This species is probably
native to North America, although it was acci-
dentally introduced into Europe. A species
known as Termes tubiformans occurs in Texas,
and makes tubes around the grass stems and
stems of other plants, while their nests are placed
deep in the ground.
The origin of a new termite colony occurs after
the nuptial flight when the female’s (queen’s)
wings break off ; her body swells with eggs, grows
enormously, and egg-laying commences. Unlike the
true ants or any of the other social Hymenoptera,
the young require very little care from the work-
ers. Just as with the true ants and other social
insects, there are many termitophilous or guest
insects to be found in the nests of termites. The
damage done by termites in tropical regions is
very great. In Central America it is almost im-
possible to erect wooden telegraph poles which
will last for any length of time, as they are tun-
neled by these insects and fall very soon. Con-
sult: Sharp, Cambridge Natural History, vol. v.
(London, 1895) ; Howard, The Insect Book (New
York, 1902).
TERN (Dan. terna, Icel. Perna, tern), or SEA-
SWALLCW. One of a group, the Sterninae, of small
gulls (q.v.), found in most parts of the world,
and essentially gulls in habits and appearance.
About 75 species are known, varying in size
from the Caspian tern (Sterna tschegraua),
which is nearly two feet long and four and one-
half feet across the wings, down to the dainty
least tern (Sterna antillarum), which is only
nine inches long. The typical color of the terns
is blue-gray above, white beneath, and black
on the crown, but one or two species are pure
white, some are black and white, some sooty
brown, and some almost wholly black. The
TERN.
TERRACE-.
599
. Penikese and Muskeget Islands, Mass.
‘common’ tern is Sterna hirundo, abundant on
the coasts of the whole Northern Hemisphere and
of Africa. It breeds locally on the coast and
in the Mississippi Valley from the Gulf States
to Greenland, but, owing to incessant persecution,
it selects only unoccupied sandy islets for its
breeding places, and from New Jersey to Maine
its only resorts now are Gull Island, N. Y., and
The Arc-
tic tern (Sterna paradislcea) is very similar. Its
egg is illustrated on the Colored Plate of EGGS
OF AMERICAN GAME AND WATER Bums, and is
typical of tern’s eggs generally. The gull-
billed tern (Gelochelidon Nilotica) of the South-
ern States, a cosmopolitan species; the roseate
tern (Sterna Dougalli) of the Atlantic Coast;
the sooty tern, or ‘egg-bird,’ of the West Indies
(Sterna fuliginosa), also southern; and the ele-
gant tern (Sterna elegans) of the Pacific Coast
from California southward, are the most inter-
esting among the 15 or 16 other North American
species. '
TERNATE, tér-n‘a’ta. A small but important
island of the Moluccas, situated off the west
coast of the island of Gilolo. Area, about 55
square miles. It consists of an active volcanic
peak, rising 5400 feet above the sea. The chief
town, Ternate, has a population of about 3000
and a good harbor, but is not of great commercial
importance. It is the seat of the Sultan of
Ternate, who l1as large dominions in Celebes, and
is the capital of the Dutch Residency of Ternate,
which embraces the northern Moluccas and parts
of New Guinea and Celebes. See MOLUOCAS.
TERNAUX-COMPANS, tar'no’ koN'paN',
HENRI (1807-64). A French historian, bibli-
ographer, and diplomatist, born in Paris. He is
best known for his collection of books and manu-
scripts on the early history of Ameripa, one of
the most remarkable ever brought together. Fa-
cilities for collecting it were increased by his
diplomatic employment in Spain, Portugal, and
Brazil. He was also once a member of the French
Chamber of Deputies. He published a catalogue
of Americana before 1700, Bibliothc‘que améri-
caine (1836) ; also translations of documents in
his collection in 20 volumes, Voyages, relations
et mémoires originaua: pour servir a l’histoire de
la découverte de l’Amér-ique (2 series, 1836-40),
and other works of less significance.
TERNAY, t:1r'n:‘i’, CHARLES Lours D’ARsAE
DE (1722-80). A French naval officer, born at
Ternay, in Normandy. He entered the navy
in 1738 and fought at Louisburg in the French
and Indian War. In 1762, in command of a
squadron, he attacked Newfoundland, and cap-
. tured Saint John’s and several British vessels.
He was governor of the island of Bourbon (1772-
79. In 1780 he commanded the French fleet that
brought over to America Count Rochambeau and
his forces. He died at Newport soon after his
arrival.
TERNI, ter'ne. A city in the Province of
Perugia, Italy, 59 miles south by east of the
city of Perugia, on the Nera River, near its con-
fluence with the Velino (Map: Italy, G 5). The
many Roman remains, including an amphithea-
tre, sculptures, baths, inscriptions, etc., are in-
teresting. The city has a large Government ar-
senal and extensive iron and steel interests.
Woolen goods, brick, olive oil, and wine, are also
manufactured. Near the city are the famous
falls of Terni, in the Velino River——the Cascate
delle Marmore—with a total descent of 650 feet.
Population (commune), in 1901, 30,641. Terni,
the ancient Interamna, was of considerable im-
portance under the Romans.
TERN’STR(EMIA’CE.E (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., '
from Ternstroemia, named in honor of the Swed-
ish naturalist Ternstriim). According to Ben-
tham and Hooker, an order of about 200 species of
dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, natives of Warm
and temperate countries. They are most abundant
in South America; a few are found in North
America; some in India and China. The leaves
are alternate, leathery, in many species evergreen,
generally undivided. The flowers are on axillary
or terminal stalks, generally white, sometimes
pink or red; the fruit a 2 to 7 celled capsule,
containing a few large seeds, often rich in oil.
This order contains tea, camellia, and gordonia
(qq.v.). Engler divides it into several distinct
orders, most of the genera being transferred to
the order Theaceae. The best known American
representative of this order is the loblolly bay
(Gordonia Lasianthus) .
TERPAN'DER I (Lat., from Gk. Tépravdpos,
Terpandros) .
the seventh century B.C. He was born at An-
tissa, in the island of Lesbos, went to Sparta,
and in 676 was crowned victor in the first musical
contest at the feast of Apollo Carneius. He es-
tablished there the first musical school in Greece
and is credited with the enlargement of the com-
pass of the lyre to an octave. He was the first
to set poetry regularly to music.
TERPSICHORE, terp-sik’o-re (Lat., from
Gk. TGP¢LXCP7], fem. of repyhxépos, terpsichoros,
delighting in the dance, from répgl/rs, terpsis, en-
joyment + Xopés, choros, dance). In Greek
mythology, one of the nine Muses (q.v.). She
prescribed over the choral dance. In the later
assignment of functions to the Muses, she was
regarded as the Muse of the lesser lyric poetry,
and was distinguished by the lyre.
TERQUEM, tar’kaN', OLRY (1782-1862). A
French geometer, born at Metz of Jewish parents.
In 1804 he was called to Mainz as professor of
mathematics in the Lyceum, and afterwards to a
similar position in the school of artillery. Re-
turning to Paris in 1814, he was appointed li-
brarian in the artillery depot at Saint-Thomas-
d’Aquin. Terquem was a distinguished geometer
and is largely known for his Nouvelles annales dc
mathematiques, "a publication which he founded
together with Gerono in 1842, and which is still
continued. He also wrote Bulletin de biblio-
graphic, d’histoire et de biographie mathe-
matiques (7 vols., 1855-61).
TERRACE (OF. terrace, terrasse, Fr. ter-
rasse, from It. terraccia, terrazzo, terrace, from
terra, from Lat. terra, earth, land). In geology,
a stretch of comparatively level land along the
shore of a lake or the ocean or bordering the
course of a river and elevated some distance
above water level. Terraces frequently occur in
series, one rising above the other as the distance
from the shore increases. River terraces owe
their origin to the cutting down of flood plains;
as the channel of a river widens and deepens the
flood plain is gradually cut away until only the
edges adjacent to the valley walls remain. This
A Greek musician who lived in.
TERRACE-.
TERRA GOTTA.
600
process may be repeated several times, giving rise
to a succession of terraces of which the oldest
have the highest elevation and are farthest re-
moved fron1 the river. The drift terraces so com-
mon in the Northern States are remnants of flood
plains that were formed when the overloaded
streams of the Glacial period filled their pre-
glacial valleys. Lake terraces mark former
shore lines and are evidence of a shrinkage in the
volume of the lakes. They are well marked
around most of the Great Lakes, also on the
shores of Lake Champlain and the lakes of the
Great Basin. Their abundance has suggested the
term Terrace epoch to designate the geological
period during which they were produced. See
BEACHES, RAIsED; LAKE; RIVER; LAKE AGASSIZ;
etc.
TERRACINA, tér’ra-che’na. A city in the
Province of Rome, Italy, 76 miles southeast of
the city of Rome, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, and
at the southern end of the Pontine Marshes
(Map: Italy, H 6). The ancient city occupied
a commanding position on the crest of a hill
overlooking the modern site. This section affords
a magnificent view and has interesting remains
of the Roman period, notably those of the im-
pposing Temple of Venus, Which until 1894 were
supposed to belong to a palace of Theodoric the
Ostrogoth. The Cathedral San Cesareo in the
modern city, occupying the site of another Roman
temple, is of much architectural beauty. Popu-
lation, in 1901, 11,310. Terracina, the Volscian
Anwur and the Latin Ta/rmcina, was of consid-
erable military importance under the Romans.
TERRA GOTTA (It., baked earth). Hard-
fired earthenware, especially that which is used
for architectural material.
GREECE. Terra cotta statuettes are one of the
most common products of ancient art. They are
found in considerable numbers in Egypt, from the
earliest periods, though often here the clay is
covered by a vitreous glaze forming the so-called
Egyptian porcelain. Such figures are among the
most charming and dainty products of Greek art.
The archaic terra cottas are numerous, especially
on sacred sites. -The later figurines from the
fourth century 13.0. and the Hellenistic period
have been found in tombs at many sites, but the
earlier group is best represented by the statuettes
from Tanagra in Boeotia, which are strongly in-
fluenced by the art of Praxiteles and his contem-
poraries. In the later period the characteristics
of Hellenistic art are seen in terra cottas from
Asia Minor (especially Myrina), Sicily, and
Southern Italy. The attractiveness of these fig-
ures has led to many imitations, which frequently
are so skillful that only the expert can detect
their origin. The ancient figures were made in
molds, sometimes as many as 16 being employed
for a single figure; then after baking they were
often retouched or engraved, and finally painted
in brilliant colors on a coating of white lime.
For architecture the pieces were finished in true
ceramic painting, simple but of great excellence.
In Central Italy, especially in Etruria and La-
tium, crude brick seems to have been largely em-
ployed, and hence terra cotta was used for
decorative purposes in important buildings at a
time when in Greek lands it had been largely
supplanted by stone. In this region also terra
cotta seems to have been used much more exten-
sively for large figures than among the Greeks.
MIDDLE AGES AND RENAIssANcE. Throughout
the Middle Ages, baked clay was used in archi-
tecture, chiefly for floor tiles, but also for roof-
crestings and ornamental finials. In the great
plain of North Germany, where stone -was rare
and fictile clay abundant, a whole school of
Gothic architecture in brick grew up in the four-
teenth century and continued for two hundred
years: and the decorative reliefs modeled in clay
and used as capitals, friezes, and the like, are
of singular interest. Elaborate decorative gables
and parapets were made of this material and
baked so hard that they are terra cotta rather
than brick. In Italy, at the time of the Early
Renaissance, the material is used very freely in
elaborate detail in churches and in private dwell-
ings. The Renaissance artists used this material
freely for sculpture, even for life-size busts,
though rarely for statues. (See ROBBIA, DELLA.)
Another epoch of art during which terra cotta
was freely employed was of the eighteenth cen-
tury, when, especially in France, terra cotta stat-
uettes and groups were made in great abundance,
and vases, clocks, and the like decorated by reliefs
and figures in the round were made for decorative
effect. The most famous masters of this art were
three sculptors of the name of Adam (Lambert
Sigisbert, and his brothers Nicholas Sébastien
and Francois Gaspard), and especially Claude
Michel, commonly known as Clodion.
NINETEENTH CENTURY. In the nineteenth cen-
tury the use of terra cotta as a building material
was resumed in connection with the Gothic re-
vival and the increasing demand for decorative
detail. Toward the close of the century some
slight attempts were made to introduce poly-
chromy of a permanent kind in connection with
this material. Some of the best terra cotta for
buildings is made in the United States; and
here also color has been sparingly used. Among
its advantages as a building material are the
ease with which it may be molded to any desired
architectural or sculptural form and indefinitely
repeated, its durability, lightness, strength, and
cheapness. It may be made in almost any de-
sired color.
MANUFACTURE. A better grade of clay is re-
quired for terra cotta than for brick. Oftentimes
clays from different localities must be mixed to
secure the right color, while such vitrifying in-
gredients as pure white sand, old pottery or fire
_brick finely ground, and burned clay, are added
to secure partial vitrification. After weathering,
the selected clay is ground or washed (see CLAY,
par. CLAY-MINING), mixed with the vitrifying
ingredients and water; next, the various sorts of
clay are piled in layers. Vertical slices from
this mass are taken to either a pug mill or rollers
for tempering. The material is next sent to the
molding room in cakes of convenient size. If
only one piece is required, the clay may be mod-.
eled by hand, ready for baking; but if the design
is to be repeated a model is made and a mold
taken, into which the clay is forced by hand.
After partial drying the product is turned over
to the finisher, who may be more or less skilled,
according to the character of the design. After
drying, the forms are baked or burned, as de-
scribed under KILNS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lecuyer, Terres cwites (Paris,
1882-85) ; Cherret, Die Termkotten (Berlin,
1886); Pottier, Les statuettes de terre cwite
(Paris, 1890). The Greek statuettes are well
TERRA GOTTA.
TERRELL.
601
treated in Hutton, Greek Terracotta Statuettes
(London, 1899), and less accurately though in
more detail in Huish, Greek Terracotta Statuettes
(ib., 1900). Of special value are: Kekulé,
Griechische Thonfiguren aus Tanagra (Stuttgart,
1878). A catalogue of ancient terra cottas is in
preparation by the Berlin Academy of Sciences
under the editorial supervision of Kekulé, of
which two volumes have appeared. The Etruscan
funeral urns are collected by Brunn and Ktirte,
I rilieoi delle urne etrusche (Rome, 1870 et seq.) .
On the use of terra cotta in architecture consult:
Dtirpfeld, Grtiber, Borrmann, and Siebold, Ueber
die Verwenclung con Terralcotten am Geison und
Dache griechischer Bauwerhe (Berlin, 1881).
For application of ornamental terra cotta to
buildings, consult Kidder, Building Construction
and Superintendence, part i., “Mason’s I/Vork”
(New York, 1896). For the manufacture of the
various wall and floor fireproofing materials,
roof coverings, and other clay goods often going
under the name of terra cotta, also for porous
terra cotta and terra cotta lumber, see BRICK;
TILES. For the application of these materials,
see FIBEPROOF CoNsTRUoTIoN. '
TERRA DEL FUEGO, ter’ra del fwa'go. A
corrupted form of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) .
TERRAMARE, te1"1‘a-i1iii’ra (from It. terra
amara, bitter earth). The term applied to cer-
tain low mounds with level tops in the valley of
the Po, which are supposed to have formed the
foundations of prehistoric Italian villages. They
occur only in marshy districts, and form a de-
velopment of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland.
Since about and above them much debris of the
villages accumulated in the course of time, the
terramare are of great archaeological importance,
and present, in this regard, certain analogues
with the kitchen-middens of Denmark and the
shell-heaps of America. In them are found frag-
ments of bones, pottery, tools, implements of war,
and the like, which cast light on the ancient
civilization of Italy in the Neolithic period. Sec
ITALY, section on Ethnology; KITCHEN-MIDDEN;
LAKE-DWELLINGS.
TERRANOVA, ter’ra-no'va. A seaport in
the Province of Calta.nissetta, Sicily, 75 miles
east by south of Girgenti (Map: Italy, J 10).
There are tunny and sardine fisheries, and manu-
factures of woolen goods. The exports are grain,
wine, sulphur, soda, and cotton. Terranova was
built by Frederick 11. in the thirteenth century on
the site of Gela (q.v.). ‘The ruins of the ancient
necropolis have yielded numerous vases. Popu-
lation (commune), in 1901, 22,114.
TERRAPIN (probably of North American
Indian origin). Any of several species of fresh-


EDIBLE TEBRAPIN, OR DIAMONDBACK.
turtles’
tropical
water or brackish water or ‘mud
of the family Emyidae, natives of
and the warmer temperate countries. The neck
can be wholly retracted within the shell ; the
head is flat, and the jaws prolonged into a beak.
Terrapin feed partly on vegetable food, but also
devour fish, reptiles, and other aquatic animals.
They swim very well, and even 011 land move with
much greater swiftness than land-tortoises. The
family is represented in the United States by
about twenty species. The word terrapin has no
exact scientific significance, but in the United
States it is more commonly applied to the dia-
mond-back terrapin (Malaclemm-gs centrata).
This species is found in salt marshes from New
York to Texas, and is gray with black markings.
Its flesh is highly esteemed as a table delicacy,
and in some places along the southern coast
these turtles are reared for market in inclosures
in large numbers.
TERRE, ter, LA (Fr., the Earth). One of
Zola’s Rougon-Macquart novels (1887 ), in which
the author presents a brutally realistic study
of peasant life.
TERRE HAUTE, ter’e hot’. The county-seat
of Vigo County, Ind., 72 miles west by south of
Indianapolis; on the \Vabash River, and on the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis,
the Evansville and Terre Haute, the Terre Haute
and Indianapolis, the Southern Indiana, and
other railroads (Map: Indiana, B 3). It occu-
pies an elevated site, and is regularly laid out.
Terre Haute is the seat of the Rose Polytechnic
Institute, Indiana State Normal School, and
Saint Mary’s Institute. Other noteworthy in-
stitutions include the Rose Orphans’ Home, Saint
Ann’s Orphans’ Home, Saint Anthony’s Hospi-
tal, Union Hospital, and Rose Dispensary. The
United States custom-house and the county
court-house are also prominent structures. There
is a public library with about 30,000 volumes.
Terre Haute carries on considerable trade, being
the centre of a productive section, largely devoted
to agriculture and containing valuable coal de-
posits. It is also an important industrial city.
The various manufactures in the census year 1900
had $8,938,107 capital -and a production valued
at $27,784,619. Of the latter amount, more than
half was accredited to the concerns engaged in
the distillation of liquors. There are also foun-
dries and machine shops, flour and -Yhominy
mills, clothing factories, rolling mills, slaughter-
ing and meat-packing establishments, car works,
a brewery, planing mills, and manufactures of
carriages, glass, electric motors, stoves, brick,
tools, wheels, etc. The government, under the
charter of 1902, is vested in a mayor, chosen bi-
ennially, and a unicameral council. The sub-
ordinate oflicials, with the exception of the school
board, which is elected by the council, are ap-
pointed by the mayor. For maintenance and
operation the city spends annually about $401,-
000, the principal items being: schools, $139,000;
fire department, $40,000 ; police department, $30,-
000; municipal lighting, $27,000; streets, $22,-
000; and interest on debt, $21,000. Population,
in 1890, 30,217; in 1900, 36,673. Terre Haute
was founded in 1816 and was chartered as a city
in 1833.
TER’RELL. A city in Kaufman County,
Texas, 32 miles east of Dallas; on the Texas and
Pacific and the Texas‘ Midland railroads (Map:
Texas, F 3). It is the seat of the North Texas
Hospital for the Insane. It is the com-
TERRELL.
TERRIER.
602
mercial centre of a section engaged in farming,
cotton-growing, and fruit-growing, and having
besides important cattle-raising and lumber in-
terests. It is also of some prominence as an in-
dustrial city, being known for the_manufacture of
cottonseed oil. It has shops of the Texas Mid-
land Railroad, cotton gins, a cotton compress, a
flour mill, a foundry, a canning factory, etc. The
government is vested in a mayor, elected every
two years, and a unicameral council. The water-
works are owned by the municipality. Popula-
tion, in 1890, 2988; in 1900, 6330.
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. See MAG-
NETISM, TERRESTRIAL.
TERRIER (OF. terrier, from ML. terrarim,
relating to the earth, from Lat. terra, earth, land,
so called from its habit of scratching the ground
in pursuit of its prey). A small active domestic
dog, used in pursuit of vermin. Sixteen distinct
breeds of this dog are oflieially recognized, sev-
eral of which have two sub-varieties, i.e. rough-
haired and smooth. The earliest authentic men-
tion of the terrier is by Dr. Caius, who wrote a
Latin treatise on the dog before 1572. He enu-
merates among the British dogs ‘the terrare,’
which he described as used to hunt the fox and
badger by following them underground. Strutt
describes good terriers in the time of James 1.
(1603-25). This breed was what is now called
a fox-terrier, but at that time was black
and tan, or pied with white or yellow, of which a
large and a small variety were bred. The larger
variety became a rough”-‘haired, strong animal,
the foundation stock of the English white ter-
rier. This breed, crossed with the bulldog, pro-
duced the bull-terrier, a dog of infinite courage,
out of which, however, all other bulldog char-
acteristics have been eliminated. The fox-ter-
rier was gradually degraded into a fighting dog, .
and so lost caste that it became nearly extinct,
but was revived about 1865, and became the
most popular of all terriers as a pet in the house
as well as a useful servant about the stable.
While in one direction all the color was being
bred out of the original terrier to produce the
‘white’ dog, so in another direction all the white
was being eliminated to produce the pure black-
and-tan, until that race was perfected. From the
smaller specimens of this breed came, by selec-
tion, the toy black-and-tan weighing as little as
three pounds. The Welsh terrier is a large wire-
haired black-and-tan; and the Irish terri r is a
wire-haired yellow variety, claimed to e in-
digenous and of the highest antiquity. The
Bedlington is a Wire-haired variety supposed to
be a cross between the low-legged, wire-haired
Dandie Dinmont and the otter-hound, but it
much more strikingly resembles the Irish water
dog. The Airedale is a cross of the rough-haired
English terrier with the otter-hound; and the
Boston terrier is a cross of a smooth-coated ter-
rier with the bulldog.
In contrast to the above group of long-legged,
short-bodied, up-standing dogs, with either rough
or smooth coats, are the long-bodied, short-legged
dogs, with a long and silky covering. This latter
group were originally developed in Northern Scot-
land. They are the Scotch, a rough wire-haired
variety; the Dandie Dinmont with a woolier
coat; and the Skyes and Clydesdales with long
silky coats. The Yorkshire is the only English
specimen of the low-bodied, silky-haired terrier.
Japan boasts the shan-tung, which is almost in-
distinguishable from the Skye; and the Maltese
terrier, named from the island, has a coat as
long and silky as a Blenheim spaniel.
The characteristics of standard varieties are
as follows: Foa:-terriers. Generally gay, lively,
and of active appearance, with bone and strength
in a small compass, capable of speed and endur-
ance, and weighing about 20 pounds. The head
must be broad between the ears and decreasing in
width to the eyes; nose tapering and black; ears
V-shaped and drooping forward close to the
cheek; jaws strong and muscular; legs straight
and strong. The coat of the smooth variety is
flat and abundant; of the wire-haired variety it
is hard, wiry, and broken. The tail, which is
usually docked, is set on high and carried gaily,
but not over the back. The bull terrier is a
short-haired terrier, weighing from 15 to 50
pounds, of perfect symmetry, the embodiment of
agility, grace, and determination. An all-white
coat is most approved, but the American stand-
ard permits markings. The tail is left un-
cropped; in America cropping of the cars is
permitted by the standard, but not in England.
The black-and-tan is judged in three classes not
exceeding 7 pounds, 16 pounds, and 20 pounds
respectively. He is a typical terrier, jet black,
marked with rich mahogany tan as follows: On
the head the muzzle must be tanned to the nose,
which is black; a bright spot of tan on each
cheek, and above each eye; chin, throat, and in-
side of the ears, and the fore legs up to the knees
are tan-color, with black lines up each toe,
and a black ‘thumb mark’ above the foot inside
the hind legs. The Welsh terrier is a wire-haired
variety, black or grizzle and tan in color. The
dogs are 15 inches high at the shoulder and 20
pounds in weight. The Irish terrier is a wire-
haired variety, whole-colored, bright red or wheat-
ten yellow, weighing 24 pounds, active, lively,
and lithe—a gamey dog, but with the kindest dis-
position. The Bedlington is a rough-looking,
loosely built dog, with the least general expres-
sion of the true terrier. He is 15 to 16 inches
high and weighs 24 pounds. His coat is shaggy
and usually dark blue. The Airedale, the latest
and largest variety of the family, weighing 40
to 45 pounds, is a wire-haired dog, with the
crown, back, and sides black, and the face, throat,
and limbs tan ; the tail is docked, and the aspect
square, trim, and powerful. The Boston terrier
is purely a pet dog of recent creation, which is as
much bulldog as terrier, but has lost the
wrinkled face and bowed legs of the former, while
retaining its brindled markings and screw tail.
It weighs 15 to 30 pounds, and is judged in two
classes, large and small. The Scottish terrier is
‘a long-barreled, bow-legged, rough-haired dog,
weighing from 18 to 20 pounds, with prick ears,
and tail carried straight up. This dog has a very
sharp, bright, and active expression. His coat is .
intensely hard and wiry, dense all over his body,
and iron-gray, grizzly, or black in color, though
sometimes sandy. His feet are large, with strong
claws, and he is most capable in unearthing
vermin. The Dandie Dinmont is from 8 to 11
inches high, weighs from 14 to 24 pounds, and
has a mixed coat of hard and soft hair, and a
salt-and-pepper color. His ears are long and
pendulous. The Skye terrier, a good vermin dog,
and built low and long (from 81/2 to 10 inches
high and 22% inches long), has two coats, the
TERRIER.
TERRITORIES.
603
under one short, close, soft, and woolly, the top
one 5% inches long, hard, straight, flat, and free
from crisp or curl. The cars and tail are feath-
ered with long soft hair and the tail is never car-
ried higher than the line of the back. In color it is
usually a light blue, gray, or fawn. The Clydes-
dale, or Paisley, is practically a little Skye with
smaller ears, set high and perfectly erect. It is
covered with long silky hair, hanging in a fringe
down the side of the head. The Yorkshire is
also practically a smaller Skye, with a more
silky coat. He is judged in two classes, one un-
der five pounds and another from 5 to 12 pounds.
The Maltese was the lap-dog of the Greeks and
Romans of the classic period. He is a small,
short-legged dog, not exceeding six pounds in
weight, with pure white, rather transparent wavy
hair, not less than seven inches long. It is called
‘terrier’ by its devotees, but it might as reason-
ably be called a spaniel or toy dog. It has almost
if not entirely disappeared from Malta.
Consult authorities cited under DOG; and see
Plates accompanying that article.
TERRITORIAL WATERS. Waters subject
to the jurisdiction of a particular State, as op-
posed to the high or open seas, which are free to
all nations. Territorial waters comprise: First,
inclosed Waters, such as (a) lakes, rivers, and
other inland waters wholly within the confines of
a State; (b) lakes or rivers forming the bound-
ary of a State, in which the control of the ri-
parian States, in the absence of exclusive title
vested in one of them, extends to the middle of
the stream in the case of non-navigable rivers
and in navigable rivers to the middle of the deep-
est channel, boundary lakes being governed by
the same rules; (c) bays, straits, sounds, or
arms of the sea within headlands belongingto
the same State not exceeding two marine leagues
apart. Second, uninclosed waters or the open sea
to the distance of one marine league outward
from low water mark. The status of straits,
gulfs, and bays whose central waters lie more
than a marine league from any shore and gulfs
and bays having 3, narrow entrance, but broad in
extent and reaching far into the land, is not yet
clearly defined. They are sometimes claimed as
jurisdictional waters, though little occasion has
arisen in modern times for the assertion of the
claim. To this class belong the bay of Concep-
tion in Newfoundland; Delaware Bay, which the
United States declared territorial water in 1793;
and the ‘King’s Chambers,’ as the waters lying
between the headlands of Orfordness and the
Foreland Were called. '
The law relating to inclosed waters is settled.
The State within whose territory they lie has
title and dominion as well as jurisdiction over
them. The title to the land under water and to
the shore below high-water mark in navigable
lakes and rivers in the United States and ports,
harbors, bays, straits, sounds, or arms of the
sea is vested in the particular States bounding
thereon for the public use and benefit unless
otherwise disposed of by such sovereign power,
but always subject to the constitutional preroga-
tive of the Federal Government of regulating in-
terstate and foreign commerce thereon. In Eng-
land and States adopting the -common-law prin-
ciple,‘ these rules apply only to tide waters, all
other navigable streams being subject to ripa-
rian ownership. (See TIDE WATERS.) Although
VOL. XVI.-39.
the sovereignty to which the waters belong has
exclusive jurisdiction both civil and criminal
over its inclosed waters, a concurrent jurisdic-
tion is sometimes given by usage or treaty to the
State of ownership over criminal acts committed
on foreign vessels in such waters where its au-
thority is not invoked and where the parties are
exclusively foreign and no breach of the peace is
committed. Where territorial waters form a
channel of communication between two portions
of the high sea, the right of innocent passage ex-
ists to both the merchant and naval vessels of
States at peace with the territorial power, sub-
ject to the observance of reasonable regulations
relating thereto. The Strait of Dardanelles and
the Bosporus are, however, not regulated by the
rules of international law, but are the subject
of special treaties between the powers. By the
convention of October 29, 1888, the Suez Canal
was made neutral to all nations. See SOUND
DUTIES.
The law relating to the uninclosed waters is
not so clearly defined. While claims to dominion
over whole seas have vanished from international
law, the last assertion being that of the United
States to control over Bering Sea (see BERING
SEA CONTROVERSY) for the protection of the seal
fisheries, yet the process of departure has left
behind a remnant of claims to territorial power
over considerable stretches of water along the
coasts of maritime States, though it is doubtful
just how far some of these are alive at the pres-
ent time.
The nature of the sovereignty does not include
ownership, but is a right of jurisdiction limited
to the protection of its coasts from the effect of
hostilities between other belligerent States, the
prevention of frauds upon its customs laws, the
regulation of fisheries therein, and the usufruc-
tory right to such fisheries. The valid exercise of
these prescribed rights is limited to a marine
league from low-water mark, and except to secure
these, it may not make laws or interfere with the
travel of ships over these waters. Apparent ex-
ceptions to this rule are sometimes cited in the
case of regulations requiring ships entering ter-
ritorial waters to take on board a pilot at a
greater distance than a league from the coast
and imposing a penalty for failure to comply with
such requirements and customs laws and Hover-
ing Acts authorizing municipal seizures beyond a
marine league. Of the latter class are the British
acts of 1736 and 1784, asserting jurisdiction for
revenue purposes to a distance of four leagues and
those of the United States in 1797, 1799, and
1807, to the same effect. Many other maritime
nations have similar provisions in their laws.
There is some doubt, however, whether the right
to make such seizure for violation of customs acts
could now be maintained against the remon-
strance of a foreign State. See MARE CLAUSUM;
HIGH SEAS.
TERRITORIES (OF. territorie, Fr. terri-
toire, from Lat. territorium, district, from terra,
earth, land). The name given in the United
States to certain parts of the national domain
which have not been erected into States. In 1903
they were Arizona. New Mexico, Oklahoma, the
Indian Territory, the District of Columbia, and
Alaska on the Continent, Porto Rico in the West
Indies, and Hawaii. the Samoan Islands, Guam,
and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific, aggre-
TERRITORIES.
TERRITORIES.
604
gating a total area of about 962,630 square miles.
They may be classified as (1) organized Terri-
tories; (2) unorganized Territories; (3) the
Federal District; and (4) the insular possessions.
In the first class belong Arizona, New Mexico,
and Oklahoma. To the second belong the Indian
Territory and Alaska. The organized Territories
and Hawaii among the insular possessions have
popularly elected local legislatures of two
chambers chosen for a term of two years by a
suffrage determined by local law. This legisla-
tive power extends to all rightful subjects not
inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of
the United States, but any law passed is subject
to the veto of Congress. The executive power
is vested in Governors appointed for a term of
four years by the President of the United States
with the consent of the Senate. In the organized
Territories there is a series of courts of which the
higher ones are held by judges appointed for a
term of four years by the President. These
courts are not, however, a part of the Federal
judiciary. The other important officers of the
Territory are likewise appointed by the Presi-
dent and are paid from the Treasury of the
United States. The Governors and judges of the
Supreme Court receive $3000 a year. The Ter-
ritories are not regularly represented in Con-
gress, but are allowed to send a delegate, who is
given a seat in the House of Representatives with
a right to take part in the debates, but not to
vote. For the government of Alaska, the Indian
Territory, the District of Columbia, Porto Rico,
the Samoan Islands and the Philippine Islands,
see these titles.
By the United States Constitution the National
Congress is given power “to make all needful
rules and regulations respecting the territory
or other property belonging to the United States.”
From the beginning this clause was construed
as giving the powers incident to jurisdiction as
well as to ownership, and even before the adop-
tion of the Constitution the Northwest Terri-
tory was regularly organized by the old Confed-
eration Congress, which for this purpose passed
the famous Ordinance of 1787. (See NORTHWEST
TERRITORY.) This ordinance served as the model
for much of the subsequent legislation in the
same field, though there were a number of im-
portant variations. Thus, in the organization of
the Territories of Tennessee and Mississippi the
clause of the Ordinance of 1787 prohibiting slav-
ery was omitted. Of the present States of the
United States all, except the original thirteen and
Vermont, Maine, Kentucky, West Virginia, Texas,
and California, have passed through the Territo-
rial stage. Vermont, Kentucky, Maine, and West
Virginia were each formed out of territory which
belonged to one of the original thirteen States,
and Texas and California were regularly admitted
to Statehood without ever having been organized
as Territories. The size of many of the Terri-
tories, however, differed widely from the size of
the States which bear the same names, and there
has been a radical changing of boundaries. Thus
the Territory of Mississippi originally included
Alabama; the Territory of Indiana as-organized
in 1804 contained all of the Northwest Territory
except Ohio; the Territory of Illinois as organ-
ized in 1809 included the land now constituting
the States of Illinois and Wisconsin, and part
of Upper Michigan; the Territory of Michigan
after 1834 included all of the territory north of
Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and be-
tween Lakes Erie and Huron and the Missouri
River; the Territor of Oregon as organized in
1848 covered all t 1e territory of the United
States north of latitude 42° N ., and west of the
Rocky Mountains; and the Territory of Nebraska
as organized in 1854 contained land now in Mon-
tana, the Dakotas, Wyoming, and Colorado.
In connection with the slavery controversy the
extent of the power of Congress over the Terri-
tories and the District of Columbia early became
the subject of debate. Those who favored the
restriction of slavery by constitutional means, in-
cluding members of the Free-Soil and Republican
parties (qq.v.), made the question of Congres-
sional prohibition of slavery in theTerritories a
constant and in some cases a paramount po-
litical issue, while the pro-slavery partisans,
recognizing that a Territory free from slavery
would develop into a State free from slavery
and thus disarrange the balance between the free
and slave States in the national Senate, fought
with great vigor and tenacity all proposed meas-
ures which had in view slavery prohibition in the
national domain. As early as 1820 petitions were
presented for abolition of slavery in the District
of Columbia. By the Missouri Compromise
(q.v.) of 1820 it was provided that Territories
south of the line of latitude 36° 30' N. might
have slavery, while those north of that line should
not. The question again came up in 1850, when,
as one of the compromise measures, Utah and
New Mexico were organized without reference to
slavery (see COMPROMISE or 18'0), and in 1854
the so-called principle of popular or squatter
sovereignty was established by the passage of the
Kansas-Nebraska Bill (q.v.), which had for its
basis the right of each Territory to determine for
itself whether or not the institution of slavery
should obtain within its limits. (See POPULAR
SOVEREIGNTY.) In 1859, in the Dred Scott Case,
the Supreme Court of the United States decided
in an obiter dictum that the power of Congress
over the Territories was limited by the obliga-
tion placed upon Congress to protect private
rights in property, that slaves were property,
and that, therefore, Congress could not consti-
tutionally prevent slaves from being carried into
any of the Territories. In 1862, however, slav-
ery was abolished and slaves were emancipated
in all national territory held or to be acquired.
The Territorial stage is one of preparation for
the Commonwealth status. The Constitution
empowers Congress to erect the Territories into
States and admit them into the Union whenever
it sees fit. Usually when the Territory has a
population equal to that of the Congressional
district the inhabitants memorialize Congress to
pass an ‘enabling act’ empowering them to form
a constitution, and prescribing the conditions to
be fulfilled. In a number of instances, however,
the inhabitants without asking for an enabling
act have adopted a constitution and then applied
for admission to the Union. As the language
of the Constitution is not mandatory, but per-
missive, the question has arisen as to whether
Congress in admitting new States may impose
such conditions as it chooses, especially if such
conditions were not imposed upon the original
States. This was the main question in the con-
troversy over the Missouri Compromise (q.v.),
TERRITORIE-S.
TERTIARY.
605
since which time Congress has admitted a num-
ber of new States under conditions which were
not imposed upon the old States.
After the Spanish-American 'War the exact
status of Territories as compared with the Na-
tional Government and the rights and duties of
the National Government with regard to Terri-
tories again came into controversy. In 1901,
however, in the Insular Cases, the United States
Supreme Court decided that Congress may freely
determine when new Territories are to be in-
corporated into the Union, can create such forms
of government as it sees fit for all regions out-
side the limits of the States, and can legislate
differently for different parts of the national do-
mam.
TERROR, MOUNT. See EREBUS AND TERROR.
TERROR, REIGN or. See Fimnon REVOLU-
TION.
TER’RY, ALFRED Hown (1827-90). An
American soldier, born at Hartford, Conn. He
studied at the Yale Law School, was admitted to
the bar in 1849, and in 1854 was appointed Clerk
of the Superior Court of Connecticut. He was a
colonel in the State National Guard from 1854
until May, 1861, when he and his regiment en-
tered the service of the Federal Government. He
participated in the first battle of Bull Run, was
mustered out the following month, and in Sep-
tember reiinterecl the service as colonel of the Sev-
enth Connecticut Infantry. From that time until
April, 1864, he was engaged in the military op-
erations along the South Atlantic coast. He was
promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of vol-
unteers in 1862, and in 1864 he was given com-
mand of the Tenth corps of the Army of the
James. In January, 1865, he commanded the
second, and successful, Fort Fisher expedition.
(See FoR'r FISHER.) Soon afterwards he occupied
the city of Wilmington, N. C., which had been the
last. refuge of the blockade runners. For his ser-
vices he was commissioned major-general of vol-
unteers, and brigadier-general and brevet major-
general in the Regular Army. From June, 1865,
to August, 1866, he commanded the Department
of Virginia. He was then placed in command of
the Department of Dakota, and in 1876 he com-
manded the main column which drove Sitting
Bull and his followers into Canada after the
massacre on the Little Big Horn. Later he com-
manded the Department of the South and the
Military Division of Missouri. He retired in
1888.
TERRY, EDWARD O’CoNNoR (1844-—). An
English comedian and manager. He was born
in London, and began his career upon the stage
in 1863 in Hampshire. In 1867 he made his ap-
pearance in London at the Surrey Theatre. Then
followed successful engagements at the Strand
(1869) and Gaiety (1876) theatres, among his
characters being Paul Pry, Little Don Caesar dc
Bazan, and Blaebeard. In 1886 he presented at
the Olympic Theatre his comedy of The Church-
warden. He opened Terry’s Theatre in October,
1887, and there, a few months later, produced
Sweet La/ve-nder, himself playing Dick Phenyl.
In 1892 be revived The Magistrate. In the sea-
son of 1897-98 he appeared in The White Knight.
TERRY, ELLEN ALICIA (18-18-). A dis-
tinguished English actress, known in private
life as Mrs. E. A. Wardell. She was born
at Coventry. Her first appearance on the stage
was as the boy Manilius in Charles Kean’s re-
vival of the Winter’s Tale, at the Princess’s
Theatre, 1856. In March, 1863, Miss Terry made
her appearance at the Haymarket in London, but
with her marriage in 1864 she retired from the
stage. She reappeared for a short time in 1867,
and at length resumed her career in 1874. In
1875 she joined the Bancrofts at the Prince of
VVales’s Theatre, where she acted the part of
Portia. Early in 1878 she had a great success
in Wi1ls’s play of Olivia at the Court Theatre.
At the end of the same year she began her long
association with Henry Irving at the Lyceum, as
Ophelia to his Hamlet (December 30, 1878). Of
her roles in the long list of his subsequent pro-
ductions, only a few can be _enumerated, her
Portia in The Merchant of Venice (1879), which
is perhaps her most complete success; Ruth
Meadows in Eugene Aram (1879); Camma in
Tennyson’s tragedy of The Cup (1881); Juliet
(1882); Viola in Twelfth Night (1884); Mar-
guerite in Faust (1885); Fair Rosamund in
Tennyson’s Becket (1893); Madame Sans-Gene
in Sardou’s play (1897) ; and Clarisse in Robes-
pierre (1899). Her work has evoked a great
variety of criticism, but its womanly charm is
unfailing, and her leading place among English
actresses is on the whole undisputed. Her first
visit to America with Irving was in 1883, when
she won a welcome, repeated many times since.
Consult: Hiatt, Ellen Terry and Her Impersona-
tions: An Appreciation (London, 1898); Scott,
Ellen Terry (New York, 1900) ; id., The Drama
of Yesterday and To-Day (London, 1899) ; Cook,
Nights at the Play (1883); Winter, /Shadows
of the Stage (New York, 1892).
TERRY, Mrnron SPENSEB (18-10-). A
Methodist Episcopal minister, educator, and au-
thor. He was born it Coeymans, N, Y., educated
at Troy University and Yale Divinity School.
He entered the New York Conference 1863, serv-
ing churches around New York City, 1863-84.
He became professor in the Garrett Biblical Insti-
tute, Evanston, Ill., in 1885. He has published
Biblical Hermeneutics (1883) ; Sibylline Ora-cles
(1890); The New Apologetic (1897); Biblical
Apocalyptics ( 1898) ; The New and Living Way
(1902) ; and several biblical commentaries.
TERSCHELLING, tér-sKel’ling. One of the
West Friesian Islands, in the North Sea, belong-
ing to the Province of North Holland, Nether-
lands (Map: Netherlands, D 1). Area, about
20 square miles, Population, in 1899, 3929.
TERSTEEGEN, ter’sta-gen, GERHARD (1697-
l769). A German mystic, noted as a hymn
writer. He was born at Miirs and was a weaver
of silk ribbons. After his conversion he prac-
ticed great self-denial in order to get means to
help the poor. His religious ideas are like those
of Angelus Silesius and Poiret, but the cast of
his theology is Reformed. Besides his Letters
(1773-75), he wrote Lebensbeschreibungm heil-
iger Seelen (1733-53) and Geistliche Brosamen
(1769-74). A collected edition of his writings
appeared at Stuttgart (1844-45). Consult: Jack-
son, Gerhard Tersteegen (London, 1832); Wink-
worth, Christian Singers of Germany (ib., 1869).
TERTIAN FEVER. See MALABIA.
TERTIARY (Lat. tertiarins, one of the third
rank, i.e. after the male and female members
TERTIARY.
TERTULLIAN.
606 -
strictly belonging to an order, from terttus, third,
from tree, three). A class in the Roman Catholic
Church, who, without entering into the seclusion
of a monastery, aspire to practice as far as pos-
sible in ordinary life the counsels of perfection
laid down in the Gospel. Whatever earlier traces
of this institution may be observable, there is no
dispute that it was under the organizations
founded by Saint Francis and Saint Dominic
that it reached its full development. The rules
for tertiaries, such as they have since substan-
tially been maintained, were made public in 1221.
The intending members must restore all ill-
gotten goods, must renounce all evil practices,
and abandon all feuds and enmities with their
neighbors. Wives cannot be received without the
consent of their husbands. The obligation of
a tertiary, once accepted, is irrevocable, unless
the party should be released, or should enter
into a more strict religious life. The members
are required to renounce luxury; they must fre-
quent the sacraments; hear mass, if possible,
daily; observe the fasts of the Church, as well
as certain special austerities; cultivate charity
toward all, with special obligations toward
needy, sick, or afflicted brethren; and practice
with more than common fervor the great Chris-
tian virtues, It is to be observed, however, that
none of these obligations were supposed to bind
the members under pain of mortal sin. Consult
Adderly and Masson, Third Orders (London,
1902).
TERTIARY SYSTEM. A term applied in
geology to the group of rocks included between
the Cretaceous and the Qua-ternzfry systems. It
is one of the two periods constituting the Ceno-
zoic era, the Quaternary being the other period.
The term Tertiary was first suggested when it
was considered that all strata were divisible
into three groups, primary, secondary, and ter-
tiary. The first two have been replaced in most
localities by other names, but the third is still
used, although not with its original significance.
The Tertiary is one of the most interesting
periods of geological history, presenting most
complete sections and a great abundance of or-
ganic remains, and yet there has been much dif--
ficulty in classifying its different members cor-
rectly._ The rocks are mostly unconsolidated and
have rarely been laid down over great areas, so
that in the United States, alone, there are no
less than three or four separate regions of Ter-
tiary rocks, in each of which a different series
of subdivisions has to be adopted. The follow-
ing classification of the American Tertiary is
that compiled by W. H. Dall:
Pliocene series
Miocene series
Upper pr Chipola stage
Lower or Vicksburg stage
Jackson stage
Claiborne stage
Chickasaw stage
Midway stage
Oligocene series
Eocene series
These main epochs and stages are recognized
in all the Tertiary areas of the United States,
of which there are four, viz. the Pacific Coast,
Western interior, Atlantic Coast, and ~Gulf
States. The section in the last mentioned area
is taken as the type. ~ -"
At the end of the Cretaceous period a great
topographic revolution took place in many parts
of the world, and at_that time ,_the American
continent had practically received its present
form. The marine Tertiary deposits are found,
therefore, chiefly along the borders of the 'con-
tinent, while the interior areas are of fresh-
water formation, or perhaps in part aeolian de-
posits. Many of the highest mountain ranges
of the world, such as the Alps, Atlas, Caucasus,
and Himalayas, were uplifted in the Tertiary
period, their height being due to the fact that
they are young geologically and consequently
have not suffered greatly from erosive agencies.
The life of the Tertiary period presents many
similarities to that of the present, although
modern types had already begun to appear to
some extent in the Cretaceous. In early Ter-
tiary time the climate was very mild over the
entire globe, and there was an abundant plant
growth far to the north, plants being found in
the rocks in many parts of Greenland. A grad-
ual cooling of the climate followed, until at the
end of the Tertiary there began the formation
of the great continental glaciers that subse-
quently spread over so much of the temperate
zone. The faunal changes that occurred during
this period were in many respects remarkable.
Of the smaller animals—the ammonites, belem-
nites, and other molluscan types that swarmed
in the Cretaceous—few lived in the Tertiary.
The great reptiles had also disappeared, but
their place was taken by still more gigantic
mammals_ The fishes, amphibians, and birds
closely resembled modern tpyes.
The Tertiary deposits inclose a variety of
economic minerals. In the Cordilleran region
many of the metalliferous veins are probably of
Tertiary age, as are also some of the bituminous
coals and lignites, in this same area, notably in
\Vashington and Oregon. In the Tertiary beds
of the Atlantic and Gulf States are many de-
posits of brick, pottery, and fire-clays, while
much of the green sand obtained in the Atlantic
coastal plain region is of Tertiary age. In Texas
deposits of limonite are known in this formation,
while in Florida and South Carolina there are
great supplies of rock phosphate. Petroleum
and mineral tar are obtained from the Tertiary
deposits of southern California. .
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dall, A Table of North Ameri-
can Tertiary Horizons, Eighteenth Annual Re-
port United States Geological Survey, part ii.,
page 323; Dana, Manual of Geology; Geikie, Text-
Book of Geology, Other references will be found
under the titles referred to below. . See GEOL-
oer; PALEONTOLOGY; EooENE; MIOCENE; PLIo-
CENE.
TERTUULIAN (Lat. Tertallianus), QUIN-
TUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS (born before 160, died
after 220). One of the earliest Latin Church
Fathers, a prolific writer, and the creator of
ecclesiastical Latinity. He was born in Car-
thage, of heathen parentage, and trained for the
profession of the law, which he practiced in
Rome. Becoming a convert to Christianity
shortly before the end of the second century, he
returned to Carthage, where he was made pres-
byter and spent the rest of his life. About the
year 203 Tertullian became a Montanist, and he
was thenceforth unsparingly severe in his views
of ecclesiastical discipline and in his judgments
upon the alleged moral laxity of the ‘psychics,’ as
he called the members of the Catholic Church. No
other figure in the early Church stands out so
TERTULLIAN.
TESLA.
607
‘ history of doctrine.
distinctly as does this Carthaginian lawyer-
priest. His intensity of character, alert intel-
lect, blunt speech, keen satire, dialectical skill,
moral strenuousness, and bitter partisanship, all
combine to render him a marked personality.
It was no doubt largely the result of his train-
ing that the expression of Tertullian’s views
was made in such a form as to imprint upon
Western theology a legalistic character which
it never lost, and which, through Augustine,
passed over into Protestantism. He enjoys the
further distinction of being the first to formulate
in Latin the principles by which Catholic ortho-
doxy could infallibly be known. His Prescription
of Heretics, for the clearness with which it
enunciates these principles, has not improperly
been described as ‘a classic.’ Were it not for
his ~Montanist errors, Tertullian would rank
among the greatest of the Latin Fathers. The
time and circumstances of his death are un-
known; there is no trace of him after about the
year 220. .
Among his many writings, the best known is
the Apology, written probably in 197, Itis a
splendid vindication of the Christians against
the attacks and false charges of the heathen
world. His polemical zeal was further directed
against Jews and heretics, e.g. in his To the
Nations, Against the Jews, Against Marcion,
Against the Valentinians, and Against Praweas,
the last named being especially valuable for the
He wrote many tracts on
subjects connected with morals and church dis-
cipline, e.g. On Baptism, Penance, Prayer, Pa-
tience, Idolatry, and Shows. His characteristic
strictness comes out even more strikingly in such
works as those on 1/Vom.en’s Apparel, The Veil/ing
of Virgins, Monoganm , The Ewhortation to Chas-
tity, and Fasting. Consult: Rainy, The Ancient
Catholic Church (New York, 1902); Simcox,
History of Latin Literature (London, 1883);
Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christian-
ity (ib., 1893); Teuffel-Schwabe, History of
Roman Literature, translated by Warr (ib.,
1900); Ebert, Gcschichte der Littcratur des
Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1889), The Works of
Tertullian are published in the Corpus Scripte-
rum Ecclesiasticorum L(lti7LO’I"tl-7’VL, tom. xx., ed.
by Reifferscheid and Wissowa (Vienna, 1890);
an English translation will be found in The
Ante-Nicene Library, American ed., vols. iii. and
iv. (New York, 1885 et seq.) .
TERUEL, tzi’rfi-iil’. The capital of the
Province of T eruel, in Aragon, Spain, on the left
bank of the Guadalaviar, 72 miles northwest of
Valencia (Map: Spain, E 2) . It is a quaint old
town with a handsome Gothic cathedral. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 9538.
TERU-TERU. A lapwing-plover (Vanellns
Cayenensis) of the eastern part of South Amer-
ica, whose specific characteristics are the long
crest and long blunt yellow spur; also its sharp
repetitive cry copied in its local name. Its habits
on the pampas, where in the breeding season it
executes remarkable ‘dances,’ are described at
length by Hudson, who says the bird seems abso-
lutely fearless of man at that period dashing
into his face until it becomes a nuisance. Con-
sult Hudson, Argcntine Ornithology (London,
1888).
TERZA RIMA, tér’tszi ré’ma (lt., third
rhyme, triple rhyme). A verse form of Italian
origin, of which the first and most notable use
was made by Dante in the Dioina Commedia.
Each stanza consists of three lines (usually
hendecasyllables) with two rhymes; lines 1 and
3 repeat the middle rhyme of the preceding
stanza, and thus the series of stanzas is closely
interwoven. The series or canto is closed by a
single line rhyming with the mid verse of the
foregoing stanza. The whole scheme may be
represented in this way: a b a, b c b, c d c
. . y z y z, Ordinarily the end of a stanza
coincides with a pause in the thought, but so
cohesible is the form that in the canto the
strophic individuality may escape notice. There
are several theories as to the development of the
terza rima; it is doubtless based on an earlier
form, but rather on the seroentese (Provencal
sircentés) than on the ritornello. Sir Thomas
1/‘Vyatt, who was much under the influence of Ital-
ian models, introduced the stanza into English,
choosing it for three satires. Sir Philip Sidney
experimented with it in his Arcadia, and Milton
tried it in a version of the second Psalm. There
have been some attempts to preserve the original
metre of the Dioina Commedia in English trans-
lation, notably by Byron, who made a version of
the Francesca episode in the Inferno-. Byron’s
Prophecy of Dante is also written in terza
rima. The best English specimen of this difficult
stanza is Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind. Con-
sult: Cassini, Salle forrne metriche italiane (2d
ed., Florence, 1890) ; Stengel, “RomanischeVers-
lehre,” in Groeber’s Grundriss der romanischen
Philologie (Strassburg, 1893, vol. ii_, part i.);
H. Schuchardt, Ritornell and Tcre/inc (Halle,
1875),; G. Paris, in Romania, vol. iv. (Paris,
1875); and Alden, English Verse (New York,
1903) .
TESCHEN, tesh’en (Pol. Cieszyn). A town
of Austria or Silesia, 63 miles west-southwest of
Cracow, on the right bank of the Olsa (Map:
Austria, F 2) . It was formerly the capital of the
Duchy of Teschen. It has manufactures of
modules, carriages, clocks, screws, and furniture.
There are also breweries, distilleries, fiax-spin-
ning mills, and book-binderies. Teschen is cele-
brated for the peace, May 13, 1799, which closed
the \Var of the Bavarian Succession. Population,
in 1900, 20,454.
TES’LA, NIKOLA (l857—). An American
electrician, born in Croatia. After a course in
the schools of his native province, he studied en-
gineering at Gratz to prepare himself as a profes-
sor of mathematics and physics, but becoming in-
terested in electricity, he devoted himself to the
study of engineering, He worked in the tele-
graphic engineering department of the Austrian
Government until 1881, where he was engineer
to an electric company. He then came to Amer-
ica and found employment for a while with the
Edison Company at Orange, N. J . Subsequently
he devoted himself to experimental research and
invented much improved apparatus. He devised
the principle of the rotary magnetic field, which
made possible the transmission of power by
means of the alternating current, particularly on
long-distance lines, a system since ‘extensively
employed. He is the inventor of various elec-
trical appliances, including dynamos, trans-
formers, induction coils, oscillators, and are and
incandescent lamps, but is principally known for
his researches in the matter of alternating cur-
TESLA.
TETANUS.
608
renlts of high frequencies and very high poten-
tia s.
TESSIN, tés-sen’. The German name of the
Swiss Canton of Ticino (q.v.).
TEST ACTS. Numerous acts of the English
Parliament imposing religious tests upon per-
sons in public oflice. The most famous are the
Corporation Act of 1661 and the Test Act of
1673. The Corporation Act directed that all
magistrates should take the oaths of allegiance
and supremacy, as well as an oath renouncing
the doctrine that it is lawful to take arms
against the King, and provided that they must
receive communion according to the rites of the
Church of England. The Test Act, so called, im-
posed the like conditions on the holders of all
public offices, civil and military, and obliged them
in addition to abjure all belief in the doctrine of
transubstantiation. Both of these acts were the
result of the struggles against the Catholics in
the reign of Charles II. They were repealed in
1828 as regards most of the provisions. See
ENGLAND.
TESTAMENT (OF., F1‘. testament, from Lat.
testaanentam, will, publication of a will, from
testari, to make a will, attest, testify, from
testis, witness). Literally, a calling upon wit-
nesses. Technically, in Roman law, a will; an
act by which a person determines what person
or persons shall take his property after his
death. The oldest form of testation at Rome
was a declaration in the presence and with the
sanction of the Roman people in assembly or
meeting as an army on the eve of battle. Of the
scope and effect of this form of testation little
is known. It could, apparently, be employed by
patricians only, and it probably affected only
such property as did not form part of the house-
hold estate (pecunia as distinguished from
familia). In any case, the later Roman testa-
ment was developed on a different and inde-
pendent basis. It started as a sale (mancipatio)
of the inheritance, and became a secret and
revocable instrument, signed and sealed by the
testator and seven witnesses. As this mancipa-
tion testament is the ancestor of the testament
or will in all modern countries, its development
is described under WILL. In English and Ameri-
can law the term testament is seldom employed
except in the formal phrase ‘last will and testa-
ment,’ though its related terms—testator, one
who disposes of property by will; intestate, one
who dies without a will; intestacy, the state
of leaving property undisposed of by will; and
testamentary in various combinations, as ‘tes-
tamentary act,’ ‘testamentary guardian,’ ‘letters
testamentary,’ etc.—are in common use. Consult
the authorities referred to under WILL.
TESTAMENT OF LOVE, THE. A prose work
erroneously credited to Chaucer by Speght in
the 1598 edition. It was written about the
close of the fourteenth century by a prisoner
in peril of his life, and modeled on Boethius’s
Consolation of Philosophy, substituting for phi-
losophy Divine Love.
TES'TAMEN'TUM PORCEI/LI (Lat., Last
Will of a Little Pig). An amusing Latin skit
parodying the legal testamentary forms. It is of
unknown authorship, and was written before the
fourth century AD. According to Saint Jerome,
it was a favorite piece for recitation by school-
boys. The little pig disposes of his various parts
to his friends and relatives, all of whom bear
names suggestive of some form of pork. The
text is printed in Biicheler’s smaller edition of
Petronius (Berlin, 1886), and is edited with
English notes in Peck and Arrowsmith’s Roman
Life in Latin Prose and V erse (New York, 1894).
TESTIMONY (from Lat. testi'moni'u/m, testi-
mony, from testis, a witness). The declarations
or statements as to the facts in issue made by
witnesses in a judicial proceeding. This may
include such written statements as are admissible
under the rules of evidence. Although the terms
evidence and testimony are often used inter-
changeably, the former is strictly a more general
term, including every legal means of proving
facts, as, for example, the introduction of an
object for inspection by the jury, whereas testi-
mony is properly only that portion of the proof
which is directly adduced from witnesses. A
party may impeach or show to be false the testi-
mony of his adversary’s witnesses, but cannot
impeach the credibility of one of his own wit-
nesses. The testimony in a case includes both
the direct and cross-examination of witnesses.
See EVIDENCE, and the authorities there referred
to. '
TESTING MACHINE. A machine employed
for testing and determining the strength of
materials used in construction and engineering
works. In order to determine the strength of a
given material such as the iron or steel used
in a boiler or engine, the wood of a building, or
brick, stone, cement, etc., it is usual to select
small samples and submit them to stresses of
varying degrees, from which the characteristics
of the material may be learned and various nu-
merical values obtained. Testing machines may
depend upon the action of an hydraulic press or
of a system of screws and gears by means of
which a given force applied can be greatly mul-
tiplied by the time it is directly exerted on the
piece under test. The various tests will be found
discussed under STRENGTH or MATERIALS, to
which the reader is referred.
TESTRY, te"es’tré’. A village of France, near
Peronne, in the Department of Somme, noted as
the scene of a battle (687) in which Pepin of
Heristal, the Austrasian Mayor of the Palace,
defeated the forces of Neustria and Burgundy,
thus bringing the three Frankish kingdoms un-
der his power. See FRANKS.
TESTU’DINA’TA. The reptilian order
C-helonia (q.v.).
TESTU'DO (Lat., tortoise). A -device of
Roman warfare, by means of which a body of
men advanced for assault. The attackers would
move in close order, with their shields held above
their heads, the edges overlapping. The effect
closely resembled the shell of a tortoise (tes-
tudo), and proved a very effective protection
from the darts and weapons of the defenders.
A later improvement was the testudo machine,
which moved on wheels and was roofed over, and
under the protection of which soldiers could de-
stroy or undermine the walls of the defenses.
A modified form of the same principle is seen in
the flying sap.
TET’ANUS (Lat., from Gk. 1-e1-avés, spasm,
tension, from rel:/cw, teinein, to stretch, strain),
or l.O(‘K.TAW. An infectious disease character-
TETANUS.
TE-TRAGRAMMATON.
609
ized by tonic spasms of the voluntary muscles,
with marked exacerbations. The contractions
may be confined to the muscles of the lower jaw
(trismus), to certain other groups of muscles,
or involve all the muscles of the body. The
disease is dependent on a bacillus, discovered by
Nieolaier in 1884-, and cultivated by Kitasato in
1889. The bacillus forms a slender rod with
rounded ends, and exists in dust and surface
soil. This accounts for the fact that wounds
infected by dust are often followed by tetanus.
The organism gains entrance to the tissues often
through wounds so slight as to be overlooked.
The disease may follow surgical operations or
childbirth, infecting the mother through the par-
turient canal and the child via the cut um-
bilical cord. Vaccination wounds are sometimes
the port of entry for the bacillus. In a very few
instances the disease is claimed to be idiopathic
and to follow exposure to cold or damp.
After an injury the disease sets in usually
within ten days. Without any warning the pa-
tient feels a stiffness at the back of the neck,
and then in the jaws, so that he is unable to
open his mouth widely or to masticate properly.
These symptoms continue for a day or two, or
the patient may rapidly come t'o the stage of
general rigidity, in which the muscles of the
trunk and extremities are affected. The back
becomes rigid and arched (opisthotonus); the
muscles of the abdomen become hard and board-
like; respiratory movements are limited by the
rigid muscles. By this time the jaw is firmly
closed by contraction of the masseter muscles,
and the other muscles of the face drawn into
the painful smile known as the risus sardonicus.
When this stage has been reached violent con-
vulsions of the hitherto rigid muscles supervene.
During a paroxysm the patient’s teeth are tight-
ly clenched, while the breathing process is held
in temporary suspension, with imminent danger
of death. The spasms are intensely painful, and
occur at first at intervals of half an hour or
more with gradually increasing frequency as the
disease progresses. Muscular contractions are
sometimes so forcible as to rupture a muscle or
break a bone. In a majority of cases the dis-
ease progresses to a fatal end in a few days;
the paroxysms become more violent and fre-
quent and death comes from exhaustion, fixa-
tion of the respiratory muscles, or spasm of
the glottis. There may be little fever during the
attack, but before death an extraordinary rise in
temperature may take place.
The treatment of tetanus is unsatisfactory.
About 90 per cent. of the traumatic cases die,
and about 50 per ‘cent. of other cases, the result
depending to a great extent on the size of the
wound and severity of the infection. The bacilli
multiply and produce their toxins in the neigh-
borhood of the injury, and when this can be
found it is to be opened freely and treated with
antiseptics to revent further infection. The
drugs having t e best results in tetanus are
chloral, potassium bromide, and calabar bean,
with the occasional use of chloroform to control
violent spasms and opium to produce sleep. In
many cases cure follows the injection of an anti-
tetanic serum, derived from the blood of a horse
that has been rendered immune by repeated in-
jections of a culture of the bacillus. (See SE-
RUMTI-IERAPY.) A great many cases of infantile
tetanus can be prevented by antiseptic treatment
of the stump of the umbilical cord. Tetanus in
infants (trismus nascentium) is very fatal, being
uninfluenced even by antitoxin. Consult :
Moschcowitz, Tetanus (Philadelphia, 1900) ;
Bassano, Recherches eazperimen tales sur l’0ri-
gine microbienne du tétanos (Paris, 1900) .
TETANUS, IN ANIMALS. A disease attributed
to the action of Bacillus tetani, which attacks
domestic animals, most frequently horses and
sheep. It is usually produced by cold and wet,
by intestinal worms, obstinate constipation, or in-
juries. Considerable doubt exists, however, as to
the nature of spontaneous tetanus. The symp-
toms usually come on gradually, involving most of
the muscular structures, which become hard and
rigid. The nose is protruded, the limbs move
stifl'1y, the tail is upraised, the bowels are con-
stipated. The patient must be kept perfectly
quiet, and in an airy but comfortably warm place,
and plentifully supplied with cold water, and soft,
sloppy, but nutritious food, which he will usually
greedily suck in through his firmly closed teeth.
Any discoverable wound should he fomented or
poulticed; bleeding, sedatives, and all causes of
irritation mu-st be avoided. The only promising
treatment thus far discovered consists in injec-
tions of antitetanus serum as soon as the disease
is diagnosed. Many cases of tetanus may be pre-
vented by applying antiseptic washes to wounds
in which the tetanus bacillus may become lodged.
In adult animals most cases are fatal; but among
young animals, especially when the attack results
from exposure to cold, many recoveries occur.
TETE DE PONT, an (16 p6N (Fr., bridge-
head). An important field-work fortification,
generally open at the gorge. The flanks rest on
the banks of a river, thus securing command
of or covering one or more bridges. See FORTI-
FICATION.
TE/THYS (Lat., froi Gk. Tr;6z3g), In Greek
mythology, daughter of Uranus and Gaea, and, by
Oceanus, mother of the Oceanids and river gods.
TETRACHORD (from Gk. nrpdxopdog,
tetrachordos, having four strings, from TéT[)(Z-
tetra-, four + Xopd/], chord-e, string, cord). In
music, a system of four tones comprised within
the compass of perfect fourth. The Greek scales
were composed by joining two tetrachords. In
the Middle Ages the tetrachord was superseded
by the hexachord, introduced by Guido d’Arezzo.
See GREEK MUSIC.
TETRADYMITE (from Gk. rerpadvnog, tet-
radymos, four-fold, from I-érpa-~, tetra-, four; so
called from its frequent occurrence in twin
crystals). A mineral bismuth telluride frequent-
ly containing sulphur and selenium. It is crys-
tallized in the hexagonal system, ha-s a metallic
lustre, and is of a steel-gray color. It is found
in Norway, Sweden, and in the United States at
various localities in Virginia and North Carolina.
TET’RAGR.A1V["1V[.ATON (Gk. 1'eTpa)/pa,u,aa-
rov, word of four letters, neu. sg. of T£'rpa)/pa,u;ul-
-rog, tetragrammatos, having four letters, from
ré-rpa-, tetra-, four + ypanna, gramma, letter,
from yp<i¢sw, graphein, to write). A term used
to designate the name of Israel’s God, consisting
of the four letters Y H W H. In the Massoretic
text it occurs 6823 times and is written with the
vowels of Adonai ‘Lord’ (originally ‘my Lord’),
or with those of Elohim, ‘God.’ By these vowels
TE-TRAGRAMMATON.
TETUAN.
610
the reader was warned not to pronounce the di-‘
vine name, but to substitute for it Adonai or
Elohim. (On the reasons for this custom, see
JEHOVAH.) It _is found as early as in the second
century 13.0. in the Greek version (see BIBLE),
which uses Kilpwg, Kyrios, ‘Lord,’ for the tetra-
gramma-ton.~ The editorial revision of Book II.
in the Psalter (Psalms xlii.-lxxii.) also substi-
tutes for it Elohim. There is little room for
doubt that the original pronunciation was
Yahwe, the final h being inaudible. According to
Theodoret the Samaritans (q.v.) pronounced the
name ’Ia[3é, Yabe or Yaoe, and this statement is
borne out by extant Samaritan hymns where the
rhyme indicates that pronunciation. The same
pronunciation is ascribed to a Christian sect by
Epiphanius and is found in Egyptian papyri.
An Ethiopic manuscript gives the form Yawe,
in which the vowels are indicated. The name
Iao frequently found in manuscripts and papyri
goes back to Yahu. That Yahu or Yah existed
in Syria as a divine name before the Hebrew
invasion is probable and receives some support
from Egyptian inscriptions. The fact that it
occurs chiefly in late Old Testament Writings
may be due to an archaistic tendency not seldom
seen in connection with the liturgy. Yah at the
end of a name and Yeho at the beginning meet
us so often in pre-exilic times that it is likely
to bevery old. It is also significant that Yahwe
never seems to be used in theophorou-s names.
Since it was at all times permitted to pronounce
Yahu, it is not strange that the Greeks and
Romans should have got the impression that the
name of the god of the Jews was Iao. The earli-
est datable occurrence of the tetragrammaton
is in the inscription of King Mesha of Moab,
c.840 B.C. Through the Samaritans and certain
Jewish sects the knowledge of the proper pro-
nunciation was perpetuated. VVhile the Samari-
tans of the seventeenth century refused to di-
vulge this secret, Sabbatai Zewi (see MESSIAH),
the famous mystic and claimant to the Messiah-
ship, insisted upon the pronunciation of the
tetragrammaton. The hybrid form Jehovah, made
up of the consonants of Yahwe and the vowels of
Adonai, was first used in 1520.
Consult: Baudissin, Stuclien cur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1876); Driver, in
Stuclia Biblica (Oxford, 1885); Dalman, Der
Gottesname Adonaj und seine Geschichte (Leip-
zig, 1889); VV. Max Miiller, Asien and Europa
(Leipzig, 1893) ; Dietrich, in Zeitschrift filr alt-
testamentliche Wissenschaft (Giessen, 1883);
Deissmann, Bibelstuclien (Marburg, 1895,).
TETRAHEDRON (from Gk. rérpa,- tetra-,
four + E6pa, heclra, base). A solid bounded by
four planes. It appears in nature, and as a
crystal is classified as a secondary form of the
octahedron, produced by removing the alternate
angles or edges of the latter. See POLYHEDRON,
TETRALOGY (from Gk. 'rsTpa7lo)/Za, tetra-
Zogia, group of four dramas, from 1-éi-pa-, tetra-,
four + M)/og, logos, word). (1) In Greek drama,
a series of three tragedies and a satyric drama
presented in sequence. The satyric drama was
in some cases connected with the tragedies in
subject, but its main purpose was to relieve the
tension caused by the trilogy. (2) A musical
drama in four parts. Wagner’s famous tetralogy,
D61‘ Ring des Nibehmgen, consists of Das Rhein-
gold, Die Walloiire, Siegfried, and G*6ttenliim-
merung. See TRILOGY. '
TETRAMETER. See VEBSIFICATION.
TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION. See
SA CBAMENTARIAN.
TE’ TRARCH (Lat. tet/ra-vrches, from Gk.
rerpdpxng, governor of a fourth of a country,
from rérpa-, tetra-, four + dpxew, a/rchein, to
rule). _Originally, the governor of one of four
divisions of a kingdom or country; but, in the
usage of the later Roman Empire, any minor
ruler, especially in the East, possessing sovereign
rights within his territory, but dependent on,
and in many cases removable at the pleasure of,
the Emperor. This was especially the case in
Syria, where the princes of the family of Herod
are called indiscriminately by this title (Luke
iii. 1) and by that of king (Matt. xiv. 9). The
tetrarch in this latter sense was in truth ‘a
sovereign, although a dependent sovereign; and
there are instances in which the title seems to
have been applied to really independent sover-
eigns of small principalities.
TETSCHE-N, téch’en. A town of Bohemia,
situated on the right bank of the Elbe, near the
Saxon frontier. An active industrial place, hav-
ing a number of factories and carrying on a
lively trade, it is the emporium for the shipping
traflic on the Elbe, and with its picturesque sur-
roundings is also the culminating point of that
part of the Elbe Valley included in Saxon-
Bohemian Switzerland. The handsome chateau
of Count Thun, built in 1667-73, with a fine park,
garden, and hothouses, library, and collection of
coins and weapons, was once fortified and a
place of some importance in the Seven Years’
VVar. Population, in 1890, 7299; in 1900, 9698,
Germans.
TETTENBOBN, tét’en~born, FRIEDRICH KARL,
Baron (1778-1845). A German soldier, born in
the Principality of Sponheim. He entered the
Austrian Army in 1794, serving in the wars of
the French Revolution. At the battle of Wagram,
in 1809, he won distinction by his bravery. Just
before the invasion of Russia by Napoleon in
1812 he entered the Russian Army as a lieuten-
ant-colonel, commanded Kutusofl"s vanguard, and
greatly harassed the French on their retreat. In
1813 he entered Berlin, together with the Rus-
sians, and thence proceeded to Hamburg, which he
occupied, but whence he was driven, May 30th. He
‘next fought against Davout and Pecheux and cap-
tured Bremen October 15th. He served with Ber-
nadotte in Jutland and on the Rhine in 1814. In
France, during the invasion of the Allies, he did
excellent service in keeping open communications.
In 1818 he entered the service of Baden, and in
1819 was promoted to be lieutenant-general, and
was sent as Ambassador to Vienna, where he
died.
TETUAN, tet-wan’. A town of Morocco about
30 miles southeast of Tangier, on the Martil. It
lies' in the midst of fine gardens and is sur-
rounded by dilapidated walls. In the background
loom the Rif Mountains. The rows of white
houses rise in terraces. The streets are narrow
and dirty, but there are many"'fine residences
built by the Moors expelled from Spain. Gun-
barrels, coarse woolen cloth, and sa-shes are manu-
factured. Grain, fruits, wool, silk, leather, and
beef cattle are exported, mainly to Gibraltar.
TETUAN.
TEUTONIC KNIGHTS.
611
The port, fortified by two forts, is one mile below
the town at the mouth of the Martil, and is the
only open Mediterranean port in the country.
Population, about 25,000, of which 6000 are Jews.
Tetuan was the centre of operations in the
Spanish-Moroccan War of 1859-60. General
O’Donnell received the title of Duke of Tetuan.
TE'I"ZEL, JOHANN (c.1460-1519). A German
Dominican, famous for his connection with the
Reformation through Luther’s attacks on his
sale of indulgences. He was born at Pirna, in
Saxony, about 1460, and educated at the Uni-
versity of Leipzig, where he graduated in 1487,
soon afterwards entering the Dominican Order.
Being a popular and effective preacher, he was
intrusted with the proclamation of an indul-
gence, first on behalf of the Teutonic Knights
from 1504 to 1510, and from 1516, as a subor-
dinate of Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of
Mainz, on the occasion of the indulgence pub-
lished in favor of contributors to the building
fund of Saint Peter’s at Rome. It was in opposi-
tion to the preaching of Tetzel that Martin
Luther published his celebrated theses, on Oc-
tober 31, 1517. Tetzel published a series of coun-
ter-theses in the following January, and in May a
reply to 'Luther’s celebrated sermon on indul-
gences. In January, 1519, he was called upon to
appear before the Papal legate Von l\/Iiltiz to an-
swer charges made against him, and was severely
rebuked for unguarded language and impro-
prieties in procedure. For his life consult Her-
mann (Frankfort, 1883) ; Paulus (Mainz, 1898) ;
Kiirner (Frankenberg, 1880) ;Kayser, Geschiohts-
quellen fiber Tetzel (Annaberg, 1877) ; and
Rtihm, Zur Tetzel-legende (Hildesheim, 1890).
TEUBNER, toip’ner, BENEDICTUS GOTTHELF
(1784-1856). A German bookseller, printer, and
publisher. He was born at Gross-Kraussnigk, and
became a bookseller at Leipzig in 1811. His
house soon grew to be one of the most important
in Germany. In 1832 he founded a printing
house in Dresden. The firm is best known for
cheap, accurate, and scholarly editions of Greek
and Latin classics.
TEIVCER (Lat., from Gk. Teiixpos, Te-ukro-s).
The name of two kings in Greek legend. The
first seems merely an invented eponymous hero
for the Teucri, traditionally the early inhabit-
ants of the Trojan plain. He is not mentioned
in the early epic, but later is called the son of
the river-god Scamander and a nymph of Mount
Ida. Another version brought him from Crete.
It was said that he gave his daughter, Bateia,
in marriage to Dardanus (q.v.), who succeeded
him as king. The other Teucer appears in the
Iliad, and remained a popular figure of legend,
He was the son of Telamon, King of Salamis,
and Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, King of
Troy. He accompanied his half-brother Ajax
(q.v.) to Troy, where he was the best archer
among the Greeks. but on his return his father
would not allow him to land at Salamis because
he had not avenged the death of his brother Ajax
nor brought back Tecmessa and her son by Ajax,
Eurysaces. Teucer sailed for Cyprus, where he
founded another Salamis.
TEUFELSDRUCKH, toi’fels-drek, HERB. In
Carlyle’s Sartor Resarfus, the eccentric German
professor whose speculations on the ‘philosophy
of clothes’. forms the vehicle for the satire of
the work.
TEUFFEL, toi’fel, WILHELM SIGMUND (1820-
78). A German classical scholar, born at Lud-
wigsburg. He studied at Tiibingen, where he be-
came professor in 1849. His principal work is
the Geschichte der r6mischen Litteratur (Leip-
zig, 1870, 5th ed. 1890). It has been translated
into English. Teuffel also published Studien und
(‘haraktem'stiken zur grieclvische/n, und réimischen
sowie sur deutschen L1Itterat'u1'gesch1Ichte (Leip-
zig, 1871, 3d ed_ 1889), and Lateinische Stilii-
bungen, besides editions of the Persce of ZEschy-
lus and the Clouds of Aristophanes.
TEUTOBURGEB WALD, toi’to-b'o"6rK’é1‘
viilt. See ARMINIUS.
TEUTONES. See TEL‘-TONIC RAGE.
TEUTONIC AND SCANIDINAVIAN
MYTHOLOGY. See SCANDINAVIAN AND TEU-
TONIC MY'rHoLooY. '
TEUTONIC KNIGHTS (The Teutonic
Knights of Saint Mary’s Hospital at Jerusalem).
An order of knighthood which originated in a.
brotherhood formed by German knights in 1190
during the siege of Acre by the Crusaders and
recognized by Pope Clement III. in 1191. In
1198 this association was changed into an order
of knighthood as a balance to the political influ-
ence of the Templars and Hospitalers. Her-
mann von Salza, grand master from 1210 to 1239,
saw no future in Palestine, and the order engaged
in the conquest of the heathen Prussians, inhabit-
ing the Baltic regions to the northeast of Ger-
many. After a fierce struggle of half a cen-
tury they completed their subjugation in 1283.
Christianity was planted with fire and sword,
cities were founded, and the land was colonized
by Germans. In 1237 the Teutonic Knights ab-
sorbed the order of the Brothers of the Sword,
and so acquired Livonia and Kurland. 'They
waged long wars with the Lithuanians for the
possession of the territory intervening between
these regions and the Prussian country. Early
in the fourteenth century they extended their
dominion westward, making themselves masters
of Danzig and Little Pomerania (Pomerellen).
They became a great power and their State pros-
pered, but the Knights themselves remained a
ruling aristocracy, and were hated by the con-
quered natives and Germans alike. In 1410 the
power of the Teutonic Knights sustained a great
blow through their defeat in the battle of Tannen-
berg at the hands of the Poles and Lithuanians.
In 1466 they were compelled in the Treaty of
Thorn to cede West Prussia to Poland and to
agree to hold East Prussia as a Polish fief. Half
a century later the Knights of the Sword cut
loose from the Teutonic Knights, whose domin-
ion was now restricted to East Prussia. In 1525
the grand master, Albert of Brandenburg (q.v.),
having embraced Protestantism. laid down his
office and converted the State over which he ruled
into the hereditary Duchy of Prussia. for which
he did homage to the King of Poland. The order
was composed of knights, priests. and servants.
The rule followed was that of Saint Augustine.
The insignia was the white mantle with the black
cross. After the secularization of the Prussian
domain of the Teutonic Knights the order con-
tinued to exist in Germany, having numerous
possessions. mostly of very small extent, scat-
TEUTON IO KNIGHTS.
TEUTONIC LANGUAGES.
612
tered throughout the Empire. Its head resided
at Mergentheim (now a town of Wiirttemberg).
The order was abolished by Napoleon in 1809,
and its possessions were confiscated. It was re-
vived as an Imperial Austrian order in 1834. Its
head is an Austrian archduke. Consult: Strehlke,
Tabulce Ord/inis Theutomlmi (Berlin, 1869) ; Voigt,
Geschichte des deutschen Ritterordens (1857-60).
TEUTONIC LANGUAGES (Lat. Teutonicus,
from Teutoni, Te/utones, a people of ancient Ger-
many, connected with Goth. P-iuda, AS. Pé0d.,
OHG. diet, Ir. tziath, Lith. tautd, Oscan, touto,
country, people), or GERMANIC LANGUAGES. The
group of languages of the Indo-Germanic family
(see INDG-GERMANIG LANGUAGES) spoken by the
Teutonic or Germanic stock. (See TEUTONIC
RACE.) It is divided into three main groups:
East Teutonic, North Teutonic, and West Teu-
tonic, or perhaps, more familiarly, East Ger-
manic, North Germanic, and West Germanic. It
has been the custom, for very slight grammatical
reasons, to group East and North Germanic to-
gether as East Germanic, but the threefold di-
vision is now definitely established.
EAST GERMANIC. This division seems to be
entitled to the collective name Vandal. The
more prominent East German peoples were the
Goths (q.v.), the Vandals (q.v.) (in the nar-
rower sense). and the Burgundians. (See BUR-
GUNDY.) Of the last-named only scanty linguistic
remnants have survived, which are discussed by
R. Kdgel, in Haupt’s Zeitschrift fii/r‘ deutsches
Altertum, vol. xxxvii. (Berlin). Of the lan-
guage of the Vandals likewise little remains.
The remnants of their dialect are treated by
Wrede, Uebcr die Sprache cler Vandalen (Strass-
burg, 1886). The most important of the East
Germanic peoples were the Goths. (See GOTHIC
LANGUAGE.) The Gothic language perished with
their empires, except that a last remnant of
Goths found an oasis in the Crimean peninsula.
Busbecq, a Flemish traveler, in the middle of
the sixteenth century, still heard the Gothic
language spoken there, and selected eighty-six
words as specimens of the language (Krim or
Crimean Gothic). Our knowledge of Gothic
depends almost entirely upon the language of
the Visigoths in the Roman province of Mmsia,
as written down by Ulfilas (q.v.). Here the
Teutonic dialects emerge for the first time from
semi-barbarism into literary form.
NORTH GEEMANIG. The four dialects of this
group, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Ice-
landic, show but slight traces of dialectic dif-
ference before the eleventh century, as is proved
by the evidence of the Norse runes (q.v.). The
Scandinavian languages after the eleventh cen-
tury, however, are divided into East and West
Scandinavian, or East and West Norse. The
eastern division consists of Swedish (including
the dialect of the island of Gotland) and Danish;
the western division of Norwegian and Icelandic.
WEST GERMANIG. Linguistically West Ger-
manic is best divided into Anglo-Saxon or Eng-
lish. Frisian. Low German (Old Saxon), Fran-
conian, and High German. '
Anglo-Samoa or English.—-The history of the
English language may be divided into four
periods: (1) An lo-Saxon with its four slightly
ifferentiated dia ects, Northumbrian and Mer-
cian, forming the Anglian branch, and West
Saxon and Kentish (Jutes). forming the South-
ern branch. Anglo-Saxon records begin with the
eighth century; the language lasted till the mid-
dle of the thirteenth century, when it assumed
the character of (2) Old English (1250-1350),
followed by (3) Middle English (1350-1550), to
which succeeded (4) Modern English. See
ANGLo-SAXGN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; ENG-
LISH LANGUAGE.
Frisian.—Frisian is still spoken in Holland,
but in general Low German has taken its place.
A branch of this language, called North Frisian,
is still spoken in the southern part of the west
coast of Schleswig and in the adjacent islands,
Sylt, Fiihr, and Amrum, as well as Helgoland.
Old Frisian and the Anglian dialect of Anglo-
Saxon are closely related in grammar and vocab-
ular . See FRISIAN LANGUAGE.
Low German (Old Sawon).——Low German
speech differs markedly from Anglo-Saxon. The
name Saxon has spread so far from its original
home that we may safely suppose that _ the
Saxons in the course of their conquests in North
Germany spread their name politically, but at
the same time blended their speech with that of
the conquered tribes. In its modern continua-
tion Old Saxon is Plattdeutsch. See GERMAN
LANGUAGE; PLATTDEUTSCH,
Franconian.—Tl1e Franconian dialects of the
present day in Middle Germany (Middle Fran-
conian, Rhenish Franconian, and East Fran-
conian) differ but little from High German. (See
GERMAN LANGUAGE.) The Lower Franconians
(Franks) settled in the Netherlands during the
early centuries of the Christian Era. The Franco-
nian dialect spoken there down to the sixteenth
century is called Old Low Franconian. It is con-
tinued to the present day in the Dutch of H01-
land, and in the Flemish of Flanders in Belgium.
See DUTGH LANGUAGE; FLEMISH LANGUAGE.
High German.-—For the character of High
German speech, for its extent and distribution in
modern times, and for the development of lit-
erary Modern High German, see GERMAN LAN-
GUAGE.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. The Teutonic lan-
guages have, perhaps, more than any other Indo-
Germanic languages, developed striking special
characteristics which differentiate them from
the remaining languages of the family. These
concern vocalism, consonantism, declension, and
conjugation. As regards vocalization the Ten-
tonic treatment of ablaut (q.v.) is peculiar. In
the common Indo-Germanic period ablaut was a
purely phonetic phenomenon, but in the Teutonic
languages, owing to the prevailing loss of the
reduplication (q.v.) in the perfect of the verb,
and the reduction or loss of endings, ablaut
has been adapted to a quasi-grammatical prop-
erty. Thus the changes of the root vowel in
Greek dépxo/ma, dédo/ma, érlpaxov, are identical
with those in German werde, ward, geworden,
but in the Greek the vocalic changes are not
associated consciously with the changes of tense.
On the other hand, in the German ward the vowel
a carrie-s the preterite sense of the verb. Even
more clearly the vowels have become gram-
matical in English sing, sang, sung, and many
similar sets. The prominence of the ablaut has
also contributed to analogical spread, and a
considerable degree of generalization which has
resulted in the six so-called ablaut-series which
comprise the majority of the so-called strong
TEUTONIC LANGUAGES.
TEUTONIC RACE.
613
verbs. Some of the types of these series in
Gothic are: beita, bait, bitum, ‘to bite ;’ kiusa,
Icaus, lcusum, ‘to choose ;’ bincla, band, bundum,
‘to bind.’ The phenomenon known as umlaut
(q.v.), that is, the assimilation of a given vowel
to the vowel of a neighboring syllable, although
it rests upon a universal phonetic tendency, is
also specially prominent in all periods of the
history of Teutonic speech. Thus, in Old High
German a changes to e before i in a following
syllable; singular lamb, ‘lamb,’ but plural
lembir (New High German Lamm and Litm-
mer); or u changes to it (ui)before i in a fol-
lowing syllable; singular chrut, ‘weed,’ but plural
chriuter, chriutrir (New High German Kraut and
I\.’r-éiuter). Umlaut has also been adapted to
grammatical distinction, as in German Mann,
Manner, and English man, men; in the latter
case, owing to the lo-ss of endings the umlaut
of men has become the sole sign of the plural.
Very characteristic is the treatment of the
Indo-Germanic lingual and nasal vowels in all
Teutonic languages, as u+ lingual or nasal,
giving the groups ur, ul, um, and un; e.g. Indo-
Germanic *ulqos, Skt. vrlea, ‘wolf,’ appears in
Gothic as wulf, and Indo-Germanic *krhtom, Skt.
satam, ‘hundred,’ appears in Gothic as hund.
The most characteristic of all Teutonic phe-
nomena is the series of changes which has taken
place in the original Indo-Germanic stop con-
sonants, the so-called shift or ‘rotation’ of con-
sonants, known as Grimm’s law (q,v.) . A group
of exceptions concerning the continuance in Teu-
tonic of the Indo-Germanic tenues, both aspirate
and non-aspirate, as either surd or sonant frica-
tives, according to the position of the word-
accent, was explained by Karl Verner. See
VERNER’S LAW.
In the domain of noun-declension the most im-
portant Teutonic phenomenon is the spread of
the n-stems, giving rise to the important dis-
tinction between the weak declension (n-declen-
sion) and the strong declension (declensions
without n). Especially, every adjective may be
inflected according to the weak or n-declension,
being then used as the so-called definite form of
the adjective in connection with the definite arti-
cle, in distinction from the indefinite adjective
with the indefinite article. The starting point
for this is prehistoric. Already in Indo-Ger-
manic times adjectives were substantivized by
transition to the n-declension. A parallel to
the double adjective is found in the Balto-Slavic
languages, which have produced a ‘definite’ ad-
jective by compounding the ‘indefinite’ with the
pronominal stem 330-.
The most important feature of the Teutonic
languages in the field of conjugation is the dis-
tinction between strong and weak verbs, based in
the main upon the different treatment of the
perfect. The strong verbs were originally pri-
mary ; they employed the non-thematic, and very
largely reduplicated, perfect of Indo-Germanic
times; as Gothic present weir]; a, ‘I become,’
perfect warP The weak verbs were mostly
secondary or denominative present stems, which
supplied their perfect by a periphrastic form
made by fusion of the verb-stem with a preterite
form of the root dhe, ‘to set,’ as Gothic present
nasja, ‘I save,’ perfect nasida. Especially in the
later periods of Teutonic speech the historical
limits of the two classes are effaced. The old
type of preterite-presents, which are presents in
function, also associate with themselves the weak
perfect, so that German weiss, ‘know’ (Gothic
wait, Greek 076a) forms the weak perfect
wusste, ‘knew.’ Consult: Grimm, Deutsche
Grammatih (new. ed., Berlin and Giitersloh,
1870-97) ; Streitberg, Urgermanische Grammatils
(Heidelberg, 1896) ; Dieter, Laut- und Fermen-
lehre der a-Ztgermanischen Dialekte (Leipzig,
1898 et seq.) ; Paul, Grundriss der germanischen
Philologie (2d ed., Strassburg, 1901 et seq.).
See also the articles on the various languages
of the Teutonic group and the bibliographies
there given. ‘
TEUTONIC RACE. The name applied to
a division of the European peoples, comprising
nearly the whole or the bulk of the population of
the German Empire, the Scandinavian countries,
the Netherlands, Great Britain, Switzerland, the
United States, Canada, Newfoundland, Australia,
New Zealand, and Cape Colony, about two-thirds
of the inhabitants of Cisleithan Austria, and half
the population of Belgium (Flemings). It is
also represented by large numbers in Hungary
and in the Baltic Provinces, Finland, and other
parts of Russia, and is found scattered over the
whole world. They have long heads and faces,
very light hair, blue eyes, tall stature, and narrow,
aquiline noses. The oldest traceable home of
the Teutons seems to have been in the region be-
tween the middle and lower courses of the rivers
Elbe and Oder. Adjacent tracts, reaching to the
river Vistula in the east, to the Harz Mountains
and the Thuringian forest in the south, from the
Elbe to the Rhine in the West, and across Den-
mark to the Scandinavian peninsula in the
north, were all occupied by Teutons about the
second century 13.0. Pliny and Tacitus men-
tion the Basternae, or Bastarnae (q.v.), who
appear on the Black Sea about 13.0. 200. Next
of the Germanic races to force their way south-
ward were the Ci1nbri (q.v.), who came down
about 2000 years ago from their northern home
in the Cimbrian (Danish) peninsula, were joined
by the Helvetian Teutones, and penetrated as
far as Upper Italy, only to be destroyed by
Marius in no. 102-101. Caesar, bent upon con-
quering Gaul, clashed with another German
tribe, the Suevi (Swabians). The defeat of
Ariovistus in 13.0. 58, and the subsequent in-
vasions of Germany by the Roman legions, pre-
vented the Germanization of Gaul, and confined
the Germans within the Rhine. Several cen-
turies after Christ came the later migrations.
Of these the principal ones were those of the
Burgundians, Vandals, and Goths, from Eastern
Germany southward toward the Danube, and
thence westward into Italy, Gaul, S ain, and
Africa, and the conquest of the Celtic ritain by
the Saxons, Jutes (Danes), and Angles. Later
followed the piratical Viking raids of the Norse
Danes and Norwegians into the northern islands
of Europe, into France (Normandy), and the
Mediterranean coast. Simultaneously with these
movements occurred the colonization of Ice-
land, followed by the settlement of Greenland.
Afterwards came the Norman conquest of Eng-
land and of Southern Italy and Sicily.
The original home of the Burgundians (q.v.)
was on the west side of the upper course of the
river Vistula. In the third century AD. they mi-
grated to the region of the Lower Danube. At
TEUTONIC RACE.
TE-WFIK PASHA.
614
the end of the same century they migrated west-
ward; at the beginning of the fifth they founded
their kingdom in the Rhenish Palatinate. This
kingdom was destroyed in 437 by the Huns; the
Burgundians settled in‘ Savoy, and thence they
founded a new State on thebanks of the river
Rhone, which fell into the hands of the Franks
in 534. After that they were Romanized. See
BURGUNDY.
The earliest traceable home of the Vandals
seems to have been on the shores of the Baltic.
From there they seem to have migrated to the
region of the Riesengebirge (‘Vandal Mountains’)
to the north of Bohemia. But in the third cen-
tury they are found in the far south in Dacia
by the side of the Goths. At the beginning of
the fifth century they moved with other German
tribes into Gaul, thence into Spain, finally
crossing over into North Africa to found there
in 429 their famous empire. This was destroyed
by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in 534. See
VANDALS.
The earliest home of the Goths in historic
times seems to have been to the east of the
Burgundians on the east side of the upper course
of the river Vistula. In the third century A.D.
they had settled in the Roman province of Dacia
north of the Lower Danube and in the adjoining
region north of the Black Sea. At that time they
were already divided into Visigoths, or West
Goths, and Ostrogoths, or East Goths. The Gepidae,
a closely related tribe, had followed them south
and were located to the north of the Visigoths.
Momentum was imparted to this great Teutonic
mass by the incursions of the Huns, who began
at that time to pour into Europe through the
reat gate between the Ural Mountains and the
‘aspian. The East Goths submitted to the
Huns. The Visigoths, after seeking refuge in the
Roman dominions south of the Danube, began
that important westward movement which first
landed them in Italy, whence they were expelled;
next in Gaul, of which they conquered the region
between the rivers Rhone and Loire, and the
Pyrenees; and finally in Spain, where they sus-
tained themselves until they succumbed to the
Saracens in 711. The Ostrogoths, submitting to
the Huns, became part of Attila’s empire, but
after his death achieved independence and found-
ed their State in Paimonia (Hungary). In 488
they broke into Italy, finally vanquished King
Odoacer in 493, and founded their own short-
lived kingdom, which succumbed to Justinian’s
generals, Belisarius andNarses (536-53). See
Gorns.
The North Germans advanced from the north-
ernmost part of the common Teutonic territory,
that is, from Schleswig-Holstein, into Denmark,
whence they passed to Schonen (Scania), the
southernmost part of Sweden, gradually spread-
ing from there over the Scandinavian peninsula,
and the islands to the westward, especially Ice-
land.
The Western Continental Germans were di-
vided by Tacitus and Pliny into three groups:
the Ingvaeones, who coincide with the Low Ger-
man peoples along the north coast of Germany;
the Istaevones, corresponding to the Franconians;
and the Hermiones (q.v.), corresponding to the
High Germans. The principal Low German
races were the Saxons, the Frisians, and the
Franconians or Franks. The ancient seat of the
Saxons was on the eastern side of the mouth of
the river Elbe ;to the north of them in Schleswig-
Holstein were the Angles. In the middle of the
fifth century the British King Vortigern called
in the aid of the Saxon chief Héngist as a hired
auxiliary. With the related Jutes (q.v.), the
Saxons overran England south of the Thames;
during the same century the Angles occupied Cen-
tral and Northern England. To this mixture of
Celts and Teutons the Norman Conquest (1066)
added a new and peculiar ingredient, Teutonic as
to stock, Romance as to speech and institutions.
See ANGLO-SAXONS.
The Continental Saxons (Old Saxons), the
great nation whom Charlemagne forcibly con-
verted to Christianity, are in the first centuries
after Christ the occupants of Lower Germany.
At the root they are the same Saxons who to-
gether with the Angles accomplished the con-
quest of Britain. The Frisians are the western-
most division of the Ingvaeonic Teutons. Their
ancient home was on the North Sea, in the
marshes found about the Zuider Zee, and from
there east as far as the river Ems.
The Franconians or Franks (q.v.) are a more
modern name for the ancient Istaevones. Their
original home was on both sides of the middle
and lower course of the Rhine.
The High German peoples coincide almost ex-
actly with the third division of the West Ger-
mans whom Pliny calls Hermiones, Tacitus
Herminones. Their territory anciently extended
very much farther to the north than in mediacval
and modern times. Adjoining the Saxons to the
southeast dwelt the Lombards (q.v.) before they
started on their long migration to Italy (568),
Southwest‘ of them were the Semni or Semnoncs,
and due south of them the Hermunduri or Thu-
ringians. To the west of them, along the lower
course of the river Main, were the ancient seats
of the Suevi (Swabians) and Alemanni. Again
to the east of the Thuringians, in the present
Kingdom of Bohemia and parts of Bavaria,
dwelt at the beginning of our era the powerful
people of the Marcomanni (q.v.). After Charle-
magne’s conquest of the Avars the Bavarian
Marcomanni crossed the river Enns and colo-
nized part of the present German provinces of
Austria. Consult: Bremer, “Ethnographic der
germanischen Sttimme,” in Paul, Grundriss der
germa-n-ischen Philologie, vol. iii. (Strassburg,
1896 et seq.). '
TEWFIK (MOHAMMED) PASHA, tfi’fik
pa-shii’ (1852-92). Khedive of Egypt from 1879
to 1892. He was the eldest son of Ismail Pasha,
who secured from the Sultan a firman decreeing
the khedival succession to Tewfik instead of his
brother Halim, who would have become Khedive
under the order of succession then in force.
Tewfik was fond of country life, and spent most
of his time before his accession on his estates. He
was interested in educational matters and found-
ed several schools. In February, 1879, when the
Ministry of Nubar Pasha was dismissed (see
EGYPT), Prince Tewfik became president of the
Council, but he, like Nubar, showed too much
sympathy with Egypt’s European creditors and
soon retired. On June 26, 1879, the Sultan de-
posed Ismail and Tewfik became Khedive, at a time
when Egypt was deeply embarrassed financially
and the power of the Khedive was much curtailed.
His general policy was modern and European,
TEWFIK PASHA.
Texas.
615
and the year 1880 witnessed the establishment
of the dual control of Egypt by England and
France. Tewfik soon had to face the rebellion of
the Nationalists under Arabi Pasha (q.v.), and
Egypt was rescued from anarchy by the interven-
tion of England, which thereby established a con-
trolling influence in the country. The conquest
of the Sudan by the Mahdi occurred during Tew-
fik’s reign and its recovery was not begun till
after his death, which took place near Cairo,
January 7, 1892. Consult Penfield, Present Day
Egypt (New York, 1899,).
TEWKESBURY, tfiks’bér-i. A town and
Parliamentary and municipal borough in Glouces-
tershire, England, on the Avon, 10 miles north-
east of- Gloucester (Map: England, D 5). The
parish church, an ancient and noble edifice in
Norman, is a noteworthy architectural feature,
and there are interesting remains of a great
Benedictine abbey founded in the twelfth century.
Tewkesbury is famous as the scene of the battle
fought within half a mile of it on May 4, 1471,
when the Yorkists under Edward IV. and the
Duke of Gloucester inflicted a signal defeat on
the Lancastrians. Population, in 1891, 5269; in
1901, 5419. Consult: Blunt, History of Tewkes-
bury (2d ed., London, 1877) ; Massé, Tewkesbury
Abbey Church (London, 1900).
TEX'ARKAN’.A. The name of two adjoining
cities sitiiated on each side of the boundary be-
tween Arkansas and Texas, 145 miles southwest
of Little Rock; on the Texas and Pacific, the
Saint Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern, the
Saint Louis Southwestern, the Kansas City,
Pittsburg and Gulf, and other railroads (Map:
Texas, H 3). One of the municipalities is the
county seat of Miller County, Ark., and the other
is in Bowie County, Texas. They form, however,
practically one industrial community. There
are a fine post-ofiice building, two city halls, and
Saint Agnes Academy, besides several hand-
some residences and business blocks. Texarkana
has considerable importance in commerce and
manufactures. It is the centre of large timber
interests, and ships also cotton, cottonseed oil,
and hides. Foundries and machine shops, vari-
ous plants connected with the cotton industry,
railway shops, lumber mills, and furniture and
pottery factories constitute the leading indus-
trial establishments. Population, Texarkana in
Texas, in 1890, 2852; in 1900, 5256; Texarkana
in Arkansas, in 1890, 3528; in 1900, 4914.
TEX’AS. A South Central State of the United
States, popularly called the ‘Lone Star State.’
It is, next to Florida, the southernmost State of
the Union, lying between latitudes 25° 51’ and
36° 30’ N., and between longitudes 93° 27’ and
106° 43' W. It is bounded on the north by Okla-
homa and Indian Territory, on the east by
Arkansas and Louisiana, on the southeast by
the Gulf of Mexico, on the southwest by Mexico,
from which it is separated by the Rio Grande,
and on the northwest by New Mexico. It is of an
irregular triangular shape with the apex pointing
south and a square ‘panhandle’ extending north-
ward. Its greatest length from north to south is
about 800 miles, and its greatest breadth about
750 miles. It is the largest State in the Union,
having an area of 265,780 square miles, of which
3490 square miles constitute water surface. Its
area is larger than the combined area of the
Atlantic States from Maine to Virginia, inclu-
sive, and nearly one-third greater than that of the
whole German Empire.
TOPOGBAPHY. In general the land rises gradu-
ally toward the western boundary by a succession
of broad and more or less terraced slopes running
parallel with the Gulf coast. Five or six well-
marked topographical regions may be distin-
guished. The first is the coastal plain, a con-
tinuation of the same formation in the other Gulf
States. It rises gradually from sea level to an
altitude of 500 feet about 150 miles inland, and
is very level in its lower portion, becoming some-
what hilly near its inner border. The coast itself
is lined almost throughout its length of 375 miles
by lagoons cut off from the sea by long, narrow
sand islands.
these lagoons is the Laguna Madre, whose water
is almost stagnant and very salt. The northern
lagoons generally extend some distance inland in
large, irregular bays and estuaries, lined partly
by low marshy shores, partly by high bluffs. The
principal bays are those of Galveston, Mata-
gorda, San Antonio, and Corpus Christi. West of
the coastal plain extends a belt of rolling coun-
try known as the Black Prairie, about 100 miles
wide in the north and south, but very narrow in
its middle portion. It is succeeded on the north-
west by a very broad belt of country called by
geologists the Central Denuded Region. This
rises from a height of 600 feet in the east to over
2000 feet in the west, being bounded by the es-
carpment of the Llano Estacado, and is a rugged
and much eroded, though not mountainous, re-
gion, with ridges, prairie valleys, isolated table-
lands, and irregular depressions. It is bounded
on the west and southwest by the Plateau Re-
gion, a southern continuation of the Great Plains.
South of the ‘Panhandle’ this forms a large, flat-
topped table-land, the Llano Estacado, which from
an altitude of 4000 feet falls on the east into the
Denuded Region in a high, steep, and ragged es-
carpment cut back by several large river valleys.
On the southeast it runs out into a lower plateau
of different formations known as the Grand
Prairie. This sweeps around the southern end
of the Denuded Region, and geologically, and ac-
cording to some also topographically, it runs
northward between the latter and the Black
Prairie, though it is here much lower than in the
-south. It extends southward to the Rio Grande
Valley, and is bounded on the southeast by an
escarpment. The last topographical region is the
portion of the State lying beyond the Pecos River
in the southwest. This is a rugged mountainous
country with a number of high isolated and bar-
ren ridges inclosing broad and arid valleys. The
highest point is Baldy Peak, with an altitude of
8382 feet.
HYDROGRAPHY. Practically all the rivers of
Texas 'flow in parallel courses southeastward
through the State. With the exception of the
Canadian River in the north and the Rio Grande
with the Pecos in the south, which rise in the
Rocky Mountains, all the larger rivers rise on the
eastern edge of the Great Plains, the Llano Esta-
cado, and the Grand Prairie. The extreme north-
ern part of the State belongs to the Mississippi
Basin. The Canadian River crosses the Pan-
handle to join the Arkansas, while the Red
River rises on the escarpment of the Llano Esta-
cado and forms for a long distance part of the
northern State boundary. The independent rivers
The largest and southernmost of '
TEXAS.
TEXAS.
616
‘76°.
flow directly to the Gulf of Mexico, and all, ex-
cept the Brazos and Rio Grande, empty through
estuaries into the coast lagoons. The principal
rivers are the Sabine, on the Louisiana boundary,
the Neches, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guada-
lupe, San Antonio, Nueces, and the Rio Grande.
Most of these rivers flow through deep caiions
immediately after leaving the Great Plains. Sev-
eral of them are navigable for considerable dis-
tances at high water, but their mouths are gen-
erally obstructed by bars.
CLIMATE. As Texas reaches to within two and
a half degrees of the tropical zone, it naturally
has a warm climate, but the great range in lati-
tude, and to some extent in altitude, produces
also a considerable range in climatic conditions.
Although warm, the climate is drier and less
enervating than that of the other Gulf States.
The mean temperature in July at Galveston on
the coast is 83.7 °, at El Paso in the extreme
west 8l.9°, and at Amarillo in the northwest
The corresponding figures for January are
52.7° at Galveston, 44.5° at El Paso, and 3l.9°
at Amarillo. On the coast the temperature
seldom falls below the freezing -point, while
in the northwest it may fall several degrees
below zero. In the western uplands, on the
other hand, the temperature rises above
100°, while on the coast the maximum is be-
tween 90° and 95°. In winter the State is sub-
ject to severe north winds, known as northers,
which often lower the temperature 50° in a few
hours. In the eastern section the southeast
winds from the Gulf are prevalent and
bring abundant rain to that part of the State.
The rainfall decreases rapidly westward, so that
in the western part it is insufficient for agricul-
ture. In the eastern portion near the mouth of
the Sabine River the rainfall is sometimes over
60 inches, while in the extreme south, even near
the coast, it is sometimes only five inches in a
year. The normal annual average at Galveston is
49 inches, at Corpus Christi 30, at Austin
34, at Abilene, nearly in the centre 'of the
State, 25, at Amarillo in the Panhandle 22, and
at El Paso 9 inches.
SOIL. The alluvial bottom lands around the
lower river courses are the most fertile portions
of the State. Next to these ranks the Black
Prairie belt, which is covered with a remark-
ably fertile marl formed by the mixture of clay
with the disintegrated Cretaceous limestone. The
soil of the coastal plain is generally sandy; in
some Places the sand is mixed with clay to
form a black loam. In the northwest there are
heavy deposits of red clay containing much
potash, but little nitrogenous matter. The soil
on the southern plateau is thin, but the Llano
Estacado is covered with a red sandy loam which
would be rendered fertile by irrigation.
FLORA. The principal forest area of Texas
is in the extreme eastern portion. In the sandy
coastal plain the pine is the prevailing tree, long-
leaf pine in the lower and short-leaf pine in the
higher pine barrens. Westward toward the cen-
tre of the State the deciduous species predomi-
nate, including oaks, elm, maple, hickory, syca-
more, mulberry, sweet gum, ash, and walnut.
The Osage orange is also common here, and the
palmetto in the eastern part lends a tropical
aspect to the vegetation. In the river-bottoms
the characteristic species are cottonwood, pecan,
live oak, and cypress. Along the western border
of the Black Prairie two parallel belts of hard-
wood forest, chiefly oak, and known as the Cross
Timbers, extend southward as far as the Brazos
River. To the south and west of these the State
is practically treeless except along the river
courses. There are also scattered areas of scrub
and chaparral composed largely of mesquite, the
most characteristic tree of western Texas. Still
farther west even the prairie grasses give place
to or grow in the midst of a desert flora in
which the yuccas and cacti are predominant.
For FAUNA, see UNITED STATES; also Rocxx
MOUNTAINS.
GEOLOGY AND MINERALS. The oldest rocks of
the State come to the surface in the Central De-
nuded Region. In the southern part of this re-
gion, west of Austin, there is a small area of
Archaean rock surrounded by a narrow outcrop
of Cambrian and Silurian strata. To the north
of this there is a considerable area of Carbonif-
erous formation followed on the northwest along
the eastern base of the Llano Estacado by
a still larger region referred by some to the
Permian, by others to the Jurassic system. An-
other large area of Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
rocks is found in the Trans-Pecos region, where
the predominant formation is the Jura-Trias,
with small scattered outcrops of Carboniferous
and other Paleozoic, together with some recent
igneous rocks. The Llano Estacadof like the
Great Plains to the north, is of very recent for-
mation, consisting of lacustrine Tertiary de-
posits. The southern plateau or Grand Prairie
region is older, being of Lower Cretaceous forma-
tion, and this formation also skirts the central
Paleozoic area on the east. It is succeeded on
the east by a band of Upper Cretaceous strata con-
stituting the Black Prairie belt. Beyond this the
entire coastal plain is composed of marine Ter-
tiary deposits. Workable beds of bituminous
coal occur in the central portion of the State,
and large deposits of lignite are stretched along
the western border of the coastal plain. In the
eastern part of the State, near the mouth of
the Sabine, petroleum deposits of great extent
have been found at a depth of about 1000 feet.
Iron and copper ores, as well as lead and-tin, oc-
cur in the southeastern part of the central region,
and silver is found in the west. The Trans-
Pecos region, still but partly explored, probably
contains varied mineral deposits, the 1nost im-
portant being the cinnabar ores found in the
Cretaceous limestone in the south. The most
important of the remaining minerals in the State
are the immense beds of gypsum found in the
Permian strata of the northwestern Red Lands.
MINING. Mining, which had until recently
been of little importance, bids fair to acquire
large proportions. The value of coal increased
almost steadily from $412,300 in 1891 to $1,907,-
024 in 1901. In the latter year there were mined
787,700 short tons of bituminous coal and 296,-
681 short tons of lignite. The production of
petroleum practically began in 1897 . The yield
has increased very rapidly, amounting to 4,393,-
658 barrels in 1901. The silver exploited in the
same year was valued at $283,440. Brick and tile
made from local clays in that year amounted to
$1,632,189. Gypsum is mined in the northwest-
ern part. Cinnabar and salt are mined and some
granite, sandstone, and limestone are quarried.
There are a number of valuable mineral springs.





Area in Population.
County. I1l'{,aP_ County Seat. square
“ 6* mlles. 1890 1900.
Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,060 20,923 28,015
Andrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 1,591 24 87
Angelina . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Lufkin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 880 6,306 13,481
Aransas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 6 Rockport . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 1,824 1.716
Archer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Archer City . . . . . . . . . .. 960 2.101 2,508
Armstrong . . . . . . . . . . .. . D 1 Claude . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 870 944 1,205
Atascosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Pleasantou . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,182 6.459 7,143
Austin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Bellville . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 712 17,859 20,676
Bailey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 4
Bandera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Bandera . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,007 3,795 5,332
Bastrop . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Bastrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 881 20,736 26,845
Baylor . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Seymour . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 957 2,. 5 3,052
Bee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Beeville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 875 3,720 7,720
Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Belton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,091 33 77 45,535
Bexar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 San Antonio . . . . . . . . . .. 1,268 49.266 69,422
Blanco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Johnson City . . . . . . . . . . . 762 4,649 4,703
Borden . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 ail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 892 222 776
Bosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 972 14,224 17,390
Bowie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 907 20,267 26,676
Brazoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Angleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,438 11,506 14,861
Brazos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Bryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 16,650 18,859
Brewster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 Alpine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,006 710 2,356
Briscoe . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Silverton . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 850 . . . . .. 1,253
Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Brownwood . . . . . . . . . . .. 911 11,421 16,019
Burleson . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Caldwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 677 13,001 18,367
Burnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Burnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,010 10,747 10,528
Caldwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Lockhart . . . . . . . . . . .. 530 15,769 21,765
Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Port Labaca . . . . . . . . .. 592 815 2,395
Callahan.. . . E 3 Baird . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 5,457 8,768
Cameron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 6 Brownsville . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,203 14,424 16,095
Camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Pittsbure . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217 6,624 9,146
Carson ................ .. D 1 Panhanrlle. .......... .. 860 356 469
Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Linden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 945 22,554 22,841
Castro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 1 Dimmit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 870 9 400
Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Wallisville . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 648 2,%1 3,046
Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Rusk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 990 22,975 25,154
Childress . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Childress . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 660 1,175 2,138
Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Henrietta . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,250 7,503 9,231
Cochran . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 959 25
Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 Robert Lee . . . . . . . . . . . .. 850 2,059 3,430
Coleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Coleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,302 6,112 10,077’
Collin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 McKinney . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 828 36,736 50,087
Collingsworth . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Wellington . . . . . . . . . .. 867 357 1,233
Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Columbus. . . . . . . . . . . .. 948 19,512 22,203
Comal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 New Braunfcls . . . . . . .. 569 6,398 7,008
Comanche . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Comanche . . . . . . . . . . . .. 828 15,608 23,009
Concho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 Paintrock . . . . . . . . .. 941 1,065 1,427
Cooke . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Gaincsvillc . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 24,696 27,494
Coryell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Gatcsville . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,115 16,873 21,308
Cottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Paducah . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 956 240 1,002
Crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 850 15 51
Crockett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1) 4 Ozone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,004 194 1,591
Crosby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 Emma . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 984 346 788
Dallam.... -. . . . . . . . .. C 1 'l‘exlinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,463 112 146
Dallas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Dallas . . . . . . . . .. . 900 67,042 82.726
Dawson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 (Unorgallizcd) . . . . . . . . .. 900 29 37
Deaf Smith . . . . . . . . . . .. C 1 I-Iercford . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,477 179 8-13
Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 266 9,117 15,249
Denton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Denton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 865 21,289 28.318
Dewitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Cucro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 880 14,307’ 21,311
Dickens . .. . D 3 Dickens . . . . . . . . . . . .. 918 295 1,151
Dimmit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 5 Carrizo Springs . . . . . . .. 1,164 1,049 1,106
Donley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Clarendon . 878 1.056 2,756


AREA AND
POPULATION
OF TEXAS
BY COUNTIES.
( Continued 0 V ER.)

County.
Duval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eastland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ellis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- - Q . I -
Fort Bend.... .
Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Freestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frio . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . ..
Gaines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Galveston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Garza. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Gillespie . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Glnsscock. . . . .. . . . . . . ..
Goliad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Gonzales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Grayson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Gregg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Grimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Guadalupe . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
H e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hansford . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hardeman....
Hardin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Harris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hartley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Haskell . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
I-Iem hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
H0ll(€l‘SO1'l.... .. .
Hidalgo . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
I-Iocklcy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hopkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1-Ionston . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Hutchinson . . . . . . .. . ..
Irion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jackson . . . . . . . ..- . . . . . . . .
Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jeff Davis . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Jcficrson . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Jones . . . . . . ..
Karm-s .







Area, in POl)11l21tlOi1.
1M,‘1P County Scat. square
Ilt ex. mlles. 1890. § 1900.
E 6 San Diego . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,887 7,598 1 8.483
E 3 Eastlan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 947 10,373 17,971
C 4 Odessa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 976 224 381
D 4 Rocksprings . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,408 1,970 3,108
F 3 Waxahachle . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,066 31,7‘ 50,059
B 4 El Paso .. . . . . . . . . .. 9.353 15.678 24,886
. . . . .. (Unorganized).......... 2,744
E 3 Stephenville . . . . . . . . .. 1,110 21,594 29,966
F 4 Marlin. .. 844 20.706 33,342
F 3 Bonham . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 940 38.709 51,793
F 5 Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . .. 992 31,481 36,542
D 3 oby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 836 2,996 3,708
D 1 Floydada . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.036 529 2,020
E 3 Crowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 636 . . . . .. 1,568
G 5 Richmond . . . . . . . . . . . .. 897 10,586 16,538
G 3 Mount Vernon . . . . . . .. 325 6,481 8,674
F 4 Fairfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. -7 15,987 18,910
E 5 Pearsall . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.064 3,112 1 4,200
o 3 ...................... .. 1.590 68 ‘ 55
G 5 Galveston ............ .. 438 31,476 I 44,116
D3 . . . . . . . . .. 821 14 185
E 4 Fredericksburg . . . . . . . .. 1,140 7,056 8.229
D 4 Garden City . . . . . . . . . . .. 952 208 286
F 5 Goliad..... .. 817 5,910 8.310
F 5 Gonzales . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,079 18,016 28,882
D 1 (Unorganizcd) . . . . . . . . .. 860 203 480
F 3 Sherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,012 53,211 63,661
G 3 Longview . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 7 9,402 12,343
G 4 Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 770 21,312 26,106
F 5 Seguin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 717 15,217 21385
D 3 Plainview. . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.036 7 1,680
D 1 Memphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 868 703 1,670
E 4 Hannlton . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 858 9,313 . 13,520
D 1 Hansford . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 860 133 167
E 1 Guanuh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 532 3,904 3,634
G 4 Kountze... . . . .. 8-14 3,956 5,049
G 5 Houston . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,7 37.249 63,786
G 3 Marshall . . . . . _ . . . . . . . .. 873 26,721 31,878
C‘ 1 Channing . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,460 252 ‘"7
E 3 Haskell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 843 1,665 2,637
F 4 San Marcos . . . . . . . . . .. 647 11,352 14,142
D 2 (‘nnadian . . . . . . . . . . . .. 860 519 815
G 3 Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 940 12,285 19,970
E 6 Hidnlgo . . . . . . . . . .. 2,328 6,534 6.837
F 4 Hillsboro . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.006 27,583 41.355
C 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 977 . . . . .. 44
F 3 Granbury . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 436 7,614 3 9.146
G 3 Sulphur Springs . . . . . .. 666 I 20,572 : 27,950
G 4 (‘rockett . . . .. . . . . . .. 1,192 1 19,360 1 ’-5.452
1) :4 Bigspring . . . . . . . . . . . .. sss 1,210 I 2,528
F 3 Grcc11ville . . . . . . . . .. 888 ’ 31,885 ‘ 47,295
])1 Plemmons . . . . . . . . . . . . .. mo 1 as 303
1') 4 Slierwooll . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 800 1 870 8-18
E 3 Jncksboro . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8'18 ‘ 9,740 10.224
11‘ Edna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ass 1 3.281 0,094
11 4 Jasper... . . . . . . . . . . .. 977 1 5,591? 7,133
B 4 Fort Davis . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.922 1,394 1.150
G 5 Bc:uunont. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,109 5.("'7 14,239
F 3 (‘-lchurnc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 22.313 33,819
F 3 Anson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 900 3.7. 7 7,053
11‘ 5 'l(.~u'nes City . . . . . . . . . .. 710 ‘ 3.637’ 8.681








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County Towns O Railroads _.___ ..
104 Longitude 102 West






COPYRIGT, 1891 AND 1903, BY DODD, MEAD & CMFANY.

County.
Kaufman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '
Kendall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kimble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
King. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Kinney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lampasas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lasalle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lavaca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lipscomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Live Oak . . . . . . . . .
Llano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lubbock . . . . . . . . .. .
Lynn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
McCullough . . . . . . . . . . ..
McLennan . . . . . . . . . . . ..
McMullen . . . . . . . . . . . , ..
Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mason , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Matagorda . . . . . . . . Y . . . ..
Maverick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Medina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Menard . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Midland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Montague . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Morris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Motley . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ..
Nacogdoches . . . . . . . . . . . .
Navarro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Nolan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Nueces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ochiltroe . . . . . . . . . .. ..
Oldham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Palo Pinto . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Panola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H
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Q26
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County Seat.


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Kaufman . . . . . . . . . . ..
Boerne . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Clairemont . . . . ..
Kerrville . . . . . . _ . . ..
Junction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guthrie . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Brackettville . . . . . . . . .
Benjamin . . . . . . . . . .. ..
Paris , . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
- ' - . . a o I . - - - . - - . . . . .
Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . .
Groesbeck . . . . . . . . . .
Lipscomb . . . . . . .
Oakville . . . . . . . . . . ..
Llano........
- ' . . . o . - - . - ¢ - u . - - -
Madisonville . . . . ..
J efierson . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mason . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Bay City . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eagle Pass. . . . . . . . .
Hondo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Menardville . . . . . . . . ..
.WIidland . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cameron . . . . . . . . . . . .
Goldthwaite . . . . . . . .
Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . .
Montague . . . . . . . . . . .
Conroe . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dumas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Daingerfield . . . . , . . . .
Matador . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Na-cogdoches . . . . . . . .
Corsicana . . . . . . . . . . .
Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sweetwater . . . . . . . .
Corpus Christi . . . . ..
Ochiltree . . . . . . . . . . .
Tascosa . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orange . . . . . . . . . . . .
Palo Pinto . . . . . . . . . .
Carthage . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weatherford . . . . . . . . .
(Unorganized) . . . . . ..
Fort Stockton . . . . . . .
Livingston . . . . . . . . . .
Amarillo . . . . . . . . . . ..
Marfa . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emory . . . . . . . . . . . . , .




Area in Population.
square
miles- 1890. 1900.
932 21.598 33,376
613 3,826 4,103
7 ‘ 324 899
1,210 4,462 4,980
1 ,302 2,243 2,503
928 173 490
1,269 3,781 2,447
947 1,134 2,322
903 37,302 48,627
1,021 4 31
755 7,584 8,625
1,707 2,139 2,303
992 21,887 28,121
666 11,952 14,595
1,066 13,841 18,072
1,162 4,230 8,102
7 21,67 32,573
850 632 790
1,123 2,055 2,268
977 6,77 7,301
873 3 33
982 33 293
821 24 17
1,110 3,217 3,960
1,080 39,204 59,77 '
1,180 1,038 1,024
488 8,512 10,432
384 10.862 10,754
900 264 968 5,180 5,573
1,135 3,985 6,097
1,332 3,698 4,066
1,284 5,730 7,783
888 1,215 2,01 1
972 1,033 1,741
1,044 24,773 39,666
604. 5,493 7,851
807 2,059 2,855
976 18,863 24,800
1,066 11,765 17,067
885 15 209
278 6,580 8,220
984 139 1,257
962 15,984 24,663
1,136 26,373 43,374
903 4,650 7,282
828 1,573 2,611
2,460 8,093 10,439
864 198 267
1,470 270 349
392 4,770 5,905
971 8,320 12,291
814 14,328 21,404
888 21,682 25,823
873 ' 7 34
8,312 1,326 2,360
,110 10,332 14,447
874 849 1,820
3,970 1,698 3,673
252 3,909 6,127

AREA AND
POPULATION
OF TEXAS
BY COUNTIES.
(O1/ER-)
'Area in Population.
County. Map square
Imlex 1nilL'-s- 1890. 1900.
Randall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 1 Canyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 872 187 963
Red River . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Clarksville . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,061 21,452 29,893
Reeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 Pecos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,610 1.247 1.847
Refugio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Refugio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 802 1.239 1,641
Roberts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Miami ................ .. 860 326 620
Robertson . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 913 26,506 31,480
Rockwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 3 Rockwall . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . 171 5,972 8,531
Runnels . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 Ballinger . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.073 3,193 5,379
Rusk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Henderson . . . . . . . . . . . .. 915 18,559 26,099
Sab1ne.. . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . .. H 4 Hemphill . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . *7 4,969 6,394
San Aug_1.1st111e . . . . . . . . .. G 4 San Augustine . . . . .. 570 6,688 8434
San Jacinto . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Coldspring . . . . . . . . . . . .. 636 7,360 10.277
San Patricio . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Siuton . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 700 1,312 2.372
San Saba . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 4 San Saba . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,150 6,641 7,569
Schlelcher ............ .. 1) 4 El Dorado . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,a55 155 515
Scurry . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . D 3 Snydu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 1.415 4,158
Shackelford . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 > 926 2.012 2.461
Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Center . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .. 814 14,365 20,452
She_rman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 1 850 34 104
Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 984 28,324 37,370
Somervell . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Glenrose , . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 3,419 3.498
Starr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 6 Rio Grande . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,510 10,749 11,469
Stepheiis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Breckenridge . . . . . . . . . .. 926 4,926 6.466
Sterln . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . D 4 Sterling City . . . . . . . . . .. 821 . . . . .. 1,127
Stonewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 3 Rayner . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .. 7 7 1,024 2.183
Sutton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 onora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,517 658 1,7
Swisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 1 Tnlia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 850 100 1,227
Tarrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Forth Worth . . . . . . . . . .. 900 41,142 52,376
Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., E 3‘ lene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 900 6,957 10,499
Terry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 828 21 48
’l‘hrockmorton . . . . . . . . .. F 3 Throckmorton . . . . . . . .. 821 902 1,750
Titus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Mount Pleasant . . . . . . .. 421 8,190 12,292
Tom_Green . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 4 San Angelo . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,553 5,152 6,804
'l‘rav_1s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Austin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L . 1,036 36,322 47,386
Trinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Groveton . . . . . . . . . . . .. 704 7.648 10,976
Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 4 \V0odvil1e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 10,877 11,899
Upshm _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Gilmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 587 12,695 10,266
Upton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 ganized) . . . . . . . . .. 1,190 52 48
Uvalde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 aide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,579 3,804 4,647
Yalverde . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . D 4 Delrio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,034 2,874 5,263
N an Zandt . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Canton . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 877 16,225 25,481
V1ctor1a . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .. F 5 Victoria , . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .. 883 8,737 13,678
Vtfalker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 4 Huntsville . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7." 12,874 15,813
Waller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 5 Hempstead . . . . . . . . . . . .. 510 10,888 14,246
\KZard_. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 Barstow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 858 7 '7 1,451
Washmgton.... . . . . . . .. F 4 Brenham . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 568 29,161 32,931
WGl)b . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 6 L21l'e(l0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,421 14,842 21,851
V\'harton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. F 5 Wharton . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,137 7,584 16,942
Wl1ce_ler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D 1 Mobeetie . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 851 778 636
Vvichita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 “fichita Falls . . . . . . . . .. 606 4,831 5,806
VV1lb_arger . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Vernon . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 932 7,092 5,7
“:ll]llI1l1SOll . . . . . . . . . . .. F 4 Georgetown . . . . . .. 1,169 2 ,909 38,072
Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Floresville . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 784 10,655 13,961
Wvinkler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 888 18 60
Wise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .. F 3 Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 843 24,134 27,116
Nyood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. G 3 Quitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 688 13,932 ~ ,
Xoakum . . . . . , . . . . .. C 3 gUnorganizedl . . . . . . . .. 840 4 ' :.
Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 3 Graham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 821 5,049 6,540
Zapata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 6 .. 1,269 3,562 4,760
Zavalla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E 5 Bat-es\*ille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,328 1,097 192

TEXAS.
TEXAS.
617
Frsunnms. In 1897 the value of the catch for
the year was $237,496, this figure being less than
for 1890. The oyster, trout, sheepshead, and red
snapper rank in importance in the order named.
Ag-,BIoUL'rURE. The enormous area of Texas
\'/itlf'1ij»,-1, its favorable physical and climatic condi-
tions has made it one of the leading agricultural
States in the Union. In 1900 there were 125,-
807,017 acres, or 74.9 per cent. of the total land
area, included in farms. This was three times
greater than the corresponding area in any other
State. But the improved area—l9,57 6,076 acres
-—was not so great as in some other common-
wealths. The average size of the farms, which
decreased rapidly prior to 1880, has increased
since that year, being 357.2 acres in 1900. The
recent increase is due to the inclosure into farms
of extensive pastures in the west. Thus the aver-
age size of farms or ranches in the entire State
is 357.2 acres, while in Red River County it is
only 50.6 acres. In 1900 there were 11,220 farms
of over 1000 acres each, containing an aggregate
of 88,159,247 acres. In that year 7.3 per cent.
of the farms were operated by cash tenants and
42.4 by share tenants. The number of the latter
almost doubled between 1890 and 1900. Con-
siderably over one-fourth of the farms are
operated by negroes, but only 26.1 per cent. of
these are owned by them. The State ranks fifth
in the aggregate value of farm products. Crop-
raising is mainly confined to the eastern and
central parts, the light rainfall in the west adapt-
ing that section better to grazing than to tillage.
While there is a great variety of crops, the
State is best known for its cotton, the value of
which in 1899 was $84,332,713, or over one-half
the total value of all crops. In that year 27.9
per cent. of the production of the United States
was grown in Texas. The acreage devoted to the
crop was more than twice that for any other
State and much greater than that for any coun-
try of the world. There was an increase of 80.6
per cent. between 1880-90, and 76.9 per cent. in
the following decade. The main cotton belt ex-
tends northeastward from Travis County to
Grayson, Fanin, and Lamar counties, though
there is a secondary belt southward through
Bexar County toward the Gulf. After cotton, by
far the most important crop is corn. The acreage
devoted to it increased 62.9 per cent. between
1890-1900. A rapid increase also has recently
taken place in the raising of wheat. From twen-
ty-second in rank in 1898 the State rose to sixth
in 1900. The area devoted to oats, the only other
important cereal, is also increasing. The cereals
mentioned, except wheat, which is confined more
to the north, are grown in nearly all parts of the
State. The Gulf Coast region is well adapted to
the cultivation of rice, and since 1897, in which
year rice irrigation began, much progress has
been made in rice culture. In 1902 the area in
rice was estimated at over 200,000 acres. The
greatest development has occurred in the vicinity
of Beaumont and in the Colorado River Valley.
The acreage in hay and forage in 1899 was 148.5
per cent. greater than ten years before. Kafir corn
is grown in the more arid sections. Dry peas,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, sorghum
cane, and peanuts are other crops worthy of men-
tion. In 1899 26,276 acres were devoted to
Watermelons. The number of orchard fruits in-
creased 88.4 per cent. between 1890 and 1900.
The peach trees numbered in the latter year
7,248,358 and constituted 65.7 per cent. of the
total number of trees. In 1899 there were 49,652
acres irrigated, including 8,700 acres of rice in
the coast counties. In the arid west, the Rio
Grande and the Pecos and Nueces rivers are the
chief sources of water supply. Thenormal flow
of water in the Rio Grande has been greatly re-
duced through the increased use of its water far-
ther north in New Mexico and Colorado, so that '
much of the area covered by ditches in El Paso
County cannotbe supplied with water. There are
two large regions now being developed in the south-
west, where artesian wells are used in irrigation.
The following table shows the increase in
acreages:


1900, 1890,
CROP acres acres
Cotton ........................................ .. 6,960,367 3,934,525
Corn ........................................... .. 5,017,690 3,079,907
Wheat ........................................ .. 1,027,947 352.477
0 ate ............................................ . . 847,225 528,924
Hay and forage .......................... .. 938,024 377,523
Kafir corn ................................... .. 22,813 .......... ..
Sugar cane .................................. .. 17 ,824 16,284
Sorghum canei ............................. .. 26,803 28,547
Rice ............................................. .. 8,711 178
Potatoes ..................................... .. 21,810 11,831
Sweet potatoes ........................... .. 43,561 52,506
Dry Peas ..................................... .. 33,947 .......... ..
Peanuts ...................................... .. 10,734 1,560

STOCK-RAISING. Texas ranks second in the
value of live stock, and far exceeds all other
States in the number of cattle. The State is
probably more widely known for its grazing in-
terests than for any other industrial feature.
There is no other part of the country in which
ranching has been carried on so extensively. The
use of the pasture lands has occasioned much
trouble between the settlers and the ranchmen,
the former violently opposing the attempts of the
ranchmen to monopolize the public lands by in-
closing it with barbed wire fences. A number of
laws have been passed protecting the interests of
the settlers. The total number of cattle in 1900
was 7,279,935, not including 2,148,261 spring
calves. Only one other State-had half this num-
ber of cattle. The practice is extensively fol-
lowed of shipping or driving the cattle into other
States for market feeding.
The decrease in dairy cows as shown in the
table below is only apparent, being due to a
change in the method of enumeration. Twice as
much milk was reported in 1900 as in 1890.
There has been a gain in the number of horses,
mules, and swine. The State ranks first in the
number of mules and third in the number of
horses. The number of mules more than doubled
between 1890 and 1900. However, the number of
sheep decreased nearly two-thirds in the same pe-
riod. Sheep-grazing seems to be giving way to
cattle-raising. In the following table of holdings
on farm and range, the two census years shown
are not strictly comparable, since the 1890 fig-
ures do not include the number of animals on


ranges separately reported, and consisting of a
over 2,300,000 cattle and about 800,000 sheep:
srocx 1900 1890
Dairy cows .................................. .. 861,023 1,003,439
Other cattle ................................ .. 8,567,173 5,198,113
Horses ........................................ .. 1,269,432 1,026,002
Mules and asses .......................... .. 523,690 227,432
Sheep .......................................... .. 1,439,940 3,454,858
Swine ........................................... .. 2,665,614 2,252,476

TEXAS.
TEXAS.
618
MANUFACTUBES. Manufacturing was quite un-
important until after 1880. Between that year
and 1890 the value of products increased 239.9
per cent., and in the following decade 69.5 per
cent.; in 1900 the product was estimated at
$119,414,982. In the latter year there were 48,-
152 persons employed as wage-earners, or 1.6
per cent. of the total population. The industry
- has the advantage of a very abundant supply of
raw materials, the State ranking first in the pro-
duction of cotton, and having large timber re-
sources and a heavy production of grain. The
recent increase in the output of coal also greatly
subserves the industry. Texan manufactures
dependent upon resources of cotton are peculiar
homa and the Indian Territory as well as from
the large local production. The extensive rail-
road interests of the State have necessitated a
large number of repair shops, employing 2354
wage-earners. The manufacture of Saddlery-and
harness is a thriving industry centred largel'y'l,- in
the city of Dallas. Printing and the manufadture
of malt liquors and of clay products are other
leading industries. Manufacturing is well dis-
tributed over that State and there are no promi-
nent centres, the only cities in which the value
of products exceeds $10,000,000 being Dallas and
Houston. The following table shows the relative
importance of the leading industries in the census
years indicated:





Number of I Average Value of prod-
INDUSTRIES Year establish- number nets’ Including
men“ wage- custom work
earners and repairing
. ' 1900 5,793 30,119 $73,024,636
Total for selected industries for State .................................... 1890 2,503 21,737 43.189373
Increase, 1890 to 1900 ........................................................................... .. 3.290 8,382 $29,835,363
Per cent. of increase ............................................................................. .. 131.4 38.6 69.1
. . _, - 1900 47.1 62.5 61.2
Per cent. of total of all industries in State ................................ .. { 1890 475 625 6L3
Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam rail- 1900 56 6,633 88,314,691
road companies ....................................................................... .. 1890 31 2,354 2,860,235
. 1900 171 1.859 1,212,266
Clay products‘-‘total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 . 1900 143 1,579 1,020,205
BI'1Ck and tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1890 124 1,956 1,214,690
Pottery, terra cotta, and fire-clay products ........................ .. . . 1900 3,222 4,295 5,886,923
Cotton, gmmng ................................................... .................... 1890 572 2,440 1,172,298
Flouring and grist-mill products ................................................ .. { 1,232 Foundry and machine shop products ........................................ .. { 1'33 ( 1900 ' 9 585 2,689,606
Liquors, malt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . - . . . . .. 1 7 _ 1900 687 7,924 16,296,473
Lumber and timber products ............... ................................... .. 1890 314 7,485 11,942,566
Lumber, planing mill products, including sash, doors, and blinds i 103 2
Oil, cottonseed and cake ............................................................ .. { 13 7 , ,
Printing and publishing—total .................................................. .. 41% g
_ 1900 118 718 1,189,700
Book and 10b ........................................................................ .. 1890 56 469 1,213,888
_ _ 1900 654, 1,829 3,387,410
Newspapers and periodicals .................................................. .. { 1890 391 L600 2,757,522
1900 359 1,093 8,420,790
Saddlery and harness ........................................................ .....m--- 1890 165 693 2,438,356
in that they do not include textiles, a branch of FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS. There are
the industry which has become prominent in some
other Southern States. In the manufacture of
cottonseed oil and cake, on the other hand, the
State ranks first. The value of products for the
latter industry increased 329.3 per cent. between
1890 and 1900. During the last census year ‘there
were 24,354,695 gallons of cottonseed oil ob-
tained, or 26.1 per cent. of the total for the
United States for that period. Cottonseed meal
and cake are extensively used as food for cattle.
In the allied industry of cotton-ginning the State
. also ranks first. The figures given in the table
below do not include ginneries operated in con-
nection with saw, grist, and cottonseed-oil mills,
or for the use exclusively of plantations on Which
they are located. The Texas ginneries first in-
troduced the custom of pressing the cotton after
ginning into the so-called ‘round bales,’ and this
process is becoming very general. The manu-
facture of flouring and grist mill products is a
growing industry, drawing its supply from Okla-
valuable forests in the eastern part of the State,
but to the westward they become inferior and
finally give way entirely. While the wooded
area is estimated at 64,000 square miles, or 24 per
cent. of the total area, the timber upon much of
this is fit for little else than fire wood. From
Texarkana southward to a point about 100 miles
north of Beaumont are forests of short-leaf pine
of only moderate quality. From this point south-
ward to Jefferson County is a fine forest of long-
leaf pine, having an average stand of merchant-
able timber ranging from 6000 to 35,000 feet
per acre. The lumber industry, which had de-
veloped but little prior to 1880, has since made
rapid strides. (See table above.) The -crop
consists almost entirely of yellow pine. The
Beaumont and Orange districts are the largest
centres of the industry. -
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The rail-
roads had developed but little prior to 1870. in
which year there were 711 miles. In 1880 the
TEXAS.
TEXAS.
619
mileage had increased to 3244, in 1890 to 8709,
and in 1900 to 9991. Only two other States had
a greater mileage in 1900. The eastern part of
the State is well supplied with both east and west
and north and south lines, many of them making
connection with important trunk lines. The
Southern Pacific, Texas Pacific, and Colorado
Southern pass westward through the State, but
there are large areas in western and southern
Texas quite unpenetrated. There is a Railroad
Commission, which is authorized to adopt all
necessary rates, charges, and regulations; to gov-
ern and regulate traffic; to correct abuses and
prevent unjust discrimination and extortion; to
classify and subdivide freight, etc. The Commis-
sion has been unusually successful. It has done
much to prevent pooling, and has recovered for
the State a considerable area of land. The long
coast line gives the State the advantage of a
number of good harbors and a direct foreign
trade. The customs districts are Galveston,
Corpus Christi, Saluria, Paso del Norte, and
Brazos de Santiago. Most of the foreign trade
passes through these districts, and Galveston
has become the second largest Gulf port and the
sixth largest port in the United States. In 1901
the foreign trade through this port, consisting al-
most wholly of exports, amounted to $102,811,-
101.
BANKS. Only one bank was chartered during
the life of the Republic of Texas. In 1838 an
effort was made to establish a national bank,
with $7,000,000 to be borrowed in France, but
the negotiations broke off. The Constitution
of 1845, adopted after the admission of Texas
into the Union, prohibited the creation of new
banks. The necessary banking business was per-
formed by the one existing bank and by private
bankers. When after the Civil War the ‘recon-
struction’ forces came in, a new Constitution was
adopted which did not have this prohibitory
clause, and in 1871 a free banking law was
passed. Five or six banks availed themselves of
this law, but after the reconstructionists were
overthrown and ‘home rule’ again established,
the old prohibitory rule was again included in
the Constitution of 1875. The few State banks
continued a long time, but had gone out of busi-
ness by the end of the century. Because of this
prohibition, national banks reached a high de-
gree of development, and their number rapidly in-
creased. In 1866 there were four national banks.
By 1890 there were 189 national banks, and by
1902 the number grew to 339, with a capital of
$25,261,000; surplus, $7,967,000; cash, etc., $9,-
373,000; deposits, $74,042,000; and loans, $80,-
755,000. There are a number of private banks,
but the State takes no official cognizance of them.
FINANCES. The fiscal history of the Republic
of Texas was mainly a record of debts, as the
strained relations with Mexico demanded a great-
er expense than the taxable property of the young
Republic could hear. The issue of loans was only
stopped by the inability to float them. An in-
vestigation by the Legislature of the State in
1848 ascertained the nominal debt to be $9,647,-
253, to which the value of $4,807,764 was as-
signed, as Texas decided to redeem its debt at its
actual value when issued. By 1850 the nominal
amount and assigned value of the debt were re-
spectively $12,322_,443 and $6,818,798. The sum
of $10,000,000 which the State received from the
Federal Government canceled the debt and left a
VCL. xvr.-40.
surplus. By 1856 there was no State debt, and
the surplus was over $1,000,000. Several loans
were made during the Civil War, but the war
debt was repudiated by the first ‘reconstruction’
Legislature. The disarranged condition of the
finances necessitated the issue of new bonds in
1870 and the following years. Six railroad com-
panies were assisted by loans aggregating $2,-
000,000. By 1875 there was a debt of $4,644,000.
But the overthrow of the reconstruction forces in
1875 caused a radical change in the financial
policy of the State. The Constitution of that
date prohibited any further issue of bonds, except
for war purposes, as well as the lending of the
State’s credit to private enterprises. Because
of the difficulty of paying the interest, the debt
continued to grow‘ for some time and in 1880
reached its maximum of $5,566,928, after which it
steadily declined. The policy of the State has
been to buy its own bonds for investment of the
school and university funds. The income of the
State is derived mainly from a general property
tax and sale and lease of public land. Total re-
ceipts in 1902 amounted (as far as can be cal-
culated from the accounts of 30 different funds)
to about $8,744,000, and disbursements about
$7,104,000. The cash balance was $2,200,000.
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution now in opera-
tion was adopted by the constitutional conven-
tion held in 187 5. An amendment in order to
become a part of the Constitution must receive
a two-thirds vote of the members elected to each
House, and a majority vote of the State electors
voting at a popular election.
Voters must have resided one year in the State
and six months in the district where the vote
is cast ; and if financial measures are voted upon,
taxpayers alone are allowed to vote. The suf-
frage is denied to soldiers, marines, and seamen
employed in the service of the army or navy of
the United States.
LEGISLATIVE. Senators are elected from dis-
tricts of contiguous territory for terms of four
years, and are limited to 31 in number. Rep-
resentatives are elected for terms of two years
from counties or districts of contiguous counties
according to population, being apportioned one
to every 15,000 inhabitants, provided the number
should never exceed 150. The Legislature meets
biennially at a time provided by law and at such
other times as the Governor may demand. If
any member removes his residence from the dis-
trict or county for which he was elected, his
office becomes vacant. The compensation of
members cannot exceed $5 per day for the first
60 days of each session, nor $2 per day for the
remainder of the session in addition to mile-
age.
EXECUTIVE. A Governor, Lieutenant-Governor,
Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer. Com-
missioner of the General Land Office, and Attor-
ney-General are elected for a term of two years.
The Lieutenant-Governor and president pro tem.
of the Senate are in the line of succession to the
Governorship in case of vacancy in the office of
Governor. The Governor may veto any bill or
portion of any appropriation bill. but a two-
thirds vote of each House overcomes the veto.
The Governor grants reprieves. commutations,
and pardons, and under regulations remits fines
and forfeitures.
JUDICIAL. The Supreme Court consists of a
Chief Justice and two associate justices, who are
TEXAS.
TEXAS.
620
elected for six years. The Court of Criminal Ap-
peals consists of three judges, also elected for
six years. The State is divided into judicial
districts, in each of which a judge is elected for
a term of four years. Each county elects a
county judge who serves for two years.
Texas has sixteen Representatives in the Lower
House of the National Congress. The capital is
Austin.
POPULATION. The following figures show the
growth of the population: 1850, 212,592; 1860,
604,215; 1870, 818,579; 1880, 1,591,749; 1890,
2235,523; and 1900 3,048,710. From twenty-
fifth in rank in 1850, Texas advanced to sixth
in 1900- The per cent. of gain from 1890 to 1900
was 36.4, which was much greater than that for
any other of the more populous States of the
Union. The bulk of the population is confined to
the eastern half of the State. The average density
in 1900 was 11.6, as against 25.6 for the Union.
Texas has received a much larger number of
immigrants than any other Southern State. The
foreign-born numbered 179,357 in 1900. The ne-
groes numbered 620,722, the rate of gain between
1890 and 1900 (27.2 per cent.) being less than
that for the whites. There were 36 cities in 1900
having over 4000 inhabitants each, the aggregate
population of which amounted to 14.9 per cent.
of the total population. The cities with more
than 10,000 inhabitants were: San Antonio,
53,321; Houston, 44,633; Dallas, 42,638; Gal-
veston, 37,789; Fort VVorth, 26,688; Austin,
22,258; Waco, 20,686; El Paso, 15,906; Laredo,
13,429; Denison, 11,807 ; and Sherman, 10,243.
RELIGION. The Baptists are numerically the
strongest Church, followed closely by the Metho-
dist. These two bodies together contain consid-
erably over two-thirds of the church member-
ship. The Disciples of Christ (Chnstian), Pres-
byterians, and Episcopalians are the only other
Protestant sects numerically important.
EDUCATION. The per cent. of illiteracy is not
nearly so great as in most Southern States,
being, in 1900, 14.5 of the total population ten
years of age and over——whites 6.1 and blacks 36.0.
The State is exceptional among the States of the
South in that the public schools have a heavy
endowment—a fact largely responsible for its
educational progress. In September, 1902, the
permanent school fund aggregated $42,563,229.
Of this, $10,638,951 was represented by bonds;
$15,549,277 by land notes; $16,250,000 by school
lands; and $125,000 by cash. There was a
county permanent school fund in August, 1902,
aggregating $6,596,506, of which nearly $2,000,-
000 represented lands held by the counties. The
permanent free school fund had in 1902 received
from the State a total of 43,986,131 acres of land,
of which 22,080,225 acres were still unsold. In
addition to the State endowment, each county has
an independent endowment of four leagues of
land. The Governor’s report of 1903 estimated
the State receipts for public schools for the fiscal
year at $3,881,190, the sources of which were
the ad valorem tax-of 18 cents on the $100, one-
quarter of all occupation taxes, the poll tax
($1 ) , the interest in bonds and notes, and the land
rentals. This was supplemented in the counties
by the receipts from their own school lands; and
many districts also levied local school taxes.
The total receipts for the year ending August,
1902, was $6,021,830, and the expenditures on
public schools, $4,599,630. There is a striking
difference in the condition of schools in different
localities. There are two distinct forms of
school organization. Thirty-three of the 224
counties retain a form of organization known as
the community system, under which there are no
metes and bounds to a school community, and
therefore no local school tax can be imposed,
The school community is organized de novo each
year. This system was applied tentatively to all
counties after the adoption of the present Con-
stitution. Under it the schools are often too
small, and since there are no local taxes, the
school buildings are usually rented. A law of
1884, providing for districting the counties, is
gradually being applied. This district system
has a continuous board of trustees chosen by the
people, and makes possible the levying of local
taxes. Cities and towns may be constituted in-
dependent districts with the right to levy a tax
of 50 cents on the $100 for the maintenance of
public schools, and may vote a bonded debt for
buildings, whereas the latter right is not al-
lowed the rural districts, and this tax levy is
limited to 22 cents on the $100.
In 1900 there were 261 independent school dis-
tricts, 100 of which were municipal corporations.
High schools are common in the towns, and in
1899 there were 150 schools whose graduates
could enter the State University without exam-
ination. There is a uniform text-book law which
applies generally, except to cities of 10,000
inhabitants and over. The scholastic population
in 1901 was 729,217, the enrollment 571,786, and
the average attendance 383,900. There are over
1500 teachers, more than half of whom hold State
certificates, a large number of the certificates
being for life. To enable teachers better to
qualify themselves, the State provides summer
normal schools with a term of four weeks, there
being, in 1900, 118 such schools, with an aggre-
gate attendance of 5100. The regularly main-
tained State normal schools are at Denton, De-
troit, Huntsville, and Prairie View. The State
receives aid from the Peabody fund. The State
University is located at Austin, with a medical
branch at Galveston, and the Agricultural and
Mechanical College at Bryan. There are a large
number of denominational institutions, among
which are the Polytechnic College (Methodist
Episcopal South), Fort Worth; Southwestern
University (Methodist Episcopal South), George-
town; Texas Christian University (Christian),
Hermosa; and Baylor University (Baptist), at
Waco. There are a number of colleges for col-
ored students.
CHARITABLE AND PENAL INSTITUTIONS. The
State insane asylums are at Austin, San An-
tonio, and Terrell, and had a total of 3145 in-
mates on December 1, 1902. It is claimed that
there are no insane persons in jails or poor
farms.
Austin had 450 pupils in December, 1902. On
the same date the Blind Asylum (school) had
168 pupils, and the Deaf, Dumb and Blind Asy-
lum (school) for Colored Youths, in August,
1902, 94 pupils, Both of these institutions are
located at Austin, as is also the Confederate
Soldiers’ Home. The State Orphans’ Home at
Corsicana contains ‘308 children. In 1899 a
colony for epileptics was authorized to be estab-
lished at Abilene. There is a purchasing agent
The Deaf and Dumb Asylum (school) at.
TEXAS.
TE-XAS.
621
who secures supplies for all the eleemosynary in-
stitutions, and the cost of maintenance has been
greatly reduced since the creation of this office.
The old system of leasing convicts is being
abolished, and the convict farm system has de-
veloped in its stead. The State owns two large
farms for male convicts and smaller ones for
female convicts and consumptive convicts. Con-
victs are also worked upon other than State
farms according to the share rent system.
Other-s are leased to farmers or for railroad
work. From 2000 to 2500 convicts are annually
employed upon share or contract farms, and
about 400 upon the State farms. The State peni-
tentiaries are located at Huntsville and Rusk.
The total number of convicts October, 1900, was
4109. The penal system is ordinarily self-
sustaining. The reformatory at Gatesville re-
ceives penal offenders under seventeen years of
age.
MILITIA. The population of militia age, in
1900, numbered 599,221; the organized militia,
in 1901, 3080.
HISTORY. The first Europeans to tread the
soil of Texas were in all probability Cabega de
Vaca and three other survivors of the Narvaez
expedition of 1528. (See NUNEZ CABEQA. DE
VAGA.) Cabeca de- Vaca’s account of his wan-
derings through Texas stimulated Mendoza, the
Viceroy of Mexico, to send a party northward
under Friar Marcos de Niza to search for the
mythical Cibola or Seven Cities, rumored to be
golden as Mexico. It returned empty-handed, as
did an expedition led by Vasquez de Coronado
(q.v.) . Several other expeditions probably pene-
trated Texas during the next hundred years,
notably those of Espejo in 1582, Sosa in 1590,
and Governor Ofiate of New Mexico in 1601 and
in 1611. An e-ntrada in 1650, led by Capt.
Hernan Martin and Diego del Castillo, is said to
have reached the Tejas (Texas) tribe of Indians
in the region of the Neches and Sabine; and one
in 1684 under Padre Nicolas Lopez and Capt.
Juan Domingo de Mendoza crossed the Rio
Grande into the Pecos country. The first town
in the State, lying 12 miles north of El Paso,
was founded in 1682 and called Taleta.
The history of the State practically begins in
1685 with the landing of La Salle (q.v.), and
though his attempt at colonization ended in
failure, the Spaniards took fright, fearing that
France might seize the land. In 1690 Alonzo de
Leon and Padre Manzanet Were sent to found a
mission in that quarter, which was to serve the
double purpose of holding the country and of
converting the natives to Christianity. Mission
San Francisco de los Tejas was accordingly
founded among the Tejas Indians not far from
the Neches River. The next year another ex-
pedition came out under Teran, but nothing re-
sulted, and for years after Teran’s entrada no
further attempts were made by the Spaniards to
occupy Texas. However, French activity in
Louisiana roused them. In 1714 Juchereau de
Saint-Denis, a bold French trader, led an expedi-
tion across the country to the Rio Grande, where
he was made prisoner and sent to Mexico City.
His account of Texas fired the Viceroy and Coun-
cil to renew their efforts to occupy the country.
In 1716 Captain Domingo Ramon was chosen to
lead an expedition which founded several mis-
sions. He settled San Antonio de Bejar, which
in the course of time became the centre of the
most prosperous group of missions in the Prov-
ince of Texas, as it was now called, the name
of the original settlement among the Tejas In-
dians having come to be applied to the whole
region.
For a half century mission founding went on, ,
but it became early apparentthat failure was
certain. Most of the establishments were aban-
doned, and some of them were moved about in
the wilderness. The Indians themselves destroyed
more than one mission. When, in 17 63, France
surrendered Louisiana to his Catholic Majesty,
the prime reason for the occupation of Texas no
longer existed, as there could be no further
French aggression from Louisiana. So the mis-
sions in the region of the Neches and Sabine
were abandoned, and only those about San An-
tonio de Bejar—Alamo, Concepcion, San José,
Espada——showed any signs of surviving. There
came in time to be three main foci of settle-
ments-—at Nacogdoches in the east; at what is
now Goliad in» the south; and at San Antonio
de Bejar in the southwest. The latter completely
overshadowed the others in importance.
In 1799 Philip Nolan, an American, invaded
the country from Louisiana with a small party
for the ostensible purpose of purchasing horses.
Two years later on a second expedition the Span-
iards attacked the adventurers, killing some
and shipping the rest off to the mines of Mexico.
This, however, was the beginning of the end of
the Spanish régime. After the purchase of
Louisiana in 1803, the people of the United
States, and especially the inhabitants of the
Southwest, looked upon Texas as part of the
destined dominion of the Republic and never
lost an opportunity to strike at the Spanish
power. Indeed, in 1806 it looked as though war
must result with Spain over the possession of
the region. The United States claimed westward
to the Rio Grande on the strength of the French
occupation; Spain as stoutly disputed the claim,
and in October, 1806, armies of the two powers
stood facing each other across the Sabine. How-
ever, Gen. James Wilkinson, who commanded the
Americans, was glad of the opportunity given him
by the retreat of the Spaniards to the west of
the Sabine and by the excitement attending
the rumored conspiracy of Aaron Burr to make
a neutral ground treaty with the opposing com-
mander, Herrera, which practically conceded to
Spain the territory west of the Sabine.
In 1810, when the great revolution in Mexico
against Spain had begun, the Southerners sym-
pathized intensely with the natives, and before
very long were lending secret aid to Mexico. A
filibustering expedition into Texas was led by
James Long, a Natchez merchant and ex-officer
in the United States Army. At Nacogdoches
Texas was declared a republic and a provisional
government organized; but the Spanish forces
soon broke it up‘. For several years the coast
of Texas became a rendezvous for pirate and
adventurer. Louis de Aury, Captain Jerry, Gen-
eral Mina, and Lafitte are best known. They
made Galveston Island their headquarters. From
here sailed the famous Mina on his expedition
against the Spaniards in Mexico; and from here
Lafitte the pirate scoured the Gulf till the United
States Government broke up the settlement. The
first score of years of the nineteenth century wit-
TEXAS.
TEXAS.
622
nessed the expiration of the Spanish power in
Texas. What withthe filibustering expeditions
and hostile Apaches and Comanches, and the
great struggle for independence in Mexico, the
Spanish foci of civilization were all but extin-
guished. When the harsh Spanish law which
forbade the entry of Americans into the region
could no longer _be enforced, the frontiers1nen
from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Louisiana wan-
dered in with their families. They came to stay.
In 1821 Moses Austin secured from the Mexi-
can Government the right to establish a colony
in Texas. He died soon after, but his son
Stephen took up the work. Being free to choose
the location for his colony, Austin selected the
lower Brazos and Trinity valleys. Before long
many empresarios had been granted, plastering
over with claim-s the whole region -from the
Sabine to the N ueces. Discontent with the Mexi-
can rule was not long in appearing. This reached
a crisis on December 16, 1826. The struggle
which ensued is known as the Fredonian War.
A band of dissatisfied Americans, headed by
Benjamin Edwards, proclaimed the eastern part
of the State an independent republic with Nacog-
doches as its capital. A skirmish in which one
man was killed and one wounded practically
ended the uprising. The times were ripening,
however, and a change was soon to come.
‘The United States was making repeated offers
to the Mexican Government to buy Texas, but
this only made the Mexicans more determined to
retain it at any cost. The Mexicans, resenting
all attempts of the United States to possess the
land, turned their attention to the Texans. De-
crees were drawn up prohibiting slavery in
Mexico, and forbidding further colonization.
These decrees were speciall,r aimed at Texas,
and roused much bitterness and indignation. The
march of events was hastened by the closing of
all Texas ports, except Anahuac, and by the pres-
ence of military forces. An uprising occurred
in June, 1832, which led to the removal of cer-
tain obnoxious officials. This was followed by the
calling of a convention which elected Stephen
F. Austin President. Petitions were drawn up
asking the Mexican Government for free trade
for three years, begging for a grant of land from
the State to promote education, and asking for
a separate government. Austin was sent with
the petition to Mexico, but could not gain a hear-
ing and was made a prisoner. During 1833 and
1834 the Mexican Government acceded to .certain
reforms; but in 1835 the spirit of revolt reap-
peared among the colonists. Then the Mexican
Government made another attempt to collect
duties at .the Texas ports. An armed schooner
was sent to Anahuac, but having committed va-
rious outrages, a Texas vessel captured it and
the struggle against Mexico was precipitated.
The first victory was that of Gonzales, October
2, 1835, when the Texans put the Mexicans to
flight. On October 8th Colonel James Bowie and
Captain J . VV. Fannin defeated the Mexicans near
Mission Concepcion, a few miles below San An-
tonio; on December 11th that city was taken.
A provisional government was formed, Henry
Smith was elected Governor, and Sam Houston
major-general of the Armies of Texas; Branch T.
Archer, William H. Wharton, and Stephen F.
Austin were appointed commissioners to the
United States. Many Americans, principally
from Mississippi, hurried to the assistance of the
Texans. Dissension among the Texans, however,
nearly proved disastrous. In March, 1836, two
parties, one under Johnson and the other under
Grant, were captured by the Mexicans, and the
prisoners slaughtered; also Fannin’s command,
which had been in possession of the Goliad
fortress, surrendered and was shamelessly mas-
sacred. In all, nearly five hundred Texans met
death. In February-March occurred the heroic
defense of the Alamo (q.v.) . March 2d the Texans
issued a declaration of independence, and as if to
answer this, Santa Anna, the Mexican President,
hurried his army in three columns eastward over
the country. On April 21st the Texan army under
Houston on the field of San Jacinto avenged
the slaughter of Fannin’s men and the Alamo.
(See SAN JACINTO, BATTLE OF.) Santa Anna,
a prisoner, was glad to sign a treaty in
which he engaged to do what he could to se-
cure recognition of the independence of Texas
with boundaries not to extend beyond the Rio
-lrande.
Thus was launched the Republic of Texas. A
constitution was ratified in September, 1836, and
Houston was elected President. Austin was
made the capital. The great and ever press-
ing need of the Republic was money. YVith little
taxable property, the Government ran deeper
and deeper in debt. By 1841 the amount
reached $7,500,000. To the financial difiiculties
of the Republic was added the aggravation of
invasions from Mexico, which had never aban-
doned her claims on the country. Three times
Mexican forces reached San Antonio, but the
Mexicans always retreated without attempting
to hold the place.
Meantime the independence of Texas had been
recognized by the United States, France, Hol-
land, Belgium, and Great Britain, and the
presence of the representatives of these powers
lent zest to the interest with which the subject
of the annexation of Texas to the Union was
invested. The question of annexation was bound
up with that _of slavery, and the whole Union
was agitated. (See under UNITED Srxrns.)
The matter became finally a national issue, and
James K. Polk was elected President on a plat-
form favoring annexation; but before he took
office a joint resolution was passed by Congress
making an offer of Statehood to Texas. This was
accepted by the Texans, and in December, 1845,
the State was formally admitted into the Union.
The Mexican War (q.v.), originating in a dis-
pute over the boundaries of Texas, followed, and
the first fighting took place near the Rio Grande,
at Palo Alto (May 8, 1846).
As a State of the Union Texas grew rapidly.
Politics played small part until the wave of
secession reached its borders. Texas, a slave-
holding State, thereupon seceded from the Union
(February 1, 1861). Sam Houston was Gov-
ernor at the time, and threw all his weight in
opposition to secession, but there was no stay-
ing the resolve of the people, many of whom went
soon to join the armies of the Confederacy. The
State was fortunate in that it was not the scene
of much active fighting. Galveston was captured
and held by the Federal forces for three months
in the winter of 1862; but two attempts of the
Union forces to enter the State from Louisiana
were disastrously defeated. The last battle of
TEXAS.
TEXAS FEVER.
623
the war was fought on the Lower Rio Grande,
near Palo Alto, a month after Appomattox.
Following out his plan of reconstruction, June
17, 1865, President Johnson appointed as pro-
visional Governor A. J . Hamilton, a man con-
spicuous in antebellum Texas politics. A con-
vention was called which adopted the Constitu-
tion in force in the State prior to secession,
with amendments recognizing the abolition of
slavery, renouncing the right of secession, eon-
ferring civil rights on freedmen, repudiating
the State debt incurred during the war, and as-
suming the tax which had been laid by the
United States Government on the State during
the period of secession. The people ratified this
Constitution and under it J. W. Throckmorton
was elected Governor. The Reconstruction Acts
of 1867 placed the State under the military au-
thority, with General Sheridan in command.
The earpetbaggers followed and the new recon-
struction occupied the next three years. A con-
stitution was submitted to the people in Novem-
ber, 1869, when Congressmen and State officers
were elected, and on March 30, 1870, Texas was
readmitted to the Union. At the election in No-
vember, 1872, the Democrats secured control of
the State; and in December, 1873, a Democratic
victory made Richard Coke Governor. By this
time the State had become involved in debt to
the extent of several millions of dollars on the
score of reconstruction. The memory of recon-
struction and the race problem have served to
keep the State consistently Democratic.
GOVERNORS or Coanuma AND TEXAS
J osé Maria Viesca, First Constitutional Governoy...1827-30
Rafael Eca y Musquiz ........................................... ..'...1830-31
J osé Maria de Letona ............................................. ..-.1831-32
Rafael Eca y Musquiz .............................................. .1832-33
Juan M. de Veramendi ............................................. ..1833-34
Francisco V. y Villasefior ........................................ .1834-35
José Maria Cantfl .................................................... ..1835
Marciel Borrego ....................................................... ..1835
Augustin Viesca ....................................................... ..1835
PROVI8l()NAL GOVERNOR BEFORE THE DECLARATION or
INDEPENDENCE
Henry Smith .................. ..l\lovember 12, 1835-March 18, 1836
' PRESIDENTS UNDER THE REPUBLIC
David G. Burnet ................ ..March 18, 1836-October 22, 1836
Sam Houston .................... ..October 22, 1836-December,1838
Mirabeau B. Lamar ........... ..December, 1838-December, 1840
. David G. Burnet (acting) .... ..Dccember, 1840-December, 1841
Sam Houston ..................... ..Dccember, 1841-December, 1844
Anson Jones ................... ..Dccember, 1844-February 19, 1846
GOVERNORS OF THE STATE
James P. Henderson....Democrat ............................ ..1846-47
George T. Wood ......... .. " ............................ ..1847-49
P. Hansborough Bell... " ............................ ..1849-53
Elisha M. Pease .......... .. “ ............................ ..1853-57
Hardin G. Runnels. .... .. " ............................ ..1857-59
Sam Houston .... ..Independent and Unionist ........... ..1859-61
Edward Clark (acting).Democrat ............................ ..1861
Francis R. Lubbock .... .. “ ............................ ..1861-63
Pendleton Murrah ...... .. “ ............................ ..1863-65
Andrew J . Hamilton, Prov...Unionist ..................... .1865-66
James W. Throckmorton .... .. “ ..................... ..1866-67
Elisha M. Pease ......... ..Republican ........................... ..186‘7-70
Edmund J . Davis ....... .. “ ' ......................... ..‘..1870-74
Richard Coke .............. ..Democrat ............................ ..187-1-77
Richard B. Hubbard... “ ............................ ..1877-'79
Oran M. Roberts ........ .. " ............................ ..1879-83
John Ireland .............. .. " ............................ ..1883-87
Lawrence S. Ross ....... .. " ............................ .1887-91
James S. Hogg ........... .. “ ............................ ..1891-95
Charles A. Culberson.... " ............................ ..1895-99
Joseph D. Sayers ........ .. “ ......................... ..1899-1903
S. W. Lanahan ........... .. “ ......................... ..1903—
BIBLIOGRAPHY, Kennedy, Texas, Geography,
Natural History, and Topography (New York,
1844); Geological Surveys of Texas (Austin,
1858 et seq.); Roberts, Description of Texas
(Saint Louis, 1881); Spaight, The Resources,
Soil, and Climate of Texas (Galveston, 1882);
Hill, “Present Condition of the Knowledge of the
Geology of Texas,” in United States Geological
Survey Bulletin 45, containing bibliography
(Washington, 1887); Rhodes, Birds of South-
western Texas and Arizona (Philadelphia,
1892); Raines, Bibliography of Texas (Austin,
1896). For history, consult: Yoakum, History of
Texas (New York, 1856) ; Foote, Texas and the
Texans (Philadelphia, 1841) ; Thrall, History of
Texas (New York, 1856); Bancroft, Mexican
States and Texas (San Francisco, 1885) ; Baker,
History of Texas (New York, 1893); Wooten
(editor), Cornprehensive History of Texas 1685-
1897 (Dallas, 1898); Lubbock, Six Decades in
Texas (Austin, 1900); Garrison, Texas, in
“American Commonwealth Series” (Boston,
1903) ; Texas State Historical Quarterly (Austin,
1897 et seq.).
TEXAS, UNIVERSITY OF. A coeducational in-
stitution at Austin, Texas, with a niedical de-
partment at Galveston, founded upon a grant
of 1,000,000 acres of land by the Legislature in
187 6. In 1883 an additional million acres was
set apart and the university was opened. The
medical building at Galveston was completed '
in 1890, when the department was opened and
the John Sealey Hospital, presented the previous
year, was occupied. The medical buildings were
in great part rebuilt after the disastrous Gal-
veston flood of 1900. Besides the medical de-
partment the university embraces the department
of literature, sciences, and arts, offering the de-
grees of B.A., B.Lit., B.S., M.A., and M.S.; the
department of engineering, conferring the degrees
of civil engineer and engineer of mines; and the
department of law, conferring the degrees of
LL.B. and LL.M. New departments in electricity
and mechanical engineering were established in
1903, when it was decided to give no degree for
undergraduate work after 1906 except that of
B.A. Two summer schools are conducted at
Austin during June and July. In 1902 the stu-
dent attendance was 1378, and the faculty num-
bered 109. The library had 40,000 volumes. The
endowment was $1,363,000 and the income $275,-
303.
TEXAS FEVER (also known as Spanish
splenic or acclimation fever, American cattle
plague, red water, black water, yellow murrain,
and bloody murrain) . An epizoiitic, reputed con-
tagious or infectious fever of cattle, confined to
regions south of the 37th parallel of north lati-
tude, except when communicated by cattle
brought from there. The cause is charged to
Pyrosoma bigeminum, a protozoiin found inthe
blood. Observations indicate that in the per-
manently infected districts cattle become ac-
customed to the influence of the protozoa
which pass through the organism with-
out creating much disturbance, and generally
without being noticed. It is claimed, however,
that native cattle in more northern regions,
not being protected by previous habitual ex-
posure, are subject to injury. One of the first
symptoms is an elevation of temperature, which
ranges usually from 106° to 108‘ F., and some-
times as high as 110°. With this rise are symp-
toms of languor and fatigue, as drooping of the
head, and lopped ears.
In advanced cases the
TEXAS FEVER.
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
624
head droops so that the nose almost reaches the
ground; the hind legs are placed close under the
body; the legs are weak, and the animal frequent-
ly lies down, especially in water. The pulse is
frequent, sometimes soft and feeble, but often
hard and wiry. The inoculation of animals at-
tacked with the blood of animals which have
recovered is believed to be the only means of cur-
ing serious cases. But since the protozoiin is
spread from animal to animal by the cattle tick
(Boophilus boy-is), dips which rid the animals
of the ticks have been suggested as preventive
measures.
TEX’EL. The southernmost and largest of
the West Frisian Islands, belonging to the
Dutch Province of North Holland, and situated
at the entrance to the Zuider Zee (Map: Nether-
lands, C 1). It is separated from the main-
land on the south by the Marsdiep, about 5
miles wide. Area, 67 square miles. It con-
sists largely of good meadow land lined on the
north and west by sand dunes, and protected
from the sea on the other sides by dikes. The
principal industry is sheep-raising, and wool
and cheese of fine quality are exported. Popu-
lation, in 1899, 5954.
TEXIER, tés’yzi’, CHARLES FELIX 1\IABIE
(1802-71). A French archaeologist, born in
Versailles. He explored the antiquities of Asia
Minor and taught at the College de France. His
works include: Description de l’Asia Mineure,
published in Paris and London (1839-48); De-
scription de l’Arme'ne, la Perse et de la M ésopo-
tamia (1842-45) ; and Asie Mineure (1862).
TEXTILE DESIGNING (Lat. tewtiilis, relat-
ing to weaving, from temtus, fabric, composition,
text, from tezvere, to weave; connected with Gk.
1-éxmv, tekteri, carpenter, réxvry, techrze', art, Skt.
take, to cut, form) . That branch of textile manu-
facturing which is devoted to the construction
edge of combining colors and drawing a thorough
knowledge of each of the various departments
or processes of textile manufacturing (q.v.).
The designer must be able to construct fabrics
of a required weight, texture, and finish, or
for a specific purpose, telling the manufacturer
what size of warp and filling to use, how many
threads of each to the inch, and what weave will
give the required results.
The construction of various weaves is one of
the most important features of textile design-
ing, and an account of weave construction will
be found in the article WEAVING. A complete
design for a woven fabric must contain at least
the following specifications: Number of warp
threads to an inch; number of inches wide on
loom; number of picks, or filling threads, to an
inch; size of warp and filling yarns and ma-
terials for same; the weave and the arrangement
of the warp thread on the loom—harness with
full particulars relative to manipulation of
materials in the process of manufacturing; the
estimated weight of the fabric as woven; the
finishing processes it is to be submitted to, to-
gether with its finished width, weight, and tex-
ture, that is, the count in warp and filling
threads to the inch. When the pattern is to be
worked out in colored threads the arrangement
of these must be given; and when the pattern is
drawn and possibly colored, then the weave is
constructed in such a way as to produce with
the woven threads the effect of the drawing as
nearly as possible. See LOOM; VVEAVING; TEX-
TILE MANUFACTURING.
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING. The in-
dustrial group of manufactures embracing the
production from tl1e various raw materials of
fabrics of cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp, and jute;
hosiery and knit goods; felt goods and wool
hats; cordage and twine; laces, braids, and em-
broideries. ‘
TABLE I.—COMPARATIVE SUMMARY or TEXTILE Innusrmns. Nor INCLUDING FLAx, HEMP, AND JUTE, 1880 To
1900, WITH PER CENT. or INCREASE roe EACH DECADE








Date of census Per cent. of increase
1900 1890 1880 1890 to 1900 1880 to 1890
Number of establishments ............................... .. ‘ 4,171 4,114 4,018 1.4 2.4
Capital ............................................................ .. $1,001,005,815 $739,973,661 $412,721,496 85 . 3 7 9 . 3
Salaried officials, clerks, etc.. number ............ .. 16,181 *10,179 -'r 59.0 .... ..
Salaries ............................................................ .. $22,331,972 *$11,930,750 87.2 .... ..
Wage-earners, average number ....................... .. 640,548 501,718 $384,251 27.7 30.6
Total wages ......... ... ......................................... .. $202,690,706 $163,616,593 $105,050,666 23.9 55.8
Men, 16 years and over ................ ............ .. 288,871 216,345 159,382 33.5 35.7
Wages ..................................................... .. $114,959,158 $91,038,323 1‘ 26. 3 .... ..
Women, 16 years and over ........................ .. 283,638 243,589 169 806 16.4 43.5
Wages ..................................................... .. $78,084,564 $66,644,785 17 .2 .... ..
Children, under 16 years ............................. .. 68,039 41,784 55,063 62.8 §24. 1
Wages ..................................................... .. $9,646,984 $5,933,485 1- 62.6 .... ..
Miscellaneous expenses .................................... .. $60,444,630 $43,356,736 11 39.4 .... ..
Cost of materials used ..................................... .. $489.147,315 $421,398,196 $302 709,894 16.1 39.2
Value of products ........................................... .. $883,892,969 $721,949,262 $532,673,488 22.4 35.5

* Includes proprietors and firm members, with their salaries; number only reported in 1900, but not included in
this table. 1‘ Not reported separately. 1 Includes 2,115 ofiicers and clerks whose salaries are not reported. § Decrease.
1[ Not reported.
of fabrics, their weaves and patterns or designs
for the same. Unlike the designing for printed
patterns, whether for textiles, wall-paper, or
other purposes, which are termed ‘applied de-
signs’—and for which the designer is only called
upon to use his skill in drawing and color com-
bination—the designing of fabrics in which the
pattern is to be woven of threads colored be-
fore weaving, or in which the pattern is produced
by the weaves, necessitates in addition to knowl-
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING IN THE UNITED
STATEs.—STATIsTIos. The importance of the
textile industry in the United States is seen
from the accompanying table from the Twelfth
Census, which shows 35.3 per cent. increase in
the capital invested, during the last decade of
the last century, over the decade immediately
preceding; an increase of 23.9 per cent. in
the annual amount of wages paid for the same
period; but only 22.4 per cent. increase in the
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
625
annual value of the manufactured product.
This latter condition is explained by the de-
creased cost of production, due to the improved
machinery and to a decreased cost of the
several raw materials. An exact knowledge
of the general growth of the industry is
difficult to arrive at, in consequence of the
above and other varying conditions, and prob-_
ably the best idea. of its growth is the increase
of wage-earners as shown by decades in Table
II. In spite of the fact that the improved
machinery makes the productive power of one
man’s labor many times greater than it was a
half century ago, the increase in wage-earners
each decade has exceeded the general growth
of the population except between 1850 and 1860.
TABLE II.—PER CENT. OF INCREASE IN AVERAGE NUMBER
or WAGE-EARNERS AND IN VALUE or
PRODUCTS: 1850 TO 1900*

Per cent. of increase

1n--
PERIODS Average
number of Value of
wage- products
i earners
1850 to 1900 .................................. .. ' 336.1 586.4
1890 to 1900 .................................. .. 27.7 22.4
1880 to 1890 .................................. .. 30.6 35.5
1870 to 1880 ................................. .. 39.8 2.4
1860 to 1870 .................................. .. , 41.7 142.3
1850 to 1860 .................................. .. 32.1 66.8

' Not including flax, hemp, and jute.
The importance of the industry is also shown
by Table III., giving the value of textile products
by decades from 1810 to 1900,
the use of cotton shows a wonderful increase
from 1880 to 1900, due largely to the develop-
ment of the cotton-manufacturing industry in the
Southern States, which bids fair to monopolize
the production of the medium and coarser grades
of cotton fabrics.
TABLE V.—CON8UMPTlON or TEXTILE FIBRES: 1840 TO 1900

, ‘ . Cotton, Wool, Silk,
‘ EAR” pounds * pounds T pounds
1900 ............................ .. 1,910,509,193 412,323,430 9,760,770
1890 ............................ .. 1,193,374,641 372,797,413 6,376,881
1880 ............................ .. 798,344,838 296,192,229 2,690,482
1870 ............................ .. 430,781,937 219,970,174 684,488
1860 ............................ .. 443,845,378 98,379,785 462,965
1850 ........................... . . 288, 558,000 70,862,829 .......... ..
1840 ........................... .. 126,000,000 ......................... ..


* Includes cotton consumed in establishments classed as
cotton goods, cotton small wares; woolen goods, worsted
goods, carpet and rugs. other than rag; felt goods; wool
hats; and hosiery and knit goods. flncludes wool con-
sumed in establishments classed as woolen goods; worsted
goods, carpets and rugs, other than rag ; felt goods; wool
hats ; and hosiery and knit goods.
It is difficult to obtain exact information
about the relative importance of the United
States in the manufacture of textiles, as
the statistics are collected in no other coun-
try with the thoroughness which characterizes
the American census. The accompanying tables
give in the most comprehensive way the opinions
of the most capable statisticians. One might in-
fer from Table VI. that in 1900 the United States
led the world in the manufacture of cotton
goods; yet it is universally known that Great
Britain is far in the lead in cotton manufactur-
ing; but because of the fact that the greater part
TABLE III.--COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, VALUE or PRODUCTS: 1810 To 1900

Cotton Wool manu- Silk Hoiserrv Flax hemp D y eing and
DATE or cnnsus Total ma11]1I1.:>ia2ct- facture 1_ manufacture aggolargit and jutei fitI(la1x8tl;lillIe18g'
1900 ......................... . . $931,494, 556 $339,200,320 $296,990,484 $107,256,258 $95,482,566 $47, 601,607 $44,963,331
1890 ......................... .. 759,262,283 267,981,724 270,527,511 87,298,454 67,241,013 37, 313,021 28,900,560
1880 ......................... .. 532,673,488 192,090,110 238,085,686 41,093,045 29,167,227 ............. .. 32,297,420
1870 ......................... .. 520,386,764 177,489,739 199,257,262 12,210,662 18,411,564 ............. .. §113,017,537
1860 ......................... .. 214,740,614 115,681,774 73,454 000 6,607,771 7,280,606 ............. .. 11,716,463
1850 ......................... .. 128,769,971 61,869,184 48,608,779 1,809,476 1,028,102 ............. .. 15,454,430
1840 ......................... .. 67,047,452 46,350,453 20,696,999 ................ .. ............................ ..
1830 ......................... .. 37,062,981 22,534,815 14,528,166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1820 ......................... .. 9,247,225 4,834,157 4,413,068 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1810 ......................... .. 51,685,785 726,076,997 ||25,608,788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..



“Includes cotton goods and cotton small wares.
other than rag; felt goods, and wool hats.
two establishments in 1890 classified as ‘linen thread.’
1-Includes worsted goods; woolen goods; carpets and rugs,
Ilncludes cordage and twine; jute and into goods; linen goods; and
§At the census of 1870 the value of the fabric itself was
reported, whereas in all subsequent censuses merely the value added to such fabric by the process of dyeing and
finishing is given. “Includes manufactures of cotton and flax in families and otherwise.
wool in families and otherwise.
and in Table IV., which shows not only the ‘com-
bined textiles,’ but each individual industry
classed to show conditions each decade from
1850 to 1900.
The increase in the amount of the various raw
materials used by decades from 1840 to 1900
is shown by Table V., which also furnishes a
measure of the relative growth _of the several in-
dustries. It is well to notice in this connection,
however, that because of the unsettled conditions
in the Southern States from 1860 to 1870 there
was a decrease in the amount of cotton used,
while for each decade there is a large and steady
increase in the amount of wool used. During
the twenty-year period 1860 to 1880 the
amount of cotton used did not double itself, while
the use of wool increased over 300 per cent. ; but
{| Includes manufactures of
TABLE VI.—CONSUMPTION OF COTTON AT DECENNIAL
Pnnrons, 1830-1900



Great Continent United
Britain, Europe, States,
number of number of number of
thousand thousand thousand
bales bales bales
Average for 5 years
ending-
1830 ...................... .. 711 411 130
1840 ...................... .. 1,156 629 255
1850 ...................... .. 1,458 776 553
1860 ...................... .. 2,265 1,490 813
1870 ...................... .. 2,639 1,842 875
1880 ...................... .. 2,924 2,455 1,543
Year 1.890 ................... .. 4,140 4,277 '2,983
Year 1900 ................... .. 4,079 5,720 4,599
* Census figures, reduced to bales of 400 pounds. Cotton
used in wool manufactures included.
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
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TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
627
of the spindles in the United States run on
coarse or medium-sized yarns, and those of Eng-
land on much finer yarns, the United States act-
ually spins more pounds of the raw material.
TABLE VII.—-COTTQN SPINDLES IN THE WORLD LT
Vamons Pnnrons, IN Tnonsanns

1900 1897 1887 1877 1861
Great Britain..... 46,000 44,900 43,000 ‘ 39,500 30,300
Continent of Eu-
rope ............... .. 33,000 30,350 23,750 19,600 10,000
United States..... 19,008 16,800 13,500 10,000 5,000
India ................ .. 4,400 4,000 2,400 1,230 338
Japan ............... .. 1,500 970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
China ................ .. 600 440 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Canad a ............. .. 640 560 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Mexico .............. .. 460 450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..


None of the European countries equals the
United States in spindles, so that the latter is
second only to Great Britain.
The relative standing of the countries in wool
manufacturing is more diflicult to arrive at ac-
curately; but ‘the following table, compiled from
a trade circular of Messrs. Helmuth, Schwartz
& 00., London, who are recognized as authority
on the production and consumption of wool
throughout the world, and from figures made
up by the National Association of Wool Manu-
facturers (Bulletin for November, 1900)-—the
nearest year of comparison being 1894-shows
the net pounds available for home consumption
in the several countries. It might be said that
Great Britain, France, Germany, and Austria-
Hungary produce fully five-sixths of all the
woolen goods made in Europe, Great Britain
being in the lead.


TABLE VIII.
oourrrnrns Pounds
Great Britain ................................................. .. 507,000,000
North America .................. ..-. ........................... .. 458,000,000
France ............................................................. .. 457,610,000
Austria-Hungary ............................................ .. 386,800,000
Germany ......................................................... .. 383,090,000

The statistical position of the several countries
engaged in silk manufacturing is readily seen in
Table IX., which gives the value of silk products
in Europe and in the United States, showing
that while France was first, the United States
was a good second in 1900; but when we con-
sider that the industry in this country has been
developed since 1870 and note, as in Tables III.
and IV., the rapid growth, we may believe that
if it already does not it will s00n lead in the
manufacture of silks.
TABLE IX.—VALUE or SILK Pnonncrs or EUROPE AND
THE UNITED Srarnsz 1900*



Value of Per cent. of
COUNTRIES products products
France ...................................... .. $122,000,000 30.9
United States ........................... .. 92,000,000 23.3
Germ any .................................. .. 73,000,000 18 . 5
Switzerland .............................. .. 38,000,000 9.6
Russia (in Europe) ................... .. 21,000,000 5.3
Austria-Hungary ..................... .. 17,000,000 4.3
Great Britain ........................... .. 15,000,000 3.8
Italy ......................................... .. 13,000,000 3. 3
Spain and Portugal ................. .. 4,000,000 1.0
Total ................. ............... .. $395,000,000 100.0
“International Universal Exposition at Paris; Report
of United States Commissioner Peck; Report on silk
fabrics, contributed by Franklin Allen, Jr., of the United
States, in the silk section (Class 83). Government Printing
Oflice, Washington, D. C., 1901, page 565.
Inrmrnncns CONTROLLING DEVELOPMENT. The
influences controlling the establishment of the
textile industry in a given country are prima-
rily the supply of the raw material and the
adaptability of the people to a manufacturing
life. ' Among the earliest forms of machinery
are the hand-loom and spinning-wheel; and as
sheep may be, and usually are, raised in any
country where clothing must be warm, it is
not surprising to find in the world’s earliest his-
tory records of the production of fabrics of
wool; these came to be known as homespun, be-
cause made from yarn spun at home and woven
by hand by some member of the household.
That the woolen industry should spring up in
primitive communities, and among people too
poor to purchase material for clothing, is only
natural; and as the comforts of life became
more accessible and labor became diversified
and specialized, owing to the increase in popu-
lation, the tendency was to produce fabrics for
sale and in such quantities as required the use
of more improved machinery; and in order to
further reduce the cost large numbers of ma-
chines were collected and there resulted the mill
or factory. That the woolen industry has secured
a foothold in all countries in which wool fabrics
are needed for clothing, with the exception of
the polar regions, is, then, not surprising.
Cotton being a sub-tropical plant and the lint
being separable with case from the seed by
hand, and as the fibre can be spun and woven
in as simple a way as wool was manufactured
in primitive communities, it would seem that
the cotton industry should have developed near
the source of the raw material; but the sections
of the different countries suited to raising cot-
ton were largely inhabited by people with agri-
cultural instincts, consequently the industry has
developed in more thickly settled communities
and in sections remote from the cotton field.
One important feature in the early development
of the cotton industry in factories was the fact
that fabrics of cotton must necessarily be light
in weight and of comparatively fine yarns, conse-
quently the proportion of labor cost to the cost
of production was much greater than in the
production of fabrics of wool, and the tendency
was to concentrate in their production; this
condition also stimulated the invention of labor-
saving machinery. The result is that virtually
the whole manufacture is in the hands of in-
vested capital, and the tendency. is for it to ex-
pand in communities where it is already estab-
lished, and, unless favored by special advantages,
to languish or to be neglected in sections where
it is newly introduced. -
In the thickly settled centres of India the in-
dustry had its greatest growth in a semi-tropi-
cal country and in a country fully adapted to
the production of the fibre, yet, strange as it
may seem, the inhabitants make better laborers
in the factories than they do cultivators of the
crop. Those who do follow agricultural pursuits
are content to do so in a small way, simply
raising the product for individual use rather than
farming in a commercial way. This condition
was recently referred to by Sir George Watt,
reporter to the Government of India on Economic
Products, as follows: “Like many other coun-
tries in the East and Far East, India cannot be
treated geographically, for in every instance the
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.
TEXTILE PRINTING.
628
people on the soil must be taken into consider-
ation. In places likeL say Africa, districts may
be found where the planter can settle on virgin
soil and find natives who are only too willing to
work for wages; but in India a more civilized,
we might say more dignified, set of people are to
be found, and these natives prefer to manage
the soil without European intervention. This
feeling is illustrated in a higher stage of the in-
dustry, where the best and largest cotton mills
are owned by natives or are operated by native
companies.”
In China, Japan, the East Indies, and Mexico
there has been of recent years a considerable
introduction or development of the industry,
due almost entirely to the adaptability of the
people to a manufacturing life. Yet it is doubt-
ful if the movement would have been as success-
ful in some of these cases if there had not been
encouragement in the way of Government meas-
ures.
The most wonderful growth of the cotton-man-
ufacturing industry has been in the Southern
L'nited States. The availability of the raw‘
material, made possible largely by the agricul-
tural labor of the negro, and the presence of a
class of the white population who, after the
war, found themselves without homes or occupa-
tion and who it was found were teachable and
tractable, and would make good factory hands.
and were to‘ be had in abundance, were the chief
factors in this development; then there were
available water-power and land which could
be secured cheaper than elsewhere, and at first
municipal aid in the way of exemption from
taxation for a term of years. The growth of
the industry in the Southern States has been
remarkably steady since 1880, and ample proof
of its success is evidenced by the fact that more
and larger mills are now being built, together
with the enlargement and development of older
ones.
The sources which first gave the so-called
‘civilized’ nations their fine and beautiful fab-
rics of silk were China and Japan; there the
silkworm flourished, labor was plentiful and
cheap, and the nations aesthetic; they produced
beautiful but costly fabrics which were to be
considered luxuries as far back as the nations
- have a history, yet these nations now produce
less in value than many others, though they still
produce fabrics which the more highly civilized
nations can hardly equal. It is natural to ex-
pect that the growth of the silk industry should
be greatest in those countries which can pro-
duce the raw material, but this is not always the
case. The introduction of 'the silkworm into
Central and Western Europe caused a remark-
able expansion of the manufacture of silks in
Switzerland, Italy, Austria, and France. The
Germans, producing practically no raw silk, how-
ever, have made a great success of the industry,
as has the United States in recent years, Eng-
land, however, with a wonderful capacity for
manufacturing, having attempted the silk indus-
try, relying on imported silk, though fairly
successful for a time, has seen it decline for the
last half century, while the cotton industry dur-
ing the same period has had an extraordinary de-
velopment. Mr. Edward Stanwood, of Boston,
a textile statistician, in speaking of the develop-
ment of the industry of the United States, says:
“Reasons corresponding to those which caused
the wool manufacture to spring up in every
part of the country and which concentrated the
manufacture of cotton where power is cheap,
where rates of transportation are low, where
labor is abundant, or in the immediate vicinity
of a supply of cotton, result in a still greater
localization of the silk industry. Eleven-
twelfths of all the establishments in the country
are in the five adjoining States of Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, and Massa-
chusetts, and of the spindles, more than nineteen-
twentieths of the whole are in the mills of those
States.” The most important reason for this
localization is the presence of sufficient labor of
requisite skill to manufacture the raw material
and produce fine and costly fabrics-—a labor
which would be too costly to employ in the pro-
duction of cotton goods except those of the very
finest quality, but which may be employed in
the silk industry with profit. Yet another factor
has been an encouraging Government policy,
which has helped to establish the industry more
firmly.
These are briefly the important features in
connection with the development of the most
important of the world’s textile industries. See
COTTON; SILK; WooL AND Wonsrnn MANUFAC-
TUBES; Faeromns AND Faoronv SYSTEM; MANU-
FACTURES, etc., etc.
TEXTILE PRINTING. The art of produc-
ing figured designs upon textile fabrics, by dye-
ing or staining, can be traced back 4000 years
to the early homes of textile weaving, in India
and Egypt. Probably the earliest figured effects
were produced by securely binding up spots all
over the material so that the dye into which the
fabric was afterwards dipped could not penetrate
these places. Another method of producing
white or uncolored spots was by applying fused
wax, which, of course, was removed after the
cloth had been dyed. According to Pliny, the
Egyptians, from early times, were very skillful
in the production of patterned cloth by apply-
ing or painting mordants on fabrics and then
dyeing them. Another way of producing the
same effect was the use of the stencil, on which
the coloring material was applied with a brusl1.
Painting, or making the designs directly with a
brush, was a common method of producing
figured textiles; most of the early figured tex-
tiles introduced into Europe were not really
printed, but only painted fabrics. It is recorded
that painted cloth, probably linen, was produced
in London in 1410.
The printing block, in its most primitive form,
was used in the Orient from the remotest times.
In Europe it seems to have been applied to the
printing of fabrics before its use in book-print-
ing was thought of. For centuries it was the
only means used for producing figured designs
not embroidered or painted, and it is still em-
ployed for producing special patterns. Upon
the face of a block of some hard wood, 9 or 10
inches long, 5 or 6 inches wide, and half as
thick, the design was carved, a -stout handle
having previously been fastened to the block.
Sometimes stout copper wire was bent into the
required shape and hammered into the block
along the outlines of the pattern, which had
been previously traced on the wood. The table
upon which the printing was performed was a
TEXTILE PRINTING.
TEXTILE PRINTING.
629
smooth fiag of sandstone, covered with securely
fastened blanketing. Over this table the fabric
was spread. The thickened color was spread on
a woolen cloth, upon which the printer applied
the block and then stamped it upon the cloth.
It required great skill and experience on the
part of the printer to dip up the color evenly
and in the right amount upon the block and
then to apply it over and over, in exactly the
proper place upon the fabric, until the entire
surface had been covered with the design. Of
course a separate block, with the proper portion
of the design thereon, was required for each
color, and between the applications of two suc-
cessive colors the cloth was thoroughly dried.
The Perrotine (so called from the name of its
inventor) is a device for producing block print-
ing by machinery. The design is engraved in
relief upon cast metal plates. It is now but lit--
tle used.
The invention of the roller printing press
marked an epoch in the history of textile print-
ing. It made possible the production of pat-
terns complicated in design and coloring, at a
cost so slight as to make it practicable to use
them for the most‘ inexpensive fabrics. The first
patents for roller printing were taken out in
England in 1743 and 1772, and in France in
1801. The invention is usually ascribed to
Thomas Bell. The roller printing press consists
of a huge cylinder or bowl, revolving on its
axis and carrying the cloth to be printed.
While passing over this drum the material
to be printed is brought into contact with
another cylinder which carries the color and
upon whose surface the pattern is engraved.
The drum is covered or cushioned with several
layers of a coarse cloth called lapping.
Against this bowl is pressed the engraved
copper cylinder, which receives the color from
a wooden cylinder, covered with cloth and dip-
ping into the color-trough. In order to remove
the surplus color from the copper roller, the
so-called doctor is supplied; this is simply a
sharp blade which is pressed at an angle on the
roller and scrapes the surplus color from it.
In order to remove any loose threads or fila-
ments, there is also a tint-doctor. The cloth
to be printed passes between the engraved cop-
per roller and the bowl. and in order to have
an elastic underlayer it is supplied with a
blanket, which is usually of wool. To keep the
blanket clean the back-cloth, of unbleached cot-
ton. is allowed to intervene between blanket and
printing cloth. The three cloths (blanket, back-
cloth, and cloth to be printed) go through at
the same time between the bowl and the print-
ing roller. The latter gives the color kept in
the engraving over to the printing cloth next
to it. This giving up is caused (1) by the
pressure of the printing roller against the drum,
and (2) by the action of the lapping and blanket,
which, by forming a kind of elastic cushion, press
the cloth into the engraved cavities of the roller
and force the cloth to absorb the color, which
is prevented from spreading by the pressure
exerted at the same time. The copper roller
is a hollow cylinder mounted on an iron man-
drel. It is sometimes engraved by hand, but
more often by machine. The engraving is ac-
complished mechanically by producing the de-
sign in a small section by hand, then reproduc-
ing it on a second piece of hardened steel, from
which it is easily stamped over and over on the
comparatively soft copper. By another method,
known as the chemical process, the copper roller
is covered with varnish through which the pat-
tern is cut with a pantograph (q.v.). The roller
is then immersed in acid, which eats out the ex-
posed copper in the form of the design, after
which the varnish is removed from the roller.
The printed fabric is dried by passing it slowly
over and near a series of steam-heated hollow
cast-iron plates. As each roller prints but one
color, there are as many rollers in a cylinder
printing press as the desired number of colors.
Great care has to be observed to keep the colors
clear. In order that a dark shade may not soil
a light one, the lighter shades are usually
printed first and sometimes a plain starch roller
is applied between the two.
Before itis printed the cloth is subjected to
various preliminary processes, depending upon
the nature of the fabric. Cotton goods are
bleached and padded or treated to dressing to
give them the proper body and surface. They
are then run through the lint-doctor to remove
all hairy projections. Woolen goods must be
treated to a preliminary bath in a weak solu-
tion of sodium hypochlorite. The cloth is moist-
ened before printing, and after printing is
washed and dried. Silk has to be prepared for
printing by suitable agents, such as‘ tin with
or without an acid. Both wool and silk require
to be entirely freed from grease before they can
be printed.
The preparation of the colors for printing re-
quires great skill and knowledge of the proper-
ties of the different dyestuffs. The colors are
mixed in copper pans so mounted that their
contents can be boiled by steam, cooled with
water, and easily emptied. VVooden paddles are
provided for stirring the colors, or the agitation
may be performed by mechanical appliances.
As most of the colors are thickened with -starch
or flour, so that they will spread well, they re-
quire, straining through a copper wire sieve.
The printing of cotton fabrics is a much more
complicated and difficult process than that of
printing silk or wool, because many of the com-
plex methods that may be applied to the former
are, from the nature of the material, inappli-
cable to the latter. The many different methods
and combinations of methods by which the color
effects are produced on cotton fabrics have been
variously classified by writers on textile print-
ing. To understand the production of these
different so-called ‘styles’ involves a knowl-
edge of the principles and chemistry of dyeing.
(See DYEING.) The simplest classification is
that adopted by Georgrievic, in his work named
in the bibliography. According to his classifica-
tion, the production of a pattern upon cot-
ton cloth may be accomplished as follows:
(1) Direct printing; (2) combined dyeing and
printing; (3) discharge style printing; (4) re-
serve style printing. Direct printing is done by
mixing the desired color with the proper fixing
agents and applying the mixture directly to
the fabric. In combined dyeing and printing,
the printing is done with mordants, and then the
whole fabric is dyed. In the discharge style
the effect is produced either by using a solution
that will discharge the mordant or the dye itself.
In the reserve style various substances, printed
on the fabric, are employed to prevent absorp-
TEXTILE PRINTING.
TEXTUAL CRITICISM.
630
tion or development of other colors subsequently
applied by padding or dyeing. The last three
groups belong to the general class of dyes, as
opposed to simple printed colors.
Considering these four groups more carefully,
we find that in direct printing three general
methods are used for fixing the color upon the
fabric, the method used in a given case depend-
ing upon the chemical nature of the dyestuff.
These methods are: (1) Steaming, in which
printing is followed by air drying and steaming,
or by immediate steaming, drying, and again
steaming; (2) oxidizing, in which the color is
fixed by the process known as ‘aging,’ either
by prolonged exposure to the air or by passing
through a steam ‘ager;’ (3) reducing, a method
applied to indigo printing. Indigo is printed
upon fabrics in two ways known as the ‘glu-
cose’ and ‘reduced indigo’ processes which are
briefly described by Sadtler (see bibliography)
as follows: By the first method “Indigo is fine-
ly ground and made into a paste with water, to
which is added caustic soda; this is now kept in
a. closed vessel in order to prevent as much as
possible the absorption of carbonic acid from
the atmosphere. The proportioning of the in-
gredients depends on the desired shade of blue.
When used in printing it is thickened with dex-
trin and starch. The cloth, before be-
ing printed upon, is worked through a twenty-
five per cent. solution of glucose and dried.
After printing, the cloth must be again dried
and passed through an atmosphere of wet steam,
to effect the reduction of the indigo which now
takes place. The cloth is now washed in water,
being repeatedly, during the washing, exposed to
the air, when the reduced indigo is oxidized and
its real color appears. The second
process is based upon the fact that indigo, when
finely ground and mixed with lime and thiosul-
phate of soda in suitable thickening agents, is
reduced; if with this reduced indigo paste, pat-
terns are printed upon cotton fabrics, and then
exposed to the air, the indigo is oxidized with a
regeneration of the blue color. The pieces are
then washed and dried. Instead of using in-
digo in printing, one of the newer colors, im-
medial blue, is now very extensively used and
printed with suitable mordants directly upon
the good-s.”
Passing on to the second general method of
textile printing, which is a combination of print-
ing and dyeing, four operations are involved.
First, the fabric is printed with the appropriate
mordant; then follows the aging process, dur-
ing which the printed mordant is decomposed
and more firmly fixed to the cloth; then follows
an operation known as dunging, which removes
the thickening, no longer needed in the mordant;
and finally dyeing, the dye, of course, remain-
ing fixed only to that part of the fabric which
was previously treated with the mordant. The
aging process was formerly conducted in large
chambers and consumed several weeks. It is
now performed in steam ‘agers,’ much more
rapidly; but cloth that is rapidly aged does not
hold its color as well as when the operation is
conducted more slowly. Dunging is a passing
of the cloth through solutions of sodium phos-
phate, arseniate, or silicate, these chemicals
being now employed in place of the somewhat
offensive cow-clung. The composition of the dye-
bath is described under DYEING.
For the third, or discharge style of printing,
the discharges are simply substances printed
upon the goods, the whole of which has been
mordanted, so that the mordant is removed from
the printed spots, and when the goods are finally
dyed the printed figures will be white, while the
background will be the color naturally produced
by the dye and mordant.
In the fourth, or reserve, style of printing,
substances are printed upon the fabric which
will prevent the fixation of color in those places.
Reserves are of two general kinds: chemical,
such as citric acid. and mechanical. such as pipe-
clay, beeswax, or other inert substance.
These four general methods of textile print-
ing, briefly outlined above, are susceptible of end-
less modification and combination. Rothwell
(see bibliography) gives ten possible methods
which he groups under seven ‘styles.’ Many
of them are applicable only to cotton. _
STATISTICS. According to the United States
Census for 1900, 1,233,191,438 yards of cotton were
printed in the United States in 1900, as against
722,257,451 yards printed in 1890. During
1900, 10,239,606 yards of silk goods were also
printed in this country. In the same year, 334
printing machines were in operation in factories
devoted exclusively to printing and finishing
textile fabrics, of which 321 were for the print-
ing of cotton fabrics and the remainder for the
printing of silk. It is evident from these figures
that the printing of woolen and mixed goods,
which is a flourishing industry in Europe, has not
yet become established in America.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult: Georgievic, Chem-
ical Technology of Teaztile Fabrics, trans. by
Salter (London, 1902); Rothwell, Printing of
Textile Fabrics (Philadelphia, 1902); Santone,
The Printing of Cotton Fabrics (London, 1897) ;
Duerr, Bleaching and Calico Printing (London,
1896); Sadtler, Industrial Organic Chemistry
(Philadelphia, 1900). The last named book
contains a complete bibliography chronologically
arranged, from 187 4 to 1900.
TEXTUAL CRITICISM (OF., Fr. teatuel,
from Lat. teartus, text, composition, fabric, from
tewere, to weave). The criticism of existing
texts of literary works with a view to the de-
tection of errors which have crept in, and the
restoration of the reading intended by the au-
thor. Such criticism may be necessary in the
case of any literary production which is no
longer under the control of its author, but it
finds it-s most difiicult problems in the Old and
New Testaments, the Greek and Latin authors
whose works are preserved to us, in the older
monuments of the national literatures, and in
the texts of some moderns, e.g. Chaucer and
Shakespeare.
The criticism of the texts of Greek and Latin
authors, to take them as examples, is based first
of all on a careful study and comparison of all
existing manuscripts, then on quotations and
unconscious reminiscences of the writer in ques-
tion, in other authors, and finally on such helps
as may be obtained from ancient commentaries,
Scholia (see ScHoLIASTS), or from early trans-
lations, such as the Latin and Arabic render-
ings of certain works of Aristotle. Most of our
classical manuscripts belong to the period from
the ninth to the fifteenth century; a few are
earlier, one or two possibly as old as the fourth
TEXTUAL CRITICISM.
TEXTUAL CRITICISM.
631
century, and some are later, but ordinarily the
manuscripts of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies are of little or no value. No existing
manuscript is free from error. The scribes often
did their work mechanically and ignorantly, so
that blunders were easily made; these were then
perpetuated and spread by each successive copyist.
Such errors may be corrected by comparison with
a manuscript which does not contain the iden-
tical blunders; but in case all existing manu-
scripts are descended from the same incorrect
original, the same errors will probably appear
in all. In such case, if the subsidiary aids named
above fail, the only resort is to ' conjectural
emendation. Or it may happen that a number
of manuscripts have different readings in the
same passage, all intelligible. The problem then
is to determine which of the several readings is
the one intended by the author.
Errors in manuscripts may be divided into:
(1) Errors of Omission, (2) Errors of Insertion,
(3) Errors of Substitution, (4) Errors of
Transposition, (5) Errors of Emendation, (6)
Errors due to the Confusion of Letters or Con-
tractions.
(1) Errors of Omission. The simplest form
of this class of errors is that known as hap-
lography, when of two identical letters, syllables,
or words only one is written; e.g. Plautus, Miles
Gloriosus 54, si viverent for sioi uieerent ,' Vergil,
Georgics, 4, 311, magis aera carpunt for magis
magis aera carpunt. The omission of a syllable,
word, or passage may also be due to the inex-
cusable carelessness of the scribe, a failure to
understand, a defect in the archetype, etc. Most
such omissions come under the head of what is
technically known as lipography. Examples are
furnished by Vergil, ZEneicl, 4, 491, descere for
descendere; 6, 708, indnnt for insidunt. The
omission of clauses or sentences in prose, or of
whole lines in poetry, is frequently occasioned
by the similar endings of clauses or verses
(homoeotelenlon), or by similar words in the
same position within the lines, so that the eye
of the scribe jumped from one to the other. In
Plautus’s Bacchides, the oldest manuscript
lacks two entire verses, owing to the fact that
v. 507 has atqne and v. 509 usque in the same
position. The texts of Lucretius and Vergil also
furnish a number of examples of this kind of
error.
(2) Errors of Insertion. One of the most
common forms of this class of errors is that
known as dittography, whereby a letter, syllable,
or word is written twice. A case of double dit-
tography is furnished by the Palimpsest of
Cicero, De Republica, 2, 57, secotvtvsecvtvs for
secutus. Often an explanatory word, gloss, or
passage, either interlinear or marginal, is in-
serted in the body of the text. Thus in Plan-
tus’s Truenlentus, v. 79, is an unmetrical line,
Phronesium, nam phronesis est Sapientia, which
apparently was originally a marginal gloss in
explanation of the proper name Phronesiurn in
v. 77. Or any marginal note may be incor-
porated by the scribe, such as Oaput, chapter,
nota, take notice, dccst, there is lacking, etc. In
some cases insertions have been made with
fraudulent intent. There is an ancient tradi-
tion that the mention of Athens in the Iliad, 2,
553ff., was interpolated to give the dignity of
antiquity to the capital of Attica. Syntactical
corrections, both intentional and unintentional,
from a difficult to an easier construction are not
uncommon; and Renaissance scholars seem often
to have been more concerned with making a
readable than a correct text.
(3) Errors of Substitution. This class of mis-
takes may arise from various causes. An ex-
planatory gloss may have been substituted for
the word it explains, as in Vergil, Eclogues, 6,
40, rara per igna-ros errent anirnalia montis,
where some manuscripts have rara per -ig-notos,
etc., ignotos being evidently a gloss substituted
by some copyist for the correct ignaros. In the
case of archaic writers like Plautus, a classical
word may have ousted the early form; an ex-
ample is furnished by Amphitruo, 631, where
one manuscript has the classical simul for the
archaic si-mitu. The earlier form is correctly
given by two manuscripts, while the writer of a
fourth first copied correctly sim-itn and then
changed it to simul. Not infrequently, also, a
word has been substituted from the context or
from a parallel passage which lingered in the
copyist’s mind. Further, the mediaeval scribes,
being monks, might corrupt a passage by sub-
stituting a word from a similar passage in the
Bible. A famous example is that of Horace C..
3, 18, 1lf., where the monk who was writing a
manuscript which afterwards became the arche-
type of a considerable class had in mind Isaiah
xi. 6, habitabit lupus cum agno et pardus cum
hcedo accubabit, and so substituted pardns for
pagus in the passage festns in pratis /vacat otioso
cum bone pagus. The most common cause of
this class of errors, however, is the confusion of
similar words: addit and adit, adesse and ad
sese, hospitimn and hostinrn, precor and prcetor,
etc.
(4) Errors of Transposition. These errors,
whether of letters, syllables, words, or lines, are
very common in classical manuscripts. They are
due most often to the carelessness of the copy-
ist whose eye traveled faster than his pen.
Transposed letters and -syllables are easily de-
tected by any one familiar with the language;
transposed words are not so readily discovered
in prose as in verse, where the transposition
usually spoils the metre, e.g. the reading of
certain manuscripts of Horace C. 3,- 13, 14,
tcrnos ter attonitus cy/athos petet rates will
not ‘scan,’ but the metre is perfect when the
correct cyathos attonitus is read. The transpo-
sition of entire lines is generally due to the
fact that the copyist carelessly dropped the line
or lines, and later, on discovering his error, in-
sert_ed the missing lines out of place, often- with-
out any indication of the misplacement. Lucre-
tius and Vergil furnish many excellent examples.
Finally, one or more entire pages may be mis-
placed either because the scribe carelessly
omitted a page or because the sheets of the
archetype had become disturbed before the copy
was made. A well-known example of the last
is furnished by Lucretius, where the error en-
abled Lachmann to determine the size of the
lost archetype from which the extant manu-
cripts are descended. -
(5) Errors of Emendation. This class has
been touched on under Sections 2 and 3. They,
occur chiefly in manuscripts dating from the
ninth century or later, and are especially com-
mon in manuscripts written by Renaissance
scholars. These errors may arise simply from
the wrong division of words, as in Seneca, Epist.
TEXTUAL CRITICISM.
2 THACKERAY.
63
89, 4, where the copyist senselessly divided quid
amet of his original into quidam et. Madvig,
by a stroke of the pen, first restored the correct
quid amet. While Alcuin’s efforts to restore
Latin orthography were for the most part bene-
ficial, they also led to certain errors, mostly due
to the substitution of a familiar for an un-
familiar word, e.g. facile for facete, etc. Re-
naissance scholars of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries not only ‘corrected’ passages, but also
filled out lacunae, supplied missing scenes, etc.
(6) Errors Due to the Confusion of Letters
and Contractions. These mistakes are few in
capital and uncial writing, but in minuscule
writing the possibilities of the confusion of let-
ters are much greater, and the use of contrac-
tions constantly increased with the centuries.
A treatment of the subject is impossible here,
as it belongs to paleography (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a bibliography of the text
criticism of the Bible, see articles on BIBLICAL
CRITICISM, NEW TESTAMENT, etc. On the text
criticism of classical authors, consult Boeckh,
Encyklopizdie und Meth-odologie der philolo-
gischen Wissenschaften (2d ed., Leipzig, 1886) ;
Madvig, Aduersaria Critica (1870); Cobet,
Variaa Lectiones (1873) ; Blass in vol. ii. of Von
Mueller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
wissenschaft (2d ed. 1892); Lindsay, Introduc-
tion to Latin Textual Emen-dation (1896) ; and
the best critical editions of the separate authors.
Such works as Skeat’s edition of Chaucer and
Furness’s variorum edition of Shakespeare give
an excellent idea of the textual problems pre-
sented by these two authors.
TEZCUCO, téS-l(OO’kO, or TEXCOCO. A town
in the State of Mexico, sixteen miles east of the
city of that name, east of the Lake of Tezcuco.
It is on the Interoceanic Railway, whose
shops form its chief industry_ It also has glass
and cotton manufactures. In the plaza is a
monument to Nctzahualcoyotl, the most famous
Tezcucan King. Previous to the Spanish con-
quest the place was occupied by a Chichimeca
tribe, known as the Texcucans or Acolhuans, who
claimed a preéminence in Nahuatl culture and
civilization. Here, in 1521, Cortés built the
brigantines with which he besieged Mexico. Its
population is about 2500.
TEZIUTLAN, tase-not-Ian’. A town of the
State of Puebla, Mexico, seventy-six miles north-
_east of Puebla, and thirty-seven miles north-
west o-f Jalapa (Map: Mexico, K 8). Its streets
are steep and irregular. It has an extensive
commerce with Mexico City and with the towns
of Vera Cruz. Population, in 1895, 9776.
THACH’ER, JOHN Bovn (1847——). An Ameri-
can manufacturer, writer, and book collector,
born in Ballston, N. Y. He graduated at Wil-
liams College in 1869, and settled at Albany,
N. Y., where he became a successful manufac-
turer of car wheels. In 1884-85 he was a Demo-
cratic member of the State Senate, taking an
especial interest in tenement house reform; and
in 1886, 1887, 1896, and 1897 was Mayor of
Albany. He devoted much of his attention to
the study of early American discovery. His
publications include: The Continent of Amer-
ica, Its Discovery and Its Baptism; An Essay
on the Nomenclature of the Old Continents,
etc. (1896); a drama, Charlecote; or The Trial
of William Shakespeare (1896); The Cabotian
Discovery (1897); and Christopher Columbus,
His Life, His Works, His Remains, together
with an Essay on Peter Ma/rtyr of Anghera
and Bartolome’ de las Casas, the First Historians
of America (2 vols., 1903), an important work,
made especially valuable by the publication of
many original documents and of various early
accounts of the life and voyages of Columbus.
THACHER, THOMAS ANTONY (1815-86). An
American educator, born in Hartford, Conn. He
graduated at Yale in 1835, was appointed tutor
there in 1838, and, in 1842, professor of Latin,
a position which he held during the remainder
of his life. In 1843 he went to Germany and
for a time gave instruction in English to the
Crown Prince of Prussia and to Prince Frederick
Charles. He was one of the editors of Webster’s
Dictionary, and also edited many of the Latin
classics, such as Cicero’s De Ojficiio (1850), and
made an English ‘version of Madvig’s Latin
Grammar.
THAOKERAY, ANNE ISABELLA. See Rrronrn,
ANNE ISABELLA.
THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEAQE (1811-
63). A famous English novelist. He was born
in Calcutta, where his father was at the time
in the service of the East India Company, July
18, 1811. At the age of six the boy was sent
to England, his father having meantime died,
and placed in the care of an aunt; but in 1821
his ‘mother returned with her second husband
and settled near Ottery Saint Mary in Devon-
shire. The boy regarded her as ‘a daughter of
the gods,’ and his stepfather, it is asserted, was
the original of Colonel Newcome. After attend-
ing two small schools, Thackeray entered Charter-
hou-se, of which also he has given a vivid de-
scription in The Ne-wcomes, and remained there
six years (1822-28). Then he spent a little over
a year at Cambridge, as a member of Trinity
College and of the brilliant society of which
Tennyson (q.v.) was another ornament. After this
he spent two years abroad, staying some time at
VVeimar, where he met Goethe. On his return
to England he studied law for a while at the
Middle Temple, which furnished some of the
material for Pendennis. On his coming of age,
he inherited a fortune estimated at £20,000, but
much of it was lost by the failure of an Indian
bank, and he had to depend on his own exertions
for a living. In 1833 he became editor and
proprietor of the National Standard, a periodi-
cal devoted to art and literature, but it lived
only about a year, after which he spent some
time in Paris studying art. He offered to illus-
trate Pickwick, but his services were declined
by Dickens. In 1836 he became Paris corre-
spondent for the Constitutional, and married
Isabella, daughter of Colonel Shawe of the In-
dian army.
After his marriage he settled in London, and
contributed regularly to Fraser’s M agazine. His
first book was Flore et Zéphyre by Théophile
Wagstafi‘ (1836), with nine comic plates from
his own drawings. Some of the satirical char-
acter sketches and humorous tales which he
wrote for Fraser’s were collected, as in The
Yellowplush Papers (1838), The Paris Sketch-
Book (1840), and The Irish Sketch-Book
(1843). In 1842 he began writing for Punch,
to which he contributed nearly four hundred
sketches. The most successful were Jeames’s
I THACKERAY.
THADDEUS.
633
Diary (1845-46), the Prize Nouelists (1847),
and the Snob Papers (1846-47). Thackeray had
now proved himself a master of burlesque,
and an acute critic of contemporary manners.
In their kind nothing could be better than the
Prize Novelists and Rebecca and Rowena, in
which he exaggerates the weaknesses of Bulwer,
Disraeli, Lever, Cooper, and Scott. Barry Lyn-
don, a mock defense of gambling (1844), is
superb. He had also begun, as he continued
throughout life, to write occasional verse, com-
monly in the ballad measure, at will grave and
pathetic or richly humorous.
In 1846-48 Vanity Fair appeared in monthly
parts, and Thackeray assumed his place
in English literature by the side of Field-
ing. This, with his other great novels, Penden-
nis (1849-50), Henry Esmond (1852), and The
Newcomes (1854-55), shows him at the height
of his power. Somewhat inferior, but still to be
mentioned in this context, are The Virginians
(1858) and The Adventures of Philip (1862).
Henry Esmond, especially, has taken rank by uni-
versal consent at the very head of English histor-
ical fiction. To say nothing of its other merits, it
is an absolute faithful reproduction, not only of
the language, but of the thought and the man-
ners of the early eighteenth century. This Was
a period by which Thackeray was always strongly
attracted; Addison, Swift, Steele, and the eight-
eenth-century novelists were his masters in lit-
erature. He even thought of writing a history
of the century; and his studies took shape in
the delightful lectures on The English Humor-
ists. These he delivered in America in 1852 and
1853, with such success that he came again in
1855 with The Four Georges. In 1857 he tried
for Parliament, standing for Oxford in the Lib-
eral interests, but was fortunately defeated. In
1860 he became the first editor of the Cornhill
Magazine, for which he wrote his last novels and
the Roundabout Papers (1860-63), a series of
essays and sketches which are the best revelation
of the man and of his large heart.
Though not far beyond middle life-, Thackeray
felt the burden of years, and resigned the editor-
ship of the Cornhill in April, 1862. On the
morning of December 24, 1863, he was found
dead in his bed. He was admirable both as a
man and as a novelist, Tennyson called him
‘lovable’ and ‘noble-hearted.’ So said Carlyle,
and all who knew him well. He has been often
called a cynic; and indeed he was unsparing in
the fierceness with which he plied the lash on
anything which savored of sham or pretense, and
his keen vision detected alloy in the finest
natures.
tween his satire and that of Swift, a truer type
of the cynic, who hated and despised human
nature and rejoiced in laying bare its weak-
nesses. Thackeray wrote always with a noble
tenderness and an utter reverence for all that
Was good and true. Yet it must be admitted
that, almost without exception, the strongest
characters in his novels are the bad ones, and
that he has drawn scarcely a woman whom we
can love and admire without qualification.
This probably comes, however, less from what
has been called his cynicism than from a more
indisputable defect—his lack of poetic imagina-
tion. Thackeray was a realist; in some ways he
pointed out the path to the modern English
Yet there is a tremendous contrast be- '
realistic school, “I have no brains above my
eyes,” he said himself; “I describe what I see.”
He describes the life of the upper classes, as
Dickens that of the lower; and between them
they give an unrivaled picture of English life
in the middle of the nineteenth century, with its
characteristic notes—one may say, for the first
time in the history of literature, a picture of a
society who-se chief concern is the making or the
spending of money. The interest in social ques-
tions which he was among the first to import
into fiction has never died out; though Charlotte
Bront'eS’s enthusiastic picture of him (in the
preface to the second edition of Jane Eyre) as .
a prophet “who comes before the great ones of
society much as the son of Imlah came before
the throned kings of Judah and Israel, and who
speaks truth as deep, with a power as prophet-
like and as vital, a mien as dauntless andas
daring,” may seem to us overdrawn. The most
indisputable of his qualities is his unfailing
mastery of a singularly pure, perfect, and simple
style—the natural unstrained expression of his
thoughts, however lofty or however homely they
may have been. “He blew on his pipe, and
words came tripping round him, like children,
like pretty little children who are perfectly
drilled for the dance; or came, did he will it,
treading in their precedence, like kings, gloom-
ily.” His style, like the vividly realized world of
his characters, is the direct outgrowth of what
has been called “perhaps the most interesting
personality that has expressed itself in prose.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Out of respect for Thackeray’s
request, no authorized biography of him has ever
been written. His daughter, Mrs. Richmond
Ritchie, however, has written sketches for each
volume of the Biographical Edition of his works
(London, 1898-99), and his son-in-law, Sir Leslie
Stephen, wrote the article on him in the Dic-
tionary of National Biography. Another good
edition of the Works is that with introduction
by VValter Jerrold (New York, 1902). Anthony
Trollope’s Thackeray, in the “English Men of
Letters” series (London, 1879), is valuable for
personal impressions. One of the latest biog-
raphies and certainly the most complete one
is by Lewis Melville (London, 1899). For
early work, not found in the Biographical
Edition, see Unidentified Contributions of
Thackeray to Punch, ed. by Spielmann (ib.,
1899), and Thac7ceray’s Stray Papers, 1821 to
1847, ed. by Melville (ib., 1901). Consult also
Hunter, The Thacherays in India (ib., 1897 ) ; the
biography by Merivale and Marzials in the
“Great Writers” series (ib., 1891); Whibley
(ib., 1903); Crowe, Homes and Haunts of
Thackeray (ib., 1897); id., With Thackeray in
America (ib., 1893); Wilson, Thackeray in
the United States (New York, 1904). For criti-
cism, consult especially the essays by Harrison,
in Early Victorian Literature (London, 1895);
Brownell, in Victorian Prose Masters (New
York, 1901); Scudder, Social Ideals in English
Letters (Boston, 1898); Lilly, in Four English
Hamorists of the Nineteenth Century (London,
1895); Skelton, Table Talk of Shirley (ib.,
1895). .
THADDE'US (Lat., from Gk. Gaddalog,
Thaddaios). The name assigned to one of the
twelve Apostles in the list given in Mark iii. 16-
19. In the corresponding list in Matt, x. ,2-4 the
THADDJEUS.
THALES.
634
name is Lebbaeus, while in Luke vi. 14-16, Acts
i. 14 it is given as Judas [son] of James. Some
of these readings are not above suspicion, as the
manuscripts differ considerably. It is possible
that the original name was Judas Thaddaeus, for
which Judas Lebbaeus was often used, Lebbaeus
being a euphemism for Thaddaeus. Eusebius
makes Thaddaeus one of the seventy, and sent
by Thomas the Apostle to Abgar, King of Edes-
sa, to heal him and to evangelize his people.
Eusebius claims to have taken this story direct
from Syrian sources. The Syrian tradition
embodied in the “Doctrine of Addai” makes Ad-
dai, one of the severity, the apostle of the Syr-
ian Church.
THAD'DE'U'S OF WAR’SAW. A romance
by Jane Porter (1803). The chief character is
Count Thaddeus Sobieski, who devotes himself
to the liberation of Poland and becomes a refu-
gee teacher of languages in London,
THAER, tar, ALBRECHT DANIEL (1752-1828).
A noted German agriculturist, whose work revolu-
tionized certain forms of farm management and
animal production of his day. Born at Celle,
Hanover, he studied medicine and philosophy at
Giittingen, and succeeded his father as Court
physician, but early turned his attention to
agriculture. He worked out a new system of
farm management on his small farm in Celle,
where he demonstrated the value of more- inten-
sive farming, stall feeding of soiling crops, and
- the rotation of crops in connection with potato
culture. He was especially active in applying
scientific principles to agriculture, systematizing
agricultural accounts, introducing agricultural
implements and appliances, and improving sheep
for the production of fine wool. The fame of his
system of farm management attracted large num-
bers of young agriculturists, to whom he began
delivering lectures in 1802, out of which grew the
Agricultural Institute of Celle. In 1804 he
bought the Miiglin Manor, near Berlin, for the
purpose of demonstrating how under his system
an exhausted farm could be brought to a high
state of production, and in 1806 founded there an
agricultural institute, which became celebrated.
He was appointed professor at the University of
Berlin and councilor in the Ministry of the In-
terior in'1810, started his famous sheep-breeding
farm at Miiglin in l81l,and from 1815 on had
charge of the royal sheep-breeding farms, which
he greatly improved. Resigning his professorship
in 1818, he devoted himself to his institute at
Miiglin, which was raised to a Royal Academy of
Agriculture in 1824. Thaer founded and edited
the Annalen der niedersiichsischen Landwirt-
schaft (1798-1804), and was the author of a large
number of treatises on agriculture, several of
which are characterized as epoch-making. The
Einleitung ear Kenntnis der englischen Land-
wirtschaft (1798; 3d ed. 1816) made his name
first more widely known, and his great work
Grandsiitze der rationellen Landwirtschaft (1809-
10; new ed., 1880) was translated into most of
the European languages. Monuments to his
memory were erected at Leipzig, Berlin, and
Celle. For his biography, consult Kiirte (Leip-
zig, 1839).
THAI, eat (free). A group of peoples of
Farther India, including the Thos (q.v.) and
Muongs_ (q.v.) in the northeast (Tongking and
China), the Shans (q.v.) in the northwest (Bur-
ma, Siam, China), the Laotians (see LAOS) in
the south (the Laos States, French Siam),
and the Siamese in the southwest (Siam).
The term Thai is applied by certain writers to
the Siamese in particular, but their proper ap-
pellation is rather Little Thai, their ancestors,
the Shans, being called the Great Thai. The
Thai peoples speak languages belonging to the
same linguistic stock. The Siamese present the
Thai type, much changed by intermixture with
Khmers, Hindus, Kuis, Malays, and other stocks,
They are of medium stature and brachycephalic,
while the Laotians are shorter and less broad-
headed. Among some of the Shan tribes the
primitive Thai type is best preserved. The Thai
peoples have shown much political capacity. Con-
sult: Pellegoix, Description du royanme Thai on
Siam (Paris, 1854); Bastian, Die Viillcer des
iistlichen Asiens (Leipzig, 1866) ; Hellwald, Hin-
terindische L-tinder and Vfillcer (ib., 1880) ;
Forbes, Comparative Grammar of the Languages
of Further India (London, 1881); Colquhoun,
Across Ohrysé (ib., 1883); Diguet, Etude de la
langae Tai (Paris, 1896).
THA'IS (Lat., from Gk. Gaig). An Athenian
courtesan, famous for her wit and beauty. She
accompanied Alexander the Great on his expe-
dition into Asia, and, according to Cleitarchus,
induced him, during a festival, to set fire to the
palace of the Persian kings at Persepolis. After
the death of Alexander she lived with Ptolemy
Lagi, King of Egypt, who is said (by Athenaeus)
to have married her, and by whom she had two
sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and a daughter,
Irene.
THALIBERG, tal’berK, SIGISMUND (1812-71).
A distinguished German pianist, born at Geneva,
Switzerland. He was the natural son of Prince
Moritz Dietrichstein and received his musical
education from 1822 on at Vienna, where he stud-
ied under Hummel and composition under
Sechter. Making his appearance in public in
1830 with brilliant success, he was appointed
chamber virtuoso to the Emperor of Austria in
1834, and the following year appeared in Paris,
as a rival of Liszt. After a succession of tri-
umphs in England, Russia, and Italy, in Brazil
(1855-56), and in the United States (1856-58) , he
retired to his home at Posilippo, near Naples,
whence he only once more undertook a concert
tour to Paris and London in 1862 and to Brazil
in 1863. Perhaps his strongest point as a pianist
was his mastery of the legato singing tone. In
every other respect his style, though brilliant,
was shallow.
THALER, ta'1er. A German coin, first struck
at Joaehimsthal, Bohemia, in 1519 and hence
called Joachimsthaler, whence the modern name.
The thaler, divided into thirty silbergroschen of
12 pfennigs, was the Germanunit of value until
1873, when the mark was adopted. The thaler
is still in circulation with the value of 3 marks,
about 69 cents.
THALES, tha’léz (Lat., from Gk. Oalfig)
The earliest of the Greek philosophers, and the
founder of the Ionic or Physical school. He flour-,
ished in the first half of the sixth century B.C.
He was a native of Miletus, in Asia Minor, and
is said to have been of Phoenician descent.
He was reckoned one of the Seven Wise Men,_
THALES.
THAMES.
635
possessed suflicient astronomical knowledge to en-
able him to predict the eclipse of the sun in the
reign of the Lydian King Alyattes, and was an
excellent mathematician. He was famed also for
his practical and political wisdom, but his chief
renown is due to the fact that he was the first
man among the Greeks to set aside the current
explanations of the universe and to look for a
first principle which might be grasped through
reason. This first principle (iipxfi) he regarded
as water, which was the source of all things,
and that into which all things were resolved.
The importance of his speculation lies in the fact
that he turned men to reasoning about the
world and to an effort to find the significant
principle which lay behind the varied phe-
nomena. Thales left no writings, and even
among the Greeks considerable doubt prevailed
as to his exact teachings. Consult: Ritter and
Preller, Historia Philosophies Grcecce (7th ed.,
Gotha, 1888); Zeller, Ph/ilosophie der Griechen,
vol. i. (4th ed., Berlin, 1900); Ueberweg, His-
tory of Philosophy, Eng. trans., vol. i. (New
York, 1887).
THALI’A (Lat., from Gk. Sahara, Thaleia,
from fléhua, thaleia, luxuriant, blooming, from
6¢i7l)lsw, thallein, to bloom; connected with Alb.
dal, I bloom). One of the nine Muses (q.v.) . In
the late assignment of specific functions to the
Muses, she became the Muse of Comedy, and
was represented as holding the comic mask.
THALLIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Ga/lhég,
thallos, green shoot). A metallic element dis-
covered by Crookes in 1861, and independently
by Lamy in 1862. It was originally found by
the bright green line which its compounds give
when examined by the spectroscope. It occurs
as the selenide in combination with copper and
silver, in the rare mineral croolcesite, in small
quantities in copper and iron pyrites, and in the
seleniferous deposits from sulphuric acid; also
in minute quantities in other minerals, and in
certain mineral waters. It may be prepared from
the flue-dust of sulphuric acid works in which
pyrites containing thallium are burned, by treat-
ing the dust with water acidulated with sul-
phuric acid, concentrating the resulting solution,
and precipitating the thallium by zinc. Thallium
(symbol, Tl; atomic Weight, 204.15) is a soft,
crystalline, lead-like metal, with a specific grav-
ity of 11.8, and a melting point of 290° C, (554°
F.) . When exposed to the air it tarnishes rapid-
ly, becoming coated with a thin layer of oxide,
which preserves the rest of the metal. It com-
bines with oxygen to form a monoxide and a tri-
oxide, which yield corresponding series of salts,
known as the thallous and thallic compounds.
The compounds of thallium are very poisonous,
producing symptoms like those of lead poison-
ing. Their presence in a given substance may be
readily detected by the beautiful green color
which they impart to a non-luminous gas flame.
THALLOPHYTES (from Gk. Uahhtig, thallos,
green shoot, from 6¢i7lAsw, thallein, to bloom —)-
¢vr6v, phyton, plant). One of the four great
divisions of the plant kingdom, containing the
algae and fungi (qq.v.). In theory the thallo-
phytes are distinguished from the other groups
by having a thallus body, As a matter of fact,
there are many thallophytes with upright stem-
like axes, root-like regions of attachment, and
VOL. XVI.—41.
lateral members which function as and resemble
leaves, although not at all homologous with the
leaves of higher plants. The best examples of
these are found among the Phaeophyceae, Rhodo-
phyceae, and Charales (qq.v.) . The thallophytes
are readily distinguished from the bryophytes
above them by the absence of the peculiar fe-
male sexual organ (arehegonium, q.v.), and the
sexless phase or plant (sporophyte, q.v.) char-
acteristic of the bryophytes and pteridophytes.
They are, therefore, defined more through the
absence of structures found in the higher plants
than by any agreement among themselves.
THALLUS (Lat., from Gk. 6a7l7l6g, green
shoot). A plant body whose vegetative struc-
ture is not differentiated into such organs as
stem, leaf, etc, Most of the algae and fungi
(thallophytes, q.v.) have thallus bodies. Many
liverworts, the sexual phase (gametophyte) of
ferns, and even certain reduced and simplified
flowering plants such as the duckweed (Lemna),
present a thalloid structure. On the other hand,
certain thallophytes, especially among the brown
and red algae, have bodies differentiated far be-
yond the limits of the definition of a thallus.
THAMES, temz. The most important river in
Great Britain, flowing with a southeastern trend
through the southern portion of the Kingdom
and passing through London (Map: England,
G 5). Its remotest source, the Churn, rises on
the southeast slope of the Cotswold Hills, in
Gloucester, five miles south of Cheltenham, and
after flowing southeast for 20 miles receives the
Thames, or Isis, from the west. The Thames
then flows east-northeast for about 35 miles, and
curving southeast, passes Oxford and flows on
to Reading, where it again changes its course
to a generally eastward trend. A few miles be-
low Gravesend it expands into a wide estuary,
and enters the North Sea. The length of the
Thames is about 250 miles. At London Bridge
the width of the river is about 290 yards; at
Woolwich, 490 yards; at Gravesend pier, 800
yards; 3 miles below Gravesend, 1290 yards; at
Nore Light, 6 miles; and at its mouth, between
Whitstable and Foulness Point, about 8 miles
below the Nore, the estuary is 18 miles across.
The river is navigable for barges to Lechlade, up-
ward of 200 miles above its mouth, and it is con-
nected with several important canals, affording
communication with the west and south coasts,
and with the interior of the country. Its upper
reaches and islands are much resorted to for
their sylvan beauty, and pleasure steamers ply
daily between Kingston, Henley, and Oxford.
Vessels of 800 tons can reach Saint Katharine’s
docks, London, those of 4000 tons can ascend to
Blackwall, while by the dredging operations that
have been carried out, vessels of 22 feet draught
are now accommodated in the Albert and Victoria
docks. The volume of traffic on the river was
estimated in 1900 at 30,000,000 tons. The
Thames is also the main source of the water
supply of London, as much as 130,000,000 gal-
lons a day being withdrawn near Hampton for
this purpose. The part of the river immediately
below London Bridge is called the Pool, and the
part between the bridge and Blackwall is called
the Port. Two embankments have been formed,
one on the north shore from Blackfriars ‘Bridge
to Westminster, and one on the south shore from
Westminster Bridge to Vauxhall. Among the
THAMES.
THAR.
636
places on the Thames besides those above men-
tioned are Windsor, Eton, and Richmond. An
extensive bibliography includes: The River
Thames from Oxford to the Sea (London, 1859) ;
Cassell, Royal River, illustrated (ib., 1885);
and-annual Reports of the Conservators of the
River Thames (ib.). See- LONDON.
THAMES, témz, or GRA’HAMSTOWN. A
gold-mining township on the east coast of an in-
let in the Hauraki Gulf, North Island, New Zea-
land, 46 miles east-southeast of Auckland (Map:
New Zealand, E 2). Population, in 1901, 4009.
THAMES, local pron. thamz. A river of east-
ern Connecticut (Map: Connecticut, G 4) . It is
a broad and navigable tidal estuary, 15 miles
long, receiving the Shetucket, and entering Long
Island Sound at its eastern end. At its mouth
stands New London, and at its head Norwich.
The Shetucket and its branches supply power for
considerable manufactures.
THAMES, BATTLE or THE. A battle fought
at the Moravian settlement on the Thames River
in the township of Oxford, Ontario, Canada, on
October" 5, 1813, during the War of 1812, be-
tween an American force of about 3000 (largely
Kentucky volunteers) under Gen. William H,
Harrison and a British force of about 650 un-
der General Proctor, aided by a force of Indians,
whose number has been variously estimated at
from 800 to 2000, under Tecumseh. For several
days Proctor had retreated before Harrison, but
had at last decided to give battle and had drawn
up his troops in readiness to receive the advanc-
ingAmericans. The battle was begun and virtually
decided by a cavalry charge under Col. Richard
M. Johnson, who has been credited with having
personally killed Tecumseh. The British soon
broke, and fled wildly from the field, with Proc-
tor at their head, and the only serious resistance
was that offered by the Indians. The loss of
the Americans in killed and wounded was re-
ported by Harrison as 29; that of the British
was about 35, while a large number were taken
prisoners. The loss of the Indians is not defi-
nitely known. Proctor was soon afterwards dis-
graced for his conduct during the battle, By this
battle the right division of the British army in
Upper Canada was greatly weakened, and as the
result of Tecumseh’s death the powerful Indian
confederacy in the Northwest against the United
States was broken up.
THAMES EMBANKMENT. An important
public work in London consisting of broad roads
along the Thames, protected on the river side
by massive granite walls. The finest portion,
the Victoria Embankment, on the north bank of
the river, between Blackfriars Bridge and West-
minster, was constructed in 1864-1870. It has
a carriageway 64 feet wide, flanked by broad
foot-walks, and is planted with trees and adorned
with gardens containing statues of notable men.
The obelisk known as Cleopatra’s Needle stands
near the Adelphi Steps. The Albert Embank-
.ment, on the right bank of the river, between
Westminster Bridge and Vauxhall Bridge, with
a 60-foot roadway, was completed in 1869, and
the Chelsea Embankment, on the left bank, in
1873.
THAIVYYRIS (Lat., from Gk. Gd/wptg). A
Thracian bard who challenged the Muses to a
contest of singing. He was overcome by them
and as a punishment was blinded and deprived
of his gift of song.
THAN’ATOP’SIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Oatm-
rog, thanatos, death + 51,b¢g, opsis, sight, view).
A well-known poem by William Cullen Bryant,
written in 1811, and published in 1817,
THAN’ATOS (Lat., from Gk. ddvarog,
Death). The Greek god of death, called by the
Romans Mors, and twin brother of Sleep (see
SOMNUS), with whom he is usually represented.
THANE (AS. Pcgen, Pegn, OHG. degan, at-
tendant, servant, soldier, Ger. Degen, heroic war-
rior; connected with Gk. ié/wov, tehnon, Skt.
tdha, child), or THEGN. The name by which the
class of minor nobles was known in Anglo-Saxon
times. Any freeman who had acquired five hides
of land and a special appointment in the King’s
hall became a thane. He was bound to service
in war,_ but was protected by a higher wergild
(q.v.) than the ordinary freeman. Like the
gesith, who was the noble living with the King,
theithane was a development from the Germanic
comitatits or noble follower of some chief, de-
scribed by Tacitus. After the Norman Conquest
the thanes were merged in the class of knights.
Consult Stubbs, Constitutional History of Eng-
land, vol. i, (6th ed., Oxford, 1897).
THAN’ET, ISLE OF. The northeast corner of
Kent (q.v.), England, separated by the river
Stour and its branches, and bounded on the
north and east by the sea (Map: England, H 5).
It is 10 miles in length and from 4 to 8 in
breadth. Agriculture is successfully pursued.
It contains the well-known watering places,
Ramsgate, Margate, and Broadstairs. Popula-
tion, in 1891, 57,800; in 1901, 68,350. Consult:
Simson, Historic Thanet (London, 1891).
THANET, OCTAVE. The pseudonym of the
American novelist Alice French (q.v.).
THANKSGIVING DAY. A day specially
set apart for the giving of thanks. After the
first harvest of the New England -colonists in
1621 Governor Bradford made provision for their
rejoicing specially together with praise and
prayer. In 1623 a day of fasting and prayer in
the midst of drought was changed into thanks-
giving by the coming of rain during the prayers;
gradually the custom prevailed of appointing
thanksgiving annually after harvest. These ap-
pointments were by proclamation of the Gov-
ernors of the several New England colonies, Dur-
ing the Revolution a day of national thanksgiv-
ing was annually recommended by Congress.
Since 1864 the President has appointed a day of
Thanksgiving (usually the last Thursday of No-
vember) , and his proclamation has generally been
followed by similar proclamations from the Gov-
ernors of several States. The credit of this
change belongs to Mrs. Sarah Josepha Hale,
editress of Godey’s Lady Book (Philadelphia),
and the first President to adopt it was Abraham
Lincoln. Consult Love, The Fast and Thanks-
giving Days of New England (New York, 1895).
THAR, thiir (East Indian name), or TAHR. A
goat-antelope (Hemitragas Jemlaicus) allied
to the Nilghiri goat (q.v.), which inhabits the
higher forest regions of the southwestern Hima-
layas. It is about 31/3 feet tall. It is usually
dark brown, but variable, and lighter in winter.
The female is singular in having four teats, The
THAR.
THAYER.
637
horns are black and bend backward. This spe-
cies is known in Kashmir as ‘kras,’ and in Nipal
as ‘jharal.’ See Plate of GoAT-ANTELOPES.
THA’SOS (Lat., from Gk. 9400:). The most
northerly island in the .ZEgean Sea, a few miles
off the coast of Macedonia. Circumference, about
40 miles; population, about 12,000, scattered
over a dozen villages. Thasos is mountainous,
the chief summit, Hypsarion, being about 3400
feet in height, and is, on the whole, barren. It
exports some oil, honey, and timber. The island
seems to have been the seat of a Phoenician trad-
ing-post in very early times, but near the end
of the eighth century 13.0. it was colonized by
Parians. The settlers had a severe struggle with
the natives before they finally secured posses-
sion of the island and its rich gold mines.
They later secured a footing on the neighbor-
ing coast, where gold was also found, and in con-
sequence became very wealthy. Thasos submitted
to the Persians, but after the defeat of Xerxes
joined the Delian League. In consequence of an
attempt to revolt, it was reduced by the Athe-
nians, who retained possession of it for the great-
er part of the time until the end of the third cen-
tury B.C., when it passed into the hands of Mace-
don. After the battle of Cynoscephalae (B.C.
197) Thasos long enjoyed autonomy under the
Romans. Consult: Perrot, 1lIémo/ire sur l’ile de
Thasos (Paris, 1864); Conze, Retsen auf den
Inseln des Thrnlelschen M eeres (Hannover,
1860); Tozer, Islands of the ./Egean (Oxford,
1890) ; Jacobs, Thasiaca (Giittingen, 1893).
THATCH’ER, HENRY KNDX (1806-80). An
American naval ofiicer, born at Montpelier, near
Thomaston, Me. He entered the navy as a mid-
shipman in 1823; rose through successive grades
to the rank of commodore in 1862 and tothat of
rear-admiral in 1866. In 1862 he was placed in
command of the steam frigate Colorado, with
which he joined the North Atlantic Squadron.
In December, 1864, and January, 1865, he com-
manded the first division of Admiral David D.
Porter’s fleet in the attacks upon Fort Fisher,
and -showed so much ability that he was soon
afterwards appointed acting rear-admiral and
assigned to succeed Farragut in command of
the West Gulf Squadron. In cobperation with
Major-General Canby he then besieged and
captured the city of Mobile with its remaining
fortifications and the fleet of Confederate iron-
clads. Soon afterwards he occupied Galveston
without opposition, and so completed the con-
quest of the Gulf coast. In 1866 he was given
command of the North Pacific Squadron, a posi-
tion ‘which he held until 1868, when he was
placed upon the retired list.
THAULOW, tou’l6v, Fnrrs (1847--). A
Norwegian landscape painter, born in Chris-
tiania. He was a pupil of Siirensen at Copen-
hagen and of Gude at Karlsruhe. He became
known in France by his snow scenes, his night
scenes, his moonlights, and his depiction of
water. Examples of his work are “A November
Day in Normandy” (National Gallery, Berlin),
and “A Steamer on the Seine,” besides others in
the Luxembourg, the Pinakothek, Munich, and
the museums of Stockholm and Christiania.
THAU’MATUR'GUS. See Gnnconr THAU-
MATAURGUS, SAINT.
THAUN, ta'e'n', PHILIPPE DE (fi.c.ll00-
c.1135). The earliest Anglo-NormarI poet whose
work has come down to us. Little is known of
him. He probably belonged to a family near Caen,
France, whence he went to England. He wrote
“Li Cumpoz,” or “Computus,” the so-called “Livre
des Créatures,” about 1115. It is a poetical treat-
ise in six-syllabled lines on the ecclesiastical
calendar. Of its seven manuscripts three are in
the British Museum and three in the Vatican.
More important is “Li Bestiare,” or “Physiolo-
gus,” which the poet probably composed about ten
years later. It was dedicated to Adelaide, Queen
of Henry I. But one manuscript has survived.
viz., Cotton, Vespasian, E. x. It contains
3194 verses, consists of lines of six and eight
syllables, and rhymes in couplets. It is the first
French bestiary based on the Latin Physiologus,
one of the most noteworthy of the bestiaries
(q.v.). Philippe groups his creatures as beasts,
birds, and stones, and treats each creature as a
symbol. His allegories are in general naive;
those of the dove and the pelican are not without
beauty. He is more valuable for his linguistic
legacy in connection with the langue cl’ol'l than
for his poetic talents, which were in fact poor.
Consult: Mall, Li Cumpoz cle Philippe de Thailn
(Strassburg, 1873); and Walberg, Le bestiaire
de Philippe clu Thailn (Lund and Paris, 1900) .
THAUSING, tou’sing, MORITZ (1838-84).
An Austrian art critic, born near Leitmeritz,
Bohemia. He studied at Prague, Vienna, and Mn-
nich, and in 1868 became curator of the Arch-
duke Albert’s collection of drawings and engrav-
ings (Albertina, Vienna). In 1873 he was called
to the University of Vienna as professor of art
history. His publications include: Dlll/rers
Brlefe, Tagelrilcher and Reime (1872); Dllrer:
Gcschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst
(2d ed. 1884).
THAX'TER, CELIA [LAIGHTON] (1836-94).
An American poet, born at Portsmouth, N. H.
Her father was keeper of the United States Gov-
ernment lighthouse on the Isles of Shoals, where
her girlhood and much of her after life were
passed. In 1851 she married Levi Lincoln
Thaxter, a Browning scholar. Mrs. Thaxter’s
poetry was reflective of her quiet life on the
islands. It expressed with simplicity and deli-
cacy her feeling for the sea and its perils, and
also for the gentler aspects of nature. Her works
include: Poems (1872); Among the Isles of
Shoals (1873), a series of papers begun in the
Atlantic Monthly in 1867; Poems (1874) ; Drift-
Weed (1879); Poems for Children (1884) ; The
Cruise of the Mystery, and Other Poems (1886) ;
Idyls and Pastorals (1886); The Yule Log
(1889); An Island Garden (1894); Stories and
Poems for Children (l895).—Her son ROLAND
(1858—), botanist, born at Newton, Mass., pro-
fessor at Harvard since 1891, wrote numerous
monographs and contributions to scientific peri-
odicals in cryptogamic botany.
THAYER, thar or tha'er, ABBOTT HENDERSON
(1849—). An American figure, landscape, and
portrait painter, born in Boston, Mass. His
chief artistic training was derived at the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1875-79, mainly under
Gérome. Until 1891 he painted portraits and
occasional landscapes, but afterwards produc_ed
mainly ideal figure pieces. As a landscape
painter he achieved considerable success, but
THAYER.
THAYER.
638
his chief strength is figure painting, especially
in ideal subjects. One of his earliest success-
ful pictures was “Sleep,” the subject of
which i-s a beautiful infant. “Crossing the
Ferry” is noteworthy as being one of his few
pictures containing many figures. Among the
pictures for which his family posed are “Mother
and Child” and the “Angel,” which obtained a
bronze medal at the Paris Exposition of 1889,
and is perhaps the most widely known of his
pictures, excepting the more ambitious “Virgin
Enthroned” (1892). Among his later works are
“Florence,” a fine mural decoration in Bowdoin
College, and “Caritas.” Thayer was one of the
original members of the Society of American
Artists, of which he was for two years president,
and is perhaps one of the most personal and
original painters in American art. His style
seems thoroughly his own, and does not bear
the slightest impre-ssion of the school in which
he studied. His preference seems to be for single
female figures, which he invests with great dig-
nity and charm of expression, and treats with
great breadth of modeling, both in head and
drapery, and with a touch and application of
pigment peculiarly his own. -
THAYER, ARTHUR WILDEB (1857—). An
American composer, born in Dedham, Mass. He
studied singing under Charles R. Adams, har-
mony, counterpoint, and instrumentation under
George W. Chadwick, and conducting under
Karl Zerrahn. After conducting choral societies
in Lowell, Salem, Worcester, Providence, and
other towns, he was superintendent of music in
the public schools of Dedham and Milton. He
was afterwards director of music at Eliot Church,
Newton, and a member of the Harvard Musical
Association. His works are chiefly songs and
part-songs, many of which were written for the
Apollo Club of Boston. They include “Rosa-
lind’s Madrigal,” “Bugle Song,” “Sea-Greeting,”
and “The Quiet Moon upon the Clouds.”
THAYER, ELI (1819-99). An American edu-
cator, inventor, and anti-slavery agitator, born
at Mendon, Mass. He graduated at Brown Uni-
versity in 1845, and in 1848 founded Oread In-
stitute. He is chiefly remembered for his con-
nection with the ‘Kansas Crusade,’ the purpose
of which was to secure the admission of Kan-
sas as a free State. With this aim in view he
early in 1854. organized the Massachusetts Emi-
grant Aid Company; soon afterwards affiliated it
with the Emigrant Aid Company of New York;
and a year later reorganized the two under the
name of the New England Emigrant Aid Com-
pany. Local leagues were established whose
members emigrated to Kansas and settled in
localities where the company had erected hotels
for their temporary accommodation and had pro-
vided saw-mills and other improvements. The
company proved a financial failure, but its main
purpose was successful. Under its auspices the
towns of Lawrence, Topeka, Manhattan, Osawa-
tomie, and other places were settled, and in this
way contributed greatly to the saving of Kansas
- for freedom. (See KANSAS.) In 1856 Thayer be-
gan a somewhat similar but unsuccessful Work in
Virginia, and founded the town of Ceredo, con-
taining about 500 inhabitants from New England.
From 1857 till 1861 he was a member of the
National House of Representatives. He was also
an inventor, and he patented, among other things,
a hydraulic elevator, a sectional safety steam
boiler, and an automatic boiler-cleaner. He pub-
lished a volume of Congressional speeches (1860),
a collection of lectures (1886), and History of the
Kansas Crusade (1889) .
THAYER, JAMES BRADLEY (1831-1902). An
American lawyer and author, born at Haver-
hill, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1852
and at the Harvard Law School in 1856. From
that time until 1874 he engaged in the practice
of law, and from the latter year until his death
he was a professor in the Harvard Law School.
His publications include: Letters of Chauncey
Wright (1877); A Western Journey with Mr_
Emerson (1884) ; The Origin and Scope of the
American Doctrine of Constitutional Law
(1893); The Teaching of English Law in Uni-
versities (1892); Cases on Evidence (1892);
Gases on Constitutional Law (1895); The De-
velopment of Trial by Jury (1896) ; A Prelimi-
nary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law
(1898); and John Marshall (1901). Consult.
The Harvard Graduates Magazine, vol. X. (l901- .
02); and The Harvard Law Review (April,
1902).
THAYER, JOHN MILTON (1820—). An
American soldier and politician. He was born
at Bellingham, Mass., was educated at Brown
University, and was admitted to the Massachu-
setts bar. In 1853 he went West and in the fol-
lowing year settled at Omaha, Neb., which he
made his permanent home. In 1855 he was
elected major-general of the Territorial forces,
and until 1861 conducted the campaigns against
the Indians, in 1859 capturing the Pawnees and
placing them on a reservation. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he became colonel of volunteers
and served with distinction till 1865_ His
bravery at Fort Donelson and Shiloh brought
him the appointment as brigadier-general, in
which position he assisted Sherman in the siege
of Vicksburg. In 1867-71 he was United States
Senator from Nebraska, and in 1875-79 Governor
of Wyoming Territory. From 1887 to 1893 he
was Governor of Nebraska.
THAYER, JOSEPH HENRY (1828-1901). An
American biblical scholar, born in Boston.
He graduated at Harvard in 1850, and at An-
dover Theological Seminary in 1857. In 1864
he became associate professor of sacred literature
in Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1884
professor of New Testament criticism in Har-
vard Divinity School. He translated the New
Testament grammars of Winer (1869) and of
Buttmann (1873), and published A Greeh-Eng-
lish Leacicon of the New Testament (1886). He
was a member of the American New Testament
Company of Revisers of the Authorized‘ Version.
THAYER, SYLVANUS (1785-1872). An
American soldier, known as ‘the father of the
United States Military Academy.’ He was born
at Braintree, Mass., graduated at Dartmouth
in 1807 and at West Point in 1808, and en-
tered the corps of engineers, During the War
of 1812 he served under General Dearborn as
chief engineer of the Northern Army (1812);
under General Hampton as aide-de-camp and
chief engineer of the Right Division of the North-
ern Army (1813); and under General Porter
at Norfolk, Va., as chief engineer and brigade-
major (1814-15). The two following years he
THAYER.
THEATRE-.
639
spent in Europe studying fortifications and mili-
tary schools, and observing the operations of
the Allies. From 1819 to 1833 he was superin-
tendent of the Military Academy at West Point,
and during this time thoroughly reorganized
the institution, and made it one of the best of
is kind in the world. During the following
years he was employed in constructing fortifica-
tions and harbor improvements around Boston
and as a member of various boards until 1858,
when he was granted sick leave. In March,
1863, he was commissioned colonel of engineers
and shortly afterwards was brevetted brigadier-
general in the Regular Army. On June 1, 1863,
he was retired from active service. He gave
liberally to the cause of education. He founded
a free library and endowed an academy at Brain-
tree, and founded (1867) the Thayer Engineering
School at Dartmouth College.
THAYER, WHITNEY EUGENE (1838-99). An
American organist and composer, born in Men-
don, Mass. He was favorably known, in Europe
as well as America, for his musical attainments,
He was for a time editor of the Organist’s Jour-
nal and the Choir Journal, and served as the
conductor of the Boston Choral Union and New
England Church Musical Association. In 1881
he came to New York and was until 1888 organist
of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church. He
was the composer of many organ pieces, part
songs, and songs, but his greatest work was the
Festival Cantata for soli, an 8-part chorus, and
orchestra.
THAYER, WILLIAM Roscoe (1859-). An
American author and editor. He graduated at
Harvard College in 1881, and was editor of the
Harvard Graduate’s Magazine from its begin-
ning (1892). His verse writing is comprised in
The Confessions of Hermes (1884); Hesper, an
American Drama (1888) ; and Poems, New and
Old (1894). His most noted historical study
is The Dawn of Italian Independence (1893) , an
excellent and useful work. He also wrote History
and Customs of Harvard University (1898) and
Throne-Makers (1899), and edited The Best
Elizabethan Plays (1890).
THE'ETE'TUS (Lat., from Gk. Ocaimrog,
Theaite'tos)_ An important dialogue of Plato,
discussing all the answers to the question: What
is knowledge? The speakers are Socrates and
the Athenian youth Theaetetus.
THE’ATINES. A Roman Catholic religious
community, which played, next to the Jesuits,
the most important part in the movement for
reform from within the Church in the sixteenth
century. Its founders were Saint Cajetan (Gae-
tano da Tiene) and Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, at
that time Bishop of Chieti, from the Latin title of
whose see, Theate, the order took its name. With
two other friends, they obtained a brief of
Clement V1I., dated June 24, 1524, formally con-
stituting the new brotherhood, with the three
usual vows, and with the privilege of electing
their superior, who was to hold office for three
years. They were all to be priests. Their first
convent was opened in Rome, and Caraffa was
chosen as superior. He was succeeded in 1527
by Cajetan, and the congregation began to ex-
tend to the provinces, After a time, however,
it was thought advisable to unite it with the
somewhat analogous Order of the Somaschians
(q.v.); but this union was not of long con-
tinuance, Caraffa, who was elected Pope, under
the name of Paul IV., having restored the orig-
inal constitution in 1555. By degrees, the The-
atines extended themselves, first over Italy, and
afterwards into Spain, Poland, and Germany,
especially Bavaria. They did not find an en-
trance into France till the following century,
when a house was founded in Paris under Cardi-
nal Mazarin in 1644. To their activity and zeal
Ranke ascribes much of the success of the
Counter-Reformation in the south of Europe.
At the present time the Order numbers not more
than one hundred members.
There is an Order of nuns bearing this name.
It was founded in Naples, in 1583, by Ursula
Benincasa. It never spread out of Italy and
has now only a few nunneries_
THEATRE (OF. theatre, Fr. thédtre, from
Lat. thedtrum, from Gk. Géarpov, theatre, place
to view shows or plays, from 0edo'6al., theasthai,
to view, behold, from Oéa, then, view, sight). A
building used for the presentation of dramatic
and similar spectacles.
ANCIENT THEATRE. The theatre as a form of
architecture was originated by the Greeks and
naturally developed with the drama. At first
it was simply the open space near the Temple of
Dionysus, where the chorus danced about the
altar of the god while the solitary actor, perhaps
standing on the steps of the altar, carried on a
dialogue with their leader. It is probable that
at times the chorus of satyrs actually drew a
wagon containing the actor who impersonated
the god, and who naturally addressed his com-
panions from this vantage ground, and it is quite
possible to see in such a scene the ‘car of
Thespis,’ with which the founder of tragedy is
said to have traversed Attica. When tragedy
became a State institution at Athens, set places
for its performance were naturally provided;
one of these was the ‘Orchestra’ near the Agora,
a circular dancing place which was surrounded
by raised seats for the spectators. The other
theatre was in the precinct of Dionysus Eleuthe-
reus at the eastern end of the southern slope of
the Acropolis, afterwards occupied by the stone
theatre.
The earliest Athenian theatre was simply a
large circular place (6pX'fio-1-pa, orchestra, from
p6xéop.a¢, orcheomai, ‘dance’) about 75 feet in
diameter near the temple. On the hill rose the
seats for the spectators (Oéwrpov, theatron, in
the strict sense) , and these were further enlarged
by artificial mounds of earth, so as to form
rather more than a semicircle. The orchestra
was entered by two passages (1rdpo50t, parodoi)
from the sides. The nature of the ground was
such that at the rear it was raised some dis-
tance above the level of the sacred precinct, thus
affording an opportunity for an underground
passage, Charon’s steps, by which actors could
rise from the ground in the centre of the orches-
tra. There was at first no scenery or back-
ground, and some neighboring house was used as
dressing-room. In the centre of the orchestra
might be an altar or tomb or other structure,
probably of no great height. Such simple set-
tings are all that seem required for the earlier
plays of ]Eschylus, such as the Suppliants,
Seven Against Thebes, and Persians. Soon, how-
ever, an innovation was made, A tent (rrrcnvfi,
THEATRE-.
THEATRE-.
640
skéné) was introduced to serve as a dressing-
room, and this speedily became a building, ap-
parently erected just outside the circle of the
orchestra, and provided with three doors. It
might represent a palace or temple or any other
building called for by the play; or the front
might be covered with a painted scene, as in the
Birds of Aristophanes. During all this time
actors and chorus were on the same level in the
orchestra, except that gods and occasionally
other characters seem to have appeared on the
roof of the slcene. Our knowledge of this theatre
of the fifth century is partly based on the very
scanty ruins of the earliest structure, and partly
on the internal evidence of the plays themselves,
in Which there are many passages which imply
that actors and chorus are on the same level,
and none, with the exception above noted, that
clearly imply any raised stage for the actors.
In the fourth century, probably, the theatre at
Athens was rebuilt in stone, the orchestra being
moved farther back into the hill, and reduced
to about sixty feet in diameter, stone seats were
provided for the spectators, and outside the
circle of the orchestra was erected a long stone
skene, with projecting wings (1rapaam§ma, para-
sloénia). It seems probable that between these
wings the scenery was now displayed, but there
is no evidence, in the remains, of any raised
stage. The old view, still held in modified form by
many, is that in the fifth and fourth centuries
there was a stage for the actors, probably low,
in front of the slcene, and that when the chorus
was discontinued this was replaced by the high
platform of the Hellenistic theatre. Somewhat
later there was erected, a short distance in front
of the skene, a low wall (1rp0¢rIc/ymov, proskénion)
about twelve feet high, composed of columns, or
half-columns, supporting an entablature, and
with the intercolumniations filled with wooden
panels. There was a door in the centre, with
possibly two more near the sides. In front of
this structure the paraslcemla projected but a
little. The space between the skene and pro-
skenion was roofed over, forming a platform,
which varies in different theatres, but is from
10 to 12 feet in height and from about 7 to 9
feet in width, It is maintained by some that in
the plays of the Hellenistic time the actors ap-
peared on this level, as there was no chorus. On
this point the evidence is far from clear, but it
seems not improbable that actors in the drama
proper occupied the lower level, and that this
platform was for gods. In Asia Minor, under
the influence of modified conditions, another
type was developed by diminishing the height
and increasing the width of the stage, reducing
the orchestra to less than a semicircle. This
operation might be described as sinking a part of
the orchestra, for the lowest row of seats is fre-
quently (as at Aspendus) on a level with the
stage, and not, as in earlier Greek theatres, at
the level of the orchestra. It is to be noted that
this is not really a lowering and extension of the
proslcenion, for at the rear of the new stage ap-
pears a decorated front of columns or half-col-
umns and cornices, which forms a background
to the actor, similar to that formed by the old
proslcen/ion. There was no curtain in the Greek
theatre.
In the Roman theatre the plan is very similar
in outline, but the details differ widely. The
orchestra was only a semicircle, and was used
commonly for seats of honor. The other half
of the circle was covered by a low stage (pul-
pitum), whose depth was somewhat less than
a radius of the orchestra, and its width not over
two diameters. In the rear wall were three or
five doors, and in the side walls two, replacing
the old paradoi. A new entrance into the orches-
tra was provided by an arched passage under the
seats at the side. In the Roman theatre there
was a curtain which disappeared below the stage
when the performance began.
In Greece, outside of Athens, the chief theatres
are at Epidaurus, Eretria, Sicyon, Megalopolis,
Mantinea, Delphi, Oropus, and Delos. In Asia
Minor Greek theatres have been studied at Per-
gamum, Magnesia on the Maeander, and Priene,
while fine examples not fully excavated are at
Aspendus, Telmessus, and other sites. In Sicily
and Lower Italy the Greek theatres have been
altered in Roman times. Fine ruins remain at
Taormina, Syracuse, Segesta, Pompeii, and
Fiesole.
In Athens plays were performed only in con-
nection with the festivals of Dionysus (see
GREEK FESTIVALS), i.e. the Country Dionysia,
the Lenaea, and the Greater or City Dionysia.
It was at the latter that tragedy developed, and
here the great tragedies were first produced.
Comedy was at first confined to the Lenaea, but
after about 13,0. 465 was also part of the Greater
Dionysia. At this festival three tragic poets
competed, each producing a tetralogy, i.e. three
tragedies and a satyr play. One tetralogy seems
to have been performed on each of the three days.
The three comedians produced only one comedy
each, which seems to have followed on each day
the group of tragedies. The arrangements were
in charge of the Archon Eponymus, who chose
the three poets from among those submitting
works, and assigned to each a choregus, i.e. a
wealthy citizen upon whom devolved the expense
of the production. The production was a compe-
tition between the choruses, and the victorious
choregus dedicated a tablet to Dionysus. The
poets received a crown of ivy and a sum of
money_ Only three actors were allowed, and at
first it seems to have been usual for the poet to
play the leading role. Later, acting became a
regular profession, and troupes of three actors
were organized. After the fifth century B.C., and
perhaps earlier, the leading actors also competed
for a prize. The profession was not dishonorable,
and the actors seem to have been always free
citizens, as were the chorus. Women did not
appear on the stage, unless possibly as flute-
girls. The costume of the tragic actor was a
long tunic, with close-fitting sleeves often richly
embroidered, and a cloak or mantle, with some-
times a shorter tunic under the cloak. Masks
were also worn, and the stature was somewhat
increased by padding, a high top to the mask,
and thick-soled shoes (cothurml), which also
served to raise the actor somewhat above the
level of the chorus. The dress of the chorus
seems to have resembled that of daily life, except
of course in such cases as the Eumenides of
Aflschylus, where the Furies produced a great
impression by their awe-inspiring appearance.
The satyr chorus wore masks reproducing the
typical satyr countenance, a goatskin around
the loins, and phalloi. The comic actors wore
THEATRE.
THEATRE’.
641
tights, apparently often of gay colors, a short
tunic and cloak, a phallus, and comic mask; the
costume of the chorus varied with its character,
and the poets allowed free scope to the imagina-
tion, as in the Birds and Clouds of Aristophanes.
In the new comedy the dress was modified and
more nearly approached that of daily life, from
which the characters were taken, At the same
time there was introduced a typical series of
masks, so designed that the mask at once indi-
cated the character.
At Rome the drama, like the theatre, was
largely borrowed from the Greek, but it was not
a state performance by citizens, at least in its
developed form. The actors were troupes
(greges) of freedmen or slaves, and the plays
were in general adapted from the Greek, espe-
cially in tragedy, though the prcatemtw, in which
the hero wore the toga prcetewta and not the
Greek costume, were an attempt to treat na-
tional subjects in the Greek tragic style. In
the comedy were distinguished the palliata, based
on the Greek new comedy in which the Greek
cloak (pallium) was worn, and the togata,
treating of native life and character, and appro-
priately costumed. The plays were produced at
public games, and also at the games or shows
given on special occasions by private individuals.
Tl1e magistrate or giver of the games paid the
leader of a troupe (dominus gregis), who owned
plays and produced them. The theatre thus
never entered into or reproduced the national life
in Rome as in‘ Greece, and in later times the
favorite Roman shows were the Mimes and
Attellanoe, both of which seem to have been
marked by buffoonery and indecency.
MEDIEVAL AND MODERN. During the Middle
Ages theatrical performances consisted almost
wholly of religious or semi-religious allegories,
known as Mysteries and Miracle Plays, which
were given in churches, convents, or castle halls
and Without any elaborate staging. When per-
formed out of doors at fairs, a rude booth of
boards sufficed. No seats were provided for the
spectators. In 1548 the Paris Confraternity of
the Trinity built a theatre which was licensed
to perform “profane pieces of a lawful and hon-
est character.” There were no seats or scenery.
Until the end of the sixteenth century theatrical
performances were given in England by bands of
strolling players who had no permanent theatres,
but performed chiefly at fairs and in the court-
yards of inns, the most honored guests watching
the performance from the second or third story
windows and balconies, an arrangement that may
have suggested the different tiers of balconies in
the modern theatre. The first permanent play-
house in London was the theatre built by James
Burbage about 1576. The Globe Theatre, built
in 1598, also by Burbage, in which Shakespeare’s
plays were produced, was an hexagonal wooden
structure partly open at the top. In the central
court, or pit, the people stood, while the gentry
sat in galleries running around three sides of the
building, and a number of wits and gallants sat
upon the stage, which was concealed between the
acts by a curtain running upon an iron rod.
Shakespeare had no scenery beyond hangings and
curtains, a placard inscribed “This is a Forest,”
or “This is a Prison,” suflicing. Movable scenery
first made its appearance about 1650. Perform-
ances were given in the afternoon, except upon
special occasions, when candles were used and
kept snuffed by men who were duly applauded
for their dexterity in keeping the lights properly
trimmed. The first French theatres were modeled
after those of Italy, where theatres were built
about 1680 in Florence and Vicenza. The first
ballets performed under Louis XIV. were organ-
ized by Italians, who introduced movable scen-
ery, footlights, and sidelights. For Italian bal-
lets introduced into France in 1680, scenery
painted in proper perspective was first used, and
women were admitted among the dancers, the
female parts having been taken before that by
boys. In 1759 the chief Paris theatres abolished
the privilege of the gallants to sit upon the stage,
and the London theatres followed their example.
In Paris the custom had been so abused that the
actors in popular plays had no room; in a play by
Favart at the Theatre Francais in 1740, such was
the crowd that there was only room on the stage
for one actor to appear at a time. About
1660 women first appeared upon the English
stage, where their parts had until then been
played by boys or young men. In 1700 scenery
began to be painted upon different flats running
upon grooves in the stage, France leading the
way in stage decoration, with such famous artists
as Watteau and Boucher as scene painters. Dur-
ing the nineteenth century the pit, which formerly
contained no seats and was used by the common
people and by lackeys waiting for their masters,
changed its name and character. Both in
Europe and America the former pit, now known
as the orchestra, is filled with seats Which are,
with a few exceptions, the most expensive in the
theatre, while the cheapest places are now in the
top galleries.
According to Dunlap the first American theatre
was built in VVilliamsburg, Va., in 1752 by the
English actor William Hallam, who‘ brought a
company from England and was for years the
chief spirit in theatrical enterprises in the New
World. The first play produced was The Mer-
chant of Venice. About the same time a brick
theatre, with seats for about 600 persons, is said
to have been built in Annapolis. The first New
York theatre was opened by Hallam in Septem-
ber, 1753, in Nassau Street, upon the site of in
old Dutch church. Plays were given three times
a week. At the end of the season Hallam moved
to Philadelphia, where in April, 1754, he fitted up
a building near Pine Street and gave dramatic
performances. An actor named Douglass built
a theatre in 1754 near Old Slip, in New York,
which he called the Histrionic Academy, opening
with Jane Shore, and five years later he was also
the proprietor of a Philadelphia house. In 1759
Newport had its theatre and in the following
year one was built in Perth Amboy, then the
capital of the Province of New Jersey; the same
company played engagements in New York,
Philadelphia, Newport, and Perth Amboy. In
1757 another theatre was built in John Street,
New York. In 1773 Charleston and Boston had
their own theatres, and by the end of the century
there were others in Albany, Baltimore, and Rich-
mond.
The modern theatre consists, roughly speaking,
of two parts, the auditorium and the stage. The
first consists of suitable entrances, lobbies, re-
ception rooms, staircases, and means of approach
to the auditorium proper, which is commonly of
semicircular or horseshoe form, the floor sloping
down to the stage. According to the size of the
THEATRE.
THEATRE-.
642
house there are from one to four balconies, which
follow the curve of the horseshoe; in some of the
opera houses one or two of these balconies are
divided into boxes, each containing four or more
seats. The stage, which in houses intended for
opera or spectacular pieces is as large as the
auditorium, consists of the stage proper, a floor
with an upward incline from the footlights to the
rear wall of the theatre of about half an inch to
the foot; and on either side of the stage and at
the rear, there are spaces for the proper manipu-
lation' of scenery and for dressing-rooms. Above
the stage are the flies, where hang the pieces of
scenery to be lowered into place by ropes, and
below it corresponding depths into which the
scenery may be dropped. Gas, which replaced
candles for lighting purposes in Europe in 1823
and in this country about 1830, has within the
last few years given place to electric lights, mak-
ing possible better effects of lighting, and doing
away with much heat and foul air. One or two
men now control from a table at the side of the
stage the whole lighting of the house, raising or
lowering the lights in any part of it at will.
Lights are used upon the stage as footlights,
in the flies at the top, and in the wings at the
side. Calcium lights are used where great bril-
liancy is desired. Scene-painter-s and stage car-
penters now succeed in doing with case what would
have been considered impossibilities fifty years
ago. Moving scenery running upon vertical rollers
at either side of the stage makes possible the illu-
sion of horse-racing, while chariot races, railroad
trains, and steamboats in motion are represented
with much skill. The effect of lightning is pro-
duced by burning lycopodium powder or by elec-
tric sparks; the sound of wind by a metal cyl-
inder revolving against a piece of cloth or wood,
the sound of rain by shaking peas in a pan, of
thunder by the rolling of cannon balls, of church
chimes by bars 01' steel, and the illusion of snow
by small pieces of paper dropped through coarse
sieves. The magic lantern is also successfully
used. In the theatre which Richard Wagner
built at Bayreuth it is used to portray cloud
effects, the ride of the Valkyrs who fly through
the air, etc. At the Dresden Opera House, long
famous for its scenic devices, the remarkable
use of the magic lantern was first made in The
Rat Catcher of Hameln to simulate the army of
rats that came at the call of the Pied Piper
and drowned themselves in the river Weser.
Steam clouds were first used at Bayreuth
to hide the stage from the spectators while
the scenery was changed so as not to inter-
rupt the poem by dropping the curtain. Wag-
ner also used curtains of gauze with similar ef-
fects. The stage itself is now made in movable
sections, which allow scenery to be raised from
below as well as lowered from above. Twenty
years ago a double stage was constructed at the
Madison Square Theatre, New York, a small
house with insufficient stage room for the manipu-
lation of scenery; while the performance is going
on upon one stage, the scene-shifters and decora-
tors may work upon the other, which when the
curtains falls is lowered or raised into place for
the next act. Another innovation first tried ct
this house was to place the musicians above the
proscenium arch instead of in front of the foot-
lights; the object was to save space for seats.
As a protection against fire spreading from stage
' to auditorium or vice versa, an asbestos curtain
or one of sheet iron in sections is now used in
many theatres.
The prices for theatre seats in England in
Shakespeare’s time varied from one penny \to one
shilling. In the early American theatres the
prices were high——from three shillings for gallery
seats to six shillings for seats in the boxes. Prices
fell after the Revolution to 25 cents for gallery
seats and $1 for box seats. This remained about
the scale of prices until after the Civil War,
when there was a steady increase. In 1870 first-
class theatres in New York charged $1.50 for
orchestra seats and from 35 cents to 50 cents for
the top gallery. About 1886 a few New York
theatres began charging $2 for the best seats
in the orchestra and the first row in the first bal-
cony, and gradually all first-class theatres made
$2 the rice of orchestra seats, with $1.50 and
$1 for t e balconies, and 50 cents for the gallery.
For operatic performances $2 and $2.50 were the
prices for orchestra seats in the New York Acad-
emy of Music until 1878, when the price was ad-
vanced by the English manager, Mapleson, to $3.
A few years later, with the advent of Madame
Patti, the price rose to $5 for orchestra seats, at
which it has since remained. In other large cities
such as Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago, the
prices for theatre and operatic performances are
about one-third less. In London the best the-
atres charge $2.50 for good seats, and in Paris
the price is but little less. In Germany, with
the exception of Berlin, the price of the best
geats for either opera or drama seldom exceeds
1.50.
Although the Paris Grand Opéra, built in 1866-
72 from the designs of Charles Garnier, at a cost
of about $4,000,000, is the most luxurious the-
atre in the world, the chief opera houses in Mu-
nich, Dresden, and Vienna are quite as perfect
in their way and superior to the Paris house
acoustically. The Metropolitan Opera House of
New York is the only American theatre that cor-
responds with those mentioned in size and ap-
pointments. The famous Bayreuth Opera House,
built by Richard Wagner in 1876 for the first
performance of his Nibelungen trilogy, con-
tained many novelties, of which the chief was an
orchestra-pit so depressed below the level of the
auditorium as to render the musicians invisible
to the audience. The new Prince Regent Theatre
at Munich, built in 1902, and devoted chiefly to
Wagnerian performances, far surpasses the Bay-
reuth house in most respects, and is now con-
sidered the model opera house of Europe. In
France and Germany the State subsidizes its
chief theatres. In Paris four theatres——the
Grand Opera, the Opéra Comique, the The-
atre Frangais, and the Odéon—are allowed a
yearly subsidy, in return for which they agree to
produce a certain number of new works by native
authors and composers and to give a certain num-
ber of free performances. In Berlin, Dresden,
Munich, and Vienna the chief opera house and
the chief theatre are under control of the State.
The actors, singers, musicians, and other em-
ployees are entitled to pensions.
LAW or THEATRES. For legal purposes, a the-
atre is a house or building adapted and used
for the purpose of dramatic performances. The
courts differ in the various States as to what may
be considered a dramatic performance, but gen-
erally almost any exhibition on the stage is in-
cluded in this term. Thus, negro minstrel shows
THEATRE-.
THE-BAIS.
643
and ‘comic operas’ have been held to be theatrical
performances within a law governing theatres.
Laws regulating theatres are a constitutional
exercise of the police power. Because of the
necessity for such regulation, in some States
theatres are considered as enterprises of such a
public character that they come within the State
laws prohibiting the discrimination against per-
sons because of race or color, thus making their
obligations in this particular similar to that of
hotels and common carriers. However, by the
weight of authority a theatre ticket is always
a revocable license as to any person, and prob-
ably even in the States prohibiting such dis-
crimination, theatrical managers could refuse to
sell a ticket, or refuse to admit a person with a
ticket without assigning any reason, and thus
evade the statutes. Where proper notice is given
to purchasers of tickets, the management may
make it a condition that tickets shall not be
transferable. This may be done by printing
such conditions on the back of the tickets them-
selves and by notices posted at the theatre, or by
giving actual notice to purhasers. Under such
circumstances theatrical managers may refuse to
honor tickets bought from speculators. The
spectators may applaud or hiss the players in
moderation, but must do so to express their spon-
taneous emotions, and not come with the inten-
tion of stopping or interfering with the per-
formance, as in the latter case they may be
ordered to leave the theatre and be forcibly re-
moved if they refuse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. ANCIENT THEATRE. The best
general account in English, except on the stage
question, is Haigh, The Attic Theatre (2d ed.,
Oxford, 1898); a good brief statement is Bar-
nett, The Greek Drama (London, 1900). The
standard work on the construction of the theatre
is Diirpfeld and Reisch, Das griechische Theater
(Athens, 1896). Other good works are: A.
Miiller, “Die griechischen Biihnenaltertiimer,” in
Hermann’s Handbuch der griechischen Antiqui-
tiiten (Freiburg, 1886) ; Bethe, Prolegomena zur
Geschichte der Theaters im Altertum (Leipzig,
1896); Puchstein, Die griechische Biihne (Ber-
1i'n, 1901). See also Frazer’s Pausanias, vols.
ii. and v. (London, 1898), against Diirpfeld;
and in the voluminous periodical literature,
Capps, The Greek Stage According to- the Ewtant
Dramas, Transactions of American Philological
Association, vol. xxii. (Boston, 1891); Pickard,
The Relative Position of the Actors and Ghorus
in the Greek Theatre of the Fifth Century B.O'.,
in American Journal of Philology, xiv. (Balti-
more, 1893).
MEDIEVAL AND MODERN. Dunlap, History of
the American Theatre and Anecdotes of the Prin-
cipal Actors (New York, 1832), the best account
of the early American theatres; Malone, History
of the Stage (London, 1821), an exhaustive ac-
count of the English stage to the beginning of
the nineteenth century; Pougin, Dictionnaire
historique et pittoresque du thédtre (Paris,
1885), a full history of French theatres; Garnier,
Le nouoel opéra de Paris (ib., 1876), an elabo-
rate treatise on opera houses, by the architect of
the Paris Opera; and Ordish, a series of excel-
lent articles on early London theatres published
in The Antiquary (1885-86). For the theatre
in its legal aspects, consult: Wandell, Law of the
Theatre (Rochester, 1892) .
THEATRE DES ITALIENS, ta’:-w-.r' as
ze'ta’lyaN’ (Fr., theatre of the Italians). A for-
mer theatre of ‘Paris from which the Boulevard
des Italiens derives its name.
THEATRE FRANCAIS,
French national theatre.
QAISE.
THEATRE LIBBE,1é>’br’ (Fr., free theatre).
The name of a dramatic enterprise founded in
1887 by Andre Antoine, then a young Parisian
clerk. With some fellow amateurs of the Gaulois
Club he arranged the production (March 30,
1887) of four new one-act plays at the Elysee des
fr'2iN'sa'. The
See CCMEDIE FRAN-
Beaux-Arts at Montmartre, and in the course of '
the year formed the association of the Theatre
Libre, to be conducted upon the following prin-
ciples: the season to consist of eight different
representations, one each month from October to
June; no tickets to be sold to the public; the
enterprise to be supported by subscribers who
with invited guests should form the only audi-
ence. The design was to give young authors a
chance to try their strength; and also, for art’s
sake, to produce plays which for any reason, po-
litical or moral, might be forbidden by the cen-
sorship if undertaken at a public theatre. In an
artistic way the Theatre Libre won success,
though it excited much debate from the first. Its
founder aimed to do away with all conventional-
ity and to attain a degree of realism often
thought out of the question upon the stage. In
its first eight years, about 150 writers contributed
works for its performances, and a considerable
proportion of these previously unknown pieces
Were afterwards accepted and brought out by
other theatres. At the same time such famous
writers as Zola, the Goncourts, Mendes, Bergerat,
Ibsen, and Tolstoy also found presentation here.
Financially, however, M. Antoine found his dif-
ficulties accumulating, and in 1894 he accepted a
position as an actor at the Gymnase Theatre.
For a short time he was a director of the Odéon
(1896); then he resumed the direction of the
Theatre Libre, for several years located in the
Salle des Menus-Plaisirs and known since 1897
as the Theatre Antoine. To this the general pub-
lie is admitted in the usual way, though sub-
scribers still retain their special privilege at
eight representations a year. The idea of the
Theatre Libre has been copied in the Freie Biihne
of Berlin, and in similar more or less ephemeral
institutions in London and other cities.
THEATRUM EUROPJEUM (Lat., survey
of Europe). A chronicle of events which appeared
in volumes at Frankfort-on-the-Main between
1616 and 1718. During one portion of its ex-
istence it was illustrated with copper-plate en-
gravings. In all 21 volumes were issued. The
work was in part the forerunner of political jour-
nals.
THEBAIS, the/ba-is or the-ba"1's (Lat., from
Gk. Onflais). (1) The territory of Thebes, in
Egypt. In later times the name was applied by
the ancients to Upper Egypt. (2) An ancient
Greek epic giving in 7000 verses the story of
the house of Labdacus, and the attack of_ the
seven chieftains on Thebes. (3) A dull and long-
drawn work by P. Papinius Statius, dedicated
to Domitian. It contains in 12 books the story
of the contests of Eteocles and Polynices.
THE-BAN CYCLE.
THE-BES.
644.-
THEBAN CYCLE. The name given to a
series of ancient Greek epics treating the legends
of Thebes. It includes the Thebais (q.v.); the
Epigoni, a poem of about 7000 lines, telling of
the capture of the city by the descendants of the
heroes of the Thebais ,' and the (Edipodeia, attrib-
uted to Cinaethon, a Lacedaemonian, containing
about 6000 lines and giving the story of (Edipus.
THEBES, thebz (Lat. Thebre, from Gk.
Oij,8aL). A celebrated city of ancient Egypt, situ-
ated on both sides of the Nile in about latitude
25° 50' N. Its old Egyptian name was Weset,
but in later times it was also called N u(t) Amen,
‘the city of Ammon,’ Nu(t) ‘o, ‘the great city,’
or simply Nu(t), ‘the city’ (urbs) ; in the Old
Testament it is called No or No Amon, and in
the Assyrian inscriptions its name appears as
Ni’. By the Greeks, who identified the god
Ammon with Zeus, it was sometimes called
‘Diospolis, ‘the city of Zeus,’ and it was specially
designated as ‘Great Diospolis’ to distinguish it
from ‘Lesser Diospolis,’ the modern Hon. The
origin of the more usual Greek name Gijficu
is obscure. Thebes was the capital of the fourth
nome of Upper Egypt, and was a very ancient
city, but did not rise to importance until the time
of the Eleventh Dynasty, which was of Theban
origin. Under this and the following dynasty the
city was the capital of Egypt, and some of its
oldest temple buildings date from this period.
Its real greatness, however, begins with the ex-
pulsion of the Hyksos invaders by the Theban
princes, who united the whole land under their
sway (Eighteenth Dynasty), and adorned their
city with temples and palaces of unprecedented
magnificence. The kings of the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Dynasties added to the work of their
predecessors, and for centuries Thebes was the
chief residence of the Egyptian Pharaohs and far
surpassed all other cities of the land in wealth
and splendor. The persecution of the worship
of Ammon by the heretic King Amenophis IV.
(q.v.), and the temporary removal of the seat
of government to Tel el-Amarna, affected Thebes
but little. Seti I. and especially Rameses II.
(c.1340-1273 B.C.) restored the desecrated sanc-
tuaries and lavished enormous wealth upon
the Theban temples. Under the Twenty-first
Dynasty, however, Thebes ceased to be the
capital of Egypt, and from this time gradu-
ally declined in importance. In the seventh
century 13.0. it was again the seat of gov-
ernment, for a time, under the Twenty-fifth or
Ethiopian Dynasty, but when the capital was
removed to Sais (q.v.) by the following dynasty
(Twenty-sixth), it began a new period of de-
cline. Its temples were repaired and new build-
ings were erected by later monarchs, especially
by the Ptolemies, but, overshadowed by the rise
of new cities, it gradually sank to the position of
an insignificant provincial town. Its great
temples sustained serious injuries in the course
of various revolts against the Ptolemies, and
were further ruined by an earthquake in B.C. 27..
In the time of the geographer Strabo (13.0. 24)
Thebes was a ruined city as at present, its site
being occupied merely by a few scattered villages.
The city proper lay upon the east bank of the
river between the great temples now represented
by the ruins of Luxor (q.v.) and Karnak (q.v.) ;
a. little to the north was the suburb Ma’du, the
modern Medamut, with a temple built by Amen-
ophis II. (Eighteenth Dynasty) and dedicated to
the Theban war god Mont (q.v.). Additions
Were made to this temple by Seti 1., Rameses 11.,
and several of the Ptolemies, but it is now al-
most entirely destroyed. On the west side of
the river were suburbs of considerable size, and
Rameses III. seems to have built his palace in
the neighborhood of his memorial temple at
Medinet Habu (q.v.), but in general this side of
the river was occupied by the Theban necropolis,
which extended to the Libyan range. It con-
tained numerous temples, erected as memorials of
the Egyptian kings, and to these temples were at-
tached dwellings for the priests, schools, gran-
aries, stables, barracks, and other buildings.
Nearer the hills were the dwellings of the arti-
sans whose employment was in the necropolis:
stone-masons, builders, painters, sculptors, and
especially the embalmers. There were also inns
for the entertainment of visitors, and many shops
for the sale of funeral offerings and other ob-
jects. The necropolis, in fact, formed a great
city, and under the New Empire was under the
direction of a high official entitled the ‘Prince of
the Western City.’ The principal memorial
temples of the Theban necropolis, beginning at the
north, were those of Kurnah (q.v.) and Deir el-
Bahri (q.v.), the Ramesseum (q.v.), and that
of Medinet Habu (q.v.). The Temple of Deir
el-Medineh, dedicated to the goddess Hathor,
lies a little to the west of the Medinet Habu.
It was founded by Ptolemy IV. Philopator, was
completed under Ptolemy Philometor and
Ptolemy Euergetes 11., and in Christian times
was converted into a monastery. Between the
line of memorial temples and the hills are the
cemeteries of Drah Abu’l Negga, Asasif, Abd el-
Kurnah, and Kurnet Murrai. The rocky hills
bordering on the plain of the necropolis are
honeycombed with tombs. In a narrow valley
to the north of Kurnah are the tombs of the
kings, in which were buried the monarchs of
dynasties XVIII.-XX. Each of these tombs con-
tains a number of galleries and chambers whose
walls are covered with paintings and religious
texts. Strabo states that forty of these
tombs were worthy’ of special attention; twenty-
five of these are now accessible. The tombs of
the queens, to the west of Medinet Habu, are
for the most part in an unfinished state. A few
of them, however, dating from the Eighteenth
Dynasty, are elaborately constructed and are rich-
ly adorned with sculptures and paintings. Near
Kom el-Hetan, between Medinet Habu and the
Rame-sseum, are two colossal statues of King
Amenophis 111.; they originally stood before a
temple erected by the King, but only traces of
the building now remain. The more northerly
of these colossi, the famous ‘vocal Memnon’ (see
MEMNON) ,was in no way distinguished from other
colossi. The chief deities worshiped at Thebes
were the great god Ammon (q.v.), his spouse
Mut (q.v.), and their child Chons (q.v.). See
Luxos and KABNAK.
Consult: Description de l’Egypte (Paris, 1809-
29) ; Lepsius, Denkmiiler (Berlin, 1849-58) ; Wil-
kinson. Topography of Thebes (London, 1835);
Mariette, Monuments of Upper Egypt (ib.,
1877) ; Wiedemann, Geschichte des alten Aegyp-
tens (Berlin, 1878).
THEBES (Gk. 965,30“, Thebai). The principal
city of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, situated in
\
THE-BE S.
THE-INER.
64-5
the southeastern part of the country, on the
northern slope of a ridge which separates the
valley of the Asopus from the plain to the
north. The Acropolis or Cadmea, now occupied
by the little town of Thiva or Phiva, lay on
the high ground between the Ismenus and Dirce.
At its greatest extent the ancient city seems to
have extended beyond both streams. According
to legend, Cadmus (q.v.) was the founder of the
city—hence Cadmea as the name of the Acropo-
lis. The city played a prominent part in the
stories of the heroic age, the series of epics (see
THEBAN CYGLE) vying in interest with those
which gathered about Troy. For these stories,
see (EDIPUS; ANTIGONE; ETEo0LEs AND PoLY-
NICES; CREON; AMPHIGN; DIRGE. After the
Boeotian invasion Thebes seems gradually to
have secured the leading place in the Boeotian
lea'gue, reducing finally the rival city of Orche-
menus. Tradition told of the code of laws
drawn up for the city in the eighth century
B.0. by the Corinthian Philolaus. It is not till
near the end of the sixth century B.0. that we
reach a purely historical period-—the earliest
well-attested event being the dispute between
Thebes and Plataea, which resulted in the latter
placing itself under Athenian protection, and
the former becoming involved in an unsuccessful
war. During the Persian invasion under Xerxes
Thebes sided with the invaders, and fought
against the confederated Greeks at Plataea B.0.
479. This conduct greatly weakened for a
time the prestige of Thebes, and almost cost
her the headship of the Boeotian league. After
the battle of Coronea (B.0. 447), however, the
tendency to revolt was checked, and from this
time Thebes was almost continuously the
recognized leader in Boeotia. When the Pelopon-
nesian war broke out, Thebes took part with
Sparta, and at its close was eager for the de-
struction of Athens. But the policy of victorious
Sparta soon aroused distrust, and Thebes gave a
friendly welcome and shelter to those Athenians
whom the oppression of the Thirty Tyrants
(q.v.) compelled to abandon their city. It was
from Thebes that Thrasybulus and his band
started on their famous expedition for the de-
liverance of Athens, accompanied by a body of
Theban citizens. During the following years the
Thebans completely changed their policy toward
Sparta, and in the Corinthian War were among
the bitterest enemies of their old ally. The Peace
of Antalcidas (13.0. 387), as interpreted by
Sparta, broke up the Boeotian league, and led
to new disputes, culminating in the treacherous
seizure of the Cadmea by the Spartans (B.0.
382). The expulsion of this garrison by Pelopi-
das and his associates (B.0. 379) led to renewed
hostilities, which culminated in the battle of
Leuctra (13.0. 371), where Epaminondas (q.v.)
crushed the power of Sparta outside the Pelo-
ponnesus. Before his death at Mantinea in B.0.
362, Epaminondas had secured for Thebes the su-
premacy in Greece, though Athens was estranged
and even openly hostile. Thebes did not long
hold the position thus gained. The quarrel
with Athens prevented any union against the
growing power of Macedon, until the seizure
of Elatea (13.0. 338) furnished an opportunity
for Demosthenes to secure by his eloquence
a union for which he had long striven. The
effort came too late, and in the same year
the battle of Chaeronea crushed the liberties of
Greece.
After Phi1ip’s death the Thebans made a fierce
but unsuccessful effort to regain their freedom.
Their city was taken by Alexander, who leveled
it to the ground, sparing, it is said, only the
house of the poet Pindar, and sold the entire sur-
viving population into slavery (R0. 335). For
twenty years it remained in utter desolation, but
in 13.0. 315 it was rebuilt by Cassander, who
gathered into it all the Thebans he could find in
Greece. It now had a circuit of about five miles,
and seems to have prospered. It suffered at the
hands of Mummius (B.0, 146) and was severely
punished by Sulla for siding with Mithridates.
After this it steadily declined, and Pausanias
found only the Cadmea inhabited, and the lower
city in ruins. It revived under the later Roman
Empire, as it was a safer residence than the ex-
posed coast cities. During the eleventh and
twelfth centuries it was the seat of a consider-
able population engaged in the manufacture of
silk, and yielded a rich booty to Norman
plunderers in A.D. 1146. Under the Turks it
again declined, and even now is only a country
town with a population of about 3500. The
course of the town walls can be traced in some
places, and deep digging has brought to light
some remains, but in general there are but few
vestiges of the ancient city left. Consult Fabri-
cius, Theben (Freiburg, 1890).
THEDENAT, ram-na', HENRI (1844—). A
French archaeologist, born in Paris. He studied
in the Ecole Pratique des Hautes-Etudes at the
Sorbonne, devoting himself especially to epigraphy.
His publications, in collaboration with Heron de
Villefosse, include Les caehets d’oculistes ro-
mains (1882) and Inscriptions romaines de Fre-
jus (1885). He also wrote Le Forum romain
et les Forums impérieuw (1898), and Une car-
riere uniuersritaire, J ean-Félia; Nourrisson
(1901).
THEFT. See LARGENY.
THEINE. See CAEEEINE.
THEINER, ti’ner, AUGUsTIN (1804-74). A
German Roman Catholic historian and canonist.
He was born at Breslau and educated there and at
Halle, where he took his degree as doctor of law
in 1829. His intercourse in Paris with Lamen-
nais (q.v.) seems to have disturbed his religious
views, but he was reconciled with the Church at
Rome in 1833, and became a teacher in the Col-
lege of the Propaganda. After his ordination to
the priesthood, he entered the Congregation of
the Oratory, and published several historical
and critical works. In 1850 he was placed in
charge of the Vatican archives. In 1870 he was
removed from the position of archivist, apparent-
ly in consequence of the charge that he had
supplied documents with which to combat the
theory of the infallibility of the Pope, His most
important work was the new edition of the
Annals of Baronius and his continuators, with
three supplementary volumes. Important also
are the collections of documents on the ecclesias-
tical history of various countries and of the
Council of Trent. In his Geschichte des Pontifi-
cates Clemens XIV. (1853), he attacked the
Jesuits and roused fresh suspicions of his loyalty
to the Church, which were confirmed by his
H istoire des deua: con-cordats de la républiquc
THEINER.
THEISM.
646
(Philebus, 30.)
frangaise en 1801 et 1803 (1868), and by his
friendly intercourse with the German Old
Catholic leaders. He died of apoplexy at Civita
Vecchia. Consult Briick, Geschichte der kathol-
ischen Kirche in Deutschland (Mainz, 1896).
THEISM (from Gk. 0e6s, theos, god). The
theory which assumes a living relation between
God and His creatures, though it does not neces-
sarily define it. It also carries with it, in many
theories, the personal implication, and explains
the universe in terms of divine reason and will.
The intellectual genealogy of this conception, in
its historical aspect, is very ancient, dating
back to the early thought of the Greeks. In the
philosophic theism of Socrates, which was a
reply to the irreligion of the Sophists, we find
a clear conception of a Divine Personality and
an attempt to prove its existence. Socrates
makes use of the doctrine of final causes for this
purpose, maintaining, against the Sophistic ma-
terialism, that the universe is the product of
benevolent moral will (Phaado, 96, 199); that
this will holds personal relations with all his
creatures, and seeks to bring the highest good
to all. This he taught while practically all the
East worshiped the objects of nature (sun, trees,
etc.) as God, and, therefore, Socrates may be
regarded as the founder of theism as understood
in the West. Plato added little to the funda-
mental conception except to develop it by means
of his doctrine of the Idea (ldéa, sides). The
absolute Idea is the Good, i.e. God. In the Re-
public (509 b.) we accordingly read: “All in-
telligible beings derive their being and their
essence from the good.” To this thesis he ad-
duces four proofs, all bearing on Socrates’s idea
of final cause. (1) From the notion of efficient
cause. All things proceed from some cause, and
the cause must be adequate to produce what
exists. (S’0phist, 205 b.) (2) From the ideal
nature of the Cause. If there be a universe of
real things, as no one can doubt, it can proceed
only from an ideally perfect cause, i.e. from God.
(3) From the idea of cause as
motion. All motion implies a self-mover, i.e.
an adequate originating cause for the motion and
change. (Laws, x.) (4) From the finality of
cause, All things seek their end. The end must
be moral, and therefore transcendent. In other
words, the universe must at last prove itself to
be a revelation of the Good, i.e. God. This is the
heart of the Platonic theism. “Let me tell you,
then, why the Creator made this world of gener-
ation. He was good, and the good can never
have any jealousy of anything. And being free
from jealousy, He desired that all things should
be as like Himself as they could be.” (Tim.
29.)
Aristotle’s argument is the same as Plato’s,
but deeper in its empirical developments. He
rises, synthetically, through nature, to his proof
of the divine existence. In the eighth book of
his Physics he gives us what he calls his ‘proof
of the First-Mover.’ Everything that is in mo-
tion is moved either by something else or by
itself. If the former be the case, we are obliged
to follow up the series of causes until we arrive
at the idea of a self-mover, i.e. an immovable
cause having its end in itself. Hence the first-
mover must have been set in motion by itself,
i.e. it is a self-mover. But, inasmuch as, com-
monly speaking, it is essential to the idea of
motion that there be something to be moved, it
follows that there may be three kinds of movers:
first, the mover that imparts motion and is
moved; second, the mover that is movable in it-
self but immovable in relation to others; and
third, the mover that is immovable both in itself
and in relation to others. It is the last kind
alone that gives us the speculative foundation of
theism; for this is the mover that moves the
rest of the world and is nevertheless absolutely
immovable by anything external to itself; a true
cause of the origin and end of all things.
Augustine, the most eminent of the early
Christian thinkers, adopted the Platonic theism,
seeking to combine it with the Christian views.
He accepted substantially all the principal
proofs of God’s existence and His providential
government as these had been prepared in Greek
thought; but there were points where he added
to previous thinking. The Greeks had put a gulf
between God and the world, so great that the
tendency was to separate them absolutely.
Augustine completed this by declaring that God
made the world out of nothing, and without the
aid of intermediate agents. Second, Augustine
taught that God creates out of His mere good-
ness and bounty, not because He has need of
anything; so that in creating He adds nothing to
His nature. (C'onf. xiii. iv.). This view struck
at the Stoic pantheism, at the Oriental theories
of emanation, and at the fundamental weakness
of the platonic theism, the failure to define the
nature of the relation between God and the finite
world.
The various other proofs of the existence of
God given in the Middle Ages pursue two
methods, one a priori, the other a posteriori
That is, one starts in Platonic fashion with the
idea of a perfect being and infers its existence
from this idea; the other argues, after Aristotle,
from the evidences of order and perfection in the
world to the idea of a perfect being who is the
author of them. Anselm is an early and promi-
nent representative of both this and the a priori
or ontological argument, which assumes that
God is a being of such a nature that it is im-
possible to conceive any greater. The defect of
this argument, as Gaunilo pointed out, consists
in arguing from existence in thought to existence
in fact. From the former, of course, we can
logically infer nothing but an ideal thought-
existence. '
Other theistic proofs during the Middle Ages
were concerned with the course of nature and
history. Thus Duns Scotus declared that the
impossibility of conceiving an infinite chain of
natural causes necessarily carried the mind to
the idea of a great First Cause adequate to the
production and preservation of the world. Aqui-
nas also (Summa 1., qu. 2) reaches the same
conclusion, a contingentia mundi, reproducing
Aristotle’s proofs almost word for word. The
contemplation of final causes, though not exten-
sively meditated upon, led to very similar logi-
cal results from the cosmological point of view;
for mediaeval thinkers were fond of dwelling on
the fact of the imperfection of the physical and
of inferring therefrom the existence of a perfect
being in whose spiritual essence the soul could
find the ground of the Christian faith. Thus
we find that theism received the stamp of Chris-
tian ideas; that the greatest minds in the medias-
THEISM.
THTE-ME.
647
val period gave it their support because they
found in it the ground of the harmony of specu-
lative reason and piety,
In modern times philosophical meanings have
largely supplanted the theological. Thus Des-
cartes, the most important modern thinker on
this subject, developed his theism only after
sweeping aside all presuppositions derived from
a supernatural source or from the symbols of
the Church. Starting with the bare fact of
thought (cogi-to, ergo sum), he argues that there
must be an adequate cause for the thought of
God in the mind. By this thought Descartes
says that he means “a substance infinite, eternal,
immutable, independent, all-knowing, all-power-
ful; by which 1 myself and every other thing
have been produced.” (Med. iii.) Now this
thought cannot be a mere negation; for it has
reality. Nor can it have arisen by adding many
ideas together; for it is simple. Could it have
arisen as a result of my growing intelligence?
No; because the idea does not admit of growth:
God is infinite always and does not admit of
more or less. Hence the idea must have a divine
origin. A second proof may be stated thus. We
need this idea in order to explain to us the
immediate existence and continuance of the
universe. God is not only needed as a Creator,
or logical Prius of the universe, but much more
as a Preserver. A merely primary creative
cause might be lost in the infinite complex of
secondary causes, as in pantheism or deism, but
the immediate dependence and continuance of
the universe involves the idea of a preserving
and sustaining cause, not only that of an orig-
inating one. A true cause must, therefore, be
adequate to the task of -continuing the universe
from moment to moment. The existence now
of a universe involves the self-existence of its
absolute Cause. As a third proof Descartes re-
vived Anselm’s so-called ontological argument,
ie. the argument from the idea of a most perfect
being to its existence. Reality, in his view, is as
much a part of the idea of a perfect being, as the
angles of a triangle are of the essence of our idea
of a triangle, or the perfume of a rose of our
idea of a rose.
Kant, in the third part of his Dialectic,
criticises this argument of Descartes, He does
not, indeed, deny the fact that we have the idea
of a perfect being, but he doubts if from the idea
we have any right to infer its real existence,
since it is possible for us to have an idea (for ex-
ample, of a centaur) that does not‘ correspond to
any object. And inasmuch as all possible proofs
of the existence of God are reducible to this one,
the ontological, Kant considers that all the argu-
ments of Descartes and of the mediaeval thinkers
failed to establish their point. Accordingly he
proposed a new and infallible proof, the so-
called practical or moral arguments for the
existence of God, which is as follows. We have
the notion of a moral law; conscience responds
to the categorical moral imperative. Universal
experience proves that happiness and virtue in-
volve each other and cannot be separated. Obe-
dience to these moral conditions is the law of life,
of conduct, and character; for the wicked are
never, in the long run, happy. Now, said Kant,
for this conviction there is needed a cause,
supreme and infinite; a cause capable of clinch-
ing this relation between happiness and virtue
to all eternity; a cause which will secure the
triumph of justice as against the moral in-
equalities of the present life. This moral cause
we call, by faith, God. Thus the only ground
for insisting on ‘proofs’ of the existence of this
cause is for Kant the subjective need of a cause
of the moral law within our souls, and further
than this Kant held it was impossible for the
human mind to go.
Hegel disagreed with Kant’s conclusions, and
sought to revive the ontological argument of
Anselm and Descartes, in a new form, contending
that the idea of a perfect being was an expres-
sion of the nature of all thought and all reality.
He refused to believe that the traditional sepa-
ration of thought and thing, upon which Kant
depended, represented any real or valuable dis-
tinction. For him thought and reality are the
same. We cannot ever get ‘beyond’ thought. To
put a barrier, as Kant did, between thought and
thing is, for Hegel, to cease to think. All recent
reflection on the theistic problem rests on this
idealistic presupposition of Hegel. He may,
therefore, be regarded as furnishing present-
day theism with its most valuable logical founda-
tion.
Consult: Harris, The Philosophical Basis of
Theism (New York, 1883) ; Flint, Theism (Edin-
burgh, 1887); Ladd, The Doctrine of Sacred
Scripture (New York, 1884); Bowne, Theism
(ib., 1903); Fisher, Grounds of Theistic and
Christian Belief (ib., 1883; new ed., ib., 1903).
THEISS, tis (Hung. Tisza, Lat. Tissus) . The
largest tributary of the Danube, and, next to the _
latter, the principal river of Hungary (Map:
Hungary, G 3) . It rises in the Carpathian Moun-
tains and flows first westward, then south, the
lower half of its course being parallel with that
of the Danube below Budapest. It joins the
Danube about 30 miles above Belgrade. Its total
length, including the smallest windings, is about
800 miles. In its upper course through the nar-‘
row mountain passes it is rapid and clear, but in
the great plain of Central Hungary it is very
sluggish, and winds between low, marshy banks.
The country here is subject to disastrous inunda-
tions, and large sums have been expended in at-
tempts to regulate the flow of the river and drain
the marshes. The Theiss is navigable for boats
to Mzirmaros-Sziget near its source, but steam-
boats ascend generally only to Szegedin at the
mouth of the Maros (q.v.), the chief tributary.
From the lower course of the river a canal runs
westward to the Danube. The Theiss is famous
for its fish.
THELLUSSON (tel’l1"1s-son, or Fr. pron., av-
lu’soN') ACT. See PERPETUITY.
THEME (Lat. thema, from Gk. 6é,u.a, thing
laid down, deposit, prize, proposition, subject,
from rzdévaz, tith-enai, to set, place; connected
with Skt. dha, OChurch Slav. deti, Lat. con-dere,
to put, place, OHG. tuon, Ger. thun, AS. d6n,
Eng. do) . In music, a term which is in a general
sense synonymous with subject or motive (q.v.).
Every composition is built up from themes which
constitute the basic material. In a specific sense,
the theme of a fugue is the subject (dux). In
variations the theme is a complete musical idea,
generally of periodic structure. It is always
played in its entirety before the variations be-
gin. See SONATA; SYMPHONY.
THE-MIS.
THE-NARI).
648
THE’MIS (Lat., from Gk. 6é,u¢s, justice
personified, from ndévar, tithenai, to set, place).
In Greek mythology, the goddess and guardian of
the eternal laws, established by the gods. In the
Hesiodic theogony she is called the daughter of
Uranus and Gaea (heaven and earth), the wife of
Zeus, and, by him, mother of the Horse (hours)
and Moerae (fates). In ZEschylus she is identified
with Gaea, and called mother of Prometheus. As
guardian of the due order of things, she was also
possessed of prophecy. The popular conceptions
do not seem to ha.ve distinguished sharply be-
tween Themis and Gaaa, and at Athens we hear of
Ge Them-is as a single divinity. At Rhamnus
she was honored in the Temple of Nemesis, and
here has been found a fine statue by Chaires-
tratos of Rhamnus, an artist of the early third
century 13.0.
THEMIS’TIUS (Lat-., from Gk. 96)/.Z<r'rios)
(?-c.388 A.D.). A Greek rhetorician of Paph-
lagonia, surnamed Euphrades (eloquent), who
lived at Constantinople, as a teacher of phi-
losophy and oratory. Though a pagan in re-
ligion, he was highly honored by several of the
emperors for his nobility and learning. He was
tutor to Arcadius, the son of Theodosius, who
1nade him prefect i11 384. There are extant 34 of
his speeches (rroiwrucol), which, though chiefly
eulogisms in compliment to various emperors,
contain interesting allusions to contemporary
history, and instructive quotations from the an-
cient philosophers; and four of his paraphrases
of portions of Aristotle. The orations have been
edited by Dindorf (Leipzig, 1832); the para-
phrases by Spengel (Leipzig, 1866).
THEMIS’TO (Lat. from Gk. 6e,u.w-re':). In
Greek legend, the third wife of Athamas. Her
husband, on discovering that his former wife, Ino,
was still alive, sent for her, and Themisto in re-
venge planned to slay Ino’s children. With this
intention she directed a new slave to clothe her
children in white and Ino’s in black, but Ino,
who was herself the slave in disguise, reversed
the command, and Themisto killed her own chil-
dren, whom she did not distinguish in the night.
THEMIS’TOCLES (Lat., from Gk. 6ep.wro-
xhiis, Themistohles) (c.5l4-449 B.C.). An Athe-
nian general and statesman, born about no.
514, the son of Neocles, an Athenian citizen of
middling station and circumstances, and a Ca-
rian or Thracian woman. After the battle
of Marathon (B.C. 490), when the first in-
vasion of the Persians had been successfully re-
sisted, Themistocles, with keen foresight, recog-
nized that the final decision of the question of
supremacy would come on the sea, and that the
only way for the Greeks to be victorious was to
have a large fleet. He aimed, therefore, at the
development of a strong Athenian navy. To this
end be persuaded the Athenians to devote the
proceeds arising from the working of the silver
mines at Laurium, which it was intended to dis-
' tribute among the citizens at large, to the con-
struction of a strong fleet. He secured the pas-
‘sage of a law that a certain number of new
triremes should be built every year. From the
time of the expulsion of Aristides by ostracism
(13.0. 483), Themistocles was at the head of
the politics of Athens, and in RC. 481 was
made archon eponymus. When it was learned
that Xerxes was preparing a powerful arma-
ment wherewith to invade Greece, and the
Athenians had been told by the Delphian
oracle to defend themselves with the ‘wooden
wall,’ it was Themistocles who interpreted this
answer as referring to the ships of Athens. At
the battle of Artemisium (B.C. 480) Themistocles,
who was commander of the Athenian fleet, which
was the largest in Greece, consented to fight un-
der the Spartan commander, Eurybiades, but it
was only through the former’s tact and adroit
use of bribes that the Greek commanders were
finally induced to make a stand in that place;
This engagement was indecisive. In the same
year, at Salamis, was fought the battle which
shattered the naval power of Xerxes. Here again
Eurybiades was commander-in-chief, and here
again it was owing to the efforts of Themistocles
alone that the Greeks were induced not to re-
treat to the Isthmus of Corinth, but to give bat-
tle in their present position. He threatened, if
a separation were now made, that the Athenians
would take their women and children and sail to
Italy, there to found a new home. Finally, he
precipitated the contest, by dispatching to Xerxes
a secret message to the effect that, if the Persians
wished to crush the Greek fleet, they should ad-
vance to the attack without delay, before the
Greeks had an opportunity of fleeing. After the
battle of Salamis Themistocles was the most im-
portant man in Greece. When the Persians had
retreated from Greece andlthe Athenians under-
took to restore their city, the Spartans, sending
an embassy to Athens, urged the Athenians not
to attempt to rebuild the fortifications. Then
Themistocles, going on an embassy to Sparta,
entertained the Spartans with his false pro-
fessions, and kept the matter in abeyance till
such time as the walls were sufficiently advanced
to allow of their being defended. In B.C. 471 he
was ostracized and retired to Argos; and finally,
to escape being tried for treason, in which, ac-
cording to some accounts, he was implicated
by the correspondence of Pausanias, he be-
took himself in B.C. 465, to the Court of
Artaxerxes, King of Persia; but before he would
see the King himself, got permission to wait a
year, during which he made himself master of the
language and usages of the country. At the end
of this time he managed to raise himself so high
in the King’s favor that, after the Persian fash-
ion, the town of Magnesia was appointed to sup‘-
ply him with bread, Lampsacus with wine, and
Myus with other provisions. He lived securely at
Magnesia until his death in B.C. 449. Some au-
thorities assert that he poisoned himself. A
monument was erected to Themistocles in the
market-place of Magnesia, and it is said that his
bones were secretly taken to Attica, and there
burned. Consult: Wecklein, Ueber Themistohles
(Munich, 1892); Bauer, Themistohles (Merse-
burg, 1881).
THENARD, ta’ntir’, LOUIS JACQUES (1777-
1857 ). A French chemist, born at Nogent-sur-
Seine. He was professor of chemistry at the
Ecole Polytechnique, at the College de France, and
at the University of Paris. From 1810 he Was a
member of the Institute. His original researches
resulted in numerous important contributions to
chemistry. He improved the methods of ultimate
organic analysis; investigated the compound
ethers or esters; discovered the peroxide of hydro-
gen, cobalt ultramarine (Thénard’s blue), etc.
He published: Traité de clwmie étémcntarre,
THE-NARD.
THE-ODOLITE,
649
théorique et pratique, which passed through sev-
eral editions, and, jointly with Gay-Lussac, two
volumes of Recherches physico-chimiques (1811).
THE’OBALD I. King of Navarre. See THI-
BAUT I.
THEOBALD, LEWIS (1688-1744). A Shake-
spearean editor, born at Sittingbourne, in
Kent. Though educated for the law, he early
turned to literature. He wrote and adapted
plays, and made translations from Sophocles,
Aristophanes, and other Greek authors. In 1725
Pope published an edition of Shakespeare, work
for which he was ill equipped. Theobald sharp-
ly reviewed it in a volume entitled Shakespeare
Restored (1726). Pope retaliated by making
Theobald the first hero of the Dunciad (1728).
Early in 1734 Theobald brought out his own edi-
tion of Shakespeare in seven volumes. At the
time of his death Theobald was at work on an
edition of Beaumont and Fletcher, which ap-
peared six years later. Theobald’s original prose
and verse is of little account, but as a textual
critic he possessed rare insight. His one aim
was to divine, in a corrupt passage, what Shake-
speare wrote, and he made over 300 corrections,
which have been generally adopted. Consult Col-
lins, Essays and Studies (London, 1895). See
Porn, ALEXANDER; DUNCIAD.
THEOBROIVIINE (from Neo-Lat. Theobroma,
from Gk. 066$ theos, god —I— )3p(.),ua, bromd,
food), C,H8N,O2. An organic substance chemi-
cally allied to uric acid and still more closely
related to cafleine (theine). It is found in con-
siderable quantities in chocolate and may be ex-
tracted from cacao-nuts. It may also be obtained
from the lead salts of xanthin by the action of
methyl-iodide. Theobromine is a white crystal-
line substance sparingly soluble in water and
forming crystalline compounds with both acids
and bases. Among the compounds of theobromine
may be mentioned theobromine-sodio-salicylate, a
substance obtained by mixing sodium salicylate
with sodium-theobromine, and used in medicine
under the name of diuretin. Diuretin acts as a
diuretic without having any action upon the
heart.
THEOC’RITUS (Lat., from Gk. Oeékpvros,
Theolcritos) (c.310-c.245 B.C.) . The first and
greatest of the Greek bucolic poets. The details
of his life are not clearly known. He was com-
monly reckoned a Syracusan, although there is
reason to believe that Cos may have been his
birthplace. In any case, he spent considerable
time in that island and Eastern Greece, where he
was acquainted with the elegiac poet Philetas and
the writer of epigrams Asclepaides, whom tra-
dition makes his teachers, and also with the
physician Nicias of Miletus and the poet Aratus
of Soli. He spent some time at the Court of
Ptolemy Philadelphus in Alexandria and also at
the Court of Hiero II. at Syracuse; but the ex-
act dates for these periods cannot be determined;
as the chronological order of his poems is uncer-
tain. He appears to have returned later to
Eastern Greece, where he met his death. We have
current under his name 31 poems and a number
of epigrams. Of the longer poems 10 are bucolic,
three are mimes in imitation of the mimes of
Sophron and very similar to the recently discov-
ered mimes of Herondas, and the other poems are
of varying subjects and character, while a few
are spurious. Theocritus displayed marvelous
power in uniting artistic and popular elements
in his verse in a way which has never been
equaled by his followers and imitators. His lan-
guage is, for the most part, a modified Doric;
two poems are in the literary ZEolic. In spite of
the fact that Theocritus lived in an artificial pe-
riod when scholarship rather than poetic genius
flourished, there is still in his work a simplicity,
a fidelity, and a love of nature that has given
him universal fame. His dramatic and mimetic
power was great, so that his peasants, shepherds,
reapers, and fishermen have a real existence and
are not merely literary creations, as the char-
acters of all his imitators have been. He was
imitated by Bion and Moschus among the Greeks,
and by Vergil most successfully among the R0-
mans. Important editions are by Ahrens (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1855), and especially by Ziegler (Til-
bingen, 1879). The best edition with commen-
tary is by Fritzsche-Hiller (Leipzig, 1881).
There are English editions by Snow (London,
1885) and by Cholmeley (ib., 1901); English
translations by Calverley (2d ed., Cambridge,
1869) in verse, and by Andrew Lang (New York,
1880) in prose. Consult also Legrand, Etude
sur Théocrite (Paris, 1898).
THEODICY (from Gk. 6e6s, theos, god +
dim, dike, justice). The exposition of the theory
of divine providence, and particularly the defense
of the goodness and wisdom of God against ob-
jections drawn from the existence of pain and sin
in the world. The problem is as old as human
thinking; the name is n1odern and dates from the
close of the seventeenth-century. The first to
consider the question in its entire scope was
Leibnitz (q.v.) in his Essais de théodicée (1710).
In England a long list of publications has ap-
peared, principally in reply to the sensational
school beginning with Hume and closing with J.
S. Mill, who could scarcely maintain the exist-
ence of God, and saved His benevolence only at the
expense of His omnipotence. In America, where
Jonathan Edwards made contributions to the dis-
cussion in his famous Freedom of the Will
(1754), and was followed by Bellamy, VVisdom
of God in the Permission of Sin (1758) ; Hopkins,
Sin Through the Divine Interposition an Advan-
tage to the Universe (1759) ; and many others,
down to N. W. Taylor, whose contribution to the
subject may be condensed in the hypothesis that in
the best moral system a benevolent God might
not be able to prevent sin consistently with the
maintenance of the system and the attainment of
the highest results therefrom. He thus gave a
place to the human will which no theologian of
orthodox descent had previously given. Since the
appearance of Hegel, the Christian idea of God
has met with new objections, and theodicy has
been enlarged to consider these, especially by
Maret and Gratry in France. The appearance of
pessimism in Germany has given a new turn to
the argument, since it is no longer possible to
assume as undisputed the principle of Leibnitz,
that God has chosen the best possible world. And
with the appearance of evolution and the Spen-
cerian agnosticism, the argument has turned to
the more fundamental matters; so that theodicy
has almost disappeared as a distinct department
of theology.
THEODOLITE (of uncertain ‘etymology;
perhaps from Gk. 0ec'i0'0aL, theasthai, to see+ ‘
THE-ODOLITE.
THE-ODORET.
650
666:, hodos, .way + M1-6:, litos, smooth, even;
hardly from Gk. 0r-:¢'z‘,o0aL, theasthai, to see +
6o7\rX6s, dolichos,-long) . An instrument used in
surgery especially in geodetic work for the meas-
urement of horizontal and vertical angles. It is
larger than the transit and, having larger and
more carefully graduated circles, is employed in
measuring angles Where the highest accuracy is
demanded. In its main features it is similar to
this instrument, but differs chiefly in that its
telescope does not revolve completely or ‘transit’
in its horizontal axis. The description and il-
lustration under ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS will
convey an idea of its essential characteristics,
while reference should also be made to the article
Gnonnsv, where the method of measuring angles
is discussed.
THE’ODO’R.A (c.508-48). A Byzantine Em-
press, wife of Justinian. She was the daugh-
ter of Acacius, the keeper of the wild beasts at
the circus of Constantinople, and after his death
was for a time a favorite on the stage and a com-
mon prostitute. She fascinated Justinian, nephew
of the Emperor Justin I., by her great beauty, and
about 525 he married her. Thereafter she led an
exemplary domestic life. In 527 Justinian be-
came Emperor, and Theodora henceforth exerted a
commanding influence upon public affairs. She
Was extremely cruel, and her numerous spies
ferreted out all who were opposed to their royal
mistress.
she prevented Justinian from fleeing and brought
about the suppression of the insurrection. Most
of our information concerning Theodora is de-
rived from Procopius’s Anecdota. Consult:
Marrast, La /vie byzantine an VIe‘rne siecle
(Paris, 1881) ; Mallet, “The Empress Theodora,”
in the English Historical Review, vol. ii. (Lon-
don, 1886) ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, ed. by Bury, vols. iv. and v.
(ib., 1898).
THEODORA (‘Z-867). Byzantine Empress.
She was born in Paphlagonia and in 829 married
the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), whom she
succeeded in the government as Regent for her
four-year-old son Michael III. While her hus-
band was a violent iconoclast, she was attached to
the worship of images, and consequently expelled
the iconoclasts from office and recalled the ban-
ished image-worshipers. She also convoked the
Constantinople synod of 842 which restored the
images to the churches, a triumph annually cele-
brated in the Greek Church by the Sunday of
Orthodoxy (the first Sunday in Lent). Her rule
was on the whole wise, but some of her wars
were unfortunate. When Michael came to the
throne in 856 he deprived his mother of her po-
sition and she died in a convent.
THEODORA. A member of the Roman no-
bility, who lived in the tenth century. She was
very beautiful, of unknown parentage, wife of
the Consul Theophylact. She ruled Rome and
controlled the Papacy for a long term of years,
calling herself by the title of Senatrix. She Was
the mother of Marozia and Theodora II., who
were equally licentious and unscrupulous. She
placed several of her creatures on the Papal
chair, among whom John X. may be specially
mentioned. . Consult Gregorovius, -History of the
City of Rome During the Middle Ages, trans-
lated by Hamilton (London, 1895-1902).
At the time of the Nika Riot (532).
THEODORE, King of Abyssinia. See ABYs-
SINIA.
THEODORE I., King of Corsica. See NEU-
HOE, Tnnonon voN.
THE’ODORE OF M01-“’SUES’TIA (0.350-
428). The most noted biblical scholar and the-
ologian of the school of Antioch. He was born
in Antioch, was educated under the rhetorician
Libanius, and studied theology with Diodorus.
At the age of thirty-two he was made presbyter
of the Antiochian Church, and in 392 he became
Bishop of Mopsuestia, a little village in Cilicia,
about 40 miles from Tarsus. In fame and influ-
ence he surpassed all the other Christian teach-
ers and writers of the East. His biblical scholar-
ship seems almost modern. His commentaries
have in many cases perished, but enough remains
to ‘show his historical spirit, and the simple,
literal method of interpretation which character-
ized the school of Antioch, as against the mys-
tical, allegorical method of Alexandria. Theodore
expounded almost all the books of the Bible. He
also wrote on the Incarnation and various other
theological topics. Soon after his death, charges
of doctrinal error began to be brought against
him, yet no word of censure was spoken by the
Council of Ephesus (431). He had no doubt fa-
vored the Pelagians, and the fact that he had
been the teacher of Nestorius was afterwards
remembered against him. Opposition to his the-
ology continued and increased until the fifth
general council (Constantinople, 553), when he
was explicitly condemned, in connection with the
‘Three Chapter Controversy.’ Yet Theodore
remains one of the truly great teachers of the
ancient Church, worthy to be compared with
Origen, whom he equaled in knowledge of the
Bible, and surpassed in soundness of its inter-
pretation. Part of the remains of Theodore’s
works are printed in Migne, Patrologia Grce‘ca,
vol. lxvi. The Latin version of his commentary
on the minor Pauline Epistles has been edited
by Swete (Cambridge, 1880-82), and the Syriac
version of his commentary on John by Chabot
(Paris, 1897). The best general account of
Theodore in English is the article by Swete in
Smith and Wace’s Dictionary of Christian Biog-
raphy, vol. iv. Consult also, Moeller, History
of the Christian Church, vol. i. (London, 1892) ;
Bardenhewer, Patrologie (Freiburg, 1901) .
THEODORE OF TAR’SUS (c.602-690).
Archbishop of Canterbury. He was born at
Tarsus ; studied at Athens; became a monk; early
distinguished himself as a scholar and was fa-
miliar with Greek and Latin literature; was con-
secrated at Rome as Archbishop of Canterbury
by Pope Vitalian and arrived at his see May 27,
669. He did a great work for the Church in
England, which at the time of his coming had
sunk to a low state. He divided his large dioceses
into more manageable ones; appointed worthy
bishops; promoted learning and clerical disci-
pline; increased the monasteries; held progres-
sive synods; and so left the Church a compact and
enlightened body. See ENGLAND, Cnunon OF.
THEOD’0RET (Gk. Geodaipnros, Th60d6i‘ét08)
(c.393-457). A Creek Church historian and
biblical scholar. He was born at Antioch, of
Christian parents, and studied theology under
Theodore of Mopsuestia (q.v.). Theodoret is to
be classed with the Antiochian school, as opposed
THE-ODOBET.
THEODOSIUS.
651
to the Alexandrian. He was rational rather than
mystical in his theology, and historical rather
than allegorical in his biblical interpretation.
He entered the monastic life at Apamea, and was
10th to leave his monastery when made Bishop
of Cyrus in Syria (423). Theodoret achieved
great success in winning back to orthodoxy the
survivors of the ancient Marcionites (see MAB-
CION), and in suppressing the use of Tatian’s
Diatessaron, a compilation of the Gospels which
had long been currentin Syria. (See TATIAN.)
His connection with the cause of Nestorius
(q.v.) , which began in his youth, continued until
near the close of his life. He stoutly opposed
Nestorius’s condemnation at Ephesus (431), and
denounced the famous ‘Anathemas’ of Cyril,
which had been launched against Nestorius
shortly before. His own orthodoxy was seriously
questioned, and the ‘Robber Synod’ (449; see
Ernnsus, COUNCILS or) deposed him from his
see, only, however, to be reinstated by the Council
of Chalcedon, two years later. Under great pres-
sure by the Council of Chalcedon, Theodoret was
finally prevailed upon to anathematize Nestorius,
but he did it with the utmost reluctance, and it
is doubtful whether his real opinion was ever
changed. About 200 of his letters survive, giv-
ing valuable information on the events of his age.
Most important perhaps of all his works is the
Ecclesiastical History, written in continuation of
Eusebius, and bringing the narrative down to
428. His Works have been several times edited,
e.g. by Schultze (Halle, 1769-74), and Migne,
Patrologia Grceca, lxxx.-lxxxiv. An English
translation of the History, Dialogues, and se-
lected Letters, with valuable prolegomena, is
given in The Nicene Fathers, edited by Schafi‘
and Wace, second series, vol. iii. (New York,
1892). Consult: Harnack, History of Dogma,
vol. iv. (London, 1898); Bright, Age of the
Fathers (ib., 1903); Schubert-Moeller, Lehr-
bnch der Kirchengeschichte (Tiibingen, 1902).
THEOD'0RIC I., King of the Visigoths (419-
51). See Gorns.
THEODORIC (Lat. Theooloricns), surnamed
the GREAT (c.454-526) . The founder of the Ostro-
gothic Kingdom in Italy. He was born on the
banks of the Neusiedler See, in Pannonia. His
father, Theudemir, was one of the three brothers
who on the death of Attila (A.D. 453) freed their
nation from the yoke of the Huns, and being the
representatives of the royal line of the Amali,
exercised a united sovereignty over it. In his
eighth year Theodoric was sent as a hostage to
the Eastern Emperor and was trained in all
kinds of athletic and martial exercises. He
returned to his people about 473 and in 474
succeeded his father as head of the nation. In
the previous year the Ostrogoths had obtained
parts of Mcesia and Dacia, as settlements, from
the Emperor Zeno. For the next thirteen years
Theodoric was frequently engaged in strife, some-
times against the Empire, sometimes in its ser-
vice. In 484 he was made consul; in 478 he rav-
aged Thrace. The Emperor, to free himself from
Theodoric, gave him permission to invade Italy,
a suggestion gladly adopted by the warlike mon-
arch, who began his march in 488, and arrived
in the summer of 489 on the frontiers of Italy.
Odoacer (q.v.), King of Italy, the first of the
Germanic rulers of that country, was both fore-
warned and forearmed; and a desperate battle
Von. XVI.—4i’..
.leum by Theodoric’s daughter.
was fought near Aquileia (August 28, 489), the
result of which was decidedly to the advantage
of the Ostrogoths. A second and more dis-
astrous defeat was inflicted on Odoacer near
Verona (September 27th), after which he took
refuge in Ravenna ; but having again gathered a
large force, he was totally routed a third time on
the banks of the Adda (August, 490), and again
blockaded in Ravenna, while the whole of Italy
was being subdued; and having at last surren-
dered, was treacherously murdered (March, 493).
Theodoric now assumed the title of King of
Italy, resisted the claim of suzerainty preferred
by the Eastern Emperor, and with the exception
of a victorious campaign against the Franks, to
compel them to cease their assaults on the Visi-
gothic dominions, the suppression of a rebellion
in Spain against the authority of the infant
monarch, his own grandson Amalric (during
whose minority Theodoric administered also the
government of the Visigothic kingdom), and an
expedition against the robber hordes of the Bul-
garians, the whole of his long reign was devoted
to the consolidation and development of his new
kingdom. His followers received only one-third
of the conquered country; the rest was legally
secured to the rightful possessors. He made Ra-
ven‘na his capital, occasionally, when his northern
frontier was threatened, removing to Verona.
Theodoric showed no desire of further con-
quest; cultivated the friendship and esteem of
the surrounding nations; ruled all classes of his
subjects with irresistible authority, but with cor-
responding justice and moderation; zealously pro-
moted agriculture and commerce; and, himself an
Arian, exhibited a tolerance of all other sects which
was then almost unknown. The one great error
of his administration consisted in his wholly
neglecting to assimilate his Ostrogothic subjects
with the previous inhabitants, either by a com-
mon code of laws or by common official prefer-
ment. Theodoric left no son; but his daughter,
Amalasuntha (q.v.) , succeeded him as regent for
her son, Athalaric. Theodoric became a hero of
many Germanic legends under the name of
Dietrich of Bern. Among the men who held
office under Theodoric were Boiéthius and Cassi-
odorus. The former, who had incurred the
suspicions of the monarch toward the close of
his reign, was unjustly put to death. Consult:
Hodgkin, Theodoric the Goth (London and New
York, 1893) ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. iv.,
ed. by Bury (London and New York, 1898);
Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, vol. iii. (Ox-
ford, 1885); Dahn, Die Kiinige der Germanen,
part iii. (Wiirzburg, 1866).
THEODORIC, TOMB OF. A structure near
Ravenna, Italy, erected about 530 as a mauso-
It is now the
Church of Santa Maria della Rotonda. The edi-
fice rests on‘ a substructure of ten arches and
has a flat dome, 36 feet in diameter, formed of
a single block, reputed to weigh 470 tons.
nrnonosrn, the’o-do’shi-a, or FEODOSIA.
A seaport of the Crimea. See KAFFA.
THEODOSIUS, thé'o-do'sh'i-us. The name of
three Roman emperors.—THEoDosIUs I., sur-
named THE GREAT, Emperor from 379 to 395,
was of Spanish descent, and was born either
at Italica, or more probably at Cauca, near
Segovia, about A.D. 346. His father, also
named Theodosius, was the great general of
THEODOSIUS.
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
652
the Roman Empire, who, after freeing South
Britain from the Caledonians, and anni-
hilating the formidable rebellion of the Moor
Firmus, was beheaded at Carthage in 376. Theo-
dosius, who had accompanied his father in his
British campaigns, and afterwards, by routing
the Sarmatians, saved Moesia from devastation,
retired from active service after his father’s
murder, and occupied himself with the care of
his patrimonial lands in Spain. But on the de-
feat and death of Valens (q.v.), his colleague,
Gratianus (q.v.), feeling his inability to sustain
alone the cares of empire, summoned Theodosius
from his retirement, invested him with the Im-
perial purple, and intrusted to him, January 19,
379, the administration of Thrace, Dacia, Mace-
donia, Egypt, and the East, and especially the
protection of the Empire against the Goths. This
last charge called for the full exercise of the
new Emperor’s abilities, for the army at his
command dared not face the Goths in the open
field. Theodosius found it most prudent to sow
jealousy and dissension among them by promises
and bribes, and after a four years’ so-called cam-
paign, succeeded in pacifying the Visigoths, the
Ostrogoths retreating toward Scythia. The lat-
ter returned in 386, their ranks swelled by
Scythians, but were totally routed in attempting
to pass the Danube, and the survivors were trans-
ported to Phrygia and Lydia.
In 387 Theodosius undertook to restore to the
throne of the Western Empire Valentinian II.
(whose sister, Galla, he married), the brother of
Gratian, who had been expelled by Maximus; and
after a uniformly successful contest, the usurper
was captured and put to death at Aquileia (388).
In 392 the suspicious death of Valentinian and
the elevation of the puppet Eugenius by Arbo-
gastes, the real ruler of the West, again sum-
moned Theodosius to interfere; and after two
years of preparation his army gained a complete
victory over the army of the West, and the two
portions of the Roman Empire were again united
under one ruler. The union, however, lasted
only four months, owing to the death of Theodo-
sius, January 17, 395. Theodosius, though a
professor of the orthodox Christian faith, was
not baptized till 380, and his behavior after that
period stamps him as one of the most cruel and
vindictive persecutors who ever wore the purple.
His humiliation before Saint Ambrose, Bishop
of Milan, for the massacre at Thessalonica, was
regarded by the Church as one of its greatest
Victories over the temporal power. See AM-
BROSE.
Tnnonosms II., Emperor of the East from
408 to 450, was the only son and successor of
Arcadius (q.v.). He was but seven years old
when he ascended the throne. The chief
events of his reign were the invasion of the Em-
pire by the Huns under Attila, a war with
Persia, renewed efforts to extirpate paganism,
and the compilation of the Codex Theodosianus.
See Conn.-—-Tnnonosrus III. was an unim-
portant Byzantine Emperor (A.D. 716-717), who
abdicated after a few months’ reign.
THEODOSIUS, ARCH OF. A triumphal arch
at Rome, erected in A.D. 405 at the approach to
the Pons Vaticanus, in honor of the three em-
perors Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius, in
commemoration of their destruction of the Goths.
THEOG-’NIS (Lat., from Gk. Géoym) (6th
century B.C.). A Greek elegiac poet, born at
Nisaean Megara. During the conflict in his na-
tive city between the aristocratic and democratic
parties, in which he took the side of the aristo-
crats, he lost his estate and was reduced to
poverty and driven into exile. He appears to
have visited Sicily, Bceotia, Euboea, and Sparta,
and later, apparently under changed conditions,
he returned to his native city. Theognis is the
only elegiac poet whose works have come down
to us in anything like complete condition. We
possess under his name 1389 verses in two books
which set forth the political belief and ideals of
the Dorian oligarchs. The work is fragmentary
and has suffered largely from interpolations.
The genuine remains of his work are valuable
evidence as to the state of political parties and
social conditions in the sixth century. The frag-
ments are edited by Bergk in his Poetae Lyrici
Grazoi (4th ed., Leipzig, 1882); by Ziegler (2d
ed., Tiibingen, 1880); by Sitzler (Heidelberg,
1880); and by Hartmann in his Studies in
Theognis (Cambridge, 1902).
THEOGONY (Lat. theogonia, from Gk.
0eo'yo1/Za, generation of the gods, from Geés,
theos, god + -70vZa, -gonia, generation, from 76v0s,
gonos, seed). A genealogy of the gods. The
earliest theogonies among the Greeks were that
of the epic cycle, of unknown authorship, now
lost, and the extant work of Hesiod. According
to Pausanias, the poems of Onomacritus, who
lived at the close of the sixth century B.C., belonged
to this class. The Orphic theogony, which had
a great influence among the Neo-Platonists, was
composed at a late period, although it may have
embodied much of the earlier Orphic doctrine.
See Hnsron.
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION. The system
of training in theology, with special reference to
professional preparation for the work of the
ministry. It will naturally have to be considered
under two main heads, owing to fundamental
differences in the point of view.
THE CATHOLIC SYSTEM.
The older system of theological education, that
prevailing in Catholic institutions, is the result
of a gradual historical development from the
beginning of the Church. Although the aim and
ideal have remained unchanged, the matter has
broadened and the lines widened and deepened
in response to the demands on the Church’s or-
ganic activity. The training of the subject,
the man, has ever been its first and most im-
portant function—consisting in the assimilating
of his mind to the object matter of the theo-
logical disciplines and of his conduct to the ideal
of the priestly vocation. The first thologians were
educated and instructed in the school of Christ.
They in turn handed on to their disciples what
-they had received from their master. Its matter
was the Bible, the Old and New Testament, the
latter especially, with the oral interpretation
gathered and treasured from the instructions of
Jesus. The form was simple, unsystematic,
adapted to the synthetic soul rather than the
analytic mind. Both aspects——the matter and
the form-—-are indicated with sufficient detail to
enable one to estimate their character in the
letter of Saint Paul to Titus and his two letters
to Timothy. Contact with Judaism developed
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
653
a somewhat more definite exegesis, and conflict
with paganism a direct apologetic. The neces-
sity of defining anddefending the explicit con-
tent of revelation resulted in a gradual growth
of dogmatics, with a well-marked branch of
polemics, while the bearings of the new reli-
gious-moral truths on the growing complexities
of life in the world and the cloister necessitated
an unfolding of moral and ascetical theology.
Eusebius in the meantime had founded ecclesi-
astical history, and with the Decretists and the
Decretalists canon law received an organic shape.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire educa-
tional activity, theological as well as secular, was
practically confined to the monasteries, and was
limited to the conserving of the materials in-
herited from the past.
Throughout the Middle Ages the various
branches of the theological curriculum became
more systematic and coiirdinated. Biblical study
was emphasized, though principal attention was
given to the philosophico-theological systema-
tization of the speculative content of religious
faith and to the motives, faculties, and laws of
moral and religious conduct. Historical and
critical studies were, however, but slightly and
superficially cultivated.
A great change begins with the rise of the
Humanists and the Reformation, followed by the
opposite reform instituted by the Council of
Trent. Progress lay principally in the circle
of biblical and historical studies. Exegesis was
pursued with great zeal, and the study of the
Bible centred mainly on historico-critical ques-
tions. The founder of isagogics as a special dis-
cipline was Richard Simon, and in the second
half of the eighteenth century, in which, besides,
the division of theology into separate depart-
ments was completed, it was marked off against
the rest of biblical science. In Church history,
reéstablished by Baronius (1607 ), the auxiliary
sciences attained chiefly through the Benedictines
of Saint Maur their form and demarcation:
patrology, archaeology, and chronology. In criti-
cism of sources Mabillon (1707), in the study of
the Catacombs Bosio (1639), in hagiography
Bollandus (1665), were most prominent. Besides
these Petavius (1652) and Thomassin (1695) es-
tablished scientifically the history of dogma,
which since the latter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury has been independent. In systematic the-
ology, moral theology, which had made great ad-
vance, separated definitely from dogmatic and
was raised to an independent discipline. Casuis-
try received particular interest and care. In
dogmatics Melchior Cano (1560) created by his
Loci Theologici the science of theological noetics,
to which Stapleton (De Prinolplis Fidel Doc-
trince) gave scientific finish. In post-Tridentine
dogmatics, polemics took a broad and important
place. To it men like Bellarmine, Suarez, and
Soto devoted their best powers.
ascetics, earnestly cultivated even in patristic
times (their founder was the Pseudo-Dionysius) ,
- were greatly developed, but attained no indepen-
dent position. They remained, like casuistics, in
connection with and in the service _of moral the-
ology. Thus the theological cycle was, at the
close of the sixteenth century, divided into the
following departments: Biblical science (undi-
vided), Church history, dogmatics, moral and
canon law. The differentiation of the other the-
Mystics and .
ological disciplines was accomplished only in the
second half of the eighteenth century. The latest
to appear as a separate branch was pastoral the-
ology, in Germany, with the erection of a special
chair for its teaching under Maria Theresa.
Later on it divided into three departments: homi-
letics, liturgics, and the theory of the pastoral
life. Apologetics, as fundamental theology,
though zealously cultivated for centuries, sepa-
rated from dogmatics only in the nineteenth cen-
tury.
The actual curriculum of the ecclesiastical, or,
as it is usually called, the diocesan seminary, in
which the system of theological education is im-
parted, dates in its present organization from
the Council of Trent, but, like the system itself,
is the outcome of a gradual historical growth.
In the early centuries theological education was
received partly at central catechetical schools
(e.g. at Alexandria and Antioch), but chiefly at
the bishop’s residence and under his guidance and
spirit. The episcopal school was afterwards
supplemented by the monastic institutions and
the schools established by Charlemagne. These
in turn were succeeded by the great mediaeval
universities and the co-llegla attached thereto.
The growing laxity of discipline at these institu-
tions induced the Council of Trent to establish
the present seminary system, which since then
has gradually become universal throughout the
Church. The purpose of these institutions, one
or more of which exist in almost every diocese
or ecclesiastical province, is primarily a moral
one; the training of the person, the forming of
the youth, by strict discipline and the practices
of religion, to habits of self-control and to the
shaping of his life in harmony with the priestly
ideal. The graded course of study pursued in
them averages from ten to twelve years, divided
into three distinct but closely connected stages:
the preparatory, the philosophical, and the
strictly theological, to which the first two are
subordinate. In the preparatory department the
usual college studies are pursued, though special
importance is placed on Latin. As this lan-
guage is the vehicle of most of the subsequent
studies—text-book and lecture being usually in
Latin—the student passing from the preparatory
seminary is required to have an easy reading
familiarity and a fair speaking facility in the
language, The two years of philosophy are
devoted to logic, psychology, metaphysics, and
ethics (including sociology), the physical sci-
ences, Hebrew, and Greek. The theological cur-
riculum of four years is organized on the follow-
ing lines:
I. Theology in Its Unity (S'ynthesis).—(l)
The theologian: His ideal, moral, and intellec-
tual equipment; preparatory training in lan-
guages, philosophy, history, natural sciences,
and arts. (2) Nature, origin, and classification
of religion. (3) Relation of theology to religion.
(4) Object, nature, relations (to reason and
faith), and history of theological science.
II. Departments of Theology (Analysis).——-
A. Hlstorical.—(1) The Bible, criticism, exe-
gesis. (2) Biblical theology: (a) history of the
Old and New Testament; (b) their general doc-
trinal contents; (c) aids to study: biblical
philology, archaeology, hermeneutics. (3) Church
history (1) scope, methods, epochs; (2) divi-
sions: (a) patrology; (b) symbolism; (c) eccle-
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
654
siastical archaeology and art; (d) auxiliary dis-
ciplines: geography and statistics, ecclesiastical
chronology, and philology.
B. Systematic Theology.-——( 1)
( 2) dogmatics, relation to morals;
theology (Christian ethics) .
C. Practical Theology.—(l) The Christian
pastorate as a continuation of Christ’s ministry
in its several departments, magisterial, sacerdo-
tal, gubernatorial. (2) Divisions: catechetics:
pastoral didactics; the instruction of children.
(3) Homiletios: theory of sacredeloquence. (4)
Liturgy. (5) Theory of the relations of pastor
and people.
D. Canon Law.—-Science of ecclesiastical dis-
ciplin'e.
In some minor details the foregoing pro-
gramme will vary according to local conve-
nience. On the whole, however, the course as
outlined is followed in every ecclesiastical semi-
nary, As at each successive stage in the
Church’s history special care was devoted to one
or other of the theological branches in answer
to external and internal exigencies, so, too, at
the present day. In the philosophical depart-
ment empirical psychology, epistemology, and
sociology are absorbing more interest and are
being pursued in a more historical light and a
more critical spirit than was the case a genera-
tion ago. The same is true of biblical studies,
ecclesiastical history, and apologetics within the
theological dom'ain.
From the foregoing account it will be readily
inferred that the question of ‘reconstructing
theology,’ which has of late been engrossing many
minds outside the Catholic Church, has no mean-
ing in connection with the system of theological
education within her pale. The primary prin-
ciples of that system are the ‘articles of faith’
contained within the deposit of revealed truth,
Which, together with the assurance of inerrancy
in discerning, formulating, and interpreting
them, she claims to have received from her
Founder. In the exercise of the logical faculty
developing those principles and coordinating the
conclusions into a systematic body of theological
science, in the work of the critical faculty within
the domains of biblical, historical, and scientific
studies, she recognizes the fullest rights of hu-
man reason, provided it does not usurp the
license of transgressing the ascertained mani-
festations of the divine reason.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best work in English is
Hogan’s Clerical Studies (Boston, 1898). Kihn’s
E'ncg/Iclopwéidie and M ethodologie der Theologie
(Freiburg, 1892) is profound, erudite, and rich
in bibliography. Krieg’s Encyhlopadie der
Theologischen Wissenschaften (ib., 1899) has
the same qualities, but is more compendious.
Consult also: Didiot, Cours de théologie catho-
lique (Paris, 1894); Aubry, Iclées sur la
théorie catholique des sciences ct sur la synthese
des connaissances hnmaines dans la théologie;
Apologetics ;
( 3) moral
id., Les grands séminaires en France (Paris,-
1894) ; Wilhelm and Scannell, Manual of Catho-
lic Theology, based on Scheeben’s Dogmatih; and
Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology (London,
and New York, 1890).
THE PROTESTANT SYSTEM.
The great leaders of the Protestant Reforma-
tion insisted upon the necessity of higher edu-
cation for the clergy at the universities. This
was natural, as they believed in an established
Church supported by the State, and strongly
emphasized the duty of its ministers to inculcate
sound doctrine, which necessitates special theo-
logical training. The Baptist thinkers, who
contended for freedom of conscience, liberty of
prophesying, and complete separation of Church
and State, put the emphasis so strongly upon
experience and conduct as to make doctrinal
agreement a matter of secondary importance,
and the education of a special clerical class
seem undesirable. It was fortunate that the
prevailing tendencies made a home for Protes-
tant theology at the great centres of intellectual
life. The theological curriculum at the uni-
versities was changed in several respects, par-
ticularly by the greater attention given to the
biblical studies, the importance attached to the
Hebrew and Greek texts, and the more or less
determined abandonment of the allegorical
method of interpretation. Other Lutheran uni-
versities modeled their course upon that pre-
scribed by Luther and Melanchthon at VVitten-
berg. Between 1529 and 1563 this system was
introduced at Marburg, Tiibingen, Leipzig,
Kiinigsberg, Greifswald, Heidelberg, Jena, Ros-
tock, Upsala, and Copenhagen. Similar courses
of theological study were establishedby Beza at
Lausanne, by Calvin at Geneva, and theological
schools at Nimes, Sedan, Saumur, and Mon-
tauban followed the same methods. In Holland
the University of Leyden (founded 1575) became
the centre of Protestant theology. The Free
Church in Scotland established three divinity
halls at Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glasgow, and
the theological education at the Universities of
Saint Andrews, Aberdeen, and Glasgow was like-
wise modified in character. Cambridge, under
the teachings of Erasmus, Tyndale, and Latimer,
became the foremost exponent of the new theo-
logical as well as humanistic teaching, and
Vermigli at Oxford expounded Protestant prin-
ciples of exegesis.
If the theological education of the Reforma-
tion period was chiefly characterized by the
greater attention paid to the Bible, and a
certain movement of thought away from Catholic
dogma, its most marked peculiarity in the im- .
mediately succeeding period was the inculcation
of Protestant dogma, on which a growing em-
phasis was placed_ In Germany the type of
teaching represented by Flacius proved more
acceptable than that of Melanchthon and his
followers, and Calovius bore off the victory‘ over
Calixtus and the Helmstedt school. The great-
est service rendered by Flacius was the atten-
tion he and the other Madgeburg Centuriators
paid to the history of the Church. New centres
of theological study were created at Giessen,
Kiel, Dorpat, Lund, Gr5ningen, and Utrecht. In
Holland the orthodox tendencies prevailing at the
Synod of Dort were offset by the influence of
Scaliger and Grotius. In the French schools
Cameron, Amyrault, and Louis Cappel main-
tained a more liberal type of thought. The ex-
patriation of the Huguenots left only Montauban
as a Protestant school. In England the theo-
logical education was less affected by exagger-
ated doctrine concerning the Bible than was the
case in Germany, Switzerland, and Holland. The
colonies were long supplied by ministers who had
had their training in European universities. A
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
655
professorship in divinity was established at
Harvard in 1638, and a similar provision was
made at Yale in 1740.
A new direction was given to theological edu-
cation by’ the Pietist movement, At Halle a
university was founded in 1694, where it was
possible, -for Spener and Francke to exemplify
their principles. They maintained that the
Christian minister must himself have a pro-
found religious experience, that he should not
be bound by an -oath to teach in accordance
with man-made creeds, but that he should pro-
claim the word of God contained in the Scrip-
tures. The influence of English Quakerism with
its doctrine of the inner light and its protest
against a hireling ministry is unmistakable. In
the seminarium ministerii ecclesiastici estab-
lished at Halle in 1714 Francke endeavored to
give to converted men desirous to serve as
preachers such a knowledge of the Bible and
such an acquaintance with the practical duties
of the pastor as to fit them to be true spiritual
leaders. While the demand for a spiritual crisis
rather than a normal growth of religious ex-
perience could not be carried out in a State
Church and had a tendency to foster self-decep-
tion, the break with dogmatisin and the centring
of interest upon the practical aspect of the min-
istry, the training‘ of the man-rather than the
elaboration of his doctrine, bore permanent re-
sults. The appeal to Christian consciousness
and the disregard for the letter led to biblical
criticism, as is seen in Dippel, Edelmann,
Michaelis, Zinzendorf, and Semler, and a new
estimate of the history of the Church, doing
more justice to the heretical bodies, was intro-
duced by Gottfried Arnold.
At the English universities rationalism exer-
cised a greater influence than pietism. This was
largely the result of the zealous cultivation of
natural_science. The idea that revelation itself
is tostand or fall by the test of reason was ac-
cepted by the apologists as well as by the Deists,
by Lardner and Paley not less than by Collins
and Toland. From England this rationalistic
movement spread to the Continent, In the
school of the Remonstrants at Amsterdam, Le
Clerc expounded to theological students the
principles of Collins and Locke. Gtittingen was
established in 1737, largely to serve as a bulwark
against supernaturalism, and _other centres of
rationalism were Jena, Helmstedt, and Heidel-
berg. Theological students came under the in-
fiuence not only of Eichhorn, Paulus, and Henke,
but also of such men as Reimarus and Lessing,
Herder and Goethe, Kant and Fichte. If the
effect of pietism upon theological education was
that much stress was laid upon the conscious
experience of an inner change, and the nourish-
ment of religious emotion, rationalism put the
emphasis upon the reasonableness of true reli-
gion and the supremacy of morality.
During the nineteenth century certain impor-
tant changes occurred. A large number of schools
grew up in Europe and America. In Germany
the most important additions were the Univer-
sities of Berlin (1810) , Bonn (1818) , and Strass-
burg (reorganized 1871). In Switzerland schools
unsupported by the State have been established
at Geneva, Lausanne, Neuchatel, Basel, Bern,
and Zurich, and State universities teaching the-
ology at Fribourg and Neuchatel. InFrance the
theological faculty of the University of Strass-
burg was removed to Paris in 1877, and the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes Was founded in 1868.
The University of Amsterdam was established in
1877, and universities were founded in Chris-
tiania in 1813, and Helsingfors in 1827. Besides
Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, the Church of
England has twenty-three theological schools,
the English Methodists ten, the Congregation-
alists eleven, the Baptists nine, the Presby-
terians three, the Unitarians one, and two are
undenominational. Except the Dutch Reformed
Seminary at New Brunswick, N. J . (1784), and
the United Presbyterian Seminary at Xenia,
Ohio (1794), all Protestant schools of theology
in the United States have been founded in the
nineteenth century. They number about 120.
. When the large extent of territory, the numerous
denominations, and the special needs of the
colored and the foreign churches are considered,
the number is not excessive. Concerning many
of them, however, it must be said that they are
very inadequately equipped, both as to teach-
ing force and library facilities, and they do
not represent a high grade of scholarship. Some
of these are connected with universities. Many
are located in or near important educational
centres. The course is generally three years in
length, and a collegiate training is as a rule re-
quired for admission_
A tendency to seek independence of educa-
tional control is characteristic of the period. In
Germany, Switzerland, Holland, and France the
principle of academic freedom has won gen-
eral recognition. Berlin at the outset repudi-
ated all attachment to any particular creed or-
school. While pressure is often brought to bear
in the matter of appointments, the tradition of
a German university is generally the determining
feature. In Holland the relations between pul-
pit and chair are more cordial. In England and
Scotland freedom of investigation is now gen-
erally granted to the biblical teachers. All
higher institutions of learning in the United
States were for a long time either founded by
religious bodies or privately endowed. The
former were naturally controlled by the denomi-
nations supporting them; the latter either give
no theological instruction or are affiliated with
some ecclesiastical organization. Theology is
not taught in any of. the State universities
founded in the latter part of the century. But
as it is widely felt that the various disciplines
that enter into the theological curriculum have
a universal human interest, and should be stud-
ied in an atmosphere of scientific research and
free from ecclesiastical dictation, many of them
have found a way into such universities as
Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Columbia, Pennsylvania,
Michigan, California, and others. Harvard by
making its school undenominational has taken an
important step in this direction.
The most significant change in theological
education during the century was the general
introduction of historico-critical methods of in-
vestigation. In the interpretation of Hebrew and
early Christian literature, and the study of
Church history, German theological teachers have
been the chief leaders; but, owing to the relations
of the faculties to the Christian State as well as
to the Church, no provision is yet made in any
German university for the comparative study of
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.
THEOLOGY.
656
the religions of mankind. Paris offers the
amplest facilities for such study, but Leyden
and Amsterdam also pay considerable attention
to it. Critical methods prevail in Old Testament
exegesis in Great Britain and America, as well
as in the European universities. There is less
consistency in their application to New Testa-
ment exegesis. The treatment of ecclesiastical
history is characterized by increasing fairness
and objectivity. While many contributions have
been made to dogmatics by theological teachers,
the acceptance of the results of criticism has
tended to render impossible the old type of sys-
tematic theology. In so far as it concerned itself
with the Bible and the creeds, biblical theology,
embracing the religious views of the biblical
writers and the history and philosophy of Chris-
tian dogma, has taken its place. In so far as
it attempted to bring all truth into one system,
it can survive only as comparative theology
studies all the religious phenomena of man’s
life, For this there is no adequate provision in
any theological school in the English-speaking
world, though at some universities there are
chairs for the history and philosophy of reli-
gion. The introduction of such a course is likely
to cause a profound change not only in the theo-
logical curriculum, but in the spirit of theo-
logical study. Consult: K. A. Schmid, Ge-
schichte der Erziehung (Stuttgart, 1884-92) ; K.
Schmidt, Geschichte der Erziehung (Ktithen,
1876); W. Lexis, Die deutschen Unioersittiten
(Berlin, 1893).
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY -OF THE RE-
FORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA. -A di-
vinity school at New Brunswick, N. J., organ-
ized in 17 84. Its classes were held in New York
City until 1796, and at Flatbush, L. 1., till 1810,
when it was removed to its present home. The
seminary is under the direct control of the Gen-
eral Synod of the Reformed Church. Its the-
ology is in sympathy with the moderate Calvin-
ism of the Reformed Church standards. The
school has a well-equipped dormitory, Peter Hert-
zog Hall ; a capacious building, James Suydam
Hall, devoted to lecture rooms, museums, and
gymnasium; a fireproof library in the Gardner A.
Sage building, containing in 1903 over 47,000 vol-
umes; and six dwelling houses for professors.
In 1903 its endowment was $473,000, and the at-
tendance was 27 , with a faculty of six instruc-
tors.
THEOLOGY (Lat theologia, from Gk.
0eo7\0y[a, a speaking concerning God, from 0e6s,
theos, god + -hoyla, -logia, account, from 7\é')/cw,
legein, to say). A term which, in the larger
sense, may be used as equivalent to the science of
religion, and will then include all the various
theological disciplines, the sacred languages, and
the interpretation of the Bible; the history of the
Church, including the history of doctrine; the
history of religions in general; the contributions
of our own age to the knowledge of the objects of
theological study from other sciences, such as
biology; systematic theology, or the system of
doctrines and duties; and, finally, practical the-
ology, or the application of theology to life, in the
pulpit, in Church administration, and in the vari-
ous forms of contact with the world. But more
strictly and correctly, the term theology is em-
ployed of systematic theology, which may be de-
fined as the science of Christianity, or the scien-
tific explanation of the specific Christian life, the
development of its characteristic principles, con-
ditions, and general relations. Viewed -thus it
yields a system of doctrines and a system of ~
duties, or dogmatics and ethics.
The claim of theology to be a science depends
upon the question whether there are any peculiar
facts of which it takes cognizance, as it professes,
and whether its method is calculated to yield re-
liable knowledge. As to the facts, these are not
tangible facts, and if tangibility is made the
criterion of reality, as is done by some writers,
the case is closed against theology. But Chris-
tians claim for themselves great facts of spiritual
experience, which are matters of consciousness
and thus belong in the same category as the facts
of psychology. And if once the inspiration of
the Bible is reached by processes of reasoning
which are valid and hence yield true, though not
tangible results, the teachings of this book form
a body of objective facts which are capable of
scientific treatment, and indeed demand it. Mod-
ern theology has largely followed the method
which is as valid in theology as in chemistry or
biology, though some theologies have been and
some still are a priori.
Formerly a sharp distinction was drawn be-
tween natural and revealed theology. The for-
mer embraced those doctrines as to God, freedom,
and immortality which could be reached without
the aid of revelation, and upon them was built
the proof of the Bible as a revelation from God,
and consequently the system of revealed theology,
which was then conceived as exclusively the scien-
tific interpretation of the Bible. But with the in-
creasing evidence that even the first doctrines of
natural theology, such as the existence of God,
have been historically dependent upon revelation,
and that the doctrines of revealed theology have
their confirmation in facts drawn from other
sources than the Bible, the sharp line between the
two departments has been largely erased. Nat-
ural theology is now replaced by apologetics, the
business of which is to defend the doctrines de-
veloped by systematic theology,
Many of the special topics of theology will be
found treated in separate articles. See also such
articles as DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE; GERMAN
THEOLOGY; THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION. No at-
tempt can be made here to give an adequate
selection from the literature in all departments.
Mention may be made of the histories of doc-
trine, such as Hagenbach (Leipzig,- 1840; 12th
ed. 1889; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1846, revised
and enlarged, New York, 1861); Baur (Stutt-
gart, 1847; 3d ed. 1867) ; Neander (Berlin,
1857; Eng. trans., London, 1858) ; Schmid
(Ntirdlingen, 1860; 4th ed. 1887); Dorner (Ge-
schichte der protestantische Theologie, Mu-
nich, l867 ; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1871; System
der christlichen Claubenslehre, Berlin, 1879-81;
2d ed. 1886-88) ; Thomasius (Erlangen, 1874-
76; 2d ed. 1886-89); Werner (Munich, 1889);
Loofs (Halle, 1889; 3d ed. 1893) ; Harnack
(Freiburg, 1889; 3d ed. 1898; Eng. trans., Bos-
ton, 1895-97). The histories of doctrine of
Shedd (New York, 1869), Sheldon (ib., 1886),
and Fisher (ib., 1896) are brief manuals by
American writers. Charles Hodge, Systematic
Theology (New York, 1872), presents the Cal-
vinistic system. Wat-son, Theological Institutes
(London, 1822-28; 8th ed. 1850), is a standard
THEOLOGY.
THEOPHILUS.
657
Methodist work. The Systematic Theology of
A, H. Strong (Rochester, 1886) is by a Baptist.
Percival, Digest of Theology (Philadelphia,
1892), and Mortimer, Catholic Faith and Prac-
tice (London, 1901), are scholarly presentations
of the High Church Anglican view of the teach-
ing of the undivided Church. Treatises from the
point of view of the different religious denomina-
tions will be found mentioned in many of the
articles upon the various religious bodies. The
standard eimyclopaedic works are the Herzog
Realencyhlop-iidie (2d ed., 18 vols., Leipzig,
1877-88; 3d ed., by Hauck, 1896 et seq.), and
(Roman Catholic) Wetzer and Welte, Kirchen-
leavikon (12 vols., Freiburg, 1882-1901).
THE’ON (Lat., from Gk. Géwv) OF ALEX-
ANDRIA (c.370 A.D.). One of the last of the
Greek mathematicians and astronomers. He was
a teacher at Alexandria and the father of the
celebrated Hypatia (q.v_), whose name is also
connected with the history of mathematical sci-
ence. Theon’s chief works are an edition of
Euclid’s Elements and a commentary on Ptol-
emy’s Almagest. The former was prepared for
his students at Alexandria and the various man-
uscripts‘ have played an important role in all
subsequent attempts to reproduce the Elements.
The latter is especially valuable for its notes
‘showing the use of sexagesimal fractions, and
the operations of division and square root.
THEON OF SMYRNA, smer’na (c.100 A.D).
A Greek mathematician and astronomer. He was
the author of a work, commonly known as the
Ewpositio, treating of mathematical rules neces-
sary for the study of Plato. Two books of this
work, probably the whole of it, are extant, one
on arithmetic and the other on astronomy. The
work contains two propositions on the theory
of numbers of peculiar interest: (1) If n be any
number, n2 or n2——l is divisible by 3 or 4 or both.
If n2 is divisible by 3 and not by 4, n2—-1 is divisi-
ble by 4. (2) If two groups of numbers be ar-
ranged as follows:
n1:-1+0 d1: 1+0: 1
n2=1-1--1 dz: 2+1: 3
n4:-5+7 cQ:10—1—7:17
I Q - 0 o - - - . - I I ¢ I I I 0 n \ . O I I D I I 0
I I I O . I I o Q I C I O I I I I I D I I I Q I I I
nr : nr—1 + dr—1 ’
is of the form 2n2 1 1 ; e.g. (112 : 1 : 2'n12 - 1, (Z22
= 9 : 2-n22 + 1. Theon called these numbers
diameters. It is interesting to observe that the
ratios
A _ 1 912 __ -3 A Z _
’)'l1 ~ ’ 732 2 , 5 — _ _ -
are the convergents of the continued fraction
1-j-A 1_ A
2 + 2 + 2’ ' ' '
and hence approximate the value of \/ 2, also
that these diameters are solutions of a pair of
indeterminate quadratic equations, relations un-
known to Theon.
THEOPHYANO (c.955-91). The wife of Otho
II. of the Holy Roman Empire. She was the
daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos II.,
and was married to Otho II. at Rome in 972.
She was a woman of great beauty and noble
character and soon won great influence over the
Emperor, in whose Court she introduced much of
the learning and refinement of Constantinople.
After the death of her husband (983) she ruled
as Regent for her son Otho III. till her death.
THEOPHANY (ML. theophania, theofania,
from Gk. 0eo¢ctma, theophania, 6eo¢atvaa, theo-
phaneia, manifestation of a divinity, from Qeés,
theos, god + ¢a.lveo'6aL, phainesthai, to appear).
An appearance of gods, or of God, to men.. In
the heathen religions theophanies under various
forms were regarded as of frequent occurrence.
In Christianity the term has sometimes been ap-
plied to the appearance of God in Christ, in
distinction from the epiphany, which was the
appearance in the form of a dove, and the
audible communication of God, at the baptism
of Jesus (Mark i. 9-11 and parallels). It is
now generally restricted to the appearances of
God as related in the Old Testament. They are
presented in many ways as simple historical
occurrences, often without suggestion as to the
manner, sometimes as in the form of man, some-
" times asthe ‘angel of Jehovah.’
THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (from Gk.
0665', .the0s, god --I-- ¢L7\avl9pw1rla, philanthro'pia,
love to man, from ¢£Aos, philos, dear —I-- dvfipwnos,
anthriipos, man). A sect which arose in France
under the Directory, held its first meeting on
January 15, 17 97, and was dissolved by Na-
poleon in 1802. They reduced all religion to the
doctrines of God and immortality and the prin-
ciples of morality resulting from these. They
established regular divine service, which had its
liturgy, its prayer and hymn book, and its
preachers. They received from the Directory
ten churches in Paris for their assemblies, and
spread somewhat throughout the country. Their
spirit and purpose may be seen from their creed:
“We believe in the existence of God and the im-
mortality of the soul. Pray to God, love your
brother, make yourself useful to your country.
The good is everything that serves to support
and perfect man, the evil what has a tendency
to corrupt and debase him, Children, honor
your fathers and mothers, obey with loyalty, sup-
port their age; fathers and mothers, instruct
your children. Wives, behold in your husbands
the heads of your houses, and make one an-
other happy.” Thomas Paine was a member of
the sect. Their literary productions were print-
ed at Basel (2 vols., 1797-99). Consult Gregoire,
Histoire des sectes religieuses, vol. i. (Paris,
1828).
THEOPH’ILUS (Lat., from Gk. Oe6¢0ws).
The person to whom the author of the_ third
Gospel and the Acts addressed these works. He
is spoken of in terms of highest respect, as ‘most
excellent.’ The notices (Luke i. 1-4, Acts i. 1)
imply that he was a man of some standing, the
friend, if not the patron, of the evangelist, and a
convert to Christianity, who would be interested
in a full and accurate account of its begin-
nings. Beyond these notices nothing is known
- of him. Early Christian tradition is silent con-
cerning him. Later conjectures, ancient and
modern, are more interesting than convincing.
Some, following a hint by Origen, have conjec-
tured that the term is used by Luke in a fictitious
sense, since all Christians are theophiloi -(lov-
ers or friends of God). Ramsay (Saint Paul
the Traveller and the Roman Citizen, p. 388)
thinks that D the term ‘most excellent’ implies
that Theophilus was an officer of equestrian
THEOPHILUS.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
658
‘ a high reputation at home and abroad.
rank. Antioch, Rome, Greece, and Alexandria
have all been advocated as his place of resi-
dence.
THEOPHILUS. One of the most important
precursors of Dr. Faust. The facts appear to be
that in the sixth century there was a Theophilus
who was treasurer of the church at Adana, near
Tarsus, in Ciliciav Secunda. He was elected bish-
op, but refused the honor, out of humility. The
new bishop removed him from his office. Later
he adopted heretical views, but on repentance
was forgiven and restored. These facts were em-
bellished by later story-tellers, until the legend
arose that after his deposition he had recourse
to a Jew magician, who took him to a midnight
meeting of devils. But he was soon overtaken
with remorse, and, through forty days’ fasting
and prayers, prevailed on Mary to intercede with
her son for him. Then he made a public con-
fession of his crime, told of the goodness of the
Virgin Mary, and died three days after. This
legend, whose origin is traced back to an known Greek of the name of Eutychianus, was
brought, during the tenth century, to the West,
where it quickly spread far and wide. It was
made the subject of poems and dramas in many
languages, and frequent allusions to it are found
in Latin, German, Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, Swed-
ish, French, and Spanish literature.
THE'OPHRAS’TUS (Lat., from Gk. 9e6_
¢pao"ros) (c.372-287 B.O.). A Greek philosopher,
born at Eresus, in Lesbos. He studied philosophy
at Athens, first under Plato and subsequently
under Aristotle, who at his death made him head
of the Peripatetic School, which he directed for
thirty-five years, 322-287. Under his leadership
the character of the school was well maintained;
it had a large number of pupils, and enjoyed
In phi-
losophy he followed closely in the footsteps of ‘his
master, but was more inclined to natural his-
tory than to metaphysics. His discourses on
ethics were greatly admired, but his chief re-
nown was gained by his botanical works. Two
of these, his History of Plants, in nine books, and
his Theoretical Botany, in six, are still extant,
together with fragments of his work On Miner-
alogy ,(IIepZ Mdwv), On Fire (Hepl rrvp6s), On
the Senses (Hepl aiadnaéwv Kai aiadnréiv),
Metaphysics (Mera¢vaucd.), and other similar
subjects. Especially famous is his book of
sketches called Characters (Xapaxrijpcs). They
have been extremely popular and have been imi-
tated many times, especially by the French and
English of the eighteenth century. The best
complete editions of his works are by Schneider
(Leipzig, 1818) and by Wimmer (Paris, 1866).
The Characters have been many times edited
separately, Especially famous is the edition by
Casaubon with commentary (Leyden, 1592);
edited also by Ussing (Copenhagen, 1868), by
Jebb (London, 1870), and with translation and
commentary by the Leipzig Philological Society
_ (1897).
THEOPH'YLACT (Gk. Oeo¢vhdxros, Theo-
phylahtos) (died c.1107 ). A Bible commentator,
born probably at Constantinople. He became
tutor to Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, son of
Michael VII. In 1078 Theophylact was made
Archbishop of Achrida and Metropolitan of Bul-
garia. He labored diligently to extend Chris-
tianity, but was hindered by the half-civilized
people of his diocese, and vainly endeavored to
lay down the duties of his ofiice. He wrote val-
uable commentaries on the minor prophets and on
the greater ‘part of the New Testament. In addi-
tion he wrote 75 epistles and a number of tracts.
His commentaries are founded on those of
Chrysostom (q.v.). His exegesis is direct, pre-
cise, and textual in its treatment. His works
were much esteemed by late-.' writers. Maria de
Rubeis published his works in Latin and Greek
at Venice in 4 folio volumes (1754-63).
THE'OPOM’PUS (Lat'., from Gk. 9e61ro;.uros)
OF CHIOS (c.378-c.300 B.C.). A Greek his-
torian. In early life he left home with his
father, who was banished on account of his pre-
dilection for the Spartans, and took refuge in
Athens. There he was trained in oratory by
Isocrates. In addition to numerous panegyrics,
of which that on Mausolus was the most cele-
brated, his WOI‘kS included E7\hnvucal io"r0p£al. OI‘
Zévrafas ‘E>\M7vua'6v, a History of Greece in twelve
books, embracing the period from 13.0. 411, where
Thucydides breaks off, to the battle of Cnidus,
in 394; and (I>0\L1r1ru<ot in fifty-eight books, a his-
tory of the life and times of Philip of Macedon.
Of these works only fragments remain, but an
abridgme'nt of the Latin translation of the
90u1r1rucci, by Trogus Pompeius, has been pre-
served by Justin. Though the ancient critics
commend his accuracy, they blame Theopompus
for the harshness and illiberality of his remarks.
This, however, was due to his fearless exposition
of the corruption among the politicians of his
day. According to Pliny, he was the first Greek
writer to make any definite mention of Rome.
For the fragments, consult Miiller, Fragmenta
Historiorum Grceco/rum (Paris, 1841); Biinger,
Theopompea (Strassburg, 1874).
THEOR/BO (It. tiorbo, of unknown etymol-
ogy). An obsolete musical instrument of the
lute family, of which it formed the bass. Besides
having strings running over the fingerboard,- it
had a number of bass strings stretched along-
side of the board. These strings were longer
and were fastened in a separate neck attached to
the neck containing the strings stopped by the
fingers. The theorbo was an indispensable in-
strument in the orchestra of the seventeenth cen-
tury and was especially used for accompanying
the voice. For illustration, see Plate of MUSI-
CAL Insrnomnnrs.
THEOREM (Lat. theorema, from Gk.
decbpmaa, sight, principle considered, rule, the-
orem, from dewpeiu, theorein, to view, from
dewpés, theo'ros, spectator, from 6e6.a6ou, thea-
sthai, to view, behold). In mathematics, a propo-
sition to be demonstrated. A theorem consists
of two parts: the hypothesis, or the given, and
the conclusion, or what is to be proved. One
theorem is the converse of another when the con-
clusion and the hypothesis are interchanged in
the two theorems. The converse of a theorem is,
however, not necessarily true. A corollary (q.v.)
of a theorem is a truth easily deduced from it
and not requiring a separate demonstration. A
lemma (q.v.) is generally a theorem used to pre-
pare the way for another.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. A society
founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (q.v.)
in New York, November 17, 1875, assisted by
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
THEOSOPHY.
659
Colonel Henry S. Olcott, William Q. Judge, and
others. Its objects were: (1) To form the
nucleus of a universal brotherhood of humanity;
(2) to study and make known the ancient re-
ligions, philosophies, and sciences; (3) to in-
vestigate the laws of nature and to develop the
divine powers latent in man. Blavatsky left
New York, December 17, 1878, and went to
India, accompanied by Colonel Olcott, where a
system of propaganda was organized and nu-
merous branches were formed. Judge remained in
New York, and built up the society in the United
States. He_ formed a strong branch, the Aryan
Theosophical Society, in New York City, of
which he was president. Madame Blavatsky
left the Theosophical Society as an international
body with headquarters at Adyar, India, and
with three sections: the Indian, comprising the
Orient; the English Section, having jurisdiction
over Europe; and the American Section for
America. Olcott, at Adyar, was president; Judge,
at New York, vice-president. Each section had
a general secretary-—Bertram Keightley, of
Adyar, of the Indian; G. R. S. Mead, of London,
of the English; and Judge, of New York, of the
‘American Section. There was an inner body, the
Esoteric Section (E, S.), at the head of which
was Madame Blavatsky. At her death she was
succeeded by Judge and by Annie Besant, of Lon-
don, jointly, both supposedly mouthpieces of
an unknown master, the real head of the theo-
sophical movement. Charges of fraudulent use
of this master’s name were preferred against
Judge by‘ Mrs. Besant. These charges, though
never proved, caused a split between the sup-
porters and opponents of Judge. In Boston, in
April, 1895, the American Section almost unani-
mously declared its autonomy as the “Theo-
sophical Society in America” (T. S. in A.), with
Judge as president. It had about 150 branches
in the United States "with several thousand ac-
tive members. In so far as these members be-
longed to the Esoteric Section, they recognized
Judge as the outer head (the real head being
the unknown master), and, following their ex-
ample, those theosophists throughout the world
who believed the charges false formed inde-
pendent bodies in their separate countries, called
respectively the Theosophical Society in England
(T. S. in E.), in Sweden (T. S. in S.), in Aus-
tralia, etc.
The society under Olcott kept up its organiza-
tion, though the English and American sections
were much weakened. Mrs. Besant remained the
head of that Esoteric Section which was con-
nected with the society under Olcott. Judge
died March 19, 1896, leaving his society in a
flourishing condition, but with no successor as
head of the Esoteric Section, or the T. S. in A.
. Katherine A. Tingley then obtained recognition,
first from a few members, and through skillful
advances from the bulk of the society, as the
successor of Blavatsky and of Judge, and as the
leader of the theosophical movement throughout
the world. Many members at once left the T. S.
in A., and more dropped out as she gradually
changed the policy of the society. At a conven-
tion in Chicago, in February, 1898, she formed
“The Universal Brotherhood Organization,” of
which she was the absolute ruler, and the pos-
sessor of all its property. Of the remnants of
the T. S. in A. she made a literary department
of her “Universal Brotherhood.” The headquar-
ters in New York City were abandoned and she
took her remaining followers, not more than a
dozen of the old members of the T. S. in A., to
Point Loma, near San Diego, Cal., where she
formed a colony. Mrs. Tingley caused the life
of the branches of the T. S. in A. to become
gradually extinct. A few members exist here
and there, but are not active. The theosophical
movement continues, however, on the one hand as
the organization under Olcott, as president, and
on the other, under the form of independent local
societies, recognized as theosophical by their
adherence to the three objects of the society
founded by Madame Blavatsky. The most active
of these independent societies is called “The
Theosophical Society, New York,” and has ex-
isted since .1898.
THEOSOPHY, (Gk. 0600-o¢£a, theosophic, wis-
' dom in divine things, knowledge concerning God,
from Beoo-6¢os, theosophos, wise concerning God,
from 0e6s, theos, god + o-o¢6s, sophos, wise). A
term used to denote a system or systems of phi-
losophy based on an inwardly revealed and
mystic knowledge of God and the laws of the
universe, giving a supersensual insight into their
operations. The belief in revelations of ~ this
type is of course far anterior to the term theos-
ophy, which has been applied to cults of varying
tenets anddiverse uses of the concepts of divin-
ity at different periods. The ancient systems of
belief falling under this head may be divided
roughly into Oriental and Occidental, the former
being the older. The earliest traces of theosophic
thought are found in the Sanskrit Upanishads
(q.v.) , which represent a revulsion from the
ritualism of the Vedas (q.v.) and the Brahmanas
(q.v.) to mystic meditation on the nature of the
All-Soul or Atman. It is in a sense true that all
subsequent Hindu philosophy is theosophic. From
India this mystical speculation spread to Persia,
and from the Persians it was absorbed by the
Arabs after their conquest of Iran. In a some-
what similar sense the Yi-King and the Tao-teh-
King of China and the Egyptian Book of the Dead
may be regarded as theosophic.
Among the Jews a theosophy whose origin was
somewhat analogous to that of the Indian system
arose about the beginning of the Christian Era,
and attained wide currency in Europe between
the twelfth and sixteenth centuries. The teach-
ings of the Cabbala (q.v.) as represented in the
writings of Simeon ben Jochai and Moses de
Leon, however, are so widely different from the
theosophy of India as to preclude any idea of
Hindu influence. On the other hand, the Cab-
balistic doctrines were profoundly modified by
what may be regarded as the typical Occidental
theosophy, Neo-Platonism (q.v.), represented by
Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Porphyrius, and Pro-
clus, and by the Gnostics, represented by Valen-
tinus and Basilides. In the Middle Ages theos-
ophy was taught by Tauler, Eckhardt, Paracel-
sus, Van Helmont, Robert Fludd, Thomas
Vaughan, Heinrich Kunrath, Jakob Boehme, Jo-
hann Georg Gichtel, and later by Count Saint
Martin. At different periods in history men
appeared, teaching the immortality of the soul,
and the existence of a vast cosmos, moved by
occult forces, of which cosmos this earth is but
an infinitesimal part. They showed the in-
THEOSOPHY.
THEOSOPHY.
660
stability of material existence, the reality of an
occult world which reaches everywhere into ours.
In modern times, the name theosophy has been
given to a form of belief promulgated by a Rus-
sian, Madame Blavatsky (q.v.), who gave out
such doctrines concerning cosmogony and an-
thropology, and who made such claims as to the
source of her instructions, which, she said, were
obtained from certain Masters, that ‘theosophy’
now connotes the cult established by her. The
authoritative work on modern theosophy is her
book, The Secret Doctrine, which states “the
three fundamental propositions” as follows: (1)
An omnipresent, eternal, boundless, and im-
mutable principle on which all speculation is
impossible, since it transcends the power of
human conception and could only be dwarfed by
any human expression or similitude. (2) The
eternity of the universe in toto as a boundless
plane, periodically the playground of number-
less universes incessantly manifesting and dis-
appearing—the law of periodicity. (3) The
fundamental identity of all souls with the uni-
versal Over-Soul, the latter being itself an
aspect of the unknown Root: and the obligatory
pilgrimage of every soul—a part of the Over-
Soul——through the cycle of incarnation in ac-
cordance with cyclic and karmic law, during the
whole term. The esoteric philosophy admits of
no privileges or special gifts in man save those
won by his own Ego through personal effort and
merit throughout a long series of reincarnations.
According to theosophic teaching, God is said
to be infinite and absolute. Therefore, no at-
tempt is made to qualify or describe the Great
Unknown; but the manifested universe is traced
back from the material world, through the
powers of nature, to the Logos, from which all
manifestation begins. Evolution is accepted, but
as only half a law. The other half is involu-
tion. Spirit and matter are the two aspects, of
one root-nature. According to immutable law,
I the spirit involves into matter and matter
evolves the spirit. Thus there is a circulation
downward and upward, from spirit into matter
and from matter to spirit.
All worlds pass through seven great periods
of manifestations called Rounds. Spiritual at
first, they become denser and darker in the
downward cycle, the fourth of which is the
densest and our present material world. Thence
begins its upward movement toward spirituality.
The advantage gained is the experience and
ultimately the emancipation of the soul. In
each of these rounds, periods ,of incalculable
duration, there are seven great root-races. Each
root-race has seven .sub-divisions or sub-races
corresponding .with the rounds, which become
more material from the first to the fourth. We
are at present in the fifth sub-race of the fifth
root-race, and on the upward cycle of the fourth
round. Evolution is constant progress, an un-
folding of consciousness from the most primitive
forms of life to the highest intelligence.
Humanity is one great family. All souls are
the same in essence, but they differ in degrees of
development; each bears a certain relation to
the others and to the whole. The apparent
separateness of beings is overcome by the ex-
periences of its involution and evolution. The
more advanced souls are the natural guardians
of the less developed. Man is composed of seven
principles, which are divided into a lower or
mortal, and a higher or immortal nature. The
lower nature, constituting his personality, is
fourfold. One-fourth, the physical body is
visible, three-fourths invisible. These three are
the astral or design body (linga sarira), on
which are molded the physical atoms, then the
life principle, and the principle of desire. The
physical body (sthitla éarira) is material with-
out form. It is held in form by the astral body,
and moved to action by the fire of desire (lcdma) .
This fourfold nature is common to all animal
beings, is mortal and subject to dissolution at
death. The higher nature of man is threefold,
the mind (manas), soul (bnddhi), and spirit
(dt/man). The mind distinguishes man from
the animal. It makes him appear to be separate
from others by his self-consciousness. Entering
the animal body, the mind thinks of itself as
separate from others. The so,ul is universal,
overcoming separateness a11d showing relation-
ship of soul with soul. The spirit is the one
indivisible which passes through all things and
unites them with each other. Death is the
separation of the principles. ' The physical body
returns to the elements which gave it.
astral body disintegrates more slowly. The life
(prdna) passes at once into the universal life
(jica). Desire forms itself into a body (Mama-
rzlpa) which gradually becomes exhausted, leav-
ing seeds (shandhas), from which the return-
ing soul forms a later and new personality.
The trinity of mind, soul, and spirit, when
freed from the trammels of a mortal garment,
passes through certain states of consciousness
until it reaches the condition called heaven
(de'caccina), where it enjoys a period of bliss
and rest proportionate to its good thoughts and
ideals while on earth. When these exalted ideals
have been exhausted, its period of rest is at an
end and it descends gradually to earth. The
trinity, after enjoying its rest, and realizing those
ideals which could not be attained on earth, is
attracted again to earth by the unfulfilled long-
ings and desires which remain behind as seeds.
These it animates. It sinks into the emotional
world, is attracted to a particular family, who
can furnish a body and surroundings suited to
its new experience, and is reborn into this world.
The higher nature must become consciously im-
mortal, that is to say, it must acquire a con-
tinuity of consciousness, thus making it con-
sciously immortal while in the physical body.
One earth-life is not sufficient. Hence rebirth
into the school of life is the lot of the soul until
all the lessons have been learned. This doctrine
is closely associated with that of Karma, which
is the law of balance, of action and reaction, of
effect inevitably connected with the preceding
cause. Applied to man, it is a moral law of un-
erring justice, and to it all other laws, physical
and otherwise, are subservient. It returns to
man measure for measure his good or evil
thoughts and deeds. It is inseparable from re-
incarnation. Man has his Karma in his duties.
It is by performing every duty willingly that
Karma is exhausted. If-one evades the duty of
the moment, Karma will ultimately compel him
to perform that which is the outcome of his past
thoughts and acts. Karma is the cause, rein-
carnation the effect. Karman is the action and
interaction between desire and mind.
T he .
THEOSOPHY.
THERAME-N'E S.
661
The phenomenon of life is a question of planes
or states of consciousness. Consciousness is one,
but matter is of seven grades or states. Con-
sciousness of each of the seven planes or states
independent of it, and endows it with a con-
sciousness of each of the seven planes or states
on which that matter is manifested. Conscious-
ness remains the same in all planes. The seven
states of consciousness are: Elemental, or
atomic (pralcrti), which is a simple conscious-
ness of the elements of matter. Mineral or
molecular consciousness (linga éarira) is the
consolidating of the elements into form accord-
ing to a definite principle of design. Vegetable
or cellular consciousness (prdna) is a recom-
bining of that matter through growth and expan-
sion by the principle of life. Animal or organic
consciousness (lcdma) is the directing of the
life of matter and design by the principle of
desire. Human or ‘I-—am—I’ consciousness
(manas) is the self-identifying of the conscious-
ness, as being distinct and separate from others
by the intelligent principle of mind. At this
point a man may rise to the divine or sink below
the consciousness of the brute—at will. Uni-
versal or ‘I am thee and thou art I’ consciousness
(buddhi) is the relating of the elements and of
all souls with each other, thus overcoming the
sense of separateness of the mind by the prin-
ciple of the divine soul. Divine consciousness
(dtma-n) which sees no separateness but unites
all as one.
Hell (avici) is a low and depraved condition-
on this earth. A life of intense selfishness and
wickedness with no spiritual thoughts or aspira-
tions causes the immortal soul to abandon the
body before death. In such a case, it is not,
however, the soul, but the body with the lower
principles which is lost. After the death of
such a body the desires with a reflection of the
mind may be reincarnated in human form almost
immediately. Such a creature is entirely ma-
terial and animal, intensely selfish in its pro-
pensities and doomed to final destruction, unless
it makes a strong appeal to its divine soul, in
which event the soul might again connect with,
and try to help on its upward path.
In man divine powers are latent, for he is
essentially a soul, a divine being. He has within
his personality the potential powers of a God.
By purification and training of the body, the
latent and divine powers will develop and be-
come active. In every period of evolution a
number of souls reach perfection. They are men
whom the bonds of personality no longer bind
to the attractions of the senses. They have con-
sciously related themselves to the source of their
being and have become one with the divine.
They watch over humanity and are its guardians.
Although they have earned their freedom from re-
birth, they prefer to remain in contact with
men on earth, to teach and to guide them. At
certain periods some appear among men as great
law-givers, rulers, teachers, and their agents
found religious systems and schools of phi-
losophy. '
Consult: Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine (2
vols., London, 1888) ; id., Isis Unveiled (2 vols.,
New York, 1877) ; id., Key to Theosophy (Lon-
don, 1891) ; id., Voice of the Silence (ib., 1891) ;
Judge, Echoes from the Orient (New York,
1890); id., The Ocean of Theosophy (1893);
Sinnett, Esoteric Buddhism (Boston, 1884) ; id.,
The Occult World (ib., 1885) ; id., Growth of the
Soul (London, 1896) ; Besant, Theosophical
Manuals (ib., 1893); id., The Ancient Wisdom
(ib., 1899) ; id., Esoteric Christianity (New
York, 1901) ; Anderson, Reincarnation (San
Francisco, 1896); id., Septennary Man (ib.,
1895) ; Walker, Reincarnation
1888) ; Hartmann, Magic Black and White (ib.,
1890) ; id., Paraceleus (ib., 1891) ; Collins, Light
on the Path (ib., 1897); id., Idyl of the White
Lotus (ib., 1890); id., Through the Gates of
Gold (Boston, 1887).
THEOTOCOPULI, ta-o’t5-k6-p6'o’lé, DOMENI-
C0 (c.1548-1625). An Italian painter, engraver,
architect, and sculptor, known as 11 Greco, born
probably in Crete, and supposed pupil of Titian.
His early life is surrounded by uncertainty
and the first undoubted fact relative to him
is that he was residing at Toledo, Spain, in
1577, when he began to paint for the Cathe-
dral “The Parting of Christ’s Raiments.”
'In his quality of architect he designed and
carved the retable in which the picture was
hung and for which he was paid 182 ducats
more than for the picture itself. Summoned
to Madrid by Philip 11., he executed altar-
pieces for the Escorial, in which he attempted to
adopt a style which should be distinctively his
own, but failed entirely. His best work is the
“Burial of the Count of Orgaz in 1323” (1534),
in Santo Tomé, Toledo, containing many portraits
of contemporary great personages. Other fine
specimens of his ability as a portrait painter are
in the Madrid Museum, which also contains a
“Dead Christ” and several biblical scenes; and
a portrait of himself and one of his daughter are
in the Louvre. The National Gallery, London,
possesses a “Saint Jerome” and the Dresden Gal-
lery the “Healing of the Blind.” As an architect
and sculptor, 11 Greco attained considerable repu-
tation and designed several churches and admir-
able monuments. His most important structure
was the church and monastery of the Bernardine
monks at San Domenico di Silvos, of which he
executed the whole-——architecture, sculpture, and-
painting.
THE'RA. The ancient name of Santorin
(q.v.), one of the Cyclades. The chief town is
Tlrera.
THERAMENES, the-ram'e-nez (Lat., from
Gk. Onpauévns) (‘Z-404 B.C.). An Athenian poli-
tician. In B.C. 411 he was a leading member
of the oligarchy of the Four Hundred at Athens,
but soon, going over to the opposition, took a
leading part in the deposition of that body. In
B.C. 410 he took part in the battle of Cyzicus,
and in BC. 408 was present at the siege of Chal-
cedon and the capture of Byzantium. At the
battle of Arginusae, B.C. 406, he was one of the
subordinate officers in the Athenian fleet, and
after the battle was ordered to return to the
spot where the action had taken place and
rescue such of the disabled ships and their
crews as he could. A severe storm having in-
tervened, he found it all but impossible to exe-
cute this order, and as a result a large number of
Athenian citizens were drowned. Then, antici-
pating the wrath of the people, he hastened to
Athens and accused the commanders-in-chief of
negligence. When, in B.C. 404, Athens was be-
sieged by the Lacedemonians, Theramenes was
(New York, .
THERAME-NE S.
THERAPEUTICS.
662
remaining in Lysander’s quarters more than
three months, until the Athenians were reduced
to such a state of suffering that they were ready
to submit to any terms, he returned to report
that he could accomplish nothing, but that an em-
bassy must be sent to the Spartan ephors. Being
a second time sent forth, this time to Sparta,
he concluded a peace unfavorable to the Atheni-
ans, He was chosen one of the Thirty Tyrants
who were set up at Athens, but, taking sides
against the more violent members of that body,
he was accused by Critias of being a traitor and
was put to death. Consult P6hlig, Der Athener
Theramenes (Leipzig, 1877).
THERAPEUTJE (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Gk. Oeparreérays, therapeutes, attendant, servant,
from Oeparredew, therapeucin, to attend, from
Oepdn-wv, therapon, attendant; connected with
Lat. firmus, strong, Skt. dhar, to hold). The
name given to an ascetic sect in a Greek treatise
On the Contemplative Life or the True Virtues,'
which on the basis of Eusebius’s testimony (Hist.
Eccles. ii. 16, 17) has been attributed to Philo
Judaeus. It is thought by some scholars to be-
long to the close of the third century and to de-
scribe, not a Jewish sect, but Christian monks
living in Egypt. On- this theory the author, a
Christian who flourished shortly before the days
of Eusebius, wrote the treatise as a panegyric on
asceticism. He uses as illustrations the customs
prevailing in his days among ascetics and more
particularly in his own country, Egypt, and in
order to add weight to his utterances he puts his
treatise under the name of Philo. Conybeare,
Wendland, and others maintain the genuineness
of the work. The Therapeutae are described as
living chiefly on the lake Marcotis, near Alex-
andria, and having also numerous colonies in
other parts of the world. Consult: Lucius, Die
Therapeuten und ihre Stellung in der Geschichte
der Aslcese (Strassburg, 1880) ; Conybeare, Philo,
About the Contemplative Life (Oxford, 1895);
Wendland, Die Therapeuten (Leipzig, 1896).
THERAPEUTICS (from Gk. 0eparrevrucbs,
therapeutihos, relating to medical treatment,
from Oepmreva-vs, therapeutés, attendant, serv-
ant). The branch of medicine which has as its
object the cure of disease. The conception of His-
ease which is found among primitive races is
associated with the idea of demon possession.
The earliest therapeutic measures were devoted
to driving out these demons from the bodies of
their victims. Two methods were employed: one
consisted in the recital of charms or magic over
the ailing part, or over the sick person; and the
other consisted in the internal administration or
the external application of certain aromatic or
bitter herbs. In the early history of both East-
ern and Western nations there was a blending of
the office of priest and physician. Among the an-
cient Egyptians the treatment of diseasehad ac-
quired a character which was by no means un-
scientific. They used many remedies of vegetable.
mineral, and animal nature, a number of which
are of acknowledged value. Careful directions are
to be found as to the administration of drugs as
well as the indications for their use. Egyptian
physicians’ knowledge of hydrotherapy, dietet-
ics, and hygiene was far advanced. Among the
Hebrews the infliction and cure of diseases is on
sent to Lysander to arrange a peace, but, after.
various occasions in Scripture ascribed to the
direct interposition of God. Their methods of
treatment consisted principally of strict hygienic
means, careful attention to diet, ablution, sepa-
ration, and combustion of infected garments. A
large list of remedies is mentioned in the Bible.
The Babylonians had no practitioners of medi-
cine; they exposed their sick in public places in
order that travelers might communicate their ex-
periences as to the best mode of cure. In As-
syria the sick were similarly exposed, and
purges, emetics, and blisters were employed as
matters of routine for three days successively
each month. We know also that they used salt
and alum, as well as fumigations with mixtures
of various ‘drugs; The "Chinese assert that with
them the study "of medicine was coeval with the
foundation) of their empire, They possess ex-
tensive works on treatment which are of great
antiquity‘. Ginseng they regarded as a panacea,
and also employed opium, mercury, and a num-_
ber of other drugs of value. The Greeks may
have borrowed something from the Eastern na-
tions of their knowledge ‘of medicine and treat-
ment; but researches have shown that ‘under the
scientific spirit of Hippocrates they had evolved
a system which commands respect. Hippocrates
ascribed disease to alterations of the humors
of the body (the blood, phlegm, and yellow and
black bile). He employed baths, diet, exercise,
blood-letting, the actual cautery, and other sur-
gical means, and also an extensive series of
medicines derived from mineral, vegetable, and
animal sources. The Alexandrian School, which
succeeded the Hippocratean, opposed bleeding
and returned to simple remedies. This sect was
followed by the Empiricists, who followed ex-
perience as their sole guide. Then came the
Methodic School, which rejected all previous
theories and explained all normal and abnormal
processes by the contraction and relaxation of
the pores of the body. They regarded all medi-
cines as possessing astringent or relaxant quali-
ties, and their choice of remedies depended upon
which effect upon the pores they aimed to se-
cure. Galen represented the highest develop-
ment of Greek medicine. He explained the
operation of drugs by reference to their elemen-
tary qualities, heat, cold, dryness, and moisture.
In the early periods of Roman history medicine
was practiced by the slaves and freedmen and
its highest development was reachedunder the
influence of the Greek School. In the Dark Ages
medicine was practiced by the monks. Magic
and astrology were potent influences. During this
time the doctrine of ‘signatures’ arose. Accord-
ing to this idea a remedy was chosen on account
of its fancied resemblance in form or color to
the organ affected. To this doctrine we trace
the introduction into medicine of such drugs as
the bloodroot and liverwort. The old Galenists
used only organic drugs, but in the fifteenth
century under Paracelsus and his followers there
was an overthrow of the older methods. He first
introduced chemical agents (employing mercury
in syphilis) and substituted tinctures, essences, .
and extracts for various disgusting preparations,
Toward the middle of the eighteenth century
the practice of therapeutics had reached a most
complicated stage. There were theories and
counter-theories and physicians were prescribing
huge doses of unpleasant mixtures in the hope
6' THERAPEUTICS.
THERAPEUTICS.
663
of_ securing the good from all the remedies
recommended. A natural reaction set in which
resulted in the establishment of homoeopathy, an
outgrowth of the reactionary doctrine of ‘vital-
ism.’ Later there arose the therapeutic nihil-
ists, prominent among whom were Van Swieten
and Skoda. This school rejected drug treatment
altogether. '
Modern therapeutics may be said to -have
begun with the discovery of morphine, an alka-
loid of opium, in 1817. _ The present method
of treatment is embodied in rational therapeu-
tics, which implies the use of remedies based
on a knowledge of the diseased condition present
in the patient, a knowledge of the nature of
disease‘ itself, and of the physiological action
of the agent employed, as determined by ex-
. perimental investigation on animals, from which
may be de.duced the action on men. The knowl-
edge of the action of drugs must include the
manner in which they affect the nerve cen-
tres, the respiration, the circulation, and es-
pecially their influence on blood pressure, and
on body temperature. The range of medicinal
dosage, as well as the minimum and maximum
fatal dosage, must also be determined. In treat-
ing disease it is the aim of the physician to
seek the cause of the condition present and_ to
endeavor from a true appreciation of the knowl-
edge of drug action to administer such remedies
as will effect a cure. A remedy which possesses
the influence of curing positively a certain dis-
ease is called a specific. Such is the action of
mercury in syphilis and quinine in malaria.
Empirical therapeutics was based on the cumula-
tive evidence that certain drugs were of ser-
vice in certain conditions, and experiment was
the sure guide. Symptomatic treatment aims to
relieve the symptoms of disease irrespective of
their cause. Rational ‘ or scientific therapeu-
tics recognizes that both these previous meth-
ods may have to be followed at times, but it
aims especially at the removal of the cause of
disease ‘by appropriate treatment of whatever
sort. It has been developed by the increased
knowledge of disease which we have acquired
through the growth of the sciences of pathology
and bacteriology. Materi rnedica comprises a
knowledge of the remedies employed in medi-
cine; while the methods by which drugs are pre-
pared and combined for administration, as well
as the separation of the active principles of
drugs, belongs to the department of therapeutics
known as pharmacy. It is essential that there
should be a uniform standard of strength and
purity of medicinal products, as well as uni-
formity in their preparation, and to attain this
object the various countries - have standards
established ‘by law or, by professional authority,
to which the drugs prepared by the pharmacists
must conform. These standards are published
by each nation in works known as Pharma-
copoeias. The first United States Pharmacopoeia
was published in 1820, previous to which time
European works were mainly used as authori-
ties. This work is revised every ten years by
a. committee of physicians and pharmacists.
Those preparations which follow its direction
and are named in the work are called 0;/ficial.
Unojficial preparations, including many newer
drugs,,are in use. The best of these are finally
included in the Pharmacopoeia, provided they are
regarded of sufficient value. The term thera-
peutics is usually restricted to the administra-
tion of medicinal drugs, but in its broadest
sense, general therapeutics, it includes every
form of treatment. Natural therapeutics is the
healing power of nature to cure disease through
the operation of the so-called vis medicatriw
natarce. In what is known as expectant treat-
ment the physician depends solely on this force
and sustains the patient’s strength by food and
nursing. Treatment by surgical means is re-
garded as a special and separate department
of medicine. A large number of other means
than treatment by drugs is in use and each is
designated by an appropriate prefix. Electro-
therapeutics, the use of electricity as a heal-
ing agent, is especially valuable in certain cases
of disease of the nervous system or local injury
to a nerve. By this means the nutrition of Para-
lyzed muscles may be maintained by electrical
stimulation until the nerve is in a condition to
resume its ‘function. ‘ Radiotherapy or X-ray
therapy is the use of the Roentgen rays for the
purpose of treatment. Hydrotherapy is the
treatment of disease by the application of water,
either as baths. of various temperatures (balneo-
therapeutics) or by drinking, douching, spray-
ing, etc. Suggestive therapeutics is the name
given to treatment in the form of suggestion
made to the patient while in an induced hypnotic
state, with the object of the patient’s following
the suggestion when awakened from the hypnotic
sleep. This treatment is of limited_ utility in a
few varieties of nervous disease of so-called
functional origin, in which no organic disease
exists. Climato-therapeutics is the utilization
of certain locations on account of their peculiar
adaptability to the patient’s condition; as the
sending of patients suffering with consumption
to high altitudes and dry climates. Therapeutics
fully recognizes the value of diet in -disease in
an important department of the subject known
as dietetics or dieto-therapeutics. The use of
extracts of various _glands of the body, especially
of the thyroid and the suprarenal glands, has of
late been attracting considerable attention. This
department of therapeutics is called opo-therapy
and promises wide usefulness. Massage and
various allied measures have a prominent place
in the treatment of certain conditions and assist
in sustaining the nutrition of the muscles, This
is sometimes called masso-therapeutics. _
_ There have been a number of methods of class-
ifying remedies followed by various authorities,
but none of these is entirely satisfactory. The
most important are: (1) the botanical method,
which groups the vegetable remedies according
to the botanical classifications; and (2) the ar-
rangement according to the therapeutic action
of drugs. Many drugs, however, are used for a
number of purposes, and it is undesirable to de-
scribe them under more than one heading.
Finally, there is (3) the pharmacological classifi-
cation, which arranges drugs according to their
action on living matter. This method does not
take into account - the chemical composition or
therapeutic action of drugs, but those having
the most characteristics in common are placed
together. The groups are named for the most
prominent member or from some marked prop-
erty possessed by all. The chief divisions, under
which are included many sub-groups, are thus
THERAPEUTICS.
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
664
stated by Cuslmy: (1) Organic substances which
are characterized chiefly by their local action,
such as pepper, mustard, and turpentine. (2)
Organic substances characterized chiefly by their
action after absorption, such as alcohol, strych-
nine, and morphine. (3) The alkalies, alkaline
earths, acids, and allied bodies, Under this head
are grouped the various salts of ammonia, etc.
There is a gradual transition from this group
to (4) the heavy metals, as silver, gold, iron, etc.
Another class (5) embraces ferments, secretions,
and toxalbumins, thus consisting of a number
of substances which are either present in the
normal body or are merely substitutes for nor-
mal secretions. In the last group (6) menstrua
and mechanical remedies are found, preparations
which are used only for their mechanical effects,
and which, while they are included in the
Pharmacopoeia, are not for the most part drugs.
'.1‘HERE/SA, SAINT. See TERESA.
THERESINA, ta’ré-zeta, or THEREZINA.
The capital town of the State of Piauhy, Brazil,
on the right bank of the river Paranahiba, 230
miles from the city of that name at its mouth
(Map: Brazil, J 5). The town is regular in
construction, but uninteresting and unhealthful.
Population, about 6500.
THERESIOPEL, ta-ra’zé-o’p’l, or MARIA-
THERESIOPEL (Hung. Seabadlca). A royal free
city of the County of Bzics, Hungary, 109
miles by rail south-southeast of Budapest (Map:
Hungary, F 3 ). It is a scattered town, lying in a
great, rich plain between the Danube and the
Theiss, and has noteworthy churches. Theresi-
opel is the centre of a fine large corn-raising
district, which also produces tobacco. The manu-
factures include linens and shoes. The town has
a fine trade in grain, wine, horses, cattle, hogs,
hides, and wool. Population, in 1890, 73,526; in
1900, 82,122, chiefly Catholic Magyars and Serbs.
THER’IDI’ID1E (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Gk. Gepldzov, theridiorgdiminutive of Qvip, thér‘,
Wild beast). A family of spiders known as the
cobweb-weavers. These are small spiders with
very slim legs, and include most of the familiar
house spiders. They are generally soft and of
a light color, with the abdomen large and round
and the legs lacking in spines. The eyes are all
of about the same size and are placed in two
rows across the front of the head. The mandibles
are weak and without teeth at the end. The
maxillee are pointed at the end and turn inward
toward each other. The family is one of the
largest of the order Arachnida. Many species of
Theridiidae spin their webs in the fields on
bushes. The web is a flat or curved sheet, sup-
ported by threads which run in many directions,
under which the spider hangs head downward.
The egg cocoons are round and soft and hang
in the web.
THE’RIODON’TA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Gk. dnplov, thér/ion, diminutive of dfip, ther, wild
beast + ddofis, odous, tooth). A suborder of ex-
tinct Permian and Triassic reptiles, the skulls
of which show remarkable resemblance to those
primitive carnivorous mammals. See CYNO-
GNATHUS ; THEROMORPHA ; REPTILIA.
THE’RIOSU’CIE[US (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
Onpiov, thér/ion, diminutive of Bfip, thér, wild beast
+ doiixos, souchos, crocodile). An extinct croco-
dile with body less than two feet long, skeletons
of which are found in the Purbeck beds of the
English Upper Jurassic. See CBOCODILIA; TELEG-
SAURUS.
THERMAL SPRING (from Gk. 0ép;u7,
thermé, heat from 0epu6s, thermos, hot). A
spring whose temperature is higher than the
average temperature of the locality in which it
emerges. The temperature may vary therefore
from a minimum of a few degrees above the freez-
ing point, which, however, is limited to thermal
springs in high altitudes or great elevations, to
a maximum represented by the boiling point of
water under the local conditions. When the tem-
perature reaches the latter limit the flow of the
spring may take the form of periodical eruptions;
a thermal spring of this character being known
as a geyser (q.v.) . The higher temperature of
thermal springs as compared with ordinary
springs may be caused by volcanic agencies or
by the circulation of the waters at great depths
in the earth’s crust previous to emergence. The
hottest springs are usually found in volcanic re-
gions, and their high temperature is due to com-
ing in contact with uncooled lava, which when
buried at some depth retains its heat for a long
time. It seems probable, also, that some springs
are heated by gaseous emanations from the
earth’s interior, or, indeed, receive material con-
tributions from that source. Thermal springs
are quite common, however, in districts that have
been free from volcanic disturbances, at least
since remote geological times. The increase in
temperature under such conditions can best be
explained by peculiarities of geological structure
which permit the surface waters to descend to
great depths when they are heated and thence are
returned to the surface under the influence of
hydrostatic pressure. See SPRING.
THERMES, tarm (Fr., from Lat. thermaa,
warm baths). The only remains of the Roman
palace which occupied the site of the present
Hotel de Cluny, Paris. The ruins are those of
the great baths connected with the palace, and
include a frigidarium 65 feet long and 59 feet
high, still uninjured, although up to 1820 it had
long borne the weight of a garden laid out over
it. The ships’ prows of the vaulting are said to
be the origin of the arms of Paris. A collection
of Roman antiquities discovered in Paris is pre-
served in the hall.
THERMIC FEVER. See HEAT-STRoKE.
THERMIDOR, Fr. pron. tar’me'dor’ (Fr.,
from Gk. Oépp/)7, thermé, heat + ddipov, d6ron,
gift). The eleventh month in the French revolu-
tionary calendar. It extended from July 19th
to August 18th in the years I.-VII. and from July
20th to August 19th in the years VIII.-XIII. The
9th Thermidor of the year II. (July 27, 1794) is
historically memorable as the date of Robe-
spierre’s fall and the termination of the Reign
of Terror. The name Thermidorians was given to
all those who took part in this coup d’état, but
more particularly to those who were desirous of
restoring the monarchy. See FRENCH REVOLU-
TION; ROBESPIERRE.
THERMO-CHEMISTRY. The branch of
general chemistry that deals with the thermal
phenomena accompanying chemical transforma-
tions. While those phenomena are caused partly
by the chemical changes proper, they may be
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
665
due in part also to the purely physical changes
of state that often accompany chemical reac-
tions; and for this reason the scope of thermo-
chemistry must extend over physical as well as
chemical changes of matter. For the principles
of thermo-chemical notation, see CHEMISTRY,
section on Transformations.
What has thus far been accomplished in the
domain of thermo-chemistry may be summed up
as follows: First, a large number of transforma-
tions have been subjected to calorimetric meas-
urement, and so the total amounts of heat given
off or absorbed during a great many changes
have been determined experimentally; secondly,
the principles of thermodynamics have been suc-
cessfully applied to the consideration of chemical
changes, and thus thermo-chemistry has been
highly developed theoretically.
EXPERIMENTAL THERMo-CHEMISTRY. The ac-
-tual execution of thermo-chemical measurements
is a matter of some difficulty, owing to the
considerable errors that may be caused by more
or less heat being lost by radiation while the
measurement is being carried out. The heat
given off or absorbed is determined by keeping
the vessel in which the reaction takes place im-
mersed in a known quantity of water, and ob-
serving the temperature of the latter before and
after the reaction. But whatever the details of
such a ‘calorimetric’ arrangement may be, what-
ever the precautions taken to isolate the calori-
meter from its surroundings, the loss of heat
during an experiment would render the observa-
tion worthless in every case in which the chemi-
cal change studied would take place slowly. In
consequence of this, thermo-chemical knowledge
would necessarily be confined to rapid reactions
alone, if it were not for the fact that early in
the history of thermo-chemistry a principle be-
came known that permitted of ascertaining the
heat of slow reactions, too, by indirect methods.
The principle in question is known as the law of
constant heat-sums. While clearly established by
Hess in 1844, i.e. before the law of the conserva-
tion of energy became known, it is nothing but a_
special form of the law of conservation. It is as fol-
lows: The amount of heat given off or taken up
when a given chemical system is changed into
another is the same whatever the way in which
the change may take place. Let, for example,
the given chemical system consist of 17 grams of
gaseous ammonia in one ‘vessel, its equivalent
36.5 grams of gaseous hydrochloric acid in an-
other vessel, and a large quantity of water.
This system may be changed into a dilute aque-
ous solution of ammonium chloride in two differ-
ent ways: (I) ammonia and hydrochloric acid
may be caused to combine in the gaseous state,
yielding solid ammonium chloride and develop-
ing 42,100 calories of heat; then the ammonium
chloride may be dissolved in the water—a change
accompanied by the absorption of 3900 calories;
or (2) the gaseous ammonia may be dissolved in
a large amount of water—a process developing
8400 calories; the gaseous hydrochloric acid may
be dissolved in a separate large quantity of
water—a process developing 17,300 calories; and,
finally, the dilute aqueous ammonia may be
mixed with the dilute aqueous hydrochloric acid
—a process developing 12,300 calories. Which-
ever the way adopted, the result is the same——
viz. a dilute aqueous solution of ammonium
chloride. The heat developed when the first way
is adopted is 42,100—3900:38,200 calories;
the heat developed when the second way is
adopted is 8400 + 17,300 + 12,300 : 38,000 calo-
ries. The figures 38,200 and 38,000, differing by
only 2 parts in 382 (little more than 1/2 per
cent.), i.e. by less than the unavoidable experi-
mental error, must be considered as equal——which
is in accordance with the law of constant heat-
sums. If, for some reason, it were impossible
directly to measure, say, the heat produced by
the combination of gaseous ammonia and gaseous
hydrochloric acid, that heat might be calculated,
according to the law of constant heat-sums, by
adding 3900 calories (the heat absorbed when
one equivalent of ammonium chloride is dissolved
in much water) and 38,000 calories (the total heat
produced during the transformation, by the
second way, of gaseous ammonia and hydrochloric
acid into dilute ammonium chloride). The sum,
41,900 calories, would be as near the truth as the
42,100 calories found by direct experiment. To
take another, even simpler example, suppose it
were asked, How much heat would be evolved or
absorbed in the transformation of 12 grams of
amorphous carbon into diamond? The trans-
formation, although accomplished on a minute
scale by Moissan, in his electric furnace, is of
course inaccessible to direct calorimetric meas-
urement. But the law of constant heat-sums
permits of answering the question by measuring
the heat of combustion of amorphous carbon and
that of diamond. The transformation of amor-
phous carbon into carbon dioxide, whether ac-
complished by direct combustion or by first
changing the carbon to diamond and then burn-
ing the latter, must be accompanied by the evo-
lution of the same amount of heat, viz. 97,650
calories; and as the heat of combustion of
diamond is 94,310 calories, the transformation of
amorphous carbon (12 grams) into diamond
must, according to the law of constant heat-
sums, be accompanied by the evolution of
97,650 — 94,310 : 3340 calories.
In a similar manner Hess’s law permits of
ascertaining the heat that would be developed
during the formation of compounds (e.g. the
majority of organic compounds) whose forma-
tion from the elements could not be directly stud-
ied calorimetrically. Let it be required, for in-
stance, to ascertain the heat that would be de-
veloped or absorbed if ordinary alcohol.(C2H6O)
were made from its elements—-carbon (in the
form of diamond), hydrogen, and oxygen. To
do this, we may determine calorimetrically the
heat (call it a) developed by the combustion
of one gram-molecule of alcohol and the heats of
combustion (b and c) of quantities of isolated
carbon (diamond) and hydrogen equal to those
contained in one gram-molecule of alcohol. The
three combustions may be represented by the
following equations:
C,H5OH + 60 : 2CO2 + 3H,O + a calories;
2C —l— 4O : 2CO + b calories;
3H2 + 3O = 3H,,O + c calories.
Adding the second and third equations, we get:
2C+3H,+70=2CO,-l—3H,O+b+c,
and subtracting the first equation from this, we
get:
2C+3H,+O-—C2H5OH-:b+c-—a,
or 2C+3H,+O=C,H,,OH-1—b+c-a.
This last equation, expressed in words, means
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
666
\
that if carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen combined
to form ordinary alcohol, an amount of heat
would be formed equal to the heat of combustion
of the isolated elements of alcohol minus the
heat of combustion of alcohol itself; b, the heat
of combustion of two atoms (i.e. twice 12
grams) of carbons, is found to be 94,300 X 2 :
188,600 calories; c, the heat of combustion of
three molecules (i.e. 3 X 2 grams) of hydrogen;
is found to be 67,500 X 3:202,500 calories;
finally, a, the heat of combustion of one molecule
(46 grams) of alcohol, is found to be 340,000
calories. Hence, b+ c—-a, the heat of forma-
tion of alcohol, is 188,600 + 202,500 -— 340,000 :
51,100 calories. See COMBUSTION.
THEORETICAL THERMO-CHEMISTRY. This, as
already stated above, consists in the application
of the principles of thermodynamics to chemi-
cal phenomena. The subject, if not very diffi-
cult, requires a working knowledge of the higher
mathematics and thermodynamics, and can there-
fore be discussed here only in its more elemen-
tary aspects. The principal questions to which
thermodynamics have been applied concern: (1)
the influence of temperature upon the total
energy-change (VVr'irmet6nung) of reactions, i.e.
heat given off or absorbed, no mechanical work
being performed; (2) the influence of tempera-
ture upon the velocity of reactions (see RE-
ACTION, CHEMICAL); (3) the influence of tem-
perature on chemical equilibrium; (4) the de-
termination of the maximum mechanical work
that can be performed by the chemical energy
of reactions. We will briefly consider these ques-
tions in their consecutive order.
With reference to the dependence of the
energy-change of a reaction upon the tempera-
ture, the verdict of thermodynamics is, first of
all, that in case the heat-capacity of the reacting
substances is the same as that of the products of
the reaction, the energy change of the reaction
does not vary with the temperature. This is
generally the case when the reacting substances
and the products of the reaction are all solids.
Thus the combination of silver and solid iodine
into silver iodide sets free practically the same
amount of heat (about 14,000 calories), no
matter at what temperature the combination is
caused to take place. On the other hand, if a
given reaction does cause a change in the heat-
capacity, then, if t denotes the difference be-
tween two temperatures at which the reaction
may take place, u1 —— u2 the difference between the
energy-change at the first and that at the second
temperature, and c the difference between the
heat-capacity of the reacting substances and that
of the products of the reaction,
u1 — u2 = ct.
By measuring calorimetrically the heat-capaci-
ties in question and the energy-change of the
reaction at some one temperature, it is therefore
easy to calculate the energy-change of the re-
action at any other temperature—a result of con-
siderable importance, because direct calorimetric
measurements of the energy-change can by no
means be readily carried out at any desirable
temperature.
As to the velocity of reactions (see REACTION,
CHEMICAL), it is well known empirically that
a relatively small rise of temperature often
causes reactions to take place with great rapid-
ity—sometimes with explosive violence. Usu-
ally a rise of 10° C. doubles or even trebles the
velocity. In a perfectly general maimer, how-
ever, the dependence of the velocity on tempera-
ture cannot as yet be formulated. As far as
chemical knowledge goes at present, it seems
probable that a law analogous to Ohm’s law in
electricity will some time be found to express
the relation between the reaction-velocity, the
chemical force causing the reaction, and the
‘chemical resistance.’ If chemists should suc-
ceed in working out a clear conception of the
latter, in measuring it, and expressing quanti-
tatively its variation with the temperature, then
the problem of the dependence of reaction-
velocity on temperature would be solved. But
all this remains to be done; and chemists realize
that it is not by any means an easy matter to do
it; for ‘chemical resistance,’ and hence also the
velocity of reactions, depend, besides the tem-
perature, on a number of more or less accidental
factors—on the accelerating influence of certain
‘catalytic agents’ (see CATALYTIC ACTION), on
the retarding influence of certain other sub-
stances, indeed sometimes on the material of
the vessel in which the reaction takes place.
Under such circumstances, the field for the
mathematical application of thermodynamical
principles is naturally very limited. Neverthe-
less, Van ’t Hoff has succeeded in showing that
in many cases the dependence of reaction-velocity
on the temperature can be expressed by simple
equations of the following form:
A
log k=—-,1;-{—B,
an equation established by him by combining the
principles of thermodynamics with experimental
observations. In this equation it stands for the
velocity at the instant when the product of the
active masses equals unit; T stands for the
absolute temperature (i.e. the centigrade tem-
perature plus 273 degrees); and A and B are
constants whose numerical values depend on the
nature of the substances taking part in the re-
action. If It is actually measured at only two
different temperatures, and its two corresponding
values (say 101 and ie,), together with the two
temperature numbers (say T1 and T2), are sub-
stituted in the above equation, we get:
A
1-0gk1=_7_[_11_l_B,
A
10g k2:-—-',1T2—}—B,
two equations with two unknowns, A and B.
Solving these equations, and substituting the
resulting numerical values of A and B in the
general equation given above, we obtain a gen-
eral relation between 76 and T for the given re-
action. In other words, we can readily calculate
what may be termed ‘the standard velocity’ for
any temperature whatever—the ‘standard veloc-
ity’ being the velocity at the instant the concen-
trations of the reacting substances are such that
the product of their active masses equals unit.
The law of chemical mass-action then permits of
calculating the reaction-velocity for all other
possible concentrations.
With reference to chemical equilibrium (see
REACTION, CHEMICAL), thermodynamics, as
Van ’t Hoff has shown, permits of foreseeing the
equilibrium of a reaction at some temperature
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
THERMO -CHEMISTRY.
667
T2, if the equilibrium at some given temperature
T1 and the average of the energy-changes (heats
given off or taken up by the reaction) at the two
temperatures are known. In this manner it is
possible to calculate, for instance, the degree of
dissociation of ammonium chloride (see DECOM-
POSITION; DISSOCIATION) at different tempera-
tures, if the degree of dissociation at some one
temperature, and the heat of dissociation, are
known.
In connection with the influence of changes
of temperature on chemical equilibrium, it is
necessary to mention Gibbs’s phase rule, which is
of great importance in classifying the phenomena
of equilibrium in material systems. By the
‘phases’ of a chemical system Gibbs means its
several homogeneous parts that can be separated
from one another mechanically. For instance,
let water be shaken up in a bottle with ordinary
ether, and three layers will form—a solution of
ether in water, a solution of water in ether, and,
over the liquid, a mixture of the vapors of water
and ether; the three homogeneous layers can be
separated by mechanical means, and hence they
constitute the three ‘phases’ of the system. Since
all gases and vapors form homogeneous mixtures,
it is evident that no system can contain more
than one gaseous phase. According to Gibbs’s
phase rule, n phases in equilibrium with one an-
other cannot possibly be made up by less than
n—2 independent chemical substances, or, what
is the same, n—2 independent chemical sub-
stances cannot possibly form more than n phases
in equilibrium with one another. When n—2
independent substances do form n phases, then
the slightest change of temperature destroys the
equilibrium, a transformation takes place, and
one of the phases disappears. For instance, let
n—2 = 1, and therefore n—_—3, as is the case
at the melting-point of ice, when ice, liquid
water, and water vapor may form three phases
made up of a single chemical substance—water.
As long as the temperature is constant, the three
phases remain in equilibrium; let the tempera-
ture rise, and all the ice will have melted away;
let the temperature fall, and all the water will
have frozen. The melting-point of water is
sometimes referred to as its triple point, because
of the three phases which may exist in equilib-
rium at that point. Above and below that point,
in the regions of the simultaneous existence of
only two phases (liquid water and its vapor, or
ice and its vapor), a change in temperature
causes a corresponding change in the equilibrium,
the vapor-tension, and hence the concentration of
the gaseous phase varying with the temperature;
but none of the phases necessarily disappears,
i.e. the equilibrium of the several phases is not
necessarily destroyed. In the case of ether and
water forming three phases (see above), the
number of independent substances being only one
less than the number of phases, a change in
temperature would likewise cause a change in
equilibrium; but ordinarily none of the phases
would necessarily disappear, i.e. again, the equi-
librium would not necessarily be destroyed. If,
however, the temperature should fall to the point
at which water would begin to freeze out of the
aqueous solution of ether, then a fourth phase
(ice) would be added to the three phases of the
system; the number of phases (4) would then
exceed by two the number of independent sub-
VOL. XVI.--43.
stances (2, ether and water) composing them,
and the equilibrium that would then ensue would
be destroyed by the slightest variation of tem-
perature from that ‘quadruple point’ (i.e. the
point of four phases)of the system. Tempera-
tures like the triple point of water and the quad-
ruple point of water and ether are referred to
generally as the multiple points of chemical sys-
tems. The above examples, involving physical
transformations alone (melting, freezing, evapo-
ration, solution), have been considered here for
simplicity’s sake. But the phase rule is equally
applicable to systems in which very complex
chemical phenomena may be taking place, and
its value lies largely in the fact that it likens
very complex phenomena of chemical equilibrium
to the simple phenomenon of the physical equi-
librium between water and ice. It further, evi-
dently, permits of classifying the phenomena of
chemical equilibrium with reference to the num-
ber of substances taking part in them, and thus
possesses considerable didactic importance. Final-
ly, it can serve as a guide to the discovery of
new substances (for instance, new hydrates of
inorganic salts) that may appear as phases in
chemical systems in equilibrium and thus render
service to certain branches of purely experimen-
tal research.
One more important application of thermody-
namics to chemical phenomena has been made
and requires mention in the present sketch.
Thermodynanics, in studying a transformation
of some material system, endeavors to ascertain
the maximum mechanical work that might be
produced by the transformation. the ‘maximum
work’ meaning the work that might be obtained
by the use of some ideal mechanical device,
frictionless and permitting, so to speak, of no
leakage of energy. The importance of knowing
this maximum of work is very great. Any natu-
ral change taking place of itself——whether it be
the falling of a stone, the expansion of a com-
pressed gas, the combustion of coal, or any other
change, mechanical or chemical—may be used to
produce mechanical work; and no material sys-
tem is capable of changing unless it possesses
the capacity for producing work—or, as Helm-
holtz terms it, ‘free energy.’ In other words, it
may be said that it is because a system can pro-
duce mechanical work that it is capable of
changing spontaneously. The burning of coal
(i.e. the chemical transformation of the system,
carbon and oxygen), once started, can go on of
itself because it can be used to produce mechani-
cal work, or, what is the same, because the sys-
tem carbon and oxygen possesses a certain
amount of free energy. When, therefore, the
free energy of a system has been used, without
loss, to produce mechanical work, and that work
has been measured, we have a measure of the
cause of the given transformation. The cause of
chemical transformations is generally termed
‘chemical affinity.’ Obviously, then, the maxi-
mum work that can be produced by a chemical
transformation is a measure of the chemical
afiinities involved in it, and this is why the de-
termination of maximum work has great impor-
tance for chemical theory. But it may also be
valuable for purely practical purposes. Take,
for instance, again the combustion of coal. It is
well known that steam engines are very waste-
ful of energy. In connection with the problem
THERMO-CHEMISTRY.
THE RMOIDYNAMICS.
668
of a more economic use of coal the question must
naturally arise, How much mechanical work
could possibly be obtained altogether by burn-
ing a certain amount of coal, supposing that an
ideally perfect device were employed for the
purpose? The direct measurement of the maxi-
mum work, although theoretically possible, could
not be actually carried out. But the maximum
work of a reaction can be readily calculated, with
the aid of thermodynamics, if the concentra-
tions of the reacting substances and their prod-
ucts, when in the state of chemical equilibrium,
are known. In the case of the combustion of
coal the equilibrium-concentrations have been
determined by indirect measurement, and on the
basis of this Nernst has calculated approxi-
mately the maximum work of the combustion for
three different temperatures: If 12 grams of
carbon were burned at the absolute zero (—273°
C.), the equivalent of 97,650 calories might be
obtained; at 18° C. the maximum work would
be equivalent to 91,470 calories; at l000° C. the
equivalent of only 70,625 calories can be ob-
tained; this in spite of the fact that the heat
given off by the combustion is practically the
same at all temperatures, viz. 97,650 calories.
Only at the absolute zero of temperature could
the heat produced by the combustion of coal be
entirely transformed into mechanical work.
In conclusion, a few words must be said with
reference to an erroneous principle that has
gained somewhat wide acceptance among chem-
ists—viz. Berthelot’s principle, according to
which it is the heat produced by a reaction, and
not the maximum possible mechanical work, that
measures the cause of the reaction; and of two re-
actions that might take place in a given system,
the one accompanied by the greatest evolution of
heat must necessarily take place. This principle
holds good often, but not always, and so cannot
be looked upon as a law of nature. The most
important argument against it is that, were it
unlimited in its application, as Berthelot claims
it to be, reversible reactions would be impossible;
for one of a pair of reversible reactions not only
does not develop heat, but necessarily absorbs
heat; and hence, if Berthelot’s principle were
correct, that reaction could not take place at
all, and its opposite reaction would be complete.
See REACTICN, CHEMICAL.
The principal names connected with experi-
mental thermo-chemistry are those of Hess,
Julius Thomsen, Berthelot, and Stohmann. The
first to apply the principles of thermodynamics
to chemical phenomena was Horstmann. The
problem was next taken up by Dr. Gibbs, of
Yale University, whose thorough and original
treatment of the subject remained unknown for
a number of years. The importance of Van ’t
Hoff’s thermo-chemical work may be readily seen
from the present sketch. Finally, Le Chatelier,
Planck, Riecke, and Duhem have made note-
worthy contributions to the mathematical treat-
ment of the subject.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Thomsen, Thermochemisohe
Untersuchungen (Leipzig, 1882-86) ; Berthelot,
Thermochimie (Paris, 1897) ; id., Traité pra-
tique de calorimétrie chimique (ib., 1893) ; Muir
and Wilson, The Elements of Thermal Chemistry
(London, 1885) ; Jahn, Die Grundsdtee der
Thermochemie (Vienna, 1892); Planck, Grund-
riss der allgemeinen Thermochemie (Breslau,
1893) ; Naumann, Thermochemie (Brunswick,
1892). Consult also the literature of theoretical
and physical chemistry recommended in the
article CHEMISTRY.
THERMO-COUPLE, THERMOPILE. See
THEBMO-ELECTRICITY.
THERMODYNAMICS (from Gk. Oépun,
therme, heat + ddvams, dynaonis, power). The
application of the principles of mechanics to
heat-phenomena. It is shown in the article
HEAT that all heat-effects can be traced for their
cause to work having been done against the molec-
ular forces of the body—e.g. friction, compression,
etc.—-or to the reception of energy by the minute
portions of the body—e.g. radiation, conduction,
etc. In short, it may be regarded as proved ex-
perimentally that heat-effects always accom-
pany changes in the intrinsic energy of a body;
and the idea that the numerical value of the
heat-effects depends on the energy added to the
minute portions of the body and on that alone is
now accepted by every one. If a small amount
of energy AQ is added to a body, its intrinsic
energy is changed (dU) and as a rule a certain
amount of external work is done by the expan-
sion of the body (pdv, where p is the external
pressure on the body and dv is the change in
volume). By the conservation of energy, then,
if no other work is done,
AQ: dU -)— pdv.
This is sometimes called the ‘first principle
of thermodynamics.’
In any form of heat engine—e.g. a steam en-
gine——the ‘working substance,’ water, starts at
ordinary temperature; heat-energy is added to
it by the boiler; it reaches a high temperature,
that of the boiler, and a high pressure; it ex-
pands doing work in pushing out the piston;
its temperature and its pressure therefore fall;
the ‘cylinder’ is now joined to the ‘condenser,’
and the steam passes out and is condensed to
water, giving up heat-energy ; the piston is drawn
back and the process is repeated. So far as the
heat-energy and work are concerned, heat-en-
ergy (Q,) at a high temperature has been given
to the working substance, heat-energy (Q,) at a
low temperature is taken away from it, external
work (W) is done. By the first principle of
thermodynamics W : Q, — Q2, if we assume that
the water at the end of its cycle of changes has
the same energy that it had at the beginning.
The ‘efficiency’ of the process is defined as the
. W Q1—Q2
—or .
ratio Q1 Q1
of various processes Carnot in 1824 was led to
imagine one which bears his name and which
can be discussed theoretically. This process is
one which consists of a working substance in-
closed in a cylinder with a movable piston pass-
ing around a cycle so as to return to its initial
condition. There are supposed to be two large
reservoirs of a liquid, at different temperatures.
The cylinder containing the working substance
at a high pressure and small volume is imagined
placed in the high-temperature tank; the sub-
stance is allowed to expand, so slowly that its
temperature remains practically unchanged at
that of the surrounding liquid in the tank; in
doing this, heat-energy must flow into the work-
ing substance, otherwise its temperature would

In considering the efficiencies
-THE RMODYNAMIG S.
THERMO-ELECTRICITY.
669
fall; after the volume has increased sufficiently,
the cylinder is removed from the tank, and the
inclosed substance is allowed to expand under
such conditions that no heat-energy can enter, and
its temperature falls; when it reaches that of the
second tank the cylinder is placed in it, the
piston is forced in by external force, thus reduc-
ing the volume; if this process is done slowly the
temperature will not rise, but heat-energy will
flow out into the liquid of the tank; when the
volume is sufficiently reduced, the cylinder is
removed and the piston is pushed in under such
conditions that no heat-energy can leave or
enter; if the volume at the beginning of this last
step is chosen correctly the working -substance
will after a sufficient compression be restored to
its original condition. There have been four
steps, two ‘isothermal’ and two ‘adiabatic.’
The net result is: No change in the working
, substance; external work (W) done by the sub-
stance; heat-energy Q1 withdrawn from the high-
temperature tank; heat-energy Q, given out to
the low-temperature tank. Therefore, by the
first principle of thermodynamics,
W = Q1 -- Q2-
This process of Garnot’s is perfectly ‘rever-
sible;’ by doing an amount of work W on the
working substance it may be made to pass
around the cycle in the reverse way; the low-
temperature bath losing an amount of heat-en-
ergy Q, and the high-temperature bath gaining
an amount Q1. The conditions for reversibility
are that each ‘point’ of the whole cycle should
be one of equilibrium; and it is apparent that
for this to be satisfied the changes must all be
made slowly and that when the substance re-
ceives or gives out heat-energy it must be in
contact with a large tank of liquid at the same
temperature, within an infinitesimal amount, as
it itself is at that instant. (If a gas expands
out of a high-pressure reservoir into the open
air—e.g. illuminating gas rushing out of a
burner——the process is irreversible; if in an
engine the flame is at a higher temperature than
the steam in the boiler--as it always is-—the
process is irreversible.) It was stated by Car-
not that the efiiciency of his process, YV—’ was
the same for all working substances arid de-
pended alone on the temperatures of the two
baths. His proof was, however, erroneous, and
was corrected by Olausius in 1850, who showed
that the statement was correct if one assumed
that heat-energy of itself always passes from
high to low temperature. The statement that
heat-energy of itself does always pass from high
to low temperature is called the ‘second prin-
ciple of thermodynamics.’ Lord Kelvin has
shown that this principle is identical in its con-
clusions with the assumption that it is impos-
sible by any material agency to derive mechanical
effect from any portion of matter by cooling it
below the temperature of the coldest of the sur-
rounding objects.
Since is a function of the temperatures
of the twd tanks alone, it is possible to give
such numbers to the temperatures of these tanks
as will be independent of the working substance
(i.e. thermometric substance). Kelvin—then
William Thomson-—suggested that the numbers
T1 and T, be so chosen for the temperatures of
T T _T
the tanks that —1 : 9-1. 1 2:
Q ___Q W T2 Q2 T1
—1———2: -— and is therefore independent of every-

In this case
Q1
thing exceplt the temperatures; T1——T2 may be
T
chosen to have any arbitrary value; -,I—,1- is fixed
2
by the above definition as depending upon mak-
ing the thermometric substance pass around a
Carnot’s cycle; and then T1 and T2 are obtained.
It is found by direct experiment that if T1 -— T2
is chosen as 100 for two tanks of melting ice
and boiling water, the numbers on ‘Thomson’s
absolute scale’ are almost exactly the same as
obtained in a gas thermometer using the ‘abso-
lute centigrade scale.’ See THEBMOMETRY.
Since the efficiency increases as T2 becomes
smaller, and since the efficiency cannot be
greater than unity, there must be a minimum
temperature in the universe. This is known as
the ‘absolute zero;’ its value is about 273° C.,
as shown by the agreement between the two
‘absolute scales’ just described.
Carnot stated further that the efficiency of an
irreversible process could not be greater than
that of a reversible one with the two limiting
temperatures of the tanks; and Clausius proved
that this is true if the second principle of
thermodynamics is true.
It is generally accepted that the efficiency of an
irreversible process is less than that of a re-
versible one betweeu the same two temperatures,
but it cannot be regarded as a deduction from
the two principles of thermodynamics. All pro-
cesses in nature—chemical, electrical, etc.-are
irreversible; and a natural system will therefore
be in equilibrium if all imaginable processes
compatible with the existing conditions necessa-
rily involve an efficiency equal to or greater than
that which corresponds to a reversible process.
This general idea forms the basis of the modern
development of thermodynamics by Gibbs,
Planck, and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Buckingham, Theory of Ther-
modynamics (New York, 1900) ; Gibbs, “Equilib-
rium of Heterogeneous Substances,” in Tran‘s-
actions of the Connecticut Academy of Sci-
ences, vols. ii. and iii.; Mach, Die Principien
der Wiirmelehre (Leipzig, 1896); Planck, Ther-
modynamih (ib., 1897); Magic, The Second
Principle of Thermodynamics, Scientific Memoir
Series, vol. vi. (New York, 1899); Ames, The
Free Expansion of Gases, Scientific Memoir
Series, vol. i. (ib., 1898).
THERMO-ELECTRICITY. It was observed
by Seebeck in 1822 that, if the two junctions of
a closed metallic circuit made up of two differ-
ent wires in series were at different temperatures.
there was produced an electric current. As the
difference of temperature at the junctions is in-
creased, the current increases. It was shown,
however, by Cumming in 1823, that for any tem-
perature of one junction there is one for the
other junction such that there is no current: this
is known as the temperature of ‘inversion.’ If
in general, then, as the temperatures of the
junctions are made more and more different, the
current increases, then decreases, becomes zero,
and is finally reversed. The average of the
temperatures of the junctions when the current
THERMO-ELECTRICITY.
THERMOMETER.
670
is zero is called the ‘neutral’ temperature, and
is a constant for any two bodies.
These thermo-electric currents are due to molec-
ular actions at the junctions and also through-
out the conducting wires, owing to their non-
uniformity of temperature. VVhere the two dif-
ferent metals join there are electric forces called
the ‘Peltier electro-motive forces;’ while the
electric forces through the conductors themselves
are called ‘Thomson electro-motive forces.’ The
existence of these electro-motive forces is proved
by forcing a current around a circuit by means
of a battery or cell; at the junctions there is
rise or fall of temperature depending upon the
direction of the current, showing a force oppos-
ing or helping on the current; similarly the
conductor itself has its temperature raised or
lowered, depending upon the direction of the cur-
rent——quite apart from the usual heating effect
of a current.
The properties of thermo-electric currents are
best studied by diagrams. Some one metal is
chosen as a standard; lead is generally selected
because it has no ‘Thomson effect.’ A circuit
is made part of lead and part of another metal;
one junction is kept at 0° C., and while the tem-
perature of the other is varied continuously,
both above and below zero the total electro-
motive force around the circuit is measured.
These values of the for different values
of the temperature of the variable junction are
plotted in a curve, having for ordinates
and temperatures for abscissae. These curves
when drawn for different bodies—all with refer-
ence to lead—are found to be approximately
parabolas. Another form of diagram is made as
follows: The junctions of the two metals, one
of which is lead, are kept at temperatures T and
T —|— AT, where AT is a small quantity; the
resulting around the circuit is measured,
AE
The ratio E is called the
‘thermo-electric power;’ it is evidently a func-
tion of the temperature T, and when plotted on
a diagram having temperatures as abscissee, the
curves are practically straight lines.
A thermo-couple is one of the most sensitive
instruments known for detecting differences in
temperature. It can be improved by joining in
a zigzag series several couples; first, a piece of
bismuth, then one of antimony, then one of bis-
muth, etc., the first end of the first piece of
bismuth and the last end of the last piece of
antimony being joined by a wire passing around
a galvanometer. Thus every other junction of
bismuth and antimony is turned to form one face
of the zigzag; and, if one face is at a higher tem-
perature than the other, each couple helps the
others, and thus a considerable current may be
produced through the galvanometer. Such a
combination of couples forms a ‘thermopile.’ It
was invented by Nobili in 1834.
THERMOMETER (from Gk. eépflfl], thermri,
heat -1- aérpov, metron, measure). An instru-
ment for measuring temperature, but in early
times erroneously supposed to measure heat.
A brief account of the underlying theory and the
history of thermometry are given under the title
THERMOMETRY. This article will deal only with
those forms of thermometers that are at present
in ordinary use.
call it. AE.
THE AIR on Gas Tnnsmomrrrns. This form of
the instrument is accepted as the standard and
the indications of mercurial, alcohol, or other
thermometers are all supposed to be corrected
so as to agree with the standard adopted by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures
at Paris. This standard consists of a hollow
bulb of platinum filled with pure, dry nitrogen.
When kept at a uniform pressure the volume of
the gas expands in direct proportion to its tem-
perature. By calling the volume at the melting
point of ice V, and the volume at the boiling
point of water V —l— 100°, we establish a scale of
centigrade degrees, which may be extended above
or below these limits, so that, for instance, the
temperature of the absolute cold or entire absence
of heat would be ——27 3° C. and the temperature
of the boiling point of mercury would be about
+357 ° C. Numerous precautions are needed in
the use of the air ther- W
mometer, all of which are =
explained in the Traoauac
et memoires of the In-
ternational Bureau of
Weights and Measures
and in Guillaume, Ther-
mometrie (Paris, 1890) .
According to the theories
of thermodynamics the
peculiarities of platinum,
nitrogen, or of any other
materials that may be
used, introduce small ir-
regularities, so that the‘
scale of equal changes of
volume is not exactly
proportional to the quan-
tity of heat or the change
in temperature. There-
fore some recommend that
a slight correction be ap-
plied to the nitrogen gas
thermometer in order to
obtain the ideal thermo-
dynamic equivalent. In
Fig. 1 we see the simplest
or portable form of air
thermometer, as arranged
by Joly, for measuring
temperatures below the
boiling point of water.
The large glass bulb on
the left is filled with dry air, or dry nitrogen,
and ends in a short vertical glass tube attached
to the flexible rubber tube whose other end opens
into another short glass tube, shown on the
right-hand side, whose upper end is hermetically
closed and constitutes the vacuum chamber of
a barometric column of mercury. The glass
bulb is immersed in a liquid or gas whose tem-
perature is to be measured. If the volume of
the inclosed gas expands with the higher tem-
perature that is to be measured, then this ex-
pansion is counterbalanced by raising the
vacuum chamber and the flexible tube on the
right until the increased pressure of the mer-
cury column compresses the expanding gas in the
large bulb so as to keep it at a constant volume,
which is indicated by the fact that the mercury
in the left-hand tube just touches the tip of a
fine glass point that is permanently fastened
inside the tube. The pressure exerted by the




...'i'-I-I-I-!'-'~'"'II!~!I_II_IIa1r.I!I1I!nIn1II


FIG. 1.
JOLY AIR THERMOMETER.
THERMOMETER.
THERMOMETER.
671
mercurial column is measured by the difference
in the level of the mercury in the right-hand
and left-hand tubes. The scale for this meas-
urement is graduated on a strip of mirror set
into the vertical framework that supports the
bulb and the tubes.








FIG. 2. GHAPPUIS AIR THERMOMETER.
In Fig. 2 we see an arrangement of the air
thermometer for more exact measurements, etc.
The thermometric substance (nitrogen) is in-
closed in the platinum bulb A, which is sup-
ported inside of a bath, B, which is so ar-
ranged that the hot gas or liquid whose tem-
perature is to be measured may completely sur-
round the bulb by flowing in at E and out at F.
D D are metal screens. There are a number of
mercurial thermometers, T, which are at the
same temperature as the bulb. The bulb commu-
nicates with the barometer at G by the tube G,
the connection being shown enlarged at V. The
pressure of the mercurial column needed to keep
the gas in the bulb at a constant volume is that
due to the height of the column from X to Y,
and may amount to several atmospheres, or to a
height of many feet. The lower end of the mer-
curial column, or the tube H, I, J, K, is fixed,
but the upper tube, P Q, can be raised indefi-
nitely. As Q rises inside of the large tube, J,
more mercury may be needed, and this is sup-
plied from the reservoir, R, through the flexible
tube, L. The difference in height between the
mercurial surfaces at X and Z is measured by a
reading telescope or cathetometer. M is the
upright standard carrying the apparatus, N a
movable cradle for the barometer tube worked
by the adjusting screw 0. S is a similar ar-
rangement for the reservoir, R, with its adjust-
ing screw, 0.
THE MERCURIAL THERMOMETER. This consists
of a glass ~bulb terminating in a long capillary
tube. The bulb and lower portion of the tube are
filled with clean mercury, while the upper portion
is supposed to be quite empty and to be hermet-
ically sealed. When the bulb is warmed the
mercury is seen to rise in the tube, because it
expands more than the glass of the bulb. This
difference of expansion is not regular, nor is it
the same for all kinds of glass or for impure
mercury. If we wish to construct an independ-
ent standard mercurial thermometer, we im-
merse the bulb in melting ice and make a slight
scratch on the glass tube to mark the height
of the mercurial column. A similar mark is
made for boiling water and the space between
the two is divided into a hundred equal parts for
centigrade degrees, or a hundred and eighty equal
parts for Fahrenheit degrees. This intermediate
space is called the fundamental distance. Owing
to the irregular expansion of mercury in glass,
the so-called standard mercurial thermometer
will differ from the standard air thermometer
by as much as half a degree about midway be-
tween freezing and boiling water. Therefore for
accurate work the mercurial should be carefully
compared with the air thermometer and the re-
sulting system of corrections throughout the en-
tire length of the scale should be well determined
and carefully applied. Owing to the gradual
contraction of the glass bulbs, which goes on for
several years after they are freshly made, the
mercurial thermometer usually has an error
that increases with the lapse of time. This error
is due to the change in the volume of the bulb,
and should be determined after any important
work has been done by immediately making a
new determination of the freezing point. In-
stead of this procedure the error can be cal-
culated theoretically, but the actual new deter-
mination is far preferable.
A thermometer is not considered first class
whose errors of division exceed one or two tenths
of a degree centigrade, or two or three tenths
Fahrenheit. In determining the temperature of
a liquid by the use of the mercurial thermom-
eter one must be very careful to keep the liquid
thoroughly stirred, because when permitted to
rest the colder portions of the liquid settle. In
meteorological work all thermometers are ex-
posed in some sort of protecting cage through
which the wind may blow freely, but into which
the sun’s rays, or any obnoxious radiation, can-
not penetrate. It is believed that after making
due allowance for the sluggishness of the ther-
mometers and the inefficiency of the screens and
the ventilating apparatus, it is still true that
the various meteorological services of the world
obtain the temperature of the air within a half
degree Fahrenheit or two-tenths Centigrade. A
general comparison between the Centigrade and
Fahrenheit scales is given in the accompanying
table:
CENT. FARR.
+125° +257°
100 212
75 167
50 122
+ 25 + 77
12. +33
-- 25' -- 13
— 40 — 40
-273 -491
THE DEW POINT THERMOMETER. This is an
ordinary thermometer specially arranged for the
determination of the temperature at which dew
is formed in the atmosphere when the air is
THERMOMETER.
THERMOMETER.
672
cooled. To this end the bulb and larger part of
the stem of the thermometer are immersed in
a thin glass cup nearly full of sulphuric ether.
A current of air is driven rapidly through the
ether, causing it to evaporate and therefore to
cool. The thermometer follows the falling tem-
perature of the ether until the observer per-
ceives the deposition of dew on the outside of
the glass cup. The current of air is then cut
off. The ether and glass cup begin to warm;
the dew evaporates from the surface, and as
it disappears the temperature is again read off.
The mean of the two readings of the thermometer
corresponds closely to the dew point. See HY-
DROMETBY.
TIIE WET BULB THERMOMETER. This is an
ordinary thermometer whose bulb is covered very
neatly with the thinnest muslin which is kept
wet. The wet bulb thermometer should either
be rapidly whirled in the air or else exposed
to a current of air at the rate of five or ten
feet a second. The evaporation of the water
cools the thermometer to the temperature of
evaporation, which is about half way between
the temperature of the air and the temperature
of the dew point. The combination of a dry bulb
and a wet bulb thermometer constitutes a psy-
chrometer, and the whirled or ventilated psy-
chrometer is the ordinary apparatus used by
meteorologists for determining the humidity of
the atmosphere. The formulae and tables used
by the Weather Bureau in this work are those
prepared by Professor C. F. Marvin and pub-
lished as Weather Bureau Document No. 235
(Washington, 1900). See HYGROMETEE for il-
lustration and further description.
TIIE ALooIIoL TIIERMOMETER. This differs from
the mercurial thermometer only in that the in-
terior liquid is alcohol. But this difference is
important from many points of view, since one
class of errors disappears and another is intro-
duced. Alcohol or ether must be used for the
measurement of very low temperatures, since
mercury freezes at about -—40° Fahrenheit.
The principal error in using the alcohol ther-
mometer for low temperatures arises from the
fact that the liquid becomes viscid, adheres to the
sides of the glass tube, and requires a long time
to drain down, which indeed it never does per-
fectly. The alcohol thermometer cannot be used
for temperatures above its boiling point or 80°
Centigrade, whereas the mercurial can be used
up to a temperature of about 350° Centigrade.
SOLAR RADIATION THERMOMETER, on BLACK
BULB THEBMOMETER. This is essentially an or-
dinary mercurial thermometer, whose bulb is
covered with a thin layer of non-reflecting and
almost perfectly absorbing lampblack. Under
the assumption that the black bulb thermometer
absorbs and radiates more easily than the plain
glass bulb, and especially more so than a polished
silver bulb, the difference between the readings
of two such thermometers exposed to the sunshine
will depend primarily upon the intensity of the
radiation received by them. In order to meas-
ure the solar radiation, it is necessary, first, to
diminish as much as possible the conduction and
convection of heat to or from thermometer bulbs.
They are, therefore, inclosed in large thin glass
bulbs within which there is as perfect a vacuum
as it is possible to make. It is also necessary
to cut off as much as possible of radiation from
the surrounding objects, and especially reflected
sunshine by means of screens. Under these con-
ditions the solar radiation thermometer, or the
so-called Arago-Davy actinometer may be used
in two ways: (1) The static method. The ther-
mometers are allowed to attain the highest tem-
peratures they can in the full sunshine; the dif-
ference between their readings expresses approxi-
mately the intensity of the solar radiation, the
exact value of which may be more exactly com-
puted by the method and formulae given by Pro-
fessor William Ferrel i11 his memoir “Tem-
perature of the Atmosphere and Earth’s Sur-
face,” pages 34-50, Professional Papers of the
Signal Service No. 13 (VVashington, 1884). (2)
The dynamic method. The bright and black bulb
thermometers are successively exposed to the full
sunshine and shaded from it a minute at a time,
so that one may determine the initial rate of in-
crease of temperature in the sunshine and the
rate of cooling in the shade. From these rates
the solar radiation is calculated by the formulae
first applied by Pouillet to his actinometer.



U. S. WEATHER BUREAU MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
THEBMOMETEB.
THE MAXIMUM TIIERMOMETER. This is usually
a mercurial thermometer having a device by
which the top of the column of mercury remains
at the highest point that it attains during any
given interval of time until the observer has
recorded the reading and adjusts the instrument
for another observation. In the Rutherford
maximum the stem of the thermometer lies near-
ly horizontal. The rising mercury pushes a
little steel index upward within the bore of the
tube. When the temperature falls the index is
left in place until the observer draws it back
to the top of the mercurial column by means
of a magnet. In the Phillips or Walferdin ther-
mometer the thermometer stem is horizontal. A
small bubble of air makes a permanent break
in the upper part of the mercurial column. When
the temperature begins to fall the lower column
contracts into the bulb, but the upper portion re-
mains and registers the maximum temperature.
The Negretti and Zambra maximum thermometer
has the bore of the tube constricted below the
bottom of the scale so that the mercury that has
pushed up past this point cannot easily slide
back. After the maximum temperature has been
recorded the observer forces the column of mer-
cury back by whirling the thermometer in a
circle. The clinical thermometers of physicians
are made after this pattern.
THE MINIMUM THERMOMETEB. The best form
of this the Rutherford alcohol minimum, in
which the stem is kept nearly horizontal, and
the contracting column of alcohol draws down-
ward a light steel or glass index which remains
in place when the temperature rises. The ob-
server sets the index anew by drawing it back
by means of a magnet.
CoMsINED MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM on Srx’s
THEBMOMETER. This consists of a U-shaped tube
THERMOMETER.
THERMOMETER.
673
whose upper ends have respectively 3, large bulb
full of alcohol and a small bulb containing air
and vapor of alcohol. The lower portion of the
legs of the U is filled with mercury and in each
leg there floats an index. One of these indices is
forced up by the expansion of the alcohol in the
bulb and the index is left at the maximum tem-
perature. The other index is raised by the con-
traction of the alcohol and the consequent rising
of the mercury which is pushed up by the ex-
pansive force of the air pressure in the small
bulb. Modifications of this thermometer are
used in Austria, England, and America, but none
of its forms is considered to be so reliable as
the separate maximum and minimum thermom-
eters previously described.
THE UPSETTING THERMOMETEBS. These were
invented by Negretti and Zambra and have been
modified and improved from time to time. An
ordinary thermometer has its tube so bent that
when the thermometer is turned upside down the
column of mercury above the constriction will
run ofl’ into a separate portion of the tube, where
it remains until the observer can make the neces-
sary reading. The thermometer is especially
adapted for recording deep ocean temperatures
or temperatures at any hour of the night.
METALLIC THERMOMETERS. These depend for
their action upon the differential expansion of
metals. As made by Breguet, 1817, or Herrman
and Pfister, 1865, they consist essentially of two
thin spiral bands of different metals soldered
together. Differences of temperature cause the
spiral to coil or uncoil and the apparatus can
easily be adapted for self-registration.
OPTIoAL THERMOMETERS. The plane of polari-
zation of a quartz crystal is rotated about the
axis of a beam of light by the varying tempera-
ture of the quartz, increasing with great regular-
ity with the increase of temperature. This ap-
paratus is recommended by Gornu for the study
of high temperatures when the gas thermometer
fails because of the softening of the bulbs con-
taining the gas or air.
ELECTRIC THERMOMETERS. Melloni’s thermo-
electric pile. Pairs of pieces of different metals
are soldered together and the extremities com-
municate by a wire with a needle galvanometer.
Any difference of temperature between two con-
secutive junctions causes the electric current to
traverse the wire; its strength is measured by
the galvanometer. The absolute value of the
galvanometer scale can be expressed in ther-
mometric degrees by means of careful compari-
sons. The thermo-electric thermometer can be
made to give extremely reliable results.
RESISTANCE-COIL THERMOMETER. (1) Abso-
lute resistance—the resistance experienced by an
electric current flowing through an insulated
wire——ordinarily increases with the temperature
of the wire, and is shown by the deflection of
a galvanometer needle. The resistance is not
precisely proportional to the temperature, but
if it has been determined at several temperatures
the wire or coil can be used for all other tem-
peratures. By using a coil of platinum wire, a
wide range of temperatures may be measured
with great accuracy. See Marvin, “Recent Prog-
ress in Physical Science,” Bulletin of Philosoph-
ical Society of Washington, vol. xiv., p. 110.
(2) Differential resistance. Two similar resist-
ance coils are balanced against each other, one
of them being in the region whose temperature is
to be measured, the other in a bath of liquid
whose temperature can be varied and can be ob-
served at any time by means of a thermometer.
If the galvanometer needle shows that the resist-
ance of the two coils is the same, then it is
understood that the temperatures must be the
same. If the resistances differ, then the liquid
surrounding the accessible coil is warmed or
cooled until equality is attained.
THE THERMOPHONE. This is a differential re-
sistance thermometer, as just described, but com-
bined with a telephone instead of a galvano-
metric needle. The equality of temperature due
to the absence of an electric current is indi-
cated by the absence of all sound when one listens
at the telephone. This instrument, the invention
of G. G. Whipple, is both accurate and portable
and very convenient for use in boats on lakes or
at sea. Consult “The Thermophone,” Tech-
nology Quarterly, vol. viii., p. 25 (Boston, 1895) .
LANGLEY’S BOLOMETEB. This is a differential
thermometer in which the difierence of tempera-
ture of two delicate wires is shown by the de-
flections of a galvanometric needle. See BOLOM-
ETER.
DEEP SEA THERMOMETER. This is an ordinary
or self-registering mercurial thermometer wholly
inclosed within a very strong protecting case of
glass. The space between the thermometer and
its inclosure is partly filled with water or mer-
cury above which some air remains. VVhen this
arrangement is lowered to the bottom of the
ocean the great external pressure compresses
the inclosure, but does not seriously affect the
bulb of the thermometer within.
SOIL THERMOMETER. This was formerly made
with a large bulb and wide tube many feet
in length so that a _bulb buried at a depth of
even twenty feet would show the top of the liquid
column above the surface of the earth. As these
were expensive, sluggish, and liable to accident,
the modern practice is to use an ordinary ther-
mometer inclosed in a wooden tube and pushed
down to the proper depth in a hole in the
ground. Modern electric thermometers, especially
the thermophone, are to be recommended.
NOCTURNAL RADIATION THERMOMETER. This
is supposed to give the approximate temperature
of a surface exposed to radiation during the’
night time. The bulb is of glass, sometimes, but
not necessarily, blackened; it is fully exposed to
the open sky. If all terrestrial heat is cut off
by screens the thermometer may be made to give
an indication of the clearness of the sky or
the temperature of the air that occupies the
dome of the sky. If, however, no attempt is
made to cut off the radiation and conduction of
heat, the thermometers give the temperature of
the leaves on the trees. If the thermometer lies
upon the upper surface of a metal or wooden or
stone object it gives approximately the tem-
peléature of the upper surface layer of that ob-
Jec .
INTEGRATING THERMOMETER. This is intended
to sum up the temperature, or it may be the
temperature changes during any given interval of
time. A clock or chronometer whose pendulum
or balance wheel is uncompensated or even in-
tentionally over-compensated has a rate that
varies with the temperature and becomes an ad-
mirable integrator. A metal bar supported on
THERMOMETER.
THERMOMETRY.
674
an inclined surface by means of sharp-pointed
feet at either end, creeps upward with alternat-
ing rising and falling temperatures. Each step
of its progress is proportional to the difference
between the successive maxima and minima. Thus
such an arrangement will, in the course of a
month, sum up the daily ranges of temperature.
THE EVAPORATION THERMOMETER. In 1888 Dr.
Miiller-Erzbach brought out a thermometer in
which a vessel full of water in the sunshine com-
municates with an empty vessel in the shade. The
water evaporated in the former condenses over
into the latter vessel where it is absorbed by
concentrated sulphuric acid. The weight lost in
one vessel or gained in the other is an index to
the average temperature that has prevailed in
the water flask. Comparative observations give
the means of converting these weights into tem-
peratures. Experimental tests of this form of
integrating thermometer made at the Seewarte
in Hamburg show that this apparatus gives ex-
cellent results when the daily temperature varia-
tions are not too great.
THERMOGRAPHS. This term may include all
forms of apparatus in which continuous regis-
tration is introduced. To this end the English
Meteorological Office employs photography, main-
taining, as it were, a continuous photographic
register of the variations of the top of the mer-
curial column. The French and the United
States Weather Bureaus use the thermographs
made by Richard at Paris, in which some form
of metallic thermometer is attached to a pen
which moves vertically over a sheet of paper that
is drawn horizontally by clockwork so that the
temperature may be subsequently read off at any
given moment.
Owing to the great importance of the ther-
mometer in every branch of science and the arts,
the principal governments of the world have es-
tablished bureaus of standards for the compari-
son and calibration of this and other forms of
measuring apparatus. In all cases private in-
dividuals may send their thermometers to these
institutions for examination and may receive
certificates stating the exact value of the correc-
tions for their errors if any exist. Such institu-
tions are the following: the Kew Observatory
at London, now a branch of the Bureau of
Standards; the Imperial Physical and Technical
Institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin; the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures,
Paris; and the Bureau of Standards established
by the United States Government at Washington,
under the Treasury Department in 1900, and
transferred to the Department of Commerce and
Labor in 1903. See THERMOMETRY and the works
of reference there mentioned.
THERMOMETRY (from Gk. fléppm, thermé,
heat -I— -,u8rpla, -metria, measurement, from
uérpov, metron, measure). The science of as-
signing proper numerical values to the tempera-
ture of bodies. As explained in HEAT, this in-
volves several steps, the arbitrary selection of:
(1) some substance as the thermometric body,
(2) some property of it which changes with the
temperature, (3) two standard thermal states,
e.g. melting ice and boiling water at standard
pressures, (4) the scale or the number of degrees
between these standard temperatures, and (5) a
number to give one of these standard tempera-
tures.
By definition the ‘temperature on the standard
hydrogen thermometer,’ Centigrade scale, is as
follows:
Hydrogen is the gas used, the initial pressure
being 100 cm. of mercury. Change in pressure at
constant volume is the eflect measured.
The two standard thermal states are ( 1) melt-
ing ice and (2) vapor rising from boiling water
at normal atmospheric pressure.
One hundred degrees are chosen between these
two temperatures. The temperature of melting
ice is called 0°. Then, if p0 is the pressure of the
gas at 0°, 10100 that at 100°, and p that at the
temperature (t) to which a number is to be given,
Other gases than hydrogen might be used; and
the same definition would apply to temperature
on the new scale as on the hydrogen scale.
Slight differences, however, would always be ob-
served between the numerical values for the
same temperatures.
If the change in volume is the heat-effect ob-
served as the temperature is changed, the ob-
vious definition of the numerical value of the
temperature is
t: 100 -''’—_lv"—
'v1o0_T’o
where vo, vloo, v are the measured values of the
volume of the gas or liquid at 0°, 100°, t°.
If the change in the electrical resistance of a
given conductor is the heat-effect measured as the
temperature is changed, the definition of t is
-100 R_R°
B100_R0
where R,, R400, R are the electrical resistances at
0°, 100°, t°.
Similarly almost any heat-effect of any body
may be taken as the one to measure in order to
secure a number for temperature; but the num-
bers so found all differ in general; and if any
thermometer other than the hydrogen one is
actually used, the observed numbers must all
be corrected by a calibration table connecting
the scale of the thermometer used with the hy-
drogen one.
For measuring ordinary laboratory tempera-
tures either mercury-in-glass or air-thermome-
ters are used; for measuring extremely low tem-
peratures, e.g. --200° C,, a hydrogen thermome-
ter or a platinum-resistance thermometer is gen-
erally used; for high temperatures, e.g. 300° C.,
a platinum-resistance thermometer or a thermo-
couple is used. (See THERMOMETER and THERMO-
ELECTRICITY.) For a full discussion of these and
other methods reference should be made to the
Reports of the International Congress of Physics,
Paris, 1900, vol. i., articles by Chappuis and
Barus.
The scale of temperature as defined above is
known as the ‘Centigrade’ or ‘Celsius’ (q.v.) scale.
There are several other scales in use. The
‘Fahrenheit’ scale has 32° for the melting point
of ice and 212° for the boiling point of water;
the ‘Réaumur’ (q.v.) scale has 0° for the former
temperature and 80° for the latter; the ‘absolute
gas scale’ adds to the temperature on any scale
the reciprocal of the coefficient of cubical ex-
pansion of hydrogen as determined on that
scale—-on the Centigrade scale this reciprocal
THERMO METRY.
THERMOTROPISM.
6'75
is 273.04, and so t° C. is (t X 273.04) ° absolute.
It is shown in THERMODYNAMICS (q.v.) that there
is a method of defining temperature quite in-
dependent of the thermometric substance, and in
which the only arbitrary things are the choice
of a number for the difference between the
temperatures of any two thermal states. This
scale is called ‘Thomson’s absolute scale,’ be-
cause it was proposed by William Thomson
(now Lord Kelvin). If it is agreed to have the
temperature of freezing and boiling water 100°
apart, it is found that the numbers on the
Thomson absolute scale agree most remarkably
with those given on the absolute gas scale as
defined above.
HISTORY. The invention of the thermometer
must be attributed to Galileo, who in about the
year 1593 made an open-air thermoscope, con-
sisting of a bulb with a long tube attached,
which was provided with a scale and dipped
below the surface of a liquid——water or wine;
some of the air was expelled from the bulb, and
so the liquid rose in the tube. This thermometer
was used by Galileo for various purposes, such
as studying freezing mixtures and recording at-
inospheric temperatures. It was later used
(1611) by Sanctorius in the diagnosis of fevers.
The word ‘thermoscope’ was used by Bianconi in
1617, and ‘thermometer’ in 1624 by Leurechon.
The first scaled thermometers were those of
Ferdinand II., Grand Duke of Tuscany (1641) ;
these contained alcohol. In 1661 Fabri made a
scale, using as the ‘fixed’ temperatures those of
snow and of midsummer heat. Robert Hooke in
1664 proposed the freezing point of water as one
of the fixed temperatures; and in 1694 Renal-
dini proposed this as one, and the boiling point
of water as the other, In 1709 Fahrenheit in-
troduced his alcohol thermometers, and 1714
his mercury ones. About 17 31 Réaumur devised
his scale, which until recently was in extensive
use on the Continent of Europe. In 1742 Celsius
proposed a Centigrade scale, with the tempera-
tures of melting ice 100° and boiling water 0°.
Christin, working independently of Celsius, pro-
posed a Centigrade scale in 1743 which is the
Celsius scale inverted, and is the one used now.
A complete history of the ordinary thermometer
is given in Bolton, Evolution of the Thermometer
(Easton, Pa., 1900) ; in Abbe, Meteorological Ap-
paratus and Methods (Washington, 1887); and
Gerland and Traumiiller, Geschichte der physika-
lischen Ewperimentierhunst (Leipzig, 1899). See
THERMOMETER.
THERMOPHONE. See THERMOMETER.
THERMOPILE. See THERMO~ELECTRICI'I‘Y. Q
THERMOPTLJE (Lat., from Gk. Gepuowfihac,
from 0ep,u6:, thermos, hot + rniha, pyla, gate).
A pass famous in ancient Greek history, lead-
ing from Thessaly into Locris, named from
the presence of several hot springs. It is
situated south of the present course of the
river Sperchius, between Mount (Eta and the
Maliac Gulf. In ancient times it was only
a narrow track, perhaps fifty feet wide, but the
alluvial deposits have altered the coast line
so that there is now a broad swampy plain from
a mile and a half to three miles broad. Ther-
mopylae has won an eternal celebrity as the scene
of the heroic death of Leonidas (q.v.) and his
three hundred Spartans in their attempt to stem
the tide of Persian invasion (13.0. 480). In B.C.
279 a large army of Greeks held Brennus and his
Gauls at bay until they also found a path over
the mountains. The Greeks, however, escaped
on their fleet, Again, in B.C. 191, Antiochus en-
deavored to check the Romans at this point, but
Cato led a flanking party over the mountains,
stormed the fortress which commanded the path,
and, aided by a frontal attack of the main force,
routed the Syrian army.
THERMOSCOPE (from Gk. Bépun, thermé,
heat + axorreiv, shopein, to look). A device to
indicate relative temperatures by making use of
the property possessed by substances of changing
their state or volume under the influence of heat.
Thus, knowing the fusing point of a solid, we are
enabled to determine whether a certain tempera-
ture is above or below the temperature at which
it melts, while with a liquid we have two such
points; namely, the temperature of vaporization
and that of solidification. Such substances form
what are termed discontinuous intrinsic thermo-
scopes and by virtue of their intrinsic properties
enable us to ascertain relative temperatures.
For example, butter would serve as such a ther-
moscope, since by its melting it would indicate
that the temperature of the room was above its
point of fusing. Likewise we soon use other sub-
stances, including alloys, for this purpose, and ex-
tend our observations over a considerable range.
If the substance used as a thermoscope possesses
the property of continuously varying in its con-
dition with an increase or diminution of tempera-
ture, so as to afford a continuous indication over
a given range of temperature, as is the case with
mercury, then we have what is known as a con-
tinuous thermoscope. If this is so arranged that
it can be graduated according to some previously
arranged scale it then forms a thermometer. The
camphor thermoscope is a sealed tube of gla-ss
containing a solution of camphor in alcohol,
which indicates changes in temperature by its
appearance. At high temperature the liquid is
clear, as the camphor is entirely dis-solved, but
with low temperature it crystallizes and appears
as a white fleecy mass. This instrument does
not, as is commonly supposed, indicate changes
either in pressure or electrical condition of at-
mosphere.
THERMOSTAT. See FIRE-ALARM TELE-
GRAPH, paragraph Automatic Fire Detectors.
THERMOTROPISM (from Gk. 6ép;u7,
therme, heat + rporrn, trope, a turning, from
'rpé1rew, trepein, to turn). Primarily, the sen-
sitiveness of plant organs to the direction of
radiant heat which causes them to bend (posi-
tively) toward or (negatively) away from
its source. The same organ may be both
positively and negatively thermotropic under
different conditions. It is often difficult to sepa-
rate this phenomenon from that of heliotropism
(q.v.), with which it is parallel, but there are
several well-established cases of thermotropism
of roots and shoots of higher plants. If shoots
of germinating maize or mustard seeds be placed
in the dark and at the right distance from a
suitable heat-radiating surface, they will bend
according to the intensity of the heat either to-
ward or away from the radiator. The term has
also been used incorrectly to denote movements
due to a change in temperature, such as those of
THERMOTROPISM.
THESEUM.
676
the sepals and petals in the opening and closing
of the tulip flowers. Many leaves show this re-
sponse also, e.g. those of rhododendron. All
these reactions, however, are not examples of
true thermotropism, but are rather comparable
to those responses of leaves to variations in light
intensity which are embraced by the terms nycti-
tropic movements and paraheliotropism.
TIIEEOIGNE DE MEEIGQUET, ta’rwan’y’
de ma’ré’k'o_o'r’ (1762-1817). A prominent figure
during the French Revolution. She was born at
Marcourt near Liege. Her true name was Anne
Josephe Terwagne. In 1789 she went to
Paris, and entered upon a life of shame. Know-
ing all the leaders of the Revolution, she became
an enthusiastic Republican and the commander
of the mobs of women that played such a con-
spicuous part in the dramatic days of the Revo-
lution. Armed with sabre and pistol, this Ama-
zon of Liberty, as she was called, led her femi-
nine battalions against the Bastille July 14, 1789,
to Versailles on October 5-6 of the same year, and
after her return from an Austrian prison was
prominent during the disturbances on June 20
and August 10, 1792. In May, 1793, while de-
fending the Girondist Brissot, her lover, she was
seized, stripped, and whipped by a mob of mad-
dened women. She became insane from this
treatment, and spent the rest of her life in La
Salpetriere.
THEROMORPHA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Gk. Ofip, thér, wild beast —I— ,uop¢fi, morphé,
form) . A name applied to several widely dissimi-
lar groups of fossil reptiles which possess certain
common characters of skull, vertebrae, limb-
girdles, and digital formula. Another ordinal name,
Anomodontia, is often used synonymously with
Theromorpha. The thermorophs, together with
the turtles and plesiosaurs, compose the great rep-
tilian division Syriapsidd (Osborn), characterized
by certain mammal-like features of the skull
and the mammalian digital formula. All known
theromorph remains have been found in the rocks
of Permian and Triassic age. They were for the
most part animals of rather heavy build, adapted
to land life and sluggish habit, though one group
appears to have been marine. The following sub-
orders are commonly recognized:
(I) Cotylosauria or Pareiasauria. A group of
reptiles having a solid cranial roof with a large
pineal, foramen, and usually with teeth on the
vomer, pterygoid, and palatine bones. It is prob-
able that these forms stand closest to the ances-
tral Stegocephalia or armored Amphibia. The


SKULL or A THERIODONT (Galesaurus).
best-known example is Pareiasaurus, from the
Karoo beds of South Africa, a heavily built land
animal, eight feet long. (2) Theriodontia. A
group which closely resembles mammals in the
differentiation of the teeth into incosors, canines,
and molars, and in certain features of the
skull. Most genera have a distinctly car-
nivorous dentition, but a few, the Gompho-
dontia have crushing molars. Nearly all the
known theriodonts are from the South African
Trias. Cynognathus, in which the skull is re-
markably dog-like, equaled the black bear in
size and general proportions. Many zoiilogists be-
lieve that mammals have been derived from
theriodonts. (3) Dicynodontia. Land reptiles
from the Trias of Scotland and South Africa,
known chiefly from the skull, which is greatly
modified, having the teeth entirely wanting, as in
Udenodon, or reduced to a single pair of large
tusks in the upper jaw, as in Dicynodon and Gor-
donia. (4) Placodontia. Named from the large,
knob-like crushing teeth. Placodus, the first named
genus from the marine T rias of Germany, was
long known only from these teeth. The genus
Placochelys is known to have had a carapace com-
posed of a mosaic of small plates. The view
held by some paleontologists that placodonts
are ancestral to turtles is untenable.
TIIEESITES, ther-si’t<§z (Lat., from Gk.
Gepalms). In the Iliad, the ugliest and most im-
pudent talker amonog the Greeks assembled be-
fore Troy. He is represented as reviling Aga-
memnon and Achilles, and is beaten by Odysseus
for his insolence. Later writers said he was a
son of Agrios, brother of CEneus, and was slain
by Achilles, whom he had mocked after the death
of Penthesilea.
THESAURUS. See DICTIONARY.
THESE’UM (Lat., from Gk. 91706209, The-
seion, building sacred to Theseus, from Gmrefit,
Theseus, Theseus). An heroiin or sanctuary of
the hero Theseus (q.v.). The most celebrated
one was that at Athens, which seems to have
stood near the centre of the city, to the northwest
of the Acropolis, and not far from the Stoa
of Attalus. Built about 13.0. 473, when Cimon
brought the reputed bones of Theseus from the
island of Scyros to Athens, it was decorated by
Polygnotus and Micon with paintings represent-
ing Theseus’s descent into the sea to Amphitrite,
his battle with the Amazons, and the battle of
the Cerltaurs and the Lapithae. It was an im-
portant sanctuary, and the sacred precinct in
which it stood was an asylum for fugitive slaves,
or those who were oppressed. Here, too, the
thesmothetae drew the lots for the choice of the
archons.
The name is commonly applied to the best
preserved temple in Greece, which stands on a.
low hill (Colonos Agoraios) to the west of the
ancient Agora of Athens, though the true The-
seum must have been on the east. The building
is a Doric hexastyle peripteros with thirteen
columns on the side, and owes its preservation
to its transformation in early Christian days to
a church of Saint George. Its present name
rests only on an anonymous description of
Athens from the end of the fifteenth century, and
is directly opposed to all the ancient testimony.
The correct name of the building is still uncer-
tain. It has been identified with the temple of
Ares, of Hercules in Melite, of Apollo Patrotis,
and of Hephaestus and Athena Ergane; the last
being the most plausible. It is certainly a work
of the Periclean age, and probably somewhat later
than the Parthenon, though on this point good
authorities differ. The exterior of the building
has been comparatively little harmed by the
course of time, but the interior has been remod-
THESEUM.
THESMOPHORIAZUSE.
677
eled to serve as a church. A few years ago it
was a museum, and it still serves as a storeroom
for unimportant antiques, Of the sixty-eight
metopes only eighteen are sculptured, namely,
the ten across the eastern end, representing
labors of Hercules, and the four adjoining me-
topes on each side, representing deeds of Theseus.
Across the ends of the cella an Ionic frieze re-
places the Doric, and at the eastern end is
prolonged beyond the walls of the cella to the
beams of the peristyle. The shorter west frieze
contains the contest of the Centaurs and the
Lapithae, while the east frieze represents a battle
in the presence of six seated gods, but no sure
interpretation of its meaning has been reached.
The sculptures which originally adorned the
pediments have disappeared.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature is very exten-
sive, but the following are among the more im-
portant or accessible works: Stuart and Revett,
Antiquities of Athens, vol. iii. (London, 1762-
1816) ; Wachsmuth, Die Stadt Athen im Alter-
tum (Leipzig, 1874-90) ; Graef and Baumeister,
s. v. “Theseion,” in Baumeister’s Denknuiler der
lclassischen Altertumswissenschaft (Munich and
Leipzig, 1889) ; Harrison and Verrall, Mythology
and Monuments of Ancient Athens (London,
1890) ; Frazer, Pausanias, vol. ii (ib., 1898) ; B.
Sauer, Das sogenannte Theseion u/nd sein plas-
tischer Schmuck (Leipzig, 1899) ; Reinhardt, Ge-
setzmiissigheit der griechischen Baukunst, vol. i.
(Stuttgart, 1903).
THESEUS, thé’se-us or thé’siis (Lat., from Gk.
Onoetis). The national hero of the Athenians,
and, next to Hercules, the most famous character
of Greek legend. His story owes its prominence
largely to the influence of Athens in Greek art
and literature, for in the epic Theseus has but
small place. A doubtful verse in the Iliad asso-
ciates him, not with Athens, but with the Thes-
salian Lapithee and their conflict with the Cen-
taurs, and he appears in the late passage of the
Odyssey which describes the visit of Odysseus to
the lower world. The early art knows only the
slaying of the Minotaur, and seems to have bor-
rowed the type from Mycenaean tradition.
Though a thoroughly satisfactory analysis of the
Theseus legend is still lacking, it seems probable
that it was closely connected with the Mara-
thonian tetrapolis, then crossed to Troezen,
whence it returned to Athens. Its first great
development occurred under the Pisistratidae,
when Theseus was recognized as the uniter of
Attica, and the type of the gentle and just ruler,
beloved of his people, a sort of mythical pre-
decessor of Pisistratus. Soon after the Persian
wars the democracy transformed him into its
real founder, who protected the injured from
other States and forced Creon and Eurystheus
to observe justice and humanity. At this time
(13.0. 473) his reputed bones were brought from
Scyros to Athens with great pomp by Cimon, and
an hero6n, the Theseum (q.v.), was erected. In
origin, Theseus is probably best considered as a
beneficent deity, a local parallel to Hercules, who
slays monsters and gives peace and security to his
worshipers, but, like other nature-divinities, de-
scends into the lower world, and is subject to the
powers of death. Legend made Theseus the son
of ]Ethra, daughter of Pittheus. King of Troezen.
His father was commonly said to be JEgeus,
King of Athens, though early legend recognized
the paternity of Poseidon. (The two versions
are really the same, I/Egeus being originally a
name of the sea-god.) He was brought up at
Troezen, and, on reaching manhood, proceeded
to his father’s residence at Athens. On his
way thither across the isthmus he destroyed
robbers and monsters who rendered the route
unsafe for travelers, such as Periphetes, Sinis,
the Crommyonian sow, Sciron, Cercyon, and Pro-
crustes. (See PROCRUSTES.) On his arrival in
Athens he found the sorceress Medea living as
his father’s wife, and only escaped her attempt
to poison him through‘ PEgeus’s timely recogni-
tion of his own sword and sandals, which he had
left in Traezen for his son. Medea fled and
Theseus overcame Pallas and his sons, who at-
tempted to secure the royal power. He also
bound the Marathonian bull, which was ravag-
ing the Tetrapolis. Then came the expedition to
Crete to deliver Athens from its tribute to the
Minotaur (q.v.) of seven youths and seven
maidens. On this voyage he proved his descent
from Poseidon by bringing back the ring of
Minos from the depths of the sea, and by the
help of Ariadne (q.v.) killed the Minotaur. On
his way back he founded a festival of Apollo at
Delos, to which the Athenians ever after sent an
annual embassy.
As his father, ]Egeus, had destroyed himself in
the belief that his son had perished in Crete, The-
seus now became King of Athens, and consolidated
into one State the twelve independent communi-
ties of Attica, in celebration of which event was
instituted the festival of the Panathenaea. That
the festival commemorated such an event is prob-
able, but this does not prove the historical per-
sonality of Theseus. Legend also told of his
friendship for the Lapith King Pirithoiis, at
whose wedding he fought the Centaurs (see
LAPITHZE), with whose aid he carried off Helen
to Aphidna, and with whom he finally descended
to the lower world that his friend might carry
off Persephone as his bride. Pirithoiis never re-
turned, and Theseus remained in captivity till
Hercules, on his quest for Cerberus, prevailed on
Hades to release him. Athenian legend also told
of the great invasion of the Amazons in his
reign, of the straits to which they reduced the
Athenians, and of their final rout by the hero,
who secured as wife their queen, Antiope or
Hippolyta, by whom he had a son, Hippolytus.
Later he married Phaedra (q.v.), daughter of
Minos and sister of Ariadne. It was said that
during his absence in the lower world Menes-
theus, with the help of Castor and Pollux, who
had come to rescue Helen, made himself King,
and that Theseus, unable to reestablish his au-
thority, went to Scyros, where he was murdered
by Lycomedes. Much in the character of The-
seus as it appears in legend seems due to
Athenian desire to represent their national hero
as the embodiment in heroic times of the virtues
on which they prided themselves in historic
times, and which the great heroes of the national
epic often conspicuously lacked.
'I.‘HES’MOPHO'RIA. See GREEK FESTIVALS.
THES’MOPHOR'IAZU’S1E (Lat., from Gk.
O60‘;/.o¢opuf.§'ovo'az, Thesmophoriazousai, women
celebrating the Thesmophoria). A comedy by
Aristophanes (about 13.0. 410). It is aimed
against Euripides for his innovations and his
dislike for women, on account of which he is
THESMOPHORIAZUSE.
THESSALONIANS.
678
dragged to justice by women taking part in the
Thesmophoria.
THESPE’SIUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 0eo'1ré0'l0s,
divinely, sounding divine) . An herbivorous
ornithopod dinosaur, allied to Hadrosaurus and
Iguanodon, which it closely resembles, found
fossil in the Upper Cretaceous beds of Colorado,
Wyoming, and Montana. It was a large animal,
25 to 30 feet long and 10 to 15 feet high, with
medium-sized head, small, almost useless fore
limbs, and well-developed three-toed hind limbs
upon which it ran in bipedal motion, using its
heavy tail to balance the forward portion of the
body. Another name for this creature is Clao-
saurus. A complete skeleton of this animal,
mounted as if in the act of running, is in the
museum of Yale University. Consult: Marsh,
“The Dinosaurs of North America,” Annual Re-
port of the United States Geological Survey, vol.
xvi., part i. (Washington, 1896) ; Beecher, “The
Reconstruction of a Cretaceous Dinosaur,
Claosaurus annectans Marsh,” in Transactions
of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences, vol. xi.
(New Haven, 1902). See DINosAURIA.
THES’PI1E (Lat., from Gk. Oeanezal, Thes-
peiai, Geamai, Thespiai), or THESPIA. An an-
cient town in Boeotia, near the foot of Mount
Helicon. Like Plataea, it wasohostile to the
Theban pretension to supremacy in Boeotia, and
these two were the only Boeotian cities which re-
fused to give earth and water to the heralds of
Xerxes and did not side with the Persians at
the battle of Salamis. Seven hundred Thespians
joined Leonidas at Thermopylee, and were slain
in defending the pass. Thespiae was burned by
Xerxes, but was subsequently rebuilt. Shortly
after the battle of Leuctra (B.O. 371) it was
again destroyed, and was afterwards a second
time restored. Here was preserved a marble
statue of Eros by Praxiteles. On account of the
vicinity of Mount Helicon to the town, the Muses
were called Thespiades. The site of the ancient
town was near the modern village of Emmo-
kastro.
THES’PIS (Lat., from Gk. Géams). A na-
tive of the Attic deme of Icarus in the sixth cen-
tury B.C., called the father of Greek tragedy. He
introduced an actor to reply to the leader of
the chorus, who before had recited the adven-
tures of Dionysus and had been answered by the
chorus, and thus made an important step toward
the drama.
THESSALONIANS, EPISTLES TO THE (Gk.
wpbs Oeaaahovzxels, SC. é1rco"ro7\fi, pros Thes-
salonikeis, to the Thessalonians, sc. epistolé,
epistle). Two letters in the New Testament,
purporting in their opening passages of greeting
to have been written by Paul, and generally so
accepted by scholars. They were written in
Corinth during Paul’s first visit to that city in
the year 50-51 within a few months of each
other, and, if a later date for Galatians be ac-
-cepted, are the earliest of the preserved writings
of the Apostle. They were sent to the Christian
community of Thessalonica, where Paul had but
recently preached the gospel, in order to comfort
his people in the persecution they were suffering,
the beginnings of which had driven Paul and his
companions from the city. They are consequent-
ly marked by an absence of doctrinal discussion.
In fact, apart from a short apologetic passage
in the first Epistle, a brief statement in the same
Epistle regarding the advent of Christ, and a
more elaborated one in the second Epistle as to
the coming of the Day of the Lord, involving a
declaration of the character and work of the
‘Man of Sin,’ they may be considered purely
pastoral letters whose concern is with the read-
ers’ practical religious needs——and even in these
excepted passages the spirit of the writer is
essentially that of the pastor.
Both Epistles were rejected by the Tiibingen
School (1845) and are disowned to-day by the
radical Dutch School (1882), the force of whose
criticism, however, is largely broken by the
general negative position which they maintain
toward all of Paul’s writings. At the same time
there is considerable critical debate regarding
the Paulinity of the second Epistle—due to the
difficult passage in chapter ii. regarding the
‘Man of Sin’—-—a passage the subject of which
is a most unusual one with Paul and the mean-
ing of which in itself is most obscure. It is
argued on the one side that the unusual char-
acter of this passage in Paul’s Epistles-no
parallel to it being found in his writings——
the agreement of the picture which it presents
with any one of several situations late in the
century, particularly with the situation occa-
sioned by the expected return of Nero, and the
evident literary dependence of the rest of the
Epistle on I. Thessalonians, all show the author
to have been some one after Paul’s day, who, ap-
parently out of a desire to quiet tendencies to
disorder consequent upon expectations of the
immediate coming of Christ, described the events
which must necessarily precede that coming,
writing in the name of Paul in order to secure
authority for his statements, and modeling his
production on Paul’s Thessalonian letter, the
contents of which were more or less of an
eschatological character.
On the other side, it is asserted that when con-
sideration is given to the fact that recent investi-
gations in the field of apocalyptic literature have
shown the existence among the Jews of a popular
anti-Messiah legend, having its source in pre-
exilic times and coming down through various
stages of development to the times of the Chris-
tian Church, and when it is remembered that
this popular belief is made use of in various
ways by Jesus Himself (e.g. in His eschatological
discourse in Mark xiii. and parallels) as well
as by some of the Apostolic writers (cf. e.g. I.
John ii. 22), it cannot be held an unlikely thing
for Paul also to make the use of it which we
find in this passage, though such usage does not
occur again in his writings, On such a theory
it is maintained that the picture here presented
would not need to be applied to any definite per-
son, any more than would the corresponding
pictures in the other New Testament writings.
They would all refer rather to personified prin-
ciples of evil hostile to Christ and His religion,
or to principles impersonated generally in the
enemies of Christianity. In any event, it is
contended, nothing can be made out of the re-
semblance of the second Epistle to the first which
would show a greater dependence of the latter
upon the former than would be natural for Paul
in writing two letters to the same people within
a few months of each other. The contention
that in the second Paul has reversed his belief
THESSALON IAN S.
THESSALY.
679
in a sudden coming of Christ within the limits
of his own lifetime which he expressed in his
earlier letter, is answered by saying that in 1.
Thessalonians the return of Christ is presented
as unexpected only to those who are evil, while
the perspective given to that coming in II.
Thessalonians does not necessarily carry it be-
yond the limit of life to which Paul might natu-
really look forward.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Commentaries: Schmidt (Ber-
lin, 1885) ; Schmiedel, in H andkommentar eum
N euen Testament (Freiburg, 1893) ; Borne-
mann, in M eyer-Kommentar iiber das N cue Tes-
tament (Gtittingen, 1894); Ziickler, in Struck
und Zéickler Kommentar (Munich, 1894) ;
Goebel (Gotha, 1887) ; Zimmer (Herborn, 1891) ;
id., Teactkritischer Apparat und Kommentar
(Gotha, 1893); Jowett (London, 1894); Light-
foot, Notes on the Epistles of Saint Paul (Lon-
don, 1895). Introductions: B. Weiss (Eng,
trans., Edinburgh, 1888) ; Holtzmann (Freiburg,
1892); Godet (Eng. trans., ib., 1894); Salmon
(London, 1894) ; Zahn (Leipzig, 1900) ; Moffatt,
The Historical New Testament (New York and
Edinburgh, 1901); Jiilicher (Tiibingen and
Leipzig, 1901). Discussions: Baur, Paulus
(Eng. trans., London, 1872-75) ; Thackeray, The
Relations of Saint Paul to Contemporary Jewish
Thought (London, 1900); Stanton, The Jewish
and Ghristia/n Messiah (Edinburgh, 1886) ;
Kliipper, Der eweite Brief an die Thessalonicher
(Kiinigsberg, 1889) ; Weizsiicker, Das aposto-
lische Zeitalter (Eng. trans., New York, 1894) ;
Spitta, Zur Geschichte und Litteratur des
Urchristentums (Giittingen, 1893) ; Clemen, Die
Einheitlichkeit der paulinischen Briefe (G6ttin-
gen, 1894) ; Bousset, Der Antichrist (Eng.
trans., London, 1896) ; Wrede, Die Echtheit des
eweiten Thessalonicherbriefes (Leipzig, 1903).
THES’SALONI’CA (Gk. Gecra-u7\ovh<1; ) . An
ancient Greek city, situated on the northeastern
shore of the Thermaic Gulf, in Mygdonia. Tra-
dition told of an early city, Eumathia or Halia,
on this site, but the historical Greek city ap-
pears in Herodotus and Thucydides as Therme, a
name due to the presence of hot springs in the
neighborhood. The exact origin of the later
name, which appears in Polybius, is uncertain.
Most probable is the story of Strabo, that the
town was enlarged and in part rebuilt in B.C. 315
by Cassander, who gave it the name of his wife,
Thessalonica, the daughter of Philip of Macedon.
Its strong fortifications enabled it to repel a
Roman attack, and after the Roman conquest of
Macedonia (B.C. 146) it became one of the chief
cities of the province. Situated on the great Via
Egnatie, it attracted a large trade by land and
sea, while the support given to Mark Antony
and Octavian seems to have made it a free city.
It contained a considerable Jewish colony, and
was the seat of a Christian church, founded by
the Apostle Paul. It was severely punished by
the Emperor Theodosius, when 7000 citizens are
said to have perished because of an uprising,
but appears in the later history of the Empire
as a strong defense against the Goths and Slavs.
It was, however, captured by the Saracens in A.D.
904, by the Normans in 1185, and finally by the
Turks in 1430. For the modern city, see SA-
LONICA.
THES’SALY (Lat. Thessalia, from Gk. Osa-
oahia, Attic Oerrahia, Thettalia, Thessaly, from
Oso'o'a7t6§, Thessalos, Attic Oerrahég, Thet-
talos, Thessalian). The largest division of an-
cient Greece, bounded on the north by Macedonia,
from which it was separated by the Cambunian
Mountains, on the west by Epirus, with the Pin-
dus range as a boundary, on the east by the
ZEgean Sea, and on the south by the range of
(Eta and the Maliac Gulf. The southern bound-
ary is not very definite. Though Achaea, Zlilnis,
and Malis can properly be included in the gen-
eral term, Thessaly proper only reaches to the
range which extends from Pindus to the head of
the Pagasaean Gulf. Others, who include Achaea
( Phthiotis) , call Mount Othrys the southern bound-
ary. Thessaly proper is a vast plain shut in
on every side by mountains; on the north and
west by those already named, and on the east
by mounts Pelion and Ossa, the only opening
being the Vale of Tempe in the northeast between
Ossa and Olympus. The plain of Thessaly is
said at one time to have been a vast lake, the
waters of which found an outlet by the Vale of
Tempe. This plain is drained chiefly by the river
Peneus (now Salambria) and its tributaries, and
is the most fertile in all Greece, having produced
in ancient times abundance of corn and cattle,
and a breed of horses considered the finest in
Greece, and still yielding large crops.
HISTORY. In the epic, Thessaly seems inhab-
ited by a number of tribes, among whom are the
Pelasgians of the Peneus valley, and the Achaeans
and Hellenes in the south. During the migrations
that marked the period between the heroic age
and that of historical Greece, tribes from the
mountains of Epirus and the north pushed into
this region, driving out or subjugating the in-
habitants. Part of these latter migrated to Asia
Minor, where they colonized ZEolis. The Beco-
tians, too, were said to have been crowded out
by the new-comers, but it is probable that Beco-
tians and Phocians were really the vanguard
of the invaders. The conquerors settled in the
rich lands of the Peneus valley, reducing the
original owners to the position of serfs of the
soil, who cultivated the land on their own ac-
count, paying a fixed proportion to the owners.
These Penestae could not be sold out of the coun-
try, nor put to death without a trial. The Thes-
salians themselves constituted a landed nobility
gathered about the cities. In these cities a few
great families exercised almost unlimited power,
among whom in the sixth and fifth centuries R0.
the most famous were the Aleuadae of Larissa and
the Scopadae of Crannon and Pharsalus. The
league between the cities was a loose one, and
there was no supreme authority, except so far
as from time to time some family obtained a
leading position. Four districts were recognized
from early times, Hestiseotis at the north, Thes-
saliotis and Pelasgiotis in the centre, and
Phthiotis in the south, each of which in the
fourth century was led by a polemarch. A
general council seems -to have met when any
occasion calling for united action arose, and in
war a general called the tagus (Ta)/6;) was chosen
as commander-in-chief. The league was thus es-
sentially military, but there must have been a
well-established system, for in the sixth century
B.C. the Thessalians were threatening to extend
their power over Southern Greece, and seem at
THESSALY.
THIIBAUDEAU.
680
one time to have occupied Phocis. Their strength
was in the cavalry, composed of the nobles, to
which were added peltasts or light infantry,
composed probably of Penestae.
The Thessalians -soon brought under their rule
the mountainous districts surrounding the
Peneus valley, occupied by the Perrheebians,
Magnetes, and Achaeans of Phthiotis, who as
independent tribes had places in the Amphicty-
onic Council, but later paid tribute and mili-
tary service to the Thessalians. The other
border tribes, the Dolopians, 2Enianians, and
Malians, were also in actual, if not nominal, de-
pendence. The growing power of Thessaly re-
ceived a severe check at the hands of the Pho-
cians, and after the Persian wars it played but
a small part in Greek history, until in the fourth
century B.C. for a brief period it was united under
the rule of the able tyrant of Pherae, J a-son, who
secured his election as tagus, collected a strong
force of cavalry and mercenary infantry, organ-
ized a fleet, and at the time of his assassination
(B.C. 370) seemed likely to anticipate the career
of Philip of Macedon. His successors were blood-
thirsty tyrants and the united Thessaly was
quickly dissolved, though the old district organi-
zation was revived under the influence of Pelo-
pidas and the Thebans. During the Sacred War
the country was at one time occupied by the
Phocians, but in B.C. 352 passed under Mace-
donian control, and in B.C. 344- Philip was elected
archon (the new name of the tagus) of Thes-
saly and the country was virtually united to
Macedon. Thessaly remained subject to the
Macedonian kings till the victory of Flamininus,
at Cynoscephalae, in B.C. 197, placed it under the
protection of Rome. Under the Roman emperors
Thessaly was united with Macedonia, but after
Constantine it was a separate province. In 1204,
with other portions of the Eastern Empire, it
came under the dominion of the Venetians, and
in the fourteenth century it was conquered by
the Turks. The southern part of Thessaly was
freed from Turkish rule at the time of the Greek
Revolution. The bulk of the region was ceded
to Greece in 1881 as a result of the demand of
the Great Powers made on the conclusion of the
Russo-Turkish War. A small mountainous dis-
trict in the north still belongs to Turkey. In
1897 Thessaly was the principal seat of the
Greco-Turkish War, the Turks forcing the Milou-
na and Raveni passes, in the Olympian range, on
the frontier, and finally occupying Larissa. Thes-
saly comprises the nomes of Phthiotis, Larissa,
Karditsa, Trikkala, and Magnesia.
THET’FORD. A municipal and Parliamen-
tary borough and market town in Norfolk, Eng-
land, on the Little Ouse, 79 miles northeast of
London (Map: England, G 4). It has an eventful
history and in the reign of Edward 111. contained
eight monasteries and twenty churches. Its most
important relic of antiquity is the castle hill, a
mound 1000 feet in circumference and 100 feet
high, probably the largest Celtic earthwork in
England. Population, in 1891, 4247; in 1901,
4600.
THE’TIS (Lat., from Gk. Oéns). In Greek
legend, the most famous of the Nereids (q.v.).
She was the daughter of Nereus and the Oceanid
Doris, and was loved by both Zeus and Poseidon.
When Themis prophesied that her son would be
mightier than his father the gods desisted from
their suit, and compelled her to wed Peleus
(q.v.), who, in spite of her frequent transforma-
tions, held her fast until she returned to human
form. By Peleus she became the mother of
Achilles (q.v.). In Homer she is represented
a-s living with her father in the depths of the
sea. She was said to have protected Dionysus
when he fled from Lycurgus, and to have tended
Hephaestus when he was hurled from heaven by
Hera.
THEURIET, te’re’a’, ANDRE (1833-—). A
French poet and novelist, born in Marly-le-Roi
(Seine-et-Oise). He studied law in Paris, was
admitted to practice in 1857, and soon after-
wards accepted a position in a department of the
Ministry of Finance. Already, however, his in-
terests had turned to literature. His favorite
field is the provincial idyll of humble life. His
first poems were gathered as Le chemin des bois
(1867). They show close observation of nature.
The human figures are hewers of wood, whose
hard struggles the poet describes truthfully and
with feeling. Le bleu et le noir, poemes de la vie
réele (1876), is among his best volumes of verse.
Theuriet describes Breton landscapes with charm-
ing and life-like touches. Of about sixty volumes
of fiction the best are Le mariage de C-érard
(1875) and Amour d’automne (1888). There
may also be mentioned: Reine des bois (1890) ;
La Chanoinesse (1893); Frida (1900); and La
soeur de lait (1902). The nearest analogue to
the best of Theuriet’s fiction is the pastoral work
of George Sand, but his style, marked by occa-
sional archaisms, more nearly resembles that of
Bernardin or of Rousseau. In the drama Theu-
riet wrote Jean-Marie (1871); La maison des
deu.v Barbeauw (1885) ; and Jours d’éte’ (1901).
In 1896 he was elected to the Academy.
THEVENET, 1s-.v'ns', MARIUS (1s45_). A
French politician, born in Lyons. He studied law
and gained great distinction at the bar of his
native city, and was elected a Deputy from the
Department of the Rhone in 1885. He was ap-
pointed Minister of Justice and Public Worship
February 22, 1889, in the second Cabinet of Ti-
rard. He displayed great activity in this position
in the suppression of Boulangism, and vigorously
prosecuted Paul Déroulede as chief of the League
of Patriots. He was reélected Deputy in 1889,
lost his portfolio at the fall of the Ministry,
March 17; 1890, and in 1892 was elected Senator
from the Department of the Rhone. He was im-
plicated in the Panama scandal, but escaped
persecution. His militant attitude in the Drey-
fus affair caused him to fail of reelection to the
Senate in 1900.
T-HIBAUDEAU, té'bo'do', ANTCINE CLAIRE,
Count (1765-1854). A French statesman and
historian, born at Poitiers. The outbreak of the
French Revolution found him a lawyer in his
native city. He was elected to the Convention
in 17 92, joined the party of the Mountain, and -
voted for the death of the King. In 1796 he
was chosen president of the Council of Five
Hundred. He abandoned his extreme views,
opposed the coup of the 18th Fructidor (Septem-
ber 4, 1797), and was saved from deportation
by the intervention of friends. After the coup of
the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he was
made Prefect of Bordeaux and held the position
of Councilor of State till 1808. In that year he
THIBAUDEAU.
THIERRY.
681
became prefect of the Department of Bouches-du-
Rhone. He helped in the elaboration of the Code
and was made a Count of the Empire in 1809.
On the second return of the Bourbons he was
proscribed as a regicide and lived abroad till the
Revolution of 1830. He was made a Senator by
Napoleon 111., and died in Paris, March 8, 1854.
He wrote: Mémoires sur la Convention et le
Directoire (1824) ; Mémoires sur Ze Cons/alat
(1827); Histoire générale de Napoléon Bona-
parte (1828) ; Le Consntat ct l’Empire (1835) ;
Histoire des Etats Généraua: et des institutions
représentatioes en France (1843). His autobiog-
raphy appeared in 1875.
THIBAULT, te'bo’, JACQUES ANATOLE. See
FRANCE, ANATOLE.
THIBAUT or THEOBALD I. (1201-53),
King of Navarre from 1234 to 1253, originally
Count of Champagne. He was born in France
and educated at the Court of Philip Augustus.
He is said to have been in love with Blanche of
Castile, Queen of Louis VIII., and when Louis
died, in 1226, some suspected that he had been
poisoned by Thibaut. The latter at first allied
himself with the league of nobles against Blanche,
Regent during the minority of her son, but was
soon won over by her. On the death of his
uncle, Sancho the Strong of Navarre, in 1234,
he succeeded to that kingdom. He went to
Palestine in 1239, but was badly defeated at
Gaza. He was a friend of literature and a
troavere of no mean order, Dante and Petrarch
being among his admirers, His poems were
first published by Lévesque de la Ravalliere (2
vols., Paris, 1742), and have been republished
several times since. Consult Delbarre, Vie de
Thibant (Laon, 1850).
THIBAUT, ANTON FRIEDRICH Jusrus (1772-
1840). A German jurist. He was born at
Hameln, and studied at Giittingen, Kiinigsberg,
and Kiel, at which latter university he was
appointed professor of civil law in 1798. From
1802 to 1806 he was professor at Jena, where he
became a friend of Goethe and Schiller. In 1806
he went as professor of civil law to Heidelberg,
where he remained until his death. He pub-
lished Theorie der logischen Aaslegnng des r6mi-
schen Rechts (1799); Ueber Besitz and Ver-
jiihrang (1802) ; System des Pandelctenrechts
(1803) ; Zioilistische Abhandlangen (1814).
THIBET, tib’ét or ti-bet’. A dependency of
China. See TIBET.
THIBODEAUX, tabs-do’. A town and the
parish seat of Lafourche Parish, La., 47 miles
west by south of New Orleans, on the Bayou
Lafourche, and on the Southern Pacific Railroad
(Map: Louisiana, E 4). It derives considerable
commercial importance from its situation in a
fertile section producing extensively rice and
sugar-cane. Mount Carmel Academy is here.
The water-works and the electric light plant are
owned by the municipality. Population, in 1890,
2078; in 1900, 3253.
THICKET (AS. Piccet, from Piece, thick,
OHG. dicchi, Ger. dick, OIr. ting, OWelsh,
Bret. ten, Welsh, Corn. tew, thick, and with
Ger. dicht, Dan. twt, Eng. tight). A plant so-
ciety dominated by shrubs. In regions of great
rainfall thickets may be generally regarded as
forerunners of forests, but in many arid regions
while present conditions remain they are usually
the ultimate type of vegetation. Various names
have been given to the xerophytic thicket areas.
Those of the Southwestern United States are
called chaparral; those of the Mediterranean
region, maqui; those in Southern South America,
espinal; in Australia, scrub. They all agree in
having a shrubby, thorny, stunted aspect,
THICKHEAD FLY. Any one of the flies of
the family Conopidee, a group comprising species
with large and conspicuous heads. They are
rather large insects, but are generally slender
and with a stalked abdomen. They frequent
flowers and their larvae are parasitic, chiefly
upon bumblebees and wasps, and also more rare-
ly upon grasshoppers. The eggs are probably
laid upon the body of the host, and the larvae
as a rule live in the abdominal cavity. About
thirty species occur in the United States.
THICK-KNEE. A large, plover-like shore
bird of the Old \Vorld, representing the family
(Ecnemidae, of which several species are known,
all characterized by the enlargement of the tibio-
tarsal joint. The familiar one of Western
Europe ((E'dicnemns cedicnemas) is known in
Great Britain as the ‘great’ or ‘stone’ or ‘Nor-
folk’ plover, or ‘stone-curlew,’ and is a favorite
among gunners. It is largely nocturnal, and its
mellow whistling cry at twilight is a delightful
sound along the sea-beaches. For illustration,
see Plate of BUSTARDS.
THIELMANN, tel’man, JOHANN ADOLF,
Baron (1765-1824). A Prussian general, born at
Dresden. He entered a Saxon regiment in 1782,
served through the Rhine campaigns, and was
engaged on the side of Prussia in the battle of
Jena in 1806. He was next sent by Saxony as
Ambassador to Napoleon I., became his ardent
admiier, and did much to bring about the Franco-
Saxon Alliance. He served with the French as
major in the campaign of 1807; fought at Fried-
land in that year, was made major-general, and
operated against the Austrians in Saxony. In
the Russian campaign of 1812 he commanded a
brigade of cavalry and for exceptional bravery
in the battle of Borodino was made a baron. As
commander of Torgau in the early part of 1813
he entered into communications with the Allies,
and on being ordered by the Saxon King to deliver
the town to the French, resigned his post and
went over to the enemy. He was given command
of a Saxon corps which participated in the inva-
sion of France in 1814. He next joined the
Prussian Army (1815), and led the Third Army
Corps at Ligny and at Wavre, contributing ma-
terially to the victory at Waterloo.
THIELT, telt. A town in the Province of
West Flanders, Belgium, 20 miles southwest of
Ghent (Map: Belgium, B 3). It has an ancient
cloth hall and belfry, and manufactures cotton
and woolen goods, linen, leather, etc. The town
was at the zenith of its prosperity during the
Middle Ages, but in 1383 it was almost totally
destroyed by fire, and has never regained its
importance. Population, in 1900, 10,727.
THIERRY, tya’re’, AMEDEE (1797-1873). A
French historian, born at Blois, brother of the
following. He was associated with the Romatnic
School and especially with its journal, the Globe,
and obtained a clerical post under the Government
in recognition of his contribution to the history
of Guienne in 1825. His Histoire des Gaulois
THIERRY.
THIERS.
682
(1828) won for him a professorship of history
at Besancon, but his teaching proved unpalatable
to the reactionary Government of Charles X. and
his course of lectures was suspended by ofiicial
order. The Revolution of 1830 brought to him
the Prefecture of Haute-Saone, which he held
till 1838, when he received the office of Maitre
des réquétes. In 1860 he was appointed Senator
of the Empire. He was advanced to high office
in the Legion of Honor and elected member of
the Academy of Inscriptions in 1841, The most
important of his books are: Histoire de la Gaule
sous Padministration romaine (1840-47); His-
toire d’Attila (1856); Tableaua de l’empire ro-
main (1862) ; Récits de l’histoire romaine (1860-
64). He wrote also Saint-Jér6me (1867) and
Chrysostome et Eudoaie (1873).
THIERRY, AUGUSTIN (1795-1856). A French
historian, born at Blois. He studied at the col-
lege of his native town and in the Ecole Normale
at Paris, and became a teacher in a provincial
school. In 1814 he went to Paris, and published
his first work, De la réorganisation de la société
européenne. Adopting the views of Saint-Simon,
Thierry became his assistant for three years. In
1817 he joined Comte and Dunoyer as editors of
the Censeur Européen, for which he wrote many
articles, literary, political, and historical. In
1820 he became engaged on the Courrier Francais,
in which he published his Dim lettres sur l’histoire
de France. He then turned almost exclusively to
historical writing. His masterpiece, L’histoire ole
la conquéte d’Angleterre par les N ormands, was
first published in 1825. His Lettres sur l’histoire
appeared in 1827. In 1835 he published his Dim
ans d’études historiques. In 1840 appeared his
Récits des temps mérooingiens, which gained the
great Gobert prize. His last publication was the
Essai sur l’histoire de la formation et de progres
du tiers état (1853) . He edited for Guizot’s Col-
lection des monuments inédits de l’histoire de
France the Recueil cles monuments inédits de
Phistoire de tiers état (1849-56). He died May
22, 1856. His complete works were published in
ten volumes (1856-60) . LTis principal works
have been translated into English.
THIERS, te’ar’. The capital of an arron-
dissement in the Department of Puy-de-Dome,
France, 23 miles east-northeast of Clermont-
Ferrand (Map: France, K 6). It is pleasantly
situated on a hillside and consists of an upper and
a lower town, the latter in a nearly sunless gorge
(the Ville Noire of George Sand’s novel of that
name). The eleventh-century Romanesque Gothic
Church of Saint Genes contains a noteworthy
tomb of the thirteenth century, and the Church
of Le Mofltier is an interesting Romanesque struc-
ture founded in the seventh century. The town
is noted for its manufactures of cutlery, paper,
and playing cards, Population, in 1891, 11,993;
in 1901, 17,625.
THIERS, ADOLPHE (1797-1877). A French
statesman and historian, born at Marseilles April
15, 1797. He was distinguished as a student at
the lycée, and in 1815 he went to Aix to study
law. There he formed a friendship with Mignet,
the historian, in company with whom, after
he had taken his degree as advocate (1818), he
set off for Paris. Obtaining an introduction to
Lafitte, he was enrolled among the contributors
to the Constitutionnel, then the leading Liberal
organ. His vigorous articles attracted atten-
tion to the young writer and won him a place
in the most brilliant circles of the opposition.
His Histoire de la Re’/volution francaise (1823-
27) gave him high rank as an historian. In
January, 1830, he, with Mignet and Armand
Carrel, established an able opposition paper, the
National. Thiers in this journal waged unrelent-
ing war against the Polignac Administration,
whose publication of the celebrated Ordinances
of July brought on the Revolution of 1830.
Under the new Government of Louis Philippe
Thiers was elected a member of the Chamber of
Deputies, where he quickly made his mark as a
debater, was appointed to a secretaryship in the
Department of Finance, and in October, 1832, was
made Minister of the Interior. During the next
four years he acted as Minister of the Interior,
Minister of Commerce and Public Works, and
Minister for Foreign Affairs under various chiefs
-—Soult, Gérard, Mortier, and Broglie. His views
with time became more conservative, and he
repressed with severity the democratic uprisings
against the new Government. In February, 1836,
he became president of the Council and Minister
of Foreign Affairs, but in August retired
when the King refused to approve his plan
for intervention in Spain and became the
leader of the opposition. In March, 1840, he
again assumed the Premiership and the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. He wished to support Mehe-
met Ali (q.v.) in his struggle against the
Sultan, thus seeking to carry out the Napoleonic
idea of a controlling influence by France in Syria
and Egypt. He therefore refused to enter the
alliance of Western powers formed for the preser-
vation of the Ottoman Empire. (See QUADRUPLE
ALLIANCE.) When Mehemet Ali was driven out
of Syria, the popular irritation in France, fos-
tered by Thiers, was great, but Louis Philippe
refused to countenance armed interference, just
as he had done in the Spanish matter, and ac-
cepted Thiers’s resignation in October, 1840. The
next five years Thiers spent in travel and in work
upon his second history, L’Histoire du Consulat
et de l’Empire (1845-62). After 1846 he again
became active in political affairs, and appeared
more frequently in the Chamber as an eloquent
spokesman of the opposition. In the Revolution
of 1848 his part was that of a Moderate friendly
to the Republic. He was banished after the
coup d’etat of 1851, but after a short residence
abroad was permitted to return to Paris in 1852.
Thiers entered the Corps Législatif in 1863,
and became the leader of the Liberal opposition,
assailing the Imperial policies in a series of
masterly speeches. He eloquently opposed the
war with Prussia and predicted the defeat of
France. After the collapse of the Empire he became
the brains of the rehabilitation of France. He
undertook diplomatic journeys to England, Rus-
sia, Austria, and Italy, on behalf of France-
a self-imposed mission in which he was unsuc-
cessful, but by which he acquired the gratitude
of his countrymen. After the capitulation of
Paris Thiers was elected to the National As-
sembly by twenty-six constituencies, and on
February ‘17, 1871, became ‘chief of the executive‘
power’ in the provisional Government, and as
such negotiated the treaty of peace with Ger-
many. Upon the outbreak of the war of the
Commune (q.v.) Thiers took swift and energetic
THIERS.
THIGMOTROPISM.
683
measures for the suppression of the movement.
On August 31, 1871, the National Assembly con-
ferred upon him the title of President of the
Republic, making his term of ofiice three years.
Thiers, contrary to the expectations of the
monarchical parties, became convinced of the
need of a republican form of government, and
in November, 1872, sent to the National Assem-
bly a message urging the necessity of formu-
lating an organic instrument of government for
the Republic. The Clericals and Monarchists
thereupon decided upon his fall, and as the result
of a vote of censure passed on the Ministry, Thiers
resigned May 24, I87 3. He retiredl-from public
life for some time, but in 187 6 was elected from
Paris to the Chamber of Deputies, exercising his
influence to the last in the defense of the Re-
public against the plots of the Monarchists.
Thiers was perhaps the most influential po-
litical leader France has produced. His fig-
ure was small, his appearance far from impres-
sive, and his early attempts at oratory are said
to have been ridiculous, but when he adopted the
rapid, incisive style adapted to his personality
he became one of the most effective speakers in
France. His course as a statesman was guided
by an intense love of country bordering on Chau-
vinism, and the conviction that the political power
should repose in the hands of the middle class
whose interests and tastes he so well represented.
His histories are merely brilliant eulogies of the
Revolutionary and Napoleonic ideals. He was
elected a member of the Academy in 1834.
Among the studies and sketches of Thiers may
be noted Franck, Vie de M. Thiers (Paris,
1877) ; Mazade, M onsieur Thiers, cinquante
années d’histoire contemporaine (ib., 1884) ;
Rémusat, A. Thiers (ib., 1889; Eng. trans., Lon-
don, 1892) ; Simon, Le gouvemement de M.
Thiers, 1871-73 (Paris, 1878; Eng. trans., New
York, 1879); Goff, The Life of Louis Adolphe
Thiers (trans. from the unpublished manuscript
by Theodore Stanton, New York, 1879).
TI-IIERSCH, tersh, FRIEDRICH (1784-1860).
An eminent German classical philologist and edu-
cator, born at Kirchscheidungen, near Freyburg-
on-the-Unstrut, and educated at Leipzig and G6t-
tingen. In 1808 Thiersch began his career as a
teacher in the gymnasium at Giittingen, and in
1809 was called as a professor to the newly estab-
lished gymnasium in Munich, where by his in-
fluence he became the founder of philological
studies in Bavaria. The Philological Institute
established by him was joined to the university
in 1826, when the latter was removed from
Landshut to Munich. As a result of his sojourn
in Greece, in 1831-32, he published his impor-
tant work De Pétat aetuel de la Gréce, etc.
(1833). He was also a prime mover in establish-
ing in 1837 regular meetings of German philolo-
gists and teachers. In 1848 he became president
of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. His pub-
lished writings include: Grieehische Gramvnatile
(3d ed. 1828) ; Pindar (1820) ; Ueber die
Epochen der bildenden Kunst unter den Grichen
( 2d ed. 1829) ; Allgemeine Aesthetik in alcadem-
mischen Lehroortrdgen (1846) ; numerous mono-
graphs in the Acta philologor/um Monacensium
(1811-26) ; and many works on education. Con-
sult his biography by his son Heinrich (Leipzig,
1866).
VOL. XVI.-44
THIEBSCH, LUDWIG (1825-—). A German
painter, born in Munich. He studied at the
Munich Academy and became professor of paint-
ing at Athens in 1852. He returned to Germany
in 1855. He was engaged by the Russian
Government to fresco the Church of Saint
Nicodemus. Similar commissions he executed for
the Greek Church in Vienna, the chapels
of the Grand Dukes Nicholas and Michael, and
the Protestant Church of Saint Catharine at
Saint Petersburg (1860-64). His easel pictures
included a “Sakuntala” (1848) ; “Christ at
Gethsemane” (1865) ; and “Christ in the Desert”
(1874).
THIETMAB, tet’mar, Bishop of Merseburg
(975 or 976-1018) . A German chronicler of aris-
tocratic family, related to the Emperor Henry
II. Thietmar was educated in the cloister
schools at Quedlinburg and Magdeburg, was
created in 1002 Provost of Walbeck, shared in
the campaign of 1007 against Boseslav of Poland,
and in 1009 was made Bishop of Merseburg. He
passed the remainder of his life for the greater
part at Court and sharing in campaigns against
the Slavs. His Chrom'con covers in eight books
the period from Henry I. (the Fowler) to 1018,
and at its close is almost a diary. It is rough
and inflated with diction, credulous in narration,
but shows an earnest search for truth, and is
the principal source of history for the Trans-
Elbian Slavic districts during the period it
covers. The best edition of the Ghronicon is by
Kurtz in Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum (Han-
over, 1889). It was translated by Laurent (Ber-
lin, 1848, and Leipzig, 1892).
THIGH. The portion of the lower extremity
which extends from the hip to the knee. The
muscles of the front of the thigh are tensor
fasciae femoris, sartorius and quadriceps exten-
sor, the last of which is a powerful group of
four muscles (rectus, crureus, and the two vasti)
which are inserted below into the patella, or
knee-cap, and whose action is to strengthen the
knee, thus being a most important factor in the
preservation of the erect position and in loco-
motion. The muscles of the back of the thigh
are biceps, semitendinosus and semimembranosus,
also called the ‘hamstring muscles.’ Their action
is to flex the leg on the thigh, to support the
pelvis upon the head of the femur, or thigh bone,
and to draw the trunk backward. On the inner
side of each thigh is a group of adductor muscles,
whose action is to bring the knees together.
There is but one bone in the thigh, the femur,
which articulates with the pelvis above and with
the tibia below. The most important structures
of the thigh lie in the triangle of Scarpa (q.v.) .
This is bounded above by Poupart’s ligament
which is the base of the triangle, internally by
adductor longus, and externally by sartorius.
The great femoral artery and vein pass through
the triangle dividing it into nearly equal parts,
the artery giving off here the profunda femoris
and the vein receiving the long saphenous. The
anterior crural nerve lies to the outer side of the
artery. Femoral hernia appears in Scarpa’s tri-
angle, and not infrequently the extremity of a
fistula running from Potts’ disease of the spine
appears in this space.
THIGMOTBOPISM (from Gk. OZ)/pa, thigma,
anything touched + 'rp07r’/'7, trope‘, a turning
from Tpéirew, trepein, to turn). The sensitive-
THIGMOTROPISM.
THIRTY TYRANTS.
684 "
ness of organisms to stimuli by contact, especial-
ly to prolonged contact with solid substances.
The responses in plants depend chiefly upon a
modification of the growth of the organs con-
cerned. It is especially marked in tendrils.
Other examples are to be found in the similar
curvatures of the petioles of leaf climbers, and in
the stems of dodder. See GROWTH.
THIL’LY, FRANK (1865—). An American
educator, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He gradu-
ated at the university of his native city in 1887,
and then studied for two years at the University
of Berlin, and for two more at Heidelberg. In
1892-93 he was an instructor of logic and the
history of philosophy in the Sage School of Phi-
losophy at Cornell University. In 1893 he was
appointed professor of philosophy at the Univer-
sity of Missouri. His publications include:
Leibnitz’s Controversy with Locke (1891); An
Introduction to Ethics (1900) ; and translations
of Frederick Paulsen’s Einleitung in die Philoso-
phie (1895) and Weber’s History of Philosophy
(1896).
THIONVILLE,
HOFEN.
THIOSULPHURIC ACID (from Gk. Oeiov,
theion, sulphur, + Eng. sulphuric), HZSZO3, less
properly ‘hyposulphurous acid.’ An acid com-
pound unknown in the isolated state and but
little known in the form of dilute aqueous solu-
tions, but well known in the form of its salts,
called thiosulphates (or hyposulphites), espe-
cially its sodium salt. The thiosulphates are
formed by the action of metals (such as zinc,
iron, etc.) on acid sulphites. The thiosulphates
of the alkalies are freely soluble in water; those
of the alkaline earths are much less soluble;
while those of the heavy metals are by them-
selves insoluble, but generally form soluble
double compounds with the thiosulphates of the
alkalies. The thiosulphate of sodium“ may be
prepared in the laboratory by boiling a solution
of sodium sulphite with sulphur. It may also
be made from the thiosulphate of calcium. The
latter is produced by the action of sulphur on
lime. Hence it is produced (along with calcium
pentasulphide) when lime is used for the puri-
fication of illuminating gas. Further, it is
formed when a solution of calcium pentasulphide
is exposed to the oxidizing action of the air—a
reaction causing the production of the thiosul-
phate in the manufacture of soda (q.v.) and its
increased production in the purification of il-
luminating gas. Aqueous sodium thiosulphate
has the remarkable property of dissolving the
halogen salts of silver, mercurous chloride (calo-
mel) and iodide, the iodide and the sulphate of
lead, the sulphate of calcium, and the oxides of
copper. Owing to its capacity for dissolving the
halogen salts of silver unaltered by light, it is
extensively used in photography. It is further
employed in the manufacture of certain coal-
tar colors and in dyeing.
THIRD. See INTERVAL.
THIRD ESTATE (Fr.
STATES GENERAL; FRANOE;
TION.
THIRL’W ALL, NEWELL CONNOP
1875). An English historian and bishop. He
was born in London. He studied at Charter-
House School and graduated at Trinity College,
té’oN’vél'. See DIEDEN-
tiers état). See
FRENOII REVOLU-
(1797-
Cambridge, in 1818. In 1820 he entered Lin-
coln’s Inn and was called to the bar in 1825, but
the profession of the law was distasteful and he
spent the intervening years until 1828 in travel
and literary pursuits, publishing translations of
tales from Tieck and Schleiermacher’s Critical
Essay on the Gospel of St. Luke (1825). In 1827
he took up his residence in Cambridge, and until
1834 he held various offices in the university,
when he was called upon to resign his appoint-
ment as assistant tutor on account of a pamphlet,
Letter on the Admission of Dissenters to Aca-
demical Degrees. He accepted a living at Kirby
Underdale iii Yorkshire, where he wrote his His-
tory of Greece (1835-44). In 1840 he was
appointed bishop at Saint David’s in Wales; in
1874 he resigned his see and retired to Bath,
where he died. With J. C. Hare he translated
Nicbuhr’s History of Rome (1828-32). His Re-
mains, Literary and Theological, and Essays,
Speeches, and Sermons were edited by J. J. S
Perowne (London, 1877-80); his Letter to a
Friend, with a memorial sermon, was edited
by Dean Stanley (ib., 1882), and his Letters,
Literary and Theological, by Perowne and Stokes
(ib., 1881).
THIRST (AS. Purst, Pyrst, Goth. Imntrstei,
OHG. durst, Ger. Durst, thirst; connected with
Lat. torrere, to parch, Gk. répeecflm, tersesthai,
to become dry, Skt. tars, to thirst). A sense.-
tion normally due to a lack of water in the tis-
sues of the body. Although the sensation of
thirst is referred principally to the mouth and
throat, it is not a purely local feeling and can be
satisfied by the introduction of fluid into the
circulation through various channels. Water
may be absorbed and thirst relieved by transfu-
sion of saline solution into the veins, by injection
into the tissues (hypodermoclysis) , and to a less
extent by absorption from the skin, as well as
by drinking. In a state of thirst, the body fluids
become reduced in volume, and of'higher specific
gravity and more saline, and these conditions
sufficiently explain the craving for water. Thirst
is occasioned physiologically by profuse perspira-
tion from exercise—especially in a warm, dry
atmosphere-—by a highly seasoned diet, or by
salty food. Many morbid conditions give rise
to thirst; it is always an accompaniment of
fevers and inflammations; diseases which, like
cholera asiatica, diabetes, and diarrhoea, are
characterized by a great loss of fluid from the
body, are productive of thirst. Loss of blood
produces a great craving for liquids. As an ex-
ception to the rule that fevers demand drink, it
may be noted that in typhoid fever thirst is
sometimes blunted or suppressed. Thirst is
most effectively relieved by slightly acidulated
drinks, since these provoke an outflow of saliva.
In fevers, cracked ice, effervescing drinks, and
fruit juices are grateful and help to reduce the
temperature.
THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES 0]? RELI-
GION, THE. See ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE.
THIRTY TYRANTS. A body of rulers in
Athens, invested with sovereign power after
the close of the Peloponnesian War, 13.0. 404.
They were all native Athenians, but members
of the aristocratic party, and chosen by the
Spartan conquerors, who, knowing the animosity
existing between the democracy and the oligarchy
THIRTY TYRANT S.
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.
685
of Athens, hoped to rule the city through
the agency of the latter. Their government
was a reign of terror, marked by the most in-
famous cruelties. One of the most rabid and
unscrupulous members of the body was Critias
(q.v.), while Theramenes (q.v.) headed the more
moderate division. The rule of the Thirty Ty-
rants lasted only one year, when it was over-
thrown by the return of the Athenian exiles
under Thrasybulus (q.v.), and the surviving
members were expelled from the city.
THIRTY TYRANTS. The collective title
given to a set of military usurpers who sprang
up in different parts of the Roman Empire during
the fifteen years (A.D. 254-268) occupied by the
reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, and, amid the
wretched confusions of the time, endeavored to
establish themselves as independent princes. The
name is borrowed from the Thirty Tyrants at
Athens, but, in reality, historians can only reckon
nineteen—-Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, Odena-
thus, and Zenobia, in the East; Postumus, Lol-
lianus, Victorinus (with his mother, Victoria),
Marius, and Tetricus, in the West; Ingenuus,
Regillianus (more properly Regalianus, as the
name appears on coins), and Aureolus, in Illyri-
cum and the countries about the Danube; Saturni-
nus, in Pontus; Trebellianus, in Isauria; Piso,
in Thessaly; Valens, in Achaea; j:Emilianus, in
Egypt; and Celsus, in Africa.
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR. The name given
to the great European struggle (1618-48) which
marked the climax of the Reformation (q.v.),
closing the period of distinctively religious poli-
tics and opening that in which secular statecraft
took the place of ecclesiastical. The Religious
Peace of Augsburg (1555) afforded no permanent
settlement of the questions that had been stirred
up by the Protestant revolution. Its terms rec-
ognized only Lutherans and Catholics, and mean-
while the Calvinists had grown strong, and, un-
fortunately for the Protestant cause, the most
violent enmity existed between them and the
Lutherans. The relations of the Emperor and
the German princes were ill-defined and such
adjustment as had been reached was hardly
tenable. France had already separated her natu-
ral interests from the affiliations of religion and
aided the German Protestant princes in their
insubordination toward their Imperial Catholic
head. The Reformation, by overthrowing the
idea of Christ’s unity in the Church, broke
down the theory of a Holy Roman Empire and
put forward in its place the Germanic idea
of autonomy for individual States. In the
turmoil of sixteenth-century Europe it was
inevitable that the solvent for these ,and many
collateral issues should be found in a general
war. The outbreak came in an unexpected
way. The liberal reign of Maximilian II. (1564-
76) was favorable to the growth of Protestant-
ism in the Austrian dominions. His successor,
Rudolph II. (1576-1612), brought in the reac-
tionary Jesuit influence and allowed full play
to the forces of the Counter-Reformation. Open
interference with the practice of the Protestant
religion was permitted and numbers of Protestant
churches were destroyed. In 1607 Maximilian I.,
the Catholic Duke of Bavaria, made himself
master of the free Imperial city of Donauwtirth,
whose inhabitants were mainly Protestants. A
number of Protestant princes and cities founded
in 1608 the Evangelical Union for the defense of
their interests and their faith, and this was met
by the formation of the Catholic League under
the leadership of Maximilian of Bavaria in 1609.
In that year the Emperor was forced to publish
his Majestiitsbrief, by which the Protestants of
Bohemia were guaranteed the free exercise of
their religion. At this time the political state
of the Empire was further unsettled by the
J iilich-Cleves war of succession. (See JiiLICH.)
In 1612 the Emperor Rudolph II. died and was
succeeded by his brother Matthias, to whom the
Archduchy of Austria, Moravia, Hungary, and
Bohemia had previously been transferred as a
result of Rudolph’s reckless rule. In 1617 the
Bohemian estates were called upon to crown, as
their prospective King, Duke Ferdinand of
Styria, the Hapsburg heir presumptive, in ac-
cordance with a custom which had become estab-
lished. Ferdinand had made himself prominent
by the relentless manner in which he had rooted
out Protestantism in his paternal Styrian
dominions. His attitude encouraged the Catho-
lic Church in Bohemia in its aggressions, and
soon a dispute regarding the interpretation of
the Majestidtsbrief brought on an open conflict.
On May 23, 1618, a body of Protestants, led
by Count Thurn, entered the royal palace at
Prague, and hurled two odious representatives
of the Crown, Martinitz and Slavata, from its
windows. This ‘defenestration,’ the victims of
which escaped with their lives, inaugurated a
struggle which was to convulse Europe for thirty
years.
The Bohemians rose in arms under Thurn, and
the insurrection spread into the adjoining Haps-
burg dominions. A body of troops of the Union,
under Count Mansfeld, appeared on the scene,
and Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, pre-
pared to make war on Austria. Matthias was
wholly unprepared to meet the onslaught.
Spain alone came to his aid, but the Spanish
force was too weak to stay the advance of the
enemy. The Emperor died in March, 1619, and
Ferdinand, who succeeded him as the head of the
House of Hapsburg, found himself beleaguered in
Vienna by the victorious Thurn. Through his
indomitable firmness he succeeded in averting
the fall of his capital, and made his way to
Frankfort, where he was elected Holy Roman
Emperor as Ferdinand II. (August, 1619). The
Bohemians, having declared their throne vacant,
placed their crown upon the head of the Elector
Palatine Frederick V., the son-in-law of James
I. of England. Ferdinand, whose capital was
in the meanwhile again threatened, this time by
the Prince of Transylvania, was enabled to at-
tack Frederick by means of the forces of the
Catholic League, whose leader, Maximilian of
Bavaria, was offered a rich indemnity. John
George, the Lutheran Elector of Saxony, eager
for territorial acquisitions, entered the field
against the Bohemians, while the Spaniards in-
vaded the Lower Palatinate. The Protestant
Union dared not move, and James I. kept aloof
from Frederick. On November 8, 1620, a battle
was fought at the White Hill, before the walls
of Prague. in which the army of the League,
under Tilly, was completely victorious. Fred-
erick fled from Bohemia, which was chastised in
a fearful manner by the Emperor, and forced
back into the fold of the Catholic Church. The
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.
686
dissolution of the Evangelical Union ensued.
The cause of the Elector Palatine, however,
whose hereditary dominions, the Upper and the
Lower Palatinate, were assailed, found inde-
pendent and intrepid champions in Mansfeld and
Christian of Brunswick, lawless partisan lead-
ers. George Frederick, the Margrave of Baden-
Durlach, also took up arms for Frederick, and
he and Mansfeld gained a victory over Tilly at
Wiesloch on April 27, 1622. On May 6th, how-
ever, the former was vanquished by Tilly at
Wimpfen, and on June 20th a like disaster befell
Christian of Brunswick at Hiichst. On August
6, 1623, Christian of Brunswick sustained a
second defeat at the hands of Tilly at Stadt-
lohn. Frederick was stripped of his possessions.
The Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity
were conferred on Maximilian of Bavaria.
The war might have ended with this local
struggle, but the outrageous treatment to which
the Protestant States of North Germany were
subjected pressed the conflict on to its second
phase. Christian IV. of Denmark, aided by
a British subsidy, went to the aid of his German
co-religionists in 1625, and being joined by Mans-
feld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into
Lower Saxony, while the Emperor, hampered by
the political jealousy of the Catholic League,
was at first unable to oppose him. It was,at
this juncture that Wallenstein came forward
and placed a great army, raised by himself, at
the disposal of Ferdinand. This army acted in
coiiperation with that of the Catholic League
under Tilly. Mansfeld was completely defeated
by Wallenstein at Dessau (April 25, 1626), and
the forces of Christian IV. were routed by Tilly
at Lutter (August 27, 1626). VVallenstein
marched as far as Hungary in pursuit of Mans-
feld, who died in November, 1626. The combined
Imperialists and Leaguers overran North Ger-
many and Wallenstein penetrated into the heart
of Denmark. The Imperialist commander con-
ceived the design of making Austria a power
on the Baltic, but his career in this direction
was checked by the heroic defense of Stralsund
(1628). King Christian was forced to conclude
the humiliating peace of Liibeck (May 12, 1629).
Inflamed by his success, Ferdinand had, on
March 6, 1629, issued the Edict of Restitution,
by which the Protestant titles to all ecclesias-
tical lands acquired after 1552 were declared
void. Thus closed the second period of the war,
with the Protestant States infuriated by the
edict and the proud city of Magdeburg alone in
arms to resist its execution.
Richelieu (q.v.) , developing the anti-Hapsburg
policy of Henry IV., had promoted, as far as the
internal affairs of France would allow, the dis-
sensions in Germany. He now succeeded in
bringing into the struggle the able and ambitious
Protestant King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus
(q.v.). This ruler, desirous of promoting Prot-
estantism and of securing the control of the
Baltic, took the field, and the Swedish phase of
the war began with the landing of the Swedes
on the coast of Pomerania in the summer of
1630. Just at this time the princes of the
Catholic League, exasperated by the overbearing
conduct of Wallenstein and the excesses of his
soldiery, forced the Emperor to dismiss him,
Tilly being made commander-in-chief of the
Catholic forces. Gustavus Adolphus, who in
January, 1631, entered into a subsidiary alliance
with France, advanced southward into Germany.
The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg at first
remained neutral, but finally were forced to join
him. The obstacles in his path delayed him
until it was too late to rescue Magdeburg, which
on May 20, 1631, was stormed by Tilly and Pap-
penheim, whose troops burned the town and
massacred the inhabitants. On September 17
(old style, September 7), 1631, the Swedish King,
strengthened by the Saxon army under Arnim,
overwhelmed Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig,
a victory which completely restored the Prot-
estant cause. He then victoriously traversed the
Main and Rhine valleys; forced the passage of
the Lech in the front of the army of Tilly, who
was mortally wounded (April 15, 1632) ; entered
Munich, and threatened the Hapsburg dominions.
WVallenstein-, meanwhile, had been recalled to
raise and command the Imperialist armies to
meet this formidable enemy. He compelled the
Swedes by skillful strategy, to return to Saxony.
There the Swedes won the battle of Liitzen
(q.v.), November 16 (old style, November 6),
1632, after an obstinate engagement in which
Gustavus was killed. His death was a severe
blow to the Protestant cause, but the energy and
ability of the Swedish Chancellor, Oxenstierna
(q.v.), and the brilliant talents of the Swedish
generals, preserved the advantages that had
been gained. After the battle of Liitzen Wallen-
stein remained long inactive, engaging in endless
negotiations. Bernhard (q.v.) of Saxe-Weimar,
one of the ablest of the Protestant leaders, over-
ran Bavaria, and on November 14, 1633, stormed
Ratisbon. The behavior of Wallenstein, after a
display of activity, inaugurated by a victory
over the Swedes at Steinau, October 13, 1633,
finally left no doubt in the mind of Ferdinand
II. that his general was meditating treason. He
was deposed from his command and was as-
sassinated at Eger in Bohemia, on February 25,
1634. His virtual successor, Gallas, inflicted a
crushing defeat on Bernhard of Weimar and the
Swedish general, Horn, at Niirdlingen (Septem-
'_ber 6, 1634) which again restored to the Em-
peror a preponderating influence in Germany.
Saxony now made‘ peace at Prague (May 30,
1635), the Elector securing important territorial
gains. Other Lutheran States withdrew from
Ehe conflict, the Calvinists being left to their
ate.
Final success now appeared to demand only
one more strenuous effort on the part of Austria;
but Oxenstierna was determined to preserve to
Sweden her German acquisitions, and Richelieu
saw that the time had come for France to throw
herself into an active struggle against both Aus-
tria and Spain. The conflict advanced into its
final and most extended phase. At first the
Hapsburg side was enabled to make a show of
strength, France being invaded by a combined
force of Spaniards, Imperialists, and Lotharin-
gians, but with such commanders on their side
as Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general
Banér, the tide soon set in strongly in favor of
the Protestants. The victory of Banér over the
Imperialists and Saxons at Wittstock (October
4, 1636) restored to Sweden the advantage lost
two years before. Bernhard of Weimar, in the
pay of France, fought with energy and success,
ambitious to found a State for himself. In 1638
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.
THISTLE.
687
he won a victory at Rheinfelden and succeeded
in reducing the fortress of Breisach, but in the
following year he met with an untimely death.
In February, 1637, the Emperor Ferdinand II.
died and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand
III. After the death of Baner, in 1641, the
Swedish arms were led to fresh triumphs by
Torstenson, a general famous for the rapidity
of his movements. He defeated the Archduke
Leopold William and Piccolomini at Breitenfeld
on November 2, 1642; in 1644 he overran Den-
mark, whose ruler, Christian IV., had been in-
duced to take up arms against Sweden; in the
same year he defeated Gallas at Jiiterbock; and
on March 6, 1645, he won a great victory over
the Imperialists, under Hatzfeld, at Jankau, in
Southern Bohemia. His repeated invasions car-
ried devastation and ruin into the territories,
even to the gates of Vienna, until the Austrians
hardly dared appear to the north of the Danube.
In the meanwhile, in the west and south, the
French were waging war with varying success.
In January, 1642, they were successful at Kem-
pen, near Diisseldorf, and in May, 1643, the
Duke d’Enghien (the future Condé) won a sig-
nal victory over the Spaniards at Rocroi, but on
November 24, 1643, the French-Weimar forces
suffered a great defeat at Tuttlingen, in Swabia,
at the hands of Johann von Werth and Mercy.
Conde and Turenne restored the fortunes of the
French by a victory at Allersheim, near Nord-
lingen, August 3, 1645. The Emperor was now
deserted by all his allies except the Duke of
Bavaria, whose territories were already mostly
in the hands of Turenne and the Swedish gen-
eral \Vrangel; and a combined invasion of Aus-
tria from the west and north was on the point
of being executed, when the diplomatic represen-
tatives of the different governments, who had
been at work for seven years at Miinster, in
Westphalia, and at Osnabriick, agreed upon
terms of peace which closed the struggle. See
\/VESTPHALIA, PEACE or.
Aside from the political disintegration of Ger-
many which resulted from the war, the thirty
years’ struggle had brought desolation upon the
country. Scarcely any part of the Empire had
escaped the horrors of the conflict, and the
people had been made the victims of an un-
bridled and licentious soldiery whose excesses
have remained in popular memory to the pres-
ent day. Whole regions were laid waste, pros-
perous towns were wiped out, commerce and
industry were destroyed. Germany lost half of
her population and two-thirds of her wealth,
While in some regions the decrease in population
rose to two-thirds, as in Bohemia, or even higher,
Religion and morality sank to a low ebb, and the
loss entailed on the intellectual side was one
which it took generations to make good.
Consult: Gardiner, The Thirty Years’ War
(London, 1874), a convenient and reliable brief
account; Gindely, Geschichte des clreissigjt'ihr-
igen Kriegs (Prague. 1869-80), trans. by Ten
Brook (New York, 1884), by a recognized au-
thority, a Bohemian, who made this his life
study. Consult also references under GUSTAVUS
Anorrnos ; RICHELIEU; VVALLENSTEIN, etc.
THISBE. See PYRAMUS AND THISBE.
THISTLE (AS. ]>istel, OHG. distula, distil,
Ger. Distel, thistle). A popular name for va-
rious plants of the natural order Compositae.
They have either stout, spiny herbage or flower-
ing bracts. They are widely distributed, mostly
as weeds. In the United States the name applies
to the species of Cnicus, Carduus, Onopordon,
Centaurea, and Sonchus. By some botanists the
first two genera are combined under the name
Carduus. The principal distinction between
these two is that Cnicus has plumose pappus and
hence is often called plume thistle, while Car-
duus l1as bristly pappus. The species belonging
to the other genera are all introduced from the
Old World. The pasture thistle (Gnicusl pumi-
lus), yellow thistle (Carduus horridulus) bull
thistle (Oarduus lanceolatus), and others are
common and troublesome in pastures and on
roadsides. Oarduus arvensis, the so-called Can-
ada thistle, a European
species, is one of the most troublesome and difficult M
to eradicate of all. It is "' ..
a slender perennial, one
to three feet high, with
rather small, rose-colored
flowers. It spreads prin-
cipally by its spreading
rootstocks, but can be I,
eradicated by persistent cultivation. The heads
are imperfectly dioecious
and not all produce seed.
Among the other common
European thistles found
in the United States is
the milk thistle (Silybum
M arianum) , a biennial
plant four to six feet
tall. The leaves are some-
times used as salads, or
as pot herbs. The roots,
for which it was formerly
cultivated, were used like salsify. The blessed this-
tle (Oarbenia benedicta) , native of Asia, was for-
merly considered to have medicinal properties. It
resembles the star thistle (Centaurea), of which
there are many species, the best-known of which
are Oentaurea Calcitrapa and Centaurea Oyanus,
the blue-bottle thistle. The cotton or Scotch this-
tle (Onopordon Acanthium) is recognized by its
deeply honeycombed receptacle and cottony or
woolly leaves. It is said to be the emblem of
Scotland, but Cnicus acaulis, a stemless thistle
common in Scotland, seems more worthy this
designation. The Carline thistle (Oarlina pul-
garis) is a rather troublesome weed in poor
soils in Europe, and was named Carline thistle
because Charlemagne, according to tradition,
used its roots as a cure for the plague. Species
of Sonchus are called sow thistle, of which three
are found in the United States, Sonchus olera-
ceus, the common sow thistle, Sonchus asper, the
spiny leaved sow thistle, and Sonchus arvensis,
the field sow thistle. Other plants of different
orders are sometimes called thistles, as species
of Dipsacus (see TEASEL) and blue thistle
(Echium culgare), the latter belonging to the
order Boraginaceee. See Plate of TANSY, ETC.
THISTLE. A steel yacht built in 1887 at
Glasgow. She\lost the contest for the America’s
cup to the Volunteer, and afterwards became the
property of the German Emperor under the name
of Meteor.

census mnsrnn (Carduus
arveruis).
THISTLE.
THOMA.
688
THISTLE, ORDER OF THE; less commonly
Order of Saint Andrew, A Scottish order hav-
ing the year 787 as the mythical date of its
foundation. It was established by James V. in
1540, reorganized by James _II. of Great Britain
in 1687, and a second time reconstituted by
Queen Anne in 1703. The statute of 1827 limits
the number of knights to sixteen members of the
Scottish nobility, in addition to the sovereign
and princes of the blood. The star of the order
is of silver with a round gold‘ plaque bearing
a thistle on a green field. The ribbon is green.
The motto runs, N emo me impune lacessit.
THISTLE-BIRD. The American goldfinch
(q.v.).
THISTLEWOOD CONSPIRACY, or CATO
STREET CONSPIRACY. A plot against the Brit-
ish Government formed in 1819-20 by Arthur
Thistlewood (1770-1820). It was planned to
murder the Ministers at a dinner given by Lord
Harrowby on February 23, 1820, to seize the Man-
sion House, attack the Bank of England, and to
set fire to London in several quarters. All of
Thistlewood’s intentions were, however, regularly
reported to the authorities by one of his con-
fidants, George Edwards. On February 21, 1820,
the conspirators hired a loft in Cato Street, and
there they were arrested on February 23d.
Thistlewood escaped, but was captured the fol-
lowing day. He was found guilty on April 19th,
and hanged with four other conspirators on
May 1st.
THO’AS (Lat., from Gk. Géag). (l) The son
of Dionysus and Ariadne. He was King of
Lemnos and father of Hypsipyle (q.v.), who
saved him when the men of the island were
killed by the Lemnian women, (2) A King of
Tauris. Artemis carried Iphigenia into his (10-
minion after saving her from the sacrifice.
'1‘H0’BUR1\'|', JAMES MILLS (l836—). AMeth-
odist Episcopal bishop. He was born at Saint
Clairsville, Ohio; graduated at Allegheny Col-
lege, 1857;-was admitted to the Pittsburg Con-
ference 1858; went to India as a missionary,
1859; was presiding elder of the Calcutta dis-
trict (Bengal Conference), 1873-88; editor of
The Witness for six years; represented the
India Conference in the General Conference,
1876; the South India Conference, 1880, and the
Bengal Conference, 1888. He was elected mis-
sionary bishop of India and Malaysia, 1888. He
has written My Missionary Apprenticeship
(1887); Missionary Addresses Before Theologi-
cal Schools (1887) ; India and Malaysia (1893) ;
The Deaconess and Her Vocation (1893) ; Christ-
less Nations: Addresses Delivered at Syracuse
University on the Graves Foundation (1895);
Light in the East (1898) ; The Church of Pente-
cost (l901). ‘
THOLEN, to'len. An island belonging to the
Province of Zealand, Netherlands, 22 miles north
by west of Antwerp (Map: Netherlands, C 3).
It covers an area of about 47 square miles. The
little town of Tholen is in the eastern part.
Population, in 1899, 3076.
THOLUCK, to’luk, FRIEDRICH AUGUST GoT'r-
REU (1799-1877). A German theologian, born
in Breslau. He became professor extraordinary
of theology at Berlin in 1823, and full professor at
Halle in 1826, where he spent the remainder
of his life with the exception of a sojourn in
Rome in 1828-29. Tholuck was an influential
preacher, writer, and teacher. His most important
work was exegetical. His commentaries on the
Psalms, the Sermon on the Mount, John, Romans,
Hebrews, have all been translated into English.
His best known works are Die wahre Weihe des
Zweiflers (1823; 9th ed. 1870; Eng. trans.,
Guido and Julius, 1854); Das Alte Testament
im Neuen (1836; 7th ed. 1877); and Stunden
christlicher Andacht (1840; Eng. trans., House
of Christian Devotion, New York, 1875) . Among
his other works may be mentioned: Lebenszeugen
der lutherischen Kirche, wiihrend der Zeit des
dreissigjrihrigen Krieges (1859) ; Geschichte des
Rationalismus (lst part, 1865). Consult his
Life by L. Witte (Bielefeld, 1884-86). His col-
lected works were published at Gotha (11 vols.,
1863-72).
THOM, JoIIN HAMILTON (1808-94). A Uni-
tarian clergyman and author, born at Newry,
in County Down, Ireland, where his father was
settled as a Presbyterian minister. He studied
at the Belfast Academical Institution with a
view to the Presbyterian ministry, but he was
won over to Unitarianism by the writings of
William Ellery Channing (q.v.). From 1831
to 1866 he was minister of Renshaw Street
Chapel, Liverpool. In this long pastorate there
was, however, one break—from 1854 to 1857—
when his place was taken by William Henry
Channing (q,v.). Meanwhile (1838) he be-
came editor of the Christian Teacher (after-
wards the Prospective Review). In company
with Martineau he conducted a famous contro-
versy with Anglican divines on the interpreta-
tion of the New Testament (1839). Besides a
life of Joseph Blanco VVhite, Thom published
mainly Saint Paul’s Epistles to the Corinthians
(1861); Letters, Embracing His Life, by John
James Tayler (1872); Laws of Life After the
Mind of Christ (1883). After his death ap-
peared A Spiritual Faith (1895).
THOMA, to’ma, HANS (l839—). A German
painter, illustrator, and lithographer. With
Feuerbach, Marées, and B6cklin, he became one
of the leaders of modern painting in Germany.
He was born at Bernau, in the Black Forest.
In 1859 he studied at the Karlsruhe Academy
with Schirmer, at Diisseldorf (1867), and then
in Paris, where he came under the influence of
Courbet. Afterwards he spent four years in
Munich with Victor Miiller, who also exerted a
powerful influence upon him. But his style was
eventually formed by study of the fifteenth-cen-
tury Italians. In 1899 he took charge of the
academ and gallery at Karlsruhe. His archaic
figure rawing at first blinded the public to the
richness of his color, the power and poetry of his
imagination, and the depth of his sympathy with
German life, but after the Collective Exhibition
of German art at Munich in 1890 his true value
began to be appreciated. Landscapes, portraits,
genre scenes of German life, religious, mythologi-
cal, and allegorical subjects, have been treated
by him, and he has also done some work in lithog-
raphy, etching, and illustration. His litho-
graphs are full of decorative value. His paint-
ings include: “The Keepers of the Garden of
Love” (Breslau) ; “A Landscape with Children”
and a portrait of himself (Dresden) ; “An Open
Valley” (Frankfort) ; and “A Taunus Land-
THOMA.
THOMAS.
689
sca e” (Munich) . Consult Thode, Hans Thoma
(Vienna, 1891).
THOMAS, t5m’as (Lat., from Gk. Om/rdg,
from Heb. Thoma, twin). One of the Twelve
Apostles. In each of the Synoptic Gospels and
the Acts Thomas is mentioned only in the lists
of the twelve disciples (Mark iii. 18; Matt. x.
3; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13). In the fourth
Gospel he appears as one who was inclined to
overestimate difficulties and to be troubled
with doubts (John xi. 16; xiv. 5; x. 24-29).
Though nothing more is said of him in the New
Testament, he figures prominently in the tradi-
trons concerning the spread of Christianity in the
Far East. The Syrian Abgar legend relates
that Thaddeeus, the Apostle of Eastern Syria,
was sent thither by the Apostle Judas Thomas.
This double name probably has some connection
with the fact (see John xxi. 2) that Thomas’s
Greek name was Didymus, i.e. twin. Who his
twin was is unknown. Some have suggested that
it was James, the ‘Lord’s brother,’ and that
Thomas’s real name was Jude or Judas. A tra-
dition older than Eusebius gave Parthia as the
mission field of the Apostle Thomas, while an-
other, embodied in the Gnostic Acts of Thomas,
made him the Apostle of India and related won-
derful stories concerning him. To him the
‘Thomas Christians’ of Southern India assign
their origin. Mount Saint Thomas, near Madras,
is the place of his reputed martyrdom. As these
Christians were closely connected with East-
Syrian Christianity, it is probable that the basis
of the whole fabric of tradition is some actual
missionary labor of the Apostle Thomas in
Eastern Syria. See CHRISTIANS OF SAINT
THOMAS; APOCBYPHA.
THOMAS THE RHYMER, or more correctly
THOMAS OF EBCELDOUNE (c.1220-c.1297). A
Scottish seer and poet, about whom very little
is positively known. Erceldoune (now called
Earlston) was a village in Berwickshire on
the river Leader, about two miles above its
junction with the Tweed. The earliest extant
mention of Thomas as a seer is in the continua-
tion of Fordun’s Scotichronicon, attributed to
Walter Bower (d. 1449). For centuries all sorts
of prophecies were connected with his name. A
collection of them was published at Edinburgh
in 1603 under the title The Whole Prophesie of
Scotland. To Thomas the Rhymer has been
attributed a beautiful fairy story in verse.
According to the legend, Thomas was wont
to meet a ‘lady fair’ on Huntly Banks near
Eildon Tree. By her he was conveyed to fairy-
land, where he acquired the knowledge that made
him famed. After living there for a period, he
was permitted to go to the earth to practice his
prophetic skill, on the condition that he should
come back at the fairy’s bidding. One day, while
he was making merry with his friends, the sum-
mons came. He instantly arose, and disappeared
in the forest never to be seen again on earth.
Huntly Bank and the neighboring lands became a.
part of Abbotsford. The poem, consisting of the
minstrel’s usual prologue and three fyttes, con-
tains 700 lines. It exists in four complete manu-
scripts, of which the oldest is the Thornton at
Cambridge (assigned to 1430-40). Though they
are all in English, they point to an older origi-
nal, which may have been the composition of
Thomas. Sir Walter Scott and others also as-
cribed to Thomas the verse rdmance of Sir Tris-
trem. It exists in a single manuscript in the
Advocates’ Library at Edinburgh. It seems to
have been copied from a northern original by a
southern scribe about 1450. Though the poem
contains allusions to Thomas of Erceldoune, his
authorship is now questioned. Consult: The
Romance and Prophecies of Thomas of Ercel-
doune, ed. by J. A. H, Murray for the “Early
English Text Society” (London, 1875); Thomas
of Erceldoune, ed. by Brandl (Berlin, 1880).
THOMAS, C.HRIsTIANs OF SAINT. See CHRIS-
TIANS or SAINT THOMAS.
THOMAS, GosrEL 01?.
tion on New Testament.
THOMAS, tt/ma’, AMBROISE (1811-96). A
distinguished French operatic composer, born in
Metz. In 1828 he entered the Paris Conservatory,
studied under Zimmermann and Kalkbrenner
(piano), and under Dourlen, Barbereau, and Le
Suer in counterpoint, harmony, and composition.
He won the Grand Prix dc Rome in 1832. He
succeeded Auber as director of the Conservatory
in 1871. He was one of the most noted composers
of the modern French school, and ranked second
only to Gounod, whom he resembled in style.
His chief success lay in opéra comique, the best
example of which was Mignon (1866). His com-
positions includc: Le panier fleuri (1839); Le
Oaid (1849) ; Le songe d’une nuit d’été (1850) ;
Psyché (1857); Hamlet (1868); Frangoise de
Rimini (1882) ; ballets; cantatas; requiems;
chamber-music; and choruses for male voices,
which are much esteemed.
THOMAS, ARTHUR GoRINo (1850-92). An
English composer, born in Eastbourne, Sussex.
He received his musical education in Paris, and
later at the Royal Academy of "Music, London,
where he won the Lucas prize of 1879. He took
up his residence in London, and devoted himself
entirely to composition. His works include a
grand anthem for soprano solo, chorus, and
orchestra (1878) ; acantata, The Sun Worship-
ers (Norwich Musical Festival, 1881); operas:
Esmeralda (1883), Nadeshda (1885), and The
Golden Webb (1893, produced after his death);
Suite dc ballet, an orchestral suite (1887) ; and
many popular songs, of which perhaps the best-
known are from the Swan and the Skylark
cantata, written just before his death in London.
THOMAS, CALVIN (1854—). An American
educator, born near Lapeer, Mich. He gradu-
ated at the University of Michigan in 1874, and
studied philology for a time at the University
of Leipzig. In 1878 he became instructor in
German at his alma mater, where in 1881 he
was made assistant professor and in 1886 prp-
fessor of Germanic languages and literature. In
1896 he accepted the same chair at Columbia
University. His publications include A Prac-
tical German Grammar (1895) and Goethe and
the Conduct of Life (1886). In addition be
edited, among other German works, Goethe’s
Faust (first part, 1892; second part, 1897);
Hermann und Dorothea (1891); and Torquato
Tasso (1888).
THOMAS, DAVID (1813-94). An English
Congregational minister. He was born at Vat-
son, near Tenby, Wales; was educated at New-
port-Pagnell College; and from 1844 to 1877 was
minister of the Independent Church at Stock-
See Arocnrrm, sec-
THOMAS.
THOMAS.
690
‘tendered him a vote of thanks.
well, London. The remainder of his life was
spent in retirement. He was greatly admired
as a preacher, and had a large circle of readers
for his monthly, The Homilist, or Voice for the
Truth (1852-82), and for his collection of writ-
ings called The Homilist Library (1882-89).
He compiled a liturgy for evangelical churches
(1856), and a hymn-book ( 1866) , which contained
some fair hymns of his own composition.
THOMAS, EDITH MATILDA (1854-). One
of the most widely known of contemporary
American poets. She was born in Chatham,
Ohio, and was educated at the normal school of
Geneva, Ohio. She began writing early for
the local newspapers, and was encouraged by
Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson in 1881 to send verse
to more important periodicals. Her first volume
appeared in 1885, entitled A New Year’s Masque
and Other Poems. Other books are: The Round
Year (1886), prose; Lyrics and Sonnets (1887) ;
Babes of the Year (1888), prose; Babes of the
Nation (1889), prose; Heaven and Earth (1889),
also prose; The Inverted Torch (1890); Fair
Shadow Land (1893) ; In Sunshine Land (1894) ;
In the Young World (1895); and A Winter
Swallow, and Other Verse (1896) .
THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-70). A dis-
tinguished American soldier, born in Southamp-
ton County, Va. He graduated at West Point in
1840; served in the Mexican VVar, and distin-
guished himself at Monterey and Buena Vista.
After the close of the Mexican War he served
a year in Florida, three years as cavalry
and artillery instructor at West Point, and
then for five years in Texas as major in the
Second Cavalry. On the outbreak of the Civil
War, though he was by birth-and associations a
Southerner, he adhered to the Union cause; was
lieutenant-colonel, and afterwards colonel of the
Second Cavalry; commanded a brigade in the
first Shenandoah campaign; and on January 19,
1862, he won the battle of Mill Springs, Ky.
He was in command of the right wing of the
Army of the Tennessee during the siege of Cor-
inth, where he was in full command during a
great part of June, 1862. He then commanded
the centre of the Army of the Cumberland, and
although appointed to supersede Buell as com-
mander of the whole army, asked to be allowed
to remain in a subordinate position. He rendered
conspicuous service at Perryville and Stone River
(q.v.), and commanded the Fourteenth Army
Corps in the campaign of middle Tennessee in
the summer of 1863. At the Battle of Chicka-
mauga (q.v.), September 19-20, 1863, Thomas
stood firm, and resisted the concentrated attack
of a victorious enemy, gaining justly the title of
‘the rock of Chickamauga.’ Soon after he reluc-
tantly succeeded to the post held by Rosecrans,
and commanded the Army of the Cumberland at
Missionary Ridge, and in the campaign of 1864
up to the capture of Atlanta. When Sherman
marched thence to the sea, Thomas was sent into
Tennessee, where, in the battle of Nashville, De-
cember 15 and 16, 1864, he crushed the army
of Hood. He was at once appointed a major-
general in the Regular Army, and Congress
In 1865-
66 General Thomas commanded the Military
Division of the Tennessee, including Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and Missis-
sippi, and the Department of the Tennessee, in-
cluding the same States, the following year.
From June, 1869, until his death, he was in com-
mand of the Military Division of the Pacific,
with headquarters at San Francisco. His Life
was written by Van Home (New York, 1882).
THOMAS, GEORGE HoUsMAN (1824-68). An
English painter and illustrator. He was born
in London, where he was a pupil of Bonner. For
a time he lived in the United States, and did
some work as an illustrator and in designing
bank notes. He represented the Illustrated Lon-
don News during the Crimean War (1855-56),
and upon his return to England he enjoyed the
patronage of the royal family. The best-known
of his illustrations are to be found in Uncle
Tom’s Cabin and in Wilkie Collins’s Armadale.
THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831). An Ameri-
can printer, born in Boston, Mass. He began
business as a printer at Newburyport in 1767,
and in 1770, in partnership with his former
employer, established the Massachusetts Spy,
becoming the sole editor at the end of three
months, and conducting the paper first at Bos-
ton and then (after 1774) at Worcester until
1801. His paper soon became the organ of the
Whig or Patriot Party, and fearlessly attacked
the measures of the British Ministry. At
Worcester and later at Walpole, N. H., he en-
gaged in book publishing, issuing a number of
reprints of standard English works, besides
Bibles, hymn-books, and most of the school books
then in general use, and publishing a magazine
called The Farmers’ Museum. In 1788 he opened
a bookstore and publishing house in Boston, and
from 1789 to 1796 published The Massachusetts
Magazine. He issued the New England Almanac
from 17 75 to 1801, wrote an excellent History of
Printing in America (1810), and founded (1812)
the American Antiquarian Society, to which he
gave a large library and a -liberal endowment.
Consult the Memoir prepared by Benjamin F.
Thomas, his grandson (Boston, 1874).
THOMAS, JOHN (1725-76). All American
soldier, born at Marshfield, Mass. He studied
medicine, and became eminent as a physician.
In 17 46 he served as surgeon in a regiment sent
to Nova Scotia, and in 1747 acted first as sur-
geon and then as lieutenant under Shirley. In
1759 he became a colonel of provincials, and in
1760 led a regiment at Crown Point and was at
the capture of Montreal. He was appointed a
brigadier-general in June, 1775, and a major-
general in the following March. During the
siege of Boston he was stationed on the Roxbury
side, and on the night of March 4, 1776, with 3000
men, occupied Dorchester Heights, thus render-
ing Boston untenable for the British, who evacu-
ated it on the 17th. He then was appointed to
succeed Montgomery in Canada, and took com-
mand before Quebec on May 1st; but, finding the
army small in numbers and weakened by dis-
ease, he ordered a retreat. Contracting the
smallpox, he died near Montreal on May 30th.
THOMAS, JOHN (1826—). A Welsh harpist,
born at Bridgend, Glamorganshire. He early
showed remarkable musical talents; was a skill-
ful piccoloist at the age of six years, and at
eleven years of age competed as a harpist at the
Abergavenny Eisteddfod for one of four triple
harps which were offered as prizes. He Was the
THOMAS.
THOMAS.
691
youngest competitor, but was declared the winner
of the best harp. He found a patron and friend
in Ada, Countess of Lovelace, Byron’s only
daughter, who made it possible for him in 1840
to enter the Royal Academy of Music, where he
remained for nearly six years. During his stu-
dent days he wrote a harp concerto in B flat with
orchestral accompaniment; a symphony; several
overtures; quartets; and two operas, all of
which were included in the programmes of the
Academy concerts. In 1851 he became a member
of Her Majesty’s Opera House orchestra under
Balfe, and in the autumn of the same year began
the annual Continental tours which made_ him
famous the world over. In 1862 he published his
celebrated collection of Welsh melodies. In
1863 was produced at the Swansea Eisteddfod
his dramatic cantata “Llewellyn,” which was re-
peat d in 1893 at the World’s Fair, Chicago. In
187 he was appointed harpist to Queen Vic-
toria, and in the same year founded in London
the Welsh Choral Union. He was also professor
of the harp at the Royal College of Music, and at
the Guildhall School of Music.
THOMAS, JOHN JACOB (1810-95). A noted
American horticulturist and writer. He was
born on the shores of Lake Cayuga, in western
New York State, and there spent his life on a
farm. For nearly sixty years he exercised a
wide influence as an editorial writer for The
Oultivator and The Country Gentleman, his
articles dealing with a great variety of prac-
tical farm topics. He also published a book,
Farm Implements and Machinery, and a nine-
volume work, Rural Affairs, both of which were
valuable in their day and serve as records of
their time. His fame rests chiefly upon his
work as a pomologist and upon his book, The
American Fruit Oulturist, which appeared first
in 1846. As revised by W. H. S. Wood in 1897 it
reached its twentieth edition.
THOMAS, JOSEPH (1811-91). An American
lexicographer and physician. He was born in
Cayuga County, N. Y.; educated at the Poly-
technic Institute, Troy, and at Yale College, and
then studied medicine in Philadelphia. In 1857-
58 in India, and afterwards in Egypt, he made
a special study of the Oriental languages and
subsequently became professor of Latin and
Greek at Haverford College, Pa. In association
with Thomas Baldwin he published in 1845 A
Pronouncing Gazetteer, in 1854 A New and Com-
plete Gazetteer of the United States, and in 1855
The Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer of the
World, which has been repeatedly revised. In
1870-71 appeared his Universal Pronouncing Dic-
tionary of Biography and Mythology, a monu-
ment of scholarly and painstaking labor. Web-
ster’s Unabridged Dictionary is supplied with his
‘pronouncing vocabulary’ of proper names, in
which department his work had high authority.
Thomas also edited A Comprehensive Medical
Dictionary (1864; revised 1886).
THOMAS, LORENZO (1804-75). An Ameri-
can soldier, born in Newcastle, Del. He gradu-
ated at the United States Military Academy in
1823, and served in the Florida War. In 1838
he was appointed assistant adjutant-general, in
1839-40 was chief of staff of the forces in Florida,
served in the Mexican War as chief of staff of
Gen. W. 0. Butler, and was brevetted lieutenant-
colonel for gallantry at Monterey. From 1861 to‘
1863 he was adjutant-general with rank of
brigadier-general, and during the remaining two
years of the war organized colored troops in the
Southern States. President Johnson in 1868 ap-
pointed him Secretary of War ad interim, but as
E. M. Stanton refused to vacate his post, he did
not assume office. In 1865 he was brevetted
major-general, and in 1869 Was retired.
THOMAS, M. CAREY (1857-—). An American
educator, born at Baltimore, Md. She was edu-
cated at Cornell University, where she gradu-
ated in 187 7, and at Johns Hopkins University,
and the universities of Leipzig and Zurich. She
took the degree of doctor of philosophy from the
last-named institution in 1883, being the first
woman to receive the doctorate of arts at a
European university. In 1885 she became profes-
sor of English and dean, and in 1894 president of
Bryn Mawr College. In 1895 she was elected
trustee of Cornell University, and in 1896 she
received the degree of LL.D. from the Western
University of Pennsylvania. She published in
1883 a study of Sir Gawayne and the Green
Knight, and after that time various educational
addresses.
THOMAS, SETH (1785-1859). An American
manufacturer, born in Wolcott, Conn. After re-
ceiving a meagre education, he was apprenticed
to a carpenter and joiner in New Haven. Sub-
sequently he settled in Plymouth Hollow‘ (now
Thomaston) and with two partners began the
manufacture of clocks, finally becoming sole
proprietor of an establishment which grew to
be one of the largest clock factories in the world.
THOMAS, SIDNEY Gmonnrsr (1850-1885). A
British metallurgist and inventor. He was born
in London and received an elementary education
at Dulwich College, but by study after hours
spent in a clerkship was able to gain a thorough
knowledge of chemistry, especially in its rela-
tions to technology. When opportunity ofiered
he attended lectures at the Royal School of Mines
and was able to pass the examinations for the de-
gree in metallurgy, which was, however, denied
him, owing to lack of attendance on day lectures.
From 1870 his attention was directed to the
elimination of phosphorus in the Bessemer con-
verter, and in 1875 he reached a practical solution
of the problem by employing a ‘basic’ lining of
magnesia or magnesian limestone. He secured
the cooperation of his cousin Percy Gilchrist, also
a chemist, and after obtaining a first patent in
November, 187 7, announced the invention in the
following year. The process, which is discussed
under Inon AND STEEL, soon came into wide use
all over the world, and Thomas received both
financial returns and scientific honors, notable
among which was the Bessemer medal of the Iron
and Steel Institute of Great Britain in 1883.
THOMAS, THEODORE (1835—). A distin-
guished German-American orchestral conductor,
,born in Esens, East Friesland. He received his
musical education from his father, and played
the violin at public concerts when only six years
of age. He came with his parents to America in
1845, and was a member of the orchestra of the
Italian opera in New York. He played first
violin in the first American concert tour of
Jenny Lind. In 1861 he began the formation of
his famous orchestra, and in 1864 gave his first
THOMAS.
THOMAS SLAG.
692
symphony concerts in New York. In 1866 he in-
stituted his summer-night festivals. In 1869
he conceived the idea of traveling during the
time unoccupied in New York, and for nine years
he made an annual round of the principal Ameri-
can cities. In 1878 he accepted the position of
director of the College of Music at Cincinnati,
but in the spring of 1880 he resigned his
position to return to New York. From 1878
to 1890 he was the conductor of the Brooklyn
Philharmonic Society, and in 1890 he went to
Chicago. The orchestra which he built up in
Chicago became one of the recognized great or-
chestras of the world, and, notwithstanding the
heavy annual deficit which was a feature of ma1.y
of the years of its existence, its guarantors sup-
ported Thomas in his unswerving determination
to present nothing but the best in music. He re-
fused to cater to the popular taste, and finally
succeeded in winning the public to his own
ideals. See CHICAGO ORCHESTRA.
THOMAS, Tnnononn GAILLARD (1832-1903).
An eminent American gynaecologist, born in
Edisto Island, S. C., and educated in Charleston.
He studied in Europe, principally in Paris and
Dublin, in 1853-55, and began the practice of
his profession in New York. He was lecturer in
the New York University (1855-63), and pro-
fessor in the College of Physicians and Surgeons,
New York City (1863-89), in which he was pro-
fessor of gynaecology when he retired. He was a
finished speaker, a man of great personal charm,
a clear thinker, an expert analyst, and an exact
and skillful surgeon. Dr. Thomas wrote Dis-
eases of Women (Philadelphia, 1868), which
passed through six editions in English, and was
translated into French, German, Spanish, Chi-
nese, and Italian. See his biography in Medical
Record, vol. lxiii. (New York, 1903).
THOMAS 5 BEGKET, a bek’et. See BECKET.
THOMAS 5. KEM’PIS. See KEMPIS.
THOMAS AQUINAS. See AQUINAS.
THOMASIUS, to-m'a'.'zé-us, CHRISTIAN (1655-
1728). A German philosopher and jurist, born
in Leipzig. He began to lecture in the University
of Leipzig. His lectures were free from the ped-
antry of the schools, and were delivered in the
German language instead of the traditional
Latin. These innovations brought upon him the
hostility of the conservative educators. He also
edited the first scientific journal in the German
language, but the liberal tone of it excited so
much opposition that he was forced to leave Leip-
zig. He went to Halle in 1690, where he was one
of the founders of the university and its first
professor of jurisprudence. The great aim of
Thomasius was to harmonize and blend science
and life. His important works were: Institu-
tionum Jurisprudentice Dioime Libri Tres (1688) ;
Fundamenta Juris Natume et Gentium (1705);
and Geschichte der Weisheit und Thorheit. For
his life, consult Luden (Berlin, 1805), Wagner
(ib., 1872), and Klemperer (ib., 1888).
THOMASIUS, GOTTFBIED (1802-75). A Ger-
man theologian. He was born at Egenhausen,
Wiirttemberg, studied at Erlangen, Halle, and
Berlin, and was professor of systematic theology
at Erlangen from 1842 till his.death. His most
important publications were: Origines (1837 );
Christi Person und Werlc (1852~6l; 3d ed. 1886-
88); Die christliche Dogmengeschichte (1874-
76; 2d ed. 1886-89). _
THOMAS (Lat. pron. tho'mas) MAGIS’TER
(Gk., Ow/rdg 6 /iii}/iorpog, Thcimas ho magistros,
Master Thomas). A Greek rhetorician and
grammarian of the early part of the four-
teenth century. He was probably born at
Thessalonica, and lived some time at the
Court of the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus
Palaeologus II., where he held important offices.
Later he retired to a monastery, and devoted
himself to the study of the Greek language. His
principal work is a Lexicon of Attic Greek
(’EIOi0}/ai bro/zdrwv ’Arrucriru), compiled from other
grammarians. The work possesses some value,
as it has preserved writings which would other-
wise have been lost. Aside from the lexi-
con, the works of Thomas Magister include
scholia to fEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and
three plays of Aristophanes, which are preserved
with the other scholia to those authors, as well
as lives of these writers which have come
down to us in the manuscripts of their works.
Letters and orations of Thomas Magister have
been preserved. Especially noteworthy is the
oration on Gregory of Nazianzus. The earliest
edition of the Lexicon is that of Z. Callierges
(1517) ; the latest, that of Ritschl (1832).
THOMAS OF CELANO, cha-l'2i’no (c.1200-
?) . One of the first members of the Franciscan
Order. He was born at Celano, in the Abruzzi,
became acquainted with Francis of Assisi, and
was in 1221 sent by him upon a mission to Ger-
many. In 1223 he was placed over the monas-
teries of Worms, Speyer, Mainz, and Cologne,
but in 1230 we find him again in Italy. His
intimacy with'Francis eminently fitted him to be
his biographer, and he wrote two sketches of the
saint, which are of primary importance, as well
as the Life of Saint Clara. Of more universal
interest is his claim, now practically admitted
by all scholars, to be considered the author of the
Dies Irce (q.v.), except perhaps the last six
verses. The date of his death is unknown.
THOMAS SLAG, PHOSPHATIC SLAG, Bnsro
SLAG, ODORLESS Pnosrn.-urn, or THOMAS PHOS-
PHATE POWDER. A by-product of the manufac-
ture of steel from phosphatic ores by the basic
or Thomas process, in which phosphorus is elimi-
nated from the pig iron by means of basic (rich
in lime) lining to the Bessemer converters and
by adding lime to the molten pig iron. The slag
is therefore rich in lime (about 15 per cent. in
the free state and 40 per cent. combined with
other substances). The phosphoric acid content
of the product as found in the market is very
variable, ranging from 10 to 25 per cent. Slag
of average quality contains 15 to 20 per cent. of
phosphoric acid. In good slag 80 per cent. of this
phosphoric acid should be available, as shown by
the chemical methods of determining availability,
i.e. by treatment with a solution of citric acid
or ammonium citrate. The phosphoric acid of
slag, unlike that of superphosphates, is prac-
tically insoluble in water. Recently attempts
have been made with some success to prepare a
slag in which the phosphoric acid is more avail-
able by fusing the product as obtained from the
converters at about 900° C. with suflicient silica
(quartz) to convert the free lime into silicate.
Such slag differs materially from the untreated
product not only in containing a higher percent-
THOMAS SLAG.
THOMPSON.
693
age of available phosphoric acid and of silica, but
in being practically devoid of free lime. Basic
slag is not suited to the manufacture of super-
phosphates and is generally used without any
treatment except fine grinding. Purchasers of
Thomas slag should insist on its being finely
ground, as the value of the material depends very
largely upon its fineness.
Slag has been used in large quantities for
agricultural purposes in Europe for a number of
years—in 1899 1,655,000 tons. Of this 895,000
tons were used in Germany and 170,000 in
France. In 1885 the use of this material was
practically confined to Germany and amounted
to only 5000 tons. Since the total consumption
of phosphatic fertilizers in Germany in 1899 was
1,864,000 tons, and in France 245,000 tons, nearly
half of the phosphatic fertilizers used in these
countries was Thomas slag. Slag has not been
extensively introduced into the United States.
Some has been manufactured at Pottstown, Pa.,
and put on the market under the name of ‘odor-
less phosphate.’ Experiments have shown slag
to be a very valuable phosphatic fertilizer, and
on account of its high percentage of lime espe-
cially suited to use on acid soils and those rich
in organic matter. It would not be wise to use
it freely on poor sandy soils deficient in organic
matter. Experiments have indicated that slag
and dissolved boneblack are about equally ef-
fective, taking into account the after-effects of
the slag, While the cost of the latter is nearly
twice that of the former.
Slag appears to be especially suited to legumi-
nous crops. Six hundred to one thousand pounds
per acre is considered a liberal dressing. It
should not be mixed with ammonium sulphate
before use, since its high percentage of free lime
is likely to cause a loss of ammonia by volatiliza-
tion. Mixtures of the slag with other salts,
such as muriate of potash and nitrate of soda,
cake badly and are difficult to handle and dis-
tribute uniformly. See MANURES AND MANUE-
ING.
THOMASVILLE, t5m’as-vil. A city and
the county-seat of Thomas County, Ga., 200
miles southwest of Savannah; on the Atlantic
Coast Line, and other railroads (Map: Georgia,
B 5). It is picturesquely situated on high
ground, and has gained considerable prominence
as a winter and health resort. There are two
large hotels. The South Georgia College is here,
and the city maintains a public library. Thomas-
ville is surrounded by a fertile section producing
cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, melons, figs, pears,
grapes, and vegetables. Its manufacturing in-
terests are centred mainly in the lumber industry.
The government is vested in a mayor, chosen an-
nually, and a council. The water-works are
owned and operated by the municipality. Thomas-
ville was settled in 1850 and received its present
charter in 1889. Population, in 1890, 5514; in
1900, 5322.
THOME, to'ma’, FRANCOIS (commonly called
Francis) (l850—). A French composer, born
at Port-Louis, Mauritius. From 1866 to 1870
he attended at the Paris Conservatoire, study-
ing pianoforte with Marmontel and theory with
Duprato. In 1890 he set Roméo et Juliette
to music and, in 1891 the mystery L’enfant
Jésus, besides the symphonic ode Hymne a la
nuit. He has also set many light stage pieces to
music and published both vocal and instrumental
pieces.
THOMIST, tho'mist. A follower of Thomas
Aquinas' (q.v.) in philosophy or theology. See
ALEXANDBISTS.
THOMMEN, t-om’men, ACHILLES (1832-93).
An Austri_an engineer, born at Basel, and edu-
cated at the university of his native town and in
the polytechnic institute of Karlsruhe. He built
the railroad over the Brenner Pass in 1861-67.
From 1867 to 1869 he was head of the railroad
system of Hungary.
THOMPSON, t5mp'_son. A town, including
several villages, in \Vindham County, Conn., four
miles northeast of Putnam, on the Quinebaug
River, and on the New York, New Haven and
Hartford Railroad (Map: Connecticut, H 2).
Farming and the manufacture of cotton goods
and woolens are the leading industries of the
community. Originally a part of Killingly,
Thompson became a parish in 1728, and was in-
corporated as a town in 1780. Population, in
1890, 5580; in 1900, 6442.
THOMPSON. A family of American paint-
ers. CEPHAS GIOVANNI the Elder (1775-1856),
a mediocre portrait painter, born at Middle-
boro, Mass., practiced mainly in the South, num-
bering among his sitters John Marshall, John
Howard Payne, and Decatur.—CEPHAs GIOVANNI
the Younger (1809-88) , portrait and figure paint-
er, born also at Middleboro and for a short
time the pupil of his father, was chiefly self-
taught. He painted principally in Boston, Provi-
dence, New York, and Philadelphia. In 1852 he
visited London, Paris, and Florence, and settled
in Rome, where he spent seven years. Upon his
return to the United States in 1860 he took up
his residence in New York City, and was made
an associate of the National Academy. His por-
traits include those of Longfellow, Charles Fenno
Hoffman (New York Historical Society), Sebas-
tien Cabot (after Holbein), Hawthorne, and Dr.
Matthews (New York University).- Among his
best known figure paintings are the “Guardian
Angels,” “Prospero and Miranda,” and “Saint
Peter Delivered from Prison.” His most cele-
brated picture is his copy of Guido Reni’s “Bea-
trice Cenci.”——His brother JEROME Tnomrson
(1814-86), landscape and figure painter, stud-
ied for a short time under his father and then
with Morse and Jarvis. He painted chiefly in
New York City, where he took up his residence
in 1832. In 1850 he was made an associate of
the National Academy. Among his paintings
are the “Old Oaken Bucket,” the “Dakota
Cafion” (1880), the “Indian’s Prayer” (1884),
and a “Study from Nature” (1886).
THOMPSON, Aucusrus CHARLES (1812—).
A Congregational clergyman. He was born at
Goshen, Conn; studied at Yale College (but did
not graduate), at Hartford Theological Seminary,
and the University of Berlin. He became pastor
of the Eliot Congregational Church, Roxhury,
Mass. (1842). He visited India with Dr. Rufus
Anderson ( 1854-55) and lectured on foreign mis-
sions at Andover Theological Seminary (1877-
80), at Boston University (1882), and at Hart-
ford Theological Seminary (1885-86). His pub-
lications include memorials of Mrs. Anna J.
Waters (1854), of H. M. Mill (1856), of Rev.
Dr. Rufus Anderson (1880) ; Moravian Missions
THOMPSON.
THOMPSON.
694
(1882); Foreign Missions (1889); Protestant
Missions (1894) ; Eliot Memorial (Boston,
1900) ; and numerous works of a popular char-
acter.
THOMPSON, BENJAMIN.
BENJAMIN THOMPSON, Count.
THOMPSON, DANIEL GREENLEAE (1850-97).
An American lawyer and psychological writer.
He took his B.A. at Amherst College (1869);
was admitted to the bar in New York in 1872, but
soon devoted his time mainly to the psychology of
religion and sociological subjects, and is chiefly
known for his System of Psychology (London,
1884), The Problem of Evil (London, 1887),
and The Religious Sentiments of the Human
Mind (London, 1888), in all of which he takes a
position of violent antagonism to various ac-
cepted orthodox dogmas.
THOMPSON, DANIEL PIERCE (1795-1868).
An American lawyer, politician, and novelist,
born at Charlestown, Mass. He graduated at
Middlebury College (1820), went to Virginia as
tutor; studied law there, and was admitted to the
bar (1823). He settled in Montpelier, Vt., in
1824, held various legal ofiices in that State,
compiled, by legislative appointment, Laws of
Vermont from 1824 down to and including the
Year 1834 (1835), was Secretary of State for
Vermont (1853-55), and editor of a political
weekly, The Green Mountain Freeman (1849-
56). His first novel was a satire on the Anti-
Masonic agitation, The Adventures of Timothy
Peacock (1835). In the same year he wrote a
prize story, May Martin, or the Money Diggers.
Much popularity was achieved by The Green
Mbuntain Boys (1840) and The Rangers (1850),
romances of Revolutionary Vermont. He also
wrote a History of Montpelier, 1781-1860 (1860).
THOMPSON, DAVID (1770-1857). A Cana-
dian explorer, born in Westminster, England.
He was educated at Oxford and in 1789 came
to America in the service of the Hudson’s Bay
Company. For several years he was engaged in
explorations in the region of the Great Lakes, in
1798 discovered Turtle Lake, one of the sources of
the Mississippi, and in 1807-11 crossed the Rocky
Mountains and explored the Columbia River from
source to mouth. In 1797 he became connected
with the Northwest Company. He was engaged
in the Canadian-United States boundary survey
from 1816 to 1826, and subsequently had charge
of extensive surveying and exploring expeditions
in the Canadian Northwest. He published A
Map of the Northwest Territory of the Province
of Canada (1814).
THOMPSON, DENMAN (1833-). An Ameri-
can actor, best known for his impersonation of
the rustic ‘Josh’ Whitcomb. He was born in
Erie County, Pa., but passed much of his boy-
hood in Swanzey, N. H., where he found some
of the types that he later made famous. He made
his début upon the stage at Lowell, Mass., in
1852. Joshua Whitcomb was first brought out
in 1875. In 1886 Mr. Thompson produced The
Old Homestead, in which the same leading char-
acter appears, and this play became the material
of all his subsequent popularity. It ran for four
successive seasons in New York (1888-91) and
its simple pictures of country life afford perhaps
the best example of its type of rural drama.
See RUMFOBD,
Consult McKay and Wingate, Famous American
Actors of To-Day (New York, 1896).
THOMPSON, SIR EDWARD MAUNDE (1840-).
An English antiquary, born in Jamaica, West
Indies. After studying at Rugby and at Uni-
versity College, Oxford, he was called to the bar
at the Middle Temple in 1867. In 1861 he was
appointed assistant in the British Museum;
in 1878 he became keeper of the manuscripts and
Egerton librarian; and in 1888 principal libra-
rian. He was Sandars reader in bibliography at
Cambridge (1895-96) , and was knighted in 1895.
Editions by him include: Chronicon Anglice,
1328-88, in the “Rolls Series” (1874); Letters
of Humphrey Prideaua-, for the Camden Society
(1875); Chronicon Adce de Usk, 1377-1404, for
the Royal Society of Literature (1876); Corre-
spondcnce of the Family of H atton, for the Cam-
den Society (1878) ; Diary of Richard Cocks in
Japan, 1615-22, for the Hakluyt Society (1883) ;
Handbook of Greek and Latin Palceography
(1893); and, jointly with Professor Jebb, the
facsimile of the “Laurentian Sophocles,” for the
Hellenic Society (1885). He is also joint editor
of the publications of the London Paleographical
Society.
THOMPSON, FRANCIs (c.1859—). An Eng-
lish poet, the son of a Lancashire physician. He
Was educated at the Ushaw Roman Catholic Col-
lege, near Durham, and then studied medi-
cine at Owens College, Manchester. Giving up
medicine, he went to London, where, after a sharp
struggle with poverty, he suddenly found him-
self famous. His Poems ( 1893) ran through sev-
eral editions, receiving high praise from the re-
viewers and from Browning. This volume was
followed by Sister Songs (1895) and New Poems
(1897). In the matter of technique Thompson is
one of the most original and daring of the
younger generation of English oets; and in
poetic quality he reveals an imaginative spiritu-
ality lingering near to mysticism.
THOMPSON, GEORGE (1804-78). An English
abolitionist. He was born in Liverpool, England,
and first became known in 1833 by his lectures in
connection with the anti-slavery agitation
throughout the British colonies. He was largely
instrumental in procuring the freedom of the
slaves and the abolition of the apprenticeship
system. He was a member of the Anti-Corn Law
League, and also took an active part in forming
the British India Association, which procured bet-
ter government for the people of India. He Was
associated with Garrison, Whittier, and others
in the anti-slavery movement in the United
States, and a visit which he paid to that country
in 1834 led to the formation of upward of 150
anti-slavery societies. He belonged to the Na-
tional Parliamentary Reform Association of
England, and from 1847 to 1852 was a member of
Parliament for the Tower Hamlets district, Lon-
don.
THOMPSON, SIR HENRY (1820—-). An
English surgeon, born in Framlingham, Suffolk.
He was educated at University College, London,
and was appointed assistant surgeon of the Uni-
versity College Hospital, London, in 1856; sur-
geon in 1863; professor of clinical surgery in
1866; and consulting surgeon in 1874. In 1884
he was professor of surgery and pathology in the
Royal College of Surgeons, London. His essays
THOMPSON.
THOMPSON.
695
on the Patholo-gy and Treatment of Stricture of
the Urethra (London, 1853), and The Healthy
and Morbid Anatomy of the Prostate Gland
(London, 1860), each won for him the J acksonian
prize of the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1864
he became surgeon extraordinary to Leopold I.
(by whom, owing to the success of an operation,
he was knighted in 1867) and in 1868 to his suc-
cessor, Leopold II. In 1864 he was made an
oificer of the Order of Leopold, and in 187 6 was
promoted commander. He has studied paint-
ing, and frequently exhibited pictures at the
Royal Academy (London), the Salon (Paris),
and elsewhere. He first brought the question of
cremating dead human bodies before the English
public, and in 1874 started the Cremation So-
ciety of London. He is a voluminous writer.
Among his best known works are: Practical Lith-
otomy and Lithotrity (London, 1863); Clinical
Lectures on Diseases of the Urinary Organs
(London, 1868); Modern Cremation (London,
1890) ; and the novels Charley Kingston’s Aunt
and All But, which appeared under the pseu-
donym of “Pen Oliver.”
THOMPSON, JACOB (1810-85). An Ameri-
can politician, born in Caswell County, N. C. He
graduated at the University of North Carolina
and in 1834 he was admitted to the bar, and in
the next year removed to the Chickasaw country
in Mississippi. From 1839 to 1851 he was a
member of the United States House of Repre-
sentatives, served as chairman of the Committee
on Indian Affairs, and advocated non-acceptance
of the Compromise of 1850. In 1857 he be-
came Secretary of the Interior, and greatly sys-
tematized the work of the department, though
the defalcation of a trusted clerk clouded his
administration. In January, 1861, he resigned
and was appointed aide to General Beauregard,
and served with him through the Shiloh cam-
paign. In 1864 he was sent as Confederate com-
missioner to Canada, and to organize the Con-
federate sympathizers in Ohio, Indiana, and Il-
linois. Unsuccessful attempts were made to cap-
ture the gunboat Michigan, and to organize the
escaped Confederate prisoners and to take Camp
Douglas, free the prisoners there confined, and
take Chicago. After the assassination of Presi-
dent Lincoln Thompson was charged with com-
plicity, and a price was put upon his head. He
escaped to Europe, however, and remained there
some time. When he returned he was not brought
to trial, though for political effect a civil suit
was brought in 187 6 for the money taken by the
dishonest clerk while Thompson was Secretary
of the Interior. _
THOMPSON, JAMES MAURICE (1844-1901).
An American novelist, poet, and journalist, born
in Fairfield, Ind. His boyhood was spent chiefly
in Kentucky and Georgia. He served in the Con-
federate Army and after the war returned to
Indiana, and practiced law and civil engineer-
ing at Crawfordsville. From 1885 to 1889 he
was State geologist. In 1890 he went to New
York and joined the editorial staff of the Inde-
pendent, having already made a name for him-
self in literature by Hoosier Mosaics (1875),
The Witchery of Archery (1878), A Tallahassee
Girl (1882) , His Second Campaign (1882), Songs
of Fair Weather (1883), At Loce’s Extremes
(1885), By-Ways and Bird Notes (1885), The
Boys’ Book of Sport (1886), A Banker of Bank-
erscille (1886), Sylvan Secrets (1887), The
Story of Louisiana (1888), and A Fortnight of
Folly (1888). His later writings include: Poems
(1892); King of Honey Island (1892); The
Ethics of Literary Art (1893) ; The Ccala Boy
(1895); My Winter Garden (1900), good im-
pressionist descriptions of sub-tropical Louisi-
ana; and Alice of Old Vincennes (1900), a very
popular nqvel and his best. Posthumously printed
were two immature novels, Sweetheart M anette
and Milly (1901).
THOMPSON, Jonn REUBEN (1823-73). An
American journalist and poet, born in Richmond,
Va. He graduated at the University of Virginia
(1844), practiced law in Richmond, became in
1847 editor of the Southern Literary Messenger,
which for twelve years he made very influen-
tial. In it appeared early writings of D. G.
Mitchell, John E. Cooke, Phillip P. Cooke, Paul
Hayne, and Henry Timrod. In 1859 he- moved to
Augusta, Ga., to edit The Southern Field and Fire-
side. The Civil War drove him in 1863 to Lon-
don, where he wrote for English magazines in
defense of the Confederacy. After the war he
returned to America and was literary editor of
the New York Evening Post till 1872. His poems
enjoyed great local poularity. Most admired
among them are “The Burial of Latane” and
“The Death of Stuart.”
THOMPSON, Sir JOHN SPARROW DAVE)
(1844-94). A Canadian political leader, born
at Halifax, Nova Scotia. He received a common
school education and was admitted to the bar
in 1865. Here his ability and industry soon
placed him in the first rank. He took an active
interest in politics and in 1877 was elected to
the Provincial Assembly. The next year he was
appointed Attorney-General and in 1881 he be-
came Premier. In 1882 he was appointed a
justice of the Superior Court of Nova Scotia,
but in 1885 he gave up this position to accept the
portfolio of Minister of Justice in the Dominion
Government, and in 1886 he brilliantly defended
the conduct of the Administration in regard to
Louis. Riel (q.v.) . The next year he was chosen
legal adviser to the British plenipotentiaries who
negotiated the fisheries treaty of 1887 with the
United States, and as a reward for his services
was made a knight commander of Saint Michael
and Saint George. In 1892 he became Prime
Minister of Canada and in 1893 one of the arbi-
trators on the Bering Sea Controversy (q.v.).
He died the next year while in Windsor Castle,
where he had just taken the oath as a member
of the Queen’s Privy Council.
THOMPSON, JOSEPH (1858-95). A Scottish
traveler. He was born in Dumfriesshire, and after
studying at Edinburgh under Sir Archibald
Geikie, joined Keith J ohnson’s African expedition
(187 8), and after the former’s death became
leader. He headed an expedition to Masai land
in 1882; went to Sokots in behalf of the Royal
Niger Company in 1885, when he secured a part
of the Central Sudan to Great Britain, and,
after exploring the Atlas Mountains in Morocco
(1888), visited the region between lakes Nyassa
and Bangweolo. In all his journeys he avoided
serious conflict with the natives. He published
To the Central African Lakes and Back (1881) ;
Through Masai Land (1885); An African Ro-
mance (1888, with Miss Harris-Smith) ; Travels
THOMPSON.
THOMPSON.
696
in the Atlas and Southern Morocco (1889) ; and
Life of M ungo Park (1890).
THOMPSON, Josnpn PARRISH (1819-79).
An American clergyman and scholar, born
in Philadelphia. He graduated at Yale in 1838,
was ordained a Congregational minister in 1840,
was pastor in New Haven (1840-45) and New
York (1845-71), lecturer on Egyptology at An-
dover 1871), and engaged in Oriental studies,
chiefly in Berlin, from 1872 till his death. Thomp-
son aided in establishing the New York Inde-
pendent. Among his publications the more note-
worthy are: Egypt, Past and Present (1856);
Man in Genesis and Geology (1869) ; Church and
State in the United States (1874) ; The United
States as a Nation (1877); The Workman, His
False Friends and His True Friends (1879) . His
political and social essays are gathered in Ameri-
can Comments on European Questions (1884).
THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-94). An Ameri-
can sculptor. He was born in Abbeyleix, Queen’s
County, Ireland, but came to America in 1847,
settling at Albany. He studied anatomy for a
short time, and then became a pupil and assist-
ant of Erastus Palmer, the sculptor. In 1858
he opened a studio in New York City, where
he was first brought into public notice by his
exquisite medallion heads. Later he executed
some striking portrait busts and statues. He
was made a member of the National Academy in
1862. In 1868 he went to Rome for a year, and
in 1875-87 again visited Italy, residing princi-
pally at Florence. Among his works are a medal-
lion portrait of John A. Dix; portrait bust of
VVilliam Cullen Bryant (Metropolitan Museum) ;
a colossal statue of Na oleon (Metropolitan
Museum), of John Sedgwic (West Point), Win-
field Scott (So1dier’s Home, Washington), and
one of Abraham Pierson, first president of Yale
College (1874).
THOMPSON, MORTIMER (1832-75). An
American journalist and humorist, born at Riga,
Monroe County, N. Y. He studied at the Uni-
versity of Michigan, contributed humorous arti-
cles to the Advertiser of Detroit, and afterwards
was a writer for the New York Tribune, in
which were published his series of letters from
Niagara Falls and his account of the Pierce-
Butler slave-auction at Savannah, printed by the
Anti-Slavery Society as a tract. For several
years he was a popular lecturer. He published
under the pseudonym ‘Q, K. Philander Doesticks,
P.B.’—interpreted by him as ‘Queer Kritter, Phi-
lander Doesticks, Perfect Brick’-——a number of
volumes, including Doesticks—What He Says
(1855) ; a parody of Hia/watha, Plu-ri-bus-tah:
A Song That’s by No Author (1856) ; and Noth-
ing to Say, Being a Satire on Snobbery (1857).
THOMPSON, Rrcn.-uu) WIGGINTON (1809-
1900) . An American political leader, born in Cul-
pepper County, Va. In 1831 he removed to Louis-
ville Ky., but soon afterwards went to Lawrence
County, Ind., where in 1834 he was admitted to
the bar. In 1840 he was elected to Congress, and
in 1847 was again elected. He was appointed
judge of the Fifth Indiana Circuit in 1867, and
in 1877 was Secretary of the Navy in the Cabinet
of President Hayes. His publications include:
The Papacy and the Civil Power (1876); His-
tory of Protective Tarifi Laws (1888) ; Personal
Recollections of Sixteen Presidents (1894) ; and
Footprints of the Jesuits (1894).
THOMPSON, Rosnsr ELLIS (18-44-). An
American educator, born near Lurgan, Ireland,
At an early age he emigrated to the United
States, and in 1865 graduated at the University
of Pennsylvania. rI‘wo years later he was li-
censed to preach by the Reformed Presbytery of
Philadelphia, but from 1868 until 1892 was a
professor in the University of Pennsylvania. In
1894 he became principal of the Philadelphia
Central High School. He edited the Penn
Monthly from 1870 to 1881, and the American
Weekly from 1881 to 1892; edited vols. i. and ii.
of the Encyclopcedia Americana, supplement to
the Encyclopcedia Britannica (1884-85); and
published a number of books, including: Social
Science and National Economy (1875); A His-
tory of the Presbyterian Churches of America
(1895) ; and Political Economy for High Schools
(1895).
THOMPSON, SILVANUS PHILLIPS (1851—).
An English physicist. He was born at York,
and was educated at the Royal School of Mines
and the University of London, where he received
the degrees of B.A. (1869), B.Sc_ (1876), and
D.Sc. (1878). After serving as science master
at Bootham School, York, he was lecturer and
professor of experimental physics in the Uni-
versity College, Bristol, and in 1885 he became
principal and professor of physics in the City
and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury. Professor
Thompson has done much to spread knowledge of
electricity, while at the same time he has carried
on original researches. His books on electricity
and physics have passed through numerous edi-
tions. Of these, Elementary Lessons in Elec-
tricity and Magnetism (1st ed. 1881), Dynamo
Electric Machinery (1st ed. 1885), Light, Visible
and Invisible (1897); and Polyphase Electric
Currents and Alternate-Current Motors (1895)
are well known, as is his Michael Faraday: His
Life and Work (1898).
THOMPSON, SMITH (1768-1843). An Ameri-
can jurist and statesman. He was born in Stan-
ford, Dutchess County, New York; graduated at
Princeton College in 1788, and was admitted
to the bar in 1792, having studied under Chan-
cellor Kent. After serving as a member of the
New-York Legislature (1800) and of the State
Constitutional Convention (1801), and receiving
other political honors, he became associate jus-
tice of the State Supreme Court (1802-14), and
Chief Justice (1814-18) . In 1818 he became Sec-
retary of the Navy in Monroe’s Cabinet, and in
1823 was appointed to the United States Su-
preme Court, of which he remained a justice un-
til his death.
THOMPSON, THOMAS
1869). An English general and political re-
former. He was born in Hull and was educated
at Queen’s College, Cambridge. He took part in
the Buenos Ayres campaign, 1807, and in 1808
was made Governor of Sierra Leone. His recall
to England in 1810 was due to the influence of
the slave-traders, against whose traflic he had
taken active measures. He was with the British
army in the Peninsular and French campaigns
of 1813 and 1814, and in the Indian Pindari
campaign of 1818. In 1820, with a small force,
be was defeated at Sur, on the Arabian coast, by
PERRONET ( 1783-
THOMPSON.
THOMSON.
697
' Ravenna, Ohio.
a band of ‘Arabs, whom he was attempting to
punish for piracy. He returned to England
and in 1824 became one of the founders, and
later proprietor, of the Westminster Review, to
which he was a versatile and prolific contributor.
His best known publications are the Catechism
on the Corn Laws (1827), and The Catholic
State Waggon (183?), in favor of Catholic
emancipation. A collection of his miscellaneous
writings was published with the title Ewercises,
Political and Othe-r (6 vols., 1842). He was
elected to Parliament in 1835, 1847, and 1857 .'
He became general in 1868.
THOMPSON, WADDY (1798-1868). An
American legislator and diplomat, born in Pick-
ensville, S. C. He graduated at the South Caro-
lina College in 1814 and in 1819 was admitted to
the bar. From 1835 to 1841 he was a member of
the National House of Representatives as a Whig,
and in 1840 was chairman of the Committee on
Military Affairs. In 1842-44 he was Minister to
Mexico, and secured the release of 200 Texan
prisoners. He published Recollections of M ewico
(1846).
THOMPSON, WILLIAM (1725-81). An Ameri-
can soldier. He was born in Ireland, emigrated
to Pennsylvania, served (1759-60) as captain
of militia in the French and Indian War, and
in June, 1775, was placed in command of eight
Pennsylvania companies, with the rank of col-
onel. In January, 1776, he took the same rank in
the regular Continental Army, and on March 1st
became brigadier-general. On March 19th he
relieved General Charles Lee at New York, and
in April led fourteen regiments to Canada to re-
inforce General John Thomas, assuming chief
command during Thomas’s illness and holding
it until the arrival (June 4th) of General Sulli-
van. He led the Americans in the unsuccessful
attack on the English at Three Rivers (June
6th), and was taken prisoner. Though imme-
diately paroled, he was not‘ exchanged until Oc-
tober 25, 1780.
THOMPSON, WILLIAM TAPPAN (1812-82).
An American journalist and humorist, born at
He removed to Philadelphia,
subsequently to,Florida, and thence, in 1835, to
Augusta, Ga., where he was
the staff of several literary weekly papers
and to the M iscellam , of Madison, Ga., he began
to contribute the “Major Jones Letters,” upon
which his fame as a humorist rests. They were
published in book form as Major Jones’s Court-
ship (1840). In 1850 he established at Savan-
nah the Morning News, which he continued to
edit during the remainder of his life. In the
Civil War he served in the Confederate Army
asa private and on the, staff of General J. E.
Brown. He published Major Jones’s Chronicles
of Pineville (1843) and Major Jones’s Sketches
of Travel (1848).
THOMPSON, Wonnswonrn (1840-96). An
American genre and historical painter. He was
born in Baltimore, Maryland, and studied at
Paris under Gleyre and Pasini. In 1868 he
opened a studio in New York City, and was made
a member of the National Academy in 1875, ‘and
of the Society of American Artists two years
later. He is best known as a painter of Amer-
ican historical subjects. Among his paintings
are the “Review at Annapolis, Maryland, -1776”
attached to ,
(Buffalo Academy) ; “Passing the Outpost”
(Union League Club, New York) ; a “New Eng-
land Homestead,” which won a gold medal at
the Paris exhibition, 1889; and his last and best
work, “Old Bruton Church, Virginia, in the time
of Lord Dunmore” (Metropolitan Museum).
THOMS, tomz, WILLIAM Jonn (1803-85). An
English antiquary, born in London. For several
years, up to 1845, he was a clerk at Chelsea
Hospital, and then was appointed clerk of
the House of Lords; and from 1863 to 1882
he was its deputy librarian. In recognition of
his scholarship he was elected a fellow of the
Society of Antiquaries (1838) and secretary of
the Camden Society (1838-73). Thorns is most
widely known as the founder of Notes and
Queries. Thoms published a large number of
books of great value to the student and to the
curious. Among them are Early Prose Romance
(1827-28; revised by another hand, 1858);
Lays and Legends of Various Nations (1834);
Anecdotes and Traditions Illustrative of Early
English History and Literature (Camden Society,
1839) ; Hannah Lightfoot (1867) ; the Death of
Charles I. (1872) ; and Human Longevity(1873)-.
Consult Thoms’s reminiscences under the title,
“Gossip of an Old Bookworm” (Nineteenth Cen-
tury, London, July and December, 1881).
THOMSON, toN’soN’, CESAR (1857—-). A
Belgian violinist, born at Liege. He made
successful tours through Spain and Italy and
became a member of Bilse’s orchestra at Ber-
lin. He gave instruction on the violin at the
Liege Conservatory from 1883 to 1897. In 1894
and 1895 he made trips to the United States, and
became Ysaye’s successor as professor of violin-
playing at the Brussels Conservatory in 1898.
He is noted for his double-stop technique and for
his clean-cut bowing.
THOMSON, tom’son, CHARLES (1729-1824).
An American patriot. He was born in County
Derry, Ireland, and in 1740 was brought to New
Castle, Del. He was educated at New London,
Pa., and when very young assumed charge of the
Friends’ Academy at New Castle. He took
an active interest in all the controversies be-
tween the colonies and the British Ministry, and,
removing to Philadelphia in 1774, was chosen
secretary of the Continental Congress, in which
capacity he served until 1789, keeping a careful
record of all the proceedings and making copious
notes of the debates. John Adams (in his diary
for September 30, 1774) speaks of him as “the
Sam Adams of Philadelphia, the life of the
cause of liberty.” In 1789 he was delegated to
announce to Washington, at Mount Vernon, his
election to the Presidency. He published An En-
quiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the
Delaware and Shawanese Indians (1759); an
able translation of the Bible, containing the first
English version of the Septuagint (4 vols.,
1808) ; and a Synopsis of the Four Evangelists
(1815). He also prepared a history of the Revo-
lution, which, however, he destroyed in manu-
script. Consult Harley, The Life of Charles
Thomson (Philadelphia, 1900). '
THOMSON, CHARLES EDWARD PoULETT, Baron
Sydenham (1799-1841). A British Governor-
General of Canada, born at Wimbledon, Surrey.
He was chosen a member of Parliament from
Dover in 1826, and attracted attention by his
THOMSON.
THOMSON.
698
discussion of economic questions. He was ap-
pointed Governor-General of Canada in 1839, and
effected the unio11 of the provinces in spite of the
conflicting interests and jealousies. The adoption
of the Constitution, February 10, 1841, led to the
confederation of 1867. In recognition of his ser-
vices Thomson was raised to the peerage as Baron
Sydenham of Kent and Toronto, August 19, 1840,
and was created Knight of the Grand Cross of the
Bath. While preparing to return to England
he was fatally injured by being thrown from his
horse.
THOMSON, Sm CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-
82). A British naturalist, born in Scotland as
Wyville Thomas Charles, which name was
changed when he was knighted. He was edu-
cated in medicine, but turned his attention to
botany, and afterwards to a broader considera-
tion of natural history, and became in 1853 pro-
fessor of natural history in Queen’s College,
Cork. In 1860 he became professor of natural
science at Belfast, and in 1870 at the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. He early became interested
in problems relating to life in the deeper parts
of the sea, and in 1868, with Dr. W. B. Car-
penter, made investigations north of Scotland in
the gunboat Lightning. Other ocean voyages for
scientific sounding and dredging were conducted
subsequently, and their results were popularly
explained in The Depths of the Sea (1873), a
volume which attracted much attention. The
interest thus aroused was influential in caus-'
ing the British Government to undertake the
renowned Challenger (q.v.) exploring expedition,
the scientific conduct of which was given to
Professor Thomson. The successful and brilliant
outcome of this undertaking was recognized at
its close, in 187 6, by the conferring of knight-
hood upon Thomson and by scientific honors
from all parts of the world. Sir Wyville re-
sumed his lectures at the university, and began
to superintend the disposal of the scientific
material from the expedition, placing it in the
hands of specialists to be exhaustively studied.
He prepared at once a general narrative, The
Voyage of the Challenger (2 vols., 1877), but
became ill in 1879 and died in 1882. Besides the
books mentioned, he was the author of more
than forty papers of importance published in sci-
entific periodicals, relating largely to marine
zoblogy and especially to echinoderms, recent
and fossil. He devised many of the methods
and invented much of the apparatus used in deep-
sea exploration (q.v.).
THOMSON, EDWARD (1810-70). A Meth-
odist Episcopal bishop. He was born at Port-
sea, England; came to America in 1818 and set-
tled in Wooster, Ohio. He graduated from the
medical department of the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1829, and practiced medicine in Jerome-
ville and Wooster. He joined the Ohio Confer-
ence in 1833 and was stationed at Norwalk and
Sandusky. In 1836 the Michigan Conference
was formed and by the division of territory he
became a member of that body, and was sta-
tioned at Detroit. He was principal of Norwalk
Seminary, 1838-1843; editor of the Ladies’ Re-
pository, 1844-1845; president of Ohio Wesley-
an University 1846-1860; editor of the Christian
Advocate and Journal, New York, 1860-64. He
Was elected bishop in 1864; soon after his election
he made a world-wide survey of Methodist mis-
sions, among many other things organizing the
India Mission into an annual conference. He
published Moral and Religious Essays (1856);
Educational Essays ( 1856) ; Sketches, Biograph-
ical and Incidental (1856) ; Letters from
Europe (1856) ; Our Oriental Missions (1870) ;
Evidences of Revealed Religion (1872)
THOMSON, ELIHU (1853--). An American
electrician. He was born in Manchester, Eng-
land, and came to the United States in 1858.
He was educated in the Philadelphia public
schools and was professor of chemistry and me-
chanics in the Central High School there from
1870 to 1880. Meanwhile he devoted much at-
tention to the study of electricity, and lectured
on that science at the Franklin Institute. In
1880 he became electrician to the American Elec-
tric Company, and thereafter devoted his atten-
tion to invention, especially as relating to are
lighting, incandescent lighting, motor work in-
ducting systems, and especially electric welding.
He organized the Thomson-Houston Electric
Company for the development of his inventions,
and subsequently became associated with the
General Electric Company.
THOMSON, GEORGE (1757-1851). A Scottish
composer, born at Limekilns, Fife. He was a
constant and untiring collector of Scotch, Welsh,
and Irish melodies and had the most celebrated
musicians of that period engaged in writing ac-
companiments for them. Each song contained a
prelude, code, and ad libitum parts throughout
for violin, flute, or ’cello. Among his works are
A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs;
A Collection of Songs of Robert Burns, Sir
IValter Scott, etc. (1822); Select Collection of
Original Welsh Airs (1809) ; and a Select Col-
lection of Original Irish Airs (1814 to 1816);
besides twenty Scottish melodies (1839). He
died at Leith.
THOMSON, JAMES (1700-48). A Scottish
poet, born at Ednam, a village in Roxburghshire,
where his father was minister. After attending
school at Jedburgh Abbey by the Tweed, he was
sent to the University of Edinburgh (1715)
with a view to the Church. Forsaking all thought
of the ministry, he went to London to seek
fame and fortune in poetry (1725). Though
poor, he was well received by the Duke of Mont-
rose and others, who helped him bring out
Winter (1726). This poem was followed by
Summer (1727) and Spring (1728). In 1730
appeared Autumn, bound with the previous
poems, under the title of The Seasons. These
poems, issued separately and collectively, were
from the first successful, and were exceedingly
popular for a full century. They marked the
return of blank verse, and a feeling for nature,
of which there had been very few traces since
Milton. With The Seasons the literary historian
dates the beginning of the romantic movement
in English literature. Appointed in 1730 tutor
to the son of Sir Charles Talbot, afterward Lord
Chancellor, Thomson traveled for three years
in France and Italy. On the death of his pupil
(1733), he returned to London and was imme-
diately appointed by the Lord Chancellor secre-
tary of briefs, a sinecure, at a salary of £300 a
year. He was now able to settle in a pretty cot-
tage at Richmond. The death of his patron in
i
THOMSON.
THOMSON..
699
1737 put an end to his sinecure; but through
Lyttleton he obtained from the Prince of Wales
a pension of £100 (1738). At this time he re-
vised The Seasons, enlarging greatly each poem.
The new edition was published in 1744. In
1740 appeared The Masque of Alfred, written by
Thomson and David Mallet and containing Thom-
son’s famous ode, “Rule Britannia,” the national
patriotic hymn of England. At Richmond, too,
was written Thomson’s finest poem, The Castle
of Indolence (1748). For it he employed the
Spenserian stanza. The poem is exquisitely col-
ored and reveals here and there rare gleams
of imagination. Besides these significant and
beautiful poems, Thomson was the author of
several tragedies, of which Sophonisba, produced
at Drury Lane (February 28, 1830), was the
first, and Tancred and Sigismunda, produced at
Drury Lane by Garrick (March 18, 1745), was
the most successful. A cenotaph to his memory
was erected in Westminster Abbey by the side of
Shakespeare’s.
The Seasons had a wide vogue in both France
and Germany, where translations and imitations
were numerous. Thoinson was thus a forerunner
of the romantic revival, not only for England,
but also for the Continent. The best edition of
his Works is the Aldine (London, 1897), edited
with a biography of Rev. D. C. Tovey. The best
studies are James Thomson, sa vie et ses
oeuvres, by Leon Morel (Paris, 1895) ; and the
essay in Célébrités Anglaises, by Lefevre Deu-
mier (Paris, 1895). An account of Thomson’s
influence in France is given in Cosmopolitisme
litteraire au XVIIIe‘me siecle, by Joseph Texte
(Paris, 1895; Eng. trans. by J. W. Matthews,
New York, 1899). Consult also Dr. Johnson in
Lives of the Poets; and the Life by W. Bayne, in
the “Famous Scots” series (Edinburgh, 1898).
See ROMANTICISM.
THOMSON, JAMES (1822-92). A Scotch
professor of engineering and elder brother of
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, born at Belfast
and educated at the University of Edinburgh.
He settled as a civil engineer in Belfast, where
in 1857 he was appointed professor of civil en-
gineering in Queen’s College. In 1873 he was
elected professor in Glasgow University, succeed-
ing W. J . M. Rankine (q.v.). He made many im-
provements in hydraulic machinery and predicted
from theory the effect of pressure in lowering the
freezing point of water. See REGELATION.
THOMSON, JAMES (1834-82). An English
poet, born at Port Glasgow, Scotland. In 1840
his father was disabled by a paralytic stroke and
two years later his mother died. He was edu-
cated at the Royal Caledonian Asylum (1842-
1850) and then entered (1850) the Mili-
tary Asylum, Chelsea, to qualify as an army
schoolmaster. The next year he was sent as :1
teacher to Ballincollig, near Cork, where he fell
in love with a beautiful girl, who died in 1853.
After serving as schoolmaster at various other
places, he was discharged from the service in
1862 for a trivial ofl’ense against discipline.
Through the influence of his friend Charles Brad-
- laugh, he obtained a clerkship in London; and
under the pen-name of Bysshe Vanolis, or short-
ened to B. V. (Bysshe, the middle name of Shel-
ley and Vanolis, an anagram of Novalis), he
began writing for the radical magazines. Ex-
Von. XVI.-45.
cept for a short period in the United States and
as correspondent for the New York World in
Spain (1873), he passed the last sixteen years
of his life in a narrow London lodging. He died
an inebriate in University College Hospital.
Thomson was a thorough-going pessimist wholly
out of joint with the ways of men. He first at-
tracted attention as a poet with his City of Dread-
ful Night (in the National Reformer, 1874.
reprinted with other poems in 1880), a lurid
poem of great imaginative power. Hardly less
impressive is the volume entitled Vane’s Story,
Weddah and Om-el-Bonain, and Other Poems
(1881). The same year he collected some of his
prose writings under the title Essays and Phan-
tasies. After his death appeared A Voice from
the Nile, and Other Poems (1884) ; Satires and
Profanities (1884) ; and Poems, Essays, and
Fragments (1892). Consult Poetical Works, ed.
with memoir by Bertram Dobell (London, 1895) ;
id., Biographical and Critical Studies (ib.,
1896); and Life by H. S. Salt (ib., 1889).
THOMSON, JOSEPH JOHN (1856— ). An Eng-
lish physicist and Cavendish professor in the ,
University of Cambridge. He was born at Man-
chester and was educated at Owens College in
that city and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he graduated with honors in 1880. In
1884 he became professor of experimental physics
in the University of Cambridge. He visited
Princeton University on the occasion of its sesqui-
centennial in 1896 and delivered there a series of
lectures which have since been published, upon
the Discharge of Electricity in Gases. In 1903
he again visited the United States, where he was
received with high honors by the leading univer-
sities. To Professor Thomson, more than_to any
one else, is due the development of the modern
ionic theory of electricity, the theoretical and
experimental discussion of radioactivity, and
the electrical theory of inertia of matter. Pro-
fessor Thomson’s papers on these subjects have
been epoch-making. He is also the author of the
following books: On the Motion of Vortea: Ring
(1883) ; The Application of Dynamics to- Physics
and Chemistry (1888) ; Recent Researches in
Electricity and Magnetism (1893); Elements of
the Mathematical Theory of Electricity and M ay-
netism (1895).
THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852). A Scotch
chemist. He was educated at Saint Andrews
and at Edinburgh. In 1796 he began to con-
tribute to the Encyclopcedia Britannica a series
of articles on chemical subjects, which subse-
quently formed the basis of his System of Chemis-
try (1802). In 1817 he was appointed lecturer,
and in 1818 regius professor of chemistry at the
University of Glasgow. Thomson was the first to
publish (System of Chemistm, 3d ed., 1807) a
detailed account of Dalton’s atomic theory, which
had been communicated to him in a private in-
terview (1804) and which Dalton himself did
not publish until 1808. He was also the first
English chemist to give laboratory instruction
to students. His works include: Elements of
Chemistry (1810) ; An attempt to Establish the
First Principles of Chemistry by Ewperiment
(1825; the analytical data of the elements were
shown by Berzelius to be far from accurate);
Chemistry of Organic Bodies (1838) ; History of
Chemistry (1830-31); History of the Royal So-
THOMSON.
THORACIC DUCT.
700
ciety (1812) ; Outlines of Mineralogy and Geol-
ogy (1836).
THOMSON, WILLIAM, first Baron KELVIN
(l824—). An English mathematician and phys-
icist, born at Belfast. He graduated in 1845
from Saint Peter’s College, Cambridge, and short-
ly afterwards was elected to a fellowship. He
became professor of natural philosophy in the
University of Glasgow in 1846, in which position
he continued until 1899. While an undergradu-
ate he published a paper On the Uniform Motion
of Heat in Homogeneous Solid Bodies and Its
Connection /with the Mathematical Theory of
Electricity, which was favorably received by sci-
entists. He was for some time editor of the
Cambridge Mathematical Journal and was the
first editor of the Cambridge and Dublin Mathe-
matical Journal which succeeded it, some of his
most brilliant discoveries having appeared in
these journals. He also contributed to the
Comptes Rendus, the Transactions and Proceed-
ings of the Royal Societies of London and Edin-
burgh, and various other journals. In the mathe-
matical theories of elasticity, vortex-motion, heat,
electricity, and magnetism, he made remarkable
discoveries. Lord Kelvin was the electrical en-
gineer for the Atlantic cables of 1857-58 and
1865-66, and made many improvements in sig-
naling apparatus and theoretical observations
of the greatest value. He invented the mirror
galvanometer used for cable signaling, and then
devised the siphon recorder still in use for re-
ceiving the signals. He also studied the proper-
ties of the cable, and his observation that a limit
to the speed of operation would early be reached
owing to the effect of the statical capacity has
been borne out in a half century of practice.
Lord Kelvin acted as engineer for several other
cable companies and has invented many pieces
of electrical apparatus and methods for measure-
ment. He also developed an improved form of
mariners’ compass which is free from the mag-
netic action of the iron of the ship, and a deep-
sea sounding apparatus, both of which are in
wide-spread use. Lord Kelvin’s work in thermo-
dynamics is also of the greatest value. It was
he who first appreciated the importance of the
doctrine of the conservation of energy as enunci-
ated by Joule and who developed Carnot’s work
on heat s0 that it would harmonize with the
new theory then being generally accepted. A
paper On an Absolute Thermometric Scale con-
tains much that is now considered fundamental
in thermodynamics. Lord Kelvin’s many scien-
tific papers, contributed to various scientific jour-
nals, have been collected in book form as follows:
Electrostatics and Magnetism, 1 vol.; Mathe-
matical and Physical Papers, 3 vols. ; and Popu-
lar Lectures and Addresses, 3 vols. In conjunc-
tion with Professor P. G. Tait, Lord Kelvin is
the author of A Treatise on Natural Philosophy.
He received many honors from scientific societies.
universities and governments, and is a member
of the most important academies and learned
organizations of Europe and America. Lord Kel-
vin visited America in 1884, and after attend-
ing the meeting of the British Associa-
tion in Montreal, he visited Baltimore and
delivered a course of lectures before the
Johns Hopkins University, published under
the title Baltimore Lectures. In 1897 he at-
tended the Toronto meeting of the British
Association and visited several of the lead-
ing universities of‘ the United States. He
came once more in 1902. For his work in con-
nection with the Atlantic cable he was knighted
in 1866, and in 1892 he was raised to the peer-
age. Four years later he celebrated his jubilee
as professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow.
Lord Kelvin may be said to represent the high-
est type of physicist, since he combines the pow-
ers of mathematical reasoning with the inventive
faculty and manipulative skill of the experi-
mentalist.
THOMSON, WILLIAM McCLURE (1806-94).
A Presbyterian missionary and writer. He was
born in Springfield, Ohio, and graduated at Mi-
ami College, 1826; studied at Princeton Theolog-
ical Seminary; and went as a missionary of the
American Board to Syria and Palestine, 1832.
The next year he went to Beirut and there re-
sided till his return to America, 1877. His repu-
tation rests upon his familiar work, The Land
and the Book, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from
the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and the
Scenery of the Holy Land (1859 ; 2d ed. 1880-85) .
THOMSON, Sir WYVILLE. See THoMsoN, Sir
CHARLES WYVILLE.
THOMSON EFFECT. A thermal effect
in an electric circuit where the temperature of
the wire carrying the current varies from point
to point. When the current is flowing in one
direction along such a conductor, heat will be.
liberated at a given point, whereas if the current
is reversed the heat at this point will be ab-
sorbed. The relative direction of the current and
the absorption or liberation of heat depend upon
the metal. In the case of iron the current pass-
ing from the hot to the cold portion absorbs heat,
making the cold part cooler, while in the case
of copper this takes place when the current flows
from the cold portion to the hot. If the current
is reversed, heat will be liberated under these
circumstances. See THEBMO-ELECTRICITY.
THOR, thor. In Scandinavian mythology, the
god of thunder. He was the son of Odin and
Frigga, while his wife was Sif, or Love. His
palace, where he received the warriors who had
fallen in battle, was called Bilskirnir. Thunder
was caused by the rolling of his chariot, which
was drawn by he-goats. He was in the vigor
of youth, had a red beard, and was the strong-
est of all the gods. He was a terror to the giants,
with whom he was perpetually at- strife, and
whom he struck down with his hammer Mjolnir,
or the smasher, which returned to his hand after
being hurled. In the contest at the twilight of
the gods, Thor slew the serpent of Midgard, but
fell at the same time poisoned by the venom ex-
haled from its mouth. The name of Thor was
widespread. The Saxons worshiped him as Thu-
nar, and Torden, the wrathful deity dreaded by
the Lapps, is evidently the Scandinavian Thor.
The Gallic god Tarannis, or Tanarus, appears
also to be indentical. Of all the Esir (q.v.),
Thor had unquestionably the most worshipers.
In Norway he was the national god, and there,
as in Iceland, temples were almost exclusively
erected to him. Offerings were made to him, par-
ticularly in times of pestilence. See RAGNAROK;
SoANnINAvIAN AND TEUToNIo MYTHOLOGY.
THORACIC DUCT (from Lat. thorax, from
Gk. 0é‘:pa.£, breastplate, part of the body covered
THORACIC DUCT.
THORESBY.
701
by the breastplate, thorax). A canal equal in
diameter to a goose-quill, proceeding from the
receptaculum chyli (into which the contents of
the lacteals are collected, and which is situated
in the front of the body of the second lumbar
vertebra), which ascends along the front of the
vertebral column, between the aorta and ascend-
ing vena cava, as high as the fourth dorsal verte-
bra; it then inclines to the left, and passing be-
hind the arch of the aorta, ascends as high as
the seventh cervical vertebra, when it bends for-
ward and downward, and empties into the sub-
clavian at its junction with the internal jugular
vein of the left side, where it is provided with
a pair of semilunar valves, which prevent the
admission of venous blood into it. It is also pro-
vided with other valves on its upward course.
This duct is not liable to any special diseases,
but if its function of conveying chyle from its
source into the general circulation be interfered
with, as, for example, by the pressure of a tumor,
nutrition is impaired and there is often at the
same time an accumulation of chylous fluid in
the peritoneal cavity.
THORAH. See TORAH.
THORAX. See CHEST.
THORBECKE, tor’bek-e, HEINRICH ( 1837-90) .
A German Arabic scholar. He was born at
Meiningen, and studied at Munich and Leipzig.
He was appointed professor at Heidelberg (1873)
and at Halle (1875). He is especially noted for
his_knowledge of Arabic poetry. He published:
Antarah, ein vorislamitischer Dichter (1867);
Al-Hariri’s Durrat-al-ga/wwas (1871) ; Al-
A’scha’s Lobgedicht auf Mahammed (1875) ; Ibn
Duraid’s Kitab al-malrihin (1882); Die Mufad-
dali-jrit (1885) ; Mihail Sabbag’s Gramma-tile der
arabischen Umgangssprache in Syrien und Aegyp-
ten (1886).
THOREAU, tho’ro or tho-r6’, HENRY DAVID
(1817-62). An American naturalist and author.
He was of French and Scotch extraction and was
born at Concord, Mass., where his father was a
manufacturer of lead pencils. At this trade the
younger Thoreau worked at intervals. He gradu-
ated from Harvard College in 1837, and was for
five or six years engaged in school teaching and
tutoring in Concord and in Staten Island, N. Y.
Preferring, however, to live a life of contempla-
tion, he soon abandoned teaching and proceeded,
during the rest of his days, to demonstrate how
simply and agreeably a man might live. He was
for a time an inmate of Emerson’s house, but his
most characteristic act was his residence, from
July, 1845, to September, 1847, in a hut on the
shores of VValden Pond, a beautiful body of water
on the outskirts of Concord. Here he lived, doing
what little work was necessary to supply the
necessaries of life, and devoting the major part of
his time to the study of nature and to the society
of friends. On leaving Walden Pond, he again
became an inmate of Emerson’s house, 1847-48,
and passed the remainder of his life, after 1849,
with his parents and sister at Concord. Dur-
ing the entire period at Walden Pond and else-
where in Concord, he supported himself by odd
jobs of gardening, land surveying, carpentering,
etc., but without more exertion than he needed to
keep himself in food and clothing. His large
amount of leisure time he devoted to the study
' of nature, to the reading of Greek, Latin, French,
and English classical literature, to excursions, to
pondering metaphysical problems, and to friendly
chat with his neighbors, by whom he was be-
loved.
From 1837 till his death he kept a journal, and
this furnished the source and basis of his writ-
ings, and gave them uniformity of character.
Of the ten volumes which comprise his works in
the standard Riverside edition (11 vols. with the
Familiar Letters of Thoreau edited by F. B. San-
born), but two appeared in his lifetime. The
first of these, A Week on the Concord and Merri-
mac Rivers (1849), is the narrative of a boating
trip taken in August, 1839; it is full of admirable
description and minute observation of nature,
not unmingled with divagations into transcen-
dental philosophy. The second book records the
experiences, physical and moral, of the two
years’ residence at Walden Pond: Walden, or,
Life in the Woods (1854), perhaps his most pop-
ular volume, and now recognized as one of the
most original and sincere productions in Ameri-
can letters and as one of the most genuine of
woodland books. It gives a plain unaffected state-
ment of the reasons for the author’s life as a her-
mit, and an admirably specific account of the
main details of that life. The other volumes, not
much different in quality, were posthumously
edited from his journal, and are, chiefly: Ewcur-
sions (1863); The Maine Woods (1864); Cape
God (1865) ; Early Spring in Massachusetts
(1881); Summer (1884); Winter (1888); and
Autumn (1892). Their publication indicated an
increasing interest in Thoreau and a sense of the
permanent value of his work——that of a sincere
thinker and an observer of nature. The lit-
erary quality of the writing was high; he had a
marked gift for style, and wrote with great care
and unfailing freshness. His best essays, to be
found in the volumes entitled Miscellanies and
Excursions, are perhaps not excelled in Ameri-
can literature, whether for substance or for
style, and it may be doubted whether the work
of any of his contemporaries is wearing so well.
His poems are interesting, but occupy a minor
place in his writings, which are being increased
by such publications as the Essay on Service
(1902). There is a Life by F. B. Sanborn in
the “American Men of Letters Series” (1882),
and an admirable sketch by Emerson in Bio-
graphical Shetches. Channing’s suggestive
Thoreau, the Poet-Naturalist (1873-1902), biog-
raphies by A. H. Japp (1877) and H. S. Salt
(1896), and essays by Lowell and Stevenson
should also be mentioned; considerable space is
given to Thoreau in the histories‘of American
literature, and the list of books specially de-
voted to him is growing steadily.
THORENBURG, to’ren-b6*6rK (Hung. Tor-
da). A town of the County of Torda-Aranyos,
Hungary, 235 miles east-southeast of Budapest
(Map: Hungary, H 3). Its salt mines and
baths, still used, were known to the Romans.
The modern town has a large manufactory of
cellulose. Population, in 1900, 12,117.
THORESBY, thorz'bi, RALPH (1658-1725).
An English antiquary and topographer, born at
Leeds. In 1679 he was left by his father’s death
in possession of a moderate fortune and the re-
sponsibilities of a business, which he somewhat
neglected for his antiquarian studies and religious '
THORESBY.
THORNTON.
702
duties as a Presbyterian. He held several mu-
nicipal oflices at Leeds, but after 1705, when he
retired from business with a competence, he de-
voted himself to his collections and writing.
Though he was not an accurate scholar, his two
chief works, Ducatus Leodiensis (1715) and
Vicasia Leodicnsis (1724), are important compi-
lations. Consult: Hunter, Thoresby’s Diary and
Correspondence (London, 1830-32) ; Atkinson,
Ralph Thoresby the Topographer (Leeds, 1885).
THORESEN, to’ra-sen, ANNA MAGDALENA
(KBAGH) (1819-— ). A Norwegian poet, born at
Fridericia, in Jutland. She married a Norwegian
clergyman and gained opportunity to study the
peasant life and wilder nature of that country.
Her sympathetic observations found literary ex-
pression in Fortcellinger (Tales, 1863); Signes
Historic (1864) ; Solen i Siljedalen (1868) ;
Billederfra Vestkysten af N orge (Pictures from
the West Coast of Norway, 1872); Nyere For-
twllinger (1873); Herluf Nordal (1879); she
published also a volume of poems (1860); a
drama, Et Rigt Parti (1870) , and a final volume
of tales (1891). Her earlier fiction was trans-
lated into German by Reinmar: Gesammelte Er-
zlihlungen (1878-1883).
THORITE. A mineral thorium silicate crys-
tallized in the tetragonal system. It has a
vitreous lustre, and is orange-yellow to dark
brown in color. It is found at various places in
Norway and in the Champlain iron region in
northern New York, where, owing to the uranium
oxide that it contains, it is called uranothorite.
THORIUM (Neo-Lat., from Thor, Scandina-
vian god of thunder). A metallic element dis-
covered by Berzelius in 1828. It occurs in mona-
zite, orangite, thorite, and other rare minerals
containing the cerium group of metals, and found
in Norway and in North Carolina. The metal
may be obtained by decomposing the chloride with
potassium or sodium. Thorium (symbol, Th;
atomic weight, 232.63) is a gray powder which
assumes an iron-gray lustre when burnished. It
has a specific gravity of 10.96 and takes fire
when heated in air, burning with a bright flame.
It combines with oxygen, forming a white dioxide
called thoria, and probably a peroxide or hept-
oxide. None of the compounds of this metal have
any important commercial value except the di-
oxide, which has been used with zirconia in
the mantle of the Welsbach burner.
THORN. See ORATzEcUs.
THORN, torn. A strongly fortified town of
Prussia, in the Province of West Prussia, on the
right bank of the Vistula, which here divides into
two branches, 87 miles northeast of Posen (Map:
Prussia, H 2). There are many antique houses
with striking architectural features. The ruins
of a castle of the Teutonic Order, the Church of
Saint John (1231-60), the Gothic Saint James
(1309), and the Marienkirche (1367) are worthy
of notice. There is a fine town hall containing a
museum, library, and archives. In the market
place stands a bronze statue of Copernicus, who
was born here. There are iron foundries, and
machine, tobacco, and soap works. The town
carries on an active trade by water and by rail
in corn, lumber, mineral waters, chocolate, and
alcohol. Thorn was founded in 1231 by the
Knights of the Teutonic Order. It became an
important member of the Hanseatic League. It
was annexed in 1454 to Poland. In 1466 a fa-
mous treaty of peace was concluded here between
Poland andthe Teutonic Knights (q.v.). The
town became a part of Prussia in 1793. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 29,626. Consult Kestner, Bei-
i’)§('lQ’36 cur Geschichte der Stadt Thorn (Thorn,
8 ).
THORNABY (thor'na-bi) ON TEES, for-
merly SOUTH STOCKTON (Map: England, E 2).
A municipal borough in the North Riding of
Yorkshire, England, suburban to Stockton (q.v.),
with which its manufacturing industries and pub-
lic works are identified. It is mentioned as Thor-
modby in Domesday. It was incorporated in
1892. Population, in 1891, 15,637; 1901, 16,053.
THORN ACACIA. See LoCUsT TREE.
THORN-APPLE (Datura Stramorium). A
coarse-growing, ill-smelling green-stemmed weed
of the natural order solanaceas. It is well known
locally in the United States as jimson weed or
Jamestown weed, and is popularly feared for its
reputed poisonous properties. See STRAMONIUM.
THORN'HILL. A town in the West Riding
of Yorkshire, England, 11/2 miles south of Dews-
bury. Its gas and water works, a modern system
of sewerage, and electric street railway, are mu-
nicipally owned industries. Population, in 1901,
10,290.
THORNHILL, SIR WILLIAM. In Goldsmith’s
Vicar of Wakefield, the eccentric and kindly
landlord of Dr.-Primrose. He rescues the -Vic-
ar’s daughter Sophia from his nephew, Squire
Thornhill, when the latter had abducted her,
and eventually marries her.
THORN’TON, SIR EDWARD (l817—). An
English diplomat. He was born in London and
was educated at King’s College, London, and at
Pembroke College, Cambridge. He entered the
diplomatic service as attaché to the mission at
Turin in 1842; filled the same position in Mexico
in 1845, and was made secretary of legation
in that capital in 1851. During 1848 he did
much to forward the conclusion of the important
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In 1852 he Was ap-
pointed secretary of legation at Buenos Ayres;
chargé d’affaires to Uruguay (1854) ; Minister to
the Argentine Republic in 1859; to Brazil in
1865; and from 1867 to 1881 to the United
States. He was knighted in 1870; in 1871 was
a member of the commission on the Alabama
Claims, and was appointed Privy Councilor; and
in 1873 was arbitrator in the commission on the
Mexican and United States claims. He was ap-
pointed Ambassador at Saint Petersburg in 1881 ;
Ambassador at Constantinople in 1884, and re-
tired into private life in 1887.
THORNTON, JOHN WINOATE (1818-78). An
American historian, born at Saco, Me. He gradu-
ated at the Harvard Law School in 1840, and be-
came a practicing lawyer. His great interest, how-
ever, lay in genealogical and historical work, and
he published a number of books along these lines,
including: The Landing at Cape Ann (1854) ;
The First Records of Anglo-American Coloniza-
tion (l859); and The Pulpit of the American
Revolution (1860). He was the founder of the
New England Historical and Genealogical Society
(1844). Consult Amory, Memoir of J . W. Thorn-
ton (Boston, 1879).
THORNTON.
THORPE.
703
THORNTON, MATTHEW (1714-1803). A
signer of the Declaration of Independence. He
was born in Ireland; came to America in 1717,
lived first at Wiscasset, Me., and then at Wor-
cester, Ma-ss., where he was educated; settled as
a physician at Londonderry, N. H., and served as
surgeon under Sir William Pepperell in the Louis-
burg expedition of 1745. He was chosen pres-
ident of the provincial convention of 1775, and
in 1776 was sent as a delegate to the Conti-
nental Congress, taking his seat in November,
when he was allowed to sign the Declaration of
Independence, though he had not been elected
until some time after its passage. He was Chief
Justice of the Court of Common Pleas prior to
1776, and from 1776 to 1782 was a judge of the
New Hampshire Supreme Court.
THORN’WELL, JAMES HENLEY (1812-62).
A Southern Presbyterian theologian. He was
born in Marlborough District, South Carolina,
and graduated at South Carolina College, Colum-
bia, 1831. He held several pastorates; was for a
time president of South Carolina College, and
held professorships in the theological seminary,
Columbia. He published Arguments of Roman-
ists Discussed and Refuted (1845) ; Discourses
on Truth (1854) ; On the Rights and Duties of
Masters (1861); The State of the Country
(1861), and was one of the most orthodox and
conservative of theologians. Consult his Life
and Lettersby B. M. Palmer (Richmond, 1875)
and J. L. Girardeau (1871-73).
THORIWYCROFT. A family of English
sculptors. MARY (1814-95), born in Thornham,
Norfolk, was a pupil of her father, John Francis,
the -sculptor, and exhibited her first work at
the Royal Academy in 1835. In 1840 she mar-
ried Thomas Thornycroft, a fellow-pupil in her
father’s studio, with whom she went to Italy.
At Rome she made the acquaintance of John
Gibson, and upon his recommendation she re-
ceived a commission from the Queen, after her
return to London, to execute various statues and
busts. Among these are the nine life-size stat-
ues of the royal children in the drawing-room
‘at Osborne, and the royal children in a group,
characterized as the “Four Seasons.” Her ideal
figures include the “Flower Girl,” “Sappho,” and
the “Skipping Girl,” which last is her best work.
Her husband, THOMAS THORNYCR-OFT (1815-85),
devoted most of his time to mechanical schemes,
but occasionally produced good sculpture, often
assisted by his son Hamo. Among these are the
statue of Charles I. (VVestminster Hall), the
group of “Commerce” on the Albert Memorial
(Hyde Park), and equestrian statues of the
Prince Consort at Liverpool and Wolverhampton.
Their son, WILLIAM HAMO THORNYCROFT
(1850—-) , was born in London, and was educated
at University College School.
tered the schools of the Royal Academy, ex-
hibiting his first work in 1871, and the same
year went to Italy. The careful study of the
Elgin marbles and of Italian masters greatly
influenced his work, and resulted in his vigorous
“Teucer” (South Kensington Museum) ; “Putting
the Stone,” Artemis (Eaton Hall); “Medea,”
and “Lot’s Wife.” His athletic “Mower” (Liver-
pool Gallery) and the “Sower” are suggestive of
the Barbizon school, although the spirit that
pervades them is English. Other works include
tube boiler, and the turbine propeller.
tributed frequently to the Transactions of the >
In 1869 he en-'
the national monument to General Gordon in
Trafalgar Square; a statue of Queen Victoria in
the Royal Exchange; and the Cromwell statue
at Westminster. Thornycroft is likewise re-
nowned for his portrait busts and bas-relief. A
bu-st of Coleridge (1885) is in Westminister Ab-
bey. He was made a Royal Academician in 1888,
and received gold medals at the Royal Academy
in 1875, and at the Paris Exposition, 1900.
THORNYCROFT, JOHN ISAAC (1843—). An
English naval architect. He was born in Rome and '
was the son of Thomas and Mary Thornycroft. He
early showed a decided aptitude for mechanics,
and when only eighteen years old built a steam
launch, the Nautilus, which was the fastest boat -
of its kind on the Thames. Some time before
this he had constructed a little model steamer
which contained several important innovations
later introduced by him into his torpedo boats.
About 1864 he entered the University of Glas-
gow, and after completing the engineering course
there he opened a shipyard at Chiswiisk in 1866,
and, in particular, achieved a remarkable suc-
cess as a builder of torpedo boats. Among the
improvements introduced by him are the closed
stop-hole -and jaw, a special indicator, a water-
He con-
British Association and to the publications of the
Institution of Naval Architects and the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers.
THORODDSE1\T.,_ thOr’Od-sen, JON T1103 THAR-
SON (1819-68). An Icelandic novelist, born at
Reykholar. After studying law at the University
of Copenhagen, he took part in the war against
the Schleswig-Holstein insurgents and in 1850
returned to Iceland. He died at Borgarfjarthar-
sysla. In point of both time and excellence,
Thoroddsen is the first Icelandic novelist. His
best known works are Piltur og Stitlha (Lad and
Lass), his first novel, and Mathur og Kona
(Man and Wife), published posthumously. These
books are characterized by a faithful delineation
of Icelandic life and by a quaint and pleasing
humor. Thoroddsen also wrote a number of
satirical poems.
THOR/OLD, ANTHONY WILSON (1825-95).
An English bishop. He was born at Hougham, in
Lincolnshire, and educated at Queen’s College,
Oxford, taking his degree in 1847; he entered
the ministry and filled prominent positions in
London from 1857, till he became Bi-shop of
Rochester, 1877. In 1890 he was transferred
to Winchester. He is best known as the author
of the devotional works, of rare spirituality,
The Presence of Christ (1869), The Gospel of
Christ (1882), The Yoke of Christ (1884),
Questions of Faith and Duty (1892), and The
Tenderness of Christ (1894). Consult his Life
by Simpkinson (London, 1896).
THOROUGH BASS. See FIGURED BASS.
THOROUGHWORT. See EUPATOBIUM.
THORPE, BENJAMIN (1782-1870). An Eng-
lish philologist who studied at Copenhagen
under the famous philologist Rasmus Christian
Rask (q.v.). While there he published a trans-
lation of Rask’s Anglo-Sawon Grammar (1830;
rev. 1865). Returning to England in 1830, he
continued his extensive studies in Old English
and Old Norse. Now most widely known is his
THORPE.
TH ORWALDSEN .
704
Northern Mythology, comprising the principal
popular Traditions and Superstitions of Scandi-
navia, North Germany, and the Netherlands (3
vols., 1851). This work was supplemented by
Yule Tide Stories: a collection of Scandinavian
Tales (1853) and a translation of the Edda of
Scemund the Learned (1866). Thorpe’s pioneer
work in Old English translation, philolo,D , and
history, though in part superseded, is still of
very great value. Among his publications in
this department are Ccedmon’s Metrical Para-
phrase (1832); Analecta Anglo-Saaonica (1834;
3d ed. 1868); Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England (1840) ; Codex Ewoniensis, a Collection
n of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, with English Translation
and Notes (1842) ; Anglo-Saccon Poems of Beo-
wulf, with a Literal Translation, Notes, and
Glossary (1855) ; The Anglo-Saacon Chronicle, ac-
cording to the several Original Authorities (2
vols., 1861) ; and Diplomatarium Anglicum ./Evi
Saa'onici: a Collection of English Charters from
605 to 1066 (1865).
THORPE, FRANCIS Nnwron (1857 —). An
American lawyer and historian, born at Swamp-
scott, Mass. He was educated at Syracuse Uni-
versity and at the Law School of the University
of Pennsylvania. From 1885 until 1898 he was
fellow professor of American constitutional his-
tory at the University of Pennsylvania. He
published several careful and scholarly works on
subjects of American history, including: The
Government of the People of the United States
(1889) ; The Story of the Constitution (1891);
The Constitution of the United States, with
Bibliography (1894); A Constitutional History
of the American People, 1776-1850 (2 vols.,
1898) ; A History of the United States for Junior
Classes (1900); The Constitutional History of
the United States, 1765-1895 (3 vols., 1901);
and A History of the American People (1901).
THORWALDSEN, tor’va1d-zen (Dan., THOR-
VALDSEN), BERTEL (1770-1844). An eminent
Danish sculptor, the chief exponent in the nine-
teenth century of antique tendency in the plastic
arts. He was born at Copenhagen, November 19,
1770, the son of an Icelandic carpenter and carver
of figures used upon galleons. Bertel’s early
successful attempts at his father’s craft caused
the latter to send the boy to the Academy at
the age of eleven. After winning several other
medals, he received, in 1793, the great gold medal,
and with it a stipend for three years’ study at
Rome. It was not, however, until 17 96 that the
stipend for sculpture became available and Thor-
waldsen set out on his journey as passenger in a
royal frigate, reaching the Eternal City in March,
1797. There he was primarily less influenced by
the master works of antiquity than by Carstens,
who had already been his model during his ad-
olescence at Copenhagen. Although he worked
diligently, his earnings were scant, and after his
stipend had been prolonged three times he was
on the point of returning home, in 1803, when a
commission came to him from Sir Thomas Hope
to execute in marble the colossal statue of “Ja-
son with the Golden Fleece,” the plaster cast of
which had called forth the admiration of all
connoisseurs and critics, and even of Canova.
Orders now came to him in abundance, especially
after he had finished the spirited relief of the
“Abduction of Briseis,” following close upon his
Jason. It ranks among his most perfect crea-
tions in the realm of relief sculpture, which be-
came his favorite medium ' of expression. In
1804 he produced the famous group of “Cupid
and Psyche,” and the relief of “Dance of the
Muses on Mount Helicon,” and in 1805 ~the
statues of “Apollo,” “Bacchus,” and “Gany-
mede,” which was later followed by a “Gany-
mede Filling the Cup,” and the graceful group
of “Ganymede Watering the Eagle of Zeus.”
With his increasing reputation came new dis-
tinctions and honors; in 1804 the Florence Acad-
emy appointed him professor and in 1808 he was
elected a member of the Accademia di San Luca
in Rome, sending as his reception-piece the relief
“A Genio Lumen.” About 1809 Thorwaldsen won
a new patron in Crown Prince Louis of Bavaria,
who sought his advice in purchasing antique
works of art and commissioned him to execute a
statue of “Adonis” (completed in 1832, Glypt0-
thek, Munich).
During the years 1809-11 he originated so many
works, some of them among his best, that he
felt obliged to avail himself of the cooperation
of his pupils and assistants. To the year 1809
belong four of his most attractive reliefs, the
group of “Hector, Paris, and Helena,” and three
other mythological subjects, and in 1810-11 he
wrought the life-size statue of “Psyche,” one of
the master’s creations approaching nearest to the
spirit of antique art, and a heroic-sized “Mars
VVeighing Cupid’s Arrows.” About this time Na-
poleon had planned a visit to Rome, and the
French Academy there, being charged with the
decoration of the Quirinal for the conqueror’s
reception, intrusted Thorwaldsen with the exe-
cution of a frieze representing the “Entry of
Alexander the Great into Babylon,” with which
he achieved prodigious success. Its execution
in marble found a permanent home in the Villa
Carlotta on Lake Como, and a modified replica
was acquired by the Danish Government for
Kristiansborg Castle, From a purely artistic.
point of view the “Memorial to Baroness Schu-
bart” (1814) is nearest akin to the Greek reliefs
of the fourth century B.C., and of his composi-
tions dating from 1814-15, the medallions of
“Morning” and “Night” have probably given him
the widest reputation. In 1816-18 he produced
“Venus with the Apple,” “Hebe,” “Cupid Trium-
phant,” “Bacchante Dancing,” “Shepherd Boy
Resting,” “Mercury Slayer of Argus,” and “The
Three Graces.” The latter subject he treated
even more successfully in the high relief for the
tomb of the Milanese painter Appiani. A series
of charming reliefs with Cupid as the central
figure date from the same period, and the year
1819 saw the realization of the unique “Lion
Monument,” at Lucerne, chiseled out of the nat-
ural rock by the Swiss sculptor Ahorn after
Thorwaldsen’s model.
Arriving at Copenhagen in October of the same
year, he was feted and overwhelmed with hon-
ors, and besides works of less importance he ob-
tained a commission for the plastic decoration of
Vor Fruekirke (Church of Our Lady), with fig-
ures, groups, and reliefs, executed subsequently
in Rome. They comprise the colossal statue of
“Christus Consolator,” one of his masterpieces,
the statues of the “Twelve Apostles,” and the re-
liefs of the “Institution of Baptism” and of the
“Institution of the Holy Communion.” He left

THORWALDSEN
“ CHRIST,” FROM THE STATUE IN THE FREE CHURCH AT COPENHAGEN
THORWALDSEN.
THOTHMES.
705
Copenhagen in 1820 and, having arranged at
Warsaw for the erection of his equestrian statue
of Prince Poniatowski and the Copernicus Monu-
ment, returned to Rome, where he devoted himself
zealously to his new commissions. To these
were added the “Monument to Pope Pius VII.”
(completed and placed in Saint Peter’s in 1831),
and the statue of Lord Byron (completed
1835 and since 1845 in the library of Trinity
College, Cambridge). A statue of “Hope,” or-
dered in 1818 and completed 1829, adorns the
tomb of the Humboldt family in the park at
Tegel, near Berlin.
In 1825 Thorwaldsen was elected president of
the Academy of San Luca in Rome, notwith-
standing the objections to him as a Protestant.
When, in 1830, he went to Munich to superin-
tend the erection of his statue of “Duke Eugene
of Leuchtenberg,” in Saint Michael’s Church,
he was received by King Louis with the great-
est distinction and at once given the commission
for an equestrian statue of the “Elector Maxi-
milian I.,” the first instance in which he repre-
sents an historical personage in the costume of
the time. This was done most successfully in the
statue of “Conradin, Last of the Hohenstaufen,”
in Santa Maria del Carmine, at Naples. Be-
sides some reliefs of antique subjects, he pro-
duced in the thirties the figure of a “Young
Dancer” (1837, Palazzo Torlonia) and a colossal
statue of “Vulcan,” one of his last works done
in Rome.
In 1838, at the invitation of the King, he re-
turned to his native country. The simple wood-
carver’s son was conducted thither like a reign-
ing sovereign in a royal Danish frigate. Besides
his monumental tasks for the Fruekirke, it was
principally reliefs from Greek mythology that
now claimed his attention, and in the spring of
1841 he repaired once more to Rome to finish
some subjects he had left behind. His journey
through Germany was a triumphal progress, and
after one year in Rome he returned to Copen-
hagen, devoting himself to work in relief. The
pieces known as “Christmas Joy in Heaven,”
“The Rape of Hylas,” and the famous “Four Sea-
sons” are the most remarkable. He died at the
theatre, on March_ 24, 1844, and was escorted to
his burial place with princely honors, the entire
royal family attending the funeral. His native city
erected to her great son a worthy monument in
the Thorwaldsen Museum, in which allhis works,
in the original or in plaster models, his sketches
and studies, and his art collections are preserved,
and in the court of which his earthly remains
have, according to his wish, found their last rest-
ing place.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For his life and works con-
sult Andersen (Berlin, 1854); Thiele, collated
from the Danish by Barnard (London, 1865);
id., Thorvaldsen and His Works, trans. by Sind-
ing (New York, 1869), with 365 engravings;
Plon, trans. by Mrs. Cashel Hoey (London,
1874), and by Luyster (Boston, 1874); Liicke,
in Dohme, Kunst und Kilnstler des neunzehnten
Jahrhunderts, i. (Leipzig, 1886); Sigurd Miil-
ler (Copenhagen, 1893); and Rosenberg (Biele-
feld, 1901) ; also Kestner, Rrimische Studien
(Berlin, 1850) ; Springer, Bilder aus der enueren
Kunstgeschichte (Bonn, 1867) ; Liibke, Geschich-
te der Plastik (Leipzig, 1880); Lange, Sergel
cg Thornaldsen (Copenhagen, 1886); and id.,
Thorwaldsens Darstellung des M enschen, trans.
by Mann (Berlin, 1894) .
THOS, th6z. A tall, non-Mongoloid people of
Tonking, in the valley of the Claire River, with
‘subbrachycephalic head-form, whom some ally
with the Indonesians, others with the Lolos. They
are husbandmen, living in houses on piles, and
wearing a very picturesque costume. The Thos
and the Muongs (q.v.) of the valley of the Black
River in Tongking may be regarded as one of the
principal groups of the Thai stock, to which be-
long the Shans (q.v.), the Laotians (see LAOS),
and the Siamese. Consult Garcin, Un an chee les
Muongs au Tonkin (Paris, 1891); De Lanessan,
L’Ind0-Chine frangaise (ib., 1889) ; Pinabel, Sur
quelques peuples sau/cages dépendant du Tong-
King (ib., 1884).
THOTH, th6th or tot (Gk. 956, Thoth,
Owtd, Tho'yth, 661/)6, Theyth, from Egypt. Dhuti).
An Egyptian deity identified by the Greeks with
Mercury (q.v.). See also HEEMETIC.
THOTHMES, th6th’m€5z or t6t’me"es (Egyptian
-Dhuti-mose, son of Thoth; Gk. Tctdnwctg, T0uth-
m6sis) or TAHUTIANES. The name of four kings
of Egypt of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
THOTHMES I. was the son and successor of
Amenophis I. (q.v.) and ascended the throne
about B.C. 1560. According to Manetho, as cited
by Africanus, he reigned for 22 years, though
no date higher than his ninth regal year has
as yet been found upon the monuments. The
first recorded military expedition of Thothmes
I. was directed against the Nubians, whom he
defeated, returning in triumph to Thebes with
the body of their chief hanging from the bow
of his ship. In his thirdyear. he found it neces-
sary to chastise the Nubian tribes in another
expedition. Not long 'after this he invaded
Asia and, marching as far -as the Euphrates, set
up a stele which was later seen and mentioned
by Thothmes III. The remainder of his reign
seems to have been peaceful and was largely de-
voted to building operations. At Karnak (q.v.)
he built two pylons and two hypostyle halls, and
erected two obelisks, one of which (76 feet high)
is still standing. (See OBELISK.) He also con-
structed buildings in the necropolis of Thebes,
at Abydos, at Ibrim (a rock-hewn chapel), and
at other places. The coffin of Thothmes I. was
found in 1881 at Deir el-Bahri, but whether the
mummy it contained is that of the King is not
altogether certain.
THOTHMES II., the son and successor of Thoth-
mes I-:, reigned for at least nine years, accord-
ing to the monuments, and according to Manetho
for twelve or thirteen years. An inscription at
Assuan, dated in the first year of his reign,
states that he sent an expedition against the
Nubian tribes who had raided his territory, and
he seems to have fought against the Asiatic
Bedouin, but he undertook no extensive wars.
He made additions to the great Temple of Am-
mon at Karnak, and his name is inscribed upon
buildings in many parts of Egypt. The mummy
of the King, found in 1881 at Deir el-Bahri, is
that of a young man, apparently not over thirty
years of age. His sister and wife, the able and
energetic Hatshepset (see HATASU) , Was coregent
with him throughout his reign, and was the real
ruler of the kingdom.
TIIOTHMES III. was one of the greatest of all
THOTHMES.
THOUSAND ISLANDS.
706
the Egyptian monarchs. The evidence as to his
parentage is not altogether clear, but in all
probability he was the son of Thothmes II. by a
Wife named Iset, and the nephew of the great
Queen Hatshepset (Hatasu). He was a mere
child when he succeeded his father about 13.0.
1538, and he reigned for nearly 54 years. For
more than 21 years he was coregent with his
aunt Hatshepset, who seems to have allowed
him merely a nominal share in the government.
As soon as her death left him sole ruler (about
13.0. 1516) he entered upon a career of conquest
unrivaled i11 the annals of Egyptian history.
Assembling an army for the invasion of Syria,
he celebrated the twenty-third anniversary of
his accession at Gaza. Marching thence through
the passes of Mount Carmel, he signally defeated
the allied Syrian forces on the plain of Esdraelon
and forced them to take refuge in the city of
Megiddo, which capitulated after a brief siege.
The captive Syrian chiefs were restored to their
dignities as vassals of Egypt, and Thothmes,
after receiving messages of congratulation from
a number of foreign princes, among them the
King of Assyria, returned home laden with
booty. The conquest was, however, not yet com-
plete. Some of the Syrian and Phoenician cities
offered a stubborn resistance and there were
frequent revolts, the opponents of Egypt being
encouraged and supported by the powerful State
of Mitanni (see AMARNA LETTERS), which at
that time occupied Northern Syria and North-
ern Mesopotamia. A war with this State soon
followed, in the course of which Thothmes rav-
aged the Mitannian territory and captured a
number of cities, including the important city
of Carchemish, on the Euphrates. He gained
no permanent possessions in this quarter, but the
result of the war enabled him to extend his do-
minions, undisturbed by Mitannian interference,
over Northern Palestine and Phoenicia. At the
city of Ni, near the Lower Orontes, he set up a
stele to mark the limit of the Egyptian Empire
in that quarter. In the course of his reign
Thothmes conducted at least fourteen Asiatic
campaigns, and the large booty and tribute he
obtained were lavished freely upon the Egyptian
temples. In the 50th year of his reign he caused
the old canal at the first cataract of the Nile to
be cleared and sailed through it on an expedition
against the Nubians. As a builder Thothmes
was hardly less energetic than as a warrior, and
his monuments occur throughout Egypt and
Nubia. He made important additions to the
great Temple of Ammon at Karnak and ‘caused
the annals of his reign to be inscribed upon its
walls, and he also built at Heliopolis, Memphis,
Abydos, Hermonthis, Edfu, Esneh, Ombos, and
other places. In Nubia, where he built or re-
stored many temples, he was the founder of the
large temple at Soleb, near the third cataractl
Of the numerous obelisks erected by him, one is
now on the hill of the Lateran at Rome; another
is in Constantinople; a third stands on the
Thames embankment in London; and a fourth
is in Central Park, New York. (See OBELISK.)
Thothmes III. died about B.0. 1485; his mummy
was among those found at Deir el-Bahri in 1881.
THOTHMES IV., the son of Amenophis II.
(q.v.) and the grandson of Thothmes III., ruled
for nine years from about 13.0. 1460. He conduct-
ed military expeditions to Nubia and to Phoeni-
cia, collecting booty and tribute in both coun-
tries, and an inscription at Ghizeh records that
he cleared away the sand from the great Sphinx
(q.v.). From the Amarna tablets it appears
that he maintained friendly relations with
Babylonia and with Mitanni, and that he mar-
ried the daughter of Antatama, King of the latter
country.
Consult: Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte
(Gotha, 1884-88); Meyer, Geschichte des alten
Aegyptens (Berlin, 1887) ; Petrie, A History of
Egypt (New York, 1897); Budge, A History of
Egypt (ib., 1902); Miiler, Die alten Aegypter
als Krieger und Eroberer in Asien (Leipzig,
1903).
THOU, too, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE (1553-
16l7). A French historian, born in Paris Oc-
tober 8, 1553. He studied jurisprudence at Or-
leans and Valence and in 1576 became an
ecclesiastical councilor of the Parlement of Paris.
He was an active member of the Politiques (q.v. ) ,
who were largely instrumental in establishing
on the throne Henry of Nevarre, by whom De
Thou was made keeper of the royal library
and vice-president of the Parlement. In 1591
he began his great work, the H istoria Sui Tem-
poris, which covered the period from the death of
Francis 1. to that of Henry IV. (1547-1610),
and which occupied him during the remainder
of his life. He took an important part in the
drawing up of the Edict of Nantes. The history
was completed by Rigault from materials left
by De Thou and comprises in its full form 143
books. The work is marked by striking fairness
and a faithful adherence to fact, remarkable in a
history dealing with a period of bitter partisan
spirit, civil war, and anarchy. The history was
published in 11 volumes (Paris, 1609-14) and 4
volumes (Frankfort, 1625), both in Latin. A
French translation appeared in 10 volumes
(Paris, 1740), and one in English by Buckley
in 7 volumes (London, 1773). After De Thou’s
death appeared his memoirs, Thuani Commentarii
de Vita Sua (Orleans, 1620). Consult: Collin-
son, Life of Thuanus, with some account of his
writings (London, 1807) ; Chasles, Discours sur
la vie et les ouvrages de J. A. De Thou (Paris,
1824).
THOUGHT. See CONCEPT; IMAGINATION;
INFERENCE; JUDGMENT; LANGUAGE; LOGIG; MEM-
ORY; RATIOCINATION.
THOUSAND AND ONE DAYS. An imita-
tion of the Thousand Nights and One Night, or
Arabian Nights (q.v.), written by Pétis de la
Croix, a French Orientalist and traveler, in
1710. The work purports to be a translation of
a Persian collection called Hazar u yak ruz,
which Mukhlis, a Persian friend of De la Croix,
alleged he had made from a Turkish book Al-
Faraj ba‘d ash-Shiddah, or Joy After Sorrow.
So far as is known, however, the H azar u yak rue
does not exist, although the Turkish work is
extant, and is well known to scholars. The first
edition of the Thousand and One Days was made
by De la Croix (Paris, 1710-12) .
THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS.
ARABIAN NIGHTS.
THOUSAND ISLANDS, THE. A collection
of small islands, numbering about 1700, situated
in an expansion of the Saint Lawrence River,
about 40 miles long and from 4 to 7 miles wide,
See
THOUSAND ISLANDS.
THRASHER.
707
between Ontario, Canada, and Jefferson and
Saint Lawrence counties, New York (Map:
Ontario, G 3). They are favorite resorts for
summer tourists on account of their picturesque
beauty. Many are private property and contain
the summer homes of wealthy Americans and
Canadians.
THRACE, thras (Lat. Thracia, from Gk.
Opdmy, Thralczé, Thrace, from Opéhf, Thraw, Thra-
cian) . The ancient name of an extensive region
in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula,
whose boundaries varied at different periods. At
first the designation seems to have included part
of Macedonia, where early story knows of Thra-
cians in Pieria, with whom was connected the
worship of the Muses, mythical bards, and
Dionysus. In later times, however, the name was
applied to the great district northeast of Mace-
donia bounded on the north by the Danube, on
the east by the Euxine, on the south by the Bos-
porus, Propontis (Sea of Marmora), Hellespont,
the fllgean, and Macedonia, and on the west by
lllyria and Macedonia. Under the Romans it
designated the region south of the Haemus Moun-
tains (Balkans), the region to the north being
the Province of Moesia. From the Haemus three
lesser chains stretch toward the south. The three
most important rivers of Thrace were the Stry-
mon (mod. Struma) , which during the Greek pe-
riod formed the boundary between Thrace and
Macedonia; the Nestus (mod. Kara-Su) ; and the
Hebrus (mod. Maritza, q.v.), the largest—all of
which flow southward into the .%Egean Sea. The
climate was considered by the Greeks very se-
vere—even that of j:Enos, on the shores of the
rlfigean, being described by Athenaeus as “eight
months of cold and four months of winter.” The
country was in great measure uncultivated, and
covered with forests, but the river valleys were
fertile. The chief products were corn, millet,
wine, and hemp. Cattle, sheep, horses, and swine
were raised in great numbers. The minerals
were a great source of wealth, especially the rich
gold mines of Mount Pangaeus, which attracted
the Thasians, and led the Athenians to the foun-
dation of Amphipolis.
While the exact relation between Thracians
and Greeks is still uncertain, it is clear that
the former belonged to the great Indo-European
family, and were probably closely akin to the
Phrygians of Asia Minor, whose language indi-
cates a somewhat near connection in the past
with the Hellenic race. In historic times the
Thracians appear as a wild and barbarous race,
fond of war and plunder, and ruled over by many
petty kings. In the sixth century B.C. they were
subdued by the Persians, but after the retreat
of Xerxes resumed their independence, of which
they had probably been only nominally deprived
by their conquerors. In the fifth century a king,
Teres, seems to have secured a decided supremacy
and under his rule and that of his son Sitalces,
with whom the Athenians contracted an alliance,
it is possible to speak of a Thracian kingdom.
After the death of Sitalces his territory was
divided into three parts, and the old internecine
strife was resumed. Thrace thus ‘fell an easy
prey to Philip of Macedon (after B.C. 359), who
incorporated the western portion of the country,
as far as the Nestus in Macedonia. while Mace-
donian garrisons held the rest of the country in
subjection. After the fall of Macedon before the
power of Rome (B.C."168) Thrace was for a short
time independent, but in B.C. 133 came under
the Roman rule. Moesia was formed into a prov-
ince in B.O. 29, but Thrace continued under de-
pendent kings until A.D. 46, when it was organ-
ized as a province. After the division of the
Roman Empire (395) it shared the history of the
Eastern Empire. The natural resources of the
country and the opportunities for profitable
trade led to the establishment of Greek colonies
along the coast at an early period. The earliest
were naturally along the waters leading to the
Black Sea, among them Byzantium, Selymbria,
Perinthus, Sestus, and Elaeus, While before the
end of the sixth century 13.0. Miltiades had se-
cured the Thracian Chersonese (the modern
Peninsula of Gallipoli) for Athens. Along the
.»Egean coast were Amphipolis, Abdera, Mesem-
bria, Ainus, and many others, while on the Black
Sea were Istrus, Tomi, Odessus, and Apollonia.
These colonies, however, never attempted to con-
trol the interior, and though they submitted to
the Persians, and later to the Macedonians and
Romans, their history belongs to Greece rather
than to Thrace. In A.D. 334 a colony of Sama-
tians was planted in Thrace by Constantine, and
in 376 another of Goths by permission of Valens.
In 395 ‘it was overrun by Alaric, and in 447 by
Attila. Soon after the middle of the fourteenth
century Sultan Amurath I. obtained possession
of all its fortresses, except Constantinople, and
it has ever since remained subject to Turkey.
Consult: Hiller von Gaertringen, De Grcecorum
Fabulis ad Th/races Pertinentibus (Giittingen,
1886) ; Kalopathakes, De Thracia, Provincia Ro-
mana (Berlin, 1894); Tomaschek, Die alten
Thralce'r (Vienna, 1893-95). See BALKAN PE-
NINSULA; BULGARIA.
THRALE, HESTER LYNCH. An English au-
thor. See PIOZZI.
THRASHER (variant of thrusher, from
thrush). A name given in the United States to
the various species of thrush-like wrens of the
genus Harporhynchus. They have generally a
rather long decurved bill, not notched near the
tip; short concave wings, much shorter than
the tail. In color they are brown or ash above,
usually spotted on the breast. Their names are
brown thrasher (Harporhynchus rufus); Cape




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HEAD OF CBIBSAL THRABHEIL
Saint Lucas thrasher (H arporhynchus cinereus) ;
gray curvebill thrasher (Harporhg/nchus curvi-
rostris) ; California thrasher (Harporhynch-us
redivivus) ; crissal thrasher (Harporhynchus
crissalis) ; and Arizona thrasher (H a/rporhynchus
Bendirii); besides which there are several sub-
species. Only the brown thrasher is widely dis-
tributed ; all the others are confined to the South-
western United States, especially Arizona and
Mexico. The brown thrasher, often improperly
called ‘brown thrush,’ is common in the Eastern
United States, ranging north to Canada and west
THRASHER.
THREAD-WORMS.
708
to the Rockies. It is migratory in the North, but
winters in the Southern States. It is about a
foot long, rich ferruginous above, creamy, spot-
ted with brown beneath. It is one of the finest
songsters native to America and is also a very


BROWN THRASHER.
fine mimic, thus resembling the mocking bird,
to which it is nearly related. Its nest is placed
in a low bush or on a brush heap, and the eggs
are profusely peppered with brown specks. See
Plate of Eecs or AMERICAN SoNe BIRDS. Con-
sult Coues, Birds of the Colorado Valley (Wash-
ington, 1878).
THR-AS’YBU’LUS (Lat., from Gk. Opaoi»,Bov7Log,
Thrasyboulos (‘Z-B.C. 390). A11 Athenian gen-
eral and a prominent member of the democratic
party at Athens during the last years of the
Peloponnesian 1/Var. In company with Thrasyl-
lus at Samos, in 13.0. 411, he vigorously opposed
the establishment of the Four Hundred, and
was instrumental in securing the recall of
Alcibiades from exile. In the same year he,
with Thrasyllus, defeated the Peloponnesian ad-
miral Mindarus at Cynossema, and in B.C. 407, in
command of a fleet of thirty vessels, he compelled
the submission of the revolted cities in Thrace.
He held a subordinate command in the battle
of Arginusae (B.C. 406), and afterwards concurred
with Theramenes in the accusation of the generals
therein engaged. Being banished by the Thirty
Tyrants (13.0. 404), he went to reside at Thebes,
where he planned the overthrow of the Thirty
and the reéstablishment of the democracy. With
a hundred men, refugees like himself, he seized
the deserted fort of Rhyle, and, being here joined
by others, advanced on the Piraeus itself. In the
battle that ensued the Thirty were worsted, and,
as a result, the democratic form of government
was soon reestablished at Athens. In B.C. 395
Thrasybulus commanded a force sent to assist
Thebes against the Spartans. In 13.0. 391 he was
dispatched, in command of forty triremes, to the
assistance of Rhodes, but, first sailing to the
Hellespont, succeeded in extending the alliances
of Athens in those regions. When his fleet
reached Pamphylia he was slain by night in his
tent by the people of Aspendus, in consequence
of some misdeeds committed by his soldiers.
THRASYI/LUS (Lat., from Gk. Opdcvllilog),
MONUMENT OF. A choragic monument at Athens
erected in B.C. 320, by Thrasyllus, in a cave above
the Theatre of Dionysus. An ornamental archi-
tectural front closed the cave and was surmounted
by a statue of Dionysus, now in the British mu-
seum. The monument is almost entirely de-
stroyed with the exception of an inscribed archi-
trave, and two columns designed for votive tri-
pods, on the face of the rock above the cave.
THREAD. An exceedingly small twine
made by twisting several thicknesses of yarn so
as to produce a strong and well-rounded line for
sewing with, either of cotton, flax, or silk.
THREADFISH, CQBBLER-FISH, or SUNFISH.
A well-known fish (Alectis ciliaris) allied to
the pompanos, of both coasts of tropical America,
where it has some commercial importance. It is



THREADFISH.
of moderate size, has the curious shape shown
in the illustration, and owes its names to the
long filaments (becoming shorter with age) into
which the first few rays of the dorsal and anal
fins are prolonged.
THREAD-HERRING, or MAOHUELO. A
small fish (Opisthonema oglinum), closely re-
lated to sardines and menhaden, common along
the Southern coast; it is 12 inches long, bluish
above and silvery below, with an indistinct bluish
-shoulder-spot, and has a long dorsal fin-filament,
from which the fish receives its name.
THREADNEEDLE STREET. A London
street, on which stands the Bank of England,
hence popularly called the “Old Lady of Thread-
needle Street.” The origin of the name is said
to be the three needles as the escutcheon of the
Needlemaker’s Company.
THREAD-WORMS. The thread or round-
worms are members of the class Nematelminthes,
order Nernatoidea, and are so called from their
slender round thread-like body. The dense skin
is not segmented, and the body-cavity (coelome)
is not‘ lined with epithelium, but is directly
bounded by the muscles of the body. There is a
definite digestive canal. Two excretory canals
open in front on the ventral side of the body,
while the nervous system consists of a ring
around the pharynx, from which two main nerve
cords pass backward. The true thread-worms
undergo no metamorphosis. They are mostly
parasitic and usually bisexual. Some of them
are free, living coiled up under stones between
tide-marks; certain minute species occur in fresh
water or damp earth or mud. A few live in
plants, and Tylencha tritici damages wheat.
The more- common parasitic forms are species
of Ascaris, Trichina, Oxyuris, etc. Of Ascaris,
the human roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides)
is remarkable for its great size, being 5-6 inches
long, and about a tenth of an inch in diameter;
it has three papillae around the mouth and is
milk-white. The common pin-worm (Oaiyuris
vermicularis) lives in the rectum of children;
the palisade-worm (Eustrongylus gigas), one
female of which was 39 inches in length and the
thickness of a quill, the male being one-third as
THREAD-WORMS.
THRESHING.
709
long, has been found living in man ; allied species
occur in the brain or brain-cavity of birds.
Among the most formidable human parasites
of this group are the Trichina (q.v.), the guinea-
worm (q.v.), and the species of Filaria. Fflarta
sanguinis-homin/is, a microscopic thiread-worm
found living in the blood of the mosquito in In-
dia and China, is thought to occasion the disease
known as elephantiasis. The formidable disease
called beri-herd is supposed to be due to a nema-
tode worm, whose eggs and embryos swarm by
millions in the soil and dirty puddles around the
villages. In certain species of the family Anguil-
lulidae there is an alternation of generations
(see PARTHENOGENESIS) , from an hermaphroditic
internal parasitic to a free dioecious generation.
Thus Rhabditis (Rhabdoncma) mlgrovcnosa lives
in mud, and gives rise to a second form living in
the lungs of frogs.
THREATS. See such titles as BLACKMAIL;
FALSE IMPRISONMENT; CONSPIRACY; INTIMIDA-
TION; and consult the authorities referred to
under CRIMINAL LAW and CONSPIRACY.
THREE CHAPTER CONTROVERSY. See
CHAPTERS, THE THREE.
THREE CHOIRS FESTIVAL. An English
musical festival which had its first regular or-
ganization in 1724, when the three cathedral
choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford
joined for the performance of a cathedral serv-
ice, and an oratorio performance given in the
Shire Hall. The proceeds have always been de-
voted to a fund for the relief of the widows and
orphans of the poorer clergy of the three dio-
ceses. In 1753 the festival was extended to
three days, and in 1724 to four days, the period
which still prevails. The festivals are held al-
ternately in each of the three cities, and the
conductor is always the organist of the cathedral
of the city in which the festival is held.
THREE-COLOR PROCESS. A photo-me-
chanical process of reproducing in color appli-
cable either to stone or metal. The general pro-
cess consists in first making three photograph
negatives of the same subject through three dif-
ferent color screens representing the three pri-
mary colors, red, yellow, and blue. From these
three negatives printing blocks are made and‘
the result is obtained by making three printings,
one from each block, with three different pig-
ments, each pigment representing as nearly as
possible the color originally used in the color
screen. The accuracy of the finished picture de-
pends, therefore, to a great extent, upon the
correctness of the pigments selected. The
process is largely mechanical and the re-
sult is only approximately correct, though
increased care is being taken in the ma-
nipulation and better results are constant-
ly obtained. The Colored Plate shown in the
article on LITHOGRAPHY (q.v.) was prepared in
this manner. Reference should also be made to
the article CoLoR PHOTOGRAPHY, where the un-
derlying principles are explained. The method
of making the metal ‘half-tone’ plates is dis-
cussed under PHOTO-ENGRAVING.
THREE KINGS OF COLOGNE. The three
wise men of the East or Magi who followed the
star to the birthplace of the infant Jesus. Their
names are usually given as Gaspar, Melchior, and
Balthazar. Their bones are supposed to be pre-
served in Cologne Cathedral.
THREE MU SKETEERS. See Tnors Moos-
QUETAIBES.
THREE RIVERS. A port of entry and the
capital of Saint Maurice County, Quebec, Canada,
at the junction of the Saint Lawrence and Saint
Maurice rivers, and on the Grand Trunk and the
Canadian Pacific railroads, midway between Mon-
treal and Quebec (Map: Quebec, D 4). It was
founded in 1634 by Champlain, and is within a
short distance from the famous falls of Shawa-
negan. It has a cathedral, a college, saw mills,
iron foundries, machine shops, and a shoe factory,
and the water power of the falls has been utilized
for the manufacture of wood pulp. Here on
June 8, 1776, an American force of about 2000
men under General Thompson attacked a British
force of about 6000 men, and was disastrously
defeated, both General Thompson and Colonel
Irvine, his second in command, being captured.
Population, in 1891, 8334? in 1901, 9981.
THRESHER-SHARK, or SWINGLETAIL. An
extraordinary shark (Alopias vulpcs) abounding
in all warm seas, especially in the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic, and distinguished by its long
tail. (See Plate of GREAT SHARKS.) This is an
extension of the upper lobe of the heterocercal
tail to a length equal or exceeding that of the
body, and is used in obtaining the food. This
shark follows the herring, menhaden, and other
gregarious fishes in their migrations; and, rush-
ing into their schools, threshes about with its
tail, killing or stunning many. It is reported
to attack whales, but there is no scientific evi-
dence of this. It is about 15 feet long, lead
color above, and whitish beneath, and contains
some oil, but not enough to compensate for the
trouble its capture causes.
THRESHING (from thrcsh, AS. ])crscan,
Incrscan, Goth. Prislcan, OHG. dresccm, Ger.
drcschcn, to thresh; connected with Lith. traw-
kéti, to rattle, OChurch Slav, th/ryeshtiti, to
strike) and THRESHING MACHINES. Thresh-
ing is the separating of the grain or seeds of
plants from the straw or haulm, a process which
has been accomplished in various ages and coun-
tries by sundry means mom or less effective. The
first method known to have been practiced was
the beating out of the grain from the ears with a
stick. An improvement on this method was the
practice of the ancient Egyptians and Israelites
of spreading out the loosened sheaves of grain on
a circular piece of hard ground and driving oxen
over it, so as to tread the grain out; but as this
mode was found to damage a portion of the grain,
it was partially superseded in later times by the
threshing-sledge, a heavy frame mounted on three
rollers, which was dragged over the heaps of
sheaves. The method of treading out the grain
or seed, however, is still used to a limited extent
on small farms in the United States, especially
in case of buckwheat, clover, beans, etc. Similar
methods of threshing were employed by the
Greeks and Romans, the stick (fustis, baculwm,
pertica) , the treading by men or horses, and the
threshing-sledge (tribulum) being found in com-
mon use among them; but their threshing-sledge,
which is still to be seen in operation in Greece,
Asia Minor, Georgia, and Syria, differed from
the Eastern one by having pieces of iron or sharp
THRESHING.
THRIFT.
710
flints fastened to the lower side, in place of
rollers. The primitive implement in Northern
Europe was the stick, and an improved modifica-
tion of it, the flail, is still used to a limited ex-
tent in Europe and America. The flail consists
of two sticks loosely fastened together at one
end by stout thongs; one stick is used as a handle
by the workman, and by a circular swing around
his head he brings down the other stick hori-
zontally on the heads of the loosened sheaves
spread out on the barn-floor.
Early but unsuccessful inventions to supersede
the flail by a machine, both in England and Amer-
ica, were largely of the rotary heater or flail type
In 1786, however, Andrew Meikle, an ingenious
Scotch mechanic, produced a threshing-machine
so perfect that, despite nearly a century of im-
provers, it is essentially the machine of its in-
ventor. In Meikle’s machine the mode of opera-
tion is as follows: A sheaf is loosened and
spread out on the feeding-board, with the ears
toward the machine; it is then pushed forward
till caught between two revolving fluted rollers
of cast iron, a new sheaf taking its place as soon
as the first has disappeared. Behind the rollers
is a rapidly revolving drum or cylinder, having
four beaters or spars of wood armed with iron
placed along its surface parallel to its axle; and
these beaters, striking the heads as they are pro-
truded from between the rollers, detach the Seeds
and husks. Grain and straw then pass together
over the cylinder, the grain fa.lling through wire-
work, the straw being passed forward by circular
rakes, which thoroughly to-ss and separate grain
and chaff and then eject the straw. The grain
which has fallen through the wirework is re-
day is a marvel of ingenuity and efficiency. In
its most advanced form it cuts the bands of the
sheaves and feeds itself; thoroughly separates
the grain from the straw, winnows the grain and
deposits it in sacks or loads it into wagons; re-
moves the straw and stacks it. The figure shows
the interior construction of a modern thresher.
The concave is open and has in rear an open grate
so that the larger part of the grain is separated
from the straw at this point and is conveyed di-
rectly to the fan. A considerable portion, how-
ever, still remains in the straw and can be sepa-
rated only by further agitation, which is secured
by the vibrating separator, revolving pickers or
beaters, and shaking forks shown in the centre of
the machine to the rear of the cylinder. These
devices beat the straw thoroughly, at the same
time conveying it to the rear of the machine,
where it is taken by the stacker, which consists
either of an elevator or tube with blast. The
separated grain drops through the perforated
bottom of the separator and with the grain com-
ing directly from the drum is carried to the fan-
ning mill by means of a vibrating platform or
conveyor located immediately beneath the sepa-
rator. The parts of the modern thresher are in
large measure adjustable, so that the machine
may be adapted to different kinds of grain and to
a variety of conditions, but separate machines
for special purposes are also made, as, for in-
stance, for threshing rice, peas and beans, pea-
nuts, clover, and for husking maize and shredding
the fodder. Inventive genius is also being large-
ly exercised in de-
- vising ingenious
accessories to the
thresher proper,
such as automatic


band cutters and
feeders, stackers,
and ‘grain meas-
urers and loaders.






LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF‘ MODERN THREBHEB.
ceived into a winnowing machine, where the chaff
is blown out, etc., and is then either discharged
or, as in the most improved machines, is raised
by a series or buckets fixed on an endless web,
and again winnowed, to separate the perfect
grains from the light and small seeds. Previous
to the -second winnowing, barley is subjected to
the process of hummeling, by which the awns
are removed.
Modifications of Meikle’s drum in which the
two grooved cylinders were dispensed with were
employed to some extent in threshing machines
in England and America, but have been almost
entirely superseded in modern machines by a
high-speed cylinder with radial teeth playing
between inwardly projecting teeth set in a fixed
concave or section of a cylinder. Prior to 1840
little progress was made in perfecting the thresh-
ing machine in America. Since that date im-
provement has been rapid and the modern Ameri-
can machine with a capacity of 1000 bushels per
The motive power
most commonly
used for driving
threshing machines
his horse power or
steam. The former
was most common
in the earlier days
of the threshing
machine, but has been largely superseded by the
portable steam engine. Engines with straw-burn-
ing furnaces have been used in Hungary and in
the rice regions of the United States.
THRIFT (Icel. Prift, from Prifa, to thrive,
clutch, grip; so called from the rapid growth of
the plant), Armeria. A genus of plants of the
natural order Plumbaginaceae, having the flow-
ers collected into a rounded head, a funnel-
shaped dry and membranous calyx, five petals
united at the base, five distinct styles, and five
stamens attached to the base of the petals. By
many botanists it has been regarded as a sub-
division of the genus Statice, from which it is
distinguished chiefly by having the flowers in
heads. The common thrift (Armeria maritima)
is a European seacoast plant which grows in
turf-like form, with linear leaves, Scapes a few
inches high, and beautiful rose-colored flowers in
midsummer. Being hardy and easily cultivated,
THRIFT.
THROAT.
711
it is often planted in gardens as a border, but
it must be renewed every two or three years,
the smallest rootless sets growing, however, with
great readiness in the moist weather of spring.
A number of other species, for instance, Armeria
elongata, Ar-meria plantaginea, are planted as
ornamentals.
THRIPS (Lat., from Gk. 0pZ¢, wood-worm).
Any one of the 1ninute insects of the order Thy-
sanoptera. They are slender insects with four
wings, which are also very slender and short,
perfectly transparent, and without veins. They
are fringed with long, delicate hairs, and when
at rest lie along the back of the abdomen. The
metamorphosis is incomplete, and the mouth-
parts function in sucking, but are intermediate
between true biting and true sucking mouth-
parts. The feet bear each a little bladder-like
vesicle at the tip, from which an old name of the
order (Physapoda) was derived. Thrips are
found in flowers, and do some damage to the es-
sential organs. They also occur upon the leaves
of plants, and one species damages onions (q.v.)
and tobacco. Another species (Limothrips poa-
phagus) works in the joints of timothy grass,
causing the heads prematurely to turn yellow
and die. Some species have been observed feed-
ing upon other insects and others undoubtedly
have some beneficial effect as fertilizers of
flowers. Parthenogenesis sometimes occurs with
these insects. Rather more than thirty species
occur in the United States. The name ‘thrips’
has been erroneously applied by vine-growers to
some of the leaf-hoppers of the family Jassidae.
Consult Hinds, Contribution to a Monograph of
the Insects of the Order Thysanoptera Inhabit-
ing North America (Washington, 1902).
THROAT (AS. brotu, OHG. drozza, Ger.
Drossel, throat; connected with MHG. strozee,
throat, Ger. strotzen, to swell, Eng. strut), AF-
FECTIONS or TI-IE. The throat includes those
structures lying behind and below the anterior
pillars of the fauces. In the common accepta-
tion of the term it also means the anterior por-
tion of the neck, containing the windpipe, gullet,
and a number of large blood-vessels and nerves.
The throat may be divided anatomically into the
pharynx and the larynx, the latter being the
upper part of the windpipe and the principal
organ of the voice. Into the pharynx open the
nasal passages and the Eustachian tubes. The en-
trance to the pharynx is nearly surrounded by a
ring of lymphoid tissue, comprising the faucial,
lingual, and pharyngeal tonsils. The first of
these are usually known as the tonsils, are al-
ways present, and often enlarged, and are situ-
ated at the sides of the fauces between the an-
terior and posterior pillars. The lingual tonsil,
when it exists, lies between the base of the
tongue and the epiglottis. The pharyngeal ton-
sils, more often referred to as adenoid growths,
spring from the roof and sides of the pharyngeal
vault. They are often present in children and
when in any amount constitute a pathological
condition, giving rise to obstructed nasal breath-
ing, nasal catarrh, and general poor health. Any
or all of these structures may be involved in
diseases of the throat, and expert examination of
them is often necessary. Inspection is usually
conducted by light reflected into the throat from
a head mirror, a circular, concave reflector
pierced with a hole for vision. The light is
projected through the open mouth upon the back
of the throat. From this point the rays of light
may be reflected by means of a small mirror
introduced into the pharynx either downward to
examine the larynx (laryngoscopy) or upward to
inspect the posterior nares and the vault of the
pharynx (rhinoscopy), the tongue being mean-
while held out or depressed. In direct examina-
tion the tonsils, soft palate, uvula, posterior
wall of the pharynx, and often the top of the
epiglottis may be seen. Laryngoscopy shows the
whole of the epiglottis, the root of the tongue,
lingual tonsil, the true and false vocal cords, the
opening of the glottis, and even the bifurcation
of the trachea. The throat is lined with mucous
membrane, plentifully supplied with blood-vessels,
glands, and nerves, and is often the seat of acute
or chronic catarrhal inflammation. Acute inflam-
mation of either the pharynx or larynx is due
to exposure, sudden change of temperature, the
inhalation of dust, steam, or irritating vapors,
indigestion and constipation, and certain diseases
such as rheumatism, gout, and tuberculosis.
Chronic catarrh arises also from the causes
named when long continued, and may be due
to excessive use or straining of the voice. Spe-
cific inflammations of the throat accompanying
scarlatina and dipl1theria are described under
these titles. Catarrhal inflammation of the
throat is marked by a sense of dryness, or of a
foreign body in the pharynx, a slight but annoy-
ing cough, and the expectoration of viscid, tena-
cious mucus, sometimes tinged with blood. The
voice is hoarse, easily fatigued, or entirely ab-
sent. In the treatment of catarrrhal conditions
in this region, alkaline and antiseptic douches
are given to remove the mucous accumulations,
and stimulating and astringent applications,
such as tannin, iron, and nitrate of silver, used
to reduce congestion and restore the membrane
to its normal action. Naso-pharyngeal catarrh
is frequently caused by intra-nasal abnormalities
and may as often be remedied by restoring
natural respiration through the nose. General
tonic treatment is always necessary. Internally
iron, quinine, and strychnine are the best reme-
dies.
Abscesses sometimes occur in the throat either
in the region of the tonsils (see QUINSY) or at
the base of the tongue. An acute and alarming
inflammation of the loose tissues about the .
larynx is found in connection with abscess,
acute laryngitis, the injecting of scalding fluids '
or irritant poisons, and as a complication of
certain diseases such as smallpox, scarlatina, or
Bright’s disease. In this condition, known as
oedema of the glottis, the swollen and dropsical
tissues fill up or overlap the opening of the
glottis, preventing the ingress of air and threat-
ening immediate suffocation. If not speedily
relieved, oedema of the glottis causes death by
asphyxiation. This affection is treated by punc-
ture or scarification of the dropsical sac, the
application of leeches over the sides of the
larynx, and the administration of pilocarpine.
Sometimes intubation, laryngotomy, or trache-
otomy may be necessary. Intubation consists in
the introduction of a metal or hard rubber tube
between the vocal cords, with a flange resting
above them to prevent slipping into the trachea.
Laryngotomy or tracheotomy is employed when
THROAT.
THRUSH.
712
intubation is not feasible. The former consists
in opening the larynx from the outside through
the cricothyroid membrane, and introducing a
tube through which the patient breathes. In
tracheotomy the opening is made lower down, in
the trachea.
Tuberculous laryngitis occurs in many phthis-
ical patients. There is swelling, ulceration, and
destruction of the vocal cords and adjacent struc-
tures, with hoarseness, loss of voice, great pain,
and inability to swallow solid food.
Syphilis, particularly in its tertiary stage,
often attacks the throat, producing fibrous tissue
which gradually contracts, and narrows, distorts,
and partially destroys the larynx.
Foreign bodies not seldom find their way into
the larynx, and if small are apt to pass into
the trachea or bronchial tubes, and if not
removed may produce death by suffocation or
set up a fatal pneumonia. In children it is often
possible by inverting and shaking the patient to
dislodge a foreign body; in other cases these
have to be removed by specially devised instru-
ments or a cutting operation.
Cancer and other tumors of a polypoid or
fibrous character may develop in the larynx or
its neighborhood. Cancer is nearly always fatal.
See CATARRH; DIPHTHERIA; QUINSY; ToNsILs.
THROMBOSIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 0p6,uBw-
car, the state of being curdled, from 0p6u,Bos,
thrombos, curd, clot). A term originally sug-
gested by Virchow, and employed to designate
an affection of the blood vessels (either veins or
arteries) which essentially consists in a coagula-
tion of blood (forming a true clot) at a certain
fixed spot, owing to disease of the blood vessel,
pressure against its side or laceration of it,
or microbial infection. It is a common cause of
sudden death in persons who appear to be in
robust health. If death does not result, after
the detachment of a thrombus and its lodgment,
as an embolism, in a cerebral artery, softening
of the brain follows. See APOPLEXY; EMBOLISM.
THROMBUS. A stratified clot formed with-
l in a blood vessel by coagulation at a bifurcation
of a vessel or upon a surface roughened, for ex-
ample, by sclerotic changes. See THRoMBosIs.
THROOP, MONTGOMERY HUNT (1827-92). An
American lawyer, nephew of Enos T. Throop, late
Governor of New York. ' He was born in New
York State, and, after studying at Hobart College,
practiced law in partnership with Roscoe Conkling.
In 1870 he was appointed a commissioner to revise
the statutes of the State; afterwards was chair-
man of the commission that prepared the Code
of Civil Procedure, and after 1878 devoted him-
self to legal writing. His publications include
a Treatise on the Validity of Verbal Agreements
(1870); an Annotated Code of Civil Procedure
(1880) ; and the Revised Statutes of New York
(1888).
THROSTLE. See SPINNING.
THROW (AS. Prawan, OHG. drahan, drzijan,
Ger. drehen, to turn, twist; connected with Lat.
terebra, borer,. Gk. repeiv, terein, to bore). The
term applied in mining to the amount of dis-
location (q.v.), in a vertical direction, produced
by a fault in the strata. That side of the frac-
ture which has moved downward relatively is
spoken of as the downthrow side, the opposite
one as the upthrow. See FAULTS.
-The eggs are clear blue.
is a more northerly species than either of the
THRUSH (AS. rysce, OHG. driisca, droscea,
droscela, Bavarian Droschel, thrush; connected
with AS. prostle, prosle, Eng. throstlc, Ger.
Drossel, thrush, and ultimately with Lat. turdus,
Lith. strdzdas, Lett. straeds, thrush) .
thrushes comprise the subfamily Turdinae of
the family Turdidae, usually ranked as the high-
est group of birds. They have a bill of moderate
size, straight, shorter than the head, and pro-
vided at the base with rictal bristles; the nostrils
are oval and bare; the tarsi are long, slender,
and ‘booted;’ ten primaries are present, but the
outermost is exceedingly small; tail shorter than
wings. About 150 species, all of moderate size,
are known, and they are widely distributed, and
most of them are migratory. A. few species are
gregarious, but the majority live singly or in
pairs. Their food is mainly insects and worms,
of which they destroy incalculable numbers, but
in winter they eat‘ berries and seeds, and in
spring small fruits. All are excellent singers,
and some are counted the best of bird songsters.
In America, north of Mexico, there are about
a dozen species of thrush, of which the best
known is the common robin (q.v.), which ranges
over the whole continent. In Lower California
there is an allied species; and in the Northwest
occurs the ‘varied thrush.’ (See OREGON ROBIN.)
Our more distinctive ‘thrushes’ are considerably
smaller than the robin and all of them are birds
of the woods.
The best known are the Wilson’s thrush or
veery (Turdus fuscescens), the song or wood
thrush (Turdus mustelinus), the olive-backed
thrush (Turdus ustulatus), and the hermit
thrush (Turdus Aonalaschlcae), the two latter
having several ‘varieties.’ All these are seven
or eight inches long, olive or brown above, white,
more or less creamy and spotted below. The
wood-thrush or ‘wood-robin’ is a less retiring
bird, not infrequently seen on lawns and in or-
chards. He is larger than the veery, with the
head bright cinnamon brown, changing gradu-
ally into light olive brown toward the tail.
Moreover, he is thickly marked with large “round
black spots underneath. The song of this thrush,
especially as evening approaches, is remarkably
sweet and has made him a great favorite with
bird-lovers. The ordinary calling note has been
likened to striking pebbles together; it is utterly
unlike the clear whistle of the veery. The nest
is usually in a bush or on a tree-limb or a stump,
five or ten feet from the ground, and is dis-
tinctively characterized by always having a
foundation of dead leaves, often with some mud.
The olive-backed thrush
preceding, and occurs in the United States
chiefly as a migrant, while it winters in the
tropics. It is readily distinguished by the uniform
olive upper parts, and the bright buff lores and
rings around the eyes. The only species with
which it is at all likely to be confused is the
gray-checked thrush (Turdus Alicice), a bird
of similar range and habits, without the buff
.lores and eye-rings, and formerly regarded only
as a variety. The eggs of both are blue, spotted
and speckled with bright brown. The hermit
thrush may be easily recognized by the fact
that the tail is rufous, brighter than the back.
It is also a somewhat smaller and more slender
bird than either the veery or wood-thrush. It is
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THRUSH.
THUOYDIDES.
713
distributed over the whole of North America,
but breeds mainly north of the United States.
There are several varieties recognized by names,
as in the preceding species, and, like that also,
the Pacific Coast form is considered typical,
while the bird occurring in the eastern part of
the continent is counted a variety. Thus the
olive-backed thrush of the East is the sub-species
Swainsonii and the hermit thrush of the same
region is the subspecies Pallasii. The latter is
one of the most renowned songsters of America,
although, 011 account of its northern breeding
grounds and retiring habits, few persons hear it.
While some regard the notes as not essentially
superior to those of the wood-thrush, most
writers on bird music agree that for “purity
and sweetness, of tone and exquisite modulation”
the hermit is unequaled. The nest and eggs are
very similar to those of the veery.
The thrushes of the Old World are numerous
and well-known birds, of which several are
common in Great Britain, as the song-thrush or
‘mavis,’ the mistle-thrush, blackbird, song-ouzel,
fieldfare, and redwing (qq.v.).
The name thrush is sometimes given to birds
of other families, which are exceptional song-
sters. Thus in the United States the thrasher
(q.v.), one of the finest singers we have, is
often called ‘brown thrush,’ although more near-
ly a wren. On the other hand, various members
of the family are known by other names, as the
bluebird, robin redbreast, stonechat, and various
small Oriental genera. '
The Turdinae, characterized by the fact that
the young are constantly spotted, although they
may become concolorous when adult, is only one
of the five subfamilies into which the great
thrush family (Turdidae) is divided. The other
subfamilies are the Myiodectinee, a small group
of brownish flycatcher-like birds; the Sylviinee,
or Old World warblers (see VVARBLER); the
Polioptilinae, or gnatcatchers and wren-tits
(qq.v.) ; and the Miminee, or American mocking-
birds, including the incomparable mocking-bird
of our Southern States. It should be added
that some ornithologists object to this widely
inclusive use of the family name. Consult au-
thorities cited under BIRD. See Colored Plate of
SONG Brnns.
THRUSH (dialectic Swed. triish, Swed. torsk,
tongue-thrush; perhaps connected with torr,
-OHG. durri, Ger. diirr, Goth. Paursus, AS. Pyrre,
dry, and ultimately with Eng. thirst), or THRUSH.
An inflammation and ulceration of the sensitive
surfaces within the frog of horses’ feet, giving
rise to a fetid discharge, constituting unsound-
ness, and usually causing lameness. Want of
cleanliness is the chief cause. The disease is
most common in draught horses. The term thrush
is often applied to foot and mouth disease (q.v.) .
THRUSH; Senor; INFANTILE Sons MOUTH.
A disease of early infancy, characterized by the
presence of small, roundish, white specks or
patches on the lining membrane of the cavity of
the mouth and throat, on the surface of the
tongue, the angles of the lips, etc. These patches,
which are termed aphthce, look like minute drops
of tallow or fragments of curd, and are formed
by elevated portions of epithelium covering a
drop of serous fluid; and as the dead epithelium
falls off, a red, usually a raw, surface is left ex-
posed. The cause is a fungus, the Oidium (or
Saccharomyces) albicans, which combines with
cast-off epithelial cells and with food (milk) to
form the spongy, fragile membrane. ln thrush
crops of these little patches commonly succeed
one another. These spots render the mouth hot
and tender, in consequence of which the act of
sucking is accompanied by difliculty and pain.
In association with these local symptoms are in-
dications of general constitutional disturbance,
such as feverishness, drowsiness, sickness, flatu-
lence, colicky pains, diarrhoea, etc. The stools
are green and slimy, and not unfrequently acrid,
as may be inferred from redness of the anus
being a common symptom. The vomited matters
are also green, and have a strongly acid smell,
as also has the breath. The complaint some-
times seems to be the result of improper diet, if
the child is being brought up by hand, or of un-
wholesome milk from a diseased or intemperate
nurse; of bad ventilation, etc.; but in some
cases the cause of the disease is not evident. The
disorder usually lasts eight or ten days, and is
attended with danger only when the local affec-
tion becomes gangrenous. In older children
thrush is an indication of more serious import,
appearing in those who are already ill. Nu-
trition is then still further impaired and the
membrane may be a very unfavorable symptom.
The treatment is absolute cleanliness of the
nursing bottle and nipple, cleansing of the child’s
mouth with boracic acid and glycerin or a 50
per cent. solution of borax in water, or a weak
solution of potassium permanganate. The diet
must be corrected, and sugar must be withdrawn
entirely.
THUCYDIDES, thu-sid’i-déz (Lat., from Gk.
6ow<v5l511s, Thoulcycliclés) (‘Z-c.399 B.C.). A fa-
mous Greek historian, son -of Olorus and
Hegesipyle, born in the Attic--rdeme Halimus.
The date of his birth is unknown," but was cer-
tainly not earlier than 13.0. 470'nor later than
454. Conservative opinion now favors a date near
the latter year. By descent he belonged to an
ancient aristocratic family on one side, and on
the other was connected with a line of Thracian
princes. From this Thracian side of his family
he possessed gold mines in Thrace opposite the
island of Thasos. He was well educated; tradition
says that he was the pupil of Antiphon and
Anaxagoras. In politics he favored the aristo-
cratic party, but his views are all marked by
moderation and fairness. ‘When the Peloponne-
sian War broke out, Thucydides was of an age
to enable him to discern the importance of the
contest and to form plans for recording its
course and result. In 424 he was appointed to
command a portion of the fleet off‘ the Thracian
coast, and in the same year he failed to ar-
rive in time to relieve Amphipolis, which was be-
sieged by Brasidas. For this failure he Was con-
demned to death for treason, but left Athens and
lived the next twenty years in exile. This period
he spent partly on his estates -in Thrace and
partly without doubt in examination of the
scenes of the war in Italy and Sicily. He also
resided for a time at the Court of King Archelaus
in Macedonia. After the defeat of the Athenians
and the restoration of the democracy in 403,
Thucydides was recalled from exile. His death
apparently took place about 399. Thucydides’s
history, which covers twenty-one years of the
Peloponnesian War, was not completed by him;
THUCYDIDES.
THUG.
714
it breaks off in the middle of the year 411. It
is also evident that the last book did not receive
its final form, but there is no reason to doubt
that it comes from his hand. The present di-
vision into eight books was not made by the
author, but by later grammarians.
Thucydides is now regarded by all as the first
critical historian and the greatest historian of
antiquity. He brought to his undertaking a prac-
tical acquaintance with politics and military
science, his natural endowments fitted him to
pass impartial judgment on the events that he
narrates, and he emphasizes more than once the
care with which he endeavored to find out the
truth. His sources were for the main part ob-
tained by personal observation or by questioning
those who had been upon the ground; but for
the earlier period he depended upon his predecea-
sors. His purpose being to narrate the war, he
clung closely to his subject and made few digres-
sions, so that we have to regret that he has noth-
ing to say of literature, art, or the conditions of
the people. But the military movements of the
time are portrayed with a vividness which has
never been equaled. 111 form, his history is strict-
ly annalistic, the account being given by summers
and by winters, so that his work suffers from his
failure to group events effectively. His style is
the older Attic. His periods are not polished or
rounded out, and in his effort after brevity he
often makes his meaning obscure and hard to
reach. Yet his style was greatly admired in an-
tiquity, and became the model of many historians
in the following centuries. In his characteriza-
tion of the leaders in the struggle between Athens
and Sparta he was most successful, and fre-
quently employs with great skill speeches which
he puts into their mouths. Of critical editions
the most important are by Bekker (3 vols., Ber-
lin, 1821); Haase (Paris, 1846); Hude (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1898-1901). There are annotated edi-
tions by Thomas Arnold (3 vols., 3d ed., Oxford,
1847-54) ; Bloomfield (2 vols., London, 1842-
43) ; Kriiger (2 vols., 3d ed., Berlin, 1861) ; and
Classen (8 vols., Berlin, 1862-78; frequently re-
edited). English translations have been made,
single volumes of the Classen edition, by Morris,
Fowler, and Smith for the College Series of
Greek Authors (Boston). The editions of single
books are very numerous. Consult, also: the
Lexicon Thucydideum by Bétant (Geneva, 1843) ;
Indeac Thucydideus by Von Essen (Berlin, 1887).
The best English translations of the history are
by Bloomfield (3 vols., London, 1829) ; Dale, in
the Bohn Classical Library; and Jowett, with
introduction and historical notes (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1881; Boston, 1883). On the speeches see
Wilkins’s translation (3d ed., London, 1881),
and Jebb’s essay in Abbott’s Hellenica (London,
1880).
THUG (Hind. thag, cheat, from Skt. sthaga-',
rascal). The name in Northern India of a re-
ligious fraternity which committed murders in
honor of Kali, the wife of Siva (q.v.) , and lived
chiefly upon the plunder obtained from its vic-
tims. In the south of India they used to live
under the protection of the native chieftains in
consideration of a settled contribution, and prob-
ably also of a share in their booty. The Thugs
were first generally known about 1800, although
they existed as early as 1290. Although at the
beginning of the nineteenth century they had
become little more than murderers, the original
religious character of their deeds survived in
many ways, particularly in the bloodless char-
acter of their assassination, which points back to
an unbloody sacrifice in honor of the female as-
pect of the destructive power of nature. They
really formed a caste, as the profession was in
the main hereditary, and the young Thugs were
trained most carefully, although a few recruits
were admitted from without, and a considerable
number of Mohammedans joined the order. When
they learned through some of their gang that per-
sons of property were about to undertake a
journey, they usually proposed to them, under the
plea of safety, or for the sake of society, to travel
in their company; or else they followed them.
Usually they threw around the neck of the victim
a cloth called the romal, or handkerchief, with
a knot in the left end, which one of the gang
held at one end, while the other was seized by
an accomplice. While the two Thugs drew the
noose tight and pressed the head of their victim
forward, a third seized him by theleg and thus
threw him to the ground. If properly strangled,
the sacrifice was dead before he touched the
ground. The utmost care was taken to commit
the murder in an unfrequented spot, and the
body was buried at a spot where it was not like-
ly to be found.
Another class of Thugs murdered those in
charge of children, whom the assassins then sold
into slavery. Castes or classes exempt from the
Thugs were washermen, sweepers, musicians,
poets, blacksmiths, carpenters, oil-venders, sweep-
ers, cripples, lepers, bearers of the holy Ganges
water, and those who had with them a cow.
Neither would a true Thug kill a woman. A por-
tion of the plunder was usually devoted to the ex-
penses of religious ceremonies, and a part was
often allotted for the widows and families of
deceased Thugs. '
Kali was believed to have formerly coiiperated
with the Thugs, and to have assisted them in the
disposing of the bodies of their victims by de-
vouring them. But through an indiscretion of
one of the fraternity, who looked back, she be-
came displeased, and condemned them to bury
their victims. But though she refused her
assistance, she presented her worshipers with one
of her teeth for a pickaxe, a rib for a knife, and
the hem of her lower garment for a noose. On
the faith of this legend the pickaxe was the in-
strument which was held in the highest estima-
tion by all the Thugs. Its fabrication was super-
intended with the greatest care, and it was the
subject of" other ceremonials. After every mur-
der the Thugs performed a special solemnity
called tapuni, which was celebrated in honor of
Kali. Another feast observed by the Thugs
throughout India was called Kurhae Karna or
Kote, likewise in honor of Kali. The supersti-
tions of the Thugs were of Hindu origin; but
they were adopted also by Mohammedan Thugs,
who sometimes identified Kali and Fatima.
At various periods steps were taken by the
native and English governments to suppress the
Thugs, but it was only after 1831 that energetic
measures against them were adopted by the
British authorities. By 1840 they were prac-
tically suppressed.
Consult: Sleeman, Ramaseeana (Calcutta,
1836); Thornton, Illustrations of the History
THUG.
THUNEN.
715
and Practices of the Thugs (London, 1837);
Meadows-Taylor, Confessions of a Thug (ib.,
1839; new ed. ib., 1879) ; Wright, India and Its
Inhabitants (Cincinnati, 1855); Hutton, Popu-
lar Account of the Thugs and Dacoits (London,
1857).
THUGUT, tm/gent, FRANZ MARIA, Baron
(1736-1818). An Austrian statesman, born at
Linz. He was admitted to the Oriental Academy in
Vienna in 1752, went to Constantinople in 1754,
and became Court interpreter at Vienna in 1766.
He was appointed diplomatic representative at
Constantinople in 1769 and obtained the cession
of Bukowina to Austria in 1771. In 1780 he was
made Austrian Ambassador at ‘Vi-.LI‘S3.~W and in
1787 at Naples. He negotiated the Peace of Sis-
tova with Turkey in 1790; was made Director-
General of Foreign Affairs in 1793, in which
capacity he continued the anti-Prussian policy of
Kaunitz, but sought also to advance Austrian
interests at the expense of France. This plunged
the country into the disastrous war with Revolu-
tionary France, which ended with the Peace of
Campo-Formio (q.v.) in 1797. After acting for
some time as administrator in the newly acquired
Italian provinces, he took up his old post in the
Ministry. He retired in 1800 and devoted the rest
of his life, at Pressburg and Vienna, to the study
of Oriental literature.
THULE, thu’le (Lat., from Gk. Gofilvn, Thoule) .
The name generally given by the ancients to the
most northerly part of Europe known to them,
and in the description of which fancy played a
conspicuous part. According to Pliny it was an
island in the northern ocean, discovered by the
navigator Pytheas (q.v.), who reached it after
six days’ sail from the Orcades. Many modern geog-
raphers identify Thule with Iceland. Some, how-
ever, prefer to seek for it in that part of Norway
called Thile or Thilemarh, or in Jutland, the
extremity of which is known as Thy or Thyla/nd.
But it seems that Mainland, the principal mem-
ber of the Shetland group, has the best claim to
being regarded as the Thule of Pytheas. The
Romans used the phrase Ultima Thule to denote
the most distant unknown land.
THUMANN, t'oo’man, PAUL (1834—). A
German illustrator and painter, bornin Tschacks-
dorf, Brandenburg. He studied in Berlin, Dres-
den, and Weimar, and taught successively in the
academics of Weimar, Dresden, and Berlin. He
illustrated Chamisso’s Frauenliebe und -Leben
and Lebenslieder und-Bilder, Goethe’s Dichtung
und Wahrheit, Hammerling’s Amor und Psyche,
Heine’s Buch der Lieder, Tcnnyson’s Enoch
Arden, etc. His paintings include five scenes
from the life of Luther (1872-73), in the Wart-
burg, near Eisenach, and two large mural paint-
ings, “Return of Arminius from the Teutoburg
Forest” and “Baptism of Wittekind,” in the Aula
of the Gymnasium at Minden.
THUMB, Tom. See STRATTON, CHARLES
SHERwooD.
THIJMMEL, tI_1’mel, MORITZ AUGUST VON
(1738-1817). A German statesman and humor-
ous writer, born at Schiinefeld. In 1768 he be-
came minister to Duke Ernest Frederick of Saxe-
Coburg, from whose service he retired in 1783.
He wrote a humorous prose epic Wilhelmine
(1764) ; a story in verse, Inokulation der Liebe
(1771) ; and a partly autobiographical and once
Von. XVI.-46. .
very popular novel, Reise in die mitttiglichen
Provinzen non Franhreich (1791-1805). Der
heilige Kilian was posthumously published in
1818. His works (in 6 vols., 1812) were edited
by himself with a biography (1820) by Gruner,
and reiédited (8 vols., 1854-55).
THUN, t66n. A town of Switzerland, situ-
ated on the Aar, near where it issues from the
Lake of Thun, 19 miles southeast of Bern, 1845
feet above sea level, and one mile from the Lake
of Thun (Map: Switzerland, B 2) . The old castle
of the twelfth century with its corner towers and
the Gothic church are the chief buildings.
There is a military institution for army of-
ficers, as the town is the chief artillery arsenal
of Switzerland. The chief manufactures are pot-
tery and bricks. Many tourists visit the town
on their way to the Bernese Oberland. Popula-
tion, in 1900, 6100.
THUN, LAKE OF. A lake in the Canton of
Bern, Switzerland, between the town of Inter-
laken on the east and that of Thun on the north-
west (Map: Switzerland, B 2). It is 10% miles
long and 2% miles wide. The scenery, though
scarcely grand, is very attractive. The railway
from Thun to Interlaken skirts the southern
shore.
THUNBERG, t6o'n’berK, KARL PETER (1743-
1828). A Swedish botanist. He studied with
Linnaeus at Upsala; sailed with a Dutch ship as
surgeon (1771-73), cruising at the Cape of Good
Hope; lived six years in Java and Japan, return-
ing in 177 9 to Sweden, where he was appointed
successor to Linnaeus in 1781 as professor of
botany at the University of Upsala. A genus of
about fifty species of the natural order Acan-
thaceae and numerous Oriental species of other
genera are named in his honor.
THUNDER. See LIGHTNING.
THUNDERING LEGION. The name given
to a body of Christian troops under Marcus
Aurelius, from the tradition that a thunderstorm,
sent in response to their prayers, caused great
destruction in the opposing army.
THUNEN, tu’nen, JOHANN HEINRICH voN
(1783-1850). A celebrated German economist,
born in Oldenburg. After receiving a thorough
education in the theory and practice of agricul-
ture and passing two semesters at G6ttingen,
he bought in 1810 an estate called Tellow, in
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which under his skillful
management became famous as a model farm.
His fame rests on his work Der isolirte Staat in
Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und National-
(ikonomie, the first volume of which appeared in
1826, the second in 1850 and 1863, and the third
in 1863. In this work Thiinen simplified the com-
plex conditions of economic life by imagining an
isolated State, circular in form, with land of
equal fertility, laborers of equal productivity, and
with the sole city and market at the centre. Hav-
ing so simplified his premises, he proceeded to in-
vestigate, principally, the effect of distance from
the market upon the agricultural economy of the
several zones of the territory surrounding the
market. In the second volume Thiinen struck
a new note in the political economy of his time by
protesting against the common treatment of
wages as the price of an inanimate commodity,
and insisting upon the introduction of ethical
factors. His treatment here, as generally, was
THUNEN.
THUR-INGIA.
716
highly abstract, and with the aid of the differen-
tial calculus he arrived at the conclusion that
natural wages = 1/ap, where a is the amount
required to support the laborer and his family
and p is the product of the labor of one man,
this product being defined as that part of the
gross product remaining after deduction of
profits, insurance, and cost of management. This
law of wages expresses in a highly interesting
way the modern theory that wages vary as the
productivity of the laborer. At Thiinen’s request
it was engraved on his tombstone. Consult:
Schumacher, J. H. von Thiinen, ein Forscherleben
(Rostock, 1883) ; Moore in the Quarterly Journal
of Economics, vol. xiv., pp. 291, 388. See POLITI-
CAL ECONOMY.
THUN UND HOHENSTEIN, t'o_6n unt ho’-
en-stin, LEO, Count (1811-88). An Austrian
statesman, born at Tetschen, in Bohemia. Be-
fore the Revolution of 1848 he was secretary in
the Imperial Chancery, and in that year became
Governor of Bohemia. From 1849 to 1860 he was
Minister of Public Worship and Instruction.
In spite of his reactionary tendencies, he intro-
duced many reforms in the system of secondary
and higher education, which he reorganized on the
German model. He concluded the Concordat of
1855, which gave the Church great power in edu-
cational affairs. In 1861 he was elected to the
Bohemian Diet, where he became the leader of
the Feudalists, and he continued this attitude
in the Austrian House of Peers, which he entered
in the same year. In 1867 he strenuously opposed
the Ausgleich with Hungary. He retired from
the Bohemian Diet in 1871, and reéntered it in
1883.
THUR/BER, GEORGE (1821-90). An Ameri-
can botanist, naturalist, and editor. He was born
at Providence, R. I., where he obtained his early
education. From 1850 to 1853 he was botanist,
commissary, and quartermaster of the United
States Boundary Commission upon the Mexican
and United States borders, where he collected
a large number of new species of plants. In 1856
he became lecturer upon botany and materia
medica in the Cooper Union and College of
Pharmacy of New York, and in 1859 professor of
botany and horticulture in the Michigan Agricul-
tural College, which institution he left in 1863
to become editor of the American Agriculturist,
a post which he held until shortly before his
death. In addition to his editorial writings he
also edited all the horticultural and agricultural
books published by the Orange Judd Company,
and revised and in part rewrote Darlington’s
Agricultural Botany.
THURET, tu’rz"i', GUSTAVE (1817-75). A
French botanist, born in Paris. While attached
to the French embassy at Constantinople he col-
lected plants in the Balkan Peninsula, and re-
turned to France in 1844. His specialty was algae
and his Recherches sur les zoospores des algues
et les anthéridées des cryptogam-is (1851) were
crowned by the Academy. Other publications in-
clude: Recherches sur la fécondation des fucacées
(1855-57), and numerous monographs, such as
Essai de classification des nostochinées (187 5).
He established a splendid botanical garden at
Antibes, where he planted the first eucalyptus
trees in Europe, and which he bequeathed to the
State. He died at Nice.
THUBG-AU, t%r’gou. A canton in the north-
east of Switzerland, separated from Germany
by Lake Constance (Map: Switzerland, D 1).
Area, 388 square miles. The surface is elevated
but not mountainous, and is cut by the valley of
the Thur, the chief river of the canton. Almost
the entire area of the canton is productive, and
the chief occupations of the inhabitants are
agriculture and viticulture. Stock-raising and
cheese-making are also important industries.
The principal manufactures are cotton and woolen
goods, knit goods, machinery, leather, etc. The
constitution of the canton is purely democratic,
the members of the legislative assembly as well
as of the executive council being elected directly
by the people. The obligatory referendum and
the initiative are in force. Population, in 1888,
104,678; in 1900, 113,221, largely German-speak-
ing Protestants. Capital, Frauenfeld (q.v.).
Prior to the ninth century the country known
as Thurgau comprised almost the entire region
bounded by Lake Lucerne, the Rhine, the Reuss,
and Lake Constance. With the extinction of the
house of Kyburg, Thurgau, reduced almost to its
present size, passed in 1264 to the House of
Hapsburg. In 1460 the country was seized bv
the Confederates and occupied the position of
a ‘subject district’ until 1798, when it was made
a canton of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 it
was constituted a canton of the reorganized Swiss
Confederation. Consult: Pupikofer, Geschichte
des Thurgaus (Frauenfeld, 1884-89) ; Meyer,
Thurgauisches Urkundenbuch (ib., 1881 et seq.).
THURIFER (Lat., incense-bearer). The at-
tendant in the Ro1nan Catholic Church, at
solemn mass, Vespers, and other ceremonies,
whose duty it is to carry the thurible, or incense
vessel, and either to minister incense himself, or
to present the thurible for that purpose to the
ofiiciating priest. The oflice of thurifer original-
ly belonged to the so-called ‘minor order’ of
acolyte, but is now commonly exercised by lay-
men. See INCENSE; CENSER.
THURIN GER WALD, tu’ring-Gr vtilt (Ger.,
Thuringian Forest). A mountain range of Cen-
tral Germany, extending from the banks of the
Werra near Eisenach in a southeasterly direc-
tion to the northern boundary of Bavaria, where
it joins the Frankenwald, a ramification of the
Fichtelgebirge (Map: Germany, D 3). It forms
the southwestern boundary of the highland of
Thuringia, and passes through Saxe-Weimar, Co-
burg-Gotha, Prussia, Saxe-Meiningen, and the
neighboring small States. Length, about 70
miles; highest summit, Gross-Beerberg, 3238 feet.
The range falls steeply toward the northeast and
is covered to the summits with magnificent pine
forests. It is composed mostly of granite, por-
phyry, and schists protruding through the sur-
rounding Permian strata, and is rich in minerals,
among which iron ore, copper, manganese, and
gypsum are the most important. The range
passes through a well-populated industrial re-
glon.
THU_RIN’GIA (Ger. Thiiringen). A pic-
turesque region of Germany, traversed by the
Thiiringer Wald (q.v.), lying between the Prus-
sian Province of Saxony on the north and Bavaria
on the south, and between the Kingdom of Saxony
on the east and the Prussian Province of Hesse-
Nassau on the West. It embraces a number of
THURINGIA.
THURN.
717
duchies and principalities together with some
Prussian districts. The so-called Thuringian
States are Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, and
the two Reuss principalities. The largest city is
Erfurt, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. The
region took its name from the Thuringians, who
at the time of the great migration of nations es-
tablished an extensive kingdom near the centre
of the present Germany. In the early part of the
sixth century the Franks overthrew this king-
dom, of which the northern part was joined to
' the country of the Saxons, and the southern to
Franconia. The name Thuringia came to be ap-
plied to the country between the rivers Werra
and Saale, and the Harz and Thuringian moun-
tains. Under the weak Merovingian rulers dukes
arose in this Thuringia, which for a time was
virtually independent. Christianity was intro-
duced in the eighth century. Under the Carlo-
vingian sovereigns Thuringia constituted an im-
portant frontier province or march, whose gov-
ernor was charged with the lack of repressing
or keeping down the Slavic Sorbs. In the tenth
century the country was under the rule of the
dukes of Saxony. In the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries the landgraves of Thuringia held a
prominent place among the German princes. They
had their seat at the famous Castle of Wartburg.
(See EISENACI-I.) Landgra-V3 Hermann I. (1190-
1216) is noted as a patron of the minnesingers.
The old dynasty of landgraves became extinct in
1247. The landgravate of Tl1uringia then passed
to the House of 1/Vettin, which ruled in the
margraviate of Meis-sen, and which in the fifteenth
century came into possession of the electoral
duchy of Saxony. On the partition of the Saxon
dominions in 1485 between the Ernestine and Al-
bertine lines the bulk of the Thuringian pos-
sessions passed to the Ernestine or electoral
branch. After the War of the Schmalkald League
(1546-47) the Ernestine house was stripped of
its possessions outside of Thuringia. Here arose
the various modern Saxon (Thuringian) duchies.
See SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH, etc. Consult:
Knochenhauer, Geschichte Thilringens in der kar-
olingischen und stlchsischen Zeit (Gotha, 1863) ;
id., Geschichte Thilringens zur Zeit des ersten
Landgrafenhauses (Gotha, 1871).
THURLOE, thur’lo, Jonn (1616-68). An
English Puritan statesman. After Cromwell
was proclaimed Protector, Thurloe was appointed
chief of the intelligence department, a position
which he managed with striking fidelity and
success. He continued as Secretary of State
under Richard Cromwell until May, 1659, and in
spite of royalist opposition in 1660, was reap-
pointed prior to the Restoration. After Charles
I1.’s return he was arrested on a charge of high
‘- treason, but soon afterwards was freed on con-
dition of attending on the secretaries of State
whenever they should require his service. His
large collection of State papers and correspond-
ence, comprising the most authentic materials
respecting the period of the Civil War and
Cromwell’s Protectorate, were discovered in a
secret recess in his chambers at Lincoln’s Inn
during the reign of William III., and are now
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Dr. T.
Birch issued a Collection of State Papers; con-
taining authentic memorials of the English af-
fairs from the year 1638 to the Restoration of
King Charles 11., published from the originals,
etc., prefixed by a Life of Thurloe (London,
1742).
THUR/LOW’, EDWARD, Baron (1731-1806).
An English lawyer. He was born at Bracon-Ash,
Norfolk, was educated at Caius' College, Cam-
bridge, and was admitted to the bar in 1754. At
this time he formed an intimate friendship with
the poet William Cowper. Through the patron-
age of the Viscount Weymouth, Thurlow was
elected to Parliament in 1768. In 1770 he
was appointed Solicitor-General, and the next
year Attorney-General. He attracted the favor-
able notice of George III. by zealously support-
ing the governmental policy of coercing the
American colonies, and in 1778 was made Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, which office he retained
under the Rockingham Administration. In this
position he caused great embarrassment by op-
posing measures brought in by that Government.
Under the Coalition Ministry he was compelled
to retire; but he was restored as Chancellor when
Pitt came to power. For a time he supported
the Government; but, relying on the favor of the
King, he finally ventured to oppose the meas-
ures of his colleagues. Pitt then intimated that
he or Thurlow must retire, and the King con-
sented to the removal of Thurlow (1792) . There
is little to justify the great reputation for ability
he had among his contemporaries. Consult
Foss, Judges of England, with Sketches of Their
Lives (London, 1848-64).
THUR/MAN, ALLEN GRANBERY (1813-95).
An American political leader and legislator, born
in Lynchburg, Va. In 1819 he was taken by his
parents to Chillicothe, Ohio. He studied law in
the office of his uncle, \Villiam Allen ( .v.) ; be-
came private secretary to Governor Robert
Lucas in 1834, and in the following year was ad-
mitted to the bar and was taken into partner-
ship by his uncle. In 1845-47 he was a Democratic
member of Congress, then resumed his law prac-
tice, and from 1851 to 1856 was on the bench
of the Ohio Supreme Court, after December,
1854, as Chief Justice. In 1867 he was the
Democratic candidate for Governor of Ohio, but
was defeated by Rutherford B. Hayes. From
1869 to 1881 he was a member of the United
States Senate, and the leader of the small party
of Democrats in that body. In the Forty-sixth
Congress he was elected president pro tempore of
the Senate. He was active as an advocate of a
liberal reconstruction policy, was one of the au-
thors of the bill creating the Electoral Commis-
sion in 1876, and was a member of that body. He
was also the author of the well-knowr. ‘Thurman
Act,’ designed to compel the Pacific railroads
which had received Government aid to fulfill their
obligations to the Government, and secured the
passage of the bill. In 1881 he was appointed by
President Garfield a member of the International
Monetary Conference at Paris. In 1888 he was
nominated by acclamation for Vice-President on
the Cleveland ticket, which was defeated by Har-
rison and Morton. Consult Hensel and Parker,
Lives and Public Services of Grover Cleveland
and Allen G. Thurman (New York, 1888).
THURN, toorn, Hsmsrcn MATTHIAS, Count
(1580-1640). A leader of the Bohemian Protes-
THURN.
THWING.
718
tants in the Thirty Years’ War. For his ser-
vices in the Turkish wars, the Emperor Rudolph
II. made him Burgrave of Karlstein in Bohemia.
He was among those who wrung from Rudolph
the M ajestiitsbrief of 1609, an edict of toleration,
and was named by the Bohemian estates one of
the ‘Thirty Defenders of the Faith.’ He was de-
prived of his estates and title soon after. On May
23, 1618, he gave the signal for the Protestant up-
rising in Bohemia by the ‘defenestration’ of the
Imperial legates at Prague. (See THIRTY YEARS’
WAR.) At the head of the Protestant forces he
besieged the Emperor Ferdinand II. in Vienna
(1619), but was finally compelled to withdraw.
After the battle of the I/Vhite Hill in 1620, in
which the army of Frederick, the Protestant King
of Bohemia, was vanquished, sought refuge with
Bethlen Gabor, ruler of Transylvania. In 1626
he commanded a corps in Silesia. Later he joined
Gustavus Adolphus, and fought at Leipzig
(1631) and Liitzen (1632). He was captured by
the Imperialists in 1633 at Steinau, but was soon _
released.
THURNEYSEN, tfifi-r’ni-zen, RUDOLPH (1857-
——). A German philologist. He was born in
Basel, and studied at the universities of Basel,
Leipzig, and Berlin. From 1882 to 1887 he was
successively privat-docent and assistant professor
of Romance philology in the University of Jena,
and after 1887 professor of comparative philology
at the University of Freiburg in Baden. Among
his more important publications are: Ueber H er-
kunft und Bildung der lateinischen Verba auf -io
(1879) ; Das Verbum étre und die 7‘ran.eD'sische
Conjugation (1882); Keltoromanisches (1884);
Der Saturnier und sein Verhiiltnis sum spiiteren
riimischen Volksverse (1885) ; Mittelirische
Verslehren (1891) ; Sagen aus dem alten Irland
(1901) .
THURS’BY, EMMA (1857—). An American
singer, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. She studied
under Julius Meyer and Erani, and sang in the
Plymouth Church choir, Brooklyn, 187 0, after
which she went to Italy to study in 1873, and
returned to complete her musical education
under Erani and Mme. Ruderstdorf. She made
a successful tour of the United States and
Canada (1875), and was warmly received in
England and France (1878-79), afterwards being
engaged by Maurice Strakosch as prima donna
of his company (1880). A subsequent tour of the
United States with Theodore Thomas was espe-
cially successful, and she frequently appeared
in concert with Annie Louise Cary (q.v.). Her
concerts in Europe were noteworthy, and gave
her high rank as a concert singer.
THURSTON, JOHN MELLEN (1847——). An
American politician and lawyer, born in Mont-
pelier, Vt. He removed to Wisconsin, where he
was educated at Wayland Academy, Beaver Dam,
and in 1869 was admitted to the bar. In the
same year he settled in practice in Omaha, Neb.
He allied himself with the Republican Party,
and was elected to the State Legislature in 1875.
In 1895 he was elected to the United States
Senate. Upon the termination of his Senatorial
term in 1901 he was appointed one of the United
States Commissioners for the Louisiana Purchase
Exposition at Saint Louis.
THURSTON, Ronnnr HENRY (1839-1903).
An American engineer and educator, born in
Providence, R. 1. He graduated at Brown Uni-
versity in 1859. During the Civil War he served
in the Federal Navy as an engineer, and in 1865
he was appointed assistant professor of natural
_and experimental philosophy at the United States
Naval Academy. He was professor of engineer-
ing at the Stevens Institute of Technology from
1871 to 1885, and in the latter year, for a com-
mittee of the American Institute, conducted a
series of important experiments on steam boilers.
He was a member of the United States Scientific
Commission to the Vienna Exhibition in 1873,
and edited the Report of the Commissioners,
which included his individual report on ma-
chinery and manufactures (1875-76). From 1885
he was director of Sibley College of Cornell Uni-
versity. His thoroughness, organizing ability,
and energy placed him in the very front rank of
educators in his field, while his admirable per-
sonality excited the respect and regard of his
students. Hardly less important in their influ-
ence upon the engineering world are Professor
Thurston’s writings, not alone because of their
thorough reliability, but because of their clear-
ness and comprehensibility, this being particu-
larly true of such works as A History of the
Growth of the Steam Engine (“International
Scientific Series,” 1878, 1901, translated into
German and French), a treatise which is at once
popular in form of presentation, and exact and
authoritative in its subject matter. His other
works include: Manual of the Steam Engine
(1890, 1901); Materials of Engineering (1882,
1900) ; Materials of Construction (1884, 1900) ;
Stationary Steam Engines (1885, 1889) ; Treatise
on Friction and Lost lVork in Machinery and
Mill Work (1885, 1898) ; A Manual of the Steam
Boiler (1888, 1901) ; A Handbook of Engine and
Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and
the Pony Brake; and Life of Robert Fulton
(“Makers of America Series,” 1891). Professor
Thurston’s inventions include a magnesium-rib-
bon lamp, a magnesium-burning naval and army
signal apparatus, an autographic recording and
testing machine, a form of steam-engine governor,
and an apparatus for determining the value of
lubricants.
THWAITES, REUBEN GOLD (1853—). An
American historical writer, born in Dorchester,
Mass. In 1866 he removed to Wisconsin. From
1876 to 1886 he was managing editor of The
Wisconsin State Journal, at Madison. In 1886
he was elected secretary of the State Historical
Society of V)/Tisconsin, and editor of the society’s
Collections. He edited the Wisconsin Historical
Collections (vols. ix. to xv.) ; Chronicles of Bor-
der Warfare (1895) ; a new edition of Kinzie’s
Wau Bun (1901); and The Jesuit Relations
(73 vols., 1896-1901), his work on the last
being one of the most careful and scholarly pieces
of historical editing ever done in America.
also published: Historic Waterways ( 1888) ; The
Story of Wisconsin (1890), in “Story of the
States Series;” The Colonies, 1492-1750 (1,891),
in “Epochs of American History Series;” Afloat
on the Ohio (1897) ; Stories of the Badger State
(1900); Daniel‘Boone (1902) and Pere Mar-
guette (1903), the last two in the “Pioneers of
America Series,” of which he is editor; and
George Rogers Clark (1903) .
THWING, twing, CHARLES FRANKLIN (1853
——). An American clergyman and educator, born
He-
THWING.
TIAHUANACO.
719
at New Sharon, Maine. He graduated from Har-
vard in 1876, and from the Andover Theological
Seminary in 1879; was pastor of the North
Avenue Presbyterian Church at Cambridge,
Mass., in 1879-86, and of Plymouth Church,
Minneapolis, in 1886-90; and in 1890 became
president of Adelbert College and VVestern Re-
serve University. He published: American Col-
leges (1878); The Reading of Books (1883);
The Family (in collaboration with his wife,
Carrie F. Butler Thwing, 1886); The Working
Church (1888); Within College Walls (1893);
The College Woman (1894) ; The American Col-
lege in American Life (1897) ; American College
Administration (1900). ,
THYESTES, thi-és’tez (Lat., from Gk.
Guéorns). The son of Pelops and Hippodamia.
Having seduced Allrope, the wife of his brother
Atreus, he was banished from Mycenae, and in
revenge sent Plisthenes, the son of Atreus, whom
he had brought up, to slay his father. Atreus,
not recognizing Plisthenes, killed him, and sum-
moning Thyestes to Mycenee, placed before him at
a feast the flesh of his two sons.
THYME, tim (OF., Fr. thym, from Lat. thy-
mum, from Gk. 6z5p.ov, 6d,u.os, thyme, sweetbread,
warty excrescence; connected with 01509, thyos,
incense, Lat. fumus, OChurch Slav. dym-ii, Lith.
diimai, OHG. toum, Skt. dhuma, smoke), Thy-
mus. A genus of humble half-shrubby plants,
of the natural order Labiatae, having a two-
lipped calyx and four diverging stamens. Gar-
lipped calyx and four ‘di-
verging stamens. Garden
thyme (Thymus /uulgaris) is
6 to 10 inches high, with
narrow, almost linear leaves,
and ‘whitish or reddish flow-
ers, which grow in separate
whorls, six in a whorl. It
i-s common upon dry hills in
Southern Europe, and is
very commonly cultivated in
gardens, on account of its
fragrance and as a culinary
herb. VVild thyme (Thymus
Serpyllum) has a procum-
bent stem with many
branches, 2 to 3 feet long,
oval leaves, and purplish
flowers, arranged in whorls,
which are united in a head.
It is abundant on hills and
mountains in all parts of
Europe and Northern Asia.
It is less fragrant than gar-
den thyme, but both species contain an aromatic
essential oil. The lemon thyme, or lemon-scented
thyme, is a variety of Thymus Serpyllum. It is
generally of still lower growth than the common
garden thyme. No species of thyme is indigenous
in America.
THYMUS GLAND (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 66;/.os,
thyme, so called from its fancied resemblance
to a branch of sweet thyme). A ductless gland,
peculiar to infantile life. In the human being
it occupies a space in the’ neck below the thyroid
gland and in the chest beneath the sternum in
the anterior mediastinal space, on the level of
the fourth costal cartilage. The gland is devel-
oped early in foetal life, increases in size during
the first two or three years of life, then remains

GARDEN THYME.
stationary until the tenth to the fourteenth
year, when it begins to atrophy and undergo
fatty degeneration. At its maximum period of
development the organ is above two inches long,
one and one-half inches broad, and about a third
of an inch thick. At birth its weight is about
half an ounce. Beyond its character as a lymph
gland little is known of the function of this
organ. The thymus gland of young animals
such as the lamb and calf constitutes the deli-
cacy known as sweetbreads, though the pancreas
or ‘belly sweetbread’ of certain animals is often
substituted in trade for this article. Thymus
has been used in medicine in the treatment of
exophthalmic goitre. See ORGANOTHERAPY.
THYROIID GLAND (from Gk. dvpeoetcvis,
thyreoeides, shield-shaped, from wpe6s, thyreos,
large oblong shield, from 06pa, thyra, door +
e'l‘5os, eidos, form). One of the ductless or vas-
cular glands, lying at the upper part of the
trachea, and consisting of two lateral lobes,
placed one on each side of this canal, and con-
nected together by a narrow transverse portion
at the lower third, called the isthmus. It is of
a brownish red color, and its normal weight is
about an ounce. Each lobe is somewhat conical,
and is about two inches long and three-quarters
of an inch broad. Minute examination of the
gland shows it to consist of lobes and lobules
held together by connective tissue. Each lobule
is made up of numerous completely closed sacs
0.04 to 0.1 inch in diameter. The sacs contain
a transparent, viscid, albuminous fluid. Each
sac is surrounded by a plexus of capillary blood
vessels which do not pierce the lining of the sacs.
Numerous lymphatic vessels are also present. At
an early period the sacs dilate, their cellular
lining atrophies, and their contents undergo col-
loid degeneration. The function of the thyroid
gland is very obscure. It is possibly a blood-
forming gland; possibly it regulates the forma-
tion of mucus in the body. It is subject to sev-
eral varieties of enlargement known under the
general name of goitre, and is also the seat of
various benign and malignant tumors. Mya-
oedema -(q.v.) is a condition of the system
brought about through loss of function of the
thyroid gland, either from atrophy or removal
of the organ. The prepared extract of the thy-
roid gland of animals is used in the treatment of
this condition. See CRETINISM, ORGANOTHERAPY.
THYR/SUS (Lat., from Gk. 06pa0s, stalk,
stem). An ivy and vine wreathed staff tipped
with a pine cone, which was carried by Bacchus
and his followers in the religious rites.
TI (Polynesian name), Cordyline terminalis.
A tree-like plant of the natural order Liliaceae,
found in Southeastern Asia, the Eastern Archi-
pelago, and the Hawaiiari and other Pacific isl-
ands. It sometimes exceeds twelve feet in height.
The reddish, lanceolate leaves are used as cattle
food, and as thatch for houses. Their fibres are
sometimes made into cloth. The large, hard,
fibrous, and almost insipid root becomes soft and
sweet when baked. It is very nutritious, and is
much used as an article of food. The juice is used
for making sugar, a fermented beverage, and a
distilled liquor. Fully twenty-five varieties of
Cordyline are grown under glass for their orna-
mental, often variegated, foliage.
TIAHUANACO, te-a’wa-na’k'o. A ruined
city of Bolivia, a few miles from the Peruvian
TIAHUANACO.
TIARA.
720
frontier, on an arid plain midway between lakes
Titicaca and Aullagas, at an elevation of
12,900 feet. The present town of the same name
stands a short distance from the ruins and is
built for the most part of beautifully cut stones
from the ancient buildings. In the ruined town
five great structures besides an equal number of
shapeless mounds may be traced. These buildings
are commonly known as the Fortress, the Temple,
the Palace, the Hall of Justice, and the Sanctu-
ary. The fortress consists of a rectangular mass of
earth 620 feet long, 450 feet Wide, and about 50
feet high, supported by walls of stone forming ter-
races, the walls sloping inward. On the summit
are traces of rectangular buildings. Adjoining
the pyramid to the east is a rectangular apron
mound. The Fortress has been almost destroyed
by excavations for treasures, but these diggings
show that there were subterranean structures
within the mound. All the buildings of Tiahua-
naco are oriented to within ten degrees of the
cardinal points. The Temple, believed to be the
oldest building here, is a rectangle 388 by 455
feet, defined by erect stones between 8 and 10
feet high, 2 by 4 feet broad, and from 20 to 30
inches thick. On the eastern side, aligned along
a lower terrace, are ten columns about 15 feet
high, by 4 feet by 3 feet. The interior of the
rectangle is raised eight feet above the level of
the ground and has a sunken court 280 feet long
and 190 feet broad. To the east of the Temple is
the Palace, of which the massive foundation re-
mains, composed of blocks of trachyte 8 to 10
feet long and 5 feet wide. The piers of this
building are deeply sunk in the ground and rest
on a pavement of cut stones. The Hall of Jus-
tice stood at one end of a sunken court in a
rectangle in plan like that of the Temple. It
was a platform 131 feet long and 23 broad, built
of enormous blocks of stone, and had three
groups of alcoves or seats arranged at the ends
and in the centre, and between the central and
side groups were monolithic doorways with sculp-
tured friezes. The Hall of Justice also stands
on a raised area, in the centre of which was
a building about 50 feet square, con-
structed of very large stones, and called the
Sanctuary. Within the building is a slab of
stone 13 feet 4 inches square and 20 inches thick.
On its surface is out what seems to be the plan
of a building resembling that of the Fortress,
and six niches in which perhaps statues were
located.
Tiahuanaco is famous for its great monolithic
gateway of hard trachyte 13 feet 5 inches long, 7
feet 2 inches high above ground, and 18 inches
thick. The lintel over the front of the gateway
is sculptured in low relief and the back is carved
to represent doors and windows. The masonry
at Tiahuanaco is laid without mortar, the stones
on each course are tongued and grooved at the
ends, and bronze pins and T-clamps were em-
ployed to hold the courses in place. Earlier
travelers speak of statuary at Tiahuanaco, but
these pieces have been destroyed except a head,
which belonged to a figure probably about 18 feet
high. The building stone was transported from
15 to 40 miles and the dressing was done with
bronze and stone tools. There is no reliable
tradition as to the builders, who it is supposed
were the Incas or Aymaras, and no reason can
be assigned for the location of the city on a bar-
ren plain at a great altitude, unless it be that
the foundation was determined by religious ideas.
Consult Stiibel and Uhle, Die Ruinenstiitte von
Tiahuanaco (Breslau, 1892) .
TIAN-SEAN, té-an’ shéin’, or OELESTIAL
MOUNTAINS. A great mountain system of Cen-
tral Asia. It begins in the southeastern part of
Russian Turkestan, and extends in an eastward
direction for nearly 1500 miles across East Turk-
estan toward the Desert of Gobi, in which it is
gradually lost (Map: Persia, N 2) . It forms the
northern boundary of the great Tarim Basin,
which it separates from the watersheds of Lake
Balkash and the Syr-Darya. It is connected by
broken ranges with the Altai Mountains to the
north. The system consists almost through-
out its length of a number of parallel ranges
with a total width of about 200 miles. In
the central portion there is a main ridge
forming an unbroken wall covered with per-
petual snow throughout its length, and culminat-
ing in the west in the Khan-Tengri, a peak bear-
ing enormous glaciers and reaching an altitude of
24,000 feet. East of this ridge the mountains
descend in a broad plateau with scattered peaks
and ridges from 6000 to 1000 feet high. West of
the Khan-Tengri the system spreads out like a
fan with numerous branches which finally lose
themselves in the plains of Russian Turkestan.
One of these ranges runs into the Pamir (q.v.),
Where, through the Sarikol, it connects with the
Kuen-lun, Hindu-Kush, and Himalaya systems.
In this western portion there are several impor-
tant passes affording routes between Russian and
East Turkestan. The system incloses numerous
large longitudinal valleys whose bottoms form
wide steppe regions. Above these the slopes are
covered with immense spruce forests succeeded
by an alpine flora to the snow-line. The loftiest
group in the eastern portion, the Bogdo-ola, is
held sacred by the Mongolians, and figures promi-
nently in their religious mythology.
TIARA (Lat. tiara, tiaras, from Gk. ndpa,
1-wipas, Tadpns, head-dress of the Persian kings).
The triple crown of the Pope. Although a cap
called a tiara was worn by some Oriental mon-
archs, as by the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia,
as an ecclesiastical head-dress it has more affin-
ity with that of the Jewish high priests, the form
of which is more or less preserved in the mitres
worn by the bishops of the Eastern Church to-
day. (See COSTUME, ECCLESIASTICAL.) It is
composed of a high cap of gold cloth, encircled
by three coronets, with a mound and cross of
gold on the top. From the cap hang two pend-
ants, embroidered and fringed at the ends. The
original Papal crown consisted of the cap alone,
and was first used by Pope Nicholas I. (858-867) .
Alexander II. added a second coronet about 1065,
and Urban V. (1362-70) the third. A symbolic
meaning has since been found in the triple crown,
as representing the authority of the Pope over
the Church militant, expectant, and triumphant.
It is placed on the Pope’s head at his coronation
by the second cardinal deacon, with the words
“Receive the tiara, adorned with three crowns,
and know that thou art father of princes and
kings, ruler of the world, vicar of our Saviour
Jesus Christ.” At ceremonies of a purely spirit-
ual character the Pope wears the mitre, like other
bishops, not the tiara.
TIBALDI.
TIBERIUS.
7 21
TIBALDI, te-b‘eil'dé, PELLEGBINO (1527-98).
An Italian architect and painter, born at B0-
logna. A pupil of Daniele da Volterra in paint-
ing, he subsequently worked both as an architect
and painter under the influence of Michelangelo
in Rome, whither he had gone in 1547. His
graceful altar-pieces, especially attractive through
the loveliness of the female heads, are very rare.
Of his frescoes “Hercules Taming the Animals”
may still be seen in the Loggia dei Mercanti
(Exchange) at Ancona. In the architecture he is
prominent as one of the chief representatives of
the late Renaissance. In 1560-69 he built in
Milan the Jesuit Church of San Fedele, in 1565
reconstructed the Archiepiscopal Palace, and in
1570 became first architect of the Cathedral, for
which he designed the baroque facade. Called to
Madrid by Philip II. in 1586 to take part in the
erection of the Escorial, Tibaldi also decorated
its library with warmly colored frescoes, was
created Marchese, di Valsolda, and after nine
years returned to Milan, where he died. Con-
sult: Zanotti, Le pitture di Pellegrino Tibaldi
(Venice, 1756) ; and Gurlitt, Der Baroclcstil in
I talien (Stuttgart, 1887).
TIB’IBUS, TIIBUS, or TUBUS (rock people).
A Nigritian people inhabiting Tibesti, in the
Eastern Sahara, and extending southward into
the Sudan. In these different areas they vary
greatly in hair and features. There are only
70,000 of them spread over an area of 300,000
square miles, under the following names: Tedas,
Dasas, Bedeyat, Zoghawa, and Bulzeda. For
generations they have been most active in the
traflic by caravan across the Sahara. In religion
they are Mohammedan. Consult: Nachtigal,
Sahara und Sudan (Berlin and Leipzig, 1879-
89); Rohlfs, Quer durch Afrika, vol. i. (Leip-
zig, 187 4). -
TI’BER (Lat. Tiberis, poetical Thybris; Ital.
Tévere) . The principal river of Central Italy. It
rises in Tuscany, at the south of the Monte Fuma-
jolo, in the Province of Arezzo, about thirty miles
east of the source of the Arno, at an altitude of
more than 3600 feet above the level of the sea,
and flows toward the south in a winding course,
entering the Province of Perugia (Umbria) , where
it passes through the valley be-tween Perugia and
Assisi. It receives the waters of many smaller
streams, and at Orte, where it is joined by the
Nera (the ancient Nar), it begins to form the
boundary between the provinces of Umbria and
Rome, encircling Mount Soracte and entering the
Campagna Romana. About three miles above
Rome it is swelled by the Anio (now Aniene or
Tevero'ne) , then passes through the city of Rome,
where it forms an island, the Insula Tiberina
(now Isola di San Bartolomeo), and enters the
Tyrrhenian Sea about twenty-six miles below.
The total length of the Tiber is 245 miles; its
breadth at Rome is about 250 feet. It is a swift-
running stream, carrying down an enormous
amount of alluvial matter, which, in solution,
gives the water that yellowish color for which the
flavus Tiberis was renowned. The sediment de-
posited at the mouth of the Tiber is pushing out
the land at the rate of about ten feet a year, so
that the ruins of Ostia, the ancient harbor of
Rome, are now more than four miles inland. The
delta is formed of two months; the fiumicino, orig-
inally a channel dug by Trajan for his harbor
(Portus Traiani) , now the larger and navigable
branch, and the fiumara, now almost choked by
sand banks; and these inclose the Isola Sacra, a
desolate and unhealthy island once sacred to
Venus. The Tiber is navigable by small steamers
as far as Rome, and by smaller craft as far as
Orte, about sixty miles from its mouth. It is
subject to frequent and often disastrous inun-
dations, of which the ancient writers have re-
corded no less than twenty-three. Among the
more famous floods are that mentioned by Horace
(Odes, I. 2), that of 1598, when the water at
Rome rose 51% feet, and that of 1900, when it
reached a flood-height of almost 54 feet. To
remedy this evil, the Government, beginning in
1876, has constructed massive embankments at
Rome, at the expense of more than $25,000,000;
but already the carefully planned work has
proved defective. The stream on the north of the
Tiber island has become clogged with sand, and in
the flood of 1900 fully a quarter of a mile of the
south embankment was carried away by the
water.
Consult: S. M. Smith, The Tiber and Its Tribu-
taries (London, 1877), Narducci, Saggio di Bibli-
ografia del Tevere (Rome, 1876).
TIBE’RIAS,_ LAKE 0R SEA OF. A lake in
Palestine. See GENNESARET, LAKE OF.
TIBIEYRIUS (TIRERIUs CLAUDIUS NERo CZE-
SAR) (B.C. 42-A.D. 37). The second Emperor of
Rome (A.D. 14-37). He was the son of Tiberius
Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla (q.v.), and
was adopted by Augustus (q.v.) when he married
Livia in B.C. 38, after her compulsory divorce.
He was carefully educated, and early manifested
intellectual power andmilitary skill. His first
important command was the expedition sent in
13.0. 20 to restore Tigranes to the throne of Ar-
menia. A more noteworthy commission was given
him in B.C. 15, when, in company with his younger
brother Drusus (q.v.) , he defeated the Rhaetians.
Two years later he was consul with P. Quin-
tilius Varus, and in B.C. 11 he fought success-
fully against the Dalmatians and Pannonians.
The death of Dru-sus in B.C. 9 recalled Tiberius
to Germany, but in B.C. 7 he held the consul-
ship for the second time. The troubles which
were to overshadow his life had, however, al-
ready begun. In B.C. 11 he had been forced by
Augustus to divorce his wife, Vipsania Agrippina,
whom he loved deeply, and to marry the Em-
peror’s daughter Julia, the widow of Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa (q.v.). Her conduct, and
perhaps his own jealousy of the growing favor of
Gains and Lucius Caesar, the two grandsons of
Augustus, children of Julia and Agrippa, led
him to retire, against the Emperor’s will, to
Rhodes in B.C. 6, the very year in which the tri-
bunician power was conferred upon him for five
years. He remained in Rhodes seven years, and
before his return Julia had been banished for
life to the island of Pandataria. The death of
Lucius Caesar in A.D. 2 and of Gains in 4 led
Augustus to adopt Tiberius as his heir. From
this time until the Emperor’s death Tiberius
was in command of the Roman armies, an-d cam-
paign followed campaign. In 4 he reduced Ger-
many fromthe Rhein to the Elbe, from 6 to 9 he
waged war again in Dalmatia and Pannonia,
and from 10 to 11 he held the Rhein against the
Germans who had defeated Varus (q.v.). In
12 he was honored with a Well-earned triumph.
TIBERIUS.
TIBET.
722
When the death of Augustus occurred, August
19, 14, Tiberius was on his way to Illyricum.
He was summoned home by his mother, and at
once assumed control of the Empire. Despite his
execution of Postumus Agrippa, the grandson of
Augustus, his reign was at first beneficent. Grad-
ually, however, a change took place in Tiberius.
He minimized the power of the people, and trans-
ferred the election of magistrates from them to
the senate. At the same time he watched with
suspicion the increasing popularity of Germani-
cus Caesar (q.v.), his nephew. In 19 Germanicus
died, poisoned, if the reports current at the time
may be believed, at the instigation of his uncle.
About this time the evil genius of the reign of
Tiberius, .-Elius Sejanus (q.v.), gained his as-
cendency over the Emperor. Under his influence
a system of espionage was instituted which
doomed all who in any way opposed Tiberius.
Freedom was abolished in Rome, the senate was
demoralized, and the Emperor sank to the level
of a cruel and ruthless tyrant. In 23
Sejanus abetted the murder of the only son of
Tiberius, Drusus Caesar (q.v.) . Three years later
the Emperor left Rome with Sejanus, going first
to Campania and in 27 to Capri, where he re-
mained till his death.
In 29 Livia Drusilla died, thus removing one
of the last barriers to the complete degeneration
of her son. Two years later Tiberius learned of
the treachery and ambition of Sejanus, who was
put to death, only to be replaced by Macro, as
corrupt as his predecessor. In 37 Tiberius died,
smothered, though already on his death-bed,
by Macro, and was succeeded by Caligula (q.v.) .
The reign of Tiberius was beneficial to the
Empire at large, and the provinces especially
flourished under his sway. Only in Rome, and
only where his personal interests were at stake,
was he merciless.
The Writings of Tiberius have been lost. His
style is said to have been obscure, archaic, and
affected. He wrote a brief autobiography, a lyric
on the death of Lucius Caesar, and a number of
Greek poems.
Consult: Ihne, Plea for the Emperor Tiberius
(London, 1853) ; Pasch, Zur Kritilc der Ge-
schichte des Kaisers Tiberius (Altenburg, 1866) ;
Freytag, Tiberius und Tacitus (Berlin, 1870);
Stahr, Tiberius’ Leben, Regierung, Charakter
(2d ed., ib., 1873) ; Tuxen, Kejser Tiberius
(Copenhagen, 1896); Baring-Gould, Tragedy of
the Caesars (London, 1892).
TIBE-T, or THIBET, tib'et or ti-bét’. A re-
gion Of Central Asia, forming part of the Chinese
Empire. It is bordered on the north and east by
Chinese territory, and on the west and south by
Kashmir, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Assam, and
Burma. Tibet is one of the least known parts
of the world, foreign travel and exploration being
forbidden in accordance with Chinese policy.
There is some uncertainty even as to its
exact boundaries and extent. Politically
three distinct regions included within its wide
limits must be eliminated: (1) ‘Little Tibet,’
between 74° and 79° east longitude, now included
in Kashmir, and composed of Baltistan and
Ladakh (qq.v.); (2) and (3) the two regions
known as Ku-ku-nor and the Ts’aidam, or Ch’ai-
dam, lying south of the Nan-shan, east of the
Altin-tagh, and north of the curve formed by the
eastern and southeastern extensions of the
Kuen-lun system, bearing the names of Akka,
Tolai, Angirtekshia, Barkhan-Bhoba, Shuga, etc.
PHYSICAL FEATURES. Tibet presents two dis-
tinct physical divisions: (1) A region of lakes in
the north, and (2) a region of rivers in the
south and east. The first, occupying the greater
portion of the western half of the country, is
known as the Chang Tang or ‘Northern Plain.’
It is an arid treeless and shrubless solitude, with
rounded hills and broad flat valleys between
them, and a number of sharply defined mountain
ridges rising several thousand feet above the
plain. It has an average elevation of from
14,000 to 16,000 feet, falls away gradually to
the east and south, and is dotted with lakes—
mostly salt, some of them of considerable size.
The more or less parallel mountain ridges, to-
gether with their separate valleys, lie buried
beneath a vast accumulation of mountain debris,
giving the surface the aspect of a plateau of
uplift, or of one of tectonic construction. The
streams terminate in salt lakes, which give
unmistakable evidence of gradual desiccation.
Large stretches toward the Kuen-lun are
uninhabit-able, and are abandoned to the
wild beasts. In the southern zone, between
the parallels of 32° and 33° north, a lofty range
reaches far east as 90° 25’-——the Nin-chin
Tang-la, the highest peak of which has an alti-
tude of 24,153 feet, the Goring-la pass having
an elevation of 19,587 feet. From 33° 50’ north
toward the Kuen-lun there are ranges of
extinct volcanoes with altitudes of 20,000
feet. One of the best known lakes of
this region is the Pangong-tso, 13,930 feet
above sea-level, partly in Ladakh (about
latitude 34° north and longitude 79° east).
This inhospitable region is bordered on the
east and south by the region of rivers, which
is also a region of snow and ice-covered moun-
tains and deep ravines. Its eastern section
covers the whole eastern half of the country,
stretching from about 90° east to China. It is
almost entirely occupied by a succession of more
or less wooded but lofty and steep mountains,
with a general north to south trend, cut into
deep narrow gorges, in which flow the rapid
streams of melted snow which unite to form the
upper courses of the great rivers which are
known in their lower courses as the Hoang-ho,
the Yang-tse-kiang, the Mekong, and the Sal-
win (qq.v.). The southern section of this
river region lies to the south of the Chang-tang
and extends from the Nin-chin Tang-la north of
Lhasa, the capital, to the great South Chain, and
is overlooked by Mount Everest, the highest
peak of the Himalaya. Its mountains have
a southeast and east trend, with many
lateral intersecting ranges and spurs, which give
direction to its numerous streams. In it are
found the sources of three important rivers—~the
Indus and the Sutlej (qq.v), which rise in
the Gang~ni or Kailas Mountains in the west
and flow through India, and the Brahmaputra,
which, under the name of Yaru-Tsangpo, rises
farther east in the Mariam-la Mountains. The
principal lakes of this region are the
Sacred Manasarowar, near the sources of
the Indus and the Sutlej, and ‘Scorpion Lake,’
the Yamdok or Palti, south of Lhasa, with a cir-
cuit of 45 miles. Here are found the bulk of
TIBET.
TIBET.
723
the population, the seat of the government, and
the great centres of culture and refinement.
CLIMATE The climate is extremely severe.
It is dry owing to the shutting out of
the moisture-carrying clouds from the south by
the great South Chain of the Himalayas. There
are sometimes, however, heavy downpours of rain.
Bower, who crossed the country between 32° and
34° north latitude, found the temperature in
June to range from 18° to 34° F. ; in July, from
17° to 30°; in August, from 19° to 35°; in Sep-
tember, from 19° to 36°; in October‘, from 15°
below zero to 21° above; in November, at the
decreased elevation of Eastern Tibet, from 15°
below to 21° above; and in December, at a still
lower level (9000 to 8154 feet), from 1° to 14°
above zero.
FLQRA. It has been estimated that not more
than one-twentieth of the surface of Tibet is cov-
ered with vegetation. It has been fairly well
settled that the flora, so far as the northern
and eastern sections are concerned, belongs to the
Arctic Alpine division of the great northern
region. Toward the south it approaches that of
India; and in parts the vegetation is luxuriant.
FAUNA. This includes the wild yak (Poé'ph-
agus grarmiens)., antelope, gazelle, kyang or
wild ass (Equas hemionas), nyang or mountain
sheep, Oeis ammon (found above an elevation of
15,000 feet), wolf, fox, wild dog, bear (regarded
by the natives with dread as the primitive speech-
less wild man and hence urlmolested) , musk deer,
and hare. In game-birds——especially in Eastern
Tibet—there are the sand-grouse, several species
of pheasant, ducks, teal, the bar-headed goose,
coolen, etc. Toward the south the fauna is more
Indian in character, and includes the lynx,
leopard, tiger, etc. Among the domestic
animals are the cat and the dog, but no fowls.
Nor are song-birds found, except as strays from
passing flocks.
MINERAL Rnsouncns. Shut in as Tibet is,
both politically and physically, little is as yet
known of its geology. It is. however, supposed to
be rich in minerals, and gold, silver, iron, and coal
are mentioned. Gold-washing is a common oc-
cupation in some parts and small quantities of
gold-dust are exported; but mining is prohibited.
The gold-fields lie in the district known as Thok
Jolang, in the southwestern part of the Chang-
tang, and there Littledale found mining opera-
tions carried on six months of the year, ex-
clusively by Lhasa people. Lapis lazuli and
other semi-precious stones, as well as gems, are
extensively used for personal adornment by both
sexes, and it is supposed the country must be
rich in these. The Kuen-lun Mountains have for
many centuries been the chief source of the jade
supplies of China, and in Europe and America
fine specimens of heliotrope jadeite are shown
reputedly of Tibetan origin; but the true prov-
enance of the specimens is not known.
AGRICULTURE. Farming and the tending of
flocks and herds are the chief occupations, but,
owing to the elevated and rugged nature of the
country, both are attended with many hard-
ships. The entire Chang-tang is uncultivable,
and it is only at elevations less than 13,500 feet
that the growing of barley-—the hardiest of all
the cereals, and the chief article of food in Tibet
--—becomes possible. The other crops are wheat,
buckwheat, cabbages, potatoes, turnips, radishes,
and pulse, and among the fruits, apples, apricots
(especially in the western province), and peaches,
and in the south pomegranates and jujubes. A
little rice is produced in the south, but the
main supply is imported.
INDUSTRIES. Tibet has no factories, but many
minor industries are carried on in the settled
districts, and the people are reputed to be skill-
ful weavers, potters, and metal-workers. Derge
in Eastern Tibet is noted for its swords, guns,
teapots, tinder-boxes, and bells, as well as for its
saddlery. An excellent kind of serge called
pulo is produced everywhere.
COMMERCE. The chief products of Tibet are
wool, lambskins, lynx, fox, leopard, and other
skins, yak-tails used in India as chowries or
fly-flaps, deersf horns, musk, rhubarb, gold-dust,
precious stones, borax, nitre, salt, and live stock.
Much of the wool goes to Kashmir to be manu-
factured into the. famous Kashmir shawls. In
exchange for these, Tibet receives tea, cotton and
cotton goods, silk, sugar, and tobacco from both
China and India; satins, gold brocades, red
leather, chinaware, gun-barrels, hardware, drugs,
and flour from China; leather and saddles from
Mongolia; broadcloth, indigo, spices, coral-beads,
and pearls from India; rice from Sikkim; and
saffron from Kashmir. Tibetans are great con-
sumers of tea, and it has been estimated that
over 13,000,000 pounds of brick tea are received
annually from China alone. The preferred. me-
dium of exchange is the Indian rupee, but much
of the business of the country is mere barter.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION. Lhasa,
the capital, is the great central mart, from
which trade routes radiate in all directions:
to China by way of Chiamdo, Bat’ang, Li-
t’ang, and Darchendo, in Eastern Tibet; north-
east through the Ts’aidam and Ku-ku-nor to
Kan-su and Mongolia; westward to Gartok in
the Province of Nari on the borders of Kashmir,
where a great market is held in August and Sep-
tember; northwest to Rudock, a frontier post,
the emporium for the trade with Leh. Another‘
trail leads through Gyantse, Khamba-jong, and
the recently opened British-Tibetan mart Ya-
tung (q.v.) to Kalimpong and Darjiling in Sik-
kim; another leads through Shigatse to Bhutan,
or through Iilam on the southwest to Nepal.
Transportation is difiicult and tedious, most of
these journeys requiring months to complete.
Robbers are numerous and bold, hence traders
travel in large companies; the pack-animals are
yaks, mules, ponies, and where the road is too
stony for the yak, sheep are used, one sheep
carrying 25 to 30 pounds. Food, fodder, and
tents must be carried; the passes are precipitous
and frequently blocked with snow. The animals
are never housed by the way, and the mortality
among them is very great. In the settled parts
of the country the streams are usually bridged,
or if unfordable they can be crossed in round
wicker-work boats covered with skins, the ani-
mals swimming.
GOVERNMENT. For administrative purposes
the territory, subject to the Lhasa Government,
represents 4 provinces (Nari, Tsang, Wu, and
Khams), and is divided into 53 jongs or prefec-
tures and 123 sub-jongs. At the head of each
jong are two jongpons of equal rank, one a lay-
TIBET.
TIBET.
724
man, and one a lama, with civil, military, and
judicial jurisdiction. Under these are the local
magistrates, headmen and elders. Over all is
the Amban or Imperial Minister Resident at
Lhasa, who is the intermediary between the
local Government and Peking. He is charged
with the supervision of the foreign relations of
the country, and settles all difficulties which may
arise between the tribes. Taxes are paid in kind.
The regular army consists of 9000 men, 3000 of
whom are usually at home on half pay. A
militia force of 65,000 can be called out at any
time.
POPULATION. Judging from a partial census
taken in 1737, and the statements of travelers
since then, it is safe to assert that within the
bounds given in this article to Tibet the popula-
tion does not exceed 3,500,000, of whom at least
500,000 are lamas; in 1737 there were 316,200
in Wu-Tsang alone. Many influences are at work
to keep down the population, among which may
be mentioned the absence of immigration, the
prevalence of polyandry and of celibacy among
the lamaists, and the ravages of smallpox, which
is always epidemic, and carries off vast num-
bers every year.
RELIGION. B611, the indigenous religion of the
country, is a kind of Shamanism (q.v.). It still
has many adherents, especially in Eastern Tibet;
but the State religion, and the prevailing one,
is the corrupt form of Buddhism called Lamaism
(q.v.). There are several sects, but the most
powerful is the Gelugpa, which constitutes the
established Church. (See TSONGK’A-PA.) Follow-
ers of this sect wear yellow caps as distinct
from the unreformed Nyingmepas, who wear red
caps, and are the next most powerful sect. The
lamas or monks are very numerous, dwell in
great monasteries, frequently called lamaseries,
of which there are said to be over 3000, some of
them of immense size, having accommodation for
from 3000 to 10,000 persons. They are com-
monly considered to be repositories of great
wealth. Education is chiefly in the hands of
the lamas.
ETHNOLOGY. Judged by their language alone,
Tibetans proper belong to the Tibeto-Indo-Chi-
nese branch of Keane’s Homo M ongolicus. Phys-
ically, however, they exhibit marked variations,
there being present at least two types——one Mon-
goloid, the other a somewhat slender figure, thin,
prominent, often aquiline nose, straight eyes, and
long, sometimes wavy, hair. In the permanently
settled portions of the country, where centres
of population have existed for centuries, the
people have varied considerably from the orig-
inal type, the result being a mixed race, becom-
ing more Chinese as one goes toward China, or
more Indian (Nepalese or Kashmiri)\ as one
travels southward or westward. This mixture
is in part due to the concubinage of native
women with foreign traders, soldiers, pilgrims,
officials, etc., and in part to the system of poly-
andry. Monogamy prevails among the nomads,
but elsewhere polyandry is common, one woman
becoming the wife of the brothers of a family,
the oldest being considered the father of
all the children, the others being regarded merely
as ‘uncles.’ There is also some polygamy among
the wealthy, as in China.
HISTORY. The early history of Tibet is leg-
endary and obscure. In the middle of the eighth
century Tibet extended from Ku-ku-nor and
Ladakh on the north into India in the south,
while on the east the tribesmen came into fre-
quent confiict with China, and it is recorded
that they even entered Chang-an, the capital, in
763. In 747 the famous Indian wizard and
teacher, Padma-sambhava, had arrived; he made
a long missionary journey through the country,
everywhere vanquishing the Shamanistic devils,
and laid the foundation of Lamaism. In 749 the
first monastery was built. Muni-tsanpo came to
the throne in 789. In order to better the condi-
tion of the poor, he compelled the rich to share
their wealth with the indigent. This leveling
process was unsuccessful. Lang-dharma, who
died in 899, left only minor sons; the kingdom
was broken up into two, later into a number of
petty principalities, and it was easy for Genghis
Khan to incorporate Tibet into his empire in
1206.
Kublai Khan, the conqueror of China, actively
promoted the spread of Buddhism throughout
the Mongol Empire. Buddhism having entered
from India and China in the first half of the
seventh century, the language was reduced to
writing, the translation of the sacred books was
begun, and about 650 the first temple—-the Lab-
rang, at Lhasa-—was erected. From this time
forth the internal history of Tibet is the history
of the struggle of Buddhism (already corrupt)
with the indigenous Shamanism (q.v.), the rise
and development of Lamaism (q.v.) and the
Lamaistic hierarchy, the abolition of the kingly
dignity and the establishment of the supremacy of
the Grand Lama at Lhasa as the head of both
Church and State. In 1270 he made the chief
of the Sakya sect head of the Church, and con-
ferred on him the temporal power. Near the
end of the fourteenth century arose Tsong-k’a-pa
(q.v.), the great reformer, through whose ef-
forts Lamaism was purified somewhat, and a
new and powerful sect, the Gelugpa, was founded.
In 1642 Kushri Khan, the Mongol Prince of Ku-
ku-nor, conquered Tibet, and in 1645 made over
the sovereignty of it to the Grand Lama of the
time, with the title of Dalai (or Talé) Lama.
He has continued ever since to be both the head
of the State and the head of the Church, the
Chinese Empire having confirmed him in both
ofiices in 1650. In 1717 the Sungars invaded the
country, but were driven out by Chinese armies
in 1720, when Eastern Tibet was placed under
the direct rule of Chinese oflicials, a Kansu and
Sge-chuer. In 1774 Warren Hastings sent from
India an envoy to negotiate friendly commercial
relations between Tibet and the British East
India Company. He was well received. Another
embassy was sent under Turner in 1783, but his
efforts were made futile by the policy of the
company under the administration of Lord Corn-
wallis, who, under treaty engagements with
Nepal, assisted the Gurkhas when in 1790
they invaded Tibet and plundered Tashilunpo.
They were driven out in 1792, and since then the
passes between India and Tibet have been closed.
In 1893 a convention was signed opening Ya-
tung (q.v.) on the Tibetan frontier as a Brit-
ish trade-mart. The list of Europeans who have
entered Tibet in more recent times comprises
Bagle in 1774; Turner in 1783; Manning in
TIBET.
TIOHBORNE TRIAL.
725
1811; Huc and Gabet in 1846; Przhevalski in
1870-71, 1879, and 1887; Rockhill in 1889 and
1891-92; Bonvolot in 1889; Bower in 1890-91;
Littledale, 1894; Sven Hedin during his journeys
of 1894-97 and 1899-1902; Miss Taylor, and a.
few others. Many ‘pundits,’ trained by the
great Trigonometrical Survey of India, have fre-
quently traversed it and have procured much
valuable information regarding the country.
Much of it, however, is ‘confidential,’ and is still
unpublished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Desgodins, Le Tibet (2d ed.,
Paris, 1885) ; Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas
(New York, 1891); id., Diary of a. Journey
Through Mongolia and Tibet (Washington,
1894) ; id., Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet (ib.,
1895) ; id., A Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet
(New York, 1902) ; Bower, Diary of a Journey
Across Tibet (London, 1894) ; Carey, Adventures
in Tibet, with Miss Taylor’s Diary (Boston,
1901); Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (Lon-
don, 1895) ; id., Among the Himalayas (ib., 1899;
Reijnhart, With the Tibetans (ib., 1901) ; Hedin,
Central Asia and Tibet (New York, 1903) ; Jason-
ke, Tibetan Grammar (2d. ed., London, 1881);
Sandberg, Handbook of Colloquial Tibetan (Cal-
cutta, 1894); Jtischke, Tibetan-English Diction-
ary (London, 1881) ; Dictionnaire Thibe'tain-latin-
frangais (Hong Kong, 1899).
TIB’IA (Lat. shin-bone). In anatomy, the
larger of the two bones forming the leg, and
the one to which the fibula is attached. It
articulates with the femur above and with the
astragalus below. The tibia was the name of the
commonest musical instrument of the Greeks and
Romans. It was a pipe or flute, originally made
of bone, but later of a reed, with the opening at
the top, protected by a natural knot, with a.
tongue beneath, partially detached by a longitudi-
nal slit. It was used at festivals, sacrifices, and
dances, as an accompaniment to the rowing of the
trireme, sometimes also to the march of troops
to battle. The tibia dewtra was the bass instru-
ment and was held in the right hand, the tibia
sinistra, or treble instrument, in the left. The
tibioe pares were both treble or both bass, and
the tibia; impares were one bass and one treble.
TIBUL'LUS, ALBIUS (c.54-c.l9 13.0.). A
Roman elegiac poet, born of an equestrian family.
He inherited an estate at Pedum, between Tibur
and Prseneste, which had been either wholly or
partially confiscated in the civil wars. Tibullus,
however, recovered part of his property, and
spent there the best part of his short life. He
was Patronized by Messalla, whom in 31 he ac-
companied into Aquitania, to suppress a serious
revolt. He was present at the battle of Atax,
which gave the final blow to the insurgents; and
he celebrates in a fine strain of poetry the honor-
able part he bore in the campaign. Next year
Messalla was sent to the East and again Tibullus
accompanied him; but having been obliged from
illness to stop at Corcyra, he returned to Rome.
Henceforth he devoted himself to the study and
composition of poetry. His Elegies, divided into
four books, are mainly addressed to his mis-
tresses, Delia,- Nemesis, and Glycera, whose in-
constancy or coldness he bewails in tender and
exquisitely finished verses. The third book,
however, is now believed to be the work, not of
Tibullus, but of another and inferior poet; while
the hexameter poem on Messalla, with which the
fourth book opens, is supposed to be also by an-
other. The character of Tibullus was singularly
pure, amiable, and winning. During life he
had the honor of being addressed in an ode and
epistle by Horace; after death, of being bewailed
in an elegy of matchless beauty by Ovid. The
best editions are those of Baehrens (Leipzig,
1878), Hiller (ib., 1885) ), and Miiller (ib.,
1885). The poems were translated into Eng-
lish by Grainger (1752) and Cranstoun (1872),
and into English prose by Kelly (1854). Con-
sult Sellar, Roman Poets of the Republic (Lon-
don, 1863).
TICAO, te-k'a'o. An island belonging to the
Philippine Province of Masbate' (q.v.).
TIC DOULOUREUX, tik doo'1o'o'rW, Fr.
pron. -re’. See FACIAL NEURALGIA.
TIOH’BORNE TRIAL. A celebrated trial in
which an impostor attempted to obtain posses-
sion of the Tichborne estates in Hampshire and
Dorsetshire, England, by assuming to be the
heir, Roger Charles Tichborne. The case was
remarkable for the great public interest it
aroused, for the length and thoroughness of the
trial, and for the success of the impostor in de-
ceiving a great number of intelligent persons.
Roger Charles Tichborne was born in 1829, and
after some education in France, and at the Roman
Catholic College at Stonyhurst, England, entered
the British Army. His French accent and his
eccentricities made him unpopular and he re-
signed and went to Brazil. He sailed from Rio
de Janeiro in 1854 in the ship Bella, which was
lost at sea with all on board. His father, Sir
James Tichborne, died in 1862, and as Roger was
supposed to be dead, a younger son, Alfred, suc-
ceeded to the estates. Lady Tichborne refused to
believe that her son, Roger Charles, was dead, and
advertised extensively for information regarding
his whereabouts. In 1865 a coarse, ignorant
butcher named Arthur Orton, who resided at
Wagga Wagga, Queensland, Australia, under the
name of Thomas Castro, conceived the idea of
representing himself to be Roger Charles Tich-
borne and claiming the estates. His first step was
to write a letter to Lady Tichborne claiming to
be her son. The letter was illiterate and con-
tained statements as to his identification which
were wholly false and inapplicable to the true
heir. He subsequently came to England, went
over the Tichborne estates, gained all the infor-
mation he could as to the former life and habits
of Roger Charles, and succeeded in convincing
the family solicitor and several others of his
identity. In January, 1866, he called on Lady
Tichborne in Paris and was received as her son.
This was most remarkable, as there was no simi-
larity in the appearance of Orton and Roger
Charles, and Orton had no knowledge of the
French language, in which the true heir was
proficient. After this recognition he had great
success in gaining adherents to his cause. The
Tichborne family, however, repudiated him, and
at a large expense investigated his life, discover-
ing his true name and past life. He succeeded in
raising large sums of money by issuing bonds,
payable upon his obtaining possession of the
property. These were known as the ‘Tichborne
bonds’ and were widely distributed. He brought
ejectment suits to recover the estates in 1871, and
succeeded in inducing over 100 witnesses to swear
that they recognized him or believed him to be
TICHBOB-NYE TRIAL.
TICK.
726
Roger Charles. Despite his ignorance, he ex-
hibited remarkable shrewdness and cunning at
the trial, which lasted 103 days and ended in his
being nonsuited. In 1873 he was tried for per-
jury, being defended by Edward Keneally, and
after a trial of 188 days he was convicted, and
sentenced to fourteen years’ penal servitude. He
was released in 1884, and again attempted to stir
up public sentiment in his favor, but was un-
successful. The cost of the two trials has‘ been
estimated at £200,000. He died in abject pov-
erty in ‘1898. Consult: The Tichborne Romance
(Manchester, England, 1871); Charge of Lord
Chief Justice of Engla-nd in the Case of Queen
vs. Thomas Castro (London, 1874).
TICINO, te-ché’no. A river of Switzerland
and Northern Italy (Map: Switzerland, C 2).
It rises 011 the southern slope of the Saint Got-
thard, and flows south and southeast, traversing
Lago Maggiore, and emptying into the Po after
passing the city of Pavia. Its length is 154 miles.
.lts upper course is a wild mountain torrent flow-
ing through romantic gorges, but below the lake
it is navigable and communicates with several
canals.
TICINO (Ger. Tessin) . A southern canton of
Switzerland, bordering on Italy, between Valais
on the west and Grisons on the east. Area,
1088 square miles (Map: Switzerland, C
2). It has a very mountainous surface
intersected by the valleys of the Ticino,
Maggia, Moesa, and of a few other streams. In
the north rise the Lepontine Alps with the Saint
Gotthard, in the cast are the Adula Alps, while
the southern part around Lago Maggiore is com-
paratively low, and is the most fertile part of
the canton. Notwithstanding its mountainous
character, Ticino has two-thirds of its area under
cultivation. Cereals are the chief products, but
southern fruits and grapes are also cultivated on
a large scale. The manufacturing industries
are undeveloped and native artisans emigrate
annually to other parts of Europe. The chief
means of transportation is the Saint Gotthard
Railway. The Constitution (as amended in 1892)
provides for a Legislative Assembly elected by the
people on the basis of proportional representation,
and an Executive Council, also elected by the peo-
ple. The optional referendum prevails. Popula-
tion, in 1888, 126,751; in 1900, 138,638, almost
exclusively Italians. Capital, Bellinzona (q.v.).
Consult Motta, Bibliografia storica ticinese (Zu-
rich).
Ticino as part of Gallia Cisalpina was early
joined to the Roman Republic. After the decline
of the Roman power it passed successively into
the hands of the Ostrogoths, Lombards, and
Franks. During the later mediaeval period its
territory formed a portion of the Duchy of Milan,
from which it was wrested in successive. con-
quests during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies by the members of the Swiss Confederacy,
whose title was confirmed by the ‘Eternal Peace’
of 1516. The attempt to establish Protestantism
in the District of Locarno was rigorously
stamped out by the exile of members of that faith
in 1555. The rule of the Italian district by the
other members of the Confederacy was harsh,
but only one rebellion, in 1755, marked its
course. In 1798 this district, divided into the
cantons of Bellinzona and Lugano, was constituted
part of the Helvetic Republic; in 1803 they were
united into one canton—Ticino—which received
greater privileges as a full member of the Con-
federacy. Other difficulties were removed by the
Constitution of 1830, but measures of a religious
and commercial nature have often separated the
inhabitants from the sympathy of their northern
neighbors, and local struggles of Radical and
Ultramontane parties have often necessitated
Federal interference.
TICK (AS. ti-cia, miswritten for tiica, tica,
Ger. Zeche, tick; connected with Arm. tie, tick).
One of those members of the order Acarina which
belong to the families Argasidae and Ixo-
didae, which have been grouped together in the
superfamily Ixodoidea. The ticks or ‘louse-flies’
are eight-legged creatures in which the cephalo-
thorax is coalesced with the abdomen. The
young, newly hatched individual is flat and near-
1y circular and has only six legs. With the
first molt it enters the second or nymphal stage,
which is characterized by the presence of a
fourth pair of legs. After the second molt it be-
comes mature. In the free-living state the body
of a mature tick is flattened dorsally and is of
an oval shape. The body is covered with a
leathery integument which generally assumes on
the dorsal surface a hardened, chitinous, more or
less smooth, and darker appearance. Near the
margin it is impressed by a depressed line leaving
a distinct rim around the body.
All ticks, so far as known, although found
upon plants in their early stages, are parasites
of animals. The young seek on every possible
occasion to fasten themselves to vertebrate ani-
mals. Mammals and birds seem to be preferred,
and spots where the skin is soft are chosen.
VVhen the very young first fasten themselves they
cannot penetrate deeply enough to draw blood,
but the irritation causes a suppuration on which
they feed. VVhen, however, they have grown
sufficiently to enable them to reach a blood-ves-
sel, the small, flat, semitransparent creatures
soon become distended, the body becomes rounded,
and the color frequently becomes dark red. In
a week or more the larva is transformed into the
nymph, which at the expiration of another week
is changed to a mature individual. The female
only sucks blood, so far as is known. The male
retains its form and. size, and although it at-
taches itself to warm-blooded animals, it evident-
ly does so only for the purpose of seeking the
female.
Several species occur in the United States.
The common dog tick or wood tick (Dermacentor
electus) is found frequently in the woods in the
Northern States. The common tick occurring
upon the ground-squirrel in the Mississippi Val-
ley is I modes ricinus. Argas miniatus is very de-
structive to chickens in parts of Texas and
Florida, and Argas reflewus, the pigeon tick, is
common in pigeon-houses in both Europe and the
Southern United States. This species is capable
of living an almost incredible length of time
without food. In Persia a species, the miana-bug
(Argas Persicaa), lives in houses and seeks its
human prey at night; its bite causes serious
disturbance, and is said even to cause death.
In South America a species known as ‘garapate’
(Amblyomma Americanum) occurs in dry, bushy
places, where it clings to twigs and transfers it-
self to passing horses or cattle as opportunity oc-
curs. It also lives in the United States and
TICK.
TIOKET.
727 '
has been found on human beings. Eight species
of ticks in the United States have been found
upon cattle, one associated with the Texas cattle
fev'er (Bc6philus annulatus) being the most
noted and the most destructive. Other species of
the same genus transmit the same or similar dis-
eases of cattle in other parts of the world.
Bo-Ophilus australis transmits what is probably
the same disease in Australia, and Bciiphilus
decoloratus (the so-called ‘blue tick’) acts the
same way in South Africa, carrying the disease
commonly known as ‘red water.’
Texas cattle fever is particularly destructive
to Northern cattle that have been shipped south
or that have been brought into contact with
Southern infested cattle which have been shipped
north. The dipping of cattle in vats containing
cottonseed oil or any one of several mixtures,
known as ‘cattle dips,’ destroys the ticks.
Certain mites of the family Gamasidae are
sometimes known as ticks, although the name in
this application is erroneous. The bird tick
(Dermanyssus a/vium) is a familiar parasite of
caged birds. The poultry tick (Dermanyssus
gallinae), which is also known as the ‘little
chicken mite,’ gathers on fowls in the hennery,
especially at night, and sucks their blood. Cer-
tain of the true insects are also erroneously called
ticks. For example, the flies of the family Hip-
poboscidze are quite generally known as bird
ticks. (See FOREST FLY and PUPIPARA.) The
degraded wingless flies of the family Nycteri-
biidee are called bat ticks.
Consult: Osborn, Insects‘ Affecting Domestic
Animals (United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, 1896); Salmon and Stiles,
Cattle Ticks of the United States (ib., 1902);
Marx, “Classification of the Ixodidae,” in Pro-
ceedings Entcmclogical Society of Washington,
vol. ii., No. 2 (1892); Marx, “The _Morphology
of the Ticks,” id., vol. ii., No. 3 (1892) .
TIOK'ELL, THOMAS (1686-1740). An Eng-
lish poet, born at Bridekirk, in Cumberland. He
was educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, of
which he became fellow (1710-26). He attracted
the attention of Addison by some lines praising
the latter’s Rosamond; and Addison, on becom-
ing Secretary of State in 1717, made him Under-
Secretary. He was secretary to the Lords Justices
of Ireland from 1725 till his death. He published
Prospect of Peace (1712); The Royal Progress
(1714) ; and a poetical version of the first book
of the Iliad (1715), out of which grew the fa-
mous quarrel between Pope (q.v.) and Addison
(q.v.). His best known poem is Colin and Lucy;
the longest is Kensingtcn Gardens. Goldsmith
calls his Elegy on Addison (prefixed to Addi-
son’s Works, 1721), “one of the finest odes in our
language.” Consult Dr. Johnson’s Lines of the
Poets (London, 1854, 1890, etc.).
TICKET (OF. estiquette, etiquette, Fr. éti-
quette, ticket, label, etiquette, from OHG. steh-
han, Ger. stechen, to stick; connected with Lat.
in-stigare, to prick, incite, Gk. orh/na, stigma,
mark, brand, puncture, Skt. tij, to be sharp). A
slip of paper containing a statement or certifi-
cate that the person to whom it is issued, or the
holder, is entitled to some right or privilege
therein referred to or described, as railroad
tickets, theatre tickets, pawn tickets, and lot-
tery tickets. A ticket is evidence of a contract
between the holder of the ticket and the person or
corporation issuing it. Usually tickets do not
purport to express the entire contract between
the parties, and the terms or conditions which
are not expressed may be supplied by parol evi-
dence (q.v.). Where the ticket grants the
right or privilege of using the grantor’s real es-
tate, as in case of theatre tickets, the holder of
the ticket acquires no title or interest in the real
estate, but becomes a mere licensee (see LICENSE)
entitled to use the real estate in the manner and
for the purposes specified. The licenscr or grantor
of the ticket, however, may at will revoke the
license, even though such a revocation is a breach
of the contract; and upon such revocation the
holder of the ticket becomes a mere trespasser
and may be summarily ejected, but only necessary
force can lawfully be used for that purpose. He
may, however, be entitled to recover damages for
breach of the contract in ejecting him. See
THEATRE.
This rule does not apply in the case of tickets
issued by common carriers, who, by virtue of
their public calling, are compelled to accept for
carriage all who pay a reasonable fare and com-
ply with their reasonable rules and regulations.
Passenger tickets under ordinary circumstances
are generally now held to be contracts, and not
mere symbols or means of identification of the
passenger, so that the holder of a ticket is deemed
to assent to its terms. Such stipulations, which
usually restrict the liability of the carrier, have
been held to be valid and binding if reasonable
and not against public policy. Common carriers
may require passengers to buy tickets as a con-
dition of their being carried; and, when reason-
able opportunity to do so is given, the carrier
may charge an additional rate when the passenger
has failed to buy a ticket. Common carriers may
make any condition as to the time and use of
tickets which is reasonable. Thus provisions
contained in the ticket that it shall be used be-
fore a date named, or that it shall be stamped by
the carrier before it is presented for a return
trip, or that it shall not be transferable have
been held to be valid.
The carrier may require the passenger to pro-
duce the ticket or an identification check for in-
spection whenever required to do so, and upon
the passenger’s failure to comply with the regu-
lation may eject him. This appears to be the
general rule even when the passenger’s inability
to comply with the regulation is due to the
neglect of the carrier’s agents, as when the wrong
ticket is given out by the carrier’s ticket agent
or the wrong coupon is taken up by one conduc-
tor, so that the passenger is left without the
proper coupon at a subsequent stage of his jour-
ney. The passenger’s right in such a case is not
to insist upon being carried without payment of
the fare demanded by the conductor or other
.agent'of the carrier, but to pay the fare de-
manded and to bring an action against the car-
rier for breach of the contract evidenced by the
ticket. Purchase of a ticket entitles the holder
to all the accommodations usually given by the
carrier to holders of that class of tickets. If,
however, they are not provided, as in case the
carrier fails without, excuse to provide the pas-
senger with a seat, his right is not to refuse to
pay fare or Surrender his ticket, but to recover
damages for the carrier’s breach of contract or
undertaking to carry. See CARRIER, COMMON;
TRANSPORTATION; etc.
TICKET OE LEAVE.
TIOONDEBOGA.
728
TICKET OF LEAVE. In Great Britain
and its Australian colonies, a kind of permit or
license granting a prisoner his liberty for good
conduct, and revocable for subsequent miscon-
duct, under the terms of its conditions. The
term was first applied to the license of liberty
granted to convicts in Van Diemen’s Land as a
part of the reform in prison methods in 1840, and
later to those who were granted a similar license
in England as a partial compensation for their
long term of imprisonment after transportation
had been discontinued, but the terms of sentence
had not been shortened. These convicts became
so numerous, and the number of crimes com-
mitted by them became so serious, that a still
further reform led to the system of granting
the license upon the mark system, under which
it was given only to convicts sentenced for terms
longer than two years, and who by their work and
industry, as shown by their marks, became en-
titled to it. Under this system the ticket of
leave has been found to work well, its chief de-
fect being the drawback put upon the prisoner’s
chance of success in obtaining work and living
among reputable people by his liability to con-
stant surveillance by the police officials. This
defect is largely removed by the existence of vari-
ous private charitable institutions which look
after the prisoners who place themselves under
their charge in such a manner as to remove the
publicity of their being watched. The prisoner is
practically free to come and go as he chooses
within a certain district, under certain condi-
tions of living an honest industrious life among
honest people, and making periodical reports.
The effectiveness of such a system of reward-
ing good conduct on the part of prisoners, and
inducing them to live honest lives without im-
prisonment, but yet where their conduct is sub-
ject to control, has become so generally recognized
in the United States that similar acts have been
passed in about half of them, the license being
generally called a ‘parole.’ Most of these acts
have been passed since 1890, and under none of
them can a parole be granted to a person con-
victed of murder in either the first or second de-
gree; and most of them refuse it to a prisoner
serving under a second conviction of crime. Of
course the prisoners themselves are found to
favor the granting of paroles; and the better
element among them are in favor of the honest
and strict enforcement of the conditions of sur-
veillance.
Consult the works referred to under PENOLOGY ;
PRISONS; and also the Report of J. Franklin
Fort to the American Bar Association in 1898.
TICK’NOR, FRANCIS ORRERY (1822-74). An
American poet, born in Baldwin County, Ga.
He studied medicine in the North and practiced
his profession at Columbus, Ga. A small volume
of miscellaneous verses was published in 1879.
Two poems of Ticknor are well known and rank
among the best lyrics produced in the South.
They are the pathetic “Little Giffen” and the
stirring “Virginians of the Valley.’’
TICKNOR, GEORGE (1791-1871). An Ameri-
can literary critic and historian, born in Boston.
Educated in a scholarly home, a graduate of
Dartmouth (1807), admitted to the Boston bar in
1813, he gave up the legal profession for litera-
ture, went to Europe in 1815, studied four years
at Giittingen and in other Continental cities, and
returned in 1819 with a valuable library to a
professorship of modern languages and literature
in Harvard College. Here he devoted himself
especially to French and Spanish, and attracted
hearers beyond the university circle. He resigned
his professorship in 1835, passed three years in
Europe and eleven further years in elaborating his
greatest work, History of Spanish Literature
(1849), which was translated into German and
Spanish and came to be regarded as a standard
work, even in Spain. It was reissued in 1854,
and again reédited and enlarged in 1863. A
fourth edition embodies his latest revisions. He
published also a Life of William Hickling Pres-
cott (1864) and several minor works. His Life,
Letters, and Journals are collected in two volumes
(1876). Other letters describing his life as a
German student may be found in W. P. Trent’s
English Culture in Virginia (Johns Hopkins
University Studies). His library, containing one
of the best collections of Spanish literature in
existence, was bequeathed to the Boston Public
Library. As an educator Ticknor was in ad-
vance of his generation; as a citizen he repre-
sented the best traditions of Boston; as a scholar
he held his own with the erudite men of his day.
His greatest work, however, does not in its style
represent the personality of the man so much as
it does the conscientiousness of the scholar, and
it is slowly losing its prestige.
TIGKNOR, WILLIAM DAVIS (1810-64). An
American publisher, born at Lebanon, N. H. He
founded at Boston, in 1828, the publishing firm
of Ticknor & Fields, afterwards known as Ticknor
& Co. In addition to the works of Longfellow,
Holmes. Saxe, Whittier, and Lowell, he pub-
lished the Atlantic Monthly and North American
Review, and made his oflice the resort of the lead-
ing literary men of his time. Mr. Ticknor was
among the first American publishers to pay for-
eign authors for their work.
TICON’DERO’GA. A village in Essex
County, N. Y., 100 miles north by east of Al-
bany; on the stream which conveys the waters
of Lake George into Lake Champlain, and on the
Delaware and Hudson and other railroads (Map:
New York, G 2). It is rich in reminiscences of
the Colonial and Revolutionary periods. The
vicinity is noted for its extensive production of
crystalline graphite, furnishing the greater part
of the total output of the United States. The
water power afforded by the falls is utilized by
several industrial establishments. Paper, wood
pulp, and lumber products constitute the leading
manufactures. Population, in 1890, 2267; in
1900, 1911.
In 1755 the French, recognizing the strategic
value of the promontory, built a fort here and
called it Fort Carillon (chime of bells), in allu-
sion to the pleasing sound of the waterfalls
near by. Several years later the present name
was adopted. In 1757 Montcalm assembled here
a force of 9000 men, with which he took Fort
William Henry, on Lake George. On July 8, 1758,
General Abercrombie, with 15,000 men, stormed
Fort Carillon, but was repulsed with a loss of
2000, Viscount George A. Howe being among the
killed. In 1759 General Amherst with a force of
12,000 men invested it, and the French, being too
weak to withstand an attack, dismantled and
abandoned both this fort and Crown Point, which
TICONDEROGA.
TIDES.
729
were then enlarged and strengthened by the Eng-
lish. Being weakly garrisoned after the cession
of Canada to Great Britain, Ticonderoga was
surprised and captured on May 10, 1775, by
Ethan Allen. On June 30, 1777, Burgoyne in-
vested it and on July 5, by placing a battery on
Mount Defiance, a higher point, then called Sugar
Loaf Hill, he forced the garrison to evacuate
the place. Later in the year General
Lincoln attacked the British here and cap-
tured Mount Defiance, releasing 100 Ameri-
can prisoners and taking 293 of the
English, but he failed to recover the fort
itself. After Burgoyne surrendered at Sara-
toga, the English garrison was removed and the
fort dismantled, though in 1780 another English
force under General Haldimand was stationed
here for a time. After the war the fort gradually
fell in ruins.
TIC-POLONGA.
Plate under SNAKE.
TICUNA, te-koo’na, or TUCUNA. A wild
tribe of uncertain affinity inhabiting the forests
of the Upper Amazon (Marafion) about the con-
fluence of the Javary, on the Brazil-Peru fron-
tier. They go perfectly naked, excepting for neck-
laces of monkey teeth and armlets of feathers,
and depend for a living upon hunting and fishing.
Physically they are well formed, and rather
slender, with a dark complexion and a gentle
expression. In disposition they are honest and
direct. They bury their dead in great earthern
jars, with their face turned toward the rising sun,
and weapons and fruit placed upon the bosom.
They have many interesting masked dances and
curious ceremonies at the naming of children.
TIDAL WAVE. A term erroneously applied
to almost any unexpected wave that inundates
the seacoast or the shore of a great lake. These
waves are rarely, if ever, due to the tides, since
the tidal wave is a phenomenon admitting of
exact calculation and prediction; on the other
hand, they may usually be traced to some distant
earthquake or violent storm. See EARTHQUAKE.
TIDEMAND, te’da-man, ADOLF (1814-76).
A Norwegian genre painter, born at Mandal. He
studied at the Academy of Copenhagen and under
Theador Hildebrandt and Schadow at Diisseldorf,
whence he went to Munich and later to Rome.
Afterwards he usually spent the summer in Nor-
way and the winter at Diisseldorf, where Scan-
dinavian artists congregated around him and
Gude. Besides the large historical compositions
“Gustavus Vasa Addressing the Dalecarlians”
(1841) and “Devotional Meeting of the Hau-
gainer” (gold medal, 1848, National Gallery,
Christiania, and Diisseldorf Gallery), he painted
many genre subjects, remarkable for masterly
conception and vigorous coloring, such as the
cycle of ten pictures illustrating “Norwegian
Peasant Life” (1850, Chateau of Oscarshall, near
Christiania); “Summer Evening on a Lake”
(1851, National Gallery, Berlin); “The Wolf-
Hunter’s Tale” (1853) and “A Funeral in Nor-
way” (1854, both in the Ravené Gallery, ib.);
“Grandmother’s Bridal Crown” (1865, Karlsruhe
Gallery), and others. He died at Christiania.
TIDE-MILL. See WATER-POWER.
TIDES (AS. tid, OHG. zit, Ger. Zeit, time;
connected with Skt. a-diti, boundless, and ulti-
mately with Eng. time). The daily rising and
See DABOIA and Colored
'to be highest directly under it.
falling of the waters of the ocean. When the
water has reached the highest point it is called
high water, and at its lowest point low water.
The rising of the water is called flood, the falling
ebb. Tides are caused by the gravitational at-
traction or pull of the sun and moon upon the
water, and upon the earth itself. The moon,
being so much nearer than the sun, is of course
the principal cause. When the moon is directly
over a given place it pulls the water under it,
and thus tends to heap up a tidal wave just
under the moon. At the same time it is pulling
the earth itself; but it pulls the water more than
the earth underneath, simply because the moon
is nearer to the water on the surface than it is
to the solid earth behind it. For we must remem-
ber that, according to Newton’s law of attraction,
the pull decreases rapidly when the body pulled is
removed to a greater distance. But this reason
also makes the attraction exerted upon the solid
earth greateratthan that affecting the mass of
water upon the side of the earth opposite to the
moon. This water, being still farther away than
is the solid earth, gets the lea-st pull of all. The
earth is, so to speak, pulled away from that part
of the ocean that is opposite the moon, instead
of directly under it. This causes another distinct
heaping up of water opposite the moon, giving us
a second tidal wave. There should be, therefore,
two lunar tidal-wave crests, one directly under
the moon and the other on the side of the earth
opposite the moon. This explanation is modified
somewhat on account of the attraction of the
sun, which at times tends .to increase, and again
at times to diminish, the lunar tide. We thus
get the high tides of new and full moon (spring
tides) and the low tides of certain other ages of
the moon (neap tides). And the double tidal
Wave explains why there are two high tides and
two low tides every twenty-four hours. This ex-
planation is called the ‘equilibrium’ theory of
the tides. It is very plausible, but unfortunately
it fails to agree with observed facts, though it
is nevertheless of great use in leading up to a
better theory. Under the equilibrium theory we
should expect high water at any place about the
time when the moon, as astronomers say, passes
the meridian. This time might be modified by
the solar effects, but only to a rather small
amount easily calculated. Unfortunately, this
is not in accord with observation. There are
places where the high water comes as much as
six hours away from the meridian passage of the
moon. In other words, the equilibrium theory
is at times in error by the maximum possible
amount. The trouble is that it tells us what
would happen if the forces governing the tides
had plenty of time to act. But the turning of
the earth on its axis continually presents a new
meridian to the moon, so that the tidal-wave
crest is always following the moon, ever trying
Thus what
should occur under the equilibrium theory is
greatly modified by the theory of the motion of
fluid waves. This leads them to the ‘dynamical’
theory of the tides. ‘
A consideration of the subject is much simpli-
fied by assuming a condition of things that does
not really exist in nature. Let us imagine a
canal full of water encircling the earth at the
equator. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to in-
vestigate what would happen to a wave set in
TIDES.
TIDE WATERS.
730
motion in such a canal. It can be shown mathe-
matically that the speed at which such a wave
would travel depends simply on the depth of the
canal. The deeper the canal, the greater the speed
of the wave. This is, of course, very important,
and shows what a perfectly free wave would do
under such simplified conditions. It can even be
computed that if the canal were 13% miles deep,
the wave would travel round the earth in exactly
twenty-four hours. Now, it is the tendency of
the sun and moon to set such a free wave in
motion at each instant of time; and these go on
traveling along more or less like the supposed
simple wave in the canal. If the ocean were
13%, miles deep, the waves would have a period
of one day; and the new free wayes forming all
the time would reinforce the old ones, leading
to an enormous tidal accumulation. Fortunate-
ly, the ocean is much less than 13%/.;miles deep,
and the waves travel much mo ‘e slowly than
once a day. It may happen, th efore, that as
the waves travel around the earth, their speed
may be such that we shall find a wave hollow
instead of a wave crest under the moon. Thus,
the modification of the equilibrium theory by the
wave motion may at times completely reverse
things, giving us low tide when we should ex-
pect high tide.
We may carry the canal idea a step further,
with a remarkably interesting result. Suppose
the whole surface of the earth were covered with
a series of canals parallel to the equatorial canal.
Then, as we approach the pole, the canals will be
shorter, since the equatorial circumference of the
earth is longer than it is in any other latitude.
Thus the waves in high latitudes would not have
so far to go as the waves in low latitudes, and
so might tend to reinforce each other as ex-
plained above. So we might have ‘inverted’
tides in the equatorial regions and direct ones
in the polar regions; and in some intermediate
latitude there would be, as Darwin says, “very
great tides, the nature of which cannot be speci-
fied exactly.” This would occur, as we have
seen, where the earth’s circumference is short
enough to permit a free wave to go all around
in about twenty-four hours. These dynamical
considerations of wave motion in canals lead to
results bearing some sort of resemblance to the
actual observed phenomena of nature. It should
be noted, of course, that the foregoing considera-
tions refer to theoretical conditions such as
would exist if the earth were simply covered
with a layer of water. But the actual facts of
nature are so different that they modify very
greatly the theoretical tidal action of the sun
and moon. So large a part of the terrestrial sur-
face is covered by land that the free motion of
tidal waves is seriously impeded. It is therefore
impossible to predict the times of high water
accurately from theoretical considerations alone.
Fortunately, the practical prediction of the time
of high water for any place can be effected by
analyzing a long series of tidal observations made
at the place in question. This method of pro-
cedure has been in use for many years, and we
now possess tidal tables for all principal sea-
ports accurate enough for the purposes of navi-
gation.
An interesting modification of ordinary tides
occurs in rivers. Here the tidal rise appears of
course as a strong current running up-stream,
where the ocean level outside the river-mouth
has been raised. At times this tidal current
advances with a high and dangerous wave crest
(called a bore), and it may acquire velocity
enough to raise the water-level in the river con-
siderably above that of the ocean outside. Phe-
nomena of this kind, and indeed all tidal phe-
nomena, are partly modified by the configuration
of the coast line and the depth of water.
TIDE WATERS. Waters subject to the ebb
and flow of the tides. The term is of legal sig-
nificance because synonymous in the common law
with ‘navigable waters,’ in relation to which were
developed the system of rules defining the rights
and obligations of transportation and commerce
thereon. The open sea is the common property
of all nations (see HIGH SEAS) and the rights
of a particular nation thereon are restricted to
the marginal belt of a marine league. (See TER-
RITORIAL WATERS.) By the rules of the common
law still prevailing in England, both the title
and dominion of the sea, and of all rivers and
arms of seas where the tide ebbs and flows, and
or all lands below high-water mark, including
both the shore and the soil under such waters,
are vested in the Crown for the public benefit.
Tidal waters are public highways, but non-tidal
waters, though actually navigable, are subject
to private ownership, the riparian owners hold-
ing title to the middle of the stream, subject to
the paramount right of the public use for navi-
gation. In the United States the physical fea-
tures of the country and its dual political organ-
ization rendered a strict application of the com-
mon-law rule inexpedient, and the law in regard
to inland streams not subject to tides varies some-
what in this regard in the different State juris-
dictions. Prior to the adoption of the Constitu-
tion, the colonies existing as separate political
entities had exercised full sovereignty. While
under the Constitution the Federal Government
possesses exclusive jurisdiction over dealings with
foreign nations and in the regulation of inter-
state commerce (Article I. § viii. sub. 3), yet
the title and dominion of tidal waters and lands
remains prima facie vested in the several States
abutting thereon for the public benefit, subject
only to the paramount right of navigation, which,
whether of foreign or interstate commerce, is
under the governance of the general Government.
In this respect also the rights of the
original thirteen States and of those later
admitted are the same, and as to the territory
acquired subsequent to the adoption of the Con-
stitution, the title and dominion of such tidal
lands and waters passes to the United States for
the benefit of the whole people, but impressed with
a trust for the several States ultimately created
out of said territory, except in cases where grants
have been made by the sovereignty exercising
jurisdiction prior to its acquisition by the United
States, or where said lands are subject to trusts
requiring other disposition. Such were the rules
laid down in regard to the territory of California
acquired from Mexico. Yet it has been some-
times held that Congress has the power, whenever
necessary and proper, to grant lands below high-
water mark in tidal waters in territories belong-
ing to the United States.
In Canada it has been decided that the Saint
Lawrence River and the Great Lakes are
public navigable Waters and are not subject to
TIDE WATE-RS.
TIEDGE.
731
the common-law rule applying to non-tidal
waters, which vests title to the middle of
the stream in the riparian owners, but that
title and dominion thereto belong to the Crown
for the use and benefit of the public. Further,
by the English law the power of legislation over
both tidal and non-tidal waters is vested in
Parliament. Private rights to shores and to
lands beneath tidal waters can be acquired only
by express grant, prescription, or usage. In
England the recipient of such grant cannot sus-
tain a claim prejudicial to the public user. In
the United States the right of State legislatures
to alienate this right of public domain has not
been accurately defined. The Supreme Court of
the United States has recognized this right so
far as it does not substantially impair the in-
terests of the public. Instances of such valid
grants are those made to a municipality for
docks and like commercial facilities, grants to
railroads for right of way, and grants to owners
of uplands for beneficial enjoyment or commercial
purposes. Impediments to_ navigation in tidal
waters unless authorized by a competent power
are nuisances and may be abated. When by un-
avoidable accident a vessel is sunk and the owner
abandons control, he is not liable for injuries
caused thereby, though navigation is obstructed.
See such articles as RIPARIAN RIGHTS; HIGH
SEAS; MARE CLAUSUM, etc., and consult Gould,
The Law of Waters (3d ed., Albany, 1900) ; Coul-
son and Forbes, The Law Relating to Waters (2d
ed., London, 1902).
TIDORE, té-d5'ra. A small island of the
Molucca Archipelago, situated off the west coast
of Gilolo, a few miles south of Ternate (q.v.).
It is important as the seat of the Sultan of Ti-
dore, who, under Dutch supervision, exercises
authority over parts of Gilolo, New Guinea, and
neighboring islands. See MOLUCCAS.
TIE. In music, an arch drawn over two notes
on the same degree, uniting them so that they
are played or sung as one single note of the
same value. See SYNCOPATION.
TIECK, ték, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH ( 177 6-1851) .
A German sculptor, born in Berlin, pupil of
Schadow there, and of David d’Angers in Paris.
In 1801-05 he was employed at Weimar, where
he associated with Goethe, and designed his bust,
Which he afterwards also executed in marble for
the Walhalla. In 1805 he went to Italy, re-
turning to Germany in 1809, at the invitation
of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria. For this
patron he executed at Munich and Carrara a
large number of busts, including those of the
Prince himself, of Schelling, of Humboldt, and of
his brother, Ludwig Tieck. In 1819 he began his
celebrated series of mythological sculptures for
the Royal Theatre at Berlin, and in 1820 he was
made professor at the Berlin Academy. This
work occupied him until 1829, when he began the
series for the Berlin Museum, which include
the bronze group of “Horse Tamers” upon the
roof, and a statue of Schinkel in the corridor.
Tieck was one of the principal representatives of
the school founded by Rauch. His technique,
however, was less naturalistic than that of
Rauch, and smoother and more detailed in execu-
tion.
TIECK, LUDWIG (1773-1853). A German ro-
mantic novelist, translator, and critic, brother of
VOL. XVI.—47.
the preceding, born in Berlin. After studies at
Halle, Giittingen, and Erlangen and four years
of literary work in Berlin, Tieck went to Jena in
1799 and joined the Schlegels and Novalis in
their romantic agitation. Leaving Jena, he went
to Dresden, moved to Frankfort on the Oder,
visited Italy (1805), England and France
(1817), and in 1825 became director of the Dres-
den Court Theatre after having since 1819 been
the centre of a literary circle there. Royal favor
brought him in 1841 back to Berlin, where his
dramatic talents were used in the production of
several Greek plays. Tieck’s significant literary
career opens with Abdallah (1795), Ste-rnbalds
Wa¢zderungen (1798), and William Lovell (1795-
96), all novels of ‘storm and stress.’ His youth-
ful imagination ran riot also in medizeval legends
and fairy tales, e.g. the three volumes of l‘ollss-
miirohen (1797), among which were versions of
Puss in Boo-ts, Bluebeard, and Red Riding Hood.
A comedy, The World Topsy-Tar/vy (1799), Die
oerkehrte VVelt, proclaimed even more emphati-
cally his period of romantic revolt. To this year
belong also the ultra-romantic Phantasien rilber
die Kanst, full of enthusiasm and of a mystic
religiosity. His Romantisohe Diohtangen (2
vols., 1799 and 1800) were the first work to show
the direct influence of association with the
Schlegels. They were followed by an admirable
translation of Don Quiwote (1799-1801) and by
Kaiser Octauianas (1804), his longest novel.
This period of rapid production was succeeded by
a nervous breakdown. After his recovery his
work is less mystic, less erratic, more artistic,
e.g. Phantasus (1812-17), and an edition of
Ulrich von Lichtenstein’s F-rauend-ienst (1812),
but Tieck did not reach the complete maturity
of his genius till his visit to England, the direct
results of which are- Shakespeare’s Vorschule
(1823-29), Dramatzlrg-isohen Bliltter (1826), and
his noble continuation of Schlegel’s translation of
Shakespeare. Indirectly the same influence is
seen in the Novellenhrans (1831-35; 12 vols.,
1853). Tieck’s Works are in 28 volumes (1828-
54). Some tales and novels are translated by
Carlyle and by Thirlwall. Consult the German
studies by Kopke (Leipzig, 1855), Friesen (Vi-
enna, 1871), and Steiner (Berlin, 1893). Car-
lyle’s Essay on Tieck was published in 1823 and
introduced him to English readers.
TIEDGE, téd’ge, Gnsrsrorn Aueusr (1752-
1841). A German poet, born at Gardelegen,
Prussian Saxony. After studying jurisprudence
at Halle, he occupied positions as secretary and
tutor at Magdeburg, Ellrich, and Halberstadt,
and in 1799 settled in Berlin. There he met
Elisa von der Recke, whom he accompanied on a
journey to Italy in 1804-06, remaining afterward
her faithful companion, first in Berlin and from
1819 on at Dresden, where, placed beyond ma-
terial care by his friend’s last will, he continued
to live until death. Some singable lyrics, of
which “Schtine Minka, ich muss scheiden” is still
unforgotten, first established his reputation, and
Urania fiber Gott, Unsterbliohlceit and Freiheit
(1800; 18th ed., 1862), a lyric-didactic poem, in-
spired by the ethics of Kant, enjoyed wide popu-
larity in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
A kind of sequel to it were the Wandemmge-n
darch den M arkt des Lebens (1833). Among his
other poetical efforts, the Elegi-en and oermlschte
Gediohte (1803) met with the greatest success.
TIEDGE.
TIEN-TSIN.
732
After his death the Tiedge Foundation was es-
tablished in Dresden for the purpose of caring
for the poet’s grave and of granting subventions
to poets and artists or their widows and children.
Administered by the Saxon Ministry of Public
Instruction, its funds amounted to more than
662,000 marks, in 1901. Consult: Falkenstein,
Tiedge’s Leben and poet-ischer Naehlass (Leipzig,
1841) ; Eberhard, Bliche in Tiedges and Elisas
Leben (Berlin, 1844); and Kern, Beitriige ea
‘einer Ch-arakteristilc des Dichters Tiedge (ib.,
1896).
TIEFFENBRUCKER, té’fe11-bruk’ér. A well-
known violin-maker of the sixteenth century.
See DUIFFOPRUGGAR, CASPAR.
TIEL, tel. A town in the Netherlands, Prov-
ince of Gelderland, situated on the right bank
of the Waal, and on the Elst-Dordrecht Railway,
19 miles west of Nimeguen (Map: Netherlands,
D 3). The town possesses the beautiful Church
of Saint Mary, partly finished, the Church of
Saint Martin, dating probably from the twelfth
century, and a communal college. Tiel was an
important commercial centre as early as 972,
when it received municipal privileges from the
Emperor Otho I. It is the principal trading
place of the Neuse-Waal district. It manufac-
tures mustard and madder. Population, in 1890,
9896; in 1900, 10,788. . '
TIELE, té’le, CORNELIS PETRUS (1830-1902).
A Dutch theologian. He was born near Leyden,
and studied at Leyden. and Amsterdam. He
then entered the ministry, being connected with
the Remonstrant or Radical sect of the Evangeli-
cal Church, and served churches at Moordrecht
and Rotterdam (1853-1872). Meanwhile he con-
tinued his theological studies and published a
' valuable work on Zoroastrianism, De Godsdienst
/van Zarathustra (1864). In 1866 he began with
Kuenen the editing of the Theologisch Tijdschrift,
which at once became one of the leading Conti-
nental reviews. In 1872 he published a Oom-
paratioe History of Egyptian and Semitic Re-
ligions. In 187 3 he became professor of theology
at the Remonstrant Seminary at Leyden, and
while there published a Manual of the History
of Religions (1876), which at once took a lead-
ing place in the literature of the subject. It has
been translated into English (History of Re-
‘ ligion, London, 1877). In 1877 Tiele became pro-
fessor of the history and philosophy of religion.
In 1893 he began the publication of a monu-
mental work on The History of Religions_Down
to the Days of Alearancler the Great, three vol-
umes of which have appeared, and a fourth post-
humous volume is expected (translated into
German, Geschichte der Religion im Alterthwn,
Gotha, 1895). In 1896-97 he gave two courses
of lectures at Edinburgh on the Gifford Founda-
tion, published as The Elements of the Science of
Religion (1897-99), and also in Holland and
Germany. He also wrote the article “Religion”
in the Eneyclopwdia Britannica, 9th ed. His
Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte (Gotha, 1886-
88) has but one rival in its extensive scope. Con-
sult notices by Jastrow in The Open Court, vol.
xiv. ; The Independent, vol. liv.; and The Study
of Religion (New York, 1902) .
TIENEN, té/-nen. A town of Belgium. See
TIBLEMONT. '
- of Taiping
TIEN-TSIN, tyén'tsin’ ; properly 'I."IEN-
TSIN (Heaven’s Ford). A city and treaty
port of the Province of Chih-li, China, situ-
ated on the eastern edge of the Great Plain,
in latitude 39° 10’ N., longitude 117° 48' E., on
the right bank of the Pei-ho (Map: China, E 4) .
It is at the junction of the Pei-ho with the
Grand Canal, which, prior to the silting of the
canal, afforded easy inland communicationwith
many of the great cities of the country and bore
to Tien-tsin the great fleets of junks engaged
in the transportation from the south of the
‘tribute-rice’ for the provisioning of Peking. It
is 70 miles by water from the sea, and about 70
southeast of Peking. It is in rail communication
with Peking, the Kai-ping coal mines, Shan-
hai-kwan, and Manchuria, and with Pao-ting-fu,
and thence southward through Ching-ting with
Hankow. The city, which was only a wei or
military station until 1782, is comparatively
small. Its walls of brick and stone are 30 feet
high, nearly four miles in circuit, and pierced
with four gates surmounted with towers. The
houses are generally of brick or pressed mud,
and only one story high. Like those of most
Chinese cities, the streets are filthy and ill-kept
The suburbs are very large, and in them is car-
ried on most of the trade. The population is
1,000,000. In 1860 Tien-tsin was opened by
treaty to foreign residence and trade. The For-
eign Settlement—known as Tsu-chu-lin, or ‘Red-
Bamboo Grove’—is also situated on the right
bank of the river and about 1% miles below the
city, but within the line of circumvallation
known as ‘San-ko-lin-sin’s Folly.’ It is laid out.
in foreign style, has a jetty or pier and a fine
bund or esplanade along the river bank, good,
well-kept streets, fine dwellings and warehouses,
gas, electric lights, and many good public build-
ings, such as the custom house and the town
hall, known as Gordon Hall. There are schools,
hospitals, club houses, and the naval school estab-
lished by Li Hung Chang, and within a short
distance are two well-equipped arsenals. The
government of the settlement _is vested in a
municipal council elected by and composed of the
land-renters.
Tien-tsin has no factories. Its principal manu-
factures are straw braid and sam-shu, and cured
skins and tobacco. There is an immense trade
-in salt.
In 1901 the total value of the trade of the port,
as shown by ‘the Imperial Maritime Customs Re-
ports, was $38,370,000, of which $20,450,000 rep-
resented direct foreign imports. The principal
imports are woolens, drills, sheetings, shirt-
ings, jeans, twills, seaweed, sugar, rice, grain,
kerosene oil, tea, opium, steel, and salt (the
last is a Government monopoly). The articles of
export are sam-shu, straw braid, furs, goat-
skins, camels’ wool, coal, wood, tobacco, fruit,
and rhubarb. Nearly all the tea consumed in
Asiatic Russia is shipped from the south to
Tien-tsin, from which point it goes overland by
caravans to Kalgan, and thence to Siberian ports.
In 1853 Tien-tsin was besieged by a strong force
rebels on their way to Peking, but
they were defeated by the Mongol general San-ko-
lin~sin and driven off. In 1860 it was taken
by the Anglo-French punitive expedition _on
its way to Peking. While Li Hung Chang was
Viceroypof Chih-li, from 1870 to 1895, he made
TIEN-TSIN.
TIERCE.
733
his headquarters at Tien-tsin, and in consequence
the city was the centre of much political interest.
Its importance in this respect greatly declined
when Li was removed from office after the dis-
astrous war with Japan in 1894-95. During the
Boxer uprising in 1900 the foreign settlement
suffered from the besieging Boxers, and the city
from the relieving forces of the Allies. The'city
held out until the severe fighting of July 13th-
l4th, during which the Allies lost in killed and
wounded between 800 and 900, the United States
contingent, in proportion to its number, suffer-
ing most. The city is connected with the rest of
the world by cable, and with the British Legation
in Peking by the Marconi wireless system. Ow-
ing to the importance of the foreign business
interests centred here, and the proximity of the
town to Peking, the Viceroy of the province,
whose seat is at Pao-ting-fu, spends a large por-
tion of the year here. As the river freezes over
in winter, Tien-tsin is cut off from the outer
world from about November to April, but the for-
eign admirals always agree to have at least one
gunboat stationed off the bund during that pe-
riod.
TIEPOLO, ts-5/1:5-lo, GIDVANNI BATTISTA
(1696-1770). The last great master of the
Venetian school of painting. Of his life hardly
anything is known. He was not a member of the
celebrated family of Tiepolo, as has been sup-
posed. He was born April 5, 1696, and at an early
age was placed with the painter Lazzarini, a
mannerist, whom he soon left for Piazzetta. He
was, however, more influenced by the great mas-
ters of the past, especially by Veronese. It is
impossible to fix the dates for his pictures before
1737. We know that he was famous long be-
fore that, and was patronized by the Doge Cor-
naro and noble Venetian families, and by many
cities and churches in Northern Italy. The first
of his principal works that can with certainty
be dated are the beautiful decorations of the
Villa Valmerana at Vicenza, executed in 1737.
The subjects are taken from Homer, Vergil,
Ariosto, and Tasso. In freshness and charm, in
conception and technique, they bear favorable
comparison with Veronese’s masterpieces in the
Villa Maser. In 1739 followed the three ceil-
ing decorations in Santa Maria del Rosario
(Venice), including the “Institution of the
Rosary,” and in 1743-44 those of the church of
the Scalzi, the chief of which represents “Angels
Bearing the Casa Santa from Nazareth to
Loreto.” To the same period belong the ceiling
paintings of the Palazzo Rezzonico, and about 1745
he decorated the grand hall of the Palazzo Labia.
The ceiling is highly fantastic, and the illusive
architectural decorations of the walls form an
7 admirable framing for two of his best frescoes,
“Cleopatra’s Banquet” and the “Embarkment of
Cleopatra and Anthony.” The date of his dec-
orations in the archiepiscopal palace at Udine,
one of his best works, is not known.
Under the patronage of Karl Philipp of Grei-
fenklau, Bishop of Wiirzburg, Tiopolo passed the
years 1750-53 in that city, engaged in decorating
the episcopal (now the royal) -palace. On the
lofty ceiling over the grand staircase he painted
frescoes of “Olympus” and of the “Four Quar-
ters of the Earth;” in the Kaisersaal, three
scenes from the life of Frederick Barbarossa; in
the chapel, two large altar-pieces, the “Ascen-
sion of the Virgin” and the “Fall of the Angels.”
Returning to Venice in 1754, he became director
of the Venetian Academy. Between this time
and his departure for Spain he painted another
grand ceiling decoration, the “Triumph of
Faith,” in the Chiesa della Piet:1, and perhaps
most of his easel pictures. About March, 1762,
he was summoned by King Charles III. to Spain
to decorate the royal palace. In the guard
room he painted the “Smithy of Vulcan,” in the
ante-room an “Apotheosis of Spain,” and in the
throne-room, magnificent ceil.ing frescoes of
“Spain and Her Provinces.” At Madrid he exe-
cuted most of his etchings, and it was there that
he died, March 22, 1770.
In the classical reaction immediately follow-
ing Tiepolo’s death, scant justice was done him,
and not until comparatively recent times has
he been accorded his place. His art is essen-
tially decorative, and harmonizes perfectly with
the Rococo architecture of the day. The color is
light and flaky, and exquisitely delicate, and
the treatment of light is above reproach. To
a wonderfully rich fantasy and invention he
joined an equal facility of execution. Some-
times he degenerates into extravagances, and
what prevents him from ranking with the great-
est artists of all time is the frivolity of his con-
ceptions and the artificiality consequent upon the
lack of a more direct contact with nature.
Tiepolo’s easel pictures show the same grace
of form and charm of color as his frescoes, and
are more carefully executed. Among the best
known are “Christ in the Garden of Olives” and
“Calchas and Iphigenia,” in the Liechtenstein
Gallery at Vienna; “Saint Catherine of Siena”
and an “Adoration of the Kings,” in the Im-
perial Gallery (ib.) ; “Martyrdom of Saint
Agatha” and “After the Bath,” in the Berlin
Museum; the “Immaculate Conception” at
Vicenza and Madrid; and a “Holy Family with
Saint Gaetano,” in the Venetian Academy. In
the Venetian churches are several altar-pieces,
like “Madonna in Glory” in the Church of the
Jesuits, and “Christ Bearing the Cross” in Sant’
Aluise. His etchings show much taste and neat-
ness of execution, and in their weird humor and
naturalism they resemble those of Goya, whose
Oaprichos probably inspired Tiepolo’s principal
series, Scherei di Fantasia. Of his two sons, who
assisted in most of his works, DOMENICO (1727-
1804) etched several of his father’s paintings
and painted inferior frescoes in his style, while
of LORENZO, the younger son, almost nothing is
known.
Consult: Zanetti, Della pittura Veneziana
(Venice, 1771); Urbani de Gheltof, Tiepolo et
la sua famiglia (Venice, 1879), and Tiepolo in
Ispagna (Venice, 1881) ; Molmenti, La villa Val-
marana (Venice, 1880), and Carpaccio e Tie-
polo (Turin, 1885), and the biographies of
Wessely, in Dohme’s Kunst und Kiinstler I taliens
(Leipzig, 1877); Leitschuh, (Wiirzburg, 1896);
and Chennerieres (Paris, 1898).
TIERCE (OF., Fr. tiers, third part, from Lat.
tertius, third, from tres, three). In music, an
interval (q.v.) synonymous with a third. In
the organ, a mutation stop pitched 2% octaves
above the diapason.
TIERCE.
TIETJENS.
7 34
TIERCE. In heraldry (q.v.), a term of
blazon used to indicate that the field is divided
by lines into three equal parts.
TIERGARTEN, ter’gar-ten (Ger., Zoiilogical
Garden). The largest park of Berlin, on the
south side of the Spree and west of the Branden-
burg Gate. It contains 600 acres and is about
2 miles long. Portions of the park retain the
natural features of forest and lake. It con-
tains a number of fine statues and the column
of victory from which the Siegesallee, the most
fashionable drive of the city, leads south.
TIER’NEY, GEORGE (1761-1830). An Eng-
lish politician. He was born at Gibraltar, Spain,
was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and in
1878 entered Parliament as a Whig. There he
soon acquired a high reputation as a debater,
and, after Fox’s withdrawal, became a prom-
inent if not the leading opponent of Pitt’s policy.
For several years it was his custom to bring
forward a series of resolutions opposed to those
of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was finally
accused by the latter of deliberately impeding
public business, and as a consequence fought
a bloodless duel with him. In 1803 he became
treasurer of the navy and a Privy Councilor, and
after acting as Secretary of State for Ireland
(1806), was president of the Board of Control
(1806-07) and master of the mint in Canning’s
Ministry (1827-28). After 1817 he was the
recognized leader of the Opposition.
TIERRA DEL FUEGO, te-er’ra del fwa’go
(Sp. Land of Fire; formerly often written in
the corrupted form TERRA DEL FUEGO) . An archi-
pelago situated between latitude 52° and 56°
south, off the extreme southern end of South
America, from which it is separated by the
Strait of Magellan (Map: America, South, C 8).
It consists of a large main island sometimes
called King Charles South Land, and a num-
ber of smaller islands lying to the west and
south of it, the southern group being sep-
arated from the main island by Beagle Chan-
nel. The total area of the archipelago is esti-
mated at over 27,000 square miles, of which
the main island occupies more than four-fifths.
The principal of the smaller islands are, be-
ginning at the northwest, Desolacion, Santa Inez,
Clarence, Hoste, Navarin, Wollaston, and at the
extreme south, Horn Island, ending in Cape
Horn. At the extreme east lies the isolated
Staten Island or Isla de los Estados. All these
islands are separated from each other and from
the mainland by narrow, deep, and tortuous chan-
nels, and are, together with the west coast of
the main island, deeply indented by narrow
fiords. The east coast is more regular. The
Andean mountain system is continued in several
ranges through the western part of the archi-
pelago, covering all the smaller islands and the
western half of the main island. They are mostly
of Mesozoic formation with considerable granitic
and volcanic intrusions, though there are no
volcanoes. Their height averages 3500 feet, and
Mount Sarmiento, an imposing snow-clad peak
on the southwestern peninsula of the main island,
has an altitude of 7200 feet. The eastern half
of the main island is a continuation of the
Patagonian plateau.
The climate of Tierra del Fuego is not so
rigorous as it was formerly supposed to be.
It is an equable oceanic climate with no ex-
treme heat or cold. A meteorological station
established since 1896 at Ushuaia on Beagle
Channel shows a mean temperature for Janu-
ary to be 52.7°, and for July 31°. The rainfall
is greater than on the Patagonian plateau, and
the country is more favorable for settlement
than the 'more northern regions. The eastern
region l1as good soil and pasture land, and
along the base of the mountains there are ex-
tensive forests of beech (Fagus antarctica) and
pine. The western islands, which have not been
thoroughly explored, are less favorable as regards
climate and soil, but in the east and along Beagle
Channel hardy cereals will ripen, and consider-
able areas Of land have already been brought
under cultivation by white settlers. Agriculture
and cattle-raising are the main occupations,
though gold has been found in paying quantities,
and seams of lignite have also been discovered.
The native Fuegians are rapidly disappearing,
and now number probably less than 1000. They
belong to three distinct tribes, the Aliculufs in
the central regions, the Onas in the west, and
the Yaghans in the south. Politically the por-
tion of the main island lying east of a line run-
ning from the eastern entrance of the Strait of
Magellan to the middle of Beagle Channel, to-
gether with the Isla de los Estados, constitutes
the Argentine Territory of Tierra del Fuego ( q.v.) .
The remaining portions belong to the Chilean
- Territory of Magallanes. The civilized population
of the Argentine Territory, which contains prac-
tically all the inhabitants, was 477 in 1895, and
2159 in 1900. The archipelago was discovered
by Magellan in 1520, but was never systemat-
ically explored until the last two decades of the
nineteenth century.
Consult: Bove, Patagonia, Terra del Fuoco
(Genoa, 1883); Hyades and Deniker, Anthro-
pologie et ethnographic (Paris, 1891) ; Conway,
Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (London, 1902) .
TIERRA DEL FUEGO. A territory of- Ar-
gentina, formed of a portion of the main island
of the Archipelago of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.)
and of the Isla de los Estados. It is bounded on
the west by the meridian of 68° 34’ W., which
separates it from the Chilean territories; on
the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; and
on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and the
Beagle Channel (Map: Argentina, D 14). Its
area is about 8000 square miles. The territory
of the island was in dispute until 1881, when by
arbitration of the United States it was divided
between Chile and Argentina. The territorial
Government of the Argentine portion was organ-
ized in 1884. The main river, Pellegrini, is of
little importance. The capital is Ushuaia (q.v.).
TIERS ETAT, ts-as Zara’. See STATES-
GENERAL.
TIES, RAILWAY. See RAILWAYS.
TIETJENS, té’tye'>ns, or TITIENS, TERESA
(1837-77). An operatic -singer, born at Ham-
burg, of Hungarian parents. She made her debut
in that city in the character of Lucrezia Borgia
in 1849, taking at once a very high position on
the lyric stage; at Frankfort and Vienna she
was even more warmly received; and her first
appearance in London in 1858 was a complete
triumph. She visited the United States in 187 5.
The great volume and purity of her voice and
TIETJE-NS.
TIFLIS.
735
her sympathetic and dignified acting combined to
makeher famous in strong dramatic parts.
TIFFANY, CHARLES Comronr (1829—). A
Protestant Episcopal clergyman. He was born
in Baltimore; studied at Dickinson College, An-
dover Theological Seminary, and the universities
of Halle and Heidelberg; and was ordained priest
in 1866. He was rector at Fordham, N. Y.
(1867-71), assistant rector at Trinity Church,
Boston (1871-74) , rector in New York (187 4-90) ,
and Archdeacon of New York (1893-1902). His
publications include History of the Protestant
Episcopal Church (1893) and The Prayer Book
and Oh-ristian Life (1897).
TIFFANY, CHARLES Lours (1812-1902). An
American merchant. He was born at Killingly,
Conn., a11d after receiving an academic education
at Plainfield Academy, and serving an appren-
ticeship in a cotton manufactory, he removed to
New York City in 1837. There in partnership
with a fellow townsman, John B. Young, on a
borrowed capital of $1000 he established at 259
Broadway, next door to A. T. Stewart’s, a sta-
tionery and fancy goods store. The venture pros-
pered from the start, and gradually the jewelry
part of the business became the most important.
In 1847 the firm began the manufacture of gold
jewelry. In the following year, when as a result
of the widespread revolutionary movements in
Europe the price of diamonds fell 50 per cent.,
Mr. Tifi‘any sent word to his partner, Mr. Young,
who was then in Paris to buy all the diamonds
he could. This was done with the result that the
house thereby reaped a large fortune and became
from that time on one of the principal firms of
diamond merchants in the world. Several times
the rapidly increasing business necessitated mov-
ing into larger quarters farther up town and
several tiines the firm name was changed, finally
becoming Tiffany 8: Co. in 1851. At that time a
branch house was established in Paris. During
the Civil VVar Mr. Tiffany placed his store and
resources at the disposal of the Government, and
it became for a time one of the "principal depots
of military supplies. During the draft riots
_(q.v.) in 1863 the store was barricaded and the
clerks were armed in preparation for a threatened
attack of the mob. In 1868 the firm was incor-
porated and in 1870 removed to a specially con-
structed building on Union Square. At that time,
in addition to the Paris branch, a branch house
was maintained in London, and an office and
watch factory in Geneva, Switzerland, and the
house took rank as the leading importers of gems
and works of art as well as the chief manufac-
turing jewelers in America. Mr. Tiffany was the
first to adopt the department store plan for the
jewelry business and was the originator of many
ideas and methods in the jewelry trade since
generally adopted. The sterling silver standard
.925 fine, adopted by him in 1851, became the rec-
ognizedv standard throughout the country. Mr.
Tiffany was made a member of the French Legion
of Honor in 1878 and received at various times
decorations from other foreign rulers. He was a
liberal patron of the fine arts, and did much to
encourage and promote the study and knowledge
of art in America.
TIFFANY, Lours Conrronr (1848—). An
American painter and decorative designer, born
in New York City. He was a pupil of George
Innes and Samuel Coleman, and in Paris of
Léon Bailly, making a special study of the
decorative arts in their relation to architecture.
After his return to the United States he resided
in New York City and devoted his attention to
the direction of the Allied Arts Company and the
Tiffany Glass and Decorative Company. He in-
troduced the art of mosaic in this country, and
produced designs of high power and good decora-
tive quality. His best known invention, how-
ever, is favrile glass, in which by chemical means
he produced delicate refracting powers somewhat
like those in ancient glassware affected by decom- -
position. His works include windows for Colum-
bia University Library, Memorial Hall, Harvard
College, and Yale College, and for many churches.
His principal mosaics are in the crypt of Saint
John’s Cathedral, in New York City. His easel
paintings are principally Oriental scenes.
TIF’FIN. The county-seat of Seneca County,
Ohio, 40 miles southeast of Toledo; on the San-
dusky River, here spanned by several bridges,
and on the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania,
and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint
Louis railroads (Map: Ohio, D 3). It is the seat
of Heidelberg University (Reformed), opened in
1850, and of the College of the Ursuline Sisters,
and has a public library. Other prominent fea-
tures are the court-house, the Soldiers’ Monu-
ment, and Riverview Park. Tifiin is favorably
situated for commerce and also has large indus-
trial interests. Among its manufactures are
tools, pottery, glass, emery wheels, church furni-
ture, agricultural implements, wagons, well-drill-
ing machines, nail, bolt, and nut machines, under-
wear and woolen goods. The government is
vested in a mayor, elected every two years, and a
unicameral council. Tiffin was settled in 1819-21
and was incorporated in 1850. Population, in
1890, 10,801; in 1900, in 10,989. -
TIFFIN, EDWARD (1766-1829). An Ameri-
can physician, preacher, and political leader.
He was born at Carlisle, England, removed to
Charlestown, Va., about 1786, and graduated in
medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in
1789. In 1792 he became a local preacher in the
Methodist Church, and also studied law. About
1798 he removed to Chillicothe, in the Northwest
Territory, and in 1799 was Speaker of the Terri-
torial Legislature. In 1802 he presided over
the convention to frame a State Constitution of
Ohio, and was the first Governor of the State
(1803-07). During his second term he arrested
the Burr-Blennerhasset expedition. - In 1807-09
he was a member of the United States Senate, but
resigned, and in 1809 was Speaker of the Ohio
Legislature. When the General Land Office was
established in 1812, President Madison appointed
Tiffin the first Commissioner, and by his fore-
sight the latter saved all the papers when the
Capitol was burned by the British troops. From
1815 until just before his death he was Surveyor-
General of the Northwest Territory. The town
of Tiffin, Ohio, was named in his honor.
TIFLIS’, Russ. pron. tyef-lyés’. A govern-
ment in the centre of Transcaucasia, Russia.
Area, about 17,200 square miles (Map: Russia,
F 6). It belongs to the region of the Caucasus
(q.V.) and contains numerous snow-clad peaks,
including Kazbek, over 16,000 feet in height.
Between the mountain chains are deep and nar-
row valleys which make Tiflis one of the most
TIFLIS.
TIGER.
736
picturesque and striking parts of the Caucasus.
The principal river is the Kur. The climate
is very severe in the mountainous part. About
one-third of the total area is covered with forests.
Agriculture is the principal occupation in the
valleys and stock-raising in the mountain regions.
Besides cereals, of which wheat is the most im-
portant, fruits, especially grapes, are extensively
raised. Various metals occur and copper is
mined to some extent. The chief manufactures
are flour, cotton goods, tobacco, spirits, etc. The
natives produce various woolen articles, such as
felt, rough cloth, etc., copper and silver articles,
silver thread, filigree work, etc_. Population, in
1897, 1,040,943, of whom the Georgians and the
Armenians constituted 45 and 24 per cent., respec-
tively, and the Russians less than 5 per cent.
TIFLIS. The former capital of Georgia, the
administrative centre of the Caucasus, and the
capital of the Government of Tifiis, situated on
both banks of the Kur, about 340 miles by rail
northwest of the seaport of Baku (Map: Russia,
F 6). The town presents a very mixed appear-
ance. The Russian quarter is well built, with
handsome churches and public buildings and
European shops, while the native quarter is built
in Oriental fashion. The most noteworthy eccle-
siastical structures are the ancient Cathedral of
Zion, containing interesting icons and manu-
scripts; the Monastery of Saint David; and the
old church in the fortress, supposed to date
from the fifth century. There are a natural his-
tory museum with a library, a sericultural sta-
tion with a museum, and extensive botanical
gardens. The principal manufactures are felt,
cotton goods, leather product-s, oil, etc. The
trade, mostly in Armenian hands, is very exten-
sive, Tifiis, in virtue of its railway connection
with the two main seaports of the Caucasus, as
well as with European Russia, being the dis-
tributing centre for Transcaucasia. Population, in
1897, 160,645, principally Armenians, Georgians,
and Russians. The environs abound in sulphur-
ous springs.
TIGER (La-t. tigris, from Gk. 1'l'ypl.s, tiger;
probably connected with Av. tiyra, arrow, tiyra,
sharp, Skt. tij, to be sharp, Gk. 01-lgrw, stizein,
to mark, puncture, and ultimately with Eng.
stick). The largest and most powerful of cats,
Felis tigris, and the most specialized and efficient
of the Carnivora, comparable only with the lion,
and very similar in size and structure, but very
different in appearance and habits. It is more slen-
der and cat-like than the lion, and has a rounder
head and no trace of a mane, but the hair of the
checks is rather long and spreading. Its skull
may be distinguished from that of the lion by the
fact that the nasal bones reach backward beyond
the frontal processes of the maxillae. The males
are rather larger than the females, and make a
more square, less oval footprint or ‘pug.’ The
pupil of the eye is round, however much con-
tracted. The average size of an adult male is
9% feet from nose to tip of tail. Authentic
measurements exceeding 11 feet are very rare,
and stories of 15 to 18 feet entirely erroneous.
Its height at the shoulder is proportionately less
than that of the lion, a large male measuring
from 31/3 to 31/; feet. A ten-foot tiger will weigh
about 500 pounds, The hair is thick, fine, and
shining; in the colder countries thicker and
longer than in tropical regions. The color is a
bright tawny yellow, beautifully marked with
dark transverse bands, passing into pure white
on the under parts; the dark bands are continued
as rings on the tail, which is long and tapering
and has no terminal tuft. These colors and
stripes, sometimes broken, although so conspicu-
ous in a caged tiger, or one standing in the open,
in daylight, so blend with the dusky gloom and
slender shadows of the bamboo jungle or long
grass in which the animal lurks as to make it
practically invisible.
The tiger inhabits Asia, where it has an ex-
tensive but rather localized distribution. West-
wardly its range extends to the Lower Euphrates
and the southern shores of the Caspian; but it
does not occur in Persia south of the Elburz
Mountains, nor in Beluchistan or Afghanistan.
Northward, it is to be found throughout South-
ern Siberia and Mongolia, eastward in the Amur
Valley to the Sea of Okhotsk, in Saghalien and
Japan. The elevated Tibetan plateau has no
tigers. Southward the species ranges through-
out China, Siam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java, and Bali, and all of India, but
is unknown in Ceylon. The last-mentioned cir-
cumstance is a strong part of the evidence which
has led naturalists to conclude that the tiger is
a comparatively recent immigrant into the south,
and that it is not naturally a tropical species.
In general the tiger is .an inhabitant of the
woods and thickets rather than of open lands,
and although able to leap into or climb trees
(except smooth, perfectly upright ones), it does
so only for some special purpose. Usually it hides
in some dense cover by day, and goes abroad
at night in search of prey. It is most numerous
in the swampy shore jungles around the Bay of
Bengal and on the Malayan coasts and marshy
estuaries, where it swims miles from island to
island, or across rivers and inlets.
Its prey consists of almost anything in the
way of flesh, from 'a bison or crocodile to any
small creature‘ which it may think it worth
its while to strike down. Carrion may be eaten
under stress of famine, but as a rule the ani-
mal devours only what it has itself killed, and
ordinarily does not even return a second time to
a carcass from which it hastaken one full meal.
It searches for and stalks its prey, or lies in
ambush and leaps upon it like other cats; and
its method of killing large animals, so far as it
may be said to practice one, is to seize the
shoulders with one paw, grasp the forehead with
the other, and break the neck by a twisting pull.
A band of bison or wild oxen, guarded by bulls
(see B-ISON), will beat it off, and often kill it;
even a single bull in favorable circumstances is
a match for it. The elephant and rhinoceros
have little to fear, and a bear will make a stout
resistance, but such encounters rarely occur; nor
do fights between male tigers seem to be com-
mon, as this cat is not, like the lion, polygamous.
In India and eastward the tiger_ subsists large-
ly upon domestic cattle and hogs, and upon
human beings. ‘Man-eaters,’ when they do not
wholly depend upon human victims, apparently
prefer them; many, but not all, of these are old '
and comparatively feeble. The destruction of hu-
man life thus caused in India and eastward is
very great, and there seems little diminution in
spite of improved arms, an increasing number of
TIGER.
TIGER HUNTING.
737
sportsmen, and Government rewards. In 1902
about 1300 lives were so lost in British India
alone. The prey when struck down is usually
carried away by the tiger to be eaten elsewhere,
and extravagant stories of the tiger’s strength
have been related in connection with this habit.
It is absurd to speak of its leaping a palisade
with a buffalo or even a man in its mouth. A
tiger will lift from the ground and partly carry,
partly drag, an animal of 200 or 300 pounds
weight, with considerable case; but heavier ones
must be laboriously dragged.
Tigers are solitary beasts, rarely hunting even
in pairs, and much less noisy than the lion.
Their usual call is a prolonged, moaning, thrill-
ing sound, repeated twice or thrice and becom-
ing louder or quicker. In the cooler season they
wander widely, but in the hot weather remain
in some narrow district near water——a single
one in each ‘beat.’ Tigresses breed iregularly,
once in two or three years only, regardless of
season, and produce usually two cubs, almost
invariably one male and the other female. The
cubs require three years to reach maturity and
stay with their mother most of this time. When
caught young tigers may easily be tamed, but
are more difficult to rear and less tractable than
lions. Captive and tamed tigers have been kept
by the East Indian rulers from the days of an-
tiquity, and a favorite amusement was to pit
them in the arena against lions, in which com-
bats they were usually victorious. The ‘royal
Bengal tiger’ has been a part of the showman’s
stock in trade ever since, and is to be seen in
every menagerie, where these animals breed, but
less readily than do the lions. Some have been
trained to go through certain performances.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Recent general works, espe-
cially Brel1m’s, the Royal, the Standard, and the
Cambridge “Natural Histories;” Mivart, The
Cat (New York, 1892) ; Elliot, Monograph of the
Felidce (1878-83); Fayrer, Royal Tiger of Ben-
gal (London, 1875) ; Blanford, Fauna of British
India (London, 1888): Sanderson, 1Vild Beasts
of India (London, 1893); Baker, Wild Beasts
and Their Ways (London, 1890); Pollok, Sport
in British Burma (London, 1879) ; and the writ-
ings of Kinlock, Forsyth, Shakespeare, Wallace,
Rice, Baldwin. Dawson, and other sportsmen-
travelers in Eastern Asia, a capital summary
of whose observations will be found in Porter’s
Wild Beasts (New York, 1894). See Colored
Plate of FELIDZE accompanying article LION.
TIGER BEETLE. One of the active, preda-
tory beetles of the family Cicindelidae. Of the
carnivorous beetles they are among the most
active, voracious, and fierce, whence they receive
their name. They frequent sandy places and
earthen paths, and have the habit when ap-
proached of running rapidly for some distance,
occasionally turning suddenly back, and often
taking to flight. While variously colored, and
sometimes even bright green spotted with yellow-
ish, they harmonize as a rule with the general
color of their environment. Their larvae live in
deep, straight vertical burrows in the ground,
and station themselves near the burrow’s mouth,
holding themselves in position by means of a
pair of strong hooks on the fifth segment of the
abdomen. The head and thorax are broad, and
are used to block the mouth of the burrow while
waiting for prey. The food consists of insects


which alight on the spot or run over it. Some
1400 species are known, the majority of them in-
habiting the tropics. Some species are wing-
less, while others are very active; some are
found only on the mounds of
termites; some species frequent
the trunks of trees which they
ascend in a spiral manner. Less
than a hundred species are
known in the United States, but
tiger beetles are abundant and
are seen everywhere. The larg-
est American form is Ambly-
chila cylindriform is, which is
found in sandy regions in the
mid-Western States. Tetracha
Carolina and Tetracha Virginica
are large greenish species found
in the Atlantic and Southern States. The genus
Cicindela contains more than half the species in
the entire family, and a very great majority of
the forms which are found in North America. A
typical American species, the spotted tiger beetle
(Cicindela sea:-guttata) is depicted upon the Col-
ored Plate of INSECTS.
TIGER-CAT. Any wild cat of medium size
which resembles the tiger in form or markings.
The ocelot, serval (qq.v.), and especially the
chati (Felis mitis) of South America, and
clouded tiger of India are frequently so called.
See TIGER; WILD CAT.
TIGER-FLOWER (so called from the color-
ing). Tigridia Panonia. A plant of the natural
order Iridaceae, distinguished by the three large
outer segments of the perianth and by the fila-
ments being united into a long cylinder. It is
a native of Mexico, but hardy enough to endure
the climate of the United States, and much cul-
tivated in flower-gardens for the singularity and
great beauty of its ephemeral flowers. The root
is ascaly bulb.
TIGER-HUNTING. Tiger-hunting probably
taxes man’s skill and courage in a higher degree
than the pursuit of any other sort of game, and
may justly be placed at the head of the list of
sports of the chase. The enormous strength of
the beast, coupled with savage cunning, renders it
the most formidable of brute foes. Nothing is
more patent in the voluminous history of the
sport (see TIGER for outline of pertinent litera-
ture) than that no two tigers behave in the same
way when encountered; and the same animal may
act differently at different times. Tigers learn
by experience, have no fear whatever of man as
man, and rarely make tactical mistakes. In some
parts of India hunters in parties go after them
on foot, but this is justly regarded as an ex
treme of foolhardiness; the hunter’s handicap is
far too great, and few men dare the risks of this
kind of sport. One of two methods usually is
chosen by the tiger-hunter according to circum-
stances: (1) lying in wait for the animal at
night (when there is moonlight) on an elevated
platform, or (2) seeking him upon the back of a
trained elephant. The former is the choice in
cases where a tiger is known to haunt a particu-
lar locality. The hunter then chooses a likely
spot and builds a platform or ‘machan’ (usually
in a small tree), which must be raised not less
than 12 feet above the ground, and be large
enough to hold two persons. On the ground
A TIGER BEETLE.
TIGER HUNTING.
TIGLATH-PILESER.
738
near by is placed the carcass of a deer or cow ;
an even better bait is a tethered live goat. An
hour before sunset the hunter, with a native as-
sistant, climbs upon the platform and awaits the
coming of the tiger. Sometimes the animal
steals out of the shadows and seizes and carries
off the prey so quickly that no good chance for
a shot is offered. Again it will stalk boldly out
and stand in full view. Sometimes when fired
at, but not killed, it darts back into the jungle
and disappears, but it may also attack and tear
down the machan, or lurk near by to seize the
men when they descend.
The most effective method of hunting the tiger
is by means of elephants, and with the aid of
native shikaries and heaters. Frequently the
preparations are upon a scale of royal magnifi-
cence, for so kings and princes are accustomed
to entertain one another in the East, especially
when a native ruler desires to honor or gratify
some some European guest or ally. On such
occasions the game has been surrounded and
watched for days previously by an army of im-
tives. The costly and splendid tiger-hunting
with which King Edward VII. was entertained
when visiting India as the Prince of Wales will
long remain memorable even in that country of
royal pageantry. The method in this master-
sport is to surround the tiger by a sufficient num-
ber of ‘beaters,’ who, by beating drums and mak-
ing a great noise, drive it toward the favorable
spot where the sportsmen are awaiting it upon
the backs of elephants, which are furnished with
open, box-like howdahs. As the circle narrows
the drivers become more cautious, for the animal
may be depended upon to know the country per-
fectly, and to make use of every means of conceal-
ment and escape, or of attack. Then men are
stationed in trees to try to trace his movements
and warn others by cries and signs. Meanwhile
the sportsmen press forward on their elephants,
depending largely upon the senses and sagacity
of these animals for a warning of the terrific and
usually unforeseen charge of the animal, which
may by a bold leap tear the hunter from the
howdah, or stampede the elephant, or get through
the barrier alive. It is a moment which calls for
the utmost coolness and skill as well as courage,
and the sport is never free from peril. The
danger is multiplied by the various accidents
possible. Even if the tiger is unable to spring
upon the elephant, saddle-girths may break or
howdahs may fall. Nine out of ten elephants,
even if always stanch heretofore, will become
panic-stricken and bolt, when the danger of their
riders being dashed against a tree and killed is
more imminent than any other. Thus unforeseen
casualties are numerous, and the total tangible
reward is only a hide, which after all may be of
inferior beauty and value.
TIGER-LILY. See LILY.
TIGER-MOTH. A name applied on account
of their coloration to certain moths of the family
Arctiidae, as Arctia nais, and especially to the
Isabella tiger-moth (Isia Isabella), an American
species, grayish yellow with black markings. The
caterpillar is known as the ‘woolly bear,’ and is
densely clothed with reddish brown and black
hairs. It feeds upon a great variety of low-
growing herbage. See Colored Plate of AMERI-
CAN MoTHs.
TIGER-SHARK. The largest, fiercest, and
most formidable of VVest Indian sharks (Galeo-
cerdo tigrinus), brown in color, with numerous
small dark spots which give the fish its name,
but grow indistinct with age.
TIGER-SNAKE. An elapine, poisonous snake
(H oplocephalus curtus) of Australia. See DEATH-
ADDEB.
TIGHE, ti, Mrs. MARY (BLACHFORD) (1772-
1810). An Irish poet. Her father, a clergyman,
was a librarian in Dublin. In 1793 she married
her cousin, Henry Tighe, a member of the Irish
Parliament. Mrs. Tighe was greatly admired
for her beauty and her charming poem, in Spen-
serian stanzas, Psyche, or the Legend of Love
(privately printed in 1805). The poem was a
version of the story of Cupid and Psyche in the
Golden Ass of Apuleius. This and other poems
were published in 1811, with a portrait after a
painting by Romney.
TIG’LATH—PILE’SER. The Old Testa-
ment form of the name borne by several Assyrian
kings, the Assyrian form of which is Tuhulti-
apal-esharra, ‘My trust is the son of Esharra;’
since son of Esharra (lit., the good house) is a
designation of the god N inib——a solar deity—the
name is equivalent to ‘My trust is Ninib.’ Of the
Assyrian kings hearing this name, the most im-
portant is Tiglath-pileser 1., who began to rule
about B.C. 1120. Under him the dominion of
Assyria was considerably enlarged by conquests
in districts embracing Northern Syria, Cappa-
docia, Armenia, Kurdistan, and Persia. He
claimed to have conquered no less than forty-two
countries, and in his days Babylonia was forced
to acknowledge Assyrian supremacy. Twice he
invaded the south and entered the city of Baby-
lon itself. His activity in rearing temples and
palaces was no less remarkable, and he devoted
himself specially to the embellishment of the
old city of Asshur on the Tigris, which he once
more made the seat of government in place of
Calah. Although he was able to hand over the
succession to his son Asshur-bel-kela, his great
empire was not maintained, and shortly after-
wards a period of decay set in which appears to
have lasted almost up to the days of the second
Tiglath-pileser, whose reign may be placed about
B.C. 950. Nothing is known of him beyond his
name and titles. The third Tiglath-pileser, rul-
ing from B.C. 745 to 727, was in some respects
more remarkable than Tiglath-pileser I. Rising
from obscurity, he either set on foot a rebellion
against Asshur-Nirari III., or availed himself of
an opposition that had sprung up against this
King to seize the throne for himself. He as-
sumed the name of Tiglath-pileser as King, his
original name having been Pulu or Pul, by which
he continued to be known in Babylonia and
which is given to him likewise in the Old Testa-
ment (II. Kings xv. 19). To reinforce his position
he proceeded to the south and brought to sub-
mission the Aramaean tribes who had been caus-
ing the Babylonians considerable trouble. Se-
curing in this way the good-will of the Baby-
lonians, by whom he was hailed as a deliverer,
he could devote himself to the troublesome neigh-
bors in Media to the east of Assyria. Two ex-
peditions were required before the pacification of
the country was secured. Tiglath-pileser III.
appears to have introduced the policy of planting
TIGLATH-PILESER.
TILBUBY FORT.
739
Assyrian colonies in hostile districts with a view
of thus making Assyrian influence a more perma-
nent factor than could be accomplished merely
by military invasions. Successful also in break-
ing up a combination that had been formed
against him in Ararat under the leadership of
Sarduris 11., aided by a group of allies in Asia
Minor, he secured a large booty in a battle in
which he claims to have captured no fewer than
72,950 soldiers of the enemy. He encountered
more difficulty in quelling a revolt in Northern
Syria in B.O. 742-740. As early as B.C. 739
there was a conflict between the Assyrians and
a certain Azariah of Jaudi, and until recently
it was supposed that this was none other than
King Azariah of Judah, but chronological as
well as other difficulties stand in the way of
this identification, and it is more probable that
the land Jaudi referred to is not Judah, but a
district in Northern Syria. The King overthrew
Azariah and his allies and again showed his ad-
ministrative abilities by placing the hostile dis-
trict, divided into small principalities, under As-
syrian Governors. He enumerates in his inscrip-
tions a long list of rulers of petty States in
Asia Minor and Syria who brought him tribute,
and among these we find Menahem of Samaria,
the notice thus confirming the statement in II.
Kings xv. 19-21.
In 13.0. 734 Tiglath-pileser again proceeded
to the West, being appealed to by Ahaz, King of
Judah (11. Kings xvi. 7), to assist him against
the combination formed by Pekah, King of
Israel, and Rezin of Damascus. Rezin was de-
feated and fled to his capital, and while a por-
tion of the Assyrian army laid siege to it, an-
other section was sent to ravage and plunder
the Syrian, Israelitish, and Philistine towns. In
B.C. 732 Damascus fell and an Assyrian official
was appointed Governor. Among those who
hastened to pay homage to Tiglath-pileser, we
find his vassal King Ahaz (or Jehoahaz as he is
called in the Assyrian inscriptions) of Judah. This
visit is the one referred to in 11. Kings xvi. 10.
Tiglath-pileser also claims to have deposed Pekah
of Israel and to have put Hosea in his place. Ac-
cording to the biblical statement (II. Kings xv.
30) Pekah was murdered in the course of a revolt
instigated by Hosea., who no doubt was abetted
by the Assyrian King. Shortly after his suc-
cessful campaign in Syria and Palestine, Tiglath-
pileser was obliged to proceed once more against
Babylonia, where trouble had broken out. Two
years elapsed before he could take the decisive
step of having himself crowned King of Baby-
lonia. The ceremony took place on the Baby-
lonian New Year’s festival of the year B.O. 728.
As King of Babylonia he assumed his original
name of Pulu (identical with Parus in the
Ptolemaic canon). Not long afterwards, in B.C.
727, he died, leaving his policy of political cen-
tralization to be carried on by his son Shal-
maneser IV. Consult the Babylonian-Assyrian
histories of Rogers, Winckler, Tiele, and Hom-
mel.
TIGRA’NES (Lat., from Gk. Tvypdvns, Ar-
men. Tigran). The name of several kings of
ancient Armenia. The most famous was Ti-
granes the Great, who was born about B.O. 121.
He was for many years a hostage at the Parthian
Court, but was exchanged for seventy districts
about 95, when he succeeded to the throne. He
made an alliance with his father-in-law, Mithri-
dates (q.v.), King of Pontus, against the
Romans. He was at first successful, and about
83 he conquered Syria, later extending his
power over much of Asia Minor, besides tak-
ing from the Parthians the provinces of Meso-
potamia, Adiabene, and Atropatene. In 71
Mithridates fled to him for refuge from the
Roman general Lucullus (q.v.). Refusing to
give up the fugitive, Tigranes was attacked by
the Romans, and was defeated in 69 at Tigrane-
certa, his newly founded capital, although a
mutiny prevented Lucullus from following up
his advantage. Three years later Pompius (q.v.)
took the field against the Armenians, and in
64 after a long siege compelled Tigranes to
surrender at Artaxata. He remained in posses-
sion of Armenia Major, however, on the pay-
ment of 6000 talents. In 55 he named his son
Artavasdes co-ruler. The date of his death is
uncertain.
TIGRE, te-gra’. A division of Abyssinia
(q.v.).
T‘I’GRIS (Greek, from the old Persian tigra,
an arrow). One of the two large rivers which
inclose the historic region of Mesopotamia, in
Asiatic Turkey (Map: Turkey in Asia, M 6).
It rises by two main headstreams in the moun-
tains of Kurdistan, near the Euphrates. Thence
it flows in a winding southeast course of about
950 miles till it joins the Euphrates at Korna to
form the Shat-el-Arab, which after a short course
flows into the Persian Gulf. The Tigris is a rapid
and turbid stream. In its upper course it re-
ceives numerous tributaries from both sides. Be-
low Mosul, however, the tributaries come nearly
all from the east, the region between the Lignis
and the Euphrates being here a desert overgrown
with wormwood and similar scrub. Farther
down the Tigris communicates across the desert
with the Euphrates by a number of bayous or
canals, some of which are dry the greater part of
the year. At the confluence the Tigris, though
shorter than the Euphrates, is more voluminous,
and it is navigable for steamers to Bagdad.
Thence smaller vessels proceed to Mosul, and
above that city rafts descend from Diarbekir,
almost at the source of the river. The rafts,
however, are broken up at Mosul and trans-
ported back by camel. The main tributary of
the Tigris is the Diyala, which joins it from the
cast, a short distance below Bagdad, and which
is navigable for some distance by small vessels.
Next to the Diyala, the largest affluent is the
Greater Zab. Outside of the three cities men-
tioned the banks of the Tigris are very thinly
populated. Among the remains of ancient cities
on the banks of the Tigris are those of Nineveh,
Seleucia, and Ctcsiphon.
TILIBURG, til’b®n<. A manufacturing town
in the Netherlands, Province of North Brabant,
36 miles southeast of Rotterdam, and 19 miles
east of Breda (Map: Netherlands, D 3). The
town has a new church in the Gothic style,
and a cloth-hall, and is besides an important
manufacturing centre, with more than 300 fac-
tories, most of them woolen and cloth mills, and
tanneries. Population, in 1895, 36,275; in 1900,
40,628.
TIL’BURY FORT. A fortification in Essex,
England, on the north bank of the Thames, op-
TILBURY FORT.
TILE.
7 40
posite Gravesend, 30 miles below London (Map:
England, G 5). Originally erected in the time
of Henry VIII. as a block-house, it was con-
verted (1667) into a regular fortification after
the bold expedition of De Ruyter into the Thames
and Medway, and has been greatly strengthened
since 1861. Large docks comprising 588 acres,
opened in 1886, have reclaimed the waste land
formerly surounding the fort.
TIL’DEN, SAMUEL JONES (1814-86). An
American lawyer and statesman, born at New
Lebanon, N. Y. He attended Yale College and
the University of the City of New York, where
he graduated in 1837; studied law, and in
1841 was admitted to the bar of New York City.
Asalawyer he rose to the first rank. In 1846 he
was a member of the State Legislature, in which
he devoted his attention particularly to the sub-
ject of the State canals, and in the same year
served as a member of the State Constitutional
Convention. In 1867 he again sat as a delegate
to the Constitutional Convention. Having been
elected again to a seat in the Legislature, he
took the lead in 187 2 in the impeachment pro-
ceedings against Barnard and Cardozo, two of
Tweed’s corrupt and subservient judges. He con-
tributed to the exposure of the frauds of the
Tweed Ring, and took the leading part in the
prosecution of its guilty members. By 1868 he
had become the acknowledged leader of the Demo-
cratic Party in New York, and his activity in
overthrowing the Tweed Ring led to his election
in 1874 as Governor of New York. His admin-
istration (1875-76) was marked by economy in
the management of the State canals. In June,
1876, he was nominated by the Democratic Na-
tional Convention at Saint Louis for President
of the United States, and in the ensuing Presi-
dential election received a majority of the popu-
lar vote, and according to the final count came
within one vote of receiving a majority of the
electoral vote. Because of alleged frauds in the
elections of Louisiana, South Carolina, and
Florida, the votes of those States, which were
nominally given for the Democratic Party and
which would have turned the election in Til-
den’s favor, were claimed by the Republicans,
and the excitement which followed threatened
to disturb the peace of the country. Finally Con-
gress created an Electoral Commission (q.v.),
consisting of five justices of the Supreme Court,
five Senators, and five Representatives, to settle
the dispute, and by a strict party vote of 8 to 7
it gave its decision in favor of Tilden’s opponent,
Rutherford B. Hayes (q.v.). Tilden thereupon
promptly requested his friends to accept the de-
cision with good grace, though many of his sup-
porters continued to believe and to assert that he
had rightfully been elected President. In 1880
and in 1884 the Democratic Party wished to
nominate Tilden again for the Presidency, but
each time he refused to be a candidate. He
lived his remaining years in retirement near
Yonkers, N. Y., dying on August 4, 1886. He
bequeathed the greater portion of his fortune of
about $5,000,000 to philanthropic purposes, chief-
ly for the establishment and endowment of a
public library in the city of New York. The will
was contested and only about $2,000,000 went to
the establishment of the Tilden Foundation of the
New York Public Library (q.v.). Tilden’s biog-
raphy was written by John Bigelow (New York,
,in France.
1895), and his writings were edited by the same
author (2 vols., 1885).
TILE (AS. tigol, tigele, from Lat. tegula, tile,
from tegere, to cover). Properly a piece of ma-
terial for covering a roof, but limited to harder
materials than wood. Slate, marble and other
hard stones which can be cut into thin slabs and
resist ordinary breakage have been used for
tiles. Ordinary roof tiles are of earthenware
and these may be perfectly flat and used to
shed the water by being laid over one another
on a sloping surface, exactly as shingles are laid.
The other kind of roof tile is that which is made
with ridges by the use of two kinds of tile, those
which are fiat and those which are curved and
laid with the convex side uppermost to cover the
joints between the flat ones. There is also a
kind of tile which has the flat and the raised
ridge-like convexity cast or molded in the same
piece of ceramic ware. From the use of the
term to cover many different kinds of roofing
it has come to have two different meanings.
First, any flat slab, if small and forming one of
many pieces used to cover a large surface, is a
tile; second, the different ceramic wares used in
building and in all kinds of engineering work,
drainage, and the like are called tiles.
The decorative value of tile is seen chiefly in
flooring. The tile floors of the Middle Ages were
composed of earthenware tiles, each of which is
complete and of one color, or incised with a pat-
tern in such a way that a difi'erent-colored clay
may be inlaid. In the south of Europe wall
tiles were much used according to a fashion
always prevalent in the East, and were taken
up by the Moslem peoples. These tiles in Cairo,
Damascus, and other Levantine cities are of
such beauty that squares composed of nine or
sixteen are often sold for many hundreds of
dollars; and even these are admittedly inferior
to the tiles of the Persian mosques. In Spain a
modification of this tendency showed itself in
the production of tiles of slight relief in the
outlines of decorative scrolls and the like, so
that the brilliant color with which these scrolls
were painted is incrusted, as it were, between
slight ridges raised in the clay. These tiles,
unfit for floors, are very decorative when used
for the linings of walls. The Gothic revival in
England between 1840 and 1870 brought with
it a strong movement to restore these appliances
of decorative buildings; and many tile floors
were designed and made in mediaeval taste. In
consequence of this the earthenware tile in-
dustry became an extensive one in Great Britain
and for many years the greater number of tiles
imported into the United States came from Eng-
land. Tiles of much greater refinement and
beauty were made on the Continent, especially
Other tiles have been made with
heads, human figures, and even groups in slight
relief, the ornamentation being obtained by
sculpture rather than color. In very recent times
the chief makers of decorative pottery have tried
the adornment of tile with good results. There
has grown up among these designers a certain
freedom of color composition which no other
trade seems to have achieved.
Clay tiles may be divided broadly into solid
and hollow, the former being thin and, except
for some roofing tiles generally flat, while hollow
TILE.
TILEFISH.
741
tiles have a great variety of thickness and
shape. In the preparation of the clay for mold-
ing some one or more of the processes described
under CLAY (paragraph on Clay Mining and
Working) are employed, varying with the class
of clay and the final product. For tile-burning
see KILN; TERRA CoTTA.
ENCAUSTIC TILES, for floors, walls, and other
purposes, are decorative tiles in which the main
body is of one color of clay and a pattern is in-
laid in a contrasting color of clay. The term
is a mere trade name, without special signifi-
cance. Those which are small, unglazed floor
tiles in plain colors, the design being made by
the combination of tiles of different colors and
shapes, are commonly called mosaic tiles. Glazed
porcelain tiles bearing fixed designs in vitrifiable
colors are also sometimes called encaustic tiles.
The famous Dutch tiles are simply enameled
earthenware, usually in blue, but sometimes in
colors, and generally with Scriptural subjects for
the design. They were first made in the Nether-
lands during the Renaissance period.
FLOOR TILES are now made by machinery in
metal dies, in which they are subjected to heavy
pressure. The clay is first prepared as for or-
dinary ceramic work and then dried again and
ground in powder. II/’all tiles are made with the
back surface broken by ‘undercutting,’ so the
cement may have a better hold. They usually
have a highly glazed surface. Floor tiles are
generally preferred unglazed. They are made
from a mixture of barytes and very hard clay,
which vitrifies throughout its surface. When
the tiles are to be figured the old process of fill-
ing in the embossed surface with liquid clay has
been replaced by a method of dry filling.
The pattern is produced by the use of brass
plates, an eighth of an inch thick, a separate
one being used for each color. Thus, for an
ornament in red and white on a blue ground,
one plate is perforated so as to enable the red
portion of the clay power to be filled in, an-
other is cut for the white portion, and a third
for the blue ground. When all are filled up the
tile is pressed in a screw-press and fired as in
the ordinary plain tile.
‘FIREPRCCFINC, STRUCTURAL, 0R HoLLow TILES
are rapidly growing in use (see ‘FIREPRCCF
CONSTRUCTION), particularly for fitting around
steel columns and girders forming partitions,
floor arches, and ceilings. Their lightness is
greatly in their favor. They are divided into
three classes: Dense, porous, or terra -cotta
lumber, and semi-porous. Dense tiles are pre-
pared for molding much like terra cotta. They
are given heavy pressure and a long burning,
and are sometimes made from fire clay. Por-
ous tiles are made by mixing one part by bulk
of soft wood-sawdust or finely cut straw with
two parts of clay, passing the mixture through
a disintegrator or cutter, and then between two
sets of corrugated rolls, one below the other. From
the rolls conveyors take the mixture to the tile
machines described below. The subsequent burn-
ing destroys the sawdust or straw, leaving a
very porous tile into which nails may be driven,
or which may be cut with a saw; hence the
name, terra cotta lumber. Semi-porous tiles are
made of good fire clay containing 60 per cent.
of silica, calcined fire clay, and coarsely ground
bituminous coal. These materials are mixed,
molded, and burned much like porous tiles.
HoLLow TILE MACHINES are of various forms
according to the character of the clay. The
tempered clay is forced through forms and
around plugs. The forms give the outer and the
plugs the inner shape to the tiles. The plugs
are of metal, with their front ends just inside
the form. Plungers forcethe clay over or around
the plugs, then through the forms. The con-
tinuous shapes are separated by wires or knives.
Some of the special forms require partial hand-
shaping.
RCCFINC TILES, when of clay, are something
like terra cotta (q.v.) in their composition
and manufacture. They are made in various
colors and shapes, the shapes being governed
largely by the kind of vertical joints employed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ome, Les carrelages émaillés
du moyen age et de la renaissance (Paris, 1859) ;
Bourgoin, Les arts arabes. Architecture (ib.,
1873) ; Prisse d’Avenues, L’art arabe d’apres les
monuments de Kaire, etc. (ib., 1877); Meurer,
Italienische M ajolikafliesen, etc. (Berlin, 1881);
Jacobstal, Siiditalienische Fliesenornamente (ib.,
1886) ; Knochenhauer, N iederldndische Fliesenor-
namente (ib., 1888) ; Foy, La céramique des con-
structions (Paris, 1883); Sparkes and Gandy,
Potters, Their Arts and Crafts (New York,
1899) ; Freitag, The Fireproofing of Steel Build-
ings (ib., 1899).
TILEFISH (name coined from penultimate
syllable of generic name). A deep-sea fish
(Lopholatilus chameleonticeps) chiefly remark-’
able for its strange history. It was accidentally
discovered in large numbers in 1879 by fishermen
trawling for cod south of Nantucket, and was
found again in 1880 and 1881. In the spring of
1882 shipmasters reported that an immense area
of ocean surface about 300 miles south of Long
Island was covered with many millions of float-
ing fish, dead or dying, chiefly tilefish, which
showed no marks of injury or disease. Verrill
and other ichthyologists, judging by various
circumstances, explained this as the result of an
incursion of cold water, forced by the heavy
northerly gales of that spring, into the warm
area of the Gulf Stream.
This fish represents a genus of the family
Malacanthidae, which includes several edible
fishes of the seas of both sides of tropical Ameri-
ca, one of which, the blanquilla or ‘whitefish’
(Caulolatilus princeps), is a well-known food
fish of southern California. The tilefish is a
large, big-headed, brilliantly colored, active fish,
sometimes 40 pounds in weight, but ordinarily
from 10 to 20 pounds. It is characterized by a
high adipose protuberance upon the nape in ad-
vance of the long dorsal fin, and by a short bar-
bel at the angle of the lips on each side. Its
flesh was found to be excellent, and the United
States Fish Commission made great efforts to
learn where it might be found, but the disaster
of 1882 seemed to have wholly exterminated the
species. Some ten years later an occasional one
was captured, and investigation of the edge
of the continental plateau was resumed by the
Fish Commission. It was finally determined
that the area of their distribution extends along
a band of sea-bottom from about 39° N. latitude
southward between 69° and 73° W. longitude to
an unknown distance, in water from 60 to 80
TILEFISH.
TILLEMONT.
742
fathoms deep, wherever the water has a tempera-
ture not colder than 50° F. Increasing catches
were made in 1900, 1901, and 1902.




















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THE TILEFISH.
Consult Collins, “History of the Tile Fish,” in
Annual Report of the United States Commis-
sioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1882 (Wash-
ington, 1884); Lucas, Ammal Report of the
United States National Museum for 1889 (Wash-
ington, 1891); ‘Bumpus, “The Reappearance of
the Tilefish,” in Bulletin of the United States
Fish Commission. (\Vashington, 1899).
TILGHMAN, til’man, MATTHEW (1718-90).
An American patriot, born in Queen Anne
County, Md. He was early engaged in the In-
dian wars, and was elected a delegate to the
Maryland Assembly, where he sat continuously
until the formation of the State Government,
February 5, 1777, and was Speaker of the House
in 1773-75. From 1774 until the establishment
of the State Government he was president of the
convention which exercised the chief authority.
He was also head of the Committee of Corre-
spondence of the Council of Safety, and of the
delegation to the Continental Congress. He was
a strong advocate of independence, but was pre-
vented from signing the Declaration of Inde-
pendence by being called home to preside
over the convention to frame a State con-
stitution. He was an earnest, enthusiastic pa-
triot and did much for the American cause in
Maryland.
TILGHMAN, TENOH (1744-86). An Ameri-
can soldier, born near Easton, Md. Prior to the
Revolution he was engaged in mercantile pur-
suits at Philadelphia, but early in 1775 entered
the American army as lieutenant in an infantry
company, and in July was sent as a special com-
missioner to treat with the Iroquois. From
August, 1776, until the close of the war, he was
an aide and military secretary of General Wash-
ington, participating in all the battles of the
main army during this period; and in October,
1781, carried to Congress the news of Cornwallis’s
surrender, covering the distance from York-
town to Philadelphia in four days. In May,
1781, he was made a lieutenant-colonel, to take
rank from April 1, 1777, and in October, 1781,
Congress voted him “a horse properly capari-
soned and an elegant sword, in testimony of
their high opinion of his merit and ability.”
After the war he removed to Baltimore, where
he died. Consult M emoir of Tench Tilghmau
(Albany, 1876).
T'ILG1\TER, tilK’ner, VIKTOR (1844-96). An
Austrian sculptor, born in Pressburg. While still
a pupil of Franz Bauer and Joseph Gasser at the
Vienna Academy, he was commissioned to execute


'_ ~ -7 A
l .
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- * ‘
{'33 M \-
the bust of Bellini for the opera house and the
statue of Duke Leopold V1. for the arsenal. In-
fluenced by the French sculptor Deloye, who was
engaged in Vienna on work for the ex-
position in 1873, Tilgner adoptedan ex-
ceedingly dashing and lifelike style and


, attracted wider notice with his portrait
bust of Charlotte Wolter (1873). After
a visit to Italy in 1874 he produced the
group of “Triton and Naiad” (Volksgar-
ten, Vienna), and among many excellent
portrait busts and statues those of Em-
peror Francis Joseph, Crown Prince Ru-
dolf, Heinrich Laube, Rubens (Kiinstler-
haus, Vienna). Other noteworthy works
include fountain groups for the Imperial
villas at Ischl and in the T iergarten near
Vienna, the heroic-sized figures of “Phaedra” and
“Falstaff” (Burgtheater, Vienna), the bust of
Liszt (1893, Oedenburg), the statues of Mozart
(1896) and Makart (1898), both in Vienna, and
a number of successful polychrome busts and
genre statuettes. A selection of his works, in 60
heliotype plates, was published by Ilg (Vienna,
1896-97).
TILIACEJE (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat.
ti-liaceus, relating to the linden, from tilia,
linden-tree, Gk. vrrehéa, ptelea, Arm. t‘ehi, elm).
THE LINDEN FAMILY. A natural order of di-
cotyledonous trees and shrubs, and a few herbs,
mostly natives of the tropics, chiefly in Asia and
Brazil. A few are found in the temperate parts
of the Northern Hemisphere. They have simple,
alternate leaves with stipules, and axillary
flowers. The calyx is usually of four or five
sepals; the corolla, of four or five petals, or
sometimes wanting. The stamens are generally
numerous, the outer ones sometimes abortive
and petal-like. The ovary is composed of 2 to 10
carpels; there is one style, and the stigmas are
equal in number to the carpels. The properties
of the order are generally mucilaginous and
wholesome, the bark fibrous.
The Tiliaceae yield valuable light timber (see
GREWIA), jute or corchorus (q.v.), and other
fibres. The chief genera are Tilia, Grewia,
'1‘ riumfetta, Corchorus, and Sparmannia.
TILLAGE (from till, AS. tili-an, teolian,
Goth. tilon, OHG. .eil6n, z/il6>n, Ger. zielen, to
aim, strive for; connected with Goth. tils, good,
AS. til, goodness, OHG. zil. Ger. Ziel, aim, goal).
The process of stirring and mixing the soil for
the purpose of increasing its productiveness.
The operations of plowing, harrowing, spading,
hoeing, etc., constitute tillage. There are three
distinct classes of tillage: (1) surface tillage
brought about by such implements as harrows,
cultivators, and weeders; (2) sub-tillage, such
as is secured by sub-soiling; and (3) intertillage,
such as is carried on while the soil is occupied
by a crop. Pulverizing the soil by tillage not
only favors the root growth of plants but im-
proves the moisture and other physical condi-
tions of the soil, promotes weathering and dis-
integration, which set plant food free, supplies
conditions favorable to the activity of beneficial
organisms in the soil (nitrification, q.v.), and
destroys weeds (and in many cases injurious in-
sects).
TILLEMONT, tel’moN’, SEBASTIEN LE NAIN
DE (1637-98). A French ecclesiastical historian,
TILLEMONT.
TILLY.
743
born in Paris. He was educated at Port-Royal,
under the Jansenist influence, and was ordained
a priest in 1676, mainly at the persuasion of his
friend Le Maistre dc Sacy, who had long been
his spiritual adviser. In 1681 Tillemont made
a visit to Holland and Flanders, for the purpose
of seeing Arnauld and other Jansenist refugees.
He had worked meanwhile on _his Church history.
To avoid the opposition of the censor, he sep-
arated from the Church history the history of
the emperors, which he was enabled to print as
a distinct work, without referring it to the
censorship, under the title Histoire des em-pereurs,
etc. (1691-1738). In 1693 the first volume of the
Church history appeared under the title Me’-
moi/res pour servir a l’histo/ire ecclész'astique des
sin: premiers sieoles, complete in 16 volumes
(1693-1712). The Emperors comprises all the
reigns from Augustus to Anastasius (518) ; the
Hi-stoire ecclésiastiqne comes down to about the
same period. Both are laborious compilations
from the original writers. He was also author
of Vie de Saint-Louis (new.ed., 1847-51).
TIL'LEY, Sir SAMUEL LEONARD (1818-96). A
Canadian political leader, born at Gagetown,
New Brunswick. He took a great interest in the
temperance question, and in 1850 he was elected
to the New Brunswick Legislature by the Lib-
erals, and there played an important part until
1865. He advocated Canadian union in 1864, and
in 1866 succeeded in carrying New Brunswick for
that cause. He was a delegate to the West-
minster Conference where the British North
American Act (1867) was drawn up, and on the
establishment of the new Government he was
elected to the Dominion House of Commons, and
appointed Minister of Customs. Afterwards he
held the portfolios of Public Works and Finance,
and in 1873 he became Lieutenant-Governor of
New Brunswick. In 1878 he was again elected
to the House of Commons and again appointed
Minister of Finance. In 1885 he retired from
Dominion politics, but accepted a reappointment
as Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick, an
office which he held until 1893.
TILL’MA1\T, BENJAMIN RYAN (1847 —). An
American politician, born in Edgefield County,
S. C. He was educated at Bethany Academy,
became a planter, and interested himself in the
development of industrial and technical educa-
tion in South Carolina. He became the recog-
nized leader of the farming element in the Demo-
cratic Party in South Carolina, received the
support of the ‘Farmers’ Alliance,’ and in 1890,
as the Democratic candidate, was elected Gov-
ernor of the State. He was reelected in 1892,
and in 1895 was elected United States Senator,
being réelected to that ofiice for a second time
in 1901. His speeches against President Cleve-
land in 1895-96 in the Senate won him the name
of ‘Pitchfork’ Tillman. He was active in both
‘free-silver’ campaigns, in 1896 and 1900, as one
of the most radical supporters of the candidacy
of W. J. Bryan. An assault which he made on
his colleague, J. L. McLaurin, in the Senate in
March, 1902, led to his being censured and sus-
pended by that body.
TIT./L0, ALEXEI ANDREYEVITCH (1839-1900).
A Russian general and scientist, distinguished for
his work in geodesy, meteorology, terrestrial mag-
netism, hypsometry. He was born at Kiev and
attended the Russian military schools. He stud-
ied at the Astronomical Observatory at Pulkowa,
receiving a thorough training in geodesy under
Struve and Doellen, and it was chiefly through
his efforts that the Imperial Department of Agri-
culture organized expeditions to study the sources
of the principal Russian rivers. He was an in-
defatigable observer, explorer, author, and inves-
tigator and the most prominent geographer of
his day in Russia. His published works include
magnetic and meteorological charts and the phy-
sometric charts of Russia. ‘
TILLODONTIA, til’lo-d5n’sl1i-a (Neo-Lat.
nom. pl., from Gk, Tiller-u, tilleln, to pluck,
tear + bdmig, odous, tooth). An extinct sub-
order of early Tertiary fossil mammals sup-
posed to be ancestral to the modern rodents.
The principal genera, Esthonyx, Tillotherium,
Stylinodon, Dryptodon, and Anchippodus, are
found in the Eocene and Miocene beds of the
Western United States. See RODENTIA.
TIL’LOTSON, JOHN (1630-94). Archbishop
of Canterbury. He was born in Sowerby, in
Yorkshire, in 1630, the son of a clothier, who
was a zealous Independent. He was educated at
Clare Hall, Cambridge. He was a preacher in
166l—attached apparently to the Presbyterian
party in the Church of England, for at the Sa-
voy Conference (q.v.) he was present as an au-
ditor on the Presbyterian side; but he submitted
at once to the Act of Uniformity (1662), and in
1663 he was appointed to the rectory of Ked-
dington in Suffolk, and almost immediately
after was chosen preacher at Lincoln’s Inn.
In 1666 he published The Rule of Faith, in
reply to a work by an English clergyman
named Sargeant, who had gone over to the
Roman Catholic Church. He was made a pre-
bendary of Canterbury in 1670 and dean in 1672.
VVith Burnet, he attended Lord Russell during
his imprisonment for complicity in the Rye House
Plot, and on the accession of William III. rose-
high into favor. In March, 1689, he was appoint-
ed clerk of the closet to the King; in November,
made Dean of Saint Paul’s; and in April, 1691,
was raised to the see of Canterbury, vacant by
the deposition of Sancroft (q.v.), after vainly
imploring William to spare him an honor which
he foreboded would bring him no peace. Nor
was he mistaken in his painful presentment. The
non-juring party pursued him to the end of his
life; but he bore their animosity without com-
plaint or attempt at retaliation. A collected edi-
tion of his Se'r'mons, in 14 volumes, was pub-
lished after his death by his chaplain, Dr. Bark-
er (London, 1694), and has been frequently re-
printed. The best edition of his sermons and
other works is by Dr. T. Birch, who also wrote
his Life (London, 1752).
‘TILLY, JOHANN TSERKLAES, Count of (1559-
1632). A Catholic general in the Thirty Years’
I-Var. He was born at the Castle of Tilly, in Bra-
bant, in 1559. He received his military7 training
in the Spanish armies, fought against the Turks
in Hungary, and in 1610 was selected by Duke
Maximilian of Bavaria to reorganize his army.
At the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War (q.v.)-
he was placed in command of the forces of the
Catholic League and on November 8, 1620, won
the battle of the White Hill, near Prague, which
put an end to the short reign of Frederick of the
TILLY.
TIMBUKTU.
744
Palatinate in Bohemia. He then carried on the
struggle in the Palatinate, was defeated by Mans-
feld and the Margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wies-
- loch (April 27, 1622), but gained a decisive vic-
tory over the latter at Wimpfen (May 6th)
and defeated Christian of Brunswick at Hiichst
(1622) and Stadtlohn (1623). For these ser-
vices he was created a count of the Empire. He
defeated Christian IV. of Denmark at Lutter
(August 27, 1626), and coiiperated with Wal-
lenstein in bringing about the complete triumph
of the Catholics in this second phase of the Thirty
Years’ War. When the influence of the League
secured Wallenstein’s retirement (1630), Tilly
succeeded to the command of the Imperial forces,
and took by storm the town of Magdeburg (May
20, 1631). The atrocities which the Croats and
Walloons of his army perpetrated on this oc-
casion form a stain upon a character that was
remarkable in that age for honesty and loyalty
to conviction. The capture of Magdeburg was
Tilly’s last triumph. Gustavus Adolphus com-
pletely routed him at Breitenfeld (September
17, 1631). In April, 1632, the Swedish King
forced the passage of the river Lech in Tilly’s
front after a desperate conflict, in which Tilly
was mortally wounded. He was removed to Ingol-
stadt, where he died. Consult: Villermont,
Tilly (Tournay, 1859) ; Klopp, Tilly im Dreissig-
jiihrigen Kriege (Stuttgart, 1861), both written
from the Catholic point of view; and Wittich,
Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf und Tilly (Berlin,
1874).
TIL’SIT. A town of Prussia, in the Prov-
ince of East Prussia, on the left bank of the
Memel or Niemen, sixty-one miles northeast of
Kiinigsberg (Map: Prussia,_J 1). It stands in a
fruitful district. It has broad streets and a
cleanly appearance. It has paper, sugar, and oil
mills, iron foundries, machine shop-s, distilleries,
chemical establishments, breweries, and shoddy
mills. Population, in 1900, 34,539.
At Tilsit, on a raft in the middle ‘of the Nie-
men, occurred, June 25, 1807, the celebrated meet-
ing between Napoleon and Alexander I. of Russia,
following the defeat of the Russian forces at
Friedland (q.v.). On July 7th peace was con-
cluded at Tilsit between France and Russia and
on the 9th between France and Prussia. The lat-
ter was stripped of her possessions west of the
Elbe and of the Polish territories acquired in
1793-95, out of which Napoleon created the Duchy
of Warsaw. Danzig was made a free city. Prus-
sia joined the Continental System and closed its
ports to English vessels. Its army was reduced to
42,000 men, and until the payment of a heavy
indemnity a number of the chief strongholds
wereto remain in the hands of the French. A
secret agreement between France and Russia pro-
vided for the imposition by force of the Conti-
nental System on Portugal, Austria, and the
Scandinavian countries. Practically at Tilsit the
French and Russian monarchs divided between
them the mastery in Europe, France remaining
the arbiter in West and Central Europe, while
Russia was given a free hand in Sweden and
Turkey.
TII/TON, THEODORE ( 1835-). An Ameri-
can journalist, po-et, and novelist, born in New
York. He graduated at the College of the City
of New York in 1855, and was an editor of The
Independent from 1856 to 1871, and of The Golden
Age (1891-74). In 1874 he brought criminal
charges against the Rev. Henry Ward Beecher
(q.v.), whom he accused of improper relations
with his wife. Afterwards he attracted attention
as a platform speaker, chiefly in behalf of
woman’s rights. After 1883 he lived in Paris.
His books include: The Seacton’s Tale and Other
Poems (1867); Sancta Sanctorum, or Proof
Sheets from an Editor’s Table (1870) ; Tempest-
Tossed, a romance (1874); Thou and I, verses
(1880); Swabian Stories, ballads (1882); The
O'hameleon’s Dish (1883) and Heart’s Ease
(1894), volumes of verse. His Complete Poetical
Ii/orhs appeared in 1897.
TIIVIEYUS (Lat., from Gk. Tl/races, Timaios)
(c. 352-256 B.C.). A Greek historian; son of
Andromachus, tyrant of Tauromenium, in Sicily.
He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles,
and passed most of his life in Athens. His
chief work, a History of Sicily in sixty-eight,
or, according to others, thirty-eight books, em-
braced the period from the earliest times to no.
264. Polybius and others, notably Diodorus Si-
culus, pronounce him unfit for writing history
on account of his “lack of critical acumen, ma-
lignity, and tendency to superstition.” But, al-
though most of these charges are founded on
truth, Timaeus’s deficiencies have probably been
exaggerated, since modern critics and most of the
ancients, including Cicero (De Oratore, ii. 14),
praise his general knowledge and his accuracy in
indicating the chronology of the events which he
describes. He is said to have introduced the prac-
tice of recording events by Olympiads. For the
fragments, consult: Miiller, Fragmento His-
toricorum Grcecorum (Paris, 1841).
TIMARU, te-méi’r%. A seaport of Geral-
dine County, South Island, New Zealand, on the
east coast, 100 miles southwest of Christchurch
by rail, and the junction of a line to Fairlie
(Map: New Zealand, C 6). Agricultural ma-
chinery and implements are manufactured; it
has a fine harbor. Population, in 1891, 3668;
in 1901, 6424.
TIMBER (AS. timber, OHG. zimbar, timber-
work, room, Ger. Zimmer, room; connected with
Lat. domus, Gk. 56,1/.05‘, OChurch Slav. dO77’l/ll.
Skt. dama, house). In law, such trees as are
suitable for building purposes. Timber trees be-
long to the owner of the land, both when stand-
ing and fallen, unless converted into lumber in
a convenient form for transportation. There-
fore, timber will pass with the land under a
conveyance, and is included in a mortgage on the
land, without being specifically mentioned. A ten-
ant is not legally entitled to cut more timber than
is necessary for the purposes for which he hired
the land, unless under special agreement. The
term ‘timber’ is also applied to large pieces of
lumber, suitable for the framework of buildings,
bridges, etc., as distinguished from shingles, lath,
etc. See REAL PROPERTY.
TIMBER. See LUMBER.
TIMBER PRESERVATION. See FORESTRY. -
TIMBUKTU, tim-buk't'c"‘o, or TIMBUCTO0.
A town of Africa, in the first of the three Mili-
tary Territories of French Sudan (q.v.), situated
9 miles north of the Niger, in about latitude 16°
north, and longtitude 5° west (Map: Africa, D
3) . The climate is unhealthful. The town, near
TIMBUKTU.
TIME.
745
the southern borders of the Sahara desert, lies
between a rolling table land on the north and
the swamps of the Niger. It has flat, window-
less, clay houses; its streets are of sand and
gravel. It was largely in ruins when taken by
the French. They have, however, energetically
begun introducing improvements, and new streets
and European churches and schools have been
constructed. Timbuktu is fortified. There is
also a fortress at Kabara on the Niger. There
are two important and handsome mosques.
Timbuktu is notable for its commerce, and is the
focus of the caravan trade in West-Central Africa.
The annual value of the transit trade alone is
put at $4,000,000. Gums and rubber are perhaps
the leading articles. Gold, ivory, wax, salt, hard-
ware, beads, and cheap cloth are also prominent
items. The trade is chiefly by barter. The few
local manufactures include cottons, leather ar-
ticles, and pottery. French goods and money
are replacing those of other countries. Tim-
buktu is a centre of Mohammedan learning and
has a large Moslem library. The population,
which has greatly diminished in recent times, is
about 10,000. The town was founded in 1077
by the Tuareg tribe. It passed through dif-
ferent hands, began to be a place of commercial
importance in the sixteenth century, and was
seized by an army from Morocco in 1591. The
Fulahs drove out the Moors earlyin the nine-
teenth century. Timbuktu was first visited by a
European in 1826—Major Laing, an Englishman.
From 1844 to 1846 it was again in the hands of
the Tuaregs. In 1863 Ahmed el-Bathai drove out
the Fulahs for the last time. The town passed
into the possession of the French in 1894. Con-
sult: Lenz, Timbuktu (Leipzig, 1892); Dubois,
Timbuctoo the Mysterious (London, 1896);
Toutée, Du Dahomé au Sahara (Paris, 1899) .
'1‘IM’BY, THEODORE RUGGLES (1822—). An
American inventor, born in Dover, N. Y. In 1841
he prepared a model of a revolving battery which
he submitted to the military authorities in VVash-
ington, and from which he subsequently developed
a metallic revolving fort to be used on land and
water, and for this in 1862 he obtained a patent
for a revolving tower for defensive and offen-sive
warfare. In consequence of this patent he re-
ceived a royalty of $5,000 in 1862 for each turret
constructed by the builders of the Monitor. His
other inventions include a method for firing heavy
guns by electricity (1861) ; a cordon of revolving
towers across a channel ( 1862) ; a mole and tow-
er system of defense (1880) ; a subterranean
system of defense (1881) ; and a revolving tower
and shield system (1884), for all of which he
obtained patents.
TIME (AS. tima; connected with tid, OHG.
zit, Ger. Zeit, time, Eng. tide, Skt. a-diti,
boundless). In the philosophical sense, a term used
in the description of the succession of phenomena.
Time has been considered by some philosophers
to be an illusion; by others to be a confused
idea; by others again a form of phenomena, but
not a characteristic of ultimate reality; by others
to be real but with a qualified sort of reality;
by others to be an unqualifiedly real character-
istic of the ultimately real world; and by others
to be a reality which exists independently of the
timed world of objects. For reasons given in the
article on SPAOE (q.v.), the most acceptable view
‘is that time has no independent existence, as if
it were a kind of vessel whose parts appeared
in succession, but that it is real in the sense that
the ultimately real world is timed. The ques-
tion of the infinity of time is to be solved in the
same way as that concerning the infinity of space.
In its legal aspect, the meridian of the sun
is the generally recognized standard of time, but
where persons enter into legal relations expressly
with reference to some arbitrary system, as that
adopted by railroads for their convenience, the
courts will apply the standard contemplated by
the parties, in case of a controversy. In com-
puting a period of time from a certain day, the
general rule is to exclude the first day and in-
clude the last day of the count. This rule may
be disregarded if it will best effectuate the inten-
tion of the parties to an agreement. It is gen-
erally held that a policy of insurance includes
the last day of the period named therein. In
many States Sunday, or other dies non, is in-
cluded in the computation of a number of days
if they exceed a week, that is, -seven days, but
excluded if less than seven days. In some States
a dies non is included unless it would be the last
day of a period. See DIES NON; MONTH; DAY.
In music, time is the division of a measure
into the fractional parts of a whole note. The
sign which indicates the character of the subdi-
vision, and which consequently regulates the
rhythm of the movement, is called the time-sig-
nature. This is generally a fraction (g, -2, -3-,
etc.) placed after the clef at the beginning of
a movement. In the fraction the lower figures
represent the kind of notes to be used as time
standards, while the upper figure shows how
many of them are to be given in a bar. There
are two general classes of time, duple and triple;
in the former, the number of beats in a bar is
divisible by two; in the latter, by three. Com-
mon time, so called, is 4 and is represented
by the sign C. Compound duple time and com-
pound triple time differ only from their originals
in that each beat (containing a dotted note or
its equivalent) is divisible by three. See
RHYTHM; TEMPO.
TIME, RECKONING OF. See
TIONAL DATE LINE; HOUR;
STANDARD,
TIME, STANDARD. The time in common use
for regulating the ordinary affairs of life. It is
derived from the sun. Leaving out of account
small irregularities of the solar motion that are
of no consequence for our present purpose, when
that celestial body is on the meridian of any
place we call the time at that place ‘noon’ or
twelve o’clock. (See EQUATION OF TIME.) It
follows that when it is noon at any given place
it is similarly noon at all other places having the
same meridian, and at places having a different
meridian it is either forenoon or afternoon. In
fact, as the sun rises in the east and sets in the
west, it is evident that when it is crossing the
meridian of any place it must have already passed
that of neighboring places to the eastward, and
not yet have reached that of neighboring places
to the westward. In other words, when it is
noon in the given place it is already afternoon
in‘ places to the eastward, and still forenoon in
places to the westward. The farther east one
travels, the later is the local time; and this
gives rise to the rather perplexing time differ-
ences so familiar to travelers.
INTERNA-
DAY; TIME,
TIME.
TIMES.
746
'ence (q.v.) at Washington, 1882.
In the case of railroads this matter of time
differences has caused especially confusing com-
plications. It was formerly customary for a
road to use throughout large sections of its ter-
ritory the local time of one of the principal
cities through which it passed. The result was
that when two railroads met in some smaller
town, it happened not infrequently that they were
running under widely different time systems. As
many as five different kinds of time have been
thus simultaneously in use in a single town.
It was the need of an international standard
of time that led to the Prime Meridian Confer-
This recom-
mended the use of the Greenwich civil time,
reckoned from zero up to 24 hours. In accord-
ance with this resolution, and to remedy the
difficulty mentioned above, the United States and
Canada selected a series of standard meridians,
differing in longitude from that of Greenwich,
England, by exact multiples of 15°. October 18,
1883, a convention was called by W. F. Allen,
Secretary of the General Railway Time Con-
vention, which decided on the introduction of
' standard time to take effect November 18, 1883,
and on that day the change was made without
any difiiculty. ' ' '
Now 15° of longitude corresponds exactly to
one hour of time difference, and therefore the
local times of the several standard meridians
difier from Greenwich by an even number of
hours without fractional minutes and seconds.
In the United States the standard time' merid-
ians are those whose longitudes are west of
Greenwich 60°, 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120°. The
times of these meridians are respectively 4 hours,
5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, and 8 hours earlier
than Greenwich time because the sun, in travel-
ing across the sky from east to west, passes the
Greenwich meridian before it reaches the Ameri-
can meridians. The time of the 60th meridian
is called Colonial, that of the 75th meridian
Eastern, that of the 90th Central, that of the
105th Mountain, and that of the 120th Pacific
time. The limiting lines of the time-zones have
been so drawn arbitrarily that they never divide
any town. Where such a division is theoretically
unavoidable, the dividing line for actual use is
drawn on the map with a crook in it, so as to
put the whole town on one side of the line.


TABLE OF THE WoRLD’s TIME S'rANDARDs
' Hrs. fast of .
COUNTRIES Grgggwgich Eégnlitioofn
Belgium ........................... .. 0 May, 1892
Holland .......................... .. 0 May, 1892
Spain ............................... .. 0 J anuary, 1901
Germany ......................... .. 1.00 April, 1893
Italy ................................ .. 1.00 November, 1893
Denmark ......................... .. 1.00 January, 1894
Switzerland .................... .. 1.00 J uue, 1894
Sweden ............................ .. 1.00 January, 1895
Austria (railways). .......... .. 1 . 00
Cape Colony .................... .. 1.30 1892
Orange River Colony .... .. 1.30 1392
Transvaal .............. .. ....... .. 1.30 1892
Natal ............................... .. 2.00 September, 1895
Turkey (railways) .......... .. 2.00
Egypt ............................ .. 2.00 October, 1900
West Australia ............... .. 8.00 February, 1895
Japan .............................. .. 9.00 1895
South Australia .............. .. 9.30 May, 1899
Victoria ........................... .. _ 10.00 February, 1895
New South Wales ............ .. 10.00 February, 1895
Queensland ...................... .. 10.00 February, I895
New Zealand .................... .. 11.00 February, 1895

The resolutions of the Washington Conference
were not so favorably received on the Continent.
The introduction of the time of the 15th merid-
ian east of Greenwich for the Austrian railways
was proposed by Schram in 1886. In 1889 the
matter was brought before the German Railway
Union and the German Reichstag. Belgium and
Holland were, however, the first Continental
nations to adopt standard time, and other coun-
tries followed rapidly, as shown in the preced-
ing table.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Jacoby, Talks by an Astrono-
mer (New York, 1902); Schram, “The Actual
State of the Standard Time Question,” in Ob-
servatory, vol. iii. (London, 1890) .
See DAY; MONTII; YEAR; INTERNATIONAL
DATE LINE; HOROLOGY; CLOCK.
TIM’ELI’IDE (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Timelia, from the East Indian name). An as-
semblage of passerine birds resembling thrushes
in a general way, which has been formed as a
sort of ‘catch-all’ to contain many genera difficult
of definite assignment elsewhere. All are birds
of the Old World, and most of them belong to the

A TIMELIINE TYPE.
The slaty-headed babbling thrush (Pomatorlzin us schis-
ticeps) of the Himalaya Mountains.
Oriental and Ethiopian regions, and are denizens
of woods, jungles, and rough mountains. The
most distinctive timeliines, perhaps, are the ‘bab-
bling-thrushes’ of the genera Timelia, Pomato-
rhinus, Orthonyx, and their allies, and the ‘hill-
robins’ of the genus Liothrix.
TIMES, THE. A famous daily newspaper of
London, England. Its publication really began
January 18, 17 85, with the first number of The
London Daily Universal Register, the present
name being first applied to the issue of January
1, 1788, by its founder, John Walter (1735-1812).
The paper has ever since been managed and con-
trolled by the descendents of the first John
Walter, his successors being John Walter (1776-
1847), John Walter (1818-94), and Arthur
Fraser Walter‘ (1846—). Under their skillful
management, with the assistance of some of the
ablest journalists the world has known, The
Times has achieved a reputation for unequaled
journalistic enterprise and unusual political in-
fluence. It has also been a pioneer in the adoption
TIMES.
TIMOLEON.
747
of new inventions in printing and publishing.
Among improvements of the latter sort, one of the
greatest was the introduction of steam printing
presses, the use of which was begun, with the
issue of November 29, 1814, in spite of strong
opposition from the employees. Subsequent ex-
periments in The Times oflice led to the perfec-
tion of stereotyping, to the introduction of the
Walter press, from which by the use of stereo-
type plates the paper was printed on both sides
by a single operation, and to important improve-
ments in folding, stitching, and type-setting ma-
chines.
For the first few years of its existence The
Times was edited and managed solely by the two
Walters—father and son. Its outspoken criticism
of the King and his Ministers during this period
drew down on the proprietors the wrath of the
Government, and as a result they were several
times fined and imprisoned in Newgate. Several
attempts were likewise made to hamper or sup-
press their foreign news service, but this de-
partment of the paper had been carefully and
systematically developed with the result that the
news of Trafalgar and Waterloo and other not-
able victories of the British arms were published
in London before the arrival of the official dis-
patches.
For some time prior to 1816 The Times was
edited by Sir John Stoddart. In the latter year
the editorial control was intrusted to Thomas
Barnes. He was assisted as a leader-writer by
Edward Sterling, whose virile articles earned for
him the name of ‘The Thunderer.’ For a period
of thirty-six years—from 1841 to 1877—the edit-
or was John Thaddeus Delane (q.v.), one of the
greatest of English journalists. He was suc-
ceeded in turn by Thomas Chenery, upon whose
death in 1884 George Earle Buckle became editor.
The influence and position of The Times rank it
as unquestionably the leading paper of the Brit-
ish Empire, if not of the world. It has remained
independent of party and has consistently favor-
ed a strong foreign policy and a constant
strengthening of the ties between the mother
country and the colonies. It supported in turn
Beaconsfield’s stand on the Eastern question and
Gladstone’s Egyptian policy. When, however,
the latter adopted the idea of Home Rule for
Ireland, The Times withdrew its support, was
an active factor in the promotion of the Liberal-
Unionist Party, and contributed largely to the
defeat of the Home Rule bills. It was in the
course of this campaign that it made one of its
few great blunders in the publication of the fa-
mous Pigott forgeries, known as ‘The Parnell
Letters.’ It supported Salisbury’s Ministry in its
South African policy in 1899-1902, although it
vigorously criticised the conduct of the war after
it had begun. In addition to its daily issue The
Times publishes a tri-weekly, known as The
Mail, a weekly edition, and a weekly Literary
Supplement. It has published also an Atlas and
a Gazetteer, and in 1898 undertook a reprint of
the Erwyclopcedia Britan/nica, which with the
subsequently published supplementary volumes
constitutes the tenth edition of that celebrated
work.
TIME SIGNALS. Signals used for the ac-
curate regulation of clocks and watches. In the
United States time signals are based on
astronomical observations made at the United
Von. XVI.-48.
States Naval Observatory in Washington. These
observations enable the astronomers there to keep
their standard clock regulated; and from this
clock a daily noon signal is sent out by electric
telegraph to the Western Union Telegraph Com-
pany. This company in turn uses the observatory
signal to regulate its standard clock, from which
accurate time is distributed telegraphically to
the public. Various persons, jewelers and others,
who are subscribers to the Western Union time
service, receive signals electrically, and are thus
able to keep their own standard clocks correct.
In certain places a ‘time-ball’ is let fall exactly
at noon by means of an automatic electric signal
from the telegraph company, and the public are
enabled to regulate watches and clocks. In Eng-
land an analogous time-service is furnished from
the Royal Observatory at Greenwich; and other
European countries, such as France and Germany,
have similar arrangements in successful opera-
tion. Thus the direct determination of time by
actual astronomical observation has been ren-
dered unnecessary on the part of jewelers and
nautical instrument makers. These latter were
formerly compelled to observe time-stars them-
selves with small transit instruments (q.v.), in
order to regulate the chronometers of vessels
about to put to sea.
TIM’OCLES (Lat., from Gk. Tmoxhfis, Timo-
klés) (4th cent. 13.0.). An Athenian comic
poet, belonging to the Middle Comedy. He was
noted for his pure and pungent style and for his
attacks on Demosthenes. The fragments of his
plays are best published in Kock, Oomicorum
Atticorum Fragmenta, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1886).
TIMO’CREON (Lat., from Gk. Tqao/cpéwv,
Timokre6n). A Greek lyric poet of the early
fifth century 13.0., born at Ialysus, in Rhodes. His
works are lost, but his name has survived through
his hatred for Themistocles, whom he bitterly
attacked. The statesman was defended, however,
by his friend Simonides, who-se sarcastic epigram
on Timocreon’s gluttony and bibulous habits has
been preserved by Atheneeus. Tradition says
that Timocreon excelled in drinking songs, to
which he gave a satiric tone. Fragments are in
Bergk, Poetce Lyriei Graeei, vol. iii., 4th ed.
(1887).
TIMO’LEON (Lat., from Gk. Tqrohéwv, Timo-
leon) (?-B.G. 337). A Greek general, and the
liberator of Sicily from the dominion of the
tyrant Dionysus the Younger. He was born at
Corinth, perhaps about 13.0. 394, and was a mem-
ber of one of the noblest and most illustrious of
Corinthian families. On one occasion in battle
he saved his brother Timophan,es’s life at the
risk of his own, but, when Timophanes at-
tempted to overthrow the democratic form of
government at Corinth and make himself sole
tyrant, Timoleon brought about his brother’s
death and the reiéstablishment of the old constitu-
tion. Just after this event, and while the Co-
rinthians were still deliberating with regard to
the act, in B.C. 344, an embassy arrived at
Corinth from Syracuse in Sicily, a colony of
Corinth, requesting the aid of the Corinthians in
the civil dissensions which were taking place in
the island. A force was sent to assist the Syra-
cusans, with Timoleon at the head. In Sicily at
this time Hicetas and Dionysus the Younger were
both striving to obtain the supremacy in Syra-
TIMOLEON.
TIMORLAUT.
- 748
‘ cuse.
The force commanded by Timoleon was
small, but he succeeded in a short time in driv-
ing both of the would-be tyrants from the city.
After repeopling the almost desolate city by re-
calling the exiles, and inviting new colonists from
Greece, Italy, and Sicily, he spent the next two
years in enacting laws and organizing a constitu-
tion, which he put on a completely democratic
footing. The Carthaginians, alarmed at the re-
viving power of Syracuse, and the prospect of
union among the Sicilian Greeks, now sent an
army. of 80,000 men under Hasdrubal and Hamil-
car to subdue the whole island. Timoleon, with
only 12,000 men, encountered them (B.C. 339) on
the Crimissus, and gained one of the greatest
victories ever won by Greeks over barbarians.
He now proceeded to free the other Greek cities
from the rule of the tyrants, and made a treaty
with the Carthaginians, whereby the Halycus
River was fixed as the boundary between the
Greek and Carthaginian dominions in Sicily.
Hicetas was driven from Leontini, and Mamercus
from Catena, and free constitutions were con-
ferred upon all the Greek cities in Sicily. After
his great work was accomplished Timoleon lived
as a private citizen at Syracuse, respected and
honored, until his death. He died in B.C. 337,
having been blind for a considerable time pre-
viously, and was buried in the market-place of
Syracuse, where a gymnasium, called the Timo-
leonteum, was afterwards erected over his tomb.
Consult Plutarch’s Life of Timoleon, the stand-
ard histories of Greece, and Freeman’s History
of Sicily (1891-94).
TI’MON (Lat., from Gk. Tlawv). Called
THE MISANTHROPE. A native of Athens, who
lived at the time of the Peloponnesian War. The
little that is known concerning him is learned
chiefly from Aristophanes and the other comic
poets of the period, and from Lucian, who made
him the subject of one of his best-known dia-
logues. Disgusted with mankind, on account of
the ingratitude of his early friends and com-
panions, he lived a life of almost total seclusion
from society, the only visitor whom he would
receive being Alcibiades. Numerous stories were
current in antiquity regarding his eccentricities,
one of which is that he died because he would
not allow a surgeon to visit him to set a. limb.
His grave, which was on the seashore, is said to
have been planted with thorns, and to have been
rendered inaccessible by the sea, which formed it
into a small island“ Shakespeare’s Timon of
Athens has as its ultimate source Lucian’s dia-
logue.
TIMON OF ATHENS. A tragedy produced
in 1607 or 1608, printed in 1623, of which Shake-
speare wrote only the chief scenes, and which
another, possibly Wilkins, finished; or perhaps
Shakespeare’s remodeling of an old play. The
sources are the story of Timon told in the Life
of Antony in North’s Plutarch and in Painter’s
Palace of Pleasure, and used by Boiardo in his
comedy I l Timone.
TIMON OF PHLI’US. A Greek poet and
skeptic, who lived at Athens about B.C. 275. He
wrote numerous works in both prose and verse.
The most celebrated of his poems were the three
books of olhhot, in which, in the form of a parody
of Homer’s epic poetry, he ridicules the tenets
of all dogmatic philosophers, living or dead, from
the skeptic’s point of view. Like the classic
satire of Rome, they were written in hexameter
verse and, according to the testimony of the
ancients (Diog. Laiért. ix. 12, 109-115; Euseb.
Praep. Ev. xiv. p. 761), were excellent produc-
tions of their kind. The fragments are published
in Wiilke, De Grcecorum Syllis (Warsaw, 1820) ;
Paul, Dissertatio de Sillis (Berlin, 1821); and
Wachsmuth, De Timone Phliasio Ceterisque Sil-
lographis Grcecis (Leipzig, 1885).
TIMOR, te-mor’. The largest and most south-
eastern of the Lesser Sunda Islands, situated 330
miles southeast of Celebes and 700 miles east of
Java, between which and Timor the main chain
of Lesser Sunda Islands intervenes (Map: Aus-
tralasia, E 3). It has an extreme length from
northeast to southwest of about 280 miles, with
an average breadth of 55 miles, and an area es-
timated at 12,395 square miles. The coasts are
for the most part steep, lined with coral reefs,
and difficult of approach. The interior is not
well known. It is traversed by a forest-covered
mountain range, and the geological formation
seems to be a core of slate, diorite, and serpentine
flanked by beds of carboniferous limestone, Trias-
sic sandstone, and some Tertiary formations. The
mineral wealth is considerable, but unexploited.
The climate is hot and unhealthful on the coast,
and the rainfall is very slight, especially in the
south. The flora and fauna are less varied than
in the other East‘ Indian islands, and the island
forms a transition region between these and
Australia. The resources of the island are not
developed; agriculture is primitive, and the ex-
ports are few and small in quantity, coffee, wax,
and a little sandalwood being the chief staples.
Politically the island is divided nearly equally
between Holland and Portugal, the latter possess-
ing the northeastern half, with the seat of gov-
ernment at the small town of Deli. The Dutch
portion forms the principal member of the Resi-
dency of Timor, which includes also the islands
of Rotti, Savu, and Sumba, Eastern Flores, and
the Solar and Allor groups. The capital of the
residency is Kupang, a town of about 7000 in-
habitants at the southern extremity of the island.
The inhabitants are mainly Papuans with some
intermixture of Malays and Chinese. Their num-
ber is vaguely estimated at 400,000. The num-
ber of Europeans in the entire Dutch residency
was only 256 in 1895. Consult: Bastian, Indone-
sien (Berlin, 1885) ; Forbes, A N aturalist’s Wan-
derings in the Eastern Archipelago (London,
1885) ; Wichmann, Sammlungen des Geologischen
Reichmuseum ( Leyden, 1881-84) .
TIMORLAUT, te-mf'>r’lout, or TENIMBER. A
group of islands in the East Indian Archipelago,
belonging to the Dutch Presidency of Amboyna,
and situated between the Banda and Arafura
seas, 240 miles southeast of the island of Ceram
in the Moluccas, and about midway between New
Guinea and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Map:
Australasia, F 3). It consists of the large
islands of Yamdena (1132 square miles), Larat,
and Selaru, and a number of smaller islands,
with a total area of about 2060 square miles.
The large islands are hilly and forested, rising
to a height of about 1000 feet, while the others
are low and flat, and of coral formation. The
inhabitants, a mixture of Malays and Negritos,
are engaged in primitive agriculture, cattle-
TIMORLAUT.
TIMOTHY and TITUS.
749
raising, and trepang fishery. Population, in
1895, officially estimated at 24,858.
TIMOTE, te-mo’ta. A group of small tribes
apparently constituting a distinct linguistic
stock, whose modern representatives still occupy
the mountainous district of Mérida, southward
from Lake Maracaibo, in V)-Testern Venezuela. In
former times they usually went naked, with their
bodies painted red, and were agricultural, cul-
tivating corn, chile, and various edible roots.
They buried their dead in caves or in under-
ground vaults, depositing with the corpse sacred
figurines of clay.
TIMOTHEUS, ti-mo’thé-us (Lat., from Gk.
’1‘t,ab6eos,), OF MILETUS. A Greek poet and mu-
sician, son of Thersander; he lived about 13.0.
450-357. He was first of all a citharodes, i.e. one
who, while singing, played his own accompani-
ment on the cithara. The special form of lyric
poetry used for these public performances was the
Nomos, whose name Terpander was said to have
established. Originally this was largely a
musical performance of hexameters from the
epic, but Timotheus seems to have given definite
form to novelties already attempted, and greatly
enlarged the possibilities of artistic display by
introducing a free metrical structure, which
offered full scope for elaborate musical com-
position and vocal execution. He further en-
larged his opportunities by increasing the
number of strings on the cithara to eleven. His
innovations met with strong opposition, and were
especially distasteful to the Spartans, against
whom he defends himself in his “Persians.” His
works have till recently been known only through
the scantiest fragments and allusions, but in
1902 a papyrus manuscript of his nomos, the
“Persians,” was discovered by the German
Oriental Society in a Greek sarcophagus at Abu-
sir, near Memphis, in Egypt. About 116 lines of
considerable length are preserved, and 80 of these
are practically complete. It is the oldest Greek
manuscript yet found, and was copied but a few
years after the death of the author, and the fact
that it is the only specimen of this branch of the
Greek lyric lends special value to the poem.
The subject is the defeat of the Persians at Sala-
mis, and it seems to belong to the early years
of the fourth century, when Athens was humbled
and Sparta supreme, for in the vivid descrip-
tion of the battle there is no mention of Athens.
The dialect, however, is the Attic of the poets.
The style is highly wrought with many com-
pounds and metaphorical terms, often far-
fetched. Timotheus seems to have been less a
poet than a musician, and with only his libretto
it is scarcely possible to estimate properly his
real position in Greek literary art. Consult:
Wilamowitz-Miillendorf, Timotheos, Die Perser
(Leipzig, 1903), text, a Greek paraphrase, and
explanatory essay; Der Timotheos Papyrus (ib.,
1903), photographic facsimile; T. R. in Revue
des études grecques, vol. xvi. (Paris, 1903), an
essay and translation into French.
TIM’OTHY (Gk. Tr;/.66eos, Timotheos). One
of the trusted disciples and assistants of the
Apostle Paul. He was a native of Lystra, in
Lycaonia, the son of a Gentile father and a
Jewish mother (Acts xvii. 1). As a child he
was carefully instructed in the Old Testament
Scripture (II. Tim. iii. 15), but he was not
circumcised. It is likely that his mother, Eunice,
and his grandmother, Lois, were among the first
converts made by Paul and Barnabas on their
first visit to Lycaonia, and soon after, either
through their or Paul’s own agency, the youth
Timothy embraced the new faith (11. Tim. i. 5).
When Paul revisited Lystra Timothy was already
favorably known in the neighborhood as an
active Christian (Acts xvii. 2) . Paul persuaded
him to go with him as an assistant. Probably
at the same time he was ordained by the local
presbytery in accord with certain prophetic in-
timation-s as to his future (I. Tim. i. 18, iv. 14).
To avoid unnecessary offense to the Jews, he was
circumcised. From this time until the close of
Paul’s life Timothy was one of his most faithful,
trusted, and intimate disciples. He was in-
trusted several times with important missions
to the churches founded by the Apostle. At
Berea (Acts xvii. 14), Athens, and Thessalonica
(I. Thess. iii. 1-6), at Corinth, and later at
Ephesus (I. Cor. iv. 17, xvi. 10), and again in
Macedonia (Acts xix. 21-22) he rendered i1n-
portant services, and is joined with himself by
Paul in the addresses of several of his epistles.
Though he went to Jerusalem with Paul (Acts
xx. 4), he was probably engaged in labors else-
where when the Apostle embarked on his voyage
to Rome. He visited his master at Rome (see
the opening words of Philippians, Colossians, and
Philemon), and was probably sent by Paul,
shortly before his release, with a message to
Philippi (Phil. ii. 19). After the Apostle’s re-
lease he rejoined Timothy in the East, and later
left him in charge at Ephesus in a position full
of great responsibility. In his anxiety Paul
wrote him the letter of advice and warning
known as 1. Timothy. VVhen Paul was impris-
oned the second time, and probably not long
before his death, he wrote II. Timothy, summon-
ing his beloved disciple to come to him as quickly
as possible. At some later date Timothy him-
self was arrested, but afterwards released (Heb.
xiii. 23). According to tradition he passed the
remainder of his days as Bishop of Epheus.
TIMOTHY and TITUS, EPISTLES TO. Three
letters of the New Testament commonly known
as the Pastoral Epistles, bearing in their open-
ing passages the claim to have been written by
Paul.
The first two are addressed to Timothy, Paul’s
companion and fellow worker, whom the Apostle
associated with himself at Lystra, on his second
missionary tour (Acts xvi. 1-3), and who con-
tinued with him practically through the re-
mainder of his active ministry. He was with
Paul also in Rome, -where he is named with the
Apostle in the Epistles to the Colossians, Philip-
pians, and Philemon. The last letter is ad-
dressed to Titus, also one of Paul’s helpers, first
met with in connection with the mission work
in Antioch (Gal. ii. 1-4; cf. Acts xv. 2), and
probably more or less associated with the Apos-
tle’s later work, though he is not mentioned
again until the correspondence with the Corin-
thian church. All three letters have to do with
the Apostle’s instructions regarding the pastoral
service in which the recipients were engaged at
the time of writing.‘ The second letter to Tim-
othy, however, contains in addition a different
element of a more personal kind.
For almost a century these letters have been
TIMOTHY and TITUS.
TIMOTHY and TITUS.
750
the subject of critical suspicion in respect of
their authorship, being discredited by liberal
criticism long before the Tiibingen School as-
signed them to the Gnostic period of the second
century, and standing to-day as among the most
generally rejected portions of the New Testa-
ment. At the same time, there has been from
the first more or less disposition on the part of
such criticism to recognize in the letters certain
traces of genuine Pauline ma.teria1—this tend-
ency receiving of late large impulse from the
propaganda of the Dutch School, which seeks
to resolve all New Testament critical prob-
lems by aid of documentary sources for the writ-
ings in question. Along with this the date at
which the letters in their present form were
composed has been gradually moved back to-
ward and even into the Apostolic century. The
present differences in the liberal attitude to-
ward the Epistles are practically as to the ex-
tent of Pauline material allowed in the Epistles
and the nearness in thought and sympathy with
the Apostle of their compiler. On the other
hand, while this general negative position has
been strongly combated by a conservative criti-
cism which has sought to defend the entire gen-
uineness of the letters, there is to-day a tendency
to admit frankly the peculiar difficulties pre-
sented by the writings in the matter of their
Pauline origin and a willingness to unite with
all scholars in a fair and impartial study of the
problems which these difficulties involve.
The question as to the Paulinity of these let-
ters is naturally bound up in the larger ques-
tion of the Apostle’s second imprisonment, since
it is clear that the letters disclose situations
which in no way fit into the recorded life of
Paul up to and including his first imprisonment.
If, therefore, the Apostle was not released from
the imprisonment narrated in Acts, engaging
in further mission work, which ended in his be-
ing rearrested and brought to Rome for a second
trial, these writings cannot reasonably be sup-
posed to have come from his hand.
But the settlement of the question of author-
ship on the basis of this question of imprison-
ment alone has proved an unsatisfactory pro-
cedure, as in itself a second imprisonment is not
possible of sufficiently definite decision to afford
a critical standing ground. Scholars conse-
quently have been giving of late increased at-
tention to the study of the Epistles themselves
—their vocabulary and literary style, the his-
torical situations which they present, the ec-
clesiastical and theological development which
they betray—in order to discover whether or not
they involve suflicient Pauline elements to pre-
suppose, on the Apostle’s part, a further period
of active ministry beyond the imprisonment
narrated in Acts. The critical relation of the
second imprisonment to the authorship of the
letters is thus reversed, the latter rather than
the former problem furnishing the standing
ground from which the investigation proceeds.
In this investigation the questions which fur-
nish the chief debate are (1) the specific
stage of church organization and (2) the par-
ticular phase of false teaching which the letters
disclose. ‘
(1) As to the organization presented, it is
clear that Timothy and Titus are representatives
of the Apostle in charge over certain fields of
work (I. Tim. i. 3, 4; iv. 11-16; 11. Tim. ii. 1, 2;
iv. 1, 2; Tit. i. 5, 6; ii. 15; iii. 12-14) , which fields
are evidently general, covering more or less ex-
tended regions around specific localities (I. Tim.
ii. 8; Tit. i. 5), while the charges are apparently
temporary (I. Tim. i. 3, 4; Tit. i. 5; iii. 12).
The instructions given to the church officers re-
ferred to in,the letters have to do with the dis-
tinctive moral qualities of the candidates, rather
than with the functions of their oflice (I. Tim.
iii. 1-13; v. 4-16; Tit. i. 5-9); while the offices
themselves are presbyterial rather than mon-
archical (I. Tim. iii. 1-7; v. 17-19; Tit. i. 5-9).
In fact, the church teaching accomplished among
the people, though connected with the elder’s
office (I. Tim. iii. 2; v. 17; II. Tim. ii. 2-4; Tit.
i. 9) is not confined to official hands, but is ex-
tended to individual members within the congre-
gation who carry it on from house to house. It
is this that the false teachers abuse (I. Tim. i.
3-7; Vi. 3-5; 11. Tim. iii. 6-9; Tit. i. 10-14).
‘Clearly this organization is not what we find in
the recorded New Testament history. _
(2) As to these false teachers, they are evi-
dently of two classes: (A) a class then at work
among the people (I. Tim. i. 5-ll; vi. 3-10; II.
Tim. ii. 14, 16-18, 24-26; iii. 8, 9; Tit. i. 10-16)
and (B) a class definitely predicted as to de-
velop among them in later times (I. Tim. iv. 1-3;
II. Tim. iii. 1-7; vi. 3, )4). (A) The present
class is evidently further divided into two
groups: (1) The main portion, working among
the congregation, as members themselves of the
churches (I. Tim. vi. 20, 21; II. Tim. ii. 17, 18;
iii. 6-9; Tit. i. 10-16). (2) The smaller portion
separated from all church membership (I. Tim.
i. 19, 20; v. 11-15; Tit. iii. 10). (1) This first
and larger group is described in the letters (a)
as only nominally Christian (I. Tim. i. 4, 19;
II. Tim. ii. 14-18; Tit. i. 9, 13, 16) ; (b) as having
their chief occupation in teaching among the
people of the parishes—going from house to
house with their doctrines and making their
teaching a business of money gain (I. Tim. vi.
3-10; Tit. i. 11); (c) as busying themselves in
this teaching with affairs which ministered only
to wordy disputes (I. Tim. i. 4; vi. 4; Tit. iii. 9)
and within these disputes as having specifically
to do with Jewish questions such as the contents
and authority of the Mosaic law (I. Tim. i. 7) ;
Tit. iii. 9), Jewish legends and genealogies (I.
Tim. i. 4; Tit. i. 14; iii. 9). (d) At the same time
it is evident that they are not identical with the
Judaizers pictured to us in the Galatian and
Corinthian Epistles. They are developed be-
yond them, especially in their indifference to the
moral claims of the Christian life (I. Tim. i. 10;
vi. 3-10; Tit. i. 15-16). On the other hand,
they are not advanced to the full matured
Gnostic doctrine of God. Formally they hold to
the doctrine of God a.nd grace, though practical-
ly denying them in life (11. Tim. iii. 5; Tit. i.
16). (2) The second and smaller group is more
definitely referred to in the letter to Titus,
but in the Timothy Epistles some appear to
have been excommunicated on moral grounds (I.
Tim. i. 19, 20), while certain younger women,
who had rejected their first faith, seemed to have
‘turned aside to Satan’ (I. Tim. v. 11-16).
(B) The future errorists arrange themselves in
three groups: (1) The first is described in I.
Tim. iv. 1-3 as carrying on an extreme form of
TIMOTHY and TITUS.
TIMPERLEY.
751
teaching and developing a hardness of character.
(2) The second is described in II. Tim. iii. 1-5
as wholly‘ demoralized in character and yet as
nominally within the Church. (3) The third is
described in II. Tim. iv. 3, 4 as not enduring
wholesome teaching and consequently as turn-
ing definitely away from the truth to legends.
Evidently these teachers, whether present or
future within the Church or separated from it,
are no reproductions of the errorists described
in any of the accepted New Testament writings.
Inasmuch, however, as the instructions to T im-
othy and Titus are gathered largely around these
two points of organization and false teaching, it
is evident that should the development of the
errors of the Church life show itself to be be-
yond what was possible in the Apostolic age,
these letters which portray them—or at least
those portions of the letters which contain their
description—-must themselves come under strong
suspicion of being by a later hand than Paul’s.
At the same time it is generally recognized that,
in proportion as the Church organization is seen
to involve on the part of Timothy and Titus a
representative and not an independent position,
exercised over a large region of country,
necessitating a more or less itinerant mission
work, and this only for a temporary and not a
permanent period, it shows an early rather than
a later stage of Church life, which is confirmed
by the fact that this organization involves in
the instruction given to the officers qualifications
in the line of moral rather than functional re-
quirements and in the offices themselves the un-
developed presbyterial rather than the developed
monarchical form, while the teaching function
is carried on in this parish fashion rather than in
any strictly oflicial way. Further, in proportion
as the teaching shows an urimatured and un-
schismatic form and is characterized by ele-
ments which are distinctively Jewish, it does
not belong to the later full-fledged system of the
Gnostics. The period of Church life and thought
which these Epistles portray may be thus not
only within the Apostolic age, but even within
the period of Paul’s possible lifetime, in spite
of the fact that it lies beyond what is specifical-
ly disclosed to us in the New Testament writ-
1ngs.
Just how early this period may be, and
whether or not it is within Paul’s life, is the
present problem before the critical investigation
of these documents. It is clear, however, that
should the results reached by a fair-minded
study of the problem favor a possible origin from
Paul, these writings would themselves stand as
records of a later period of activity on the
Apostle’s part than that narrated in the Book
of Acts and his acknowledged Epistles, and thus
be indicative of a release from his first im-
prisonment and of a second imprisonment at
Rome. In any case it is apparent that the bear-
ing of the external evidence for or against a
second imprisonment, as well as in favor of or op-
posed to the genuineness of the Epistles them-
selves, must be in the direction of a positive or
negative support of the results obtained rather
than in the direction of determining the results
to be obtained.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Commentaries: Soden, in
Hand-Commentar zum Neuen Testament (Frei-
burg, 1891); Liddon, Eacplanatory Analysis of
First Timoth/y (London, 1897) ; Stellhorn (Giiter-
sloh, 1899); Weiss, in Meyer-Kommentar itber
das Neue Testament (Gtittingen, 1902). In-
troductions: Weiss (Eng. trans., Edinburgh,
1888), Holtzmann (Freiburg, 1892), Godet
(Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1894), Salmon
(London, 1894), Zahn (Leipzig, 1900), Bacon
(New York, 1900), Moffatt, The Historical New
Testament (ib. 1901), Jiilicher (Leipzig, 1901).
Discussions: Bauer, Die sogennanten Pastoral-
briefe des Apostels Paulus (Stuttgart, 1835);
Holtzmann, Die Pastoralbriefe (Leipzig, 1880) ;
Lightfoot, in Biblical Essays (London,
1893) ; Clemen, Die Einheitlichlceit der
Paulinischen Briefe (Giittingen, 1894) ; Mc-
Gifl'ert, The History of Christianity in the
Apostolic Age (New York, 1896); Harnack,
Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur (Leip-
zig, 1897) ; Steinmetz, Die zweite r6mische Ge-
fangenschaft des Apostels Paulus (ib., 1897) ;
Hort, The Christian Eeclesia (London, 1898);
Falconer, From Apostle to Priest (Edin-
burgh, 1900); Frey, Die zweite riimische
Gefangenschaft und clas Todesjahr des Apostels
Paulus (Leipzig, 1900); Bowen, The Dates of
the Pastoral Letters (London, 1900); Harnack,
Die Ausbreitung des Christentums (Eng. trans.,
London, 1903); Dobschiitz, Die urchristli-
chen Gemeinden (Eng. trans., ib., 1903) ; Wernle,
Die Anfiéin-ge unserer Religion (Eng. trans., ib.,
1903); Spitta, Zur Gesehichte und Litteratur
des Urchristentums (Gottingen, 1893-1901).
TIMOTHY GRASS (so called from Timothy
Hanson, who introduced the seed into the Caro-
linas about 1720), Phleum pratense. The only
grass of its genus that is valued for hay and
pasturage. It is the herd’s grass of New Eng-
land and New York, and along with the other
species of the genus, is in England often called
cat’s-tail grass. It is distinguished by a long
cylindrical panicle so compact as to resemble
a close spike, strong culms, attaining a height
of 4 to 5 feet, but tender and nutritious, and
much relished by cattle. It is perennial, but
springs up rapidly, even in the year in which it
is sown. The seed is very small. It varies .-in
size according to soil and situation, succeeding
best in moist rich soils. In the United States
timothy hay is considered one of the most val-
uable hays made wholly from grass and is com-
monly used as the standard, withwhich to com-
pare other hays. (For its feeding value, see
GRASSES; HAY.) Timothy may be sown alone,
or, as is more commonly the practice, in a mix-
ture with clover, generally with red clover. It
succeeds best on moist rich soils. Upon dry soils
it is often bulbous at base, and this form, which
is due to the conditions of growth, was once
described as a distinct species (Phleum node-
sum) . See Plate of GBASSES.
TIMTERLEY, CHARLES H. (1794-c.1846).
An English printer and author, -born in Man-
chester, and educated at the free grammar
school there. He served in the Napoleonic wars
and was wounded at Waterloo. Returning to
England, he worked under an engraver and cop-
per-plate printer, and in 1821 he became a letter-
press printer. Late in life he settled in Lon-
don, where he died. His valuable publications
connected with printing comprise The Printer’s
Manual (1838) ; A Dictionary of Printers and
Printing (1839) ; and Songs of the Press, origi-
TIMPERLEY.
TIMUR.
752
- revolt.
nal and selected, the best collection of printers’
songs in English (1845). The first two books
were issued in 1842 as an Encyclopcedia of Lit-
erary and Typographical Anecdotes. Timperley
also published Annals of Manchester (1839).
TIM’ROD, HENRY (1829-67). An American
poet, born in Charleston, S. C. He was educated
at the University of Georgia and studied law
with the Union lawyer James Louis Petigru,
but finally trained himself for the position of
a private tutor in families, which gave him more
leisure for developing his poetical talents. Dur-
ing the years immediately preceding the Civil
War he formed one of the coterie presided over
by William Gilmore Simms (q.v.), and con-
tributed poems to Russell’s Magazine and the
Southern Literary Messenger. In 1859 he pub-
lished a volume of poems which was favorably
noticed. He served as war correspondent of the
Charleston Mercury and in 1864 removed to Co-
lumbia, S. C. His later years were Passed in
poverty and physical pain. His friend Paul H.
Hayne superintended an edition of his poems
(1873), which was well received by competent
judges. In 1899 a memorial edition of his works
was undertaken. His fame as the best of South-
ern lyrists, after Poe, and probably Sidney
Lanier, is now well established. Among his best
poems are “Katie,” “The Cotton Boll,” “Charles-
ton,” and an admirable ode on the Confederate
dead buried in Magnolia Cemetery, Charleston.
TIMSAH, tim’sEi, LAKE. A lake traversed
by the Suez Canal (q.v.) . ‘
TIMUCUA, te-mUo"kwa, or TIMUQUANAN
(ruler, master). A group of tribes, constituting
a distinct linguistic stock, which formerly occu-
pied central and northern Florida from about
Tampa Bay and Cape Canaveral northward to
Saint 1\Iary’s River. Their southern limit is un-
known. When first known to the Spaniards
they had from twenty to forty settlements,
principally along the lower Saint John’s River.
Narvaez (1527) and De Soto (1539) both passed
through their territory, meeting determined re-
sistance in each case. The I-Iuguenots, _under
Laudonniere, landing on the east coast in 1564,
met with a friendly reception, the friendship
continuing during the brief existence of the
French colony. At this time there seem to have
been at least five cognate tribes speaking as
many dialects. On the expulsion of the French
the Timucua tribes came under the dominion of
the Spaniards, by whom they were compelled to
work in large numbers upon the fortifications of
Saint Augustine. In 1687, already greatly di-
minished, they made an unsuccessful attempt to
In 1702-06 successive inroads of the
English of Carolina, with their hundreds of In-
dian allies, wiped out the mission villages of
the Timucua, who fled to the upper waters of
the Saint John’s, where Tomoco River in the
present Volusia County preserves their name.
The abandoned territory was afterward occupied
by the Seminole (q.v.). Consult Pareja, Arte
de la lengua timuquana (new ed. by Adam and
Vinson, Paris, 1886).
TIMUR, te-moor’, TIMUR-BEG, TAMERLANE,
or TIMUR-LENG (Timur the Lame) (1336-1405).
A Mongol conqueror, born at Kesh or Sebz, 40
miles from Samarkand. At this time the real
power over Turkestan was in the hands of in-
dependent chiefs of Mongol blood, each of whom
chose a prominent city of the kingdom, and thence
ruled the surrounding country. One of these
chiefs, Ha-ji Berlas, the uncle of Timur, had
established himself at Kesh, and here the future
conqueror passed the first twenty-four years of his
life. In 1360 the Kalmucks of Jettah, led by
Tughlak Timur, subjugated Turkestan. Declining
to accompany his uncle in his flight, Timur met-
Tughlak, who made him governor of Kesh, and
appointed him one of the principal ministers of
his son, the new monarch of Turkestan. The
Kalmucks were ultimately expelled in 1365, and
Turkestan Was divided between its two libera-
tors, Hussain and Timur. In 1369 war broke out
between them, Hussain was defeated and slain,
and Timur became lord of Turkestan. He did
not, however, assume the rank of a sovereign,
but, elevating one of the royal race to the throne,
reserved for himself the real authority and the
title of Emir. He then proceeded to take ven-
geance on the Kalmucks and turned westward to
punish the predatory tribes of Khwaresm, who
had plundered Bokhara. He spent the interval
between these campaigns in supporting Tok-
temesh Khan, one of the claimants to the throne
of Kiptchak, whom he placed in 1376 in undis-
puted possession. In 1383 the people of Herat,
whom he had subdued a short time before, rebelled
and murdered his envoys. In punishment for
this 2000 of the garrison, built up with alter-
nate layers of brick and mortar into the form of
a pyramid, were left by Timur as a reminder of
the consequences of rebellion. Seistan was next
reduced, and the Afghans of the Suleiman Koh
were conquered. I11 the following year he invaded
Mazanderan, and by the close of 1387 the whole
' of the country east of the Tigris, from Tiflis to
Shiraz, was subdued. Those chiefs who vol-
untarily submitted were mostly confirmed in
their governments, but the inhabitants of Ispa-
han who, after a pretended submission, suddenly
rose against the Tatar garrison and massacred
3000 of them, were almost completely extermi-
nated.
Meanwhile, Toktemesh Khan invaded Timur’s
territories on the Amu. Timur brought him to
bay on the banks of the Bielaya (a tributary of
the Kama), June 18, 1391, where he almost anni-
hilated his forces. In 1392 Timur crossed the Ti-
gris, subdued the numerous and warlike princi-
palities to the east of the Euphrates,then advanced
northward, through the gates of Derbend, to the
Volga, in 1395 again routed Toktemash on the
banks of the Terek, and then turned west as far
as the Dnieper, and then north to Moscow, return-
ing by Astrakhan and the Caucasus, leaving death
and desolation in his track. In 1398 Timur en-
tered India by the passes of the Hindu Kush, near
Kabul, and routed the armies which opposed
him, till the number of prisoners became so
great that four days before the great battle at
Delhi he ordered the murder, in cold blood, of
all the males (said to be 100.000 in number),
and then took the capital. After advancing to
the Ganges, Timur returned to Samarkand,
where he expended the spoils of the expedition in
the adornment of his city. In the following
year he attacked the Egyptian Empire in Syria.
He was as usual completely successful. Timur’s
aid was then invoked by the Emperor of the East
and several princes of Asia Minor to help them
TIMUR.
TIN.
753
defeat the Turks led by Bajazet I. (q.v.). The
two hosts met at Angora on July 20, 1402, and
after a long and obstinate contest the Turks were
totally routed and Bajazet captured. The con-
quest of the whole of Asia Minor speedily fol-
lowed. The Byzantine Emperor did homage
to the victor, as did also the Turkish ruler of
Thrace, and the Knights of Saint John were ex-
pelled from Smyrna. On his return Timur con-
quered Georgia, where he passed the winter, and,
resuming his march in the following year by
way of Merv and Balkh, he reached Samarkand
in 1404. Here he resumed preparations ‘for his
long projected invasion of China, and was march-
ing along the Sihun when he was attacked
by ague, and died after a week’s illness, Febru-
ary 17, 1405.
Timur did much to promote the arts and sci-
ences throughout his dominions, and, despite his
cruelty in war, was an able, politic, and kindly
ruler in time of peace, although the speedy dis-
solution of his empire deprived his labors of
any permanent utility. Two works are attribut-
ed to him, entitled Malfileat, or Annals, trans-
lated by Stewart (London, 1830), and Tukuedt,
or Ordinances, translated by Davy-White (Ox-
ford, 1783) and Langlés (Paris, 1787). Their
authenticity is neither proved nor disproved. In
literature Timur is best known through Marlowe’s
drama Ta-mburlaine the Great (q.v.). Consult:
Sharaf ud-din Ali Yazdi, Zafarna-mah, translated
by Petis de la Croix, Histoire de Timur-Bec, con-
nu sur le nom du grand Tamerlan (Paris, 1722) ;
Manger, Vita Timuri, a translation of the Arabic
biography by Ibn Arabshah (Leovardae, 1767-
72); Horn, “Geschichte Irans in islamitischer
Zeit,” in Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss der ira-
nischen Philologie, vol. ii. (Strassburg, 1900) .
TIN (AS. tin, OHG. zin, Ger. Zinn, tin; con-
nected with Goth. tains, AS. tan, OHG. zein,
twig, thin leaf of metal). A metallic element
known since ancient times. Implements formed
of an alloy of tin and copper have been found
among ancient Assyrian remains, and the tin
employed in the manufacture of such bronze
was obtained by the Phoenicians from the islands
called Cassiterides, somewhere off the west coast
of Europe. It is known definitely that after
the conquest of Britain by the Romans tin
was carried from the Cornish mines through
Gaul, by way of Marseilles, to Italy.
Pliny distinguished tin as plumbum al-
bum or candidum from plumbum nigrum (lead),
and about the fourth century the name of stan-
num was given to tin. The alchemists called it
jupiter, and sometimes diabolus metallorum,
owing to its property of forming brittle alloys.
Native tin is said to have been found in small
crystalline grains with corundum, gold, and
platinum in superficial deposits in New South
Wales, and it has been reported elsewhere, but it
is extremely doubtful whether the metal occurs
native. The principal ore is the dioxide, cassit-
erite, sometimes called ‘tinstone;’ tin is also
found as the sulphide, with copper and zinc,
the mineral being known as stannite or tin
pyrites. Smaller quantities of tin are also con-
tained in certain other minerals.
Tin (symbol, Sn, stannum; atomic weight,
119.05) is a silver-white, lustrous metal that
has a specific gravity of about 7.3, and melts at
235° C. (455° F). It can be easily rolled or
hammered out to thin foil and at 100° C. (2l2°
F.) may be drawn into wire, which, however, pos-
sesses but little tenacity. Tin has a fibrous
structure, and when bent emits a peculiar crack-
ling sound, caused by the friction of the crystal-
line particles. It finds extensive use in the
manufacture of tin plate (see below), in the
preparation of vessels for household and techni-
cal purposes, for the manufacture of tin-foil, for
tinning copper and iron, and in the manufacture
of alloys, including amalgam for silvering mir-
rors, bell metal, bronze, gun metal, pewter, type
metal, etc. It combines with oxygen to form two
oxides, of which the stannous oxide, or monoxide,
is an olive brown powder that is obtained when
stannous oxalate is heated out of contact with
air, and combines with basic radicles to form
stannates, of which the sodium stannate is used
in calico dyeing and printing. The stannic oxide,
or dioxide, which is found native as cassiterite,
is obtained as a white powder when tin is heated
until it burns in the air. It finds some use,
under the name of ‘putty powder,’ for polishing
plate glass, and also for imparting a white color
to glass and enamels. Stannous chloride, SnCl,,
and stannic chloride, SnC1,, are both used as
mordants in dyeing and calico printing under
the name of ‘tin salts’ or ‘tin crystals,’ and are
readily prepared by dissolving the metal in
hydrochloric acid. Stannic sulphide, which is
prepared by heating tin with mercury, sulphur,
and ammonium chloride, is known commercially
as ‘mosaic gold,’ and was formerly used for gild-
ing, imitating bronze, etc. The beautiful purple-
colored precipitate obtained by the reaction of
gold chloride on stannous salts has been described
under CAssIUs, PURPLE or (q.v.).
OCCURRENCE AND PRCDUCTICN. Tin ore or cas-
siterite has been found in many localities in dif-
ferent parts of the world, but its occurrence from
a commercial standpoint is quite limited. Its
sources are veins in the older rocks, particularly
a variety of granite called greisen, and alluvial
deposits, the latter being formed by the erosion of
rocks carrying the veins. The ores obtained from
veins are commonly known as lode-tin, while
those found in stream deposits are known various-
ly as black tin, tin sand, stream tin, and barilla.
The principal supplies of ore are obtained from
the East Indies, in the islands of Banca, Billiton,
and Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Australia,
Bolivia, and Cornwall, England. Most of the
ore from the East Indies and Malay Peninsula
is obtained by washing alluvial gravels. There
are also mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Russia,
Spain, Portugal, and Japan, but the aggregate
output of these countries is insignificant.
occurrence of tin in California, Texas, South
Dakota, and North Carolina has been known for
a long time, but so far it has not been mined
anywhere on a commercial scale. A discovery
of ore in the York district of Alaska has been
the cause of active exploration in that region,
and there is some prospect that it may lead to
the successful inauguration of tin-mining within
the territory of the United States.
The world’s production of tin in 1901 as re-
ported by The Mineral Industry was as follows:
Metric tons
Austria ......................................................... .. 49
Banca and Billiton ....................................... ..19,365
Bolicia .......................................................... ..14,932
The _
TI_1\T. 754 '.l'.‘IN.A1V[0U'._


Metric 110118 on the hearth of the furnace a residuary alloy of
géilglllaargl ....................................................... .. gggg tin with iron and other metals. More blocks are
New s0uu'1"'wliies ............. ..'. ........................ .: '67-I adiied and. heated .111 the Same Way, 911 the 116'
Singkep ......................................................... .. 793 fimng baslll centalns about five tons. The tm
Straits _S8iJi31(91Il(3I1tS ...................................... ..51,339 is then ready, for ‘b0i1ing_’ In Operation
Tasmama ..................................................... .. 1,818 billets of green Wood are plunged into the melted
Total .................................................... ..95,058 metal, the disengagement of gas from which
. _ _ produces a constant ebullition, and so causes a
METALLURGY- The only Ore of mu Whlch 15 scum (chiefly oxide of tin) to rise to the sur-
used for the extraction of the metal is tinstone
or cassiterite. The extraction of tin is usually
performed by dry methods, that is by a process
of calcining and reduction in furnaces, but wet
methods and electro-metallurgical methods are
also employed to some extent. The ore
When mined from veins has to be stamped
to a very fine powder before the valuable
portion can be effectually separated. This
separation is performed by an elaborate
series of washings whose effect is to remove the
lighter impurities and to leave the heavy par-
ticles of tin where they can be collected. Various
~forms of washing apparatus are employed (see
ORE’ DRESSING), but the most common appliance
is the huddle. In this device the ore and earthy
matters, in the state of a thick mud, are con-
veyed by square pipes or channels to the circum-
ference of a conical table on which, by the aid of
water, the metallic portion separates, the lighter
stony impurities flowing down toward the centre,
and being carried away. There are also brushes
for agitating the ore during the operation.
The tin ore thus far purified has next to be
deprived of its sulphur and arsenic if these
substances should be present; this is done in a
reverberatory furnace, the flues of which are
connected with large condensing chambers, in
which the arsenic is deposited in a crystalline
form. The sulphur which is present in the state of
sulphide of iron is decomposed by the heat into
sulphurous acid gas, and the remaining oxide
of iron is removed by a subsequent washing.
Sulphide of copper, when present, is converted
by roasting, and afterwards exposing it to the
air, into sulphate of copper, and is then easily
dissolved out by lixiviation.
After this final washing the ore is ready for
smelting in a reverberatory furnace. The charge
consists of from 20 to 25 cwts. of ore mixed with
one-sixth of its weight of powdered anthracite
or charcoal, and a small quantity of lime or
fluor-spar, to serve as a flux for the siliceous im-
purities. Before being put into the furnace, the
mixture is moistened with water, to prevent the
finely powdered ore being carried away by the
draught. When the charge is placed on the
hearth of the furnace, thedoors are closed, and
the heat gradually raised for about six hours;
the oxide is then reduced by the carbon of the
coal. At this stage the furnace door is opened,
and the mass worked with a paddle, to separate
the slag, which is raked off, and the richer por-
tion of it melted over again. The reduced tin
subsides to the bottom, and is run off into a
cast-iron pan, from which it is ladled into molds,
to produce blocks or ingots of a convenient size.
The tin has still to be purified, first byaproc-
ess of liquation, and afterwards by that of
boiling. ‘Liquation’ consists in moderately heat-
ing the blocks in a reverberatory furnace till the
tin, owing to its comparatively easy fusibility,
melts and flows into the refining basin, leaving
face, which is then easily removed; at the same
time, impure and dense parts fall to the bottom.
When the agitation has gone on long enough,
the bath is allowed to settle and cool. The tin
then separates into zones-—the upper consisting
of the purest portion, the middle being slightly
mixed with other metals, and the lower so much
so that it requires to go through the refining
process again. The residuary alloy of the
liquation process has also its tin extracted and
refined again.
In former times in Cornwall tin was smelted
in a blast furnace (see IRON AND STEEL) instead
of a reverberatory one; and this is still the case
on the Continent. By this method a pure tin is
obtained, but the loss of metal in the process is
greater. It works best where coal is scarce and
wood abundant.
Tin ores which contain the mineral wolfram
(tungstate of iron and manganese) are treated
by a special process, patented by R. Oxland, of
Plymouth, England. This mineral and tin ore
are so nearly the same in specific gravity that
no mechanical process of washing will separate
them. Oxland’s process consists in roasting the
dressed tin ore with sulphate of soda, for the
purpose of converting the insoluble tungstate
of iron and manganese into the soluble tungstate
of soda, which is easily removed by lixiviation.
The oxides of iron and manganese, which are left
in a finely divided state, can then, from their
lower density, be readily got rid of by washing.
The tungstate of soda procured in the operation
has been found to be one of the most valuable
substances for rendering cotton cloths non-inflam-
mable. .
TIN PLATE. A very large proportion of the
tin obtained each year is employed in the plating
of iron and steel sheets which are manufactured
subsequently into cans for preserving and other
purposes. The sheets from the rolling mills are
cleaned in bran-water which has soured and in
dilute sulphuric acid, after which they are
plunged into baths of molten tallow and tin.
The treatment with tallow prevents oxidation
of the metal. After the sheets have taken on a
sufficiently heavy plate, they are carefully cleaned
with bran. An inferior quality of plate called
terne plate is made by dipping sheets in an alloy
of tin and lead.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the occurrence and mining
of tin, consult The Mineral Industry (New York,
annual) ; Charleton, Tin Mining (London, 1884).
For the metallurgy of tin, see Schnabel, H andboolc
of Metallurgy, vol. ii., Eng. ed. (London, 1878).
TINAMOU. The native, and now the pop-
ular, name for birds of the family Tinamidae,
inhabiting the tropical portions of South
America, having many remarkable features in
their internal organization, and the striking
external character that the tail is exceedingly
short or entirely absent. Like partridges in
general appearance, and varying in size from
TINAMOU.
TINEA.
755
that of a quail to the bigness of a large grouse,
and prevailingly brown in color, they are classed
as game-birds in South America, and are fre-
quently called ‘partridges.’ Their flight is strong
and swift, yet they haunt the undergrowth of
dense forests or bushy and grassy flats, run with
amazing rapidity, and conceal themselves with
great skill, rather than take to flight. But they
are rather stupid, and can be caught with a noose
on the end of a stick, especially if they are ap-
proached on horseback. Their food is mis-
cellaneous, like that of game-birds generally, and
their voice a mellow whistle. The flesh is
delicious. They make very simple nests on the
ground, and lay eggs varying from reddish choco-
late, wine-purple or liver-color, to dark blue or
green, and burnished to a metallic sheen. A
typical example of the group is illustrated on
the Plate of CAssowARIEs, ETC. This is the
‘great’ tinamou (Rh-ynchot/as rufescens), or
‘perdiz grande,’ of Argentina.
The tinamous have been regarded by many
systematists as within or near the Ratitae, but
are placed by Gadow as a separate group of
ordinal or subordinal rank among the Carinatae,
between the falcons and the quails. Consult:
Gadow, “Aves,” in Bronn’s Thier-Reich (Leipzig,
1893); Evans, Birds (London, 1900); Newton,
Dictionary of Birds (New York, 1896) ; Sclater
and Hudson, Argentine Ornithology (London,
1889).
TINCTURE (from Lat. tinctura, a dyeing,
from tingere, to dye, Gk. 'ré'y'yew, tengein, to
moisten, dye). A medicinal preparation of a
drug by maceration or by dissolving non-volatile
principles in alcohol. In some tinctures strong
alcohol, in others dilute alcohol, is used. In
almost all cases the resulting liquid is of a de-
cided color; hence the name. Obviously tinctures
must be kept in tightly closed bottles to prevent
evaporation. They furnish a most convenient
form for dispensing drugs, either alone or in
combination. There are over 70 official tinctures
in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Among
these are the once popular tincture of arnica,
used for bruises and sprains, but much inferior
to pure alcohol; compound tincture of cinchona,
the equivalent of the old Huxham’s tincture;
tincture of the chloride of iron, the most widely
used chalybeate; tincture of ipecac and opium,
a liquid form of Dover’s powder; compound
tincture of lavender, an aromatic stimulant used
in colic; tincture of myrrh, so largely employed
in mouth washes and dentifrices; tincture of
opium, or laudanum; camphorated tincture of
opium, or paregoric; tincture of sqnill, familiar
as a component of cough mixtures; and tincture
of ginger, frequently known as ‘essence of
ginger.’ There are also ethereal tinctures, in
which the solvent used is ether in place of
alcohol.
TINCTURE. The general designation for
colors, metals, and furs in heraldry (q.v.).
TIN'DAL, MATTHEW (c.1653-1733). A deis-
tical writer. He was the son of a clergyman at
Beer-Ferris, in Devonshire, was educated at Ox-
ford, and elected fellow of All Souls’ College in
1678. After a brief lapse into Romanism during
the reign of James II. he reverted to Protestant-
ism, or rather, as events showed, into rational-
ism. It was not till 1706 that he attracted
particular notice, when the publication of his
treatise on The Rights of the Christian Church
Asserted Against the Romish and All Other
Priests Who Claim an Independent Power Over
It raised a storm of opposition. On the
Continent Tindal’s work was quite difi'erently
received. Le Clere, in his Bibliotheque choisic,
praises it highly, as one of the solidcst
defenses of Protestantism ever written. In .17 30
he published his most celebrated treatise, on-
titled Christianity as Old as the Creation, or The
Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature.
The design of the work is to strip religion of
the miraculous element, and to prove that its
morality is its true and only claim to the rever-
ence of mankind. Tindal’s book is written in
excellent English, and is an able performance,
giving its author a distinguished place among
the eighteenth-century deists.
TINDER. An inflammable material, usually
made of half-burned linen. It was formerly one
of the chief means of procuring fire before the
introduction of friction matches. The tinder
was made to catch the sparks caused by striking
a piece of steel with a flint; and the ignited tin-
der enabled the operator to light a match dipped
in sulphur. This intermediate step was neces-
sary in consequence of the impossibility of mak-
ing the tinder flame. Partially decayed wood,
especially that of willows and other similar
trees, also affords tinder; and certain fungi fur-
nish the German tinder, or amadou (q.v.).
TIN’EA. (Lat., gnawing worm). A name
given to several varieties of vegetable parasitic
skin diseases. For tinea favosa, see FAVUS.
Tinea trichophytina or ringworm may appear
as an eruption on several parts of the body,
receiving a modification of the name in each
case, as corporis, crnris, capitis, barbae, etc. It
is very common among the poorer classes, and
spreads with great rapidity in schools and
asylums. Tinea of the scalp is often propagated
by indiscriminate use of combs, hats, towels, and
brushes, as well as by propinquity in sleeping.
A red spot appears, marking the beginning of the
eruption, which soon becomes scaly and en-
larges, forming a ring possibly half an inch in
diameter, leaving a clear centre. The margin of
the circle is well defined, elevated, red, and cov-
ered with fine scales easily detachable. Myoc-
lium and spores are seen in microscopic exam-
ination of the scales. There is seldom much
irritation, except in the cases where the crotch
or axilla is invaded. The tinea trichophytina
crnris or eczema marginatum is not infrequent
in the United States. In warm climates it is
very common and severe, and is known as Indian,
Chinese, or Burmese ringworm, also as Dhobie’s
itch. Hyposulphite of soda, bichloride of mer-
cury, acetate of copper, and tincture of iodine
are frequently eflicacious in the tinea corporis
and cruris. Bulkley recommended sulphurous
acid for the latter. Tinea capitis, also called
tinea tonsnrans, is very intractable, and per-
severance must be used in the application of
carbolic acid, green soap, mercury, oil of cade,
etc., always used in the form of an ointment.
Tinea oersicolor, or Pit;/riasis versicolor, is very
common in warm countries, though also frequent
in the United States. The front of the chest is
most often attacked, the back next. The parasite
TIN EA.
TINTERN ABBEY.
756
Microsporon furfur is probably the cause of tinea
versicolor. The treatment consists of frequent
bathing with strong soap, hyposulphite of soda
applications, or the use of bichloride of mercury,
salicylic acid, sulphur, and glycerin. The prog-
nosis is good.
TINEIDE. See LEAF-MINER.
TINEL, te’nel’, EDGAR (1854——). A Belgian
pianist and composer, born at Sinay. In 1863
he became a pupil at the Brussels Conservatory,
and ten years later he received the first prize
for pianoforte and published four nocturnes for
solo voice with pianoforte. In 1877 he won the
Grand Prix with his -cantata Klohhe Roe-land. He
succeeded Lemmens as director of the Institute
for Sacred Music at Mechlin, in 1881, and in
1888 produced the oratorio Franciscus, which
gave him fame. In 1889 he was appointed in-
spector of the State music schools of Belgium
and in 1896 became professor of counterpoint and
fugue at the Brussels Conservatory. He produced
a Grand Mass of the Holy Virgin of Lourdes for
five parts; Te Deum for four-part mixed choir with
organ; Alleluia for four equal voices with the
organ; the music drama Godoleva (1896) ; motets
and sacred songs. He also published Le chant
grégorien, théorie sommaire dc son ewécution
(1895). -
TIN GHAI, ting’hi’. The chief town of the
island of Chusan (q.v.), China.
TINGITIDE. See LACE-BUG.
TIN GUAITE, tin’gwait (named from Sierra
de Tingua, Brazil). An igneous rock of gran-
ular or porphyritic texture, characterized by
the mineral combination alkali feldspar, nephe-
line, and aegerine, or aegerine-augite. It is a rock
of very limited distribution, but generally occurs
in dikes associated with nepheline syenite, to
which it is genetically and chemically related.
TINGUIANE, tin-gwé-Ei’na. A brown people
in northern Luzon. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
TINITIAN. A Malay-Negrito people in Pala-
wan. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
TINKER-BIRD, or TINKER BARBET.
COPPEBSMITH.
TIN KER’S ROOT. See FEVEBWOBT.
TINNE, té'na' (Athapascan, people). A col-
lective term sometimes used as synonymous with
Athapascan stock (q.v.), but more usually em-
ployed to designate the tribes of that stock re-
siding in the Canadian northwest, exclusive of
the Kuchin (q.v.). In this restricted sense it
includes the Sarsee, Taculli, Sicauni, Nehaunee,
Beaver, Hare, Chippewyan, Montagnais, Slave,
and others, who number in all about 12,000,
chiefly on the waters of the Upper Yukon, Upper
Mackenzie, Upper Fraser, Peace River, Atha-
basca River, and the lakes connected with them.
TINNE,t1n'na,ALEx1NE (1839-69). A Dutch
explorer in Africa, born at The Hague. In 1856
she visited Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, and hav-
ing definitely removed to Cairo in 1861, started
for the Upper Nile in January, 1862, and reached
Gondokoro in September, but was compelled by
sickness to return to Khartum. In February,
1863, she set out with an enormous train on a
second expedition, with Bahr-el-Ghazal for its
goal, in which Henglin (q.v.) and Steudner
(1852-63) participated and which advanced as
See
far as Dembo in the Bongo country. Steudner
and Miss Tinne’s mother having succumbed to the
climate, the expedition returned to Khartum in
March, 1864. Its results were described in the
Transcations of the Historical Society of Lanca-
shire, etc., vol. xvi. (Liverpool, 1864). In 1865
Alexine Tinné visited Crete, Greece, and Italy,
went to Algiers in 1866, traveled through the
French Sahara in 1868, and in January, 1869,
started with a strong retinue for the interior, in-
tending to penetrate to the Nile via Bornu. De-
tained by sickness at Murzuk, she then proceeded
toward Ghat by invitation of the Tuareg chief
Ikhenukhen, but was assassinated by the Tuaregs
escorting her, on August 1st. Consult: Henglin,
in Petermanns Mitteilungen, Erg:ii-nsungsheft 15
(Gotha, 1865) ; and id., Reise in das Gebiet des
W'eissen Nil, etc. (Leipzig, 1869).
TIN ’NEVEL’LI or TINAVELLY. The
capital of a district of Madras, British India,
99 miles southwest of Madura, on the left bank
of the Tambraparni River (Map: India, C 7).
It is connected with Palamcotta on the opposite
bank by a handsome bridge. The most striking
edifice is the Siva temple. There are two col-
leges, and the town has long been an important
centre for Protestant missions. Cotton goods
are extensively manufactured. Tinnevelli be-
came a British possession in 1801. Population,
in 1901, 40,469.
TI1\TNI’TUS AURIUM (Lat., ringing of
the ears). Ringing in the ears. In most cases
it is an unimportant symptom, depending on
some local temporary affection of the ear, or on
some disturbance of the digestive system; but
as it is also a common symptom of organic dis-
ease of the auditory nerve, it may indicate a
dangerous condition, or may be a prelude to
complete deafness. It may be a symptom of
neurasthenia (q.v.), and may occur in a number
of diseases. Hence, although commonly of no
consequence, it is a symptom that, especially if
permanent, must be carefully watched. It may
be readily induced for a few hours by a large
dose of quinine or of the salicylates.
TINOCERAS. A huge proboscidean, allied
to Coryphodon, Dinoceras and Uintatherium,
found fossil in the Middle Eocene (Bridges)
formations of Wyoming. Its most prominent
characteristic was the long, narrow, somewhat
quadrangular skull, bearing six great protuber-
ances, one pair on the nasal bones pointing for-
ward, a second outward-bending pair on the up-
per jaw-bones (maxillaries), and a third over
the eyes (on the parietals), where there was a
semicircular upright crest of bone. These pro-
tuberances seem not to have been covered with
ordinary horn; The typical species is Tinoceras
ingens, described by Marsh, Dinccerata, a
Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic
Mammals (VVashington, 1884).
TINOS, té/nos. One of the Cyclades.
Tnxos.
TINTERN ABBEY. One of the most beau-
tiful monastic ruins in England. It is situated
in a green meadow on the right bank of the
River Wye, nine miles below Monmouth, on the
spot where Theodoric, British King of Glamor-
gan, was said to have fallen in battle against the
heathen Saxons, AD. 600. The abbey was founded
in 1131 for Cistercian monks by Walter de Cl_a,1_"e;,
See
TINTERN ABBEY.
TINTORETTO.
757
the church was begun a century later through
the munificence of Roger de Bigod, Earl Marshall
and dedicated in 1268. The tower and roof
are gone; but the church remains one of the
finest examples of the Decorated Style——the
English High Gothic——-beautiful in composition
and delicate in execution. The nave is 228 feet
long, the transept 150, and the width of nave
and choir, 37 feet. The ruins of the convent
buildings also remain. Tintern Abbey is well
known through Wordsworth’s celebrated “Lines”
composed a few miles above Tintern Abbey.
TINTO, DICK. (1) An artist, the son of a
village tailor, introduced in Scott’s Bride of
Lammermoor, and St. Ronan’s Well. (2) The
nom de plume of Frank Booth Goodrich.
TIN’TORET’TO, IL (1518-94). The name
usually applied to Jacopo Robusti, one of the
chief masters of the Venetian Renaissance. He
was born at Venice, the son of a dyer (tintore),
whence his name, and at an early age was
placed with Titian. According to the tra-
ditional account, the jealousy of Titian
soon forced him to leave; but their sepa-
ration was more probably due to Tintoretto’s
different point of view, which saw in the plastic
rendition of the human body in action, rather
than in color, the chief problem of art. Taking
an independent atelier, he subjected himself to
one of the severest courses of training on record.
Following his great aim, as announced in the
motto upon the wall of his studio, to unite
Michelangelo’s design with Titian’s color, he pro-
vided himself with casts from which he drew
constantly, and he even brought Daniele da Vol-
terra’s models of Michelangelo-’s tomb from
Florence. He dissected bodies to learn anatomy,
studied foreshortening and motion from sus-
pended figures, worked by day and lamplight to
get light effects, and did not scorn to learn from
house painters the secrets of their technique.
Besides the color of Titian he studied especially
the work of his friend Schiavone, from whom he
acquired the technique of fresco, and,perhaps
also Bonifazio Veronese, whose influence appears
in his early works.
After such extensive preparation his intense
eagerness for activity led him to solicit work
at low prices. His earliest works, which are
rare, show progress from the dark manner of
Schiavone and Bonifazio Veronese to a greater
transparency of color. The first_work to attract
attention was a lost portrait of his brother and
himself with night effect, but the most important
surviving example is a “Circumcision” in Santa
Maria del Carmine. Somewhat later he painted
five subjects from Genesis for Santa Trinita, two
of which, the “Fall,” and the “Murder of Abel,”
are preserved in the Venetian Academy, the
former especially being idyllic in sentiment, and
almost equal to Titian in color. After a numbgr
of facades, none of which survive, his next work
of importance was the decorations of the choir
oflthe Madonna del Orto, 50 feet in height, and
the “Last Judgment.” Finally, his reputation
was definitely established by the series of pic-
tures in the Scuola di San Marco relative to the
abduction of the body of the patron saint of
Venice from Alexandria to Venice. The episodes
represented the “Finding of the Body” (_Brera,
Milan), its “Abduction from Alexandria,” “Saint
Mark Saving a Saracen from Shipwreck” (both
.0
in the Royal Palace, Venice), and “Miracle of
Saint Mark” (Academy, Venice). All show Tin-
toretto at the height of his powers, especially
the last, which so good a critic as Taine esteemed
the greatest painting in Italy. It is especially
remarkable for the intense dramatic actions and
the treatment of the light, which issues from the
saint’s head and shoulders, lending rich color
to the well modeled groups.
Tintoretto very seldom dated his works, and
there is, consequently, no record of his activity
between 1550 and 1560. It is probable, how-
ever, that during this period he painted a large
number of his easel pieces, and perhaps the three
grand compositions in the Ducal Palace, which
were burnt in 157 7 . In 1560 began his remarkable
‘activity for the guild of San Rocco, whose scuola
(guild house) forms a perfect museum of his
works, of which it and the adjoining church con-
tain fifty-six in all, painted at different periods
of his life. In 1565 he finished the “Crucifixion,”
a splendid piece of naturalism, and one of his
very best works; in 1577 the two panels of the
ceiling of the great hall: the “Pascal Feast,”
and “Moses Striking the Rock.” Meanwhile he
had become a member of the guild, and in 1577
he was employed at a salary of 100 ducats to
furnish three pictures a year, which he con-
tinued to perform until his death. Among the
best are a series‘ from the life of Christ, including
a strikingly original “Visitation,” “Annuncia-
tion,” “Christ Before Pilate,” “Christ Bearing
His Cross,” “Ecce Homo,” and a “Resurrection.”
In the decorations of the Ducal Palace, begun
about the same time (1560) , he was extensively
aided by pupils, especially by his son Domenico.
In the Sala del Scrutinio he painted the “Cap-
ture of Zara;” in the Antecollegio, four charm-
ing mythological representations: “Bacchus,
Ariadne, and Venus,” “Mercury and the Graces,”
“Minerva Expelling Mars,” and the “Forge of
Vulcan;” in the Sala del Collegio, four votive
pictures of doges, the finest of which represents
the “Marriage of Saint Catharine;” and in the
Hall of the Senate, “Venice, Queen of the Seas.”
In the Hall of the Grand Council the Doge and
Senate ofl'er the spoils of the conquered cities to
“Venice in Glory,” and the four battle pieces of
the ceiling show keenest effects of foreshortening.
There, too, a whole wall is occupied by his last
great work, the “Paradise,” 74 X 30 feet, the
largest oil painting in the world, but which has
suffered so much from the ravages of time and
restoration as to be scarcely enjoyable.
His altar-pieces and easel pictures are legion,
and may be found in the churches of Venice and
principal galleries of Europe. We can mention
only the three fine examples in San Giorgio Mag-
giore; “Susanna’s Bath,” in Vienna, Paris, and
Madrid; “Vulcan, Cupid, and Venus” (Pitti,
Florence), and “Abraham’s Sacrifice” (Uffizi);
“Origin of the Milky Way,” and “Saint George
and the Dragon” (National Gallery, London);
“Diana and the Hour” (Berlin); and “Christ
Visiting Mary and Martha” (Augsburg), one of
his loveliest works. During the same period he
also designed for Saint Mark’s Church a series of
mosaics over the arch and elsewhere of subjects
from the life of Christ.
Tintoretto shared with Titian the reputation
of being the greatest portraitist of his day. His
early portraits, indeed, are often confounded with
TIN TORETTO.
TIPPECANOE.
758
Titian’s, but he soon developed a highly indi-
vidual style, the keynotes of which are natural-
ism and simplicity. Eliminating all incident,
even gesture, the great painter of motion pro-
duced likenesses in the highest sense typical.
With incredible rapidity he painted the doges
and the nobility of Venice, who were his sitters.
Of these portraits over one hundred survive, to
say nothing of the important examples which
we know were lost, but many of which were prob-
ably executed by his son, Domenico. Among the
best examples are his own likeness in the Louvre
and in the Uflizi; Vincenzo Morosini, Paolo
Paruto, Tomaso Contarini, and Niccolo Priuli,
in the Ducal Palace; the doges Trevisan and
Priuli, Jacopo Soranzo, Andrea Dandolo and
Antonio Oapello, in the Academy of Vienna; the
Dogs Niccolo da Ponte Sebastiano Venier, the
hero of Lepanto, a “Young General,” and a num-
ber of admirable unknown portraits, in the
Vienna Gallery. '
The adverse opinion of some critics upon Tin-
toretto’s works is due to the effect of time upon
them. He used a dark ground and applied the
colors but lightly, with the result that they are
greatly darkened. His marvelous rapidity of
execution often impelled him to do work which
was sketchy, sometimes even negligent; but in
his best work he shows himself one of the
greatest painters of all times. His was, in a way,
the culmination of Renaissance painting, and he
united in himself more than did any other man
all of its different tendencies. Tintoretto ex-
tended the plastic character to the entire com-
position, and Titian’s color harmony of fiat sur-
faces became with him a light symphony of the
whole painting. By his mastery of light and
shadow he was enabled to put a world of poetry
and sentiment in his pictures, without, however,
degenerating into illustration. He possessed a
fertility of imagination unexcelled in the history
of painting. His most startling innovations, how-
ever, were in composition; for the problem is far
more difficult in Tintoretto’s plastic work than in
the relief-like productions of other masters.
Sometimes he separated foreground and back-
ground, using the action in the latter to concen-
trate attention on the principal action in
the foreground. In dramatic power he is the
worthy compeer of Michelangelo, his impetuous
energy having gained him the title ‘I1 Furioso,’
and like him he indicated emotion by the action
of the body.
Excepting a year’s stay at Mantua, Tintoretto
passed all of his life at Venice. Before 1560 he
married Faustina dei Vescovi, who seemed to
have her share of worry in taking care of her
spouse, who was impracticable in money matters.
Of his eight children, MARIETTA, the eldest, a
gifted artist and his favorite child, met with an
early death in 1590, whence the beautiful tradi-
tion of the old painter painting his dead
daughter. He did not long survive her, and died
at Venice, May 31, 1594. His son and assistant
DOMENICO painted many works in superficial im-
itation of his father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief literary source for
Tintoretto’s life is Ridolfi, Meraoiglie dell’ arte
(Venice, 1648). The first among modern writ-
ers to establish his fame was Ruskin in Stones of
Venice and other works. Janitscheck’s biog-
raphy, in Dohme, Kanst and Kilnstler
Italians (Leipzig, 1876), is a scholarly work,
but not strong from the artistic side; see
also Osler, in the Great Artists Series
(London, 1879). Brief but more critical are
Berenson, Venet-ian 1’az*nters (New York, 1894),
and Pratesis in Nuova Antolog/ia (1890). The
latest works are those of Steam (New York,
1894) and Thode (Bielefeld, 1901), the latter
the best that has yet appeared.
TIN WEDDING. See WEDDING ANNIVEB--
SARIES.
TINY TIM. In Dickens’s C’hristmas Carol,
a cripple, the little son of Bob Cratchitt.
TIPPECANOE, ti'p’pé-ka-nm’. A popular
nickname of General William Henry Harrison,
due to his victory over the Indians at the Tippe-
canoe River in 1811.
TIPPEGANOE, BATTLE on. An engagement
fought on November 7, 1811, near the site of the
present village of Battle Ground, on the Tippe-
canoe River, in Tippecanoe County, Ind.,_be-
tween an American force of about 800, including
500 Indiana and Kentucky militiamen, under
William Henry Harrison, then Governor of In-
diana Territory, and an Indian force, estimated
by Harrison at about 6000, but probably much
smaller, under the actual command of \Vhite
Loon, Stone Eater, and Winnemac. About 1808
Tecumseh and the Prophet, his brother, estab-
lished a village on the Tippecanoe River, and
with this as their headquarters endeavored to
bring all the Indian tribes of the VVest and
Southwest into a confederation which should
decide, in any given case, upon the alienation
of Indian lands. Much discontent was caused
among the followers of Tecumseh and the
Prophet by the Indian land cessions of 1809, and
the danger of an Indian outbreak became daily
more imminent. On October 11, 1811, while Har-
rison was building a stockade on the site of
Terre Haute, one of his sentinels was killed from
ambush, and Harrison, considering this the be-
ginning,of hostilities, soon afterwards marched
against the town on the Tippecanoe, where the
Prophet was supposed to be inciting the Indians
to attack the whites. On the night of November
6th he encamped within about a mile of the
town, and posted his troops in the form of an
irregular parallelogram, having previously ar-
ranged with the Prophet for a conference on the
following day. Before dawn on the 7th the In-
dians attacked the camp with great ferocity and
bravery, but after more than two hours of stub-
born fighting were driven from the field. On
the following day Harrison advanced to the
town, found it deserted, and almost completely
destroyed it. He then returned to Vincennes.
The loss of the whites in the battle in killed and
wounded was about 190; that of the Indians,
though undoubtedly large, is not definitely
known. At the time of the battle Tecumseh was
in the South endeavoring to persuade the Greeks,
Choctaws, and Cherokees to join his projected
confederation. The battle rendered virtually im-
possible the realization of Tecumseh’s plans,
weakened and almost destroyed the prestige of
the Prophet, hastened the general outbreak of
hostilities by the Indians against the Americans
in the Northwest, and greatly enhanced the
reputation of General Harrison, who later,
partly on the strength of this success, was placed
TIPPECANOE.
TIBEE.
759
in command of the American troops in the West.
Consult Pirtle, The Battle of Tippecanoe (Louis-
ville, 1900), No. 15 of the “Filson Club Publica-
tions.”
TIP’PERA’RY. An inland county of the
Province of Munster, Ireland, lying north of
Waterford (Map: Ireland, C 4). Area, 1659
square miles. The county for the most part is
in the basin of the river Suir. Other
rivers are the Shannon, the Nore, the
Nenagh, and the Brosna; lakes are numerous,
but of small size. The surface is generally
level. The Galtees Mountains which diversify it
are rather groups than portions of any con-
nected range; these mountains rise to 3000 feet.
The soil of the plain is fertile; there is a con-
siderable amount of hog in the central and east-
ern districts. The mineral productions are coal
(anthracite), copper, and lead, also zinc and
good fire-clay; slates of an excellent quality are
quarried near Killaloe. Wheat was formerly
grown in large quantities; but of late years its
cultivation has been superseded by dairy-farm-
ing and the raising of cattle. Population, in
1841, 438,150; in 1891, 185,217; in 1901, 159,754.
TIPPERARY. The capital of Tipperary
County, Ireland, on the Arra, 111 miles south-
west of Dublin (Map: Ireland, C 4). It occu-
pies a central position in a fine country, and
carries on an extensive trade in butter. The
town, of ancient origin, is well built, and
contains Roman Catholic and Protestant
churches, national schools, and a school of the
Erasmus Smith endowment. In 1890 the foun-
dation of a New Tipperary, now in ruins, was an
attempt, under the Irish League’s plan of cam-
paign, to boycott the land proprietor of the old
town. It proved abortive within a year. Popula-
tion, 7000.
TIPPU SAHIB, te-poo’ sii’hib (1749-99).
Sultan of Mysore, in India. He was a son of
Hyder Ali (q.v.). He was actively engaged in
the wars of his father, and routed the British
at Perimbakum (September 10, 1780), and on
the banks of the Kolerun in Tanjore (February
18, 1782). On the death of his father in 1782
he was crowned Sultan and returned at once to
the head of his army, which was then operating
against the British near Arcot. On April 28, 1783,
he captured and put to death the garrison of Bed-
nore. The peace between England and France
deprived him of his French allies and he made
a treaty in 1784 on the basis of the status quo.
He then gave his attention to the internal affairs
of Mysore, establishing a splendid court at
Seringapatam. Ile sought, in 1787, to bring on
a renewal of the war between France and Eng-
land, and failing, invaded in 1790 the protected
State of Travancore. In the ensuing war (17 90-
92) the British, under Colonel Stuart and Lord
Cornwallis, were aided by the Mahrattas and the
Nizam, who joined in the struggle against their
powerful neighbor both out of fear and religious
hatred, Tippu being a fanatical Mohammedan.
The Sultan laid waste the Carnatic and advanced
almost to the gates of Madras, but was defeated
near Seringapatam in March, 1792, and compelled
to cede one-half of his dominions, pay an indemni-
ty of 3000 lacs of rupees, restore all prisoners,
and give his two sons as hostages for his fidelity.
Nevertheless, his secret intrigues against the
British were almost immediately resumed. Hos-
Q
tilities began in March, 1799, and two months
after Tippu was driven from the open field and
attacked in his capital of Seringapatam, which
was stormed on May 4th, the Sultan himself
being slain after an heroic resistance. His do-
minions and property \\ ere confiscated, a portion
of Mysore, however, being assigned to the N izam.
Consult Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tigni Sultdn
(London, 1893).
TIP’TON. A town in South Staffordshire,
England, 41/2 miles southeast of Wolverhampton,
with colleries, blast furnaces, and iron manu-
factures. Population, in 1891, 29,314; in 1901,
30,543.
TIPULIDE. See CRANE-FLY.
TIPWORM. The larva of one of the gall-
midges (Oecidomyia owycoccana) , which occurs in
the terminal buds of the cranberry plant and
causes them to become unusually prominent and
to stop the development of the leaves. After
attack the tip usually dies. The adult fly has a
red abdomen and a grayish thorax, and is about
one-sixteenth of an inch in length. The female
has a long, extensive ovipositor by means of
which she thrusts her eggs into the heart of the
young shoot. The larva is a minute orange-red
or yellow grub. See also HOP INSECTS.
TIRABOSCHI, te/ra-bGs’ké, GIROLAMO (1731-
94). An Italian author, born at Bergamo. He
studied at Monza, and became a Jesuit. He was
appointed professor of rhetoric at Milan, where he
wrote his first work, Vetera Humiliatorum M onu-
menta (1766), and in 1770 succeeded Father Gra-
nelli as librarian to the Duke of Modena. Tirabos-
chi now availed himself of the rich stores of the
ducal library, besides making extensive researches
in other archives, to compose his Storia clella let-
teratura italiana (1770-82, in 14 vols.) . It
embraces the history both of ancient and modern
Italy, and is especially valuable for the light
it throws upon the intellectual condition of the
Peninsula during the Dark Ages, and the brilliant
period from Dante to Tasso. Tiraboschi ends his
elaborate survey with the close of the seven-
teenth century. Abridged translations have ap-
peared in French and German. Other works by
him are Biblioteca modenese (1781-86) and Mem-
orie storiche modenesi (1793).
TIRASPOL, te-riis’pol. A town in the Gov-
ernment of Kherson, South Russia, on the left
bank of the Dnicster, 73 miles by rail northwest
of Odessa (Map: Russia, C 5). It manufactures
flour, brick, pottery, and ironware, and has
a large trade. Population, in 1897, 27,585.
TIRARD, te’riir’, PIERRE EMMANUEL (1827-
93). A French statesman, born in Geneva, where
he learned the goldsmith’s trade. He went to
Paris about 1846, and in 1870 became mayor of
the Sixth Arrondissement. In 1876 he entered
the Chamber of Deputies as a radical Republican
and he was successively Minister of Agriculture
and Commerce (1879-81, and in 1882), Minister
of Finance (1882-85) . and Premier (1887-88 and
1889-90). Subsequently he resumed the seat in
the Senate to which he had been elected in 1883.
From December, 1892, to April, 1893, he was
Minister of Finance in Ribot’s Cabinet.
TIREE, ti-re’, or TYREE. A Scottish island,
one of the Inner Hebrides (q.v.), included in
Argyllshire. 20 miles northwest of Iona (Map:
TIREE.
TIRYNS.
760
.
Scotland, B 3). It is 13 miles long, and over 6
miles iI1 extreme breadth. The surface is low
and destitute of trees; but the soil is fertile.
There are interesting antiquities which include
Scandinavian forts, standing stones, ruined
churches, and ancient graves. The inhabitants
support themselves by rearing cattle, fishing, and
exporting poultry and eggs. Population, in 1901,
2195.
TIREH, te’re. A town of the Turkish Vilayet
of Smyrna, Asia Minor, 25 miles southeast of
the city of Smyrna, with which it has railway
connection (Map: Turkey in Asia, B 3). It is
the ancient Tyrrha of the Kingdom of Lydia.
Tapestry and cotton manufacturing constitute
the chief industries. Population, estimated at
from 13,000 to 20,000.
TIRE'SIAS (Lat., from Gk. Tapeolas, Teire-
sias). In Greek legend, a famous Theban seer.
He is called son of Eueres and Chariclo, and was
blind from early youth, because he had seen
Athena bathing. To recompense him for his loss
of sight, the goddess gave him power to under-
stand the voices of birds. Another legend rep-
resents Hera as depriving him of his sight be-
cause, being made arbiter in a dispute between
her and Zeus, he had decided in favor of the
latter; when Zeus as a compensation gave him
unerring power in interpreting omens, and pro-
longed life. He appears prominently in the
Theban cycle of legends, and was said to have
died from a draught of water from the prophetic
spring Tilphusa. after the capture of Thebes
by the Epigoni, while accompanying some of
the vanquished Thebans to another home. In the
Odyssey (book xi.) we are told how Odysseus
went to the lower world to consult him.
TIRHAKAH, ter-h'a’k.a.
Ethiopia. See TAHARKA.
TIRLEMONT, terl’moN’ (Flem. Tienen or
Thienen). A town in the Province of Brabant,
Belgium, 29 miles east by south of Brussels, on
the Geete River (Map: Belgium, C 4) . Its walls,
which had a circumference of about six miles,
were dismantled early in the nineteenth century.
The chief objects of interest are the recently re-
stored churches of Saint Germain and Notre Dame
du Lac. The former is a composite of the Roman-
esque and early Gothic, and was begun in the
ninth century. Its most striking feature is the
altar-piece by Wappers. The Church of Notre
Dame du Lac dates partly from the thirteenth
and partly from the fifteenth century. There are
manufactures of engines, leather, cotton and
woolen goods, etc. Population, in 1900, 17,855.
TIRNAU. See TYRNAU.
TIRNOVA, ter'no-va (Bulgarian Trnooa).
A district town in the Principality of Bulgaria,
situated on the Yantra and the Sofia-Varna Rail-
way, 124 miles northeast of Sofia (Map: Balkan
Peninsula, E 3) . It contains a number of medias-
val churches. The chief industries are dyeing and
the manufacture of copper ware. Tirnova was
the capital of Bulgaria for about two centuries
until 1393, when it was taken by the Turks. Pop-
ulation, about 13.000.
TI’RO, MARCUS TULLIUS. Slave, pupil, and
subsequently amanuensis of Cicero, whose life he
wrote and whose letters he collected. He is
known chiefly as the inventor of the ancient
A king of ancient
stenography (see Snonrnann), called after him
nota; Tironiance. He died at almost a hundred
years of age.
TIROL, te-r51’.
See TYBOL.
TIRSO DE MOLINA, ter’so as mo-1e’na.
The pseudonym of the Spanish dramatist Ga-
briel Tellez (q.v.).
TIRURAYE, té’ro‘o-rii/ya. A Malay people
in Cotabato Province, southwestern Mindanao.
See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
TI’RYNS (Lat., from Gk. Tlpuvs). An an-
cient city of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus, situ-
ated a short distance southeast of Argos, near the
head of the Argolic gulf. According to tradition
it was founded by Proetus, a mythic king of Argo-
lis ; and its massive walls, like other rude massive
structures in Greece of unknown antiquity, were
reputed to be the work of the Cyclopes. Later,
Perseus was said to have ruled here, and the place
was the residence of Hercules while in servitude
to Eurystheus. At the time of the Dorian con-
quest Argos seems to have secured the supremacy
over the plain, though during the Persian Wars
Tiryns appears independent and sent troops to
Platwa. Some time subsequently, probably about
the year B.C. 468, the city was taken by the Ar-
gives; after this period Tiryns remained unin-
habited, the walls of the citadel only being left
standing, the wonder and admiration of later ages.
The acropolis or citadel of Tiryns was built on
the summit of a low, flat, rocky hill, about 980 by
330 feet in extent, which rises abruptly out of the
dead level of the plain of Argos to a height of
from 30 to 60 feet. It consists of three terraces
of which the highest was occupied by a prehistoric
palace, the middle by lesser buildings, while the
lowest has been scarcely explored, but seems to
have contained only small structures. This hill
was surrounded by a massive wall of huge blocks
of limestone of irregular shape, laid in a clay
mortar. The original height is uncertain, though
in some places it is still nearly 25 feet. The
thickness around the lower terrace is not quite
uniform, but does not exceed 26 feet; around the
upper terrace it varies from 16 to the prodigious
figure of 57 feet. A part of this wall was
occupied by galleries and chambers probably for
the storing of provisions. The main entrance
was on the east, and was reached by a ramp; on
the west was a postern gate with a stairway in
the rock. The palace on the summit was ex-
cavated by Schliemann and D6rpfeld in 1884-
85, and until the recent discoveries in Crete
was the most complete example of the home
of a Mycenaean king. After passing the en-
trance gate, the way leads to a large propylsea,
which opens into a great open court; from this a
second gateway leads to another paved court
(atkvi, aule), surrounded by colonnades. On
one side low steps and a door lead to a vestibule,
which again opens into the great hall (,ué7apov,
megaron), with a circular hearth in the centre.
Around this central structure is a complex of
passages and lesser rooms, including a bath, and
a smaller court with its own megaron, possibly
the women’s apartments. The essential identity
of this palace with that described in the Homeric
poems lends peculiar interest to the discovery.
Consult: Schliemann, Tiryns (London, 1886) ;
Schuchhardt, Schliemann’s Excavations, trans. by
A crownland of Austria.
TIRYNS.
TISSERAND.
761
E. Sellers (London, 1891); Perrot and Chipiez,
H istoire de l’art dans l’antiquité, vol. vi. (Paris,
1894).
TISCHBEIN, tish’bin. A German family of
artists who lived in Hesse during the eighteenth
century. JCHANN HEINRICH, the Elder (1722-89),
a painter, born at Haina, Was first a pupil of
the Court painter Freese, in Cassel, and then
studied under Van Loo, Boucher, and Watteau at
Paris. In 1748 he entered the studio of Piaz-
zetta in Venice. Returning to Cassel in 1751,
he became Court painter to the Landgrave and
director of the New Academy (1776). His histori-
cal pictures and portraits were weak, but there
were few better among the best works of the time
in Germany. Examples are: “Lessing” (c.1760;
Berlin), “Count \Valdner von Freundstein”
(1761; Versailles), “Augustus and Cleopatra”
(1769; Cassel), and “Belisarius” (1786; Olden-
burg).—Jo1IANN FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1750-
1812), also a painter, nephew of the preceding,
was born in Maestricht. He studied with his
uncle and in Paris and Italy. Afterwards he be-
came Court painter in Waldeck and then director
of the Leipzig Academy (1800). His canvases
include nine portraits of princes and princesses
of Orange-Nassau (Amsterdam), and a portrait
of Schiller (1804 ; Leipzig).-—JOHANN HEINRICH
VVILHELM, the Elder (1751-1829), a painter and
etcher, also known as “the Neapolitan,” cousin
of the preceding, the most celebrated of the family,
was born at Haina. He studied with his uncle,
Johann Heinrich, and in Hamburg, Bremen, and
Holland. Through the aid of Goethe he went to
Italy, and accompanied the poet to Naples in
17 87. There he was patronized by Sir William
Hamilton and served as director of the Academy
(1789-99). In 1809 he was made Court painter
to the Duke of Oldenburg. At Eutin he painted
the 43 “Idyls” (Oldenburg) which Goethe cele-
brated in verse. Among his paintings are a por-
trait of Goethe(Frankfort) ; “Conradin of Swabia
Hearing His Sentence” (1784) ; “An Italian Land-
scape” (1819; Oldenburg); and a portrait of
himself (Hanover). Tischbein issued about 150
etchings and engravings in connection with vari-
ous publications. Conult Michel, Etude bio-
graphique sur les Tischbeins (Lyons, 1881).
TISCHENDORF, tish’en-dorf, KCNSTANTIN
VON (1815-74). One of the most eminent biblical
scholars of the nineteenth century, born at
Lengenfeld, Saxony. He was educated at the
Gymnasium of Plauen and at the University
of Leipzig. In 1840, now a privat-docent at
Leipzig, he published his Greek Testament
(dated 1841), and then went to Paris,
where for over two years he labored in-
cessantly among the manuscript treasures of the
National Library. In 1842 the publication of
the Greek text of the palimpsest Codex Ephraemi,
followed soon after by his edition of the Codex
Claromontanus, marked him as a textual scholar
of the first rank. Though he became a professor
of theology at Leipzig, the greater part of his
time was spent in journeys in search of biblical
manuscripts or in the work of editing and pub-
lishing the same. The great triumph of his life
was the discovery (in 1859) in the librarv of the
monastery of Saint Catharine, at Mount Sinai, of
the second oldest manuscript of the Greek Old and
New Testaments known, the fine uncial Codes:
Sinaiticus. A sumptuous edition of the whole
manuscript in four large folio volumes was pub-
lished in 1862 at the expense of the Emperor
of Russia. The crowning work of Tischendorf’s
life was his eighth edition of the Greek Testament
with its large critical apparatus, the indispensa-
ble vade mecum of every student of the text of
the New Testament. Tischendorf’s numerous
publications may be found, with a sketch of his
career, in the Prolegomena to the eighth edition
by Dr. C. R. Gregory.
TISHRI, tish’re. A month in the Babylo-
nian, Persian, and Jewish calendars correspond-
ing to the Seleucid Hyperboretaios, September-
October. The Babylonian name tish-ri-tum is re-
garded as derived from shurru, to begin, to dedi-
cate, the civil year having begun in the autumn
with this month, while the ecclesiastical year
seems to have begun in the spring with the month
of Nisan. T ishri is not mentioned in the Bible,
but the name is found in the Mishna treatise,
Shekalim, iii. 1, and probably in Josephus, An-
tiquities, viii. 4, l. The Jewish civil year begins
with the month of Tishri.
TISIO, té’ze-o, BENVENUTO. The correct
name of the Italian painter called Benvenuto
Tisio da Garofalo (q.v.).
TISSAPHERNES, tis’sa-fer’nez (Lat., from
Gk. Tw-aa¢épm7s, from OPers. *Cithrafarnzi, pos-
sessed of manifold glory) ( ?-13.0. 395) . A Persian,
appointed satrap of the coast-lands of Asia Minor
by Darius II. in B.0. 414. He played a part by
intrigue and arms in the Peloponnesian War. He
became the jealous rival of Cyrus the Younger on
the latter’s arrival in Asia Minor in B.0. 407, and
when it became manifest that Cyrus was plotting
against his brother, King Artaxerxes II., and
aiming at the throne, Tissaphernes was the first
to inform the King of the impending danger. He
held a command in the Persian Army and dis-
tinguished himself at the battle of Cunaxa. After
the death of Cyrus he entrapped the generals of
the Greek mercenaries of the Prince. He then
succeeded to the provinces that had been held by
Cyrus, but was unsuccessful in an attempt to es-
tablish his authority over Ionia. Finally, through
the influence of Parysatis, the King’s mother,
Tissaphernes was put to death at Colossae, in
Phrygia, in B.0. 395.
TISSERAND, tIs’raN’, FRANQCIS FELIX ( 1845-
96) . A French astronomer, born at Nuits-Saint-
Georges, Cote-d’Or. In 1863 he entered the Ecole
Normale Supérieure. In 1866 he became pro-
fessor in the lycée at Metz, where he only re-
mained one month, being called by Leverrier
to the Paris Observatory as adjunct astronomer.
He received his doctor’s degree in 1868, presenting
a very remarkable thesis on the method of
Delaunay, which he showed to be applicable to
the calculation of the inequalities of all the
planets and thus of a wider application than
had been supposed by the inventor. In 1873 he
became director of the observatory at Toulouse
and professor of astronomy in the Faculty of
Sciences in the university. In 1878 he succeeded
Leverrier as member of the Academy of Sciences
and became member of the Bureau des Longi-
tudes. In the same year he was appointed pro-
fessor of rational mechanics at the Sorbonne,
which he later exchanged for the chair of celestial
TISSERAND.
TITANOSAURUS.
762
mechanics. In 1892 he succeeded Mouchez as
director of the Paris Observatory.
Besides the generalization of the method of
Delaunay which he continued till his death, he
made observations for the determination of
planetary orbits, on the ring of Saturn, on the
perturbations of Pallas, the origin of comets and
their capture by the larger planets, and gave
also a valuable criterion for identifying a pe-
riodic comet. He also observed the shifting of
the orbital plane of Neptune’s satellite as a re-
sult of Neptune’s ellipsoidal shape. In conse-
quence of this shifting of orbit, the retrograde
motion of the pole of the satellite completes a
cycle in 500 years. His principal work, Traite’
dc 'm.é0a~m'.que céleste (1889-96), gives a complete
account of the state of knowledge of that branch
of astronomy up to the time of his death. Since
1884 he edited the Bulletin astronomique. His
other writings include: Recueil d’emercises sur le
calcul infinite’s/imal (1876; 2d ed. 1896). Con-
sult Poincaré, “La vie et les travaux de F. Tis-
serand,” in Revue générale des sciences for 1896.
TISSOT, tis’so’, JAMES Josnrn JACQUES (1836-
1902). A French painter, born at Nantes. He
studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under La-
mothe and Flandrin, and first exhibited in 1859.
After the Commune, in which he was accused of
having taken part, he went to London and spent
twelve years in England, where he became known
as an etcher and a painter of portrait and genre
subjects. Until he was fifty years old Tissot’s
work dealt principally with the worldly aspects
of Parisian life. The drawing in these works is
always careful, and the coloring exact and.
finished. Examples of this style are “Faust
and Marguerite” (Luxembourg) and “La Femme
a Paris.” Experiencing a change in his religious
views about 1886, he left Paris and passed ten
years in Palestine. The results of this were the
300 and more water-color studies representing the
life of Christ, which are now in the possession
of the Brooklyn Institute. It is an attempt to
portray the real environment of Christ, the cities,
buildings, and habits of the country, as they must
really have been in His time, instead of their
ordinary conventional treatment by artists. The
details are painted with miniature faithfulness,
and the Oriental character of the subject is fully
carried out. At the time of his death Tissot had
begun a similar set of illustrations from the Old
Testament. ‘
TISSUE, ANIMAL. See HISTOLOGY.
TISZA, tis’s<‘5, KALMAN (KoLoMAN) (1830-
1902). An Hungarian statesman, born at Geszt,
County of Bihar. He studied law and entered the
Government service. In 1855 he accepted a semi-
ecclesiastical position in- the Reformed Church and
in 1859 he vigorously combated the attempt of
the Austrian Minister of Public ‘Worship, Count
Leo Thun, to curtail the autonomy of the Protes-
tant Church in Hungary. In 1861 he was elected
to the Diet from the city of Debreczin and soon
became the recognizedleader of the opposition.
Long opposed to the Ausgleich, Tisza finally, in
1875, united his followers with the Deak
party and organized the new Liberal Party.
which recognized the existing situation and
sought to make the most of it for Hungary. In
the Wenckheim Cabinet he assumed the portfolio
of the Interior (March, 1875), becoming Premier
in October. He held this position for fifteen
years, having at his back a more harmonious po-
litical support than any other leader in the dual
monarchy. He retired from the Ministry in 1890,
but continued his political leadership and was
regularly returned as a Deputy from the city of
Grosswardein until 1901. His leadership through-
out his administration was conspicuously suc-
cessful. He was an upright patriot and an able
financier, and to him more perhaps than to any
other one man was due the industrial and finan-
cial progress of his country. Consult his biog-
raphy by Visi (Budapest, 1886).
TITA/NIA. (1) An epithet of Latona, as
the daughter of the Titan Cocus. Ovid uses the
name of Diana and of Pyrrha, daughter of
Epimetheus. (2) In Shakespeare’s Midsummer
Night’s Dream, the fairy queen, wife of Oberon.
TITANIC IRON ORE. See ILMENITE.
TITANITE (from titanium). A mineral cal-
cium-titanium silicate crystallized in the mono-
clinic system. It has a resinous lustre, and is
brown or black in color. It usually occurs in
crystals embedded in granite, gneiss, mica schists,
granular limestone, or in beds of iron ore and vol-
canic rocks. It is found in the Saint Gotthard
region, in Switzerland, Finland, and Ireland. In
the United States it occurs in numerous locali-
ties along the Appalachian Mountains from
Maine to North Carolina. The name titanite is
usually given to the brown or black varieties in
distinction from the lighter colored titanite called
sphene. The transparent and colorless varieties
are frequently cut as gem stones.
TITANIUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. Titan, from
Gk. Tn-dv, Titan). A metallic element dis-
covered by Gregor in 1789. It is not found na-
tive, but as the oxide in the minerals anatase,
brookite, and rutile; in combination with iron as
ilmenite, and as the silicate with calcium in
titanite. In smaller quantities it also occurs in
other minerals. It is prepared by heating the
potassium titanofluoride (obtained from rutile)
with potassium or sodium out of contact with air.
Titanium (symbol, Ti; atomic weight, 48.15)
is a dark-gray amorphous powder resembling re-
duced iron, with a specific gravity of 1.25. When
heated to redness in the air it burns with an in-
tensely brilliant white light. It decomposes
boiling water, and is soluble in dilute acids.
Metallic titanium is distinguished from almost
all other elements by its peculiar capacity for
uniting with nitrogen at a high temperature.
This promises a cheap means of preparing am-
monia direct from the atmosphere. Titanium
gives hardness and toughness to steel and a fine
lustre to silver, while added to carbon used for
are lamps, it increases the brilliancy of the
light. It combines with oxygen to form a di-
oxide, a trioxide, and a sesquioxide. Of these
the dioxide is found native and combines with
bases to form titanates.
TITANOSAURUS, or ATLANTOSAURUS. A
genus of extinct, sauropodan, herbivorous dino-
saurs (q.v.), found fossil in the Jurassic rocks
of the Rocky Mountain region and Dakota, whose
species were among the most gigantic land ani-
mals ever existed, one specimen exhumed in
Colorado by O. C. Marsh, measuring about 60
feet long and standing about 30 feet high. The
TITANOSAURUS.
TITE.
763
characteristics of the genus were similar to those
of its near relatives Brontosaurus and Diplo-
docus (qq.v.).
TI’TANOTHE'RIUM
Tn-dv, Titan —|— Bnpiov, thcrion, diminutive of
flnp, thér, wild beast). The type genus of a
family, Titanotheridae, of ungulates, occurring in
the Oligocene formations of North America, and
comprising a number of species of gigantic ani-
mals somewhat resembling the rhinoceros in
general form. Though belonging to the perisso-
dactyles, they approximate the artiodactyles or
even-toed ungulates in certain structural points,
especially of the vertebrae and limb-bones. The
most striking feature of the titanotheres is a pair
of bony processes resembling horn-cores, which
grow upward and outward from the maxillary
bones above the snout. These prominences are
variable in development according to age and sex,
and also differ in size and form in difi'erent spe-
cies to such an extent that many generic names,
such as menodus, brontotherium, brontops, and
titanops, have been bestowed upon forms which
later study has shown to be only different stages
(N eo-Lat., from Gk.


"‘“!!‘1 .
~ v
EVOLUTION or THE TITANOTHERE8,
1, Skull of Titanotberium bucco, 2, cranium of Tn‘anotberium coloradense; 3,
Front view of cranium of Tztanotherzum platyceras; 4, lateral view of same.
BORN)
in the evolution of the same genus. Careful com-
parative study of the remains from the White
River Beds of Canada, South Dakota, Colorado,
and Nebraska shows that during the Oligocene
period the genus increased in size, and the
horns, which are more knobs in the (presumably)
earlier types, such as Titanotherium heloceras,
increase greatly in length, and became flattened
and wide-spreading in the later species, culmi-
nating in the highly specialized Titanotherium
ramosum and Titanotherium platyceras—-the
last survivors of their race. Of some forty spe-
cific names which various writers have proposed,
often on the basis of a single fragmentary skull,
only a few designate sharply marked species. One
of the best-known titanotheres is Titanotherium
robustum, a form with moderately developed
horns, which measured nearly 14 feet in total
length, and eight feet in height at the shoulder.
TITANS (Lat., from Gk. Tmtv, Titan, and
Tn-avls, Titanis, connected with Lat. titio. fire-
brand, and perhaps with Lith. titnagas, flint, Skt.
titha, fire, glow). The offspring in Greek myth-
VDL. XVI.—49.


'"-l~"'*';.~', .
G "" (L
Q)
ology of Uranus(heaven)and Gaea (earth). Their
names as given by Hesiod were: Oceanus, Coeus,
Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronos, Theia, Rhea,
Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and Tethys; Dione,
Phorcys, and Demeter are added by some writers.
As Uranus imprisoned in the earth the Cyelopes
and Hekatoncheires (hundred-headed monsters),
Gaea in anger instigated the Titans to revenge.
Cronos alone ventured to act. He surprised
and mutilated his father and reigned in his
stead. As Uranus had called down a like fate
on the Titans, Cronos swallowed his children by
Rhea as soon as they were born. Only Zeus es-
caped, his mother giving Cronos a stone wrapped
in swaddling clothes. On growing up, Zeus
forced Cronos to disgorge his offspring. and then
began a war, in which he was aided by Themis,
Mnemosyne, Styx, Prometheus, the Cyclopes and
Hekatoncheires, as well as his own brothers and
sisters. Iapetus and Cronos are the representa-
tive Titans. After a long struggle the con-
quered Titans were cast into Tartarus and
guarded by the Hekatoncheires. In the Prome-
theus Unbound, .3/Eschylus represented the Titans
as released and reconciled to
Zeus, now firmly established
as King of Heaven. The
name Titian is also given to
the descendants of the Ti-
tans, such as Prometheus,
Hecate, Helios, Selene, etc.
The whole story seems the
result of an endeavor to ac-
count for the obvious signs
of natural convulsions so
frequent in Greek lands. It
is certainly not a tradition
of the supplanting of an old
Cronos religion by a new
Zeus religion.
TITCHENER, tich’n€.r,
EDWARD BRADFORD (1867-—).
An American psychologist,
born at Chichester, England.
He was educated at Malvern
School and at Brasenose
College, Oxford, where he
took the B, A. and M. A.
degrees in due course. After
studying at Leipzig, he became assistant pro—
fessor of psychology in 1892, and professor
in 1895 at Cornell University. There he built
up the laboratory of experimental psychology to
a point of almost unexcelled efficiency. He made
numerous original investigations in the spheres
of sensation, affective process, attention, and
action. He wrote: An Outline of Psychology
(1896) , A Primer of Psychology (1898) , and En-
perimental Psychology (2 vols., 1901) ; and trans-
lated Kii1pe’s Outlines of Psychology and other
works. Professor Titchener became the Ameri-
can editor of Mind in 1894, and associate editor
of the American Journal of Psychology in 1895.
TIT’GOMB, TIMOTHY. A nom de plume used
by J. G. Holland.
TITE, Sir WILLIAM (1798-1873). An Eng-
lish architect. He was born in London, where he
was educated, and studied architecture under
David Laing. His first work, assisting in re-
building the Church of Saint Dunstan-in-the-
East in the Gothic style (1817-20), established
his fame. Among his best designs was that of
(Os-
TITE.
TITIAN.
764
Edward Irving’s church in London (1827-28),
and he was the architect of the Royal Exchange
(1841-44), and of several palatial railway sta-
tions in France and England. He was knighted
in 1869. He was a man of varied attainments.
a member of several learned societies, and pub-
lished A Catalogue and Description of the An-
tiquities Found in the Eavcavations for the Royal
Ewchange (1848), and several essays and lectures.
TITHES (AS. téo ha, a tenth part, from te'on,
tien, tijn, ten, Goth. taihun, OHG. sehan, Ger.
eehn, ten; connected with Lat. decem, Gk. déxa,
deka, Ir. deich, Skt. dasa, ten). A tenth part of
the produce of the land, which has from the
earliest times been'a rate in a system of taxation
for civil and religious purposes. Tithing is still
the prevailing method of taxation in Moham-
medan countries. It was established and def-
initely regulated for the support of religion
among the Hebrews. For the details of the
Hebraic institution of tithes see Lev. xxvii. and
Deut. xiv., where it is provided that the tribe
of Levi, not having lands assigned to them as
was the case with the other tribes, should draw
their support from this system of taxation.
In the usage of the Christian churches tithes
have been one of the methods employed in provid-
ing for the support of the clergy. (See STIPENDS,
CLERICAL.) The system, though strongly urged
as of moral obligation by the Apostolic canons,
the Apostolic constitutions, and the writings of
the Fathers, was for many centuries purely volun-
tary; and the legislation of the first Christian
emperors, while it presupposed the duty of main-
taining the clerg , did not extend to any general
enactment for the payment of a tenth of the pro-
duce of the land. Many Church councils in the
sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries confirmed the
system; and at length the Emperor Charlemagne,
by his capitularies at the beginning of the ninth
century, formally established the tax within that
portion of the ancient Roman Empire to which
his legislation extended.
The introduction of tithes into England is as-
cribed to Offa, King of Mercia, at the end of the
eighth century; and the practice was made gen-
eral for all England by Ethelwulf, about the year
850. It would seem that at first, although all
were required to pay tithes, it was optional with
each to select the church to which payment should
be made; but by a decretal of Pope Innocent III.
addressed to the Archbishop of Canterbury in the
year 1200, all were required to pay tithes for the
support of the clergy of their respective parishes,
and this parochial distribution of tithes has ever
since obtained in England. Consult Whitehead,
Church Law (London, 1892).
TITHING. A territorial or personal division
in early English history. The territorial tithing,
a tenth part of the hundred (q.v.), dates from
early Anglo-Saxon times. The personal tithing
probably came in with the Normarls, though many
give it a place in Anglo-Saxon polity. It con-
sisted of ten men mutually responsible for one
another, with a head pledge or tithing man to
represent the whole. (See FRANK-PLEDGE.) This
officer survived as a petty parish oflicial long
after the system to which he owed his origin
had decayed.
TITHO’NUS (Lat., from Gk. Ti0wv6s). In
Greek legend, a son of Laomedon and brother of
Priam, who was carried off by Eos (the Dawn).
She bore him Memnon, and obtained from the
gods for him the gift of immortality. The Ho-
meric hymn to Aphrodite adds that as Eos forgot
to ask for eternal youth as well, Tithonus with-
ered into helpless old age, until he remained in
her chamber behind closed doors, and only his
piping voice was heard. A very late account toli
of his final transformation into a cicada.
TITIAN, tish’an (It. Tiziano Vecelli or
Vecellio) (1477-1576). The most celebrated and
important painter of the Renaissance in Venice.
He was born at Pieve di Cadore, a small town in
the Alps of Friuli. The year of his birth has
been variously given, the most probable as-
sumption (147 7) being based upon his own
statement in a letter to Philip II. of Spain.
His family, the Vecelli, belonged to the petty
nobility, a11d had long been identified with the
public service in Picvc, Titian’s father, Gre-
gorio, being honorably known as a magistrate
and military commander. At nine the lad
was sent to Venice to be educated. He was first
apprenticed to the mosaicist Sebastiano Zuccato,
then to Gentile and Giovanni Bellini. having
Giorgione and Palma Vecchio as fellow pupils.
Titian was slow to develop. VVhile Giorgione
lived, he was content to follow in his footsteps.
His work also had much in common with that of
Palma Vecchio, but in this case Titian was prob-
ably the controllmg influence.
During the first part of Titian’s early period,
lasting till 1512, his style resembles that of
Giorgione; but Titian is a more rugged in-
dividuality, and his lines and colors are not so
soft and melting. Among his earliest surviving
paintings are a “Madonna with Saints” (Liech-
tenstein Collection, Vienna); a “Holy Family”
(National Gallery, London); and the so-called
“Gypsy Madonna” (Imperial Gallery, Vienna).
They show uncertainty of drawing, but high
charm of color. The first of his pictures that
can with surety be dated is “Pope Alexander VI.
Commending Jacopo Pesaro to the Madonna”
( 1502-03, Antwerp). A higher phase of tech-
nical development is shown by the “Madonna
with the Cherries” (Imperial Gallery, Vienna),
and the Madonnas with Saints at Dresden,
Paris, Florence (Uflizi), and London (National
Gallery). The “Concert” in the Uffizi has been
attributed to him and the “Tribute-Money”
(Dresden), representing the well-known incident
between Christ and the Pharisee (see GIORGIONE) ,
is the most carefully finished of his pictures.
Only Leonardo has created 21 Christ type that can
vie with this in gentleness, intellect, and majesty,
and the contrast between it and the cunning
coarseness of the Pharisee is especially striking.
The Uiiizi also possesses his “Daughter of He-
rodias,” for whom Titian’s daughter sat as model.
Other celebrated works are the beautiful allegory
of the “Three Ages” (Bridgewater Gallery, Lon-
don), and at the end of the period, summing
up its best qualities, is “Sacred and Profane
Love,” perhaps more properly called “Medea and
Venus.” In the midst of a beautiful landscape
two maidens of similar mien sit at a sculptured
antique fountain, while a Cupid plays in the wa-
ter. One maiden is clothed, the other is nude,
and the picture gives fine opportunity for the con-
trast in the play of light upon the two figures.
The facade frescoes of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi

TITIAN
“ THE TRIBUTE MONEY," FROM THE PAINTING IN THE ROYAL GALLERY, DRESDEN
TITAN.
TITAN.
765
(1507-08), which Titian executed as an assistant
of Giorgione, have perished, but of those in Padua
several survive, though not well preserved. One
is in the Scuola del Carmine, and in the Scuola
del Santo he depicted three miracles from the
life of Saint Anthony (1511). It was probably
after his return to Venice in 1512 that he painted
the well-known altar-piece of Santa Maria della
Salute, representing “Saint Mark Enthroned”
with four other saints.
In 1513 Titian was summoned to Rome by Pope
Leo X., but, preferring to remain at Venice, he pe-
titioned the Senate to grant him a position like
that of Giovanni Bellini, who was oflicial painter
to the State, and a commission to paint a large
battle-piece in the Hall of the Grand Council.
This petition was granted, but when, upon the
death of Bellini, Titian was named his succes-
sor, with a yearly pension of 300 crowns, he neg-
lected the promised battle-piece. He did, how-
ever, complete Bellini’s picture, the “Submis-
sion of Barbarossa,” in 1522, and executed a
series of frescoes in the Chapel of the Ducal
Palace--both of which were destroyed in the
great fire of 1577, but his fresco of “Saint
Christopher” (1523) still survives. .
The work executed between 1513 and 1530
may be classed as belonging to a second part of
Titian’s early period. It still shows reminiscences
of Giorgione, but also an increasing realism,
breadth of treatment, and mastery of color. To
this period belong most of his great religious al-
tar-pieces, beginning with the “Assumption of the
Virgin,” formerly over the high altar of the
Church of the Frari. Its position called for an
over life-size figure and great breadth of treat-
ment, the effects of which are lost in the present
position of the picture in the Venetian Academy.
The lower part is a scene of great exaltation
among a group of the Apostles, the figures of
Peter and John being particularly strong. Above
the Virgin rises to the heavens in an effulgence
of golden light, surrounded by hosts of the most
beautiful angels imaginable. The chief attrac-
tion of the Madonna painted for San Niccolo dei
Frari (1523, Vatican Gallery)
figures of -saints in the lower part of the pic-
ture. The most perfect and important of his
madonnas is probably the “Pesaro Madonna”
(1526), still in the Frari. This very original
composition represents the Madonna seated on
the side of the picture at the base of a mighty
column, where several saints commend to her
the members of the Pesaro family. The cele-
brated “Death of Peter Martyr” (1530), de-
stroyed by fire in 1867, showed in its violent
dramatic action the influence of Michelangelo.
To the same period, probably, belong the “Noli
me tangere” (Christ appearing to Magdalen),
in the National Gallery, London; the delight-
ful “Madonna with the Rabbit,” “Holy Family,”
and the grandly dramatic “Entombment-”—all in
the Louvre. '
Among Titian’s mythological pictures of this
period, chiefly painted for Alfonso, Duke of Fer-
rara, are the “Worship of Venus,” in which
numberless little Cupids disport themselves be-
fore a statue of Venus, a “Bacchanal” (both at
Madrid), and “Bacchus and Ariadne” (National
Gallery. London), a highly dramatic representa-
tion. As State painter he had the monopoly of
portraying the Doge. His official portraits per-
is the six fine '
ished in the fire of 1577; but many replicas sur-
vive, like that of the Doge Gritti (Czernin Col-
lection, Vienna). He found also a generous
patron in Alfonso d’Este, Duke of F errara, whose
reputed portrait, lately declared to be that of his
son, Ercole 11., is at Madrid. At Ferrara he also
painted the fin'e likeness of the poet Ariosto
(National Gallery), and perhaps the idealized
portrait widely known as “Alfonso d’Este
(Ercole II.?), and Laura Dianti” (Louvre), for-
merly called “Titian’s Mistress.” The same
model is portrayed in the Flora (Uflizi) with
wonderful effect of light draperies. Other cele-
brated portraits belonging to this period are the
“Young Man with a Glove” (Louvre), the por-
trait of an unknown man (Munich), and the
so-called Alessandro de’ Medici (Hampton Court).
The death of his wife, Cecilia, in 1530 was the
cause of change in Titian’s mode of life. In the
quiet northeastern quarter of Venice he pur-
chased a house which he furnished with great
magnificence, and which speedily became the
centre of a famous literary and artistic circle,
which even kings were glad to join. Titian has
been much blamed for his friendship with Are-
tino, whose advice perhaps increased his besetting
sin, the love of wealth. In painting, his treat-
ment grew broader and his work more powerful,
and while his ideals grew more sensuous and
realistic, it was a gracious and dignified sensu-
ality. In 1531 he painted in the Ducal Palace
the celebrated picture of the “Doge Andrea Gritti
Presented to the Virgin by Saint Mark,” and in
1537 he at length finished the great battle-piece
of Cadore, both destroyed in the fire of 1577. The
celebrated “La fede” (1555), a votive offering of
Doge Andrea Grimani, had a better fate. Other
decorative works are the ceiling,_.0f the choir
and sacristy of Santa Maria del3,a"~iSal11te, and
the wonderful figure of “Wisdom',*” bfn the ceiling
of the library of Saint Mark (now the Royal
Palace). Splendid decorative canvases of un-
usual size are the “Presentation of the Virgin in
the Temple” (Venetian Academy) and the realis-
tic “Ecce Homo” (Vienna).
In 1532 he was summoned to Bologna to por-
tray Charles V. and performed his task with such
success that he was named Court painter, Knight
of the Golden Spur, and Count Palatine, with
the privileges of the Spanish Court, and his
children were made nobles of the Empire. One
of his portraits of the Emperor painted at this
time (1533), representing him with his dog,
is at Madrid. Other celebrated portraits of
this period are those of “Ippolito dc’ Medici”
(Pitti Palace, Florence), the “Maltese Knight”
(Madrid), and a “Young English Nobleman”
(Uflizi). Very fruitful for Titian’s art were
his relations (1532-38) with the Duke of
Urbino, whose portrait in full armor, as well
as that of his wife, Eleanora Gonzaga, is in
the Ufiizi. With most subtle flattery he por-
trayed the lady’s rejuvenated features in the
celebrated “La bella di Tiziano,” perhaps his
finest female portrait, in the “Girl with a Fur
Cloak” (Vienna), and in the world-renowned
“Venus of Urbino” (Ufiizi) , a rival of Giorgione’s
Venus, and the most beautiful representation of
refined voluptuousness in modern painting. For
the Duke he also portrayed Francis 1. (Louvre).
In 1545, after invitations from the Pope, Titian .
visited Rome, where he was received with
TITAN.
TITICACA.
766
highest honors. Of his portraits of Paul 111.
an original is at Saint Petersburg and an ex-
cellent copy in the Naples Museum, which also
possesses his unfinished picture of the Pope and
his two nephews. At Rome he met Michelangelo,
whose influence may be seen in the “Danae”
(Naples), painted there. Other famous works
executed about this time are the more realistic
“Venus” of the Uflizi and a similar figure listen-
ing to music, at Madrid.
In 1548 Titian was summoned by the Emperor
Charles V. to Augsburg, and there he painted
his equestrian portrait in full armor (Madrid)——
a wonderful characterization of the irresistible
but disappointed master of Europe and the New
\Vorld. Another portrait of Charles V. (1548),
in black costume, is at Munich. At the same
time Titian portrayed the captive John Fred-
erick, Duke of Saxony (Vienna), and Cardinal
Granvella (Besaneon) . On a second summons to
Augsburg, in 1550, he painted the portrait of
Philip II. as prince in armor (Madrid). He en-
joyed the extreme intimacy of the world-weary
Charles V., and together they designed the
“Trinity,” the Emperor’s last commission. After
his death Titian continued to serve his son,
Philip II.
It is impossible to mention even the important
works of Titian during the last period of his
long career (1530-76). Among religious pic-
tures some of the most celebrated are a “Magda-
len” (Pitti Palace) ; a “Madonna with Saint John
and Catharine” (National Gallery), celebrated
for the landscape; “Christ at Emmaus”
(Louvre) ; “Saint Margaret,” and several others
at Madrid. His mythological subjects include
the celebrated “Venus and Cupid” (Borghese
Gallery, Rome), and “Venus del Pardo”
(Louvre), representing in reality “Jupiter and
Antiope.” Of his innumerable portraits we
mention only those of his beloved daughter
Lavinia with a dish of fruit in Berlin, as a
bride and as a matron-—both at Dresden; of
himself at Berlin, Florence, and Madrid; his
friend Aretino (1545, Pitti) ; Doctor Parma and
the antiquarian Strada, in Vienna; and the
splendid Cornaro family (Duke of Northumber-
land).
Titian’s last pictures were chiefly religious,
like the “Saviour of the WVorld” (Saint Peters-
burg) and the grand “Pieta” (Academy, Venice),
finished after his death by Palma Giovane. In
his hundredth year he was stricken by the
plague, August 17, 1576. He was buried in the
Frari Church, where a fine modern monument
marks his resting place. His son Orazio, an
able painter and his faithful assistant, soon fol-
lowed him. For Titian’s pupils, see PAINTING.
If, as is the modern custom, painting be judged
by the pictorial qualities only, then surely Titian
is the greatest painter of Italy, if not of all
times. All Venetian art centred in him. Cer-
tain painters of Venice and of other schools
have equaled Titian in single pictorial elements,
but no one united all these qualities with the
same degree of excellence. His color is bright,
but deep and transparent; a splendid golden
tone suffuses his pictures, which only in his
later works tends toward a more sombre brown.
Light and shade, atmosphere and perspective
are all perfectly rendered, and his rapid, sweep-
ing handling, in place of the ancient detailed
finish, revolutionized painting, preparing the way
for Rembrandt and Velazquez. Being a Vene-
tian, he was not as scientific a draughtsman as
the Florentines, though at best his drawing is
good. His composition is always good, and
at best it is excellent. He did not attempt,
like the Tuscans, to make art the vehicle of in-
tellectual ideas, but his grasp upon life was
firmer than theirs, and his art was wider in
scope. He preferred an art that was tranquil
and serene, though at times——witness the “As-
sunta” and the “Peter Martyr”——he could be
profoundly dramatic.
If Giorgione was the founder of the modern
landscape, Titian did more for its development,
achieving the highest perfection before Poussin
and Claude. Eliminating the detail of former
painters, he rendered the typical in a landscape
with high poetic charm. Though he used land-
scape as only a setting for his figures, he ren-
dered it in itself perfect and complete. His
favorite subjects were the Alps of his native
Cadore and the lagoons of Venice. Titian was
one of the greatest portrait painters of all times.
He could render a portrait with the baldest
realism, but at the same time with noble and
striking characterization. He was the great
painter of kings and nobles.
‘BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the earlier works on
Titian are those of Ticozzi (Milan, 1817), Hume
(London, 1829), and Northcote (ib., 1813). By
far the most complete and erudite contribution
is that of Crowe and Cavalcaselle (ib., 1879-81),
which should, however, be corrected by Morelli,
Italian Painters (London, 1892). The other
chief work on Titian, that of Lafenestre (Paris.
1888) , is remarkable for its acute criticism. Con-
sult also Max Jordan, in Dohme, Kunst und
Kiznstler Italiens (Leipzig, 1878); Heath, in
Great Artists Series (London, 187 9); Barfold
(Copenhagen, 1889) ; the very excellent contribu-
tions of Phillips, in the Portfolio (1897-98) ; the
monographs by Knackfuss (Bielefeld, 1897) and
Gronau (Berlin, 1900); and the popular com-
mentary by Hurll (Boston, 1901). See also the
notes in Blashfield and Hopkins’s translation of
Vasari’s Lives (New York, 1896).
TITICACA, te’te-ka’ka, LAKE. The largest
lake in South America (Map: America, South,
C 4). It is situated on the boundary of
Peru and Bolivia, being about equally divided
between the two countries. It lies in a large
and lofty lacustrine basin inclosed between
the main Andean range and the Cordillera
Real, with cross ranges on the north and
south. This basin has an average elevation of
13,000 feet, and the surface of the lake itself
lies about 12,500 feet above the sea. The lake
has a length of 130 miles with an average breadth
of 30 miles. It is divided by promontories into
three unequal parts, and contains several islands.
The depth in some places reaches 700 feet, but
large portions of it are shallow, and the shores,
especially in the south, are lined with marshy
tracts covered with reeds. The vegetation along
the shores is otherwise scanty, and the surround-
ing country is bleak and treeless. The lake re-
ceives a number of streams from the surround-
ing mountains and discharges through the Desa-
guadero into Lake Aullagas, whose waters finally
evaporate in the great salt marshes in the south-
TITICACA.
TITLE.
767
ern part of the closed basin. In former ages the
lake occupied the whole of the basin. Its sur-
face stood then much higher, and it discharged
eastward into the Amazon. The region around
Lake Titicaca was one of the seats of early In-
dian civilization, and contains many interesting
architectural remains, some of which antedate
the Incan periods. The most imposing of the
ruins are those of Tiahuanaco (q.v.). (See
PERUVIAN ANTIQUITIES; PERUVIAN AR(JH2E-
OLOGY.) The lake was formerly navigated only
by crude Indian rafts, but since the opening of
a railroad to Arequipa and the Pacific Coast
steamboats have plied on it. Consult: Pentland,
The Laguna de Titicaca (London, 1848); Pro-
ceedings of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences (Philadelphia, 187 6).
TITIENS, tet’yens, THERESA. See TIETJENS.
TITIES. One of the three patrician tribes
of ancient Rome, the others being the Luceres
and Ramnes.
TITI-MONKEY, or TEE-TEE. A small South
American squirrel-monkey (q.v.) of the genus
Chrysothrix or Callithrix; but the word is often
used for a marmoset. They are gentle, beauti-
ful, playful little creatures in great repute as
pets in their own country, but too delicate to
survive in cold climates.
TITLARK (from tit, from Icel. tittr, little
bird, probably connected with Eng. tit, small
thing + lark). A small, brown, terrestrial
bird (Anthns Pennsylvanicas) of the wagtail or
pipit family (Motacillidae), allied to the larks,
and familiar throughout North America during
its migrations. It breeds, nesting on the ground,
in the far north, and winters in the tropics, and
in spring gives a pleasing song. A near relative
is the ‘Missouri skylark’ (Neocorys Spragnei),
of the Western plains, whose habits and song,
uttered while soaring in the air, closely re-
semble those of the skylark. In this group come
the numerous European wagtails (Motacilla),
which keep near streams and flirt their long
tails incessantly, and the pipits (Anthus), sev-
eral species of which are among the most pleasing
of European summer birds, frequenting fields,
open spaces, and rocky slopes, and singing much
like finches. Consult Coues, Birds of the North-
west (Washington, 1874).
TITLE (OF. title, titre, tiltre, Fr. titre, title,
from Lat. titnlus, title, superscription, token).
The union of all the elements which constitute
legal ownership of property, or the means by
which a person holds property. The common-law
authorities are to the effect that there are three
essential elements to a complete title: possession,
the right of possession, and right of property.
This is technically true, but the latter two requi-
sites are practically interchangeable, and it is
customary to speak of title as consisting of pos-
session with right of possession. (See POSSES-
SION.) Title to property may be vested in one or
a number of persons. All titles to real estate
are acquired by descent or purchase. A title by
descent is one which is acquired by an heir of a
deceased person by virtue of the laws of in-
testacy and succession. Any other source of title
is said to be by purchase. The latter term is
used technically, as it includes other means than
a bargain and sale, as, for example, a devise of
property in a will. By virtue of the statute of
limitations, twenty years’ adverse possession of
real estate will give the occupant a good title
in most States. Title to patentable inventions is
said to vest in the inventor by virtue of original
acquisition, but the real source of ownership is
really derived from the protection secured by
the patent laws. A title may be capable of being
established in a court of law and yet have such
apparent defects as not to be readily salable. A
court of equity will not compel a purchaser to
accept a title which is not marketable. Consult
the authorities referred to under PROPERTY; REAL
PROPERTY; POSSESSION; etc.; and also see TEN-
URE; OCCUPANCY; TITLE, REGISTRATION OF; etc.
TITLE, REGISTRATION or. A system of of-
ficial examination and registration of titles to
real estate prevailing in England and some of
the United States. The present English system
is the result of agitation and experimental legis-
lation for upward of fifty years. The common-
law methods of land transfer involved great ex-
pense and delay for searches, etc., and no satis-
factory assurance of security on the passing of
title. Prior to the legislation hereinafter men-
tioned, the practice in England was for a vendor
to give a purchaser of land what was called a
‘sixty years title,’ that is, an abstract of his
chain of title for a period of sixty years last
past. A search made for a purchaser was not
used again upon another sale, except possibly by
way of comparison, and the enormous expense at-
tendant upon the transfer of land was prohibitive
of the conveyance of small tracts, and thus tend-
ed to keep lands in the hands of a few. The first
act in England providing for registration of titles
was passed in 1862. An immense amount of
property was registered under this act. It was
superseded in 1875 by a Land Transfer Act,
which was designed to ‘simplify titles and facili-
tate the transfer of land.’ The act provided for
the establishment of a Registry Office, to be in
charge of an oflicer known as the Registrar, who
was required to be a barrister of at least ten
years’ standing. Under its provisions any owner
or person having power to sell land may apply
to the Registrar to be registered as having an
absolute or possessory title. If a purchaser ap-
plies for registration, the vendor must consent
thereto. The Registrar is required to examine
into the title, and the vendor may be required to
establish his title by a prima facie case before
the Registrar is obliged to pass on the validity
of the title. Due notice of a hearing before the
Registrar must be given to persons who have
lodged ‘cautions,’ or notices of claim to the land,
with the Registrar. The latter can compel the
production of deeds and other documents to aid
him in his determination. The land register
should show.all incumbrances on registered free-
hold property. Provision is made for indemnity
for loss sustained through error in registration.
A person registering property is given a cer-
tificate of that fact, and a purchaser is entitled
to a land certificate. A proposed act for com-
pulsory registration, introduced in 1895, was de-
feated. An important amendment to the act of
l875 was passed in 1897. One of its most im-
portant provisions is for the establishment of a
‘real representative’ of a deceased owner of real
estate. The language of the act explains clearly
this innovation: “Where real estate is vested in
TITLE.
TITLES OF HONOR.
768
any person without a right in any other person
to take by survivorship it shall, on his death,
notwithstanding any testamentary disposition,
devolve to and become vested in his personal
representative or representatives from time to
time as if it were a chattel real vesting in them
or him.” Another provision is for the adminis-
tration of real estate as if it were personality-—
the personal representative carries out the wishes
of the testator subject to any claims against the
estate, and this simplifies the system of registra-
tion. The English system is not yet perfect and
titles are not as freely transferred there as in
the United States.
Several of the United States have registration
acts somewhat resembling the Torrens system
(q.v.). Massachusetts has established a system
under which two judges conduct hearings to es-
tablish title, and, on being convinced that a per-
son has a valid fee simple title, they may con-
firm the title and order its registration. Many
of the English colonies have registration systems.
Germany has a peculiar system under which a
sort of ledger account of a title is kept. Most of
the United States have systems for recording
deeds and other instruments affecting real estate.
A record of a deed or incumbrance serves merely
to give constructive notice of its existence to the
public, and does not involve any public guaranty
as to the title. Consult: Morris, A Summary of
the Law of Land and Mortgage Registration;
Morris, Registration of Titles.
TITLE DEEDS. The instruments in writing
which constitute the evidences of the title of the
owner of real property. See DEED; CONVEYANCE;
Aesrnacr or TITLE.
TITLE INSURANCE. An agreement or
undertaking by which the insurer, for a valua-
ble consideration, contracts to indemnify the
insured in a specified amount against loss or
damage suffered because of defects of title to
real estate in which he has some insurable in-
terest. The business of title insurance is of
comparatively recent growth. The first title
insurance company was organized in Philadel-
phia in 1876, but the development of the busi-
ness has been most rapid since about 1885. Con-
tracts of title insurance are subject to the same
rules as govern other classes of insurance con-
tracts. The policy is usually granted upon
written applicatipn, which is made a part of
the policy and which contains statements or
promises which are deemed to be warranties or
conditions of the policy.
Generally the liability of the insurer is not
limited in point of time, and the undertaking
is to indemnify the insured against all loss or
damage resulting from any defect in the title
not known or specified in the policy, including
defects in the chain of title and lncumbrances
of every description existing at the time the
insurance is effected. VVhen the undertaking of
the policy is to indemnify against loss or damage
only, the obligation incurred by the insurer is
substantially like that of a grantor whose deed
contains the usual covenants of warranty. (See
COVENANT.) It is not unusual for the policy
of title insurance to provide that the insurer
shall take the property at an appraised valua-
tion in the event that any defect of title is dis-
covered rendering the title unmarketable.
There are also usually provisions contained
in the policy that the insured shall notify the
insurer of any claim or demand against the
property founded on any defect of title insured
against, and that the insurer shall be permitted
to bring or defend actions in the name of the
insured, but at its own expense, for the purpose
of establishing that the title is free from such
defect. When the insured is a mortgagor, pro-
vision may be made in the policy for the protec-
tion of a mortgagee of the property by a mort-
gagee’s clause making the loss payable to the
mortgagee, or the same result may be accom-
plished by issuing an independent policy in
favor of the mortgagee.
There is no fixed method of ascertaining the
amount of premiums in title insurance as is the
case in life insurance. Experience has shown
that the losses under title insurance contracts
have been comparatively small, and that in
fact an important benefit to be derived from
the policy of title insurance in addition to the
insurance features is the painstaking and ex-
haustive examination of the title made by the
insurer. In many cases, however, the insurance
feature is of great importance, since there may
always be defects of title which an examination
of the record title may not disclose. Many
title insurance companies possess complete rec-
ords and title maps of all real estate within
the territory where they do business and have
other special facilities for the expert examina-
tion of titles. The prospective purchaser of
real estate within such territory, by applying
for title insurance, may thus procure a com-
plete examination of the title before the con-
veyance is made. The policy issued may, with
the consent of the insured, be transferred to
a subsequent purchaser of the property. This,
however, is not customary except upon the pay-
ment of an additional premium. See INSUR-
ANCE; CONVEYANCE; DEED; COVENANT; RECORD-
ING or DEEDS. Consult Frost, The Law of
Guaranty Insurance (Boston, 1900).
TITLES OF HONOR. Designations to which
certain persons are legally entitled in conse-
quence of possessing particular dignities or of-
fices. Titles of honor may be divided into
those of sovereignty, superior and inferior, no-
bility, greater and lesser, and titles of peculiar-
ly oflicial significance. Superior sovereign titles
are emperor and king (qq.v.) and, in Turkey
and Persia, sultan, and shah (q.v.). Czar and
kaiser (qq.v.), from Ocesar, correspond to em-
peror. Inferior sovereign titles include grand
duke (ranking next to king), duke, and prince
(qq.v.) in some of the German States, and
prince in Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Monaco.
Eastern equivalents of the inferior titles are
bey, khan (both post-positive), khedive, raja
(qq.v.). Greater nobility titles include, in de-
scending scale, prince, duke, marquis, count
(earl in Great Britain), viscount, and baron
(qq.v.). In Great Britain there is no title
prince outside of the royal family. In Austria
there is no duke, except archduke (q.v.) (of
the Imperial family), and in a few princely
houses, where the term remains as a sub-
title, but is not used; in Germany, no vis-
count; in Russia, no viscount, marquis, or duke,
except grand duke (of the Imperial family).
Lesser nobility titles include baronet and es-
quire (qq-v.), peculiar to Great Britain, and
TITLES OF HONOR.
TITUS.
769
knight (q.v.), chevalier, and ritter, the last
three being practically equivalent terms. There
are also lesser nobility titles for the chiefs of
Scottish and Irish clans, and such Eastern titles
as bey, effendi, and pasha (qq.v.), all three post-
positive. The titles of honor having peculiarly
official significance are largely such ecclesias-
tical, military, and governmental terms as arch-
bishop, general, governor, etc. Courtesy titles,
distinct from true titles of honor, since their
validity rests in custom rather than law, are
given to the sons of the British nobility. A
noble takes his highest title and is permitted to
set aside an inferior title, usually his second,
to be assumed by his eldest son. The younger
sons of dukes and marquises have the courtesy
title lord (q.v.) prefixed to their given name
or surname, and the daughters of dukes, mar-
quises, and earls prefix lady. The younger
sons of earls and the sons and daughters of vis-
counts and barons are called honorable.
Certain forms of reference are used in respect
to various titles. Majesty is attributed to em-
peror and king, and to the former often Imperial
Majesty; Imperial Highness to title of child of
an emperor; royal highness to title of child of
a king (in Great Britain also grandchild of the
sovereign), and to grand duke and prince reign-
ing; Highness, alone or variously qualified, to
prince; in Great Britain, Grace to duke, lord-
ship to any other peer (q.v.). See FORMS OF
ADDRESS; PRECEDENCE.
TITMARSH, MICHAEL ANGELO. The nom de
plume under which Thackeray published the
Yellowplash Papers and other works.
TITMOUSE (from tit, from Icel. titte, little
bird -1- ME, mose, AS. mrise, OHG. meisa, Ger.
Zlleise, sort of song-bird). One of a family
(Paridae) of small active birds allied to the
nuthatches, and familiar in the United States
as ‘chickadees.’ The family is widely distrib-
uted and exhibits much variety in appearance
and habits. Typical colors seem to be black,
gray, and white, but many Old \Vorld species
are distinctly marked, or suffused, with tints of
blue, red, brown, or yellow, or several of these;
and the I/Yestern American genus Auriparus
(see GOLDTIT) is thus gayly colored. The females
and young are closely like the males. These
cheerful little birds are everywhere familiar,
coming about gardens and roads, and nesting
year after year in
orchard trees, or
some in garden
bird-boxes, as well
as in the forest.
Their food consists
mainly of insects,
and they are
everywhere of
great service by
their consumption
of these, and, es-
pecially in winter,
of the eggs and
hibernating larvae


TITMOUSE.
Head of an Arizona crested tit- of aphids and
m 0 u s e (LOPIIOPMDGS WOHW6“ other minute pests
b ‘ . .
9”’ Most of them
make nests of soft materials in holes and cran-
nies, but some, like the European penduline tit
(see Plate of PENSILE Nesrs or BIRDS in article
NIDIFICATION), the long-tailed tits of the genus
Acredula, and the VVestern American bush-tits
(Psaltriparus), weave bag-shaped pouches of
hempen materials, or of moss or grass, suspended
beneath a tree branch. The breeding habits of the
whole group are interesting. Their notes are
sharp, quickly repeated exclamations, varied, by
a few sweeter calls, and are well illustrated by
the familiar chickadees (Paras atricapillus,
H udsonius, and others), which are among the
most characteristic of North American resident
birds. Consult: Evans, Birds (London, 1900);
and American ornithologies. '
TITMOUSE, TITTLEBAT.
A YEAR.
TITULAR BISHOPS (from Lat. titulus,
title, superscription, token). In the Roman
Catholic Church, bishops other than diocesan,
who take their titles from some formerly exist-
ing but now extinct see. The practice of so
designating them is due to the ancient principle
of not consecrating bishops without a definitely
assigned sphere of labor. “'ith the multiplica-
tion of suffragan and missionary bishops, some
such system of nomenclature was naturally,
therefore, adopted. When the territory occu-
pied by the Crusaders fell once more into Mo-
l‘-ammedan hands, the expelled bishops were
utilized in various parts of Europe, retaining
their former titles; and these titles, with those
of sees which broke away from communion with
Rome in the great Eastern schism, are still em-
ployed to designate coadjutor or missionary
bishops. In England until 1850, and in Scot-
land until 1878, the Roman Catholic bishops
bore such titles, owing to legal and other diffi-
culties in the way of assuming territorial titles.
Titular bishops were formerly often known as
bishops in partibus irzfidellum; but in 1881 Leo
XIII. abolished the use of this name, on the
ground that many of these sees had come into
the hands of States which, if not Catholic, were
Christian, and that the designation was inap-
propriate. See SUFFRAGAN.
TI’TUS. One of the most trusted and de-
voted of the disciples and fellow-workers of the
Apostle Paul. Nothing is said of Titus in the
Acts, and all we know of him is contained in
scattered notices in Paul’s Epistles, especially
Galatians and II. Corinthians. He was of Gen-
tile origin (Gal. ii. 3), converted to Christianity
through Paul (Tit. i. 4), and was one of the
brethren taken along by Paul and Barnabas on
their mission from the church of Antioch to
the mother church of Jerusalem at the time of
the Apostolic Council (c.49 A.D.; cf. Gal. ii. 1 and
Acts xv. 2). At Jerusalem, though he was un-
circumcised, he appears to have been allowed to
mingle freely with members of the mother
church. It is reasonable to suppose that he re-
turned to Antioch with Paul and accompanied
him thence on his third missionary journey.
From the notices in II. Corinthians we learn
that he was sent by Paul from Ephesus on two,
perhaps three, missions to Corinth, bearing let-
ters and intrusted with the management of
delicate and important business. In all re-
spects he was completely successful. The C0-
rinthians contributed liberally toward the great
collection Paul was raising for the Jerusalem
church, willingly obeyed Paul’s injunctions in
regard to cases of discipline, and evidenced most
See TEN THOUSAND
TITUS.
TITUSVILLE.
770
‘sincere love and loyalty to the Apostle. These
results were supremely satisfactory to Titus
and his report to Paul, who had left Ephesus
(spring of A.D. 55) expecting to meet Titus at
Troas, but, disappointed in this, had pressed
on anxiously into Macedonia, so cheered the
Apostle that he at once sent back the Warm-
hearted message contained in II. Cor. i.-iv.
We know no more of Titus’s movements until
the time of the letter written to him by Paul.
The date of this Epistle, presupposing its gen-
uineness, must be placed between Paul’s first
and second imprisonments. (See NEW TESTA-
MENT C1.-1RoNoLooY.) Titus had accompanied
Paul to Crete, where he had been left by the
Apostle to further organize the churches there
planted. He was summoned thence to join Paul
at Nicopolis where Paul planned to winter. We
do not know whether this plan was carried out.
Titus is next mentioned in II. Timothy (iv. 10),
the last of_ Paul’s letters, as having departed,
presumably from Rome, for Dalmatia. Nothing
more is said of Titus in the New Testament‘.
The impression made by the references given is
that he was a true and capable assistant to the
great Apostle, one of the foremost of that circle
of loyal disciples through whom Paul accom-
plished his great work. Tradition makes him
Bishop of Crete, but of this there is no early
evidence.
TITUS (Trros FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPA-
SIANUS) (c.40-81 A.D.), Roman Emperor (A.D.
79-81). He was the eldest son of the Emperor
Vespasian and Flavia Domitilla, and was born
at Rome. Brought up at the Court of Nero,
he received an excellent training, and subsequent-
ly, as trflrunu/s militum in Germany and Britain,
and commander of a legion in Judaea under his
father, proved his qualities as a soldier and a
general. On his father’s elevation to the Imperial
throne, Titus was left to prosecute the Jewish
VVar, which he brought to a close by the capture
of Jerusalem (September 8, A.D. 70) after a long
siege. The news of the success was received with
the utmost joy, and Vespasian’s too jealous
temper was awakened. However, Titus by re-
turning to Rome, and laying the trophies of vic-
tory at the Emperor’s feet, removed his un-
founded suspicions, and father and son obtained
the honor of a joint triumph (AD. 71). About
this time Titus became his father’s colleague in
the Empire. He gave himself up to the pursuit
of pleasure in all its forms, put to death various
suspected persons very summarily, and even
caused one of his guests, whom he justly sus-
pected of conspiracy, to be assassinated as he left
the palace. On the death of his father (AD.
79), whom he was at that time believed by a
few to have poisoned, the Romans had satisfied
themselves as to the advent of a second Nero.
But Titus’s behavior after his hand grasped an
undivided sceptre completely belied their antici-
pations. The very first act of his reign was to
put a stop to all prosecutions for lazsa majestas,
which had abounded since the time of Tiberius
(q.v.). The ancient and venerated buildings
of Rome were repaired; new ones, as the baths
which bore his name, were erected; and the
prominent tastes of the populace were abun-
dantly gratified by games on the most stupendous
scale, which lasted for 100 days. Titus’s benef-
icence was unbounded, and it so happened that
during his brief reign there was the most urgent
need of its exercise. In AD. 79 occurred the
eruption of Vesuvius which overwhelmed Hercu-
laneum and Pompeii and ruined numerous other
towns and villages; in A.D. 80 a fire broke out in
Rome, which raged for three days, destroying the
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which had just
been rebuilt, and other public edifices, besides
numerous houses; and in the tracks of these
calamities followed a dreadful pestilence. Titus
dealt out gifts with lavish hand to the houseless
and ruined sufferers; he even despoiled his pal-
aces of their valuable ornaments, to obtain money
for distribution, and schemed and planned to
furnish occupation for them. He was now the
idol of his subjects, the ‘love and delight of the
human race;’ but, unfortunately, in the com-
mencement of the third year of his reign he be-
came suddenly ill, and died at his patrimonial
villa at Reate, in the Sabine country. The reign
of Titus was marked by the extension of the
Roman dominion in Britain by Agricola.
TITUS, ARCH OF. A triumphal arch in Rome
at the highest point of the Sacred Way, fac-
ing the Forum, and situated between the plat-
form of the Temple of Venus and Roma and
the Temple of Jupiter Stator. It was erected
by Domitian in A.D. 81 in commemoration of
the taking of Jerusalem, and is adorned with
fine reliefs on the inner sides of the archway,
representing the triumph of Titus, and the spoils
of the temple, including the seven-branched
candlestick and the table with shewbread. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages the arch was built into the
fortifications of the Frangipani; and when these
were demolished, the arch was taken down in
1822 and rebuilt to insure its safety, the missing
portions being supplied by travertine instead of
the original Pentelic marble.
TITUS, BATHS OF. Extensive baths north-
east of the Coliseum at Rome, built by Titus
on the ruins of the Golden House of Nero and sup-
plied by the Aqua Marcia. Their exact situation
was long a matter of dispute, and they were gen-
erally conceived to be identical with the Baths of
Trajan and to have been called by the latter
name because restored by him. Excavations in
1895 finally determined their topography and
showed them to be distinct from the adjoining
Baths of Trajan. All remains of the building
of Titus disappeared in the sixteenth century.
TITUS, EPISTLE TO. A letter in the New
Testament, attributed to the Apostle Paul. See
TIMOTHY AND Trros, EPISTLES TO.
TITUS ANDRONICUS. The name of a
tragedy usually included among Shakespeare’s
works, though it is now generally considered to
have been only retouched by Shakespeare in 1589-
90, on the foundation of an earlier play. It is
alluded to by Meres in 1598 among Shakespeare’s
tragedies; but, though a quarto edition is said
to have been printed in 1594, no extant copy is
earlier than the quarto of 1600. Crude as it is, it
belongs to the same type of play as Hamlet;
both are dramas of revenge, after the fashion of '
Kyd.
'1‘I"I‘U'SVILLE. A city in Crawford County,
Pa., 18 miles north of Oil City; on Oil
Creek, and on the Pennsylvania and the Dun-
kirk, Allegheny Valley and Pittsburg railroads
(Map: Pennsylvania, B 2). It has a public
TITUSVILLE.
TLAXCALA.
771
library and a hospital. In August, 1859, the first
oil well in the United States was sunk here, and
the city is largely interested still in the oil in-
dustry. It has oil refineries, large iron works,
radiator works, cutlery works, a silk mill, saw
and planing mills, engine works, etc. It is also
the shipping centre for a productive farming sec-
tion. Under the charter of 1899, the government
is vested in a mayor, elected triennially, and a
bicameral council. The water-works and the elec-
tric light plant are owned and operated by the
municipality. Titusville was settled in 1796,
and was incorporated as a borough in 1847, and
as a city in 1866. On June 5, 1892, Oil Creek,
swollen by a cloudburst, flooded the lower part
of the city. Soon afterwards several oil tanks
gave way. The liberated oil, covering nearly the
whole surface of the flood, became ignited, and the
fire and flood together destroyed about 60 lives
and fully one-third of the city. Population, in
1890, 8073; in 1900, 8244.
TIUMEN or TYUMEN, tyo'\5-man’y’. A town
in the Government of Tobolsk, Western Siberia,
situated on the Tura, at the eastern end of the
Perm-Tiumen Railway line (Map: Asia, F 3).
It is an important centre in the transit trade of
Siberia and has shipbuilding yards, woolen mills,
and tanneries. Population, in 1899, 29,621.
TIV’ERTON. A municipal and Parliamen-
tary borough and market-town in Devonshire,
England, 14 miles north of Exeter (Map: Eng-
land, C 6) . There are important weekly markets,
and great animal markets for cattle. There
is a large lace factory, in which nearly 2000
hands are employed. The town owns the gas and
water-works. Lord Palmerston was its Parlia-
mentary representative for thirty years. Popula-
tion, in 1901, 10,382. Consult Harding, The
History of T/iverton (Tiverton, 1845-47).
'1‘IV’OLI (Lat. Tibur). An old town of Cen-
tral Italy, Province of Rome, 19 miles east-
northeast of Rome. It stands on the -slope of
Monte Ripoli, one of the Apennines. Tivoli is
walled, and has a fortress. The surrounding
hills are covered with olive trees. The vines of
Tivoli are famed for a peculiar sort of grape, in
great request for its firmness and luscious fia-
vor, noticed as early as the time of Pliny the
Elder. The stone called travertine, of which a
great part of Rome is built, comes from quarries
just below Tivoli. On the western slope of the
town lies the famous Villa d’Este, of the six-
teenth century. Within and without the city
there are many monuments of antiquity. In a
commanding position above the falls of the Anio
stand the remains of two temples, one circular
(so-called ‘Temple of the Sibyl’), and one rec-
tangular (so-called ‘Temple of Tiburtus’), the
former of which antedates the Christian Era.
In the neighborhood there are extensive remains
of the Emperor Hadrian’s_ magnificent villa, the
‘villa of Maecenas,’ remains of mausoleums, aque-
ducts, bath, etc. The place is much visited by
tourists for its waterfalls, which are lofty and
very picturesque. The Anio furnishes excellent
water power, which since 1892 has been utilized
for electric lighting both at Tivoli and at Rome,
and for iron works at the former town. Tibur
existed as a town (according to ancient tradi-
tion) long before the building of Rome, under
whose dominion it fell about 13.0. 335.
TIXTLA, téks'tl:'1, or TIXTLA DE GUERRERO.
A town of the State of Guerrero, Mexico, five
miles east of the capital, Chilpancingo (Map:
Mexico, J 9). The town is in a fertile, well-
watered valley, with silver mines in the vicinity.
It was formerly the capital of the State. Popu-
lation, in 1895, 6588.
TLACOTALPAN, tla’ko-tiil’pérn. A Gulf
seaport of Mexico, 50 miles southeast of Vera
Cruz, at the mouth of the Papaloapan (Map:
Mexico, L 8). Population, in 1895, 5770.
TLALPAM, tliil’pz1m. A town of the Federal
District, Mexico, 10 miles south of the capital
(Map: Mexico, J 8). It is a -noted summer re-
sort and each spring at Whitsuntide its Church
of San Antonio de las Cuevas is visited by thou-
sands of pilgrims. Population, in 1895, 5846.
TLATLAUQUITEPEC, tla-tlou’ké-ta-pék’. A
town of the State of Puebla, Mexico, 42 miles
northwest of Jalapa. Population, in 1895, 8754.
TLAXCALA or TLASGALA,‘t1as-ka’la (Mex.,
land of maize). The smallest State of Mex-
ico, bounded by the State of Hidalgo on the
north, Puebla on the east and south, and Mexico
on the west. Area, 1595 square miles (Map:
Mexico, K 8). The State lies within the central
plateau of Mexico at an elevation of about 7000
feet above the sea. Several mountain peaks
rise on the western and the southern frontiers
and reach in the Sierra Malinche an altitude of
13,475 feet. The rivers are short and unnavigable.
Tlaxcala has a comparatively cool climate, and
frosts are not infrequent. The chief industry
of the State is agriculture and the principal
products are cereals, especially maize; maguey
also flourishes. The State has good transporta-
tion facilities. Population, in 1900, 172,217.
Capital, Tlaxcala.
The natives of Tlaxcala were of Nahuatlan
stock (q.v.) and spoke the same language as the
Aztecs, the dominant people of the Mexican
Empire, but maintained their independence in
spite of repeated attempts of the Aztec em-
perors to subjugate them. On the arrival of
Cortez in 1519 he was at first fiercely resisted
by the people of Tlaxcala, but they were de-
feated, and, submitting, furnished a large con-
tingent to assist in the conquest of Mexico.
In recognition of their services they were ac-
corded special privileges under the Spanish Gov-
ernment, and on account of their loyalty and
fighting qualities numbers of them were after-
wards colonized at Saltillo, in Coahuila, and at
Izalco, in Salvador, as a check upon the hostile
inroads of the native tribes. The present popu-
lation of Tlaxcala is chiefly of the aboriginal
stock and language. They maintain many of
their ancient beliefs and customs, including
faith in witches and weather doctors, with an
interesting Feast of the Dead.
TLAXCALA or TLASCALA. A Mexican
town, the capital of the State of the same name,
58 miles east of the City of Mexico, on a branch
of the Mexican Railway, running between Puebla
and Apizaco, in the valley of the river Atoyac
(Map: Mexico, K 8). The modern town, near
the site of the Indian capital, has lost much of
its former greatness. It contains the State-
house, and the ancient bishop’s palace, probably
the oldest Franciscan building in America, while
near it are many remains of former Indian struc-
TLAXCALA.
TOAD.
772
tures. The magnificent sanctuary of Ocotlan is
one of the landmarks of the surrounding country.
The principal exports are grain, hides, and cloth.
Population, in 1895, 2847.
TLAXIACO, tla-sy5i’k<‘>. A town of the State
of Oaxaca, Mexico, 63 miles northwest of the
city of that name, on the headwaters of the
Atoyac (Map: Mexico, K 9). It is an impor-
tant commercial centre. Population, in 1895,
8535.
TLEMCEN, tlem-sén’. The capital of an
arrondissement in the Department of Oran, Al-
geria, near the Moroccan frontier. It is 80 miles
southwest of the city of Oran, with which it is
connected by rail, and stands in an undulating
country, everywhere irrigated and highly cul-
tivated (Map: Africa, D 1). It is also connected
by rail with its port, Rashgun, 37 miles distant.
The town is accessible only from the southwest,
the other sides presenting steeply escarped
fronts. It is protected from the south wind by
a range of mountains, 4200 feet in height, and is
surrounded by the ruins of its ancient battle-
mented Wall. It contains Catholic and Protestant
churches, magnificent mosques, synagogues, and
a museum of interesting antiquities. The town
is well supplied with spring water, and a basin
under the walls 720 feet long by 490 feet wide
and 10 feet deep, used for naval exhibitions by
the ancient Tlemcen rulers, is now a reservoir.
The district is covered with fruit trees of all
kinds, of which the olive is one of the most valu-
able; cereals, tobacco, etc., are extensively pro-
duced. Besides the special markets, a daily
market is held, at which cattle, wool, grain, and
oils are sold. Ostrich feathers and cork are ex-
ported; and woolen goods, leather, saddles, slip-
pers, and arms are manufactured. Population,
in 1901, 35,468, of whom 24,234 were of native
origin. Dating from 1002, Tlemcen has an in-
teresting history under Berber, Arab, Spanish,
and Turkish rule. It had about 100,000 inhabit-
ants in the thirteenth century. It has been on
the decline since the early part of the sixteenth
century. The French ultimately occupied it in
1842.
TLIN’KIT (people), or Komsn (Russ, from
Aleut Zaalosh, kaluga, little trough, in allusion
to the enormous and peculiarly shaped labrets
worn among them, especially by the Sitka). A
group of tribes, of which the Chilcat, Sitka,
Stiki11e, and Yakutat are the most important.
They constitute a distinct linguistic stock known
as the Kolushan, occupying the coast and isl-
ands of Southern Alaska from Mount Saint
Elias southward to the entrance of the Nass
River. The Tlinkit are a seafaring people with
strongly marked characteristics. Before the de-
moralization wrought by the advent of the white
man they lived in permanent villages of solidly
constructed houses built of massive beams and
great planks of cedar, each with its tall totem
pole in front, and with the corner posts also
carved in totemic designs. Their canoes were
hewn from cedar trunks, and their mats and
cordage were woven from the bark fibre of the
same tree. They were expert stone-carvers and
copper-workers. They were enterprising traders
and controlled the trade from the coast to the
interior tribes, using dentalium shells as a
currency medium and setting great store upon
the acquisition of property. They had three
clans, the Raven, Wolf, and Whale, with descent
in the female line, but the chieftainship was elec-
tive, being usually accorded to the most generous
distributor at the great ceremony of the pot-
latch (q.v.). Slavery was an established cus-
tom, slaves from other tribes being a staple
article of trade and treated by their masters
with great cruelty. The dead were cremated, ex-
cepting in the case of priests, whose bodies were
Wrapped in mats and deposited with their sacred
belongings in grave houses perched upon com-
manding cliffs. Their principal mythologic hero
was the Raven, who brought fire to the people
and set the sun and 1noon in their courses. The
flesh of the whale was tabooed, excepting among
the Yakutat. They did not flatten the head, as
did the more southern tribes, but were addicted
to labrets, which were considered marks of dis-
tinction and honor in proportion to their size,
the insertion of each successive larger labret be-
ing the occasion of a potlatch distribution. They
were a warlike race, strong and well built, and
regarded by the Russians as of superior intel-
lect, but have greatly deteriorated by contact
with civilization. They may number now alto-
gether 5000, and derive a large part of their
subsistence by labor in the salmon canneries.
Consult Krause, Die Tlinkit Indvlaner (Jena,
1885). See also SITKA; YAKUTAT.
TOAD (AS. tddige, tddie, toad; of unknown
etymology). The common name applied to any
one of the numerous species of tailless Amphibia
belonging to the family Bufonidae and a few kin-
dred families. More than 100 species belong to
the typical genus Bufo, which is nearly cosmo-
politan, but most numerously represented in
tropical America, and absent from Madagascar,
Papuasia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Toads differ from typical frogs (Raninac) in the
absence of teeth, in having the sacral diapophyses
dilated, and the sternum wholly cartilaginous.
Most have a short-limbed, thickset figure and
warty skin, and the majority are quite terrestrial
or burrowing, but some are aquatic and
others arboreal or aberrantly modified. There
are seven genera containing 15 species in the
family, besides Bufo. Noticeable among these
are the common Australian toad (Myobatrachus
Gouldz‘) , which has a smooth skin; the repulsive
egg-shaped, long-tongued, termite-eating Mexican
species (Rhinophrynua dorsalis) ; and the large,
warty, swimming toads of the East Indian genus
Nectophryne.
The common toad of Eastern North America
(Bufo lenttginosus) is a fair type of the group.
It reaches a length of about 31/2 inches, and is
brownish olive, with a yellowish vertebral line
and some brownish spots; but it is exceedingly
variable. The skin of young toads is nearly
smooth, but that of adults is very warty. It
contains many poison glands from which a milky
somewhat acrid fluid exudes when the animal
is roughly handled. This and the urine are
harmless so far as man is concerned, but have a
protective value in making the creature distaste-
ful to many predatory animals.
The food of the toad consists of worms, in-
sects, and snails, which must be alive and mov-
ing in order to attract its notice. These are
seized by the darting out of the tongue (see
FROG), which is done so rapidly as to baffle all
but very attentive observation. This fare is
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TOADFLAX.
773
captured mainly during twilight and at night.
The list of known foods embraces every sort of
insect and larva that can be captured, including
many most injurious to horticulture; and there
is no doubt that a reasonable number of toads
in a garden gives a valuable assistance in keep-
ing down pests. They do no harm at all. They
molt the outer skin several times a year, strug-
gling out of it, and then swallowing it. When
cold weather comes on they dig a hole in the
ground, or find some warm, dry crevice among
rocks, in a cellar or the like, and become dor-
mant. This power of hibernation, and their
ability to endure deprivation of food and water,
tend to a longevity very unusual in so small an
animal, for toads under favorable conditions
will live thirty years or more. The stories told
of buried toads surviving for long intervals in
solid clay, rock, and the like, are usually un-
worthy of belief. Experiment has shown that no
toad can long endure deprivation of air, water,
and food, although Buckland found that speci-
mens immured in blocks of porous stone and buried
in moist soil remained alive after eighteen months.
As soon as the toads emerge in the early spring
their melodious piping is heard, and they make
their way to water, where fighting between males
and the mating of the sexes begin. After a few
days long gelatinous ropes of black holoblastic
eggs, each about one-fifteenth of an inch in di-
ameter, are to be found coiled or matted in warm
ponds and roadside pools. Each female begins
to breed when about four years old, and lays six
to ten thousand eggs annually. These eggs rapid-
ly increase in size, and hatch in four weeks or
less, according to weather. A detailed history
by R. hVright of their development may be found
in the Standard Natural History, vol. iii. (Bos-
ton, 1885). The larvae are considerably advanced
when freed from the egg, and are provided with
a peculiar temporary organ in place of the yet
undeveloped month, by which they cling to weeds
and similar supports; and with bushy external
gills as breathing organs. There is no trace of
limbs, but a swimming organ is present in the
form of a large fin-bordered tail. Development
proc_eeds rapidly. The true mouth is soon formed, '
and the tadpoles begin to feed upon the minute
algae coating the bottom and floating on the sur-
face, and later eat animal substances. They
are the best scavengers for an aquarium. They
keep in shallow water near shore, but are preyed
upon by newts, turtles, fishes, and predacious
aquatic insects. Gradually growth advances,
the fore legs appear, and later the hind legs
are developed and the tail and gill-tufts are
gradually absorbed. (For experiments in rear-
ing tadpoles under various food-conditions, see
Factors of Evolution, under EVOLUTION.) By
midsummer the limbs are perfected, lungs have
been formed, the tail is reduced to a mere stump,
and the tadpoles creep out of the water as small
toads. Here they encounter a host of enemies,
birds, snakes, turtles, etc., so that a very small
proportion escape to develop into adulthood,
when they have few enemies except snakes.
The common toad of the Old World (Bufo-
vulgaris) is very similar to the American toad.
It inhabits almost the whole Palaearctic region,
eastward to China and Japan. India and the
Malay Archipelago have a widely prevalent and
very rough-skinned species (Bufo melanostictus),
which has considerable power of changing color.
The green toad of the Mediterranean region
(Bufo viridis) is highly variable in color; and
the natterjack and pantherine toads (qq.v.) of
\Vestern Europe much resemble it. The largest
member of the genus is.the huge agua toad of
tropical America. (See AGUA.) Various more
distantly related amphibians are called ‘toads,’
as for example ‘tree-toads’ (see HYLA; TREE-
FROG) ; the South American horned frogs (q.v.)
of the cystignathine genus Ceratophrys; the
Surinam ‘toad’ (see PIPA), and others. Compare
FROC; SPADEFOOT.
Fossil toads are quite rare, but are found
scattered through the Tertiary formations from
the Eocene upward, especially in Europe. Some
very fine skeletons of toads, and even remains of
tadpoles, have been found in the fresh-water
Miocene deposits of Germany.
Consult: Cope, Batrachia of North America
(Smithsonian Institution, TVashington, 1889);
Boulenger, Tailless Batrachians of Europe (Ray
Society, London, 1896); Kirkland, “Habits,
Food, and Economic Value of the American
Toad,” in Bulletin 1,6, Hatch Ewperiment Sta-
tion (Amherst, Mass., 1897); Gadow, Amphibia
and Reptiles (London, 1901).
SeepColored Plate of FROOS AND TOADS.
TOAD BUG. Any of the curious l1eterop-
terous insects of the family Galgulidee. They
have a short, broad body, projecting eyes, and
dull, mottled colors, suggesting a miniature toad.
They live in moist places along the banks of
streams and ponds. About twenty species are
known, of which three inhabit the‘ United States.
Our commonest species is Galgulusroculatus.
TOADFISH, or SAPO. On'e__l-of a family
(Batrachoididae) 'of fishes allied to the gobies,
the young of which fasten themselves to rocks
by a central disk which is soon lost. They are


A TOADFISH.
small carnivorous and scavenging coast fishes of
all warm seas, abundant about weedy rocks and
coral reefs. They have a robust form, are inac-
tive, and resemble toads in the mingled browns
and yellows of their coloration. The species il-
lustrated (Opsanus pardus) inhabits the Gulf of
Mexico.
TOADFLAX, or BUTTER-AND-Eccs (Linaria).
A genus of plants of the natural order Scrophu-
lariacese, distinguished chiefly by the spur at the
base of the corolla and the capsule opening by
valves or teeth. The species are herbaceous, na-
tives chiefly of the colder and temperate parts of
the Old World. Common toadflax (Linaria vul-
garis) has an erect stem one to three feet high,
with glaucous, linear-lanceolate leaves which
thickly cover the stem, and terminal spikes of
yellow flowers. It grows in fields along roadsides,
etc.. in Europe and America, where it has been
introduced and where it is usually considered a
troublesome weed. A very remarkable mon-
TO ADFLAX.
TOBACCO.
774
strosity called peloria is sometimes seen in this
plant, the flower presenting five spurs and five
usually imperfect stamens.

TOADFLAX (Linaria vulgaris).
TOADSTOOL. A fungus of the group Basidio-
mycetes (q.v.), whose fructification is usually a
stalk bearing a cap. See FUNGI, EDIBLE AND
Po1soNoUs; Mnsnnoom.
TOAST (OF. toste, from ML. tosta, toast,
Lat. fem. sing. of p. p. of torrere, to dry; con-
nected with Gk. Tcpéofiru, teresthai, to become
dry, Skt. tars, to thirst, and ultimately with
Eng. thirst). Originally the name given to bread
dried or scorched before the fire. As early as
the sixteenth century toast formed a favorite ad-
dition to English drinks, especially sack and
punch. The application of the word to a lady
whose health is drunk, and thence to any senti-
ment mentioned with honor before drinking, is
said to have originated from an incident de-
scribed in The Rambler (No. 24), as having hap-
pened at Bath in the eighteenth century, when
it was the fashion for ladies to bathe publicly,
in elegant dresses made for the purpose. “It
happened that on a public day a celebrated
beauty of these times was in the Cross Bath, and
one of the crowd of her admirers took a glass
of the water in which the fair one stood, and
drank her health to the company. There was
in the place a gay fellow, half fuddled, who of-
fered to jump in, and swore, though he liked
not the liquor, he would have the toast” (mean-
ing the lady). In the later sense, the word has
been adopted both in French and German.
TOBA, to"ba (opposite, so called by the
Guarani, as living on the opposite or western
bank of the Paraguay). A powerful and savage
people of Guaycuran stock, the most important
tribe of the Chaco region of Northern Argentina.
They rove along the Pilcomayo and Vermejo
rivers. Their language is a dialect of that for-
merly spoken by the Abipone (q.v.), whom they
exterminated about a century ago. They hunt
and fight on horseback with the lance and bow,
and are warlike and untamably hostile to all
whites who attempt to enter the region.
TOBACCO (Sp. tabaceo, tabaco, from the
Carib name, of uncertain meaning; perhaps
the name of the pipe smoked by the Indians, or
of the tubes into which the leaves are rolled for
smoking, or the Haitian name of the plant, or
the old name of the island now called Tobago, near
Trinidad, or the name of a province Tobaco, said
to be in Yucatan), Nicotiana Tabacum. A plant
of the natural order Solanaceae. It has broad
leaves, terminal panicles of flowers, and two-
celled, five-valved fruits (many-seeded capsules).
The numerous varieties differ more or less in the
size and form of the leaves, and in the form and
color of the flowers. Its generic name is in
honor of Jean Nicot, who introduced it into
France. Whether the use of tobacco as a nar-
cotic was known in the East before the discov-

TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum).
ery of America is somewhat doubtful. Probably
the habit has been long practiced in China, but
it is not certain. If it was so, the custom did not
extend among neighboring nations, whereas, on
the introduction of the use of tobacco rfrom
America, where the Indians have smoked the
leaves since remote antiquity, it rapidly extended
throughout Europe, and soon became ex-
tensively prevalent among Oriental nations. The
Indians used it in their important transactions.
Thus the calumet (q.v.), or pipe of peace, is in-
dispensable to the ratification of a treaty; and
smoking together has even greater significance of
friendship than eating together has among the
nations. Tobacco seed was first taken to Europe
by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, who intro-
duced it into Spain, where it was first cultivated
as an ornamental plant, till Nicolo Manardes
extolled it as possessed of medicinal virtues.
It was introduced into Italy in 1560. Its use as
snuff soon followed its introduction for smoking.
There is no reference to the use of tobacco in
Shakespeare, yet it is certain from other evi-
dences that it then was well known in England,
although, on account of its high price, its use was
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TOBACCO.
775
confined to the wealthy. It was smoked in very
small pipes and the smoke was expelled, not from
the mouth, but through the nostrils. Tobacco
was at first recommended for medicinal virtues,
but soon became an article of luxury. The Popes
Urban VIII. and Innocent XI. fulminated against
it the thunders of the Church; the Sultans of
Turkey declared smoking a crime, Sultan Amuret
IV. decreeing its punishment by the most cruel
kinds of death; and King James I. of England
issued a Oounterblaste to Tobacco, in which he
described its use as “a custom loathsome to the
eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain,
dangerous to the lungs, and in the black, stinking
fumes thereof nearest resembling the horrible
Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless.”
Although the habit did not become prevalent in
the East till the seventeenth century, the Turks
and Persians are now the greatest smokers in the
world. In India all classes and both sexes
smoke; in China the practice is universal.
In America the culture of tobacco began in Vir-
ginia with the earliest settlement of the colony.
It is recorded that in 1615 the gardens, fields,
and even the streets of Jamestown were planted
with tobacco, which immediately became, not
only the staple crop, but the principal currency
of the colony. In 1619 “ninety agreeable per-
sons, young and incorrupt,” and in 1621 “sixty
more maids, of virtuous education, young and
handsome,” were sent out from London on a mar-
riage speculation. The first lot of these ladies
was bought by the colonists for 120 pounds of
tobacco each; the second lot brought 150 pounds
each. The culture of tobacco was introduced
into- the Dutch colony of New York in 1646,
though it never gained the same prominence
there as farther south. Maryland, the Carolinas,
Georgia, and later Kentucky, made it the leading
crop almost from their first settlement. It long
constituted the most valuable export of the
colonies. From 1744 to 1776 the exports of the
crop averaged 40,000,000 pounds a year. None
of the cotton States now produce much tobacco,
but one county in Florida, Gadsden, has long
been celebrated for the production of Cuban to-
bacco, which always brings a high price. As a
commercial crop tobacco is confined to rather
limited areas in a few States. In the production
of wrapper leaf for cigars Florida and Connecti-
cut take the lead. Pennsylvania and Wisconsin
produce a great deal of filler leaf for cigars.
Other classes of tobacco are grown extensively
in Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, Mary-
land, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri in the order
named.
The United States produces more tobacco than
any other country in the world, and exports
more than one-third of the product, chiefly to
Germany, England, France, Italy, Austria, and
Holland, in the order named. The value of the
tobacco exported in 1850 was $6,417,251, in 1899
$25,467,218. The amount received by the United
States Government from the internal revenue tax
on tobacco products is a large one. In 1890 it
amounted to $33,949,997. The value of tobacco
imported in 1899 was $9,900,253, at an average
price per pound of 70.2 cents.
The product of tobacco in Europe is nearly
equal to the average production of the United
States. Austria-Hungary produces about one-
third of it, Russia one-tenth, Germany nearly
as much, France about 35,000,000 pounds, and
the other countries a small quantity. Europe
can easily produce all the tobacco required, but
American tobacco is largely imported, because
it is cheap and is considered valuable for mixing
with and fortifying European leaf.
In America tobacco is divided commercially
into four classes: (1) cigar; (2) cigarette; (3)
manufacturing (chewing, smoking, and snuff);
(4) export.
CULTIVATION. The variety of tobacco planted
depends upon soil, climate, and market demands.
The different types of tobacco are grown upon a
wide range of soils differing mainly in their
physical characters. Wet soils composed largely
of clay produce large heavy plants that cure to
a dark brown or red. Light sandy soils produce
plants having a light thin leaf curing to a bright
red, mahogany, or fine yellow. The influence of
soil, climate, and manures on the quality of the
produce is almost beyond what is known in any
other cultivated plant. In the more northern re-
gions the seed is sown in a hot-bed and protected
from frost by cheese cloth. The young plants are
very tender and require frequent watering with
weak liquid manure. They will be ready for
transplanting in five or six weeks. For cigar
tobacco the plants are grown rather close, 14
inches in Florida giving leaves of desirable size,
quality, and appearance. For manufacturing
tobacco the distance should be greater. Cultiva-
tion should be frequent and shallow and should
cease when the plants begin to button. Where
the production of seed is not desired the plants
are topped to prevent flowering, that their whole
strength may be directed to the leaves except in
the case of that grown for cigar wrappers when
a thin leaf is the more valued. Fertilizers af-
fect the quality of tobacco more than the yield.
Barnyard manure produces a rank growth but
poor quality. Potash is the most important ele-
ment to be supplied in growing tobacco, and the
best for1ns are the carbonate and the sulphate.
Nitrogen is best supplied in cottonseed meal,
bone meal, and dried blood.
When the leaves begin to turn yellow the
plants are ready to harvest. This is usually done
by cutting down the stalk near the ground. In
the better grades of cigar tobacco the leaves
are primed off, beginning with the lower as they
ripen, a process requiring more labor, but giving
a more uniform and valuable product. The time
generally chosen for cutting is in mid-day, or
when the sun is powerful. The cutting is done
by hand, and only such plants are chosen as are
ready. If the plants are very large, the stalk
is often split down, to facilitate the drying.
They are then removed from the field to the to-
bacco-house, around which are erected light scaf-
folds, from which the plants are suspended with-
out touching each other. After drying the
leaves are removed from the stalks and tied up in
bundles called hands. The losses in curing are
about 85 per cent. of weight at cutting. After
curing tobacco goes through the process of fer-
mentation or ageing. This consists primarily of
a reduction in the per cent. of nicotine and the
development of aroma. The action is caused by
unorganized ferments or enzymes inherent in the
leaf and may extend through a period of a few
weeks or of two years, depending upon the
method of handling. In the slow fermentation
the tobacco is packed in cases and stored in Ware-
TOBACCO.
TOBACCO.
776
houses. In a quicker and better method, as
practiced in Cuba and the cigar districts of the
United States, the tobacco is piled under suit-
able conditions of moisture and the process of
fermenting is hastened by the heat developed.
The tobacco is repiled when the temperature
rises to a certain point, and so continued until
the proper flavor and aroma are developed. To-
bacco for cigarettes is cured by heating it for
a short time in large ovens. The product is of
light color and a small nicotine content and
without the agreeable aroma of cigar tobacco.
Tobacco, owing to the high rate of duty when
in any manufactured form, is mostly imported
in the leaf; but small quantities are brought in,
chiefly for reéxport, in various states of manu-
facture.
ToBAoco DISEASES. Among the various dis-
eases of tobacco perhaps the best known is calico
or mottled top, a Connecticut name for the
mosaic disease of Holland. The ‘spotting’ of
tobacco in Connecticut, the spot disease of Bus-
sia, and the nielle of France are somewhat simi-
lar. The mosaic disease as described by Mayer,
one of the first to investigate it in Holland, is
characterized by mottled light and dark green
leaves a few weeks after the plants are set. The
tissue in the darker parts of the leaves grows
faster and soon is much thicker than the light-
colored areas. As the disease progresses some of
the thin areas die out, giving a decidedly mottled
appearance to the leaf. The diseased plants are
usually irregularly distributed throughout the
field. The cause has been the subject of much
controversy. By many observers it is said to be
of bacterial origin. Others claim it to be due to
certain enzymes which disturb the balance be-
tween the normal functions of certain cells.
Beijerinck claims to have produced the disease
by inoculating healthy plants with the sterilized
fluid from diseased leaves. Others claim it to be
due to soil and water conditions. The evidence
now at hand seems to favor the theory of the un-
organized ferments as the probable cause. The
spot disease is characterized by white or brown
spots of various size and shape upon the leaves.
In some cases the leaves resemble the spotted
condition which is considered so desirable in
some tobaccos, as the Sumatra wrapper leaf. The
cause of the spot is not definitely known. In
Australia the‘ fungus Peronospora hyoscyami
produces a common and destructive disease of the
plants, and in Java and Sumatra the dark spots
are attributed to Phytophthora nicotianae. Both
these diseases may be prevented by thorough ap-
plication of Bordeaux mixture. In the curing of
tobacco two diseases, pole burn and stem rot,
are common. Pole burn is likely to develop if
long continued damp, sultry weather occurs while
the plants are being cured. It first attacks the
veins, turning them black, but spreads to the rest
of the leaf, blackening it and making it very
bitter. Certain fungi seem always present in this
disease, as well as many bacteria. It is believed
the fungi are the principal cause of the injury, in
which the bacteria doubtless assist. This disease
may be prevented by artificial heat and ventila-
tion. The stem rot is due to the fungus Botrytis
longibrachiata. It attacks the stems and veins,
producing patches of velvety white fungus and
causing more or less decay.. The spores ripen
upon the stalks that are thrown aside _as worth-
less. These should be carefully collected and
burned, and the tobacco barn thoroughly fumigated
with sulphur fumes before and after curing a crop.
CIGARS AND CHEROOTS are forms of manufac-
tured tobacco. Cuba supplies the best cigar to-
bacco, the best cigars being made from that grown
in Vuelta Abajo and hence known as Vuelta to-
bacco. The greater proportion of genuine Havana
cigars smoked in this country are not manufac-
tured in Cuba, but in Florida by Cuban workmen
from genuine imported tobacco, under the system
used in Cuba and known to the trade as ‘Cuban
hand-work.’ This term characterizes a very care-
ful method, by which each piece of leaf is so
graded that the entire cigar is of the same color
throughout, with each vein of the leaf running
in the same direction, in order to insure even
and perfect burning.
Next to Cuban ranks the tobacco grown in
Florida, while the product of Borneo, Ceylon, and
the Philippine Islands is considered little in-
ferior. Persia also produces a good article.
Turkish tobacco is very aromatic. The name
Turkish is loosely applied to the leaf grown in
Syria, Rumelia, Karamania, and about the
Persian Gulf. A light yellow tobacco is smoked
in China, and some of it is exported. Veryr
excellent tobacco is grown in Java and Sumatra
and shipped to Amsterdam, where the best cigars
in Europe are most readily obtained. Burmese
tobacco is fair. In Germany inferior tobacco is
produced-along the Rhine, near Baden and at
Mainz, and is used for home consumption. In
France tobacco is a Government monopoly and
can be grown only by those who receive a special
license. These producers have the choice of
selling their tobacco to the Government manufac-
turers or of exporting it. The best cigars made
in Europe of,European tobacco are those manu-
factured in Spain.
CIGARETTES. Of late years cigarette smoking
has increased greatly, but in the United States
the increased manufacture of little cigars has
caused an apparent decrease in the number of
cigarettes made. Under the classification in
the revenue returns, it is difficult to secure
satisfactory statistics. The manufacture is now
practically in the hands of a single ‘trust.’ In
France there are several factories exclusively
devoted to the production of cigarettes, employ-
ing over 2000 women and turning out more than
400,000,000 cigarettes a year. In Spain the con-
sumption of cigarettes is very great, but the
practice is for the smoker to roll his own, rather
than to smoke the manufactured article.
SNUFF was originally made in Spain, and later
in England, Scotland, Holland, and Belgium. It
was at first made by grinding the leaf tobacco
in mortars, and scenting the powder in various
ways. It is now ground in metal mills by steam
power. The United States produces a small
amount of snuff, but the practice of taking snuff
is annually declining. In the reports of the
manufactures of tobacco, snuff is classed with
chewing tobacco. Chewing tobacco is put up in
pressed cakes called ‘plug tobacco,’ and in a
spongy mass of fine threads known as ‘fine cut.’
Usually flavoring matters, as vanilla, sugar,
syrups, glycerin, etc., are added in small amounts.
Different manufacturers have various formulas,
considered as trade secrets, for improving their
products. Smoking tobacco for pipes is put up
TOBACCO.
TOBACCO PESTS.
777
in twists or rolls of the natural leaf or is cut
fine and put up in small packages.
Indian tobacco (Lobelia in/lata) has nothing
in common with the subject of this article.
Tobacco has been used as a sedative or nar-
cotic over a larger area and among a greater
number of people than any similar substance,
opium ranking next, and hemp third. Tobacco
leaves, when submitted to chemical analysis, yield
nicotine (q.v.), which is its most characteristic
constituent, albumen, a gluten-like substance,
gum, resin, 1nalic and citric acids, and a large
amount of inorganic constituents, 100 parts of
the dry leaf yielding from about 19 to 27 per
cent. of ash, in which potash, lime, and silica
preponderate. Nicotine, the alkaloid contained
in tobacco and considered a violent poison, does
not appear in tobacco smoke. It is split into
pyridine and collodine. Of these the latter is
said to be the less active and to preponderate in
cigar smoke, while the smoke from pipes contains
a larger amount of pyridine. If tobacco pos-
sesses, like alcohol, opium, tea, coffee-, etc., the
power of arresting oxidation of the living tis-
sues, and thus checking their disintegration, it
follows that the habit of smoking must be most
deleterious to the young, causing in them impair-
ment of growth, premature manhood, and physi-
cal degradation. Before the full maturity of
the system is attained, even the smallest amount
of smoking is hurtful; subsequently, the habit is
generally prejudicial. Smoked just after a meal
a cigar is said to act as a digestive stimulant,
and as a food when other forms of nourishment
are not procurable. In some persons smoking
increases, i11 other diminishes mental activity.
Chewing is considered the most deleterious form
in which to use tobacco. The different kinds of
tobacco exert a different influence on the smoker
according to the amount of noxious ingredients
which they contain. Those which yield a small
proportion are termed mild tobaccos.
Tobacco has been used in medicine with the
view of relaxing the muscular fibres, in cases of
strangulated hernia, intestinal obstruction,
asthma, strychnine poisoning, tetanus, etc.; but
is no longer so employed on account of its dan-
gerous depressant action.
Consult: Killebrew and Myrick, Tobacco, Its
Culture, Cure, Marketing, and Manufacture
(New York, 1897) ; Lock, Tobacco Growing,
Curing, and Manufacture (London, 1886) ; Seu-
seney, Tobacco from the Seed to the Warehouse
(Chambersburg, Pa., 1878); United States De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, Farmers’
Bulletin No. 60, Methods of Curing Tobacco;
No. 83, Tobacco Soils; No. 120, Insects Affecting
Tobacco; Division of Soils, Report No. 62, Culti-
vation for Cigar Leaf Tobacco in Florida;
No. 63, Work of the Agricultural Eecpcriment Sta-
tions on Tobacco; Arnold, History of the To-
bacco Industry in Virginia (Baltimore, 1897);
A. M. and J. Ferguson, All About Tobacco, In-
cluding Practical Instruction in Planting, Culti-
vating, and Curing (Colombo, Ceylon, 1889);
Ragland, Tobacco, How to Raise It and How to
Make It Pay (Hyso, Va., 1895); Sim, Tobacco
From Seed Bed to Packing Case (Ettiwanda,
Col., 1897). ‘
TOBACCO-BOX SKATE. The common
small American skate (Raja erinacea). See
Plate of RAYS AND SKATES.
TOBACCO-HEART. A name used of the
cardiac condition occurring in many persons
who use tobacco to excess. lrregularity of action
and debility are the chief symptoms. See To-
BACCO.
TOBACCO PESTS. The tobacco flea-beetle
(Epitriw paroul-a) is generally distributed
throughout the United States. It is a minute,
oval, reddish-brown species occurring upon many
solanaceous plants, which makes its appearance
in July, attacking the tobacco leaves, which soon
present a spotted appearance. Afterwards these
spots become holes and the leaf is practically de-
stroyed. In the larval state the insect feeds upon
the roots. The snzall holes eaten by the beetles
become the entrance points of bacteria, which
start a leaf-disease which may be more injurious
to the plant than the actual work of the beetles.

TOBACCO BE ETLES.
. a, tobacco flee-beetle(Ep1't1-ix parvul-a). greatly enlarged;
b, leaves, as damaged by this flee-beetle; 0, green bug
(Euschistus varioiaz-ins). '
The so-called horn-worms, or ‘horn-blowers,’of to-
bacco are the larvae of two sphingid moths (Proto-
parce carolina and Phlegethontius celeus) , large
green caterpillars with oblique white stripes on
the sides of the body, and the anal end of the body
armed with a horn. These larvae live upon to-
bacco leaves, transform to pupae under the ground,
I I
1 all?‘
r 4 -' -' 4
\ 1 : '; ' " 0'
ll -


TOBACCO BUDWORMS.
a, moth of the true budworm (Heliothis rlzexiaa); I),
caterpillar of same; c, buds injured by false budworm
(H elio this armiger).
and the moths issue in May or June. The eggs
are laid singly on the under’ side of the tobacco
leaf just at nightfall. There are two generations
each summer in a large part of the toba-cco-grove
ing region. Two insects, both larvae of noctuid
moths, are known as ‘bud-worms’ in tobacco fields.
They are H eliothis armiger (also known as ‘boll-
worm’ (q.v.), corn-ear worm, and tomato fruit-
worm), which preferably lives in the ears of
TOBACCO PESTS.
TOBACCO PIPE.
778
corn until the grain becomes hard, and therefore
works in tobacco usually only toward the end of
the season, and Heliothis rhemiw. The latter is
the true budworm. (See Colored Plate of AMER-
ICAN MOTHS.) The adult is a small greenish
moth, and the larva is found in the bud of the
plant about the time it is ready to top. They
transform to pupae under the surface of the
ground. A true bug (Dicyphus mini/rnus) dam-
ages the second crop in late tobacco by punctur-
ing the leaves and sucking the cell sap. Infested
leaves become yellowish in color, somewhat wilt-
ed, and the older ones eventually split in places,
becoming ragged. The bug, when immature, lives
on the under side of the leaves, but the adults live
both above and below. The eggs are deposited
singly in the tissues of the leaf and hatch after
four days. One entire generation is produced in
fifteen days. Several other sucking bugs punc-
ture tobacco leaves, but are not serious enemies
of the crop, except, perhaps, the ‘green bug’
(Euschistus oartolarius) .
The tobacco leaf-miner, or ‘split worm’ (Phtho-
rimcca operculella) hatches from eggs laid
upon the leaves by a minute grayish moth,
and bores between the surfaces of the leaf,
making a flat mine often of considerable
size. This insect is a cosmopolitan species and
works upon potatoes as well as upon tobacco, bor-
ing into the tubers as well as the leaves. Several
species of cutworms (q.v.) damage the tobacco
plant early in the season. A mealywing (q.v.)
(Aleyrodes tabaci) damages the leaves of tobacco
in Europe and in the Southern United States.
The common mealy-bug (Dactyloptus citri) af-
fects the plant, as also do several species of plant-
lice. The tobacco thrips (Thr-ips tabaci) is an
important enemy of tobacco in Bessarabia. It
occurs upon many plants in the United States,
especially upon onions, but has not been found
upon tobacco.
Most of the insects mentioned may be destroyed
by spraying the plants with an arsenical mixture.
Nearly all of them feed upon solanaceous plants,
and an excellent remedial measure is to allow a
few weeds of this family, such as Solcmum
nigrum or Datum stram0m'/mn, to grow in the
immediate vicinity of the field which is to be
planted in tobacco. These weeds will act as traps
for nearly all of the early tobacco insects, and
they can be treated with heavy doses of Paris
green for the leaf-feeding species, and with a
spray of kerosene emulsion and water for the
sucking bugs. Large numbers of the-se insects
can be killed in this way, greatly to the protec-
tion of the young tobacco plants when they are
set out.
Dried tobacco is attacked and frequently
ruined, even after having been made up into
cigars and cigarettes, by the so-called cigarette
beetle (Lasiodernw. serricornc), an insect which
works not only in tobacco, but in many other
dried herbs as well as certain dried foods. It is
a cosmopolitan species, and multiplies rapidly
throughout the greater part of the year, feeding
both as larvae and as adults. The ‘drug-store
beetle’ (Sitodrepa pan/icea) and the common rice
weevil (O'aZandm org/ea) also feed upon dried
tobacco. These insects are destroyed by fumi-
gating the rooms or the establishments in which
they occur with bisulphid of carbon or hydro-
cyanic acid gas.
All of the species above mentioned occur in the
United States, although several of them are cos-
mopolitan. In Europe 144 species are recorded
as occurring in tobacco fields. The most impor-
tant of these, among the species which do not
occur in America, is a tenebrionid beetle (Opa-
trum intermediwm), which injures the plant by
attacking the stems under ground. Consult How-
ard, The Principal Insects Affecting the Tobacco
Plant (Washington, 1900) .
TOBACCO PIPE. An implement for the
smoking of tobacco. The use of a pipe for smok-
ing herbs of various sorts dates from a period
when these plants were burned in a container
and the smoke employed for sacrifices or for heal-
ing. Aside from the specimens discovered
in ancient sites in Europe, the greatest prehis-
toric distribution of the pipe is in America. Here
the widespread primitive form is a drilled tube
of stone, wood, bone, or pottery, in the form of a
large cigar holder, evidently taking its shape from
that of a tube of cane. This type is found almost
exclusively west of the Mississippi, and its early
use was for blowing out smoke and not for draw-
ing it into the mouth. This form, when put into
clay, shows a later transition toward the modern
pipes by bending the stem. In the Eastern United
States the prehistoric pipe shows considerable
modification of the original tube, and some of the
varieties are the monitor pipe with the bowl set
on a fiat base perforated as a stem, hour-glass
pipes, biconical pipes, etc. The peace pipe or
calumet (q.v.) descends from the monitor form.
The red stone called catlinite, commonly used for
calumets, came into use in historic times. The
Alaskan Eskimo pipe is of Asiatic form, with a
very small cavity in a mushroom bowl attached
to a stem, while the Labrador Indian pipe is of a
well-marked type consisting of a separate bowl
of stone beautifully worked and a short stem.
Numerous examples of sculptured pipes have
been found in Ohio and Illinois, and have been
attributed to the so-called ‘mound-builders.’ The
tomahawk pipe was introduced through trade
by the French, English, and Spanish, and certain
tribes afl’ected a certain style of this pipe.
The ethnographic study of the pipe or its modi-
fication and adaptation to their uses by differ-
ent peoples shows not only that the spread of the
pipe into different environments has given rise
to a great number of inventions connected with
this utensil, but that their forms, materials, and
artistic conceptions have taken upon themselves
racial or tribal individuality, as e.g. Turkish and
Chinese pipes. Most of the inventions have
grown out of the desire to cool the smoke and
relieve it of acrid principles, giving rise to the
great class of water-pipes widespread in Asia
and Africa, as the hookah or narghile, and the
ornate Chinese water pipe, and in other countries
resulting in absorbing bowls, as the meerschaum,
clay, brier root, or other substances, as well as
devices for condensing the nicotine in a receptacle
below the bowl, as in the German lcmge Pfetfe.
The same result is attained by the long stem of
the pipe and by the long coiled tube of the
narghile. Numerous evidences of taste are shown
in the decoration of the bowls, stems, and mouth-
pieces and in the tobacco pouches, strike-a-light,
match-boxes, and cleaners, which are smokers’
accessories. The bowl is often covered for pro-
tection against the wind, and is frequently carved
TOBACCO PIPE.
TOBLER. ‘
779
or molded in the form of human or animal heads,
as in the European characteristic or grotesque
pipes, especially those of Holland and Germany.
The opium pipe of China is a special development
with a large cylindrical bowl having a small
aperture, and a large flute-shaped stem designed
for the inhalation of a small quantity of fumes
from a pellet of burning opium. The hemp pipe
of India is a form of water pipe in which to-
bacco or a mixture of tobacco and hemp may be
smoked. The Chinese and Japanese prefer a pipe
with a very small bowl in which a pellet of
finely shredded tobacco is smoked. The Koreans
use a larger bowl with an extremely long stem.
In Africa the water pipe is rudely made of a
cow’s horn perforated for stem and bowl holder.
It is said that a Kafir lacking a pipe will often
dig a small hole in the ground in which he puts
tobacco, fit a stem in position below it, and,
lying on his belly, enjoy a smoke. Consult:
Nadaillac, Les pipes et Ze tabac (Paris, 1885);
McGuire, Pipes and Smoking Customs of the
American Aborigines (\Vashington, 1897).
TOBA’GO or TABAGO. An island of the
British VVest Indies, belonging to the colony of
Trinidad, and situated 22 miles northeast of the
island of that name (Map: West Indies, R 9).
Area, 114 square miles. It is of volcanic origin
and is mountainous, with peaks rising about 2000
feet above the sea. The climate is warm, and the
rainfall on the windward side amounts to 66
inches. Sugar and coffee have been the staple
products, but cotton, tobacco, and cacao are now
receiving more attention, and a large number of
rubber trees have been planted. The volume of
trade amounts to about $150,000 annually. Pop-
ulation, in 1901, 18,750, chiefly negroes. The
chief town, Scarborough, has about 1000 inhabit-
ants. The island was discovered by Columbus
in 1498, and became a British possession in 1763.
TOBERENTZ, to’be-rents, ROBERT (1849—).
A German sculptor, born in Berlin, where he
frequented the Academy in 1867-69. He then
studied under Schilling in Dresden and from
1872 to 1875 in Rome. After his return to Ber-
lin he became a follower of Begas, in whose
manner he executed, among other works, the
bronze figure of a “Shepherd Resting” (1878,
National Gallery). In 1879 he was appointed
director of a master studio for sculptors con-
nected with the Breslau Museum, resigned in
1884, and after living in America in 1885-89,
returned to Berlin in 1890 and became professor
in 1895. He completed the “Luther Monument”
of Paul Otto, in Berlin, modeled the equestrian
statue of Frederick Barbarossa for the Kaiser-
haus at Goslar, and made the statue of Frederick
the Great for the Royal Palace in Berlin. He
also fashioned several masterly life-size nude
figures, such as an “Ancient Greek Maiden
Sculptor” and “Girl Asleep on a Couch.”
TO’BIT, Boox or (Gk. Twflelr, Tobeit, TwBe£0,
Tobeith, from Heb. Tobiyah, Yahweh is good).
One of the books of the Old Testament Apocrypha.
The Catholic Church regards it as in the canon
and historical. The personage around whom the
story of the book centres is Tobit of the tribe of
Naphtali, who was carried away to Assyria by
Shalmaneser. Here he obtains an official position
with the King, but loses it under Sennacherib,
and because he has buried certain Jews killed by
order of the King, he flees from Nineveh. His
Von. xvr.-so.
nephew, Achiacharus, pleads with the successor
of Sennacherib, and under Esarhaddon Tobit
.returns to Nineveh. Again he buries the dead,
and while in an ‘unclean’ condition he sleeps
outside the wall of his courtyard and loses
his eyesight. In his‘ misfortune he is supported
by his nephew Achiacharus, but, taunted by
his wife, Anna, he sends his son Tobias to
collect an outstanding debt in Ragae in Media.
Tobias takes with him as guide one Azarias (in
reality Raphael, the angel). On the way Tobias
is attacked by a fish, whose heart, liver, and gall
he takes at the command of Raphael. They come
to the house of Raguel, a kinsman of his, and
Tobias marries Sara, the only daughter of
Raguel. By burning the heart and liver of the
fish in the bridal chamber the evil spirit, Asmo-
deus (q.v.), who has already killed seven hus-
bands of Sara, is driven away. The debt col-
lected, the three return to Nineveh, and Tobias
applies the gall of the fish to his father’s eyes
and their sight is restored. Tobit dies at
Nineveh and is buried there, but Tobias dies
at Ecbatana, yet not before he has heard of the
destruction of Nineveh by Nebuchadnezzar. The
date of the composition of the book is variously
given as the fourth century B.c. (Ewald), third
century (Reuss), and second century (Schiirer,
Ntildeke). The latter is probably correct. The
story is a pure romance, and the vividness of the
descriptions is but a proof of the artistic ability
of the writer. The book exists at present in
Greek, Latin, Syriac, Aramaic, and Hebrew man-
uscripts, the texts of which differ considerably.
The oldest and most valuable text is that con-
tained in the Alexandrine codex of the Septua-
gint and probably represents the original text.
The Hebrew versions, of which there are three,
are late and based on the Greek text. The pur-
pose of the book is to emphasize God’s Providence
toward pious Jews who remain faithful to their
religion with all its ceremonial obligations. Con-
sult: Kautsch, Apohryphen (Tiibingen, 1900);
\Vace, Apocrypha (London, 1888) ; Neubauer,
The Book of Tobit (Oxford, 1878) ; and for the
text, Nestle, Septaaginta-Studlien(Leipzig, 1899) .
TOBLER, to’bler, ADOLF (1835—). A Swiss
Romance philologist, born at Hirzel, in the Can-
ton of Zurich, and educated in the schools of
that town and at the University of Bonn. In
1867 he became professor at the University of
Berlin. His monographs on philological subjects
are many, and his researches have contributed
greatly to the knowledge of Old French syntax.
His publications include: Gedichte eon Jeha/n. dc
Goadct (1860); Mitteilungen aus altfrarze6si-
schen H andschriften (1870) ; Li dit da orai Aniel
(1871 and 1884); Vom franzdsischen Versbau
alter and neaer Zeit (3d ed., 1894; French trans-
lation, 1885) ; Das Bach dcr Ugagon des Laodho
(1884); Das Spruchgedicht des Girard Pateg
(1886); Vermischte Bcitriige ear franz'o'sischm
Grammatilo (three series, 1886-94) ; an edition of
Li prooerbe Vilain (1895).
TOBLER, TITUS ( 1806-77). A Swiss Oriental
scholar. He was born at Stein, Canton of Appen-
zell, studied and practiced medicine, traveled in
Palestine, and after taking part in the political
‘affairs of Switzerland, settled in 1871 at Mu-
nich. His principal work is Topographic eon
Jerusalem and seinen Umgebungen (1853-54),
. A
TOBLER.
TOCORORO.
780
which was supplemented by Beitrag zur medal-
einischen Topographic /von Jerusalem (1855);
Planogmphie /von Jerusalem (1858); Dritte
lVande-rung nach I’al_r'istina (1859); Bigho-
graphia Geographica Palestlnce (1867). Consult
his Life by Heim (Zurich, 187 9) .
TOBOGGAN(North American Indian otoba-
nask, odabagan, sled). A vehicle used for coast-
ing, which differs from the ordinary coasting
sled in that it has not runners beneath its fiat
surface. It seems to have been improvised by
the Indian hunters, who used it to bring in their
dead game over the snow. With them it was
simply a strip of bark turned up at the front to
facilitate its passage over rough ground and
braced by strips or pieces of wood running both
crosswise and along the . edges. Among the
Eskimos it was made from strips of whale-
bone. It is of the same primitive pattern to-day,
except that in some cases a light rail runs along
its sides. For sporting purposes it is usually
made of thin strips of ash, maple, or hickory,
slightly oval on the bearing surface, placed side
by side and fastened at the ends, the under sur-
face being highly polished. The ordinary tobog-
gan is about 18 inches wide and 6 to 8 feet long.
The usual number of occupants is four. One sits in
front with his feet under the hood, two in the
centre, and the steersman at the back. The
latter sits crouching, one leg bent, the other
stretched behind him to be- used as a rudder, for
which purpose his moccasin has a hard leather
steering-tip. In some cities, especially Montreal,
chutes are constructed for this sport. Great
speed is attained on them; a distance of 900
yards has been traveled in 30 seconds. See
Coasrme.
TOBOLSK’, Russ. pron. to-bol’y’sk. A gov-
ernment of Western Siberia, bounded by the
Arctic Ocean on the north, the governments of
Tomsk and Yeniseisk on the east, the territories
of Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk on the south,
and European Russia on the west (Map: Asia,
G 2). Area, estimated at 535,000 square miles.
The surface is flat with the exception of the
northwestern part, which is covered with off‘-
-shoots of the Ural Mountains, attaining an alti-
tude of over 4000 feet. The larger part of the
north belongs to the region of polar tundras and
is practically uninhabited. The southern part
is somewhat undulating and consists to a large
extent of vast steppes, well watered and with a
rich black soil which makes that part of the gov-
ernment one of the richest agricultural regions in
the Empire. The chief waterway is the Ob
(q.v.), which, with its great tributary, the
Irtysh (q.v.), drains almost the entire region.
Lakes are very numerous and some of them are
salty. Theclimate is continental and severe, the
average annual temperature varying from 24°
at Berezov (q.v.) in the north to about 32°
at Tobolsk in the south. The immigration
into Tobolsk has latterly been very strong,
and some parts in the south are as densely popu-
lated as any rural part of European Russia. The
agricultural holdings are comparatively large,
and considerable quantities of grain are exported.
Wheat and rye are the principal products. Dairy-
ing is a growing industry and the export of but-'
ter exceeds $1,500,000 per annum. The manu-
factures are chiefly paper, cloth, spirits, leather,
and glassware. Of the population of 1,438,484
in 1897, the non-Russian element numbered only
about 90,000, composed chiefly of Tatars, Ostiaks,
Samoyeds, and Voguls.
TOBOLSK. The capital of the government
of the same name in Western Siberia, situated on
the Irtysh at its junction with the Tobol and
172 miles north of Tyumen, the terminal of the
North Siberian Railway (Map: Asia, F 3). It
is well built and has a picturesque appearance
with its Kremlin and numerous churches. Its
importance has greatly diminished since the con-
struction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Its
chief industries are fishing and fur-making.
Tobolsk was founded in 1587 and is one of the
oldest Russian settlements in Siberia. Popula-
tion, in 1897, 20,427.
TOBY. The name of Punch’s dog, in the
Punch and Judy shows.
TOBY, UNCLE. A leading character in
Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. He is a retired sea-
captain, simple, kindly, and gallant, said to
have been modeled on Sterne’s father.
TOCANTINS, t6’kan-tens’, Pg. pron. to’kiiN-
téNsh’, RIO. A large river of Brazil, often con-
sidered as a branch of the Amazon (Map:
Brazil, H 4). It rises in the southern part of
the State of Goyaz, and flows northward, empty-
ing into the Atlantic Ocean through the large
estuary known as the Rio Para (q.v.), which
communicates with the estuary of the Ama-
zon. The total length of the Tocantins is
about 1700 miles. About 600 miles from
its mouth it receives the Araguayzi (q.v.),
which flows nearly parallel with, and exceeds
in length, the main river from the point of con-
fluence. The Tocantins is obstructed in several
places by rocky reefs formed by spurs of the cor-
dillera which it skirts. The last of these, the
Falls of Itaboca, are situated below the con-
fluence of the Araguaya, only 130 miles above the
estuary, and completely obstruct navigation.
Small steamers, however, ply on the upper
reaches, though the country along the banks is
very sparsely populated and almost undeveloped.
TOCCATA, to-ka’ta (It., touched). In music,
a term originally applied to compositions writ-
ten for keyed instruments, thus having a some-
what more restricted meaning than sonata, a
composition for any instrument. The oldest
toccatas preserved are some written for the
organ by Claudio Merulo (published 1598) . They
generally begin with full chords which gradually
give way to passage-work among which small fu-
gato sections are interspersed. The modern
toccato does not materially differ from that of
Merulo. See SONATA. .
TOCHER, to’eer (Ir. tocha/r, Gael. tochmclh,
dowry, portion). In the Scotch law, an ancient
name for money or property given or settled by a
father on the marriage of his daughter.
TOCHIGI, to’ché-gé. A town in the Prefec-
ure of Tochigi in Central Hondo, Japan, 55
miles by rail north of Tokio (Map: Japan, F 5) .
It‘ is of some industrial importance and had in
1898 a population of 22,379.
TO’CORO’RO. A Cuban trogon (Priotelus
temnurus) named from its cry. It breeds in holes
abandoned by woodpeckers, and is remarkable for
the concave outline of the end of its short tail.
TOCQUEVILLE-.
TODD.
781
TOCQUEVILLE, tok’vel’, ALEx1s CHARLES
HENRI CLEREL DE (1805-59). A French states-
man and political philosopher, born at Verneuil,
in the Department of Seine-et-Oise. At the Res-
toration his father was made a peer of France.
His mother was a granddaughter of Malesherbes,
the academician, political writer, and magistrate,
who defended Louis XVI. at the bar of the Con-
vention. Alexis de Tocqueville studied law, was
admitted to the bar in 1825, traveled in Italy,
and on his return became an assistant magistrate
at Versailles. In 1831 he gave up his appoint-
ment at Versailles, and with his colleague there,
Gustave de Beaumont, accepted a Government
mission to America, to study the working of the
penitentiary system. The commissioners, after
their return to Europe, published their report
(Du systéme pénitentiaire aua: Etats-Unis, 1832;
Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1833)—an admirable
work, which modified all the ideas previously en-
tertained in France regarding prison discipline.
But this was not the most important result of
their inquiries. In 1835 De Tocqueville published
his great work, De la démoeratie en Amérique.
In his introduction he sought to show that a
great democratic revolution had for centuries
been going on_in Europe. There is a general
progress toward social equality, which must be
looked on as a providential fact. In France it
has always been borne on by chance, the intelli-
gent and moral classes of the nation never hav-
ing connected themselves with it, in order to
guide it. In America he found that the same
revolution had been going on- more rapidly than
in Europe, and had indeed nearly reached its
limit in the absolute equality of conditions.
There, accordingly, he thinks we may see what
is about to happen in Europe. He points out
that the people in America may be strictly said
to govern. They make the laws and administer
them. He draws from what he has observed the
conclusion that democracy may be reconciled
with respect for property, deference for rights,
safety to freedom, and reverence for religion.
The work made a profound impression. Its au-
thor was elected to the Academy of Moral Science
in 1836 and to the French Academy in 1841.
In 1835 De Tocqueville visited England, where
‘he received an enthusiastic welcome from the
leaders of the Whig Party. In the same year
he married Miss Mary Mottley, an English-
woman. In 1837 he was defeated as a candidate
for the Chamber of Deputies from Valognes, but
two years after he was elected by an overwhelm-
ing majority, and ranged himself with the Mod-
erate Opposition Party. After the February
Revolution he was a formidable opponent of the
Socialists and extreme Republicans, as well as
of the partisans of Louis Napoleon. He became,
in 1849, vice-president of the Legislative Assem-
bly, and from June to October in the same year
was Minister of Foreign Affairs. During that
time he defended the policy of the expedition to
Rome, on the ground that it would secure liberal
institutions to the States of the Church. After
the coup d’état of Decembeer, 1851, he retired to
Tocqueville, where he devoted himself to agricul-
tural pursuits. In 1856 appeared his second
great work, L’aneien régime et la réuolution. In
June, 1858, he took up his abode at Cannes,
where he died. De Tocqueville’s (Euvres et cor-
respondence inédites were published (1860), by
his friend De Beaumont, who prefixed a bio-
graphical notice. His .11 émoi/res are a valuable
contribution to the history of the Revolution of
1848 and the coup d’état. An English transla-
tion, The Recollections of Alexis de Tocqueville,
was published in New York in 1896.
TOCUYO, to-ko'o_’yo. A town of the State of
Lara,-Venezuela, 180 miles southwest of Caracas,
on the Tocuyo River (Map: Venezuela,‘ D 2).
The valley of this river is one of the richest agri-
cultural and grazing districts of the Republic,
producing in abundance sugar-cane, wheat, coffee,
and cacao. Besides exporting these products
Tocuyo has wool and leather manufactures, salt
works, and household weaving. Tocuyo was
founded in 1535. Population, about 15,000.
TODAS, to'das. A people of the Nilgiri Hills
in Southern Hindustan, who have been the sub-
ject of much discussion by ethnologists. The
majority of the authorities consider them to be
of Dravidian stock. The Todas are tall, well-
built, dolichocephalic, with prominent nose, fea-
tures approaching the Caucasian, full beard,
black hair, and rather light brown skin. Consult
Marshall, A Phrenologist Among the Toclas (Lon-
don, 1873).
TODD, CHARLES BURR (1849—-). An Ameri-
can author, born at Redding, Conn. He was pre-
vented by poor eyesight from entering college,
and became a journalist and historical student.
In 1877 he was appointed commissioner for the
erection of a suitable memorial on the side of the
winter quarters of Gen. Israel Putnam’s division
of Continentals in Redding, Conn. In 1895 he
was secretary of the committee appointed by
Mayor Strong for the printing of early records of
New York City. His publications include: His-
tory of Burr Family (187 9) ; Life and Letters of
Joel Barlow (1886); The Story of the City of
New York (1888) ; and other works.
TODD, DAVID PEGK (l855—-). An American
astronomer, born at Lake Ridge, N. Y., and
educated at Amherst College. He was chief
assistant to the United States Transit of Venus
Commission in 1875, and his reductions of the ob-
servations were the first derived from the Ameri-
can photographs. He took charge of the Lick
Observatory observations of the transit of Venus
in 1882. In 1887 he conducted the American
Eclipse Expedition to Japan and there organized
a subsidiary expedition to the summit of Fuji-
yama for meteorological observations. He re-
turned to Japan in 1896 as head of the Amherst
Eclipse Expedition. His publications include;
A Continuation of De Damoiseau’s Tables of
the Satellites of Jupiter to the Year 1900 (1876;
also extended back to 1665), used by American
and foreign nautical almanacs; A New Astron-
omy (1897); and Stars and Telescopes (1899).
TODD, JOHN (1800-73). A Congregational
minister. He was born at Rutland, Vt.; gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1822, and at Andover
Theological Seminary in 1826. He was pastor
at Groton, Mass., in 1827-31; Northampton, 1833-
36; Philadelphia, 1836-42; Pittsfield, Mass.,
1842-72. He was one of the founders of Mount
Holyoke Female Seminary. He had a vigorous
and original mind, much practical shrewdness
and wit, and fine descriptive power. Some of his
works had immense circulation, especially The
Student’s Manual (1835; 20th ed. 1853). He
TODD.
TOGA.
' 782
wrote many books for children and young people.
His complete works appeared in London (new
ed. 1882, 6 part-s). Consult Autobiography
(New York, 1876).
TODD, ROBERT BENTLEY (1809-60). An Irish
physician, born in Dublin, and educated there
at Trinity College. In London he lectured on
anatomy for a short time at the Aldersgate Street
School of Medicine and then went up to Oxford.
About this time he projected the Oyclopcedia of
Anatomy and Physiology—a work which did
much to advance the study of comparative and
microscopic anatomy. The first number was
published in 1835 and the entire work was com-
pleted in 1859. He was appointed professor of
physiologyr and general and morbid anatomy at
King’s College, London, in 1836. In 1849 he
gave the Lumleian lectures a11d in 1853 he
resigned his professorship in King’s College. He
was known for his pioneer work in the treatment
of fevers and inflammations. His publications
include: Gulstonian Lectures on the Physiology
of the Stomach (1839); Practical Remarks on
Gout, Rheumatic Fever, and Chronic Rheuma-
tism of the Joints (1843); Description and
Physiological Anatomy of the Brain, Spinal
Cord, and Ganglions (1845) ; Lumleian Lectures
on the Pathology and Treatment of Delirium
and Coma (1850); and Clinical Lectures (3
vols. 1854-59, and 1 vol. 1861).
TODDY-CAT. See PALM-CAT.
TOD’HUNTER, Is.-mo (1820-84). An Eng-
lish mathematician. He was educated at Uni-
versity College, London, and at Saint John’s
College, Cambridge. He was elected Fellow of
Saint John’s in 1845, and the rest of his life
was devoted to mathematical writing and teach-
ing, and to the study of philosophy and of lan-
guages. He was a fellow of the Royal Society
(1862). Todhunter’s text-books were the most
popular ones ever published in England. They
include, besides a number of elementary text-
books: Difierential and Integral Calculus
(1852); Analytical Statics (1853); Analytical
Geometry of Three Dimensions (1858) ; History
of the. Progress of the Calculus of Variations
During the Nineteenth Century (1861) ; History
of Probability (1865); History of the Mathe-
matical Theories of Attraction (1873); Re-
searches on the Calculus of Variations (1871);
Treatise of Laplace’s, Lamé’s, and Bessel’s Func-
tions (1875) ; History of the Theory of Elasticity
(posthumous, 1886). Consult: Proceedings of
the London Mathematical Society (1884, p. 284,
with list of Writings) ; Proceedings of the Royal
Society (1884, xxvii.).
TODHUNTER, JOHN (1839—). A British
poet, born in Dublin, Ireland. He graduated
in medicine at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1866,
and continued his medical studies in Vienna and
Paris. After practicing his profession for a time
in Dublin, he became professor of English litera-
ture in Alexandra College, Dublin (1870-74).
He traveled in the East and settled in London.
His lyrical poems comprise: Laurella and Other
Poems (1876); Forest Songs (1881); The Ban-
shee and Other Poems (1888) ; and Three Irish
Bardic Tales (1896). His dramas include: Al-
cestis (1879); Rienzi (1881); Helena in Troas
(1885); A Sicilian Idyll (1890); The Poison
Flower (1891); The Black Cat (performed in
1893). His prose comprises: The Theory of the
Beautiful (1872); A Study of Shelley (1880)
and A Life of Patricia Sarsfield (1895) .
TODI, to’dé. A town in the Province of
Perugia, Italy, situated on an abrupt hill near
the Tiber, 23 miles south of Perugia (Map:
Italy, G 5) . Its Etruscan origin is shown in its
dilapidated walls and numerous tombs. Its fine
remains of the Roman period include a temple or
basilica, a theatre, and an amphitheatre. The
Romanesque cathedral has a huge tower and
frescoes by Lo Spagna. The Renaissance Church
of Santa Maria della Consolazione, a massive
structure surmounted by three domes, is simple
but wonderfully impressive. The splendid Gothic
Palazzo Comunale contains a small picture gal-
lery. Todi, the Umbrian Tuder, was the scene
of the decisive victory of Narses over the Goths
in 552. Population (commune), in 1901, 16,561.
TOD’MORDEN, locally ta’m6r-den. A mar-
ket-town in Lancashire, England, on the border
of Yorkshire, 6 miles north-northeast of Roch-
dale (Map: England, D 3). Cotton manufac-
tures form the staple industry; coal abounds in
the neighborhood, and there are foundries and
machine works. It owns gas and water-works,
maintains a public library, and supports techni-
cal instruction. Population, in 1901, 25,420.
TODY (from Lat. todus, sort of small bird).
Any of several species of small West Indian
birds forming the family Todidae, and related to
the kingfishers, bee-eaters, and motmots (qq.v.).
They are less than three inches long with a short
tail and long bill. The plumage is very gor-
geous, grass-green, carmine-red, and white. They
breed in holes in banks and lay white eggs. The
best known species is the common green tody
(Todus uiridis) of Jamaica, which is a familiar
and useful little bird, often called ‘robin red-
breast’ by the English residents. The name
‘tody’ is incorrectly applied to rollers, barbets,
and other brilliantly colored tropical birds, even
in the East Indies. See Plate of WRENS,
WARBLERs, ETC.
TOGA (Lat., mantle). The principal outer
garment of the Roman citizen, worn over a shirt
(tunica). For ordinary citizens the toga was
pure white in color (toga cirilis, toga pura);
boys, and most of the magistrates, wore togas
with an attached border of crimson (toga pree-
teacta). On certain occasions of especial fes-
tivity magistrates appeared in a toga entirely
of crimson embroidered with gold (toga picta),
worn over a tunica of similar character (tunica
palmata). Candidates for public ofiice presented
themselves in togas freshly laundered and arti-
ficially whitened (candida, shining). On the
other hand, persons in mourning for any reason
wore carelessly arranged and soiled togas (sor-
dida), or even those of an artificially darkened
color (pulla). The material of the toga was
wool, closely woven, and fulled, with a combed
nap, making it (at least in late Republican and
early Imperial days) cumbrous, expensive, and
(except in winter) too heavy a garment. The
shape of the toga, like its size, the elaboration of
its folds, and the way it was worn, differed at
different periods. It was less voluminous in
earlier days. By the beginning of the Empire
it must have been fully twice as long as the
wearer was tall, and of an elliptical shape. It
3
TOGA. 7
TOKAT.
83
was folded lengthwise and hung over the left
shoulder (with the fold toward the neck) so that
the end rested a few inches upon the floor in
front. The rest of the garment was passed
around the back, under the right arm, and
thrown backward over the left shoulder, so that
the end hung down behind, but cleared the
ground. The folds were most carefully and sys-
tematically arranged (in later days, more or less,
pins or clasps were used), and the end that de-
pended in front was pulled up to clear the floor,
and the slack (nodus, ambo) allowed to hang
down over the mass of folds (sin-us) that crossed
the front of the body toward the left shoulder.
The right arm was thus left free, and the left
for the most part covered. The toga was not
usually worn at home, the tunica being regarded
as sufficient; and for out-of-door wear it gave
place under the Empire, except on formal occa-
sions, to lighter and more convenient garments,
chiefly of foreign origin. See COSTUME.
TOGGLE JOINT (probably connected with
ME. toggen-, tuggen, to tug, variant of tzlkken,
AS. tucian, to pull, and akin to Eng. to-w). A
mechanical appliance acting on the principle of
the inclined plane. Let ad and ag represent
the arms of the toggle joint, with the joint at a.
Then, if the arms are brought to a perpendicular,
the end (1 being stationary, the point a will move
through the arc ab to b, and at each point in the
arc in the direction of a tangent at that point.
As the point a approaches 1) the tangent will
_ become more and more hori-
zontal, and at last perpendicu-
lar to the arms ad and ag.
When they form one and the
same straight line the weight
w will have been raised to
twice the height be. The form
in the figure here presented is
given to show more clearly the
action of the knee and elbow
joints in man, but that which
is more frequently used, par-
ticularly in hay and cotton
presses (to which the appli-
ance is peculiarly adapted),
makes the ends d and g of the
arms approach each other, ap-
plying the power at a making ac the perpendicu-
lar. It will be seen that on the application of
power the motion of the point a will at first be
quite rapid (when the hay or cotton is loose),
becoming slower and slower as the points d and g
approach each other, so that when both arms be-
come very nearly perpendicular the weight or re-
sistance will move very slowly; but the power
will be extremely great, and adapted to the re-
sistance offered by the greatly compressed bale.
See INCLINED PLANE.
TOGOLAND, t5’go-liint. A German protec-
torate in West Africa, bounded by Dahomey
on the east, the Gulf of Guinea on the south, and
the Gold Coast Colony on the west and north
(Map: Africa, E4). The northern boundary
has not yet been definitely settled. Area, esti-
mated at 33,000 square miles. The low sandy
coast rises toward the interior, which is mostly
undulating and traversed by the Aposso Moun-
tains, entering from northern Dahomey. The
chief rivers are the Mono, the Dako, the Sio, and
the Haho. There are many coast lagoons. The cli-


mate is moist and unhealthful. Togoland pos-
sesses abundant natural resources, which are
gradually being developed. Extensive cocoanut
plantations have been established along the coast,
and good crops of corn and rice are raised. To-
bacco and coffee are also cultivated. The chief
products for export are palm oil and kernels,
rubber, ivory, and copra. The imports and ex-
ports amounted in 1901 to $1,124,050 and $878,-
351 respectively. The chief ports are Lome,
which is also the seat of administration, and
Little Popo. A narrow-gauge railway line is
being constructed between the two places. Togo-
land comes nearer to being self-supporting than
any other German colony. The population is
estimated at 2,500,000, chiefly Sudanese. Togo-
land was declared a German protectorate in 1884.
TOINETTE, tw5i'nét’. In Moliere’s M alade
imaginaire, the bright young servant of the title
character. She constantly irritates her master,
but makes his interests her own, and brings about
the marriage of Angélique and Cleante.
TOKAIDO, to-ki’d5. An ancient division of
Hondo, the principal island of Japan, occupying
the eastern part of the island. It developed later
than the western and southern parts of the isl-
and, but since the triumph of Yoritomo (q.v.)
at the end of the twelfth century it has been
dominant, ruling Japan from Kamakura and
Yedo (Tokio) . It is now the most populous and
richest part of Japan.
TOKAIDO. A name applied to the great
highway which connects Tokio with Kioto. It is
323 miles long. Starting from Nihombashi
(Jap., Bridge of Japan), in Tokio, it skirts the
Bay of Tokio and the Pacific, climbs the Ha-
kone Mountains across the peninsula of Idzu,
again follows the coast line through many large
towns to Kuwana, 247% miles from Nihom-
bashi, Where it turns inland to Lake Biwa and
Kioto. It is the most famous though not the
most ancient highway in Japan. Here in the
days of the Tokugawa régime the daimios from
the centre and west of Japan traveled with their
trains of armed men to and from their enforced
residence in Yedo. The sides of the road were
planted with lines of great cedars, there were
inns at distances of every six or seven miles, and
the journey in palanquin and on slow-walking
horses took ten days. Since the abolition of
the feudal system the Tokaido has lost its ro-
mance, and by the completion of the railway
between the cities its importance has diminished.
TO'KAY (Ger. pron. t<‘>’ki), TOKAJ, to’koi.
A town in the County of Zemplin, Hungary, at
the confluence of the Bodrog and Theiss, 41 miles
north of Dcbreczin, on the Szerencs-Debreczin
Railway (Map: Hungary, G 2). In the vicinity
are sapphire and carnelian deposits and salt-
works. Tokaj is celebrated for its wines. The
population of the commune, in 1900, Was 26,711;
of the town, about 5500, mostly Magyars.
TOKAT, to-kat’ (Arm. E’/vtoghia.). The cap-
ital of a sanjak in the Vilayet of Sivas, Turkey
in Asia, 125 miles northeast of Kaisarieh (Map:
Turkey in Asia, G 2). It is in a hilly region
abounding in fine scenery, and is well laid out.
The chief features of interest are the Byzantine
castle and the old Roman tombs. The town is
the commercial centre for a section producing
fruit, hemp, corn, and tobacco, and has manu-
TOKAT.
TOKIO.
784
factures of cotton cloth, dyestuffs, copper wares,
and leather. Population, in 1901, 29,890, the
majority being l\£[ohammedans. During the Mid-
dle Ages Tokat, the ancient Dazimon, was an
important trading centre. It was the scene of an
Armenian massacre in 1895.
TOKEN MONEY. See MONEY.
TOKIO, t<3’ké, or TOKYO (formerly YEDO)
(Japz, Eastern Capital). The capital of Japan,
situated on the southeast side of the island of
Hondo, on the Bay of Tokio, in latitude 35° 41’
N., longitude 139° 46' E. (Map: Japan, F 6).
The city covers a wide area, and is exceedingly
irregular in outline, being, indeed, a number of
towns grown together rather than a single city
laid out according to design. It is divided into
two unequal parts by the river Sumida. The
eastern portions along the river and fronting the
bay are level and low, the western rise into con-
siderable hills with a dense population in the val-
leys which separate them. The chief feature is
the palace inclosure within the grounds of the an-
cient castle. These grounds under the old re-
gime were very extensive and were surrounded
by an outer wall and moat more than two and a
half miles in length. This wall has been leveled
in part and the moat filled up. \Vithin was a
second moat and wall, and even a third in parts.
The old residence of the Shogun within the third
wall was burned in 1872 and has been replaced
by the palace of the Emperor, in a mixed Japan-
ese-European style of architecture. It stands in
the ancient and beautiful park called Fukiage.
The palace was first occupied by the Emperor
in 1889. Much of the area inclosed by the
outer wall and moat was occupied in the past
by the mansions of the feudal barons, but these
are now destroyed and in their place are the
various buildings devoted to the use of the Gov-
ernment, in European style and devoid of espe-
cial. interest. To the east of the castle is the
distinctively commercial portion of the city,
with banks, warehouses, shops, hotels, restau-
rants, newspaper offices, and dwellings. A long
main street, variously named in different parts,
and without any general designation, passes
through this part of the city from northeast to
southwest. It is broad, with rows of trees, a
tramway, electric lights, and rows of low build-
ings of stone and brick in a semi-European style.
From it lanes and streets diverge in all direc-
tions, for the greater part lined with small
wooden buildings, inexpensive and without pre-
tension. Mingled with them are storehouses
made of mud or clay, and incongruous modern
buildings. Of late years some of the streets have
been straightened and widened, wooden bridges
have been replaced by iron ones. and many im-
provements have been introduced. Nevertheless
the old styles of shops and dwellings are in so
vast a majority that this part of Tokio is still
essentially as in the centuries past. _
In the northern part of the city is the arsenal,
with the beautiful garden attached which for-
merly belonged to the mansion of the Barons of
Mito. Not far away is the ancient building used
as‘ a library which was once the great Con-
fucian College. Farther to the north on the
site of the town mansion of the Baron of Kaga
is the Imperial University. (See ToKIO, UNI-
VERSITY OF.) Farther to the east is the great
park, Ueno, with the mortuary shrines of eight
of the shoguns of the Tokugawa family, and the
Imperial Museum filled with objects of great
interest. Still farther to the east is the great
temple of the goddess of mercy, Kwannon Sama,
with a park, many shrines, a pagoda, rows of
shops, and innumerable places of amusement.
Across the river Sumida, the eastern portion of
the city embraces the two districts called I-Ionjo
and Fukiage, a quiet region known to visitors
chiefly for its displays of flowers, the cherry
blossoms at Mukojima, the wistaria at Kameido,
and the iris at Horikiri, and for the great wrest-
ling matches at the temple E-ko-in. On the
west bank of the Sumida was the Foreign
Concession, but since the abolition of extra-
territoriality foreigners are permitted to live
in all parts of the city. In the same district,
on the shore of the bay, is the Imperial park
known as Enryo-kwan. In the southern part of
the city is the park called Shiba, with the mag-
nificent mortuary shrine of the second Shogun,
and the almost equally fine shrines of six others.
Beyond the park, still following the line of the
bay, is the Temple of Sankakuji, famous for the
little cemetery containing the tombs of the forty-
seven Ronins. To the west of the palace are
many large residences surrounded by gardens
and high walls. In the suburbs there are many
delightful resorts, especially Meguro, Oji, Fu-
tago, and Ikegami. The city is protected against
fire by a well-organized fire department equipped
with steam fire engines. It has also an excel-
lent police system. The affairs of the city are
administered by a mayor, a municipal council,
and a municipal assembly. Tokio proper has
few industrial interests, although there are nu-
merous factories in the neighborhood. It is un-
favorably situated for commerce, as the Sumida
River is unnavigable for vessels of large tonnage.
Trade is carried on by way of Yokohama. Popu-
lation, in 1898, 1,440,121. -
Originally an obscure hamlet called Yedo
(gate of the inlet) stood on the seashore
in the district of the city now called Asa-
kusa, while most of the busiest parts of the
present city were covered with the waters
of the bay and of lagoons. Near Yedo a
rude castle was built in the fifteenth century,
but the place continued without importance un-
til, toward the end of the sixteenth century,
Tokugawa Ieyasu took possession of it, and in
1603 made it the seat of his government of the
Empire. He retained the ancient name Yedo, but
made it speedily the most important city in
Japan and the capital in a sense never known
before. Ieyasu commanded artisans and mer-
chants to move to his new city from Kioto and
Osaka. He occupied the ancient castle, and in
the days of his grandson the new castle was
constructed. But the most characteristic and
original feature of Yedo was caused by the re-
quirement that the feudal barons should spend a
portion of every second year in the city and that
in their absence members of their families be
left as hostages. In consequence the feudal
barons built town mansions, surrounded them
with beautiful gardens, and for the first time in
the history of Japan came, in time of peace, into
contact with each other. The result was rivalry
in display and a luxury and extravagance before
known only in Kicto in connection with the Im-
perial Court. From this time Yedo took on the
TOKIO.
TOLAND.
785
appearance so often described by travelers. Its
population was immense, and the success of the
po icy of leyasu is proved by the fact that it
was never entered by a hostile army, nor so
much as attacked or besieged. The records of
the city contain accounts of many terrible catas-
trophes. Its slight wooden buildings furnished
excellent fuel for fire, and repeatedly it was de-
stroyed in conflagrations, until in recent times
the building of rows of brick and stone houses
has furnisl1ed eflicient barriers. It has also suf-
fered greatly from earthquakes and from epi-
demics, while terrible storms have destroyed
thousands of dwellings. After the weakening
of the House of Tokugawa, in 1863, the require-
ment of residence for the barons was relaxed,
and the population fell off greatly. But after
the fall of the shogunate on September 13, 1868,
it was made the eastern capital, and its name
was changed accordingly to Tokio. It was
opened to the residence of foreigners in 1869.
Though nominally only the eastern capital, yet,
as the residence of the Emperor, the meeting
place of the Diet, and the seat of the Government
in all departments, it is in reality the only
capital of the Empire, Kioto retaining an empty
title merely.
TOKIO, UNIVERSITY or. A Japanese uni-
versity founded in 1868 by the union of two
older schools, as one of the results of the great
political and social revolution of that year. It
has grown with the growth of modern Japan.
At first officered largely by foreigners, these have
been gradually superseded by Japanese, for the
most part trained in Europe and the United
States. The university-is a Government institu-
tion. Its administration is vested in a presi-
dent and a board of councilors, two from each
college, named by the Minister of Education, for
a term of five years. The colleges comprise law,
medicine, engineering, philosophy, history, math-
ematics, and science. Two degrees are given, one
for work in course, the other for special distinc-
tion. The university includes an observatory and
a library. There were 2908 students in 1900-01.
To'K'o'LYI, te’kel-yi, or TOKULI, IMRE
(Emerich), Count (1656-1705). An Hungarian
patriot. He belonged to a Lutheran family and
was born at the Castle of KC-smark, in the County
of Zips. His father, Count Stephen, was impli-
cated in the conspiracy of Zrinyi, Rakoczy,
and Frangipani against Leopold I. of Austria;
and after his death, and the execution of Zrinyi
and others, young T6k6lyi sought an asylum in
Poland, where he had large possessions. After
vain endeavors to recover from the Emperor his
patrimonial estates, he obtained the support of
Apafi, Prince of Transylvania, and in 1678 he
took the lead in the insurrection in Hungary.
He advanced victoriously, capturing a number
of towns, and even penetrating into the heart
of Moravia. The Turkish Sultan, Mohammed
IV., espoused his cause, and in 1682 declared
him Prince of Hungary under Turkish suzer-
ainty. Tiikiilyi joined Kara Mustapha in the
great onslaught on Austria in 1683, but after
the disaster to the Turks at Vienna many of his
followers fell off from him_. and in 1685 he was
imprisoned by the Turks. He was soon released,
however, and resumed operations, but without
success. In 1689 he was made Prince of Tran-
sylvania by the Sultan, and invaded that coun-
try with a Turkish army, but was forced back
into I/Vallachia. He took part in the subsequent
campaigns against Austria, and after the Peace
of Karlowitz he was made by the Sultan Prince
of Widdin and resided as his pensioner at Con- -
stantinople, where he died.
TOKUGAWA, to’k55-ga’wa. The name of the
great family which ruled Japan for more than
two centuries and a half (1600-1868). Its found-
er was Ieyasu, one of the five generals from the
east of Japan who restored peace after centuries
of feudal strife and anarchy. He claimed descent
from an early Emperor through the Minamoto
family, and took their hereditary title ‘shogun’
(general). He made Yedo, then an obscure vil-
lage, the capital of Japan, reformed the laws,
and established the system which was character-
istic of Japan and made it unique in the eyes
of foreigners. Ieyasu retired in 1604 to Shid-
zuoka, but continued to rule through his son
until his death in 1616. His descendants were
shoguns to the number of fourteen. The greatest
of them was Iemitsu, his grandson, who ruled
from 1623 to 1649. Most of the Tokugawa sho-
guns were weaklings and debauchees. The fif-
teenth shogun resigned his powers to the Em-
peror in 1868 and retired to Shidzuoka. Since
that time the family has exerted no political
power.
TOKUSHIMA, to’k5o'-shé’nre'1. The capital of
the Prefecture of Tokushima, in Japan, near the
coast in the northeastern part of the island of
Shikoku (Map: Japan, D 6). It is the largest
city on the island, and is beautifully situated.
Population, in 1898, 61,501.
T0’LAND, JOHN (1670-1722). A deistical
writer. He was born near the village of Red-
castle, in the County of Londonderry, Ireland.
He was brought up as a Roman Catholic, but in
his sixteenth year was a Protestant. He entered
the University of Glasgow in 1687, but removed
to that of Edinburgh, where he took the degree
of master of arts in 1690. Thence he passed to
Leyden, where he entered upon theological stud-
ies. On his return to England he resided for
some time at Oxford, where he was already
looked upon as a free-thinker. Christianity Not
Mysterious, which he published in London in
1696, and in which he fully avowed his princi-
ples, created a sensation in the theological world.
In the following year Toland returned to Ireland,
but his book was burned publicly by order
of the Irish Parliament. Finding it neces-
sary to flee from Ireland, Toland returned
to London, where he published a defense against
this judgment of the Irish Parliament; but he
soon afterwards turned his pen from theological
to political and literary subjects. A pamphlet
entitled Anglia Libera (1701), on the succession
of the House of Brunswick, led to his being re-
ceived with favor by the Princess Sophia at the
Court of Hanover, and to his being sent on a
kind of political mission to some of the German
courts. In 1705 he outstripped the boldness of
his former opinions, openly avowing himself a
pantheist. In this course he was emboldened by
the patronage of Harley, in whose service he had
engaged as a political pamphleteer, and by whom
he was sent abroad to Holland and Germany in
1707. He returned to England in 1710‘; and hav-
ing forfeited the favor of his patron, or at least
TOLAND.
TOLEDO.
786
having separated from him (1714), he engaged
as a partisan pamphleteer on the side of Harley’s
adversaries. His after-life was that of a liter-
ary adventurer, and was checkered by every
variety of literary conflict and pecuniary strug-
gle.
TOLBOOTH. A massive structure, dating
from various periods, on Castle Hill, Edinburgh,
removed in 1817. It served as a Parliament
House, a court, and a prison. It is known as
the Heart of Midlothian, and many relics con-'
nected with it were preserved in Sir Walter
Scott’s collection at Abbotsford.
TOLDY, tOl’di, FERENOZ (1805-75). An Hun-
garian writer on the history of literature. His
real name was Schedel. He was born in Buda-
pest, and educated there as a physician. In
1830 he founded with Paul Buglit, at Budapest,
the Oruosi Tdr, the first Hungarian medical jour-
nal, and in 1833 he became professor extraor-
dinary of dietetics at the university. In 1835 he
was elected secretary of the Academy, a post
which he retained until 1861, and in 1836 he
founded the great Kisfaludy literary society, of
which he became president in 1841. After 1849
he devoted himself entirely to the history of
Hungarian literature, and in 1860 was appointed
professor of that subject in the university. His
historical and critical works in German and
Hungarian include: Die ungarische historische
Dichtung oor Zrinyi (1848); Ifulturzitstiiiiide
der Ungarn oor der Annahme des Ghristentums
(1850); A magyar nemzeti irodalom tiirténete
(“History of the Hungarian National Litera-
ture,” Budapest, 1851) ; A magyar lciiltészet
t6rte'nete (“History of Hungarian Poetry,” 1855
and 1867) ; Marci chronica dc gcstis H ungarorum
(1867); and A magyar kdltéseet héziIcO'ny/ve
(“Handbook of Hungarian Poetry,” 2d ed. 1876) .
TOLEDO, to-h'1’DO. The capital of the Prov-
ince of Toledo, Spain, 42 miles south-south-
west of Madrid, on the Tagus (Map: Spain, D
3). The hundred-towered city, situated on a
bold promontory, bordered on three sides by a
bend of the Tagus and surrounded by a lofty
wall, preserves almost unchanged its mediaeval
appearance. The Tagus is spanned by the bridge
of San Martin, a well-constructed specimen of the
military architecture of the Middle Ages, and
the thirteenth-century Bridge of Alcantara; the
walls are pierced by a number of gates, of which
the most beautiful is the Arabic Puerta del Sol.
The houses of the city cluster in the form of
a semicircle around the Alcazar. The streets
are winding, narrow, and steep. Among the
many interesting churches are the Gothic Cathe-
dral dating from 1227, with its forty chapels
and library of ancient manuscripts; the cloister
of San Juan de los Reyes, a gift of the Catholic
sovereigns; Santa Maria de la Blanca, a Jewish
synagogue of the twelfth century, rebuilt and
consecrated as a church in 1507 ; and El Transito,
another synagogue dating from 1366, and given by
the Catholic sovereigns to the Knights of Cala-
trava. Many former convents are devoted to the
service of the State as prisons and hospitals. The
city hall with two towers and classic facade dates
from the fifteenth century. There are a beauti-
ful theatre, and a provincial library containing
70,000 volumes, housed in the archbishop’s pal-
ace. Toledo is the seat of an archbishop who
bears the title of primate of all Spain—one of
the few survivals of the period when the city was
the centre of Spanish national life. It is large-
ly untouched by modern industrial life and exists
as a survival of the golden age of Spanish
chivalry. The climate is rather unhealthful and
the surrounding region largely barren and cheer-
less. The city has manufactures of spirits, beer,
chocolate, varnish, church ornaments, cloth, silk
goods, pottery, brick, and fans. But the most
famous establishments of Toledo are those de-
voted to the manufacture of arms, for even be-
fore the time of Roman domination Toledo blades
were famous. The present Government factory
dates from 1777; within recent years estab-
lishments for the manufacture of cartridges have
been added. There are also several private es-
tablishments for the manufacture of arms and
ammunition. Population, in 1900, 23,375.
Nothing certain is known of the origin of
Toledo. Under the name of Toletum it is men-
tioned by Livy in connection with the date B.C.
192. After the period of Roman sway it fell first
into the power of the Alani, and a little later
came under the control of the Visigoths, of whose
kingdom it became the capital. From A.D. 400
to 701 it was the meeting place of eighteen
Church councils which exercised a great politi-
cal as well as religious influence on Spain. Un-
der the Arabs it was a city of great importance.
After the dissolution of the Caliphate of Cor-
dova it was the seat of a short-lived Mohamme-
dan kingdom. Alfonso the Valiant of Leon and
Castile conquered this State in 1085 and gave
the name of New Castile to the region. The
town became an important place of residence for
the Cast-ilian monarchs. In the War of the
Communes (1520-21) Toledo espoused the popu-
lar cause. In 1808 it took part in the national
uprising against the French, and in 1810 and
1813 suffered n1uch from the vandalism of their
armies. Consult Camero, Historia de la ciudad
de Toledo (Toledo, 1863).
TOLEDO. A town of Cebu, Philippines, sit-
uated on the central part of the west coast, 39
miles from Cebu (Map: Philippine Islands, H
9). Population, 10,900.
TOLE’DO. The third city of Ohio and the
county-seat of Lucas County, situated at the
mouth of the Maumee River where it enters
Lake Erie by way of Maumee Bay; 130 miles
north of Columbus (Map: Ohio, C 2). The
Maumee through the city averages half a mile
in width, and is navigable for lake vessels of
the largest size. There is an excellent harbor
with 25 miles of docks, eight miles of which are
devoted to coal and ore. A straight channel, 400
feet wide and 21 feet deep, leads to the lake. Six
passenger steamship lines connect the city with
Mackinac, Detroit, Montreal, and other river and
lake cities. Nineteen railroads enter the city, in-
cluding five divisions of the Lake Shore and two
divisions of the Wabash. It is the terminus
of the Ohio Central and is tapped by the Michi-
gan Central. It is the terminus of the Penn-
sylvania, Toledo, Saint Louis and Kansas City,
Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, Hocking Val-
ley, Wheeling and Lake Erie, Pere Marquette,
Detroit, Toledo and Milwaukee, Ann Arbor; and
Grand Trunk railroads. These lines are inter-
sected and connected by the Toledo Railway and
Terminal Company’s belt line, which maintains
TOLEDO.
TOLENTINO. '
787
an immense union passenger and freight depot
and a lake transfer house. There are 110 miles
of street railroads reaching every portion of
the city. The river is spanned by five railroad
and two passenger bridges.
Just ouside the city limits ar-e the flourishing
suburbs of Rossford, with the celebrated Ford
plate glass works, and West Toledo. A large
portion of the city rests on made ground, as the
greater part of its site was formerly a swamp,
the first settlements having been made on
two hills that rose from this swamp. The
streets are paved with brick, asphalt, and stone,
and throughout the residential portions are well
planted with shade trees. The city has 848 acres
of parks, including Walbridge Park, with fine
zotilogical gardens and the city greenhouse;
Ottawa Park, with a public golf course; River-
side, Bay View, Navarre, City, and Collins parks;
and planted triangles in all sections. The out-
lying parks are connected by a fine boulevard
about 25 miles in length, as yet completed only
in part. Public playgrounds for children are
situated in populous quarters of the city. There
is a municipally owned cemetery which is self-
supporting.
Among the more prominent buildings are the
county court-house in the centre of the city with
a beautiful park containing a fine statue of
President McKinley; the Public Library; the
Soldiers’ Memorial Building, erected by the city
at a cost of $100,000 for the soldiers and sailors
of Lucas County; the Toledo Club; the Spitzer
office building; and Saint Patrick’s and Saint
Paul’s churches. There are 42 public school
buildings, including two high schools and a
manual training school and university. Toledo
Medical College has a high standing and is af-
forded special clinical facilities by the Toledo
and Saint Vincent’s hospitals, as well as by a
number of private hospitals. There are numer-
ous private educational institutions, including
Saint J ohn’s College. The Public Library (46,000
volumes) maintains a reference library and read-
ing rooms. It has five sub-stations.
Toledo is the meeting point of the iron ore
from the Lake Superior region and the coal of
Ohio and Virginia. It is the central point of
the northwestern Ohio oil fields, and is sur-
rounded by a fine agricultural country especially
adapted to fruit-gardening. The building of lake
and ocean vessels is extensively carried on, and
among the more important manufactures are
plate glass, cut glass, bicycles, automobiles, agri-
cultural implements, malt liquors, clothing, mal-
leable iron, foundry products, tobacco, etc. In
the census year 1900 the various industries were
capitalized at $25,592,000 and had an output
valued at $37,372,000. There is a very large
grain trade, and the clover-seed market is second
only to that of Chicago. Vessels to the number
of 2313, having an aggregate tonnage of 1,854,-
262, touched at the port in 1902. In shipment
of coal Toledo leads every lake port but Cleve-
land.
The government, under the new charter, is
vested in a mayor, a council of 16 members, a
board of public service, city solicitor, treasurer,
and auditor, all elected by the people; a board of
public safety appointed by the mayor if the coun-
cil indorses his appointments, if not, by the Gov-
ernor of the State; and a. number of minor
boards, health, library, sinking fund, etc., ap-
pointed by the mayor. Toledo spends annually
more than $2,800,000, exclusive of amounts for
public schools; butaconsiderable portion of this
goes for interest on the bonded debt. The water-
works are municipally owned and operated, and
have a capacity of 45,000,000 gallons, with an
average daily consumption of 10,000,000 gallons.
The supply is drawn from the Maumee River.
Plans are prepared for a $750,000 filtering plant.
The sewerage system comprises 140.3 miles of
mains.
The site of Toledo was a favorite resort of the '
Miami Indians in the eighteenth century. The
place was first settled in 1832 and was char-
tered as a city in 1837, its population then being
less than 1000. With the surrounding territory
it was claimed for several 'years by both Ohio
and Michigan, the dispute culminating in 1835
in the so-called ‘Toledo War’ (q.v.)—a war of
words only. The population in 1840 was 1222;
in 1850, 3829; in 1860, 13,768; in 1870, 31,584;
in 1880, 50,137; in 1890, 81,434; and in 1900,
131,822. The total in 1900 included 27,822 per-
sons of foreign birth and 1710 of negro descent.
TOLEDO WAR. A boundary controversy which
arose in 1835 between the State of Ohio and the
Territory of Michigan. Congress in the Ordinance
of 1787 had reserved the right to form new States
out of that part of the territory northwest of the
Ohio River “lying north of an east and west line
drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of
Lake Michigan.” Ohio was admitted as a State in
1803, the above line being described in the act as
its northern boundary, though the State Consti-
tution claimed more territory. When in 1805
Michigan Territory was organized, and, later,
Indiana and Illinois became States, the most con-
fused ideas existed on the boundary question.
A survey was made by order of Congress in 1817
which established the present line. The old line
had included in Michigan the city of Toledo, and
this was the main point in dispute. In 1835
Ohio laid claim to all within the new line, known
as the Harris line, and proceeded to organize
townships therein. Michigan declared the inten-
tion of resisting such invasion, and the militia of
both sides were called upon to maintain the al-
leged rights of their respective governments. An
opinion of the United States Attorney-General,
B. F. Butler, favored Michigan; President Jack-
son sent out a ‘peace commission’ with no re-
sult, and serious conflict seemed imminent. In
September, 1835, the Michigan troops occupied
Toledo to prevent the formal organization of
Wood County by Ohio officers. The latter, how-
ever, accomplished their purpose secretly and
withdrew. The trouble was finally settled by
the admission of Michigan into the Union on
condition that she accept the Harris line, while
as a make-Weight that State was given the upper
Wisconsin Peninsula, which afterwards proved
from its mineral wealth to be far more valuable
than the disputed territory.
TOLENTINO, to'lén-te’no. A town in the
Province of Macerata, Italy, on the Chienti, 30
miles south-southwest of Ancona (Map: Italy,
H 4). The cathedral has a good portal by Rosso.
The churches of San Catervo and San Francesco
possess noteworthy frescoes and reliefs. There
are manufactures of machinery, silks, woolens,
TOLE-NTINO.
TOLSTOY.
788
wine, and olive oil, and stone quarries. Tolen-
tino was the scene of Murat’s defeat by the Aus-
trians on May 2-3, 1815. Population (com-
mune), in 1901, 12,872.
TOLERATION (Lat. toleratio, from tolerare,
to endure, tolerate; connected with Gk. rhfivat,
tlenai, to bear, endure, Skt. tut, to lift up,
weigh). The recognition of the right of private
judgment; specifically, such recognition, on the
part of the Government, in matters of faith and
worship. By governmental toleration is granted
not only the liberty of holding and putting into
practice varied religious opinions, but of teach-
ing and defending them publicly. But thereby
no permission is given to violate the rights of
others, or to infringe laws designed for the se-
curity of the governing power or for the protec-
tion of decency, morality, or good order. See
LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS.
TOLIMA, to-lé’mr-I1. A southern department
of Colombia, South America, bounded by the de-
partments of Antioquia and Cundinamarca on the
north, Cundinamarca and Cauca on the east, and
Cauca on the south and west (Map: Colombia,
B 3). Area, about 18,500 square miles. The
western and eastern parts belong to the region
of the Central and Eastern Cordillera-s respective-
ly, while the central belongs to the valley of the
Upper Magdalena. Agriculture is carried on
chiefly in the central part, where sugar, cacao,
rice, and tobacco form the chief products. The
stock-raising industry is also important. The
mineral deposits of- the department are extensive,
but are almost utterly neglected. The climate
along the river is tropical, but it is cold in the
upper mountain regions. There are no good
means of communication. The population was
estimated at 230,000 in 1892. Capital, Ibagué
(q.v.).
TOLIMA. A quiescent volcano in Colombia
rising from the Central Cordillera of the Andes,
75 miles west of Bogota. It is the highest peak
in the country, having an altitude of 18,325 feet.
TOLL (AS. toll,‘ tol, OHG. sol, Ger. Zoll, toll,
tax; probably from Lat. telonium, from Gk.
're7L(f>vtov, custom-house). In law, a charge or
duty paid for some service, or the license to use
something, generally in the nature of a public
franchise. The right to exact toll is almost en-
tirely created by statute, and generally is only
granted to persons who maintain some public
convenience, as a ferry, bridge, or turnpike. See
FRANCHISE, FERRY; HIGHWAY.
TOLLE-NS, to1’lens, HENDRIK CARoLUszooN
(1780-1856). A Dutch poet, born in Rotterdam.
He was the son of a merchant, and himself was
engaged in commerce till 1846. His early work
followed French models and ideas. His first
original works were poems (1802), followed by
Lucretia (1805) and other historical tragedies,
and works of much strength. His subsequent pro-
ductions were mainly lyric and more distinctively
national and simple. These poems, gathered un-
der various titles (1808-53) , show powers undi-
minished to the last. He won wide popularity
through the national song Wien N eérlandsch
bloed. His best work is Tafereel van de overwin-
tering op Nowa Zembla (Picture of the Winter-
ing on Nova Zembla, 1819).
TOLOSA, to-lo’-sa. The former capital of the
Province of Guipuzcoa, Spain, 16 miles southwest
of San Sebastian, in the valley of the Oria, and
on the Irum-Burgos line of the Northern Rail-
way (Map: Spain, D 1). It contains the Church
of Santa Maria, the Palacio Idiaquez, and
two handsome paseos. During the nineteenth
century it was an important Carlist centre. Its
principal manufactures are paper, woolens, steel,
brassware, and malt liquors. Population, in
1900, 8100.
TOLS’TOY, Russ. pron. tol-stoi’, ALEXEI KON-
STANTINOVITCH, Count (1817-75). A Russian au-
thor. He was born in Saint Petersburg, and stud-
ied at Moscow. After seeing diplomatic service
and traveling extensively, he took part in the Cri-
mean War, and subsequently held a high position
at the Court. He wrote lyric and epic poetry
and one novel, Prince Serbryanyi (trans. by J.
Curtin, 1893), after the manner of Sir Walter
Scott. His chief literary achievement, however,
was his dramatic trilogy, The Death of Ivan the
Terrible (1866; Eng. trans. by F. Harrison, Lon-
don, 1869), Czar Fedor Iuanouitch (1868), and
Czar Boris (1870). All three parts were pub-
lished together at Saint Petersburg in 1876.
TOLSTOY, DMITRI, Count (1823-89). A
Russian statesman. After serving in the Min-
istry of the Navy, he became procurator of the
Holy Synod in 1865 and Minister of Public In-
struction in 1866. In both positions his reforma-
tory measures aroused violent opposition, and es-
pecially through his undue preference for the
classical languages in the intermediate schools,
and his petty tutelage over the universities, he
incurred such widespreadenmity that he was
obliged to resign in 1880. Appointed president
of the Academy of Sciences in 1882, he held the
post of Minister of the Interior in 1883-85. He
was the author of a history of the finances of
Russia to the reign of Catharine II. (1847 ) , and
of Le catholicisme remain en Russie (1863-64).
TOLSTOY, Lrorr (LE0) NIKOLAYEVITCH,
Count (l828—-). A famous Russian author. He
was born on his father’s estate at Yasnaya Poly-
ana, in the Government of Tula, August 28, 1828.
In 1843 he studied Oriental languages at the
University of Kazan, a year afterwards he began
to study law, and he received his diploma in 1848
‘knowing literally nothing,’ as he asserted later.
He lived on his estate until 1851, when his broth-
er, an artillery ofiicer, induced him to visit the
Caucasus. Charmed by the life there, he joined
an artillery regiment, and in 1853 was attached
to the Army of the Danube during the Cri-
mean campaign. During this period he pub-
lished his Childhood, Incursion, Boyhood, The
Morning of a Proprietor, and The Cossacks. He
took part in the defense of Sebastopol, and em-
bodied his pxperiences in Sebastopol in December,
1851;, Sebastopol in May, 1855, and Sebastopolin
August, 1855. These sketches immediately placed
Tolstoy among the great pen-masters of the day.
They painted the horrors of war, with its show
heroes and real heroes, in the spirit of that
cruel, cold-blooded realism which is the chief
trait of Tolstoy’s unyielding logic. It was naked
truth and nothing else. At the end of the war
Tolstoy resigned and went to the capital. A
visit abroad in 1857 sowed the seeds of his dis-
appointment in modern civilization, and From the
Memoirs of Prince N elchlyudofi (Lueern) was
an indignant protest against the poverty and
TOLSTOY.
TOLSTOY.
789
ignorance in modern society. He settled on his
estate at Yasnaya Polyana and devoted himself
to school work among the peasants. A second
visit abroad to study the German methods of
education served only to intensify his disappoint-
ment, and his own methods, as embodied in prac-
tice and in his pedagogical publication, Yasnaya
Polyana, were an attack on all existing standards,
and called forth a heated discussion in pedagogi-
cal circles. About this time work on a long
novel, The Decembrists (of which only three
chapters appeared), led Tolstoy to the study of the
reign of Alexander 1. and his interest gradually
was centred on the great Napoleonic campaign.
Thus he came to write his War and Peace (1864-
69)—a colossal prose epic, embracing the whole
of Russia at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury, from the Emperor down through all stages
of society.
Again the elemental forces of the common
people are lovingly dwelt upon in contrast with
the artificiality of the upper classes. With the
artistic exposition is intertwined a new phi-
losophy of history, which in the last analysis is
but old fatalism in a new guise. After this, peda-
gogical pursuits absorbed Tolstoy’s energies, until
in 1875-76 Anna Karenina appeared in The Rus-
sian Messenger. This great work deals with the
unlawful relations of the social lion, Vronski, and
Anna, wife of Karenin, the bureaucratic machine.
The great questions of human life which centre
around marriage are treated here with unap-
proachable mastery, force, and directness. The
novel has a second plot——-the life of the rationalist
proprietor, Konstantin Levin, and his wife, Kitty.
Amid perfect home surroundings, he is discon-
tented, and even thinks of suicide, until he is
‘regenerated’ through contact with the common
people, and finds new strength in manual labor.
According to later statements of the author this
work contained much autobiographical material.
After this, philosophical and social questions
took complete hold of Tolstoy, and for more than
a decade he gave to the world a series of re-
ligious, social, and philosophical treatises, like
Commentary on the Gospel; Letter on the Census
(1883); Confession; My Religion; IVhat Shall
We The-n Do? a few short stories written for
the people, The Death of Ivan Ilyitch (1885) , and
the dramas The Power of Darkness and Fruits of
Culture. VVorks of literary art were also pro-
duced at this period. The Kreuteer Sonata
(1888), denouncing marriage, raised a storm of
indignation on both sides of the Atlantic. What
Is Art? (1898), a great philippic against art as
commonly understood, although leaving the ques-
tion unanswered for many, was a brilliant con-
tribution to the literature of the subject. It con-
tains ideas of great depth and breadth, inter-
spersed with paradoxes, and is interesting as a
proof of the thoroughness with which Tolstoy
goes into his work. It is the result of a minute
study of every writer of any consequence on the
subject. In 1899 a. new work of fiction, Resur-
rection, appeared. The central figure, Nekhlyu-
doff, while acting as a juror, recognizes in the
culprit the woman whom he had betrayed in his
youth. Torn by remorse, he finally comes to the
conclusion ‘that he is the real cause of the
woman’s guilt and downfall, and wishes to expiate
his former wrong-doing by accompanying her to
Siberia and sharing with her all hardships of the
exile. All the bitterness that had been collecting
in the heart of the author seems to have found
free utterance, and the work is a powerful ar-_
raignment of all existing institutions. In 1900
a drama, The Corpse, appeared. In March, 1901,
the Holy Synod issued the excommunication with
which he had been threatened for nearly thirty
years. .
Tolstoy has the same power of psychological
analysis that characterized Dostoyevski (q.v.),
but excels him in range and variety. Dostoyevski
does not get beyond the magic circle of the middle
classes, while Tolstoy is equally at home in all
walks of life. He draws, with the same firm hand
and correctness, the rulers of men’s fates, cour-
tiers, generals, petty officers, common soldiers,
great noblemen, peasants, prisoners in the dun-
geons and on the great road to Siberia, men-,
women, children—everywhere he strikes the very
bottom of human character. There is none of
Dostoyevski’s nerve-harassing for the sake of sat-
isfying the author’s own ‘cruel talent’—the great
reformer is actuated by nothing but the desire to
get at truth, and his conscience will not rest
until he arrives at it. Hence Tolstoy’s works,
although they depict the rise and evolution of
controlling passions with a master hand, and con-
tain scenes that are entrancing in beauty, still
possess none of those elements of piquancy that
attract the many to read Works of the realistic
school. He came to know his peasants through
his pedagogical work among them, and became a
great believer in the salutary influence of labor.
The philanthropic work during the famines of
1873 and 1891 gave him an impulse for the
“Simplification of Life’-’ which filled the foreign
periodicals with sensational pictures and descrip-
tions of Tolstoy in a cheap -shirt-blouse, girded
with a rope, with his hands on a plow, tilling
his estate at Yasnaya Polyana. Gradually he
came to defy all unnecessary comforts of life, did
cobbling and all manual labor for himself, preach-
ing Karma and the doctrines of Lao-Tse. The
principle of -simplification was carried into his
religious beliefs: all teaching not coming from
Christ Himself was ruthlessly discarded, and a
new gospel reconstructed from the old. The
doctrine of evangelic humility was carried to the
extreme of his famous doctrine of non-resistance
especially remarkable side by side with indi-
vidualism of an extreme kind. All human in-
stitutions—kingly power, State, Church, judici-
ary, jury, army, even marriage—were in turn
anathematized as standing in the way of the nat-
ural development of the powers of an individual.
Always carrying his logic to its inexorable limits,
Tolstoy had to denounce his own literary achieve-
ments along with all products of civilization, as
begotten of idle fancy and human craving for
the plaudits of the world. This double indi-
viduality of Tolstoy the artist and Tolstoy the
man is perhaps the most striking case in the
annals of literature.
In 1862 Tolstoy married Sophie Andreyevna
Behrs of Moscow. by whom he had eight children.
One son, LYOFF Lrovrrcn, who inherits his fath-
er’s literary inclinations, has attracted consider-
able attention by his sketches in periodical pub-
lications.
Tolstoy’s collected works were published at
Moscow in 14 volumes in 1889-95 (8th edition).
An English translation by N. H. Dole of the com-

TOLSTOY.
TOMATO.
790
. and oil and flour mills.
plete works in 12 volumes with an introduction
by the translator was published (New York,
1900). Most of Tolstoy’s works are also obtain-
able in French translations. There is a vast
literature on Tolstoy and his works. The best
books i11 Western languages are: De Vogiie,
Le roman russe (Paris, 1866); Liiwenfeld, Ge-
sp1-tiche mtt Tolstoy (Berlin, 1891) ; id., L. N.
Tolstoy, sein Leben, seine Werke, seine Welt-
anschaaunyen (ib., 1892) ; Eugen Zabel, Lit-
tera/rische Streifeiige durch Rnssland; P. A.
Sergeyenko, How Tolstoy Lives and Worlcs, trans-
lated by I. F. Hapgood (New York, 1899). Con-
sult also: Howells, My Literary Passions (New
York, 1895) ; Ward, “The Gospel of Count Tol-
stoy,” in Prophets of the Nineteenth Century
(ib., 1900).
TOI/TEC, or TOLTECA, tol-ta’ka (People of
Tollan, the modern Tula). An early cultured
people of Mexico, the subject of considerable
historical controversy. According to the general
Mexican tradition they were the most ancient
civilized race of Mexico, preceding the arrival of
the ruder Aztec, who derived their own best
culture by absorption from the Toltec. Their
capital was at the now ruined city of Tollan or
Tula, whence their dominion extended over all
the central pleateau, eastward to the Gulf and
southward to the Maya border. After some cen-
turies of flourishing existence their empire fell
to pieces through internal dissensions and the
invasion of barbarous northern tribes about the
close of the tenth century, the survivors from
war and famine being either incorporated by the
conquering Aztec or driven southward to be-
come the culture pioneers among the southern
tribes as far as Guatemala. The entire subject
of Toltec history is so interwoven with myth and
disfigured by exaggeration and uncertainty of
dates that it is diflicult to arrive at any con-
clusion, but enough remains to indicate that the
Toltec had an important historic existence,
either as a distinct race finally absorbed by
conquering invaders from the north, or, which is
more probable, as the advance guard of the
Nahuatlan stock (q.v.), preceding the arrival
of the Aztec by several centuries. Consult Val-
entini, The Olmecas and the Tultecas (VVorces-
ter, 1883).
TOLUCA, to-1oo'ka. The capital of the
State of Mexico, Mexico, thirty-four miles south-
west of the city of that name, on the Mexican
National Railroad (Map: Mexico, J 8). It is
a clean, well-built city, with an altitude of 8653
feet and a cool and healthful climate. Its Insti-
tute and State buildings are interesting. The
manufactories consist of breweries, cotton mills,
It is well known for its
drawn work. In the vicinity is the extinct vol-
cano N evado de Toluca, a snow-capped peak 15,-
155 feet high. Tradition assigns the city a Toltec
origin; it was an important Aztec pueblo called
Tollan at the time of the Conquest. Population,
in 1895, 23,150.
TOM, MOUNT. A mountain peak on the west
bank of the Connecticut River, in Hampshire
County, Mass., about five miles south of North-
ampton (Map: Massachusetts, B 3). It is 1214
feet high and affords a splendid view of the Con-
necticut Valley. Its summit is reached by a
mountain railway.
TOMAHAWK (Algonquian tomehagan, Mo-
hegan tumna-hegan, Delaware tamoihecan, toma-
hawk; probably connected with Cree otomahulc,
knock him down, otdmahwaw, he is knocked
down). In general, the hatchet or axe made and
used by the American natives. The aboriginal
implement was usually of stone, either flaked
and chipped, or battered and ground or polished.
The former type was usually of flint or chert,
with a constriction for holding the haft; the lat-
ter was commonly of green stone, granite, or
other tough material, grooved to receive the
haft. This haft was usually of wood. In rougher
specimens it was merely a withe doubled or
bent around the implement and firmly attached
with sinew or rawhide, sometimes with the aid
of a wedge, but in the more elaborate forms used
in ceremonies and on the warpath it was care-
fully wrought of tough wood and attached to
the head by means of sinew or rawhide lashings.
Itself a symbol of war, the tomahawk usually
bore some emblem of peace, and the highest type
combined the weapon and the pipe, the distinc-
tive American symbol of amity. This type culmi-
nated in the calumet ( q.v.) . The native type served
as a model for a trade implement manufactured of
metal and imported for barter with the natives,
especially during the seventeenth century, which
in its turn became the model for artists, and to
some extent for the tribesmen themselves. The
tomahawk grades into the celt (q.v.), and to
some extent the implements were interchange-
able; but while native copper was a not un-
common material for the latter implements, cop-
per tomahawks are extremely rare. See IN-
DIANS; ARCHEEOLOGY, AMERICAN.
TOMASZOW, tom’a-shov. An important man-
ufacturing town in the Government of Piotr-
kow, Russian Poland, 41 miles northeast of
Piotrkow. It has extensive textile. mills, with
an annual output valued at over $3,000,000.
Population, in 1897, 21,041, including many
Germans and Jews. It dates from the early part
of the nineteenth century.
TOMATO (Sp., Port. tomate, from Mexican
tomatl, tomato), Lycopersicum esculentnm. A
semi-vine-like annual herb of the natural order
Solanaceae, native to South America in the region
of the Andes. It was formerly called love ap-
ple and was considered poisonous. It is now
widely cultivated in all temperate regions and
considered one of the most wholesome and im-
portant garden vegetables. Near the large cities
it is extensively forced. The numerous varieties
vary much in form from the red currant forms
to the small yellow pear-shaped varieties and
the larger red sorts. The red sorts with smooth
round fruits somewhat flattened at the ends
and varying from 2 to 4 inches in diameter are
most in cultivation. The tomato is propagated
from seed and in greenhouses often by cuttings.
In the temperate regions these are usually start-
ed in the greenhouse, hotbed, or cold frame, and
the plants transferred to the field when the
weather is warm and all danger from frost is
past. The plants thrive best in a sandy soil,
well fertilized. They are set in the field about
five feet apart each way and in garden culture
are often trained to stakes to keep the fruit oil.’
the ground. In the United States tomatoes are
more largely grown for canning than any other
TOMATO.
TOMB.
791
vegetable. Over 5,500,000 cases of 24 cans each, re-
quiring 300,000 acres of land for their production,
are packed annually. Maryland, New Jersey,
Indiana, and California are the leading States
in production, the first two giving nearly one-
half the entire pack. The bacterial blight
(Bacillus solanacearum) attacks also the egg-
plant and potato. The leaves become yellow, and
the stems wilt and later become brown or black,
the plant being destroyed. Spraying for the
disease itself appears to have little effect, but
preventing insect attack is thought to act as a
check. The leaf blight (Oladosporium fulpum),
often a more serious pest, appears as brownish
spots on the under side of the leaves and yellow
on the upper. As the disease progresses the
leaves curl up and finally drop from the stem.
A leaf-spot disease (Septoria lycopersici),
sometimes troublesome, causes numerous spots
to appear on the leaves and young stems, ulti-
mately destroying them. Tomato rot is caused
by various fungi, e.g. Phytophthora infestans,
Macrosporium tomato, attacks the green fruits
of the tomato usually at the blossom end and
first shows as a small black spot, which increases
rapidly until half the fruit is a soft, black, sunk-
en mass. Fusarium lycopersici attacks the ripe
fruit, covering it with a thick, white mold, which
later becomes reddish. This disease is less com-
mon than the others. Repeated sprayings with
Bordeaux mixture or other fungicide have been
recommended as checks. Diseased fruits should
be removed and burned. Consult Bailey, The
Forcing Book (New York, 1898) ; United States
Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin
No. '76 (Washington, 1898). See Plate of VEGE-
TABLES.
TOMATO INSECTS. Many of the insects
that attack the tomato also live upon other mem-
bers of the family Solanaceee. Among the most
common are blister-beetles, plant-lice, flea-bee-
tles, and cutworms, descriptions of which will be
found under their respective titles. Others are
discussed under POTATO INSECTS; TOBACCO
Pnsrs; STALK BORER. The boll-worm (q.v.) is
sometimes seriously troublesome. See illustration
under COTTON-WORM.
TOMB (OF. tombe, tumbe, Fr. tombe, from
Lat. tumba, from Gk. niuflog, tymbos, sepul-
chral mound, grave, tomb; connected with OIr.
tomm, little hill, Skt. tunga, vaulted). A cham-
ber or structure for the burial of the dead. In
all ages the belief in immortality and the de-
sire to honor the dead have led to the bestowal
of the highest efforts of art upon their burial
places. The ancient belief in the intermediate,
shadowy existence in the tomb of the ha or
‘double’ of the deceased led also to the decora-
tion of the tomb interior with pictured or carved
‘doubles’ of the appurtenances of mundane life
for the delectation of this imprisoned shade, as
in the tombs of Egypt and Etruria.
Tombs may be either excavated or structural.
Those cut in the rock are called hypogcea. Of
these the most noted are those which honeycomb
the west bank of the Nile in Egypt, some having
roomy chambers with open porches in front;
others, more numerous, penetrating deep into the
cliffs (that of Seti I. extending 800 feet) with
a complex of descending passages, chambers, and
pits. Other rock-cut sepulchres are in the ‘Val-
ley of the Kings,’ near Jerusalem; at Petra in
Syria, where are Roman hypogeea with elabo-
rately carved facades; the tomb of Darius at
Naksh-i-Rustam in Persia; and many Etrus-
can tombs with less elaborate facades at Caere,
Vulci, Corneto, etc. In Lycia, besides hypogeea
with carved fronts, there are many tombs above
ground hewn each from a single block into the
semblance of a timber-framed structure. The
splendid Sidon sarcophagi in the Constantinople
Museum, shaped like small shrines or temples,
almost deserve to be called tombs on account of
their size and elaborate architecture. Inter-
mediate between the rock-cut and structural
tombs are such subterranean or buried struc-
tures as the hive-shaped Pelasgic tombs of
Mycenae, e.g. the so-called ‘Treasury of Atreus.’
Structural tombs in the open air affect usually
the type of a tumulus, of a shrine, of a tower, or of
a canopy over a solid podium or pedestal. The
Pyramids of Egypt are the grandest examples of
the first type. (See PYRAMIDS.) The Romans
sometimes built circular tombs surmounted by a
cone or tumulus of earth or masonry; e.g. tombs
of Caecilia Metella, of Augustus, and of Hadrian;
the last named on the Vatican side of the Tiber,
over 200 feet in diameter, but like the others des-
titute of its mound, is now known as the Castle
Sant’ Angelo. The Greeks attempted little in the
way of sepulchral architecture except in Asia
Minor, where the magnificent tomb of Mausolus
(whence ‘Mausoleum,’ q.v.) in Caria was ac-
counted one of the Seven Wonders. The Ro-
mans, who delighted in raising impressive tombs,
perfected the canopy or tower type, as in elegant
examples at Saint-Remy and Vienne in France,
Igel, near Treves, Mylassa in Asia Minor, and
many other places. They lined their great high-
ways beyond their city gates with tombs of
various types and often of great beauty, and in
the fourth century developed, in such examples
as the tomb of Saint Helena, the circular
tomb with a dome, which was in the Middle
Ages adopted by the Moslems and perfected, first
on a small scale but with great richness of de-
tail, in the hundreds of domed and minareted
tombs at Cairo known as tombs of the
Khalifs, and later in such majestic structures
as the tombs of Khurrem at Constantinople,
of Humayun at Delhi, and of Mahmud at Bijapur,
and in the incomparable Taj Mahal (q.v.) at
Agra. Syria abounds in tombs of all types,
mostly dating from the early Christian centuries,
though not a few belong to the Roman dominion,
e.g. the ‘Tomb of Absalom’ at Jerusalem, the
tombs at Palmyra, etc.
In early Christian times and the Middle Ages
the practice of interment within the church edi-
fice became common, springing from that of erect-
ing the altar over the tomb or sarcophagus of a
martyr (altar-tomb). Throughout the Middle
Ages the decoration of indoor tombs assumed
a great variety of shapes, the most common type
being that .of a sarcophagus bearing'on the
cover a recumbent figure of the deceased, under
a richly wrought canopy borne by twisted
shafts or clustered columns and pointed arches
and embellished with sculpture and often with
mosaic. These tombs were sometimes freestand-
ing, sometimes set against a wall, or even set
high up upon the wall, especially in Italy.
Both kinds are to be seen imitated in the cele-
TOMB.
TOMLINE.
792
brated open-air tombs of the Scaligers at Verona.
The bronze shrine of Saint Sebaldus at Nurem-
berg is a late Gothic example of the canopy
tomb. The Renaissance adopted these types, but
altered their details and filled the churches of
Italy, France, England, Germany, and Spain
with splendid monuments, some of great refine-
ment and beauty, others marvelously rich and
even ostentatious, to the memory of the great
dead. The fifteenth-century wall-tombs of Italy
are especially beautiful, and such churches as
Santa Croce at Florence, Santi Giovanni e Paolo
at Venice, Santa Maria del Popolo at Rome, and
Westminster Abbey became great repositories
of sepulchral art. Sculpture played an increas-
ing part in these works, and in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries was lavishly employed
in allegorical groups, often theatrical and vul-
gar.
In modern cemeteries, besides the ordinary
graves with their gravestones or obelisks, are to
be seen tombs shaped like classic shrines, and oc-
casionally more elaborate structures fronted or
surmounted by elaborate groups of allegorical
sculpture. Among important mausolea may be
mentioned the impressive dome of the Invalides
at Paris, serving as the tomb of the great Na-
poleon, and the less successful Grant mausoleum
in New York. Neither of these compares in
splendor, however, with the Oriental tombs men-
tioned above. Modern sepulchral art is inferior
to mediaeval, Renaissance, or Oriental art. The
modern preference is to erect imposing monu-
ments to the dead in the frequented squares of
populous cities, rather than over their quiet
graves in remote cemeteries. Consult: Brindley
and Weatherly, Ancient Sepulchral Monuments
(London, 1887 ) ; Tosi and Becchio, Altars, Tab-
ernacles, and Tombs (Lagny, 1843); Trendall,
Monuments, Genotaphs, Tombs, and Tablets
(London, 1858); Boussard, Architecture fune'-
raire (Paris, 187 5) ; and for Greek and Roman
tombs, Stackelberg, Die Gnétber der Hellenen
(Berlin, 1837); Rossi, Roma, sotteranea cristi-
ana (Rome, 1887-88). See BURIAL; CAM1>o SAN-
TO; CEMETERY; CENOTAPH; Nncnoroms; PYRA-
MID; SEPULCHRAL MOUND.
TOMBAC (Fr. tombac, Sp. tumbaga, Port.
tambaca, tambaque, from Malay tambaga, tam-
baga, copper, from Skt. tctmriloa, tztmra, copper).
An alloy of copper and zinc. White tombac con-
tains about 75 parts of copper and 25 parts of
arsenic. It is used in making imitation jewelry.
TOMBIG/BEE. One of the chief rivers of
Alabama (Map: Alabama, A 3). It rises in
the northeastern corner of Mississippi and
flows in a south-southeast direction with
numerous abrupt windings. After a course
of 450 miles it joins the Alabama River
to form the network of channels composing
the Mobile and Tensas, which empty through
several arms into Mobile Bay. The largest trib-
utary is the Black Warrior, which drains the
north central part of Alabama. The Tombigbee
is navigable to Aberdeen, Miss., 410 miles from
Mobile Bay.
TOM BROWN ’S SCHOOL DAYS. A noted
story of life at the famous Rugby School under
the rule of Thomas Arnold, by Thomas Hughes
(1856). The vein was continued in Tom Brown
at Oxford, by the same author (1861) .
TOMBS, THE. A noted city prison in New
York, erected in 1838, and so named from its
massive and gloomy appearance. The low Egyp-
tian structure of granite has been replaced by a
modern edifice of greater height. It is connected
with the new Criminal Courts by a covered pass-
age known as the Bridge of Sighs.
TOMBS, Sir HENRY (1824-74). An English
soldier, born at sea and educated at the India
Company’s Military College at Addiscomb. In
1841 he entered the service of the East India
Company as second lieutenant and soon distin-
guished himself. In the Sepoy Mutiny he won
the Victoria Cross by his gallant conduct at the
siege of Delhi in 1857. Afterwards he took part
in the capture of Lucknow, the relief of Shah-
jahanpur, and in an expedition to Shakabad.
In 1863 he was made brigadier-general and in
1867 major-general. During his later years he
was in command of several important expedi-
tions in India, but in 1872 resigned his command
and returned to England, where he died. Con-
sult: Mallerson, History of the Indian Mutiny
(London, 1878-80); Stubbs, History of the Ben-
gal Artillery (London, 1877); and Roberts,
Forty-one Years in India (London, 1898) .
TOMCOD (probably from North American
Indian taeaud, plenty-fish, or perhaps from tom
+ cod). One of the small codfish of the genus
1\Iicrogadus, as Microgadus tomcodus of the At-
lantic Coast, or Mierogadus proarimus of the Pa-
cific. They are very abundant and of consider-
able importance as food. See Plate of CODFISH
AND ALLIES.
TOM CRINGLE’S LOG. A sea yarn by
Michael Scott, which first appeared in Black-
u~ood’s Magazine. The here, as an officer of the
British Navy, in the early part of the nineteenth
century, passes through many adventures by sea
and land, principally in the West Indies. As a
picture of \Vest Indian life in the old days
and for descriptions of tropical scenery it has
no equal in the English language.
TOME, t5-ma’. A modern seaport of the
Province of Concepcion, Chile, 12 miles north
of the city of that name. It has made notable
commercial progress and is now the principal
grain port of the surrounding provinces. Muni-
cipal population, in 1885, 5530.
TOME INSTITUTE.
STITUTE.
TOMELLOSO, to’mel-yo’s5. A town in the
Province of Ciudad Real (La Mancha) , Spain, in
the district of Alczizar de San Juan. The town
dates from the sixteenth century and is well
built. The chief industry is the cultivation of
the vine and of cereals, and there are manufac-
tures of spirits, leather goods, and cloths. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 13,917.
TOM JONES. A noted novel by Henry
Fielding (1749). The hero is a foundling,
eventually discovered to be the illegitimate
nephew of Squire Allworthy, who brings him
up. He has a generous and manly character,
spoiled by various forms of dissipation.
TO1V[’LINE, Sir GEORGE PRETYMAN (1750-
1827). An English divine, Pretyrnan by name,
who assumed the cognomen of Tomline on falling
heir to an estate in 1803. He was born at Bury
Saint Edmonds and was educated in that town
See JACOB Tons IN-
TOMLINE.
TOMPKIN S.
793
and at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he
formed the acquaintance of the younger Pit-t——as
his tutor in l773—which was the making of his
own career. In 1783 he became private secre-
tary to Pitt, when that statesman was made
First Lord of the Treasury. In that position
his mathematical ability enabled him to be of
considerable service to his patron in the elabora-
tion of the latter’s financial schemes. Tomline
was made Dean of Saint Paul’s and Bishop of
Lincoln in 1787, and was awarded the see of
I/Vinchester in 1820. In the following year ap-
peared his memoir of Pitt. This work, although
accurate as far as it went, was disappointing in
that it took no notice of Pitt’s career after 1793
and made scant use of the unique opportunities
which the writer had enjoyed for acquaintance
with the inner history of the time.
TOM’LI1\TSO1\T, CHARLEs (1808-97). An
English scientist, born in London. He studied
science under George Birkbeck, the founder of
the London Mechanics’ Institute. For a while he
had a school with his brother Lewis, at Salis-
bury. Becoming known for original investiga-
tion, he was called to London, where he was
appointed lecturer on experimental science at
King’s College School. In 1872 he was elected to
the Royal Society, and in 1874 he took a lead-.
ing part in founding the Physical Society.
As a scientist Tomlinson made valuable
contributions to the knowledge of the surface
tension of liquids. His last years were devoted
to literature, and in 1878-80 he held the Dante
lectureship at University College, Lcndon. Be-
sides several works on mechanics and the useful
arts, he published: The Sonnet, Its Origin, Struc- -
ture, and Place in Poetry (1874) ; a translation
of Dante’s Inferno (1877) ; The Literary History
of the Di-/vine Comedy (1879); Dante, Beatrice,
and the Divine Comedy (1894) ; and a volume of
original Sonnets (1881) .
TOMMASEO, to’ma-za’o, NICCOLO (1802-74).
An Italian author and lexicographer, born at
Sebenico, in Dalmatia. He went to Padua to
study law, but turned to literature. In Flor-
ence he collaborated on Viessieux’s Antologia.
The Government suppressed the Antologia in
1832, and Tommaseo, having to leave Florence,
sought refuge in Paris, where he endeavored to
make the French better acquainted with his coun-
trymen, through various writings, especially
Dell’ Italia (1835). In 1838 he took up his abode
in Corsica, and there made a collection of popu-
lar songs, Canti popolari corsi, toscani, greei e
illirici (1841). He returned to Venice, where
he was permitted to stay from 1839 to 1848. In
January, 1848, he was arrested because of his
liberal opinions, but a popular insurrection freed
him. After the fall of Venice in 1849 he went to
Corfu, going thence in 1854 to Turin, where he
began the publishing of his great Dieionario
della lingua italiana. He passed his last days
in Florence.
The multitudinous works of Tommaseo are all
mentioned in the excellent account of him given
in vol. v. of d’Ancona and Bacci’s Manuale della
letteratura italiana (Florence, 1895). They em-
brace religious writings, moral and pedagogical
treatises, political essays, philological, literary,
and critical works, poems, and ballads; and they
all reveal the qualities of the ardent patriot and
citizen, of the fervent and tolerant Catholic, and
of the clear-thinking and indefatigable scholar.
TOMMASI, torn-m'a’ze, DONATO (1848—).
An Italia-n chemist and electrician, born in
Naples and educated at Paris and at the Uni-
versity of Brussels. His specialty is electro-
chemistry, a branch of science in which he made
valuable investigations. His discoveries include
various methods for separating and extracting
metals by electricity (1892) , and an accumulator
which has been much used on railways. His
publications include: Traité théorique et pratique
d’e'leetrochimie (1889); Traité des piles élec-
triqu-es et des aceumulateurs (1890) ; and Manuel
pratique dc galuanoplastie (1890) .
TOMMY ATKINS. The popular name for
a private soldier in the British army. It had its
origin in the Government usage of the fictitious
name of Thomas Atkins to designate the place
of the soldier’s signature in ‘such documents
and army forms as were to be signed by him.
TOMOCHICHI, t()’mo-che’cl'1e (one who makes
a bird fly upward) (c.1642-1739). A noted
chief of the Yamacraw, a detached band of the
Creek Confederacy, in the early period of Georgia
colonization. He was a native of the Lower
Creek town of Apalachukla, on the Alabama
side of the Chattahoochee, nearly opposite the
present Columbus, Ga.. For some reason he had
incurred the displeasure of the confederacy and
in consequence withdrew with his immediate fol-
lowers and established himself in a new settle-
ment on the Savannah River at Yamacraw Bluff,
now included within the western limits of Savan-
nah, Ga. Here he met and concluded a treaty of
friendship with Governor Oglethorpe, and through
his influence a treaty was made in 17 33, at Sa-
vannah to the Altamaha. In the next year, with
a considerable retinue, he accompanied Ogle-
thorpe to England. A monument to his memory
was erected in the public square of Savannah.
TO1VIP’KINS, DANIEL D. (1774-1825). An
American political leader, Vice-President of the
United States from 1817 to 1825.~ He was born
i11 Fox Meadows (Scarsdale) , W'estchester County,
N. Y., graduated at Columbia in 1795, and in
1797 was admitted to the bar. In 1804 he was
elected to Congress, but before taking his seat
was appointed by Governor Morgan Lewis to the
vacancy on the State Supreme bench caused
by the promotion of Judge Kent to the Chief
Justiceship. In 1807 he became the candidate of
the Clintonian Republicans for Governor to sue-
ceed Morgan Lewis, who had been renominated
by the Livingston party with strong Federalist
support. He was elected over Governor Lewis by
4085 majority, and was reelected four times, serv-
ing altogether ten years. During his third term
an attempt to secure a charter from New York
State for the Bank of America was accompanied
by a wholesale bribing of the State Legislature.
After the Lower House had sanctioned the char-
ter, on March 27, 1812, Governor Tompkins pro-
rogued both Houses-—a power granted by the Con-
stitution, but never before nor since exercised.
The charter was granted at the next session of
the Legislature, but Governor Tompkins’s action
had increased his popularity. During the VVar
of 1812 Governor Tompkins recruited and
equipped 40,000 militia in New York State. For
these purposes he provided funds raised partly
TOMPKINS.
TONALITY.
794
on his personal security. It was on his recom-
mendation made in his last message to the Legis-
lature in January, 1817, that the New York
Legislature passed a law decreeing that all slaves
should be free on and after July 4, 1827.
Throughout both of Monroe’s terms in the Pres-
idency (1817-25) Tompkins was Vice-President
of the United States.
TOM]?’SON, BENJAMIN (1642-1714). An
early American poet, born at Braintree, Mass.
He was educated at Harvard College and became
a school teacher in Cambridge. He is known by
his poem on King Philip’s War, New England’s
Crisis (1675).
TOM’S. A former London coffee-house in
Covent Garden, a fashionable resort, and the
headquarters of a club founded in 1764, which
among its 700 members included many noted
names of the day. Tom’s was taken down in 1865.
TOMSK, tomsk. A government of Western Si-
beria, bounded by Tobolsk and Yeniseisk on the
northwest and the northeast, respectively, Yeni-
seisk and the Chinese Empire (Mongolia and
Sungaria) on the east, the Territory of Semi-
palatinsk on the south, and Tobolsk on the
west (Map: Asia, H 3). Area, about 336,-
000 square miles. The southern and south-
eastern parts belong to the region of the
Altai Mountains, and contain many snow-
clad peaks, some of them 11,000 feet high. The
Kuznetzky Alatau, along the eastern frontier, is
densely wooded and rises to about 6000 feet. The
remainder of tl" region is mostly low and con-
sists of vast densely wooded marshes and open
steppes. The region is watered mainly by the
Obi (q.v.) and its tributaries, including the
Irtysh (q.v.). Lakes are numerous and some of
them are salty. The climate is severe and un-
healthful in the lowlands. In spite of the abun-
dance of the mineral deposits of the Altai Moun-
tains, the mining industry is poorly developed.
Agriculture is the principal occupation and the
output of cereals is far above the local demand.
Stock-raising is also an extensive industry. Man-
ufactures are undeveloped, but the trade with
Mongolia is on the increase and there is consider-
able navigation on the Ob. The trade with
European Russia also shows an increase since
the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Population, in 1897, 1,929,092, of whom the na-
tives (Tatars, Samoyeds, Ostiaks, etc.) num-
bered only about 67,500, the remainder being Rus-
sians. The immigration to Tomsk has latterly
been very heavy. The number of immigrants
for the decade 1888-98 was over 227,000.
TOMSK. The capital of the Siberian Gov-
ernment of Tomsk and the intellectual centre of
Siberia, situated on the Tom, a tributary of the
Ob, and connected by a short line of 54 miles
with the Trans-Siberian Railway (Map: Asia,
H 3). It is one of the finest cities of Siberia,
with electric lighting and street railways, but
without an adequate water supply and unsatis-
factory in its sanitary arrangements. The uni-
versity, established in 1888, has two faculties
of medicine and law_. 540 students, and a library
of 200,000 volumes. The commerce is very exten-
sive, Tomsk being one of the chief distributing
centres of Siberia. The town was founded in
1604. Population, in 1900, 63,335.
TOMS RIVER. The county-seat of Ocean
County, N. J., 35 miles southeast of Trenton;
on Toms River and on the Pennsylvania Railroad
and the Central Railroad of New Jersey (Map:
New Tersey, D 4). It is known as a summer
resorc. Farming, especially the cultivation of
cranberries, fishing and oyster planting, lumber-
ing, and yacht building are the leading industries.
Population, in 1900, about 1850. Early in the
Revolutionary War important salt works were
established here, and a small blockhouse was
built to protect them. On March 24, 17 82, this
blockhouse, then occupied by Captain Joshua
Huddy and 25 men, was attacked by a much
larger force of Loyalists under Captain Evan
Thomas and Lieutenant Owen Roberts, and was
captured after a stubborn conflict. Immediately
afterwards the village itself was totally de-
stroyed. Consult a pamphlet by Striker, The
Capture of the Old Blockhouse at Toms River,
New Jersey (Trenton, 1883)
TOM THUMB.
HEYWOOD.
TOM-TOM. See TAM-TAM.
TON. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
TON ALITY (from tonal, from tone, OF. ton,
from Lat. tonus, from Gk. rdvog, tone, sound,
See STBATTON, CHARLES
tension, strength, cord, from Taiwan), teinein,
Lat. tendere, Skt. tan, to stretch). In music,
the grouping of certain chords around a
central tonic chord. The principle rests upon
the relationship which various chords bear
to one another. Briefly stated, a tone is related
in the first degree to all tones forming conso-
nant intervals with it; in the second degree to
all tones forming dissonctnt intervals with it.
Thus we can establish the relationship of D to
C by means of the chord of the dominant seventh
d-fit-a-c, which is the dominant of G major,
which, in turn, is the dominant of C major.
The relationship of single tones becomes in-
telligible only through the agency of chords. It
is sufficient to recognize only two degrees. Since,
when considering the relationship of chords, each
chord is considered a tonic chord, it will perhaps
be best to speak of triads. A sharp distinction
must be made between similar and dissimilar
triads. If a major triad is followed by another
major, or a minor triad by another minor, the
two major triads are similar; as are also the two
minor triads. But if a major triad is followed by
a minor, or vice versa, the two triads are dis-
similar. It must also be borne in mind that
when speaking of major triads all intervals are
reckoned upward; when speaking of minor triads
all intervals are reckoned doumward. A triad is
related in the first degree to all similar triads
whose fundamental tone is related in the first
degree to the fundamental tone of the original
triad. Thus the triad of C major is related in
the first degree to the similar major triads of
G, F, E, Ab, Eb, A. It is also related in the
first degree to the dissimilar minor triads whose
fundamental lies a fifth below any of the tones
of this C major triad. These are F, A, C, a fifth
below C, E, G, respectively. To these must also
be added the triad built upon the mediant, which
in a major key is always a minor triad. Hence,
every triad is related to ten other triads in the
first degree. In the case of a minor triad similar
relations exist. The triad of A minor is related
TON ALITY.
TONGA ISLANDS.
795
to the similar minor triads of D, E, F, Cit, Fill, C.
Also to all dissimilar major triads whose funda-
mental tone is one of the component tones of the
A minor triad, viz. A, C, E. To these is also
added the triad of the mediant, which in a minor
key is always a major triad.
All triads other than the ten just mentioned
are related to the original triad in the second
degree. Here the degree of affinity may be more
or less remote. See CHORD; CoNsoNANcE; DIs-
SONANCE ; KEY. For a full exposition of the sub-
ject, consult: H. Riemann, M usilcalische Syntawis
(Leipzig, 1877 ) ; Sloizze einer neuen M ethode der
Harmonielehre (ib., 1880) ; Systematische Mo-
dulationslehre (ib., 1887) .
TON’AWAN’DA. A city in Erie County,
,N. Y., about 10 miles north of Buffalo; on the
Niagara River and the Erie Canal, and on the
New York Central and Hudson River and the
Erie railroads (Map: New York, B 3). It is
connected with North Tonawanda by two bridges.
The prominent features of the city include the
armory, the high school, the public library, and
a park. Tonawanda is an important lumber
market, and is also interested in manufacturing,
the chief products being steel, lumber, and paper
boards. The government, under the charter of
1903, is vested in a mayor, chosen biennially, and
a unicameral council. The water-works are
owned and operated by the municipality. Popu-
lation, in 1890, 7145; in 1900, 7421.
TONE. In music, the name given to the
larger intervals in the diatonic scale, so called in
contradistinction to the semitones (q.v.), or
smaller intervals. Theoretically, some of the
intervals called tones are larger than others,
and none of them are equal to two semitones;
thus, in the scale of C, the intervals CD, FG, and
AB are all equal; but DE and GA, which are
also called tones, are smaller; and the semitones,
EF and BC, are larger than half even of the
larger tones. In instruments, however, which are
tuned according to the equal temperament (q.v.) ,
all the tones are made equal, and each equiva-
lent to two semitones.
TONE, THEOBALD WoLEE‘ (1763-98). An
Irish revolutionist. He was born in Dublin, where
he was educated, graduating at Trinity College.
He was called to the Irish bar in 1789. He was
one of the founders of the first club of United
Irishmen at Belfast, and similar organizations
in other parts of Ireland and agent of the R0-
man Catholic committee, 1792; was implicated
in Jackson’s treasonable designs with the French
Government in 1794, but was allowed to go to
the United States in 1795. In the following
year, however, he went to France for assistance,
and returned suddenly to Ireland, recalled by
rumors of a revolt. In the expedition to Bantry
Bay he was adjutant-general to the commander
Hoche, but the fleet was driven off the coast and
scattered. In 1798 he again set sail for Ireland
with a small French expedition, and was cap-
tured by an English fleet off Lough Swilly. Hav-
ing been sentenced to be hanged, he cut his
throat with a penknife, dying a few days later.
Consult: The Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone, etc.,
with his Political Writings, edited by his son,
William Theobald Wolfe Tone (2 vols., Wash-
ington, 1826). .
Von. XVI.—51.
TONE COLOR. In music, the quality of
the tone of musical instruments or of the human
voice. See CLANG TINT, EXPLANATION or; TIM-
BBE.
T0’NER, JOSEPH MEREDITH (1825—). An
American physician, born in Pittsburg, Pa., and
educated at Mount Saint Mary’s College, the
Vermont Medical College, and the J efierson Medi-
cal College. He graduated at Jefferson Medical
College in 1853 and two years afterwards settled
in Washington, D. C., where he founded the Prov-
idence Hospital and became identified with sev-
eral other similar institutions. In 1868 a resolu-
tion which he had offered was adopted by the
American Medical Association, providing for the
collecting of American medical literature. In
1871 he gave the fund which established the well-
known Toner lectures. He was president of the
American Medical Association in 1873, of the
American Health Association in 1874, and was
vice-president of the International Medical Con-
gress of 1887. He was an indefatigable collector
of books and pamphlets on medical subjects, and
in 1882 presented his valuable library to the Gov-
ernment. His publications include: Maternal In-
stinct (1864) ; Compulsory Vaccination (1865);
Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Educa-
tion in the United States (1874) ; Medical Men
of the Revolution (1876).
TON’G.A ISLANDS, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS.
A group of Polynesian islands in the Pacific
Ocean, about 350 miles southeast of Samoa, ex-
tending from 18° 5’ to 22° 29’ south latitude
and from 173° 52’ to 176° 10’ west longitude,
the Fiji Islands being on the east (Map: Austra-
lasia, L 4). The Tonga Islands form a native
kingdom, but are controlled by Great Britain.
They number about 150, but only 32 are of
any importance. The area is about 390 square
miles. The Tonga Islands form two nearly paral-
lel rows of islands extending from north to south.
The eastern row contains the Vavau, Haapai, Na-
muka, Kotu, and Tonga groups. These‘ eastern
islands are of coral limestone formation, and lie
low and are comparatively level. In the last-
named group is the largest and most fertile island
of all——Tongatabu. It is in the south, and con-
tains about 140 square miles. It l1as about half
the pépulation of all the Tonga Islands. The
western row of islands are volcanic, high and
steep. Of these, Lette and Tofoa are active, and
Kao (about 2850 feet high) is extinct. The cli-
mate of the Tonga Islands is moderate and favor-
able, considering the latitude. The annual rain-
fall is heavy—over 75 inches. Serious earth-
quakes are not infrequent, and small islands rise
suddenly at times and as suddenly disappear. A
tornado wrought havoc in Vavau in 1900. The
flora is very rich, especially in palms. The na-
tive fauna is comparatively insignificant; there
only needs to be mentioned the large bat (Ptero-
pus tonganus) . All the main Tonga Islands are
covered with luxuriant vegetation. The soil is
rich. The land is leased, not sold; and as its
tenure is not assured, the improvements are both
meagre and poor. Copra and fungus are ex-
ported, and tapa and mats are made. The im-
ports, mostly from Australia and New Zealand,
amounted to $440,000 in 1901, and include dra-
peries and foods. The tonnage entered and cleared
in 1901 was 119,100. There is regular steam
TONGA ISLANDS.
TONGKIN G.
796
communication with the neighboring British pos-
sessions. There are many good harbors. The
annual revenue is about $100,000, the expendi-
ture somewhat less. There is no debt. The capi-
tal is N ukualofa, on Tongatabu Island. The 1popu-
lation was given in 1900 as 18,959, neary all
natives. They are among the most civilized of
the Polynesians. They are agriculturists and
adept seafarers. While clever and eager to learn
and imitate, they appear to lack the qualities
necessary to independent and enduring success.
Most of them are VVesleyans.
The Tonga Islands were discovered in 1643. In
1773 and in 177 7 they were visited by Cook, who
explored them, and gave them the name of
Friendly Islands on account of the friendly
attitude of the natives. Before the break-
ing out of the civil wars early in the nine-
teenth century, the islands were under the
rule of two reigning families. During this po-
litical upheaval the local hereditary chiefs de-
clared their independence, but were united under
the wise rule of George I., who in 1875 intro-
duced a sort of constitutional government, allow-
ing the chiefs a share in the administration.
Treaties were concluded with Great Britain, Ger-
many, and also, in 1888, with the United States.
The privilege of building a naval station was
abandoned by Germany in 1899 in favor of Great
Britain, which country declared its protectorate
over the group in that year. The present ruler,
King George II., is assisted by a legislative as-
sembly, meeting every three years, and composed
partly of hereditary nobles and partly of mem-
bers elected on a property qualification. There
are a cabinet, a privy council,‘ and judiciary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ellis, Polynesian Researches
(London, 1853) ; Erskine, Islands of the Western
Pacific (London, 1853) ; Fornander, An Account
of the Polynesian Race (ib., 1878) ; Coote, West-
ern Pacific Islands (ib., 1883) ; Cooper, The Isl-
ands of the Pacific (ib., 1888) ; Reclus, Noucelle
geographic uni/verselle, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889);
Monfat, Les Tonga cu Archipel des Amis (Lyon,
1893) ; Wallace, “Australasia,” in Stanford, Oom-
pendium of Geography (London, 1894) ; Reeves,
Brown Men and Women in the South Sea Islands
(ib., 1898) ; Shoemaker, Islands of the Southern
Seas (New York, 1898) ; Stevenson, In the South
Seas (London, 1900) ; Brigham, An Indew'to the
Islands of the Pacific (Honolulu, 1900).
TO1\T’GALAND, or AMATONGALAND. A
district of Zululand, and accordingly of Natal,
in Southeast Africa, bounded on the north by
Lourenco Marquez, on the east by the Indian
Ocean, on the south by Zululand, and on the west
by the Vryheid district and Swaziland (Map:
Cape Colony, P 4). It thus forms the northern
neck of Zululand. Area, 1280 square miles. The
Lebombo Mountains border it on the west. The
Pongola River traverses the country from south
to north, just west of the centre, -the Kosi
River, flowing in a general eastern direction, is
in the south, and Lake Kosi—-a lagoon—--forms an
inlet from the ocean on the east. The country
is generally level and low. The climate is very
unhealthful. The inhabitants are Zulu-Kafirs-—
the Amatonga. No figures for the population are
given. The possession of Tongaland was strong-
ly desired by the Boers, since it would have
furnished them an outlet to the sea and a haven.
Great Britain was eager to frustrate their plans,
however, and declared Tongaland under British
protection in 1895. It was annexed to Zululand
(q.v.) December 27, 1897. This action embraced
also the small possessions of the Sambana and
Umtegiza chiefs, which formed the narrow por-
tion of Tongaland west of the Pongola River.
Zululand, including Tongaland, was annexed to
Natal December 30, 1897.
TONG-HAK, tong-hak’ (Sinico-Korean, Ori-
ental culture). The watchword of a revolutionary
party in Korea founded in 1859 by a native
Korean scholar named Choi, who fused together
the elements of the three systems of Confucius,
Buddha, and Lao-tse. In 1865 he was branded as
a ‘foreigner Korean,’ and beheaded, and his fol-
lowers were persecuted, but still increased. In
1893 a delegation of 50 of them went to Seoul
and petitioned for the rehabilitation of Ohoi.
They were driven away, but in the succeeding
spring occurred the Tong-Hak uprising that led
indirectly to the Chino-Japanese war of 1894, the
independence of Korea, and the present Russian
aggressiveness in Manchuria. See KOREA.
TONGKING’, or TONQUIN, t5n’ken', Fr.
pron. toN’kaN'. A French protectorate in French
Indo-China (q.v.), situated just south of the
Tropic of Cancer, in Southeastern Asia, bor-
dered by China on the north, the Gulf of
Tongking on the east, Annam, Laos, and Siam
on the south and southwest, and Laos on
the west (Map: French Indo-China, E 2). Area,
estimated at 46,400 square miles. Tongking has
a heavily forested plateau in the north. The
eastern part is tilled, and contains slate and lime-
stone. The protectorate is traversed in a south-
easterly direction by the navigable Red River
(q.v.) or Song-Koi, its delta district covering
some 5000 square miles. This district, together
with the neighboring islands, affords coal (kebao)
and fishing. Other minerals of the protectorate
are iron, copper, and gold. The climate is hot
and humid. Storms are frequent in summer. The
temperature ranges from 6l.7° to 84° F. The
soil is of great fertility. The flora in the south-
west resembles that of India; that of the north-
east is akin to that of Southern China. Nuts
and tropical fruits abound.
France is making strong endeavors to colonize
the protectorate. The cattle industry is promi-
nent. Opium, cacao, sugar, tea, cotton, corn, cof-
fee, and tobacco promise to be extensively culti-
vated. Rice, the staple crop, equals the best in the
world. Furniture, glass,silk, cotton, indigo, paper,
oil, and sugar are manufactured. The commerce
has rapidly increased. The imports consist large-
ly of machinery, metals, and textiles. The main
exports are rice and animal products. The
transit and the coast trade are extensive. The
leading commercial points are Haiphong (the
chief port, possessing a fine harbor) Kwang-yen,
and Nam Dinh. A railroad extends from the last
point to Hanoi, and thence northeast to Lung-
chow. The Red River Valley railroad to Yun-
nan and the coast line to Hué are in course of
construction. There are ocean cables to Hué
and Hong Kong. The largest city is Hanoi, the
seat of the resident superior of Tongking, as
well as of the Governor-General of French Indo-
China. (For government, see FRENCH INDO-
CHINA.) There are fourteen provinces. The
budget in 1902 balanced at $851,200. See HANOI.
TONGKING.
TONGUE.
797
The population of Tongking is estimated at
7,000,000. The race is Annamese. Besides these,
who dwell largely in the delta region, and
who are taller and darker than their kindred
in Cochin-China and Annam, the interior con-
tains a number of more or less primitive peo-
ples, such as the Thos (q.v.) of the Claire River
basin, the Muongs (q.v.) of the Black River
valley, and others who belong to the Thai (q.v.) .
The Chinese number upward of 35,000. Several
hundred thousand of the inhabitants profess
Catholicism. Tongking was an independent State
before it came under the control of Annam in
l802.- In 1873 the first military expedition of
the French was sent into the territory, but by
agreement the next year they retired. In 1882
the French Government, having conceived the
design of securing the delta of the Red River
for French commerce, sent an expedition against
the predatory Black Flags, a Chinese soldiery,
representing a‘ remnant of the Taiping rebels.
The French sailed up the Red River and occupied
the citadel of Hanoi. Annam lent her support
to the Black Flags, whereupon in August, 1883,
the French fleet under Courbet bombarded Hué
and compelled Annam to accept a French pro-
tectorate and to allow France to prosecute her
designs with regard to Tongking. The French
pushed their operations with success, but soon
had to face a war with China, to whose suzer-
ainty Annam was still nominally subject. This
conflict, which lasted a year (1884-85), left
France in virtual possession of Tongking. In 1887
Tongking was made a part of French Indo-China.
Consult: Imbert, Le Tonkin industriel et commer-
oial (Paris, 1885); Millot, Le Tonlcin (ib.,
1888); Petit, Le Tonkin (ib., 1892); Mat Gioi,
Le Tonlcin actuel 1870-90 (ib., 1891); Pinabel,
Sur quelques peuples sausages dépendants du
Tonlcin (ib., 1884) ; Holquard, Une campagne au
Tonlcin (ib., 1892).
TONGKING, GULF OF. An arm of the China
Sea extending northward between French Indo-
China on the west and the Chinese island of
Hainan together with a peninsula of the Prov-
ince of Kwang-tung on the east (Map: China,
C 8). It is 150 miles wide and 300 miles long,
and receives the Red River. Its depth is every-
where less than 300 feet.
TONGUE (AS. tunge, Goth. tuggci, OHG.
zunga, Ger. Zunge, tongue; connected with
OLat. dingua, Lat. lingua, tongue). A sym-
metrical muscular organ, extending from the
hyoid bone forward and downward, to the lips
in front, and occupying the buccal cavity. The
superior surface, borders, and anterior third of
the inferior surface are free ; while the remaining
-parts are attached to adjacent parts by the in-
vesting mucous membrane and subjacent struc-
tures. At certain points this membrane, on leav-
ing the tongue, forms distinct folds, containing
fibrous or muscular tissue, which act to a cer-
tain extent as ligaments of the tongue. The most
considerable of these folds is termed the frcenum
(or bridle) of the tongue, and connects its ante-
rior free extremity with the lower jaw. It acts as
. a strong ligament, and limits the backward move-
ment of the tip of the tongue. In rare cases this
ligament extends abnormally to the tip, so as to
interfere with speech and mastication, and the
child is said to be tongue-tied; recourse must be
then had to division of the fraenum, popularly
known as cutting the tongue. Other folds of
mucous membrane (the glosso-epiglottid folds)
pass from the base of the tongue to the epiglottis ;
while from the sides of the base, passing to the
soft palate, are seen two folds on either side,


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' HULIAN TONGUE.
known as the pillars of the fauces. (See PALATE) .
The superior surface of the tongue is divided into
two symmetrical lateral parts by a median lon-
gitudinal furrow beginning at the tip, and ex-
tending back about two-thirds of the tongue’s
length. The various kinds of papillae which are
seen on their surface are described in the article
Papilla-Vaflata
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SECTION THROUGH A PAPILLA VALLATA.
TASTE, ORGAN AND SENSE on. At the back of
the ‘surface, just behind the circumvallate pa-
pillae, are large mucous glands, extending into
long and capacious canals, and helping to secrete
the fluid that moistens the tongue. On the infe-
rior surface, the longitudinal furrow, which ex-
tends from the tip to the fraznum, is deeper than
on the upper surface; on each side of it veins are
seen running forward; and immediately beneath
the tip is a cluster of mucous glands, known as
the glands of Nuck (their discoverer in 1690).
The posterior ewtremity, or base, is flattened and
extended laterally before it is inserted into the
hyoid bone (known also as the lingual or tongue
bone), which, with certain ligaments, must be re-
garded as the basisior framework of the tongue.
The muscles of the tongue are usually divided into
TONGUE.
TONIC SOL-FA.
798
two groups—viz. the extrinsic muscles, which at-
tach the tongue to certain fixed points external
to it, and move it on them, and the intrinsic
muscles, which pass from one part of the tongue
to another, constitute its chief bulk, and move it
on itself. These intrinsic muscular fibres run ver-
tically, transversely, and longitudinally, and are
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SECTION SHOWING STRUCTURE AND ARRANGEMENT
OF PAPILLE.
so interlaced as mutually to support one another,
and to act with the greatest advantage. By the
action of the various muscles, the upper surface
of the tongue may be made concave or convex, or
may be pressed against the roof of the mouth;
the tip may be protruded straight out or later-
ally, upward and downward, and to any recess
(as for instance, a hollow tooth) within the
month where food might lodge; and the whole or-
gan may be drawn back. The nerve supply to the
tongue is motor and sensory. The motor nerve
is the hypoglossal. The sensory nerves are the
lingual (or gustatory) branch of the fifth, which
confers sensibility on the mucous membrane of
the anterior two-thirds of the tongue; the lin-
gual branch of the glosso-pharyngeal, which con-
fers ordinary sensibility and the sense of taste on
- ~ 2 .-~- '
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the posterior third of the tongue; the chorda
tympani, which is the special nerve of taste for
the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.
The functions of the tongue are gustation, pre-
hension (in man and monkeys this function is
supplied by the hand), mastication, insalivation,
deglutition, and speech; to which may be added
spitting and whistling, and in the case of the
Gasteropoda, trituration of the food.
The tongue is subject to several diseases, among
which may be mentioned: Glossitis, or inflamma-
tion of the tongue, tuberculosis, and syphilis,
new growths, usually malignant in nature; cer-
tain affections which the mucous membrane of
the tongue shares with the skin, such as herpes,
lichen, and leucopathia. It is also subject to ex-
coriations, ulcers, and fissures. Macro-glossia is
a term applied to certain chronically enlarged
conditions of the tongue. It is a condition often
found in cretins and is probably due in this case
to alymphangioma.
Hypertrophy and also cancer may attack the
tongue.
TON’IC (from Gk. Tovucog, to/nilcos, relating
to tone, from Tévog, tonos, tone, sound, tension,
strength, cord). A medicine which acts upon
the nutrition of the various tissues so as to re-
store lost tone, not by increasing their contractil-
ity, but by increasing their power. They are to a
certain degree stimulant, but their effect is more
permanent, and without producing excitation or
elation. They do not rouse forces existing, but
by increasing nutrition increase power. Most
tonics act primarily through the nervous system,
their effects upon the muscular system being sec-
ondary. They are of special value during conva-
lescence, but are useless, if not harmful, during
inflammatory reaction. Among the tonics in the
materia. medica are the simple hitters, including
quassia, simaruba, gentian, nectandra, barberry,
columbo, boneset, goldthread, centaury, dogwood,
and salicin; the peculiar hitters, including wild
cherry, cinchona, quinine, and picric acid; the
aromatic bitters, including chamomile, snakeroot,
cascarilla, and angustura ; the true aromatics, in-
cluding cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, allspice, carda-
mom, ginger, black pepper, red pepper, caje ut,
and eucalyptus; and the mineral tonics, inc ud-
ing iron, sulphuric acid, muriatic acid, nitric
acid, nitromuriatic acid, lactic acid, and phos-
phorus. Most of these drugs are considered under
their own titles. Digestive power is increased
principally by the hitters, the aromatics, and the
acids. Nutrition is improved especially by iron.
Besides drugs, baths and massage are valuable
adjutants in acquiring strength and vigor.
Shower baths, cold sponge baths, sea bathing,
and out-of-door exercise are very decided tonics.
TONIC, or KEYNOTE. In music, the note
which forms the basis of any scale or key, and on
which a piece of music written in that key natu-
rally closes. The tendency of modern harmony is
to conceive the tonic not as a single tone, but as
a triad built upon that tone. See KEY; TONAL-
ITY.
TONICA, to-ne'ka, or TUNICA. A peculiar
tribe, constituting a distinct linguistic stock, who
lived, when first known to the French, about 1700,
on the Lower Yazoo River in Mississippi, near its
junction with the Mississippi, where a mission was
established among them. Probably at an earlier
period they had lived at the Tunica Old Fields in
the county bearing their name in the northwest-
ern corner of the same State. They made a close
alliance with the French, but were hostile to most
of their Indian neighbors, particularly the Chick-
asaw, and in 1706 nearly exterminated the
Huma in a massacre near New Orleans. Subse-
quently they removed to a location on the east
bank of the Mississippi, about opposite Pointe
Coupée, below Red River, where they still lived
in 1802, having then 120 men. In 1817 they were
settled about 90 miles up Red River, where the
remnant, of about 25 persons, was found near
Marksville, Louisiana, in 1886 by Gatschet, who
obtained the first vocabulary of their language._
TONIC SOL-FA. Various attempts have
been made at different times to introduce a musi-
cal notation in which the stafi’ with its lines and
TONIC SOL-FA.
TON LE SAP.
799
spaces is dispensed with. Jean Jacques Rousseau
suggested, but afterwards discarded, a notation
where the notes of the scale were indicated by the
Arabic numerals. A system similar to Rousseau’s
in its leading features, called the tonic sol-fa, has,
through the influence of its principal promoter,
the Rev. John Curwen (who obtained his main
principles from the writings and practice of Miss
Glover of Norwich), been brought into use to a
considerable extent in singing schools in England.
It proceeds on the principle of giving the chief-
prominence to the fact that there is in reahty
but one scale in music, which is raised or low-
ered according to the pitch of the key. This
method is a revival of the old solmization system
invented by Guido d’Arezzo. It admits, however,
the interval of the seventh, strictly excluded by
Guido. For the complicated music of modern
masters the tonic sol-fa is as inadequate as the
solmization system of Guido had been found. It
also favors the system of unequal temperament,
and this is directly opposed to the fundamental
principle of equal temperament, without which
the achievements of modern music would have
been impossible. It is, however, of undoubted
value as an educational system, since it can be
taught more quickly and with better immediate
results than the usual notation.
I TONK. A native Rajputana State in Central
India. Area, 1114 sq. miles. Population, in 1901,
143,330. Capital, Tonk.
TONK. The capital of the native Rajputana
State-of Tonk, Central India, near the river
Banas, 55 miles south of Jaipur (Map: India,
C 3) . It is defended by a mud fort and a wall.
Population, in 1891, 46,069; in 1901, 38,641, the
great decrease being largely attributable to the
famines of 1896-97 and 1899-1900.
TONKA, ton’ka. The Chinese name of Pu-
ket (q.v.).
TONKAWA, tong-ki-i’wa (from Hueco In-
dian tonlcaweya, many staying together). A
peculiar tribe, apparently constituting a distinct
linguistic stock, originally occupying the coun-
try about the Lower Colorado and Guadalupe
rivers in southeastern Texas. They call them-
selves Titskan-watich, ‘indigenous men.’ They
were chiefly noted for their cannibalism. They
roved from place to place, built circular, thatched
houses, lived entirely by hunting and wild fruits,
and were at war with almost all their neighbors,
by whom they were hated and despised as ‘man-
eaters.’ They appear to have had the clan sys-
tem and to have paid special reverence to the
wolf, whom, it is said, they claimed as their an-
cestor or teacher. According to their tradition
they came from the south, somewhere farther
down the coast, having been cut off from the rest
of their people by an invasion of the sea. In 17 60
some of them were attached to the San Antonio
missions. In 1849 they were reported to number
600 or 700, who had been driven to the Upper
Brazos on account of their depredations among
the American settlements near the coast. In the
fall of 1855, with several other small Texas
tribes, a part of them, to the number of 170, were
gathered upon a reservation on the Brazos, a
few miles below Fort Belknap, but they were re-
moved in 1859 to a new reservation on the Wash-
ita, near the present Anadarko, Oklahoma. Here
they remained until the outbreak of the Civil
War, when, on the pretext that they were about
to enter the Confederate service through the per-
suasions of their agent, who held a Confederate
commission, the other tribes took the opportunity
to wipe out old scores. With guns procured from
Fort Gibson a force of about 200 Shawnee, Dela-
ware, Caddo, and other Indians attacked the
agency and the neighboring Tonkawa village near
Anadarko on the night of October 25, 1862, and
killed one or two of the agency employees and 137
out of a total of about 320 Tonkawa men, women,
and children. The Tonkawa made a stout resist-
ance and inflicted severe loss upon the enemy. The
fugitive ‘survivors were gathered up by the Con-
federate authorities, and for several years after
the war led a vagrant existence in northern
Texas, most of the men enlisting as scouts against
the Comanche, Kiowa, and other wild tribes, who
took every occasion to retaliate, and forced the
Tonkawa to keep close to Fort Griflin on the
Brazos for protection. In 1875 they were reported
to number but 119, in a miserable condition and
dependent entirely on the pay of the able-bodied
men serving as scouts. In 1882 they were put in
charge of a special agent who reported them as
numbering then only 98, indolent, poor, honest,
and tolerably healthy, living in brush shelters
and dependent upon the whites. Two years after-
wards they were removed to a reservation in‘
northern Oklahoma. In 1903 they were reduced to
about 50, and derived their principal income
from the leasing of their surplus lands.
TONKUNSTLER-SOCIE-TAT. One of the
oldest musical societies of Vienna. It was
founded in 1771 by F. L. Gassmaim. Its object
is the production of large choral works, particu-
larly oratorios. The original chorus consisted of
400 members, which at times was increased to
700. One concert was given in Lent and another
in Advent. The proceeds were devoted to the
establishment of a pension fund for old members
and widows of members. In 1797 Wranitzky,
the friend of Haydn, reorganized the society.
Haydn himself became a member and presented to
the society the rights of the “Seasons” and
“Creation,” which generous gift placed the so-
ciety upon a sound financial basis and was large-
ly responsible for its subsequent prosperity. In
1865 the society was once more reorganized and
renamed in honor of its generous patron
“Haydn-Societat.” Consult Hanslick, Geschichte
des Konzertwesens in Wien (Vienna, 1869).
TONLE SAP, or TALE SAP. A lake of north-
western Cambodia, connected with the Mekong by
an arm of that river known also as Tonk Sap
(Map: French Indo-China, E 4). The lake acts
as a great reservoir. During the summer mon-
soon the waters of the Mekong back up through
the arm Tonle Sap, bringing the length of the
lake to about 120 miles; during the dry season
the lake is drained, by the same arm, to about
70 miles in length. During high water naviga-
tion is maintained from Saigon to Battumbang
in Siam. Approaching shores divide the lake
into sections, the Caman Dai in the northwest and
the Caman Tieu in the southeast.
TONLE SAP, or TALE SAP. A lake of north-
western Cambodia, connected with the Mekong by
an arm of that river known also as Tonle Sap
(Map: French Indo-China, E 4). The lake acts
TON LE- SAP.
TON SURE.
800
as a great reservoir. During the summer mon-
soon the waters of the Mekong back up through
the arm Tonle Sap, bringing the length of the
lake to about 120 miles; during the dry season
the lake is drained, by the same arm, to about
70 miles in length. During high water navi-
gation is maintained from Saigon to Battambang
in Siam. Approaching shores divide _the lake
into sections, the Caman Dai in the northwest
and the Caman Tieu in the southeast.
TONNAGE (formerly also tunnage, from
tun, ton, from OF. tonne, pipe, tun, ML. tunna,
OHG. tunna, Ger. Tonne, tun, both the Romance
and the Germanic words apparently borrowed
from Ir., Gael. tunna, tun. The tonnage of a
ship is its carrying capacity or weight expressed
in tons. There are in ordinary use four ways of
expressing it, gross tonnage, net tonnage, dead-
weight tonnage (or dead weight‘ carrying capa-
city), and displacement (q.v.) tonnage. The
gross tonnage of a ship is ascertained by dividing
by 100 the whole interior capacity (expressed in
cubic feet) of the hull of a ship and her inclosed
deckhouses; this method presumes that an aver-'
age cargo of light-weight freight will require not
far from 100 cubic feet for each ton of actual
weight. Net tonnage is derived from the gross ton-
nage by deducting the capacity of all spaces not
used, or capable of being used, for cargo or passen-
gers. The dead-weight tonnage is the actual weight
of cargo a vessel can carry without immersing her
too deeply for safety. Displacement tonnage is
the weight of ship and cargo or contents when
immersed to some fixed depth. In freighting
ships 40 cubic feet of merchandise is considered
a ton; but if that bulk exceeds 2240 pounds (or,
-in the United States, frequently 2000 pounds) the
charge is made by weight. See articles on DIS-
PLACEMENT; LOAD-LINE MARKS or VESSELS;
MEASUREMENT or SHIPS; and SHIPBUILDING.
TONNAGE and POUNDAGE. Certain du-
ties on wine and other merchandise, which began
to be levied in England in the reign of Edward
III. They were at first granted to the Crown by
the vote of Parliament for a limited number of
years, and renewed on their expiration. Originally
fluctuating in amount, tonnage and poundage
came to be fixed at 3s. on every tun of wine, and
5 per cent. on all goods imported. In the reign of
Henry V. they were first conferred on the King
for life; and the same course being followed with
his successors, the sovereign began gradually to
consider them as his proper right and inheritance,
and the vote of Parliament as but a formality ex-
pressive of the popular recognition of his preroga-
tive. It was usual to levy these duties during the
period intervening between a sovereign’s accession
and his first Parliament, and this was done by
Charles I. as by his predecessors. The Commons,
however, in Charles’s first Parliament accorded
these imposts not for life, but for a year only;
and the House of Lords objecting to this departure
from previous usages, and rejecting the bill, an
attempt was made to levy tonnage and poundage
by the royal authority alone, a proceeding which
aroused the opposition of the Commons. Charles
was, in 1.629, induced to pass an act renouncing
the power of levying these or any other imposts
without Parliamentary sanction. On the restora-
tion, Charles II. obtained a grant of tonnage and
poundage for life; but by three several statutes of
Anne and George 1. these imposts were made
perpetual and mortgaged for the public debt. The
duties were abolished in 1787.
TONOM’ETER (from Gk. 1-6110;, tonos, tone,
sgund, tension, strength, cord, /rérpov, metron,
measure). An instrument for measuring ten-
sion, as of the eyeball or of the blood pressure as
transmitted by the ventricles of the heart. Ha-
mer’s tonometer consists of a tube of metal, with
a peg or small rod projecting and so arranged
that a coiled watchspring matches its tension
against the tension of the body to which the peg
is pressed. Roy’s tonometer consists of a tube
containing oil in which a cylinder plays, carry-
ing a registering index.
TON QUIN ,, ton-kén’. A division of French
Indo-China. See TONGKING.
TONSBERG, tens’bar-y’. One of the oldest
towns of Norway, in the Amt of Jarlsberg and
Laurvik, on a fjord of the same name, 45 miles
south of Christiania (Map: Norway, D 7). The
seal and whale fisheries employ a large proportion
of its male population, with a fleet of some 120
vessels. Population, in 1900, 8620.
TONSIL. One of a pair of small ovoid bodies
situated between the pillars of the soft palate,
one on each side of the throat, corresponding in
position with the angles of the lower jaw. The
tonsil has about twelve spaces within its sub-
stance from which smaller follicular depressions
extend into its structure, and is classed with the
ductless glands. It is frequently inflamed after
infection by entrance of germs into the crypts
and follicles described. Severe suppurative dis-
ease about the tonsil causing swelling and dis-
placement of it is termed Quinsy (q.v.). See
' PALATE.
ToNsILLITIs. ' See PHARYNGITIS, Qmnsi
TON’SON, JAooB (c.1656-1736). A famous
London publisher. He opened his shop at the
J udge’s Head in Chancery Lane, near Fleet Street,
in 1678. Toward the close of the century he
moved to Gray’s Inn Gate, taking into company
with him his nephew, Jacob Tonson, and in 1710 ~
to the Shakespeare’s Head in the Strand. For
Dryden Tonson published several plays, the trans-
lation of Vergil (1697), and The Fables (1699).
He was also helped by Dryden to start the famous
M iscellanies, of which the first appeared in 1684.
With this prestige he became the popular pub-
lisher among the next generation of authors. He
bought out the rights in Milton’s Paradise Lost,
and from his press issued Rowe’s edition of
Shakespeare (1709). About 1700 he joined in
forming the famous Kit-Cat Club, of which he
Was made secretary. About 1703 he bought a
house at Barn Elms on the Thames, and built
a room for the club.
TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, a shearing, from
tondere, to shear, connected with Gk. révdsw,
tendein, to gnaw, 1-é/wsw, temnein, to out). A
religious observance of the Roman Catholic and
Oriental churches, which consists in shaving or
cutting the hair as a sign of the dedication of the
person to the special service of God and com-
monly to the public ministry of religion. It
would appear that the usage first arose in refer-
ence to the monastic rather than the clerical life.
Paulinus of Nola, in the end of the fourth or be-
ginning of the fifth century, alludes to it as then
TON SURE-.
TON TINE-.
801
in use among the Western monks; and it speedily
passed from them to the clergy. The form of the
tonsure was different in different churches. That
of the Roman Church, called ‘the tonsure of
Peter,’ consisted in shaving the crown as well as
the back of the head, so that there remaihed a
circular ring or ‘crown’ of hair. In the ‘Scottish
(or Irish) tonsure,’ the entire front of the head
was shaved, leaving the front bare as far back
as the line from ear to car. This tonsure was
called ‘the tonsure of James,’ and sometimes of
Simon Magus. The Greeks and other Orientals
shaved the entire head. Originally the tonsure
was merely the symbol of admission to the cleri-
cal state (see CLERK), but about the seventh cen-
tury it came to be used as a distinct and inde-
pendent ceremonial.
TONTINE. A tontine exists whenever sev-
eral persons are united in a group on such terms
that on the death of any member of the group
certain specified advantages previously enjoyed
by him are distributed among the surviving mem-
bers. The principle has been employed in many
kinds of transactions, of which the most impor-
tant are Government loans and life insurance.
The application of the tontine principle to Gov-
ernment loans began in the later Middle Ages.
The idea was introduced into France about the
middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian
_ named Lorenzo Tonti, but it had already long
been known in Italy "and Germany. It was one
of numerous devices adopted by various States to
induce the public to subscribe to Government
loans. The first French loan on this principle
_ was made in 1689, and the last one in 1759. Ex-
isting tontines were wound up in 1770 and life
annuities substituted for their privileges. The
English Government made less use of tontines
than the French. The earliest one was organized
' in 1692, and the third and last in 1789. There
were a few Irish tontines in the eighteenth cen-
tury. The idea was unattractive to the English
people, and none of the loans was fully sub-
scribed, although offered on very favorable terms.
A subscriber to a tontine loan was the buyer of
a life annuity, which increased in amount with
the death of any member of the class to which the
subscriber belonged. On the death of the last
survivor the obligation of the Government termi-
nated. In most cases the subscribers were di-
vided into classes according to age, the right of
survivorship prevailing only among the members
of the same age class. Sometimes the amount of the
annuity at the beginning varied for the different
classes. Thus in the first English loan the an-
nuity increased from class to class, being slightly
over 4 per cent. for those under twenty years of
age, and more than 5% per cent. for those over
sixty. ' Occasionally there were other limitations.
For example, the first English loan, which did not
classify subscribers according to age, provided
that when the number of survivors was reduced
to seven the right of survivorship should cease.
On the third loan it was stipulated that no sin-
gle annuity should exceed £1000. Nearly always
the subscriber to a loan had the privilege of nam-
ing any other person as the recipient of the life
annuity, with the natural result that a large pro-
portion of the annuitants were young. The fea-
ture of a tontine loan which was relied on to at-
tract subscribers was the great return secured by
those investors who lived longest.
It is obvious that a tontine loan is a very un-
wise fiscal measure. In the case of ordinary life
annuities it is fairly safe for the Government to
assume that premature deaths will largely offset
exceptionally long lives, but in the case of a ton-
tine there is no such balancing of extra short
and extra long lives. It is not the average dura-
tion of life of the group which determines the
amount of interest which the Government will
have to pay, but a much more uncertain thing,
the duration of the longest life.
The application of the tontine principle to life
insurance has taken two forms. Under the old
or full tontine plan, which was in use before the
days of surrender values, an insured person who
allowed his policy to lapse recovered nothing
from the company. The gain which the company
had made on his policy was put to the credit of
the other insured of the same class. At the end
of the tontine period all such profits were dis-
tributed among the members of the group
whose policies were still in force. After the in-
troduction of surrender values, partly under legal
compulsion and partly by the voluntary action of
the insurance companies, the so-called semi-ton-
tine plan was adopted. Under this plan there is
a similar division of surplus among those mem-
bers of the group whose policies are in force at
the end of the tontine period, but the surplus to
be divided is comparatively small. It arises
chiefly from two sources, from an expense rate
so low that some part of the loading of the pre-
mium is saved, and from an interest rate on in-
vestments higher than that assumed in calculat-
ing reserve values. A person taking out a semi-
tontine policy enters into an agreement with
the company that the profit thus arising on his
policy shall be put into a pool along with the
corresponding profit on other policies of the same
class, and that at the end of the tontine period,
which is usually ten, fifteen, or twenty years,
the pool shall be divided among those members
of the class whose policies are still in force.
The question of the desirability of applying
the tontine principle to life insurance has been
the occasion of much discussion. That the full
tontine plan was a bad one cannot be questioned,
but the evils arose more from the absence of
surrender values than from the tontine method
of distributing the surplus. For the semi-ton-
tine plan the purely financial argument would
seem, on the whole, favorable. In all forms of
life insurance the indemnities paid on the poli-
cies of those dying early are partly at the ex-
pense of those whose policies run a longer time.
The distribution of the surplus on the tontine
principle is at least a partial reparation. It
ought always to be clearly understood, however,
that the larger return to those whose policies
are kept in force to the end of the tontine period
necessarily means a smaller return to those who
die or whose policies terminate before that time.
The weightiest objection to tontine insurance is
a moral one. It is introducing additional un-
certainty into the transaction of life insurance,
where the speculative element is already large
and ought to be kept at a minimum.
Private tontines were by no means uncommon
down to the end of the eighteenth century. They
were frequently resorted to for the purpose of
raising money for purposes requiring large in-
vestments of capital. Large buildings in many
TONTINE-.
TOOKE-.
802
cities of the United States were erected by means
of capital raised in that way. At the present
time they are almost unknown, partly because
the abundance of capital has_ made it unnecessary
to resort to them, partly because the large ele-
ment of uncertainty involved in them is incon-
sistent with the spirit of modern business.
TONTY, or TONTI, toN’te’, HENRI DE (c.1650-
c.1704). A companion of La Salle (q.v.) in the
exploration of the Mississippi Valley. He was
a native of Gaeta, in Italy, and at an early age
entered the military service of France. In July,
1678, he went with La Salle to Quebec and with
him went to the Niagara River, where a vessel
was built under Tonty’s direction (January,
1679). In the autumn of the same year Tonty
sailed up along the eastern shore of Lake Michi-
gan and met his chief at the Saint Joseph River.
In March, 1680, he was left by La Salle in com-
mand of Fort Crevecoeur, in the Illinois country.
Forced to flee by a mutiny among his soldiers, he
made his way to Green Bay, where he passed the
winter of 1680-81, and in May met La Salle at
Miehillimackinac. In 1682 he was with La
Salle in the memorable voyage down the Missis-
sippi and in May of that year he was dispatched
to Mackinac for supplies. In December Fort
Saint Louis was erected at Starved Rock, on the
Illinois, and Tonty was left in charge. In 1685 he
took part in an expedition of the Illinois Indians
against the Senecas and in 1687 he was with
Denonville in the expedition against the English
colonies. In February of the preceding year he
had descended the -Iississippi in search of
La Salle. He continued to live among the Illi-
nois Indians till 1702, when he joined Iberville
in Louisiana.. Spurious memoirs were published
under his name at Paris in 1697 under the title,
Der-niere découverte de la Salle dans l’Amérique
septentriona-le. His real memoirs were published
by Margry in Origines francaises des pays
d’outremer (Paris, 1877-79).
TOOKE, JOHN HORNE (1736-1812). An Eng-
lish etymologist and political adventurer. He
was born in London, and was the son of John
Horne, a poulterer. He was educated at West-
minster and Eton, and at Saint John’s College,
Cambridge. He entered the Church strongly
against his own wish, and in 1760 became curate
at New Brentford. In 1763 he traveled in
France for a year as the tutor of the son of John
Elwes, and two years later, while acting as the
tutor of another boy, he met John Wilkes (q.v.) .
\Vhen Wilkes stood as a candidate for the County
of Middlesex, Tooke zealously aided him, but the
pair afterwards quarreled. Tooke still, however,
continued to meddle in political affairs, and
ventured to encounter Junius, with whom some
have even sought to identify him. In 1773 he
resigned his living at New Brentford, and com-
menced the study of law. About this time he
rendered some important private service to
Tooke of Purley in Surrey, who intended to make
him his heir. In consequence he adopted the
surname of Tooke, by which he is now known.
In 1775 he was fined and imprisoned in the
King’s Bench for publishing an advertisement in
which he accused the King’s troops of barbar-
ously murdering the Americans at Lexington.
While in prison he penned his celebrated Letter
to Mr. Dunning (dated April 21, 1778), in which
are to be found the germs of his Diversions of
Purley. On his release Tooke made an attempt
to gain admission to the bar, but was refused on
the ground of his clerical orders. Soon afterwards
he returned to political writing, and in a Letter
on Parliamentary Reform advocated universal
sufirage. In the struggle between Pitt and
Fox he wrote pamphlets on the side of the
former, but soon got to hate Pitt, as he had
learned to hate most other public men. In
1786 appeared the first volume of his famous
Epea Pteroenta, or the Diversions of Purley
(vol. ii., 1805), a work on the analysis and ety-
mology of English words. Tooke’s passion for
politics soon drew him from literature into pub-
lic life, and in 1801 he, the great enemy of rotten
boroughs, entered Parliament for the most notori-
ous rotten borough in England—Old Sarum; but
he made no figure there. The best edition of the
Diversions of Purley is that of Taylor (London,
1840). Consult Stephens, Memoirs of John
Horne Tooke (London, 1813).
TOOKE, THOMAS (1774-1858). A British
economist, was born in Saint Petersburg. In
1804 he became partner in a prominent Russian
house in London ; later he became director of
the Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation;
president of the Calhamie Dock Company; mem-
ber of the managing board of the London and
Birmingham Railway. He was a member of the
first great Factory Commission, and president of
the commission appointed to inquire into the evils
of child labor in factories. From his practical ex-
perience in the Russian trade Tooke developed
a strong antipathy to governmental interference
in foreign commerce. He was author of the
Merchants’ Petition in favour of Free Trade,
presented to Parliament in 1820. He was
chiefly interested, however, in questions relating
to money and banking. In these subjects he is
regarded as one of the best authorities of the
times. He was the leading opponent of the
‘quantity theory’ of money, and was a harsh
critic of Paul’s Banking Act of 1844. He was
author of several works on currency problems,
of which the most important are his On the Cur-
rency in connection with the Corn Trade, and
on the Corn Laws (1820) ; Considerations on the
State of the Currency (1826) ; An Inquiry into
the Currency Principles and the Connection of
the Currency with Price (1844); A History of
Prices——1’7’93-1856 (1838-1857), six vols., the last
two written in collaboration with W. Newmarch.
TOOKE, VVILLIAM (1744-1820). An English
historian, born at Islington, London, and edu-
cated there at an academy. Taking holy orders
in 1771, he became chaplain to the English
church at Kronstadt, in Russia, and three years
later chaplain to the English merchants at Saint
Petersburg. Coming into possession of a fortune,
he resigned in 17 92, and returned to London,
where he devoted the rest of his life to literature.
His most valuable work was in Russian history,
based upon research in the Imperial Library at
Saint Petersburg. It embraces mainly The Life
of Catharine II., partly a translation from
the French (1798) ; A View of the Rus-
sian Empire During the Reign of Catharine
II ., and to the Close of the Present Century
(1799) ; and A History of Russia from the Foun-
dation of the Monarchy by Rurilc to the Acces-
TOOKIE-.
TOPAZ.
803
sion of Catharine II. (1800). He published nu-
merous miscellaneous books, as The Loves of Oth-
niel and Achsah, a Chaldee romance (1769);
Varieties of Literature (1795) ; and Lucian
of Samosata, from the Greek, with the com-
ments of Wieland and others (1820). His son,
VVILLIAM TOOKE (1777-1863), took a prominent
part in founding University College, London,
and also the Society for the Difl’usion of Useful
Knowledge. He was also a member of the Royal
Society and president .of the Society of Arts.
He edited the poems of Churchill, compiled The
Monarchy of France (1855), and published a
volume of verse.
TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1832——). An
English comedian, born in London. He made
his début in London at the Haymarket Theatre
in 1852. Upon the opening of the new Adelphi
Theatre by Benjamin Webster in 1859, Toole
became the leading comedian, and there, in 1862,
he appeared in his great part of Caleb Plummer,
in Boucicault’s dramatization of The Cricket on
the Hearth. In 1868 he played the Artful Dodger
at the Queen’s Theatre, with Henry Irving as
Bill Sykes. He visited America in 1875, and in
1890 made a successful trip to Australia. He
opened Toole’s Theatre (the Folly Theatre re-
constructed) in November, 1880, and managed
it as a home of comedy for a number of years.
Consult: Toole’s R-eminiscences, chronicled by
Joseph Hatton (London, 1888); Matthews and
Hutton, Actors and Actresses of Great Britain
and the United States (New York, 1886) ; Scott,
The Drama of Yesterday and To-day (London,
1899).
TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810-85). An American
statesman, born at Washington, Ga. He studied
at the State University at Athens and graduated
(1828) at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. He
studied law at the University of Virginia, and
began practice in Wilkes County, Ga. After
service against the Creeks in 1836 and several
years in the Georgia Legislature as a States’
Rights Whig, he was elected to Congress in 1844
and held his seat for four terms, until 1853, when
he was elected to the United States Senate, and
in 1859 reelected. He opposed the Mexican war
and the annexation of territory by force, aided in
the adoption of the Compromise of 1850, opposed
the Nashville Convention, and helped secure the
famous ‘Georgia Platform.’ As an impassioned
political speaker he had few equals. The move-
ment of secession had his full approval; and
it was chiefly his influence, in opposition to the
more conservative views of his life-long friend,
Alexander H. Stephens, that led his State to
pass its ordinance of secession, to which there
was a strong opposition, especially among the
‘old line Whigs.’ On the election of Davis,
Toombs was offered the office of Secretary of
State, and with reluctance accepted it for a short
time, on his resignation receiving a commission
as brigadier-general. He served in the second
battle of _Bull Run and at Sharpsburg, and later
was made brigadier-general of the Georgia
militia. After the war he lived for some time
abroad; then from 1867 he carried on a success-
ful law practice at his old home, being especially
serviceable to Georgia by winning his contention
that railroads should pay taxes like other prop-
erty. He was noted for his brilliant wit, his
legal sagacity, and his benevolence. He was a
bitter opponent of the ‘Reconstruction’ measures,
and never took the oath of allegiance. He is
mainly remembered as one of the most typical
and vigorous of the so-called Southern ‘fire-
eaters.’ Consult Trent, Southern Statesmen of
the ‘Old Régime (New York, 1897 ).
TOON (Hind. tun, tun, from Skt. tunna,
toon); or TOONA (Ce-drela Toona). A tree of
the natural order Cedrelaceae, one of the larg-
est timber trees of India, occurring also in
Australia, where it attains a height of 150 to
180 feet and a diameter of 5 to 7 feet. Hooker
mentions one which he measured in India which
was 30 feet in girth at 5 feet above the ground.
The flowers are used in India for dyeing. The
tree, sometimes called bastard cedar, occurs at
4000 feet on the Himalaya Mountains, and is
found in the farthest south of the East Indies.
The bark contains considerable tannin and is
used to produce a kind of purplish leather. The
wood is soft, durable, easily worked, and ex-
tensively used in house-building and for furni-
ture. Veneers cut from the roots or from the
trunks where large branches occur are said to be
very beautiful. The timber is exported from
India in considerable quantities, being known
in the English market as Moulmein cedar.
TOOTHACHE TREE. See ARALIA;
TI-IOXYLUM.
TOOTH-BILLED PIGEON. An extraordi-
nary member of the pigeon tribe (Didunculus
strigirostris) native to Samoa, and alone repre-
senting a separate family (Didunculidaa). This
species, known to the Samoans as manu-mea, or
‘redbird,’ is about one foot long, and glossy
greenish black, with a chestnut tinge on the
upper pa.rts and brown on the wing-quills and
abdomen. Its most striking characteristic is a
great orange-colored, hawk-like, toothed bill,
suitable for gathering the bananas and other
large fruits upon which it lives. It was origi-
nally wholly terrestrial in its habits, spending
its time on the wooded mountain sides, where it
roosted on rocks and stumps and nested on the
ground, rarely gathering into parties. It was
hunted for food. This circumstance, the fact
that it laid but a single egg, and the introduc-
tion by white settlers of cats, rats, and guns,
led not only to its speedier destruction, but to
an interesting change in habits, since it soon re-
sorted much more to tall trees than previously
and placed its nest on high branches. See Plate
of Pronons.
TOPAZ (Lat. topazion, topaeus, from Gk.
T01.-ci§1ov, r6naCog, topaz; possibly connected with
Skt. tapas, heat, but, according to Pliny, de-
rived from the name of an island Topazu-s, con-
jectured to be in the Red or in the Arabian Sea,
from Gk. m1.-era», topaeein, to conjecture). A
mineral aluminum fluosilicate, crystallized in
the orthorhombic system. It has avitreous lustre,
and may be colorless, yellow, green, blue, or red.
Topaz occurs in gneiss or granite associated
with beryl, mica, tourmaline, etc., and occasion-
ally with apatite, cassiterite, and fluorite, and
also in certain talcose rocks, in mica slate, in
rhyolite, and in alluvial deposits and drift. The
crystallized varieties, owing to their hardness,
are valued as gem-stones, and the best varie-
ties come from Ceylon and other parts of India,
the Urals, Minas Geraes, Brazil, and in the
XAN-
TOPAZ.
TOPEKA.
804
United States from various localities in Maine,
Colorado, and Utah. The name topaz was ap-
pliey by Pliny and others to yellow crystals, prob-
ably chrysolite. Among the ancients it was re-
garded as symbolical of friendship; when worn
as an amulet it was said to drive away sadness
and nightmares, strengthening the intellect and
bestowing courage; mounted in gold and hung
around the neck, it dispelled enchantment; and
when worn on the left hand it preserved its
wearer from sensuality. It was considered fa-
vorable for hemorrhages, also imparting strength
and good digestion. When powdered and taken
in wine it was believed capable of curing asthma
and insomnia. The true Oriental topaz is the
yellow sapphire, and the Saxon, Scotch, Spanish,
smoky, and false topaz are yellow varieties of
quartz.
TOPE (Hind. top, from Pali, Prak. thdpa,
from Skt. st/zipa, mound, accumulation). The
vernacular name of Buddhistic monuments intend-
ed for the preservation of relics. In Ceylon and
elsewhere they are also called dagops; and another
of their designations is chaitya. Tope is the
name of those monuments in regard to their
shape; dagop, in regard to their purpose; and
chaitya the general term. Technically, the stupa
is a form of tope which does not contain a relic,
but is merely a memorial. -The oldest topes are in
the shape of cupolas, generally spherical, but
sometimes elliptical, resting on a cylindrical or
quadrangular or polygonal base, which rises
either in a straight or inclined line, or in terraces.
The top of the cupola, surrounded by a balcony of
pillars of a peculiar kind, is crowned by a-
structure generally quadrangular, but some-
times in the shape of a reversed pyramid of a
few steps; and over this structure is a roof in
the shape of an extended parasol. The cupola
was sometimes ornamented with more than one
parasol; in some of the topes of Sanchi there
are three, and even five parasols side by side,
the middle one exceeding the others in height.
The different arrangement of these parasols, es-
pecially when their number increased, led to a
difi'eren_t shape of the topes, such as occurs, for
instance, in China and Tibet. This arrange-
ment consists in placing them one over the
other; and not only three or five, but even seven,
nine, or more are so placed, and the topes, in-
stead of having the character of cupolas, now
assumed that of pyramids resting on a cupola
base, the parasols gradually giving way to a
real pyramidal form. In some monuments of
this class, however, the cupola was placed above,
when the base consists of round or quadrangular
towers rising in a spiral form, or in several
stories. The Chinese, on the contrary, rejected
the cupola altogether, and merely retained the
succession of parasols extended one over the
other, converting them into a many-storied tow-
er; and the same is the case with the topes of
the Mongols, the ssuvurghans, which are pyra-
mids erected on a low quadrangular base. The
top of the pyramidal topes always carries some
metal ornament, frequently gilt, resembling a
parasol, or a needle, or a trident, or a rising
flame. The height of these buildings varies from
a few feet to 300 and even more. If erected in
cave-temples the tope generally stands at the
end of a long hall especially cut out for it, but
sometimes also in the sanctuary of the cave-
temple itself; if erected overground it stands
always in the vicinity of a temple or convent.
In the interior of~ the tope is the cell or
chamber (dhatugarbha) where the box contain-
ing the relics and the ‘seven precious things’ was
placed. These seven precious things are differ-
ently enumerated; according to one account they
are gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, red pearl,
diamond, and coral; others mention ruby and
emerald; and others again omit gold and silver.
In several cells which have been opened the
box contained, besidesthe relics, precious stones
of various kinds, golden ornaments, and coins;
and the box itself generally consisted of an
outer casement of stone, clay, or bronze, which
inclosed a silver cylinder, and within this a gold-
en cylinder, which was the real receptacle of the
relics. Both cylinders had generally a convex
lid, representing the shape of the cupola, and the
box exhibited inscriptions commemorating the
name of the saint to whom the ashes or other
relics contained in it had belonged. , It seems
that there are also topes which had the relics
placed, not within, but under them. The cupola
of the topes was intended to represent the water-
bubble, the Buddhistic symbol of the hollowness
and perishability of the world, while the parasol
of the topes was intended to imply the royal
dignity possessed by a Buddhistic saint. When
the topes became pyramids or towers consisting
of terraces and stories, the number of the latter
had likewise a symbolical import. Thus, only
the topes of the most accomplished Buddhas
had thirteen terraces, to show that these Bud-
dhas had passed beyond the twelve causes of
existence; three terraces imply the three worlds
—the world of desire, that of form, and that of
absence of form; five, the five steps of Mount
Meru; and so on.
The most important is the Bhilsa group in
Central India, of which the most famous is the
Sanchi Stupa, and near it are two minor groups,
at Sonari and Satdhara. In Bengal is that of
Sarnath, one hundred and twenty-eight feet high.
The great tope at Amravati is the most interest-
ing for the wealth and beauty of its sculptures.
Others are at Gandhara, Telelabad, and Menikal-
ya. The sculptured rails are described under
INDIAN ART. See Koeppen, Die Religion des
Buddha (Berlin, 1857); Fergusson, History of
Indian and Eastern Arch-itecture(London, 187 6) .
TOPE. A small European shark (Galeorhinus
galeus). It is represented on the Western Amer-
ican coast by the so-called ‘oil’ or ‘soup-fin’
shark (Ga-leorhinus eyopterus), about six feet
long and gray with black-edged dorsals. The
name is also given to the related small dog-shark
(Mustelus canis) of the North Atlantic. See
Plate of LAMPREYS AND Doerrsn.
TOPE’KA. The capital of Kansas, and the
county seat of Shawnee County, 66 miles west
of Kansas City; on the Kansas River, and
on the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific, the
Atchison, Topeka and Sa.nta Fe, and the Chicago,
Rock Island and Pacific railroads (Map: Kan-
sas, G 2). It is situated on rolling prairie
land, at an elevation of over 800 feet, and cov-
ers an area of about 7 square miles. Beautiful
shade trees and handsome residences add to the
city’s attractiveness. The most notable struc-
ture is the State Capitol, in the heart of the city.
TO]?E-KA-
TOPHET.
805
Other noteworthy edifices are the Public Library
(containing 24,000 volumes), the United States
Government Building, the county court-house,
and the city hall and auditorium. The Melan
Arch Bridge, which cost $150,000, possesses con-
siderable architectural merit. Topeka is the
seat of Washburn College (Congregational),
opened in 1865; of the College of the Sisters of
Bethany (Protestant Episcopal), opened in
1861; and of the Kansas Medical College. The
State Insane Asylum and the State Reform
School are also here. The prominent local chari-
table institutions include the Santa Fe Railway
Hospital, the Jane C. Stormont Hospital and
Training School for Nurses, Christ Hospital,
Bedwell’s Private Insane Asylum, Detention
Hospital, and Ingleside, a home for aged women.
The industrial interests are centred chiefly in
the extensive shops of the Santa Fe Railroad,
and in the manufacture of flour. Of the smaller
establishments, the most important are found-
ries and machine shops, lumber mills, and manu-
factories of boilers, trusses, woolen goods, etc.
In the census year 1900 the total capital in-
vested in all industries was $3,891,530; the value
of their output amounted to $9,977,605. Consid-
erable wholesale and jobbing business is carried
on in Topeka. The government is vested in a
mayor, chosen biennially, and a unicameral coun-
cil. Subordinate oflicials, with the exception of
the board of education, which is elected by
popular vote, are appointed by the mayor, sub-
ject to confirmation of the council. The electric
light plant and the water-works are owned by
the municipality. The city spends annually for
maintenance -and operation about $323,000, the
chief items being: schools, $102,000; interest
on debt, $52,000; streets, $33,000; fire depart-
ment, $28,000; and police department, $25,000.
Population, in 1890, 31,007 ; in 1900, 33,608.
Topeka, laid out in 1854, was one of the ‘Free
State’ towns founded by Eastern anti-slavery
men immediately after the passage of the ‘Kan-
sas-Nebraska Bill.’ In 1856 an anti-slavery con-
vention adopted here the ‘Topeka Constitution,’
in pursuance of which the ‘Topeka Government’
was established, to be soon broken up by the
United States troops. During this year Topeka
became notorious for the raids made by its citi-
zens on pro-slavery settlements. In 1857 Topeka
was chartered as a city, becoming a city of the
first class in 1881. It was made the capital of the
State in 1861. Consult Giles, Thirty Years in
Topeka, a Historical Sketch (Topeka, 1886).
TOPELIUS, to-pa’le-us, ZACHRIS (1818-98).
A Swedish-Finnish poet and novelist, born at
Kuddniis, near Ny Karleby, and educated at the
University of Helsingfors. In 1863 he became
professor of the history of Finland and the North
at the university. He resigned his professor-
ship in 1878. As a lyric poet he was second
only to Runeberg, and his children’s stories have
been translated into many languages. His pub-
lications include: Ljungblommor (“Flowers of
the Heath,” 3 parts, 1845-50); Efter femtio ar
'(play: “After Fifty Years,” 1851); Ftiltslolirns
Berattelser (“Tales of an Army Surgeon,” 1853-
' 67) ; Liisning fiir Burn (“Children’s Stories,” 7
parts, 1865-91); and En resa i Finland (“A
Journey in Finland,” 2 ed. 1885).
TOPE-TE, Y CARRALLD, to-pa’ta e kar-bii’lyo,
JUAN BANTISTA (1821-85). A Spanish admiral
and politician, born at San Andrés de Tuztla,
Mexico. He entered the navy at the age of seven-
teen and became midshipman in 1843 and lieu-
tenant two years later. From 1846 to 1849 he
served in Cuban waters and subsequently was on
duty in the Mediterranean. He was promoted to
the captaincy of a frigate in 1857 and during the
war with Morocco in 1859 was chief of staff to
the fleet. About this time he formed political
affiliations with the Union Liberal Party under
O’Donnell and in 1862 was elected to the Cortes
from Cadiz. He was on the Pacific station dur-
ing the conflict with Peru and Chile in 1865-66
and was severely wounded in the bombardment of
Callao in May of the latter year. Made brigadier
on his return and placed in command of the port
of Cadiz he took an active part in the political
conspiracies of the times and by his pronuncia-
mento of September 17, 1868, gave the signal for
the outbreak of the Revolution which drove Isa-
bella II. from the throne. He sent a ship to
bring back the generals who had been deported to
the Canaries (see SPAIN) and after he had been
joined by Prim and Sagasta won over the city of
Cadiz to the Revolution. In the provisional
government Topete assumed the portfolio of
Marine. He favored the election of the Duke of
Montpensier to the throne and laid down his post
when the choice fell upon Amadeus of Savoy. In
1872, however, he resumed office under Serrano
and during the latter’s absence from the capital
presided over the Ministerial Council. In the
Revolution of 1873 he was imprisoned for a short
time but regained influence under the presidency
of Serrano who placed him once more at the
head of the navy. VVith Serrano he fought
against the Carlists in the north. On the acces-
sion of Alfonso XII. Topete retired from'aetive
participation in politics. In 1879 he was made
a life Senator and in 1881 became vice-admiral.
He died at Madrid, October 29, 1885.
TOPFFER, tepf’er, RODOLPIIE (1799-1846). A
Swiss novelist and draughtsman, born in Geneva,
son of the landscape and genre painter Adam
Tiipffer (1766-1847), under whose instruction he
devoted himself to art. His eyesight failing, he
took up teaching, in 1825, established a boarding
school, and in 1832 became professor of aesthetics
at the Academy of Geneva. His novel Le pres-
bytere (1839) attracted universal attention. The
Nouoelles geneooises (1838), Nou/velles et mé-
langes (1840), La bibliothégue de mon oncle
(1843), and Rose et Gertrude (1845) are hard-
ly less delightful than the humorous sketches of
travel Voyages en zigzag (1848) and Nou/veauw
voyages en zigzag (1853), illustrated by himself.
A little archaic in style, his work is simple,
artistic, sound, and witty, with a childlike fancy
and sentiment. Among his best productions are
the seven little novels in pictures: Mr. Jabot,
Mr. Crepin, Mr. Pencil, Le docteur Festus, His-
toire d’A_lbert, Les amours de Mr. Vieuw Bois,
and Mr. Cryptogame, published together in Collec-
tion des histoires en estampes (Geneva, 1846-47).
For his biography consult Relave (Paris, 1886) ;
Blondel and Mirabaud (ib., 1887) ; and Glbckner
(Zerbst, 1891).
TOPHET, to’fet (Heb. to'pheth). A place in
the Valley of Hinnom, south of Jerusalem,
associated with the worship of Molech (11. Kings
xxiii. 10; Is. xxx. 33; Jer. vii. 31-32; xix.
6, 12-14). The origin and meaning of the name
TOPHE-T.
TORBE-RT.
806
LECH.
TOPINARD, to'pe’nar’, PAUL (1830—). A
French anthropologist, born at Isle-Adam (Seine-
et-Oise) . He spent ten years in the United States,
returned to study medicine in Paris, and estab-
lished himself there in 1869, but after 1871
gave up his practice in order to study anthro-
pology under Broca. He became curator for the
Société d’Anthropologie in 1872, assistant di-
rector of the anthropological laboratory in the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, professor in the school
of anthropology (1876), and secretary-general
of the Sociéte d’Anthropologie after Broca’s
death in 1880. He also succeeded Broca as ed-
itor of the Revue Anthropologique, was com-
missioner for the section of anthropology at the
exhibition of 1889, and in that year was ad-
mitted to the Legion of Honor. His publica-
tions include Etude sur la taille considerée
suivant l’¢ige, le seece, l’individu, les milieuac et
les races (1865) ; Etude sur les races indige‘nes
d’Australie (1872); L’Anthropologie (1876);
Des anomalies de nombre de la colonne verte-
brale chee l’homme (1877) ; and Eléments d’an-
thropologie générale (1885) .
TOP’LADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-
78). A clergyman of the Church of England.
He was born at Farnham, Surrey, and was edu-
cated at Westminster School and Trinity College,
Dublin (B.A. 1760). He was ordained priest in
17 64 and became rector of Broad Hembury in
1768. In 1775 failing health necessitated his re-
moval to London, where he died of consumption,
August 14, 1778. He was the great champion of
Calvinism in the Church of England, and wrote
much against the Methodists, with vigor of lan-
guage and argument, but often with undue as-
perity of style. He is best known as the au-
thor of the popular hymn “Rock of Ages, Cleft
for Me” (1775). He edited for several years the
Gospel M agazine. His controversial works,
mostly in reply to Wesley, are numerous. The
best was The Historic Proof of the Doctrinal
Calvinism of the Church of England (1774).
His works were published with memoir (6 vols.,
1794; 2d ed., 1825); there is another memoir
by W. Winters (London, 1872). Of his poetry
the best edition is by D. Sedgwick (London,
1860).
TOPLER, tep’ler, AUGUST (1836—). A Ger-
man physicist. He was born in Briihl, on the
Rhine, and was educated in Berlin, and after
various minor appointments became professor
at the Polytechnic School in Riga in 1864, and
in 1868 professor of physics in Gratz, where he
built the Physical Institute. In 1876 he was
called to the professorship of physics in the
Polytechnic Institute in Dresden. He devised
numerous forms of apparatus, especially in con-
nection with optical and electrical phenomena.
The electrical machine that bears his name is
perhaps the best known of his inventions. Be-
sides numerous papers he wrote Optische
Studien nach der M ethode der Schlierenbeobach-
tung (1865).
TOPLITZ, t<”ep'lits. A town of Austria. See
TEPLITZ.
TOP-MINNOW.
the extensive genus Gambusia.
One of the minnows of
They are small
are uncertain. See HINNOM, VALLEY or; Mo-
viviparous fishes inhabiting still waters in the
Southern States, Mexico, and Cuba, and keeping
near the surface of the water. See MINNOW;
and Plate of KILLIFISHES AND TOP-MINNOWS.
TOP-SHELL. A mollusk of the scutibran-
chiate family Trochidae, so called because the
shell, when reversed, often
presents a striking simi-
larity in shape to a boy’s
top. When ground and
polished they are ex-
tremely beautiful, and
are largely used as orna-
ments. The operculum
is horny, circular, multi-
spiral, and has a central
nucleus; and these oper-
culae were formerly high-
ly valued in the East to
serve the purpose of an artificial eye. These
mollusks dwell in great numbers and variety
along all weedy coasts, and feed upon marine
herbage.
TOPSY. A typical young slave in Uncle
Tom’s Cabin. She is ignorant and morally un-
developed, but shrewd and cunning.
TORAH, or THORAH, to’ra (Heb. hat-
to‘r-ah, law, direction, Babylon. tertu, oracle, di-
vine revelation). The Hebrew term technically
applied to the Pentateuch. Besides the term
Torah, there is also used T6rath 1lJo‘she, i.e. Law
of Moses, on the basis of the tradition which
ascribes the whole Pentateuch (the historical
as well as the legal portions) to Moses. Traces
of the original sense of Torah as ‘oracle’ are to
be found in various passages of the Old Testa-
ment. Consult Haupt, “Babylonian Influence in
the Levitic Ritual,” in the Journal of Biblical
Literature, vol. xix. (1900) ; Zimmern, Beitniige
cur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion (Leip-
zig, 1896-1900).
TORBANEHILL MINERAL.
BANITE.
TORBANITE, TORBANEHILL MINERAL, or
BOGHEAD COAL. A dark brown variety of can-
nel coal found at Torbanehill, near Bathgate,
Scotland. It contains over 60 per cent. of
volatile matter and is extensively used for the
extraction of burning and lubricating oils,
paraffin, and illuminating gas.
TOIVBERT, ALFRED THOMAS ARCHIMEDES
(1833-80). An American soldier, born at
Georgetown, Del. He graduated at West Point
in 1855. In 1861 he took part in the Peninsular
campaign and in August, 1862, became com-
mander of a brigade of the Sixth Corps, which
he led during the campaigns of Northern Vir-
ginia and Maryland, participating in the second
battle of Bull Run and in the battles of South
Mountain and Antietam. He was commissioned
brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862, and by
his gallantry at Gettysburg earned the brevet of


TOP-SHELL ( Troch us Nile-
ticus).
See Ton-
major in the Regular Army. In April, 1864, he_
was transferred to the cavalry, and was placed in
command of the First Division of the Army of the
Potomac. He commanded at the actions of Han-
overtown, Matadequin Creek, VVinchester,
Kearnysville, Milford, Luray, Waynesborough,
Mount Crawford, Ponis Run, Liberty Mills,
and Gordonsville. He was brevetted major-
TORBE-RT.
TOBLON IA.
807
general of volunteers in 1864, and in the Regular
Army in 1865. He was mustered out of the
volunteer service in 1866, and resigned his com-
mission in the Regular Army. In 1869 he was
appointed United States Minister to the Cen-
tral American States; in 1871 was transferred
as consul-general to Havana, Cuba; and in
1873 was transferred as consul-general to Paris,
France. This last office he held until 1878. He
was drowned in a wreck off Cape Canaveral, Fla.
TORCELLO, tor-chel’lo. A small town and
island in the lagoon of Venice, Italy, six miles
northeast of Venice. The seventh-century Byzan-
tine cathedral, Santa Maria, has a gorgeous
twelfth-century mosaic representing biblical
scenes. The Santa Fosca Church is also archi-
tecturally interesting. There are two small mu-
seums of antiquities. The population of the isl-
and is about 130.
TORCH DANCE. Specifically, a ceremony
held at certain European courts, especially that
of Prussia, upon the marriage of any member
of the ruling house. It is participated in by
Ministers of State and Privy Councilors, as well
as by the members of the royal family- Its most
striking feature is a march or procession about
a hall of the palace by the bride and bridegroom
accompanied by their relatives and led by the
Ministers and Councilors, in Pairs, all of whom
carry lighted wax candles. The torch dance is
probably a survival from early fire-worship cere-
monials, which under various forms appeared
sporadically in Europe during the Middle Ages.
TOR/DA. A town of Hungary. See
THOBENBURG.
TORIDESILLAS, tor'da-se1'yas, CoNvEN'rIoN
‘or. See DEMARCATION, LINE or.
TO’RELL, OTTO MARTIN (1828-1900). A
Swedish naturalist, born at Warberg. He studied
medicine and the natural sciences at Lund and
then traveled through Scandinavia, Switzerland,
and Iceland engaged in scientific investigation.
In 1858 he accompanied Nordenskjiild to Spitz-
bergen, thence making his way to Greenland, and
in 1861 he went again with Nordenskjiild to
Spitzbergen. Five years afterwards he was ap-
pointed professor of zoiilogy and geology at
Lund. In 1871 he was called to Stockholin as
chief of the Geological Survey. His map of
Sweden ranks with the best that have been
made. Besides many papers on the Ice Age and
upon animal life in the North, he wrote an ac-
count of the Swedish expeditions to Spitzbergen
of 1861, 1864, and 1868.
TORELLI, to-rel’lé, ACHILLE (1844—). An
Italian dramatist, born at Naples. He wrote his
first comedy, Dopo morte, at the age of sixteen-
a piece still played under the title Chi muore,
glace. In 1867 his I mariti scored a tremendous
triumph, which, however, was not repeated. In
1878 he was made director of the San Carlo
Theatre at Naples. His other plays include:
Prima di nascere (1862); Il precettore del re
(1863) ; Il colore del tempo (1875) ; and Scrol-
lina (1880).
TORELLI, GIUSEPPE (c.1660-1708). ' An
Italian violinist and composer, born in Verona,
originator of the Concerto grosso. This form of
music remained in favor until the time of -Handel
and prepared the way for the modern symphony.
With Corelli, Torelli was the principal musician
of his time. He became connected with the
Church _of San Petronio at Bologna (1685), joined
the Accademia Filarmonica of that city, and in
1703 was made concert master to the Margrave
of Brandenburg.
TORELLI-TOBRIANI, to-r're-a/ne, MARIA.
An Italian novelist, born at Novara, better
known under her pseudonym Marchesi Colombi.
She prepared for a pedagogical career, but, fail-
ing to secure a position, resorted to her pen,
and after marrying, in 1869, Eugenio Torelli-
Viollier, editor of the Oorriere della Sera
in Milan, produced a series of tales which
made her widely popular. Her first book,
La gente per bene (1877), created a sensation,
and was followed by the novel Tempesta e
bonaccia (1878), which, however, did not attain
to the merit of the tale Risaja (1877), a touch-
ing' description of peasant misery. Her other
publications include: Piccole cause (1879) ; Sena’
amore (1883); Il tramonto d’un ideale (1883) ;
Giornate piopose (1884) ; Prima morire (1887) ;
Troppo-tardi (1890) ; Cara speranza (1895) ; Le
gioie degli altri (1900); and the collection of
poems Lungo la vita (1891) .
TOBFJEUS, tor-fe’us, '1‘rIoRMoDUs, or T11011-
MODR TORFASON (1636-1719). An Icelandican-
tiquary. He was born at Engti, Iceland; was edu-
cated at the University of Copenha.gen;.and in
1662 returned to Iceland by command of Fred-
erick III. to collect saga manuscripts. In 1667 he
was appointed royal antiquary, and in 1682 royal
historiographer for Norway. He translated sev-
eral Icelandic works into the Danish language,
and was the author of Historia Vinlandice An-
tiquce (1705) ; Groenlandia Antigua (1706) ; and
Historia Rerum Nor/vegicarum (4 vols., 1711).
TORGAU, tor’gou. A fortified town of the
Province of Saxony, Prussia, on the left bank of
the Elbe, 31 miles east-northeast of Leipzig
(Map: Prussia, E 3) . The Castle of Hartenfels
(1481-1544), one of the largest Renaissance edi-
fices in Germany, was once the residence of the
electors of Saxony. It is now used as barracks.
There is a museum of Saxon antiquities. Gloves,
glass, druggists’ sundries, cigars, and biscuits are
manufactured. Frederick the Great here de-
feated the Austrians in 1760. Population, in
1900, 11,807.
TORII, tt'>’ré’ (Jap., bird-rest, or, less prob-
ably, gateway). An archway formed by two
upright posts and one horizontal beam, placed
before the Shinto shrines in Japan. It is sup-
posed that the Torii was originally a perch for
sacred fowl who were to herald the approach of
day.
TORLO'NIA. A princely Roman family. Its
founder, GIOVANNI TORLONIA (1754-1829), was a
poor cicerone of Rome, who grew enormously rich
in manipulating assignats during the French
Revolution, and as banker for many kings and
princes. He was made a grandee of Spain, and
Duke of Bracciano by the Pope. His three sons
married into the highest families, the eldest suc-
ceeding to the dukedom, the youngest, ALEssAN-
DRO, becoming Prince of Civitella-Cesi and Duke
of Ceri, and acquiring immense wealth, of which
he made charitable use. He acquired fame by suc-
cessfully draining Lake Celano (Fucino) at an
TORLONIA.
TORONTO.
808
expenditure of over $800,000, thereby restoring to
cultivation 36,000 acres of land.
TORMENTIL (F 1'. tormentille, from ML.
tormentilla, tormentella, tormentil, from Lat.
tormentum, torment, from torquere, to rack,
twist, torment ; so called because the plant was
supposed to be a remedy for toothache). A pop-
ular name for Potentilla Tormentilla, formerly
called Tormentilla officinalis, common on Euro-
pean moors and heaths. Its large woody roots
have been used as an astringent and for stain-
ing leather. It has ternate leaves and axillary
terminal yellow flowers. The leaves are ternate,
the leaflets lanceolate and inciso-serrate, the
stems ascending and forking, the flower-stalks
axillary and terminal, and the flowers yellow.
TORNADO. See WIND.
TORNEA, tor’ne-o. A town in the Govern-
ment of Uleiiborg, Finland, Russia, situated on
the Torne-ii, near the northern end of the Gulf
of Bothnia (Map: Russia, B 1). Population, in
1897, 1400. About 33 miles north is the Moun-
tain of Avasakra (1573 feet), which is visited
by many tourists at the summer solstice, when
the sun remains there above the horizon for al-
most two days.
TORNEA. A river, forming the boundary
between Russia and Sweden. It rises in the
Tornea Lake near the Norwegian boundary, and
flows southeast through Sweden, then south on
the Russian boundary, entering the Gulf of Both-
nia at its northern extremity, after a course of
250 miles (Map: Sweden, K 3) . Near its mouth
is the town of Tornea (q.v.). Its chief tributary,
the Muonio, forms the northern part of the
boundary.
TORO, to’ro. An ancient town of Spain, in
the modern Province of Zamora, in Leon, on the
right bank of the Duero, 38 miles southwest of
Valladolid, on the Medina del Campo-Zamora
Railroad (Map: Spain, C 2) . It contains numer-
ous religious houses and palaces, most of which
have been allowed to fall into a state of decay,
and the Cathedral Church of’ Santa Maria la
Mayor, dating from the reign of Alfonso VII.
There are brandy distilleries, vineyards, tanneries,
and woolen manufactories. Population, in 1900,
8187. Toro has been of little importance in
Spanish history since its resistance to Charles
V., when it took a leading position in' the re-
bellion of the comunidades.
_ 'r'oR'ox-szEN'r-MIxLos,_ ie're1< sent me’-
klosh. A commune of ‘the County of J asz-Nagy-
Kun-Szolnok, Hungary, 66 miles southeast of
Budapest (Map: Hungary, G 3). The exten-
sive plain in which it is situated is noted for its
production of cereals and live stock, and in the
commune itself there is some manufacture of
brick and of agricultural implements. Popula-
tion, in 1900, 21,881.
TORON’TO. The capital of the Province of
Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake On-
tario, 333 miles southwest of Montreal (Map:
Ontario, D 4). It is situated on the north side
of a spacious inlet called the Bay of Toronto, has
a water frontage of about eight miles from east
to west, and extends inland from south to north
about three miles. The harbor or bay, about five
miles long and one mile in width, is protected by
a sandy islet, which extends into the lake in
a south and west direction to a distance of
five miles. The port accommodates the larg-
est vessels that navigate the lakes, has a dry
dock 198 feet long, and is defended at the en-
trance by a fort. The Grand Trunk and the
Canadian Pacific railroad-s pass through the city,
and connect with all parts of Canada and of the
United States.
The. scenery of the vicinity is somewhat tame,
and the situation of the town is low and flat.
The most elevated quarter-the Queen’s or Uni-
versity Park in the west—lies from 100 feet
to 200 feet above the level of the lake. There
are many handsome official buildings, including
the new city hall and court house, the supreme
courts of the province, the legislative buildings,
the Government House, the custom-house, the
post-oflice, the horticultural gardens, and benevo-
lent institutions. There are several parks, in-
cluding Riverdalc; the Queen’s Park, already re-
ferred to with its beautiful monument to the vol-
unteers who fell at Ridgeway in 1866; and the
exhibition grounds where the important annual
fair of the Industrial Association is held each
September. Toronto is distinguished for its
churches. The principal are Saint James’s Cathe-
dral (Anglican), a noble edifice in early English,
erected in 1852; Saint Michael’s Cathedral (Ro-
man Catholic); Saint James’s and Saint An-
drew’s (Presbyterian) ; the Metropolitan Metho-
dist Church, noted for its huge organ ; Jarvis
Street Baptist; Bond Street Congregational; and
the Church of the Ascension (Anglican). Toronto '
is the head of the Canadian school system. Its
higher institutions include the Toronto Univer-
sity, in Queen’s Park; Victoria University, a
Methodist institution also in Queen’s Park; Trin-
ity College; Baptist College; Knox College; and
Upper Canada College, etc. The city maintains
an excellent free library of over 100,000 volumes,
which has branch libraries; has water-works, gas
and electric lighting plants, and electric street
railways. Cabinet-ware, iron rails, agricultural
implements, stoves, pianos, bicycles, carpets,
and shoes are manufactured, and there are ship-
building yards, foundries, breweries, distilleries,
and flour mills; the exports are manufactured
lumber, flour, wheat, and other grain. Toronto
ranks second among the commercial centres of
Canada. The name Toronto, ‘place of meeting,’ is
of Indian origin. The town was founded in 1794
by Governor Simcoe, and incorporated in 1834.
It was burned by the Americans in 1813, and
suffered severely as the headquarters of the rebel-
lion in 1837, and also from fire in 1849. Popula-
tion, in 1891, 181,220; in 1901, 207,971.
TORONTO, UNIVERSITY or. An institution
of higher education at Toronto, Can., established
in 1827, as King’s College. The opening of the
college was delayed for fourteen years, and not
till 1842 were the faculties of arts, medicine,
law, and divinity established. In 1849 the in-
stitution assumed its present title, and in 1853
the faculties of medicine and law were abolished
and the functions of the institution were divided
between the two newly organized corporations of
the University of Toronto and University College.
By the Federation Act of 1887, the faculty of
University College consists of professors in clas-
sical languages and literature, ancient history,
Oriental languages, English, French, German,
and moral philosophy. All other portions of
TORONTO.
TORPE-DO.
809
the arts course were assigned to the faculty of
the University of Toronto, the lectures of which
are open to the students of University Col-
lege and of all federating institutions. A faculty
of medicine was established in 1887 ; in 1888 the
Ontario Agricultural College was affiliated, and
subsequently the Royal College of Dental Sur-
geons, the College of Pharmacy, the Toronto Col-
lege of Music, the School of Practical Science, and
the Ontario Veterinary College became parts of
the University. Federated with the university
are Victoria University, Knox College, Wycliffe
College, Saint Michael’s College, and Trinity
University (1903). The attendance in 1903 was
1717, including 883 in arts, 494 in medicine, and
340 in applied science, and the whole number of
instructors was 146. The library contained
about 76,000 volumes and 22,500 pamphlets. The
endowment in 1903 was $868,899, the income
$231,160, and the total value of property under
the control of the institution, $3,503,729. Uni-
versity extension work is carried on by means
of lectures delivered throughout the Province of
Ontario.
TORPEDO (Lat, torpedo, numbness, cramp-
fish, torpedo, from torpere, to be numb, stupid).
A naval torpedo is an explosive device designed
to destroy or injure a ship by blowing a hole in
her hull at or below the water line. It consists
essentially of the explosive charge, the fuze
(which ignites the charge), and the case contain-
ing these. Torpedoes are of two classes, fixed
and moving. Fixed torpedoes are now commonly
called torpedo mines or submarine mines.
Torpedo mines are (1) self-acting, and (2)
controlled, according to the conditions of firing.
Self-acting mines are mechanically or electrically
fired. The mechanical arrangements are of nu-
merous types, but the most common is a set of
pins projecting from the head of the torpedo,
any one of which if struck would be driven down
upon a fulminate primer in communication with
the charge. The electr-ically fired are (1) simple
buoyant mines, anchored so as to be not less than
5 nor more than 20 feet below water, and (2)
combination ground mines with a buoyant con-
tact piece or float which is anchored so as to be
about the same distance beneath the water as a
contact torpedo. In both these types theexplo-
sion is caused by the completion of the electric
circuit by the driving in of a pin by a ship which
have contact floats.
Controlled mines are (1) automatic and (2)
observation. The firing wires for all controlled
mines lead to mine stations. For automatic
mines this is done merely to secure safety. When
the circuit is closed at the mine station the tor-
pedo is not fired, but merely prepared to explode
if one of the contact pieces on the shell is pressed
down by a passing ship. The combination con-
trolled torpedo, like the combination self-acting,
is a ground mine with a contact float; it is made
ready in the same way as an automatic con-
trolled mine. Observation mines are fired by ob-
servers who keep the circuit closed at their sta-
tions when the ship is on line with torpedoes
as seen from their points of view. Therefore,
when a ship is directly over a torpedo, the cir-
cuits at both mine stations (usually placed so
as to give nearly right angle intersection of lines
.of sight on each torpedo) are closed and the
charge is exploded. Observation mines may be
of the simple or compound buoyant type or of
the ground type. The simple buoyant mine can
only be exploded by the observers; the compound
type has extra fittings, so that it may be consid-
ered as belonging also to the automatic buoyant
type or controlled mine. Observation ground
mines are simple if fitted for explosion by the
observers only, and are combination if they also
have contact floats. _
Mines of all the types mentioned are in com-
mon use, their various characteristics fitting
them to different local conditions. Self-acting
mines have the advantages of (1) being compara-
tively cheap, (2) can be kept in store ready for
immediate use, (3) do not require specially
trained men or observation mining stations, and
(4) ewtempore ones can be easily made. But self-
acting mines are all (1) rather dangerous to put
out or pick up, (2) the condition of the igniting
apparatus cannot be tested after the mine is
placed in position, (3) they are as dangerous to
friend as to foe when once placed, and (4) the
mechanical or electric contact pins may become
so overgrown with barnacles as to prevent their
operation. After being two months in the water
the Spanish self-acting torpedoes (in 1898) were
so overgrown with barnacles that none were in a
condition in which they would have been exploded
if struck by a ship; indeed, two United States
ships actually struck them without causing ex-
plosion. The objections to this type are evidently
so serious as to preclude their use in important
channels. In such places, particularly if it is
desired to keep open a passage for friendly ves-
sels, observation mines are used. If the water is
not too deep, ground mines are laid; but in deep
water buoyant mines must be employed. Where
the water is very deep and the currents are
strong the mining of a channel is very difficult—
in some cases it is impossible to lay them so
that they can always be operated effectively.
Self-acting mines are usually placed singly
and far enough apart to prevent the explosion of
one mine from setting off the others by shock.
Controlled mines, and particularly the observa-
tion variety, are commonly put out in groups, all
the mines in each group being exploded simul-
taneously. When so arranged, each group should
be far enough from the others to avoid being ex-
ploded by shock. The distance at which sym-
pathetic explosion takes place varies with the
character of the explosive and the weight of the
charge. Guncotton is commonly use. Its ex-
treme destructive horizontal range, according to
General Abbott, U. S. A., is 14.7 feet for a 100-
pound charge, 20.5 feet for a 200-pound charge,
and 31.7 feet for a 500-pound charge; while the
safety interval or distance between mines or
groups should be at least eight times the extreme
destructive horizontal range.
Movnve TORPEDOES are (1) controlled or (2)
u-ncontrolled. The controlled type are (1) spar,
(2) towing, or (3) dirig-ible—the last-named
class being either ( 1) eactra-mobile or locomotive
or (2) automobile. The uncontrolled type in-
cludes (1) automobile, (2) projectile, (3) rocket,
and ( 4) drifting torpedoes.
Authorities do not favor greatly controlled tor-
pedoes. In the spar type of these weapons the
charge was placed at the end of a spar rigged
out from a boat or ship, and tor edoes of this
sort were much used in the Civil ar; the rapid-
roars-Do.
TORPE-DO.
810
fire gun sounded their death-knell. The Harvey
towing torpedo (and its modifications) was
towed in a spar at the end of a hawser, its shape
and steering vanes keeping it well out on the
quarter of the ship using it.
parent and it is obsolete. The eaztra-mobile or
locomotive torpedo has an external source of pow-
er supplied through wires which are also used
in carrying the steering force. Some few of these
are still ‘officially’ in service, such as the Brennan
and Sims-Edison, but they are not much in favor.
The Brennan is propelled by two wires which are
reeled up in the torpedo. By hauling on them
they unreel and rotate twin screws. Steering is
effected by varying the’tension on the port or
starboard wire. The Sims-Edison torpedo is pro-
pelled and steered by electricity from an external
source which is supplied to the torpedo through
a wire cable which is unreeled as the torpedo
advances. The automobile controllable torpedoes,
of which there were many varieties, carried their
own source of power, which was usually com-
pressed air or carbonic acid gas, and were all
electrically steered, the current passing through
a light cable which was unreeled as the torpedo
moved ahead.
Its defects are ap-
are identical in general design and similar as re-
gards details, though the body of the Whitehead
has a steel shell or outer case, while that of the
Schwartzkopf is made of bronze. The details of
a Whitehead torpedo are shown in the accom-
panying plans. In Fig. 1, A is the war-nose;
B is the war-head (an exercise head without
explosive charge or war-nose is used in ordinary
torpedo target practice) ; G is the air-flask con-
taining the compressed air———its shell is thicker
than that of the rest of the torpedo; P is the
guide stud for holding the torpedo in position
in the tube; Q is a strengthening band to sup-
port the guide stud; Vis the balance chamber ;F is
the engine compartment; G is the tail; H is the
tail-frame; 1 is the firing-pin; 2 is one blade of
the releasing screw. B, the war-head, contains the
ewplosive charge, 3, of wet guncotton, while 4 is a
small priming charge of dry guncotton in a her-
metically sealed case inserted in the front end of
the war-head before screwing in the war-nose. In
Figs. 2, 6 and 8 are the charging and stop valves
for charging the torpedo; T is the depth regu-
lator which connects by the bell-crank lever M to
the regulator spring, which is pressed by the hy-
draulic piston, 16; the hydraulic piston receives
H
3
A
2
0CD


G
FIG. 1. WHITEHEAD TOBPEDO.
The projectile type of uncontrollable torpedoes
is fired from a submarine gun (q.v.). It has
never proved satisfactory as a weapon, but it
received its most successful development at the
hands of Ericsson, who was able to give it a
reliable range of about 150 yards. The short
range of the submarine gun was its fatal defect
and caused its condemnation. Rocket torpedoes
have usually been fitted to move along the surface
of the water, the propelling force being the reac-
tion from the gas escaping from the rear end.
As they are very erratic in their movements when
the water is smooth and cannot be used at all
when it is rough, they have never had much
vogue. Submerged torpedoes propelled by rocket
tubes have been even less successful; they lack
the speed of the surface type and are nearly as
erratic as regards their course. Drifting tor-
pedoes are merely self-acting buoyant mines set
adrift.


FIG. 2. PROPELLING AND srmnnrne
We now come to the class of moving torpedoes
which is most in use, the automobile or ‘fish’
type. There are many varieties, but only three are
actually in service, the Whitehead, Schwartz-
lcopf, and Howell. The first and second of these
the water-pressure on its after side as the en-
gine-room (F) is open to the sea; the hydraulic
piston operates small levers pressing against
a lever pivoted on the pendulum (17), and the
motion is transmitted through the rod N to a
crank and thence to the steering engine (18),
which operates horizontal rudders (not shown)
by means of the rod 24; D is the operating valve
group which controls the supply of air to the
engine, W; 10 is the starting lever; E is the re-
leas-ing mechanism; K is the Obry gear, in which
20 is the gyroscope wheel; 13 and 14 are the
propellers; 15 is the bevel gear, which permits the
two propellers to be driven in opposite direc-
tions; and 22 are the rudders actuated by the
Obry gear. This latter by means of its gyro-
scope wheel (which always keeps in one plane)
operates the little rudders (22) and brings the
torpedo back to its original direction if it is
deflected from any cause.
H
MECHANISM OF WHITEHEAD TORPEDO-
The Howell torpedo resembles the Whitehead’
in all its features except the propelling mechan-
ism. The forward compartment is the war-head.
Next in rear is the propelling compartment,
then comes the buoyancy chamber containing the
TORPE-DO.
TOBPE-DO.
811
depth regulating mechanism, and lastly, the
after compartment which contains the steering
mechanism for both horizontal and vertical rud-
ders. The source of propelling power is a heavy
fly-wheel so designed as to have most of its
weight near the periphery. By means of a steam
turbine connecting to a clutch projecting barely
through the shell of the torpedo this wheel is
spun up until its speed is 9000 revolutions per
minute or 150 revolutions per second. This
gives ample power for a long and fast run if it
could all be utilized, but up to the present it
has been found impracticable to get the power
to the propellers fast enough. The propellers
are not on one shaft as in the 1/Vhitehead, but
on two, each connecting to shafts driven by gear-
ing from the fly-wheel. In addition to the sim-
plicity of the form of power, the fly-wheel acts as
a gyroscope and strongly resists any force tend-
ing to force the torpedo out of the plane in
which it was originally launched. The Howell
is still in service in the United States Navy,
but the development of the Obry gear in the
Whitehead has so improved the directive force of
the latter that its otherwise superior qualities
have caused it to displace the Howell in all new
ships.
It is not unlikely that attempts to employ
torpedoes or mines were made in the early days
of gunpowder, but the first occasion on record
in which they were used was in 1585, when an
Italian engineer by the name of Gianibelli (q.v.)
partially destroyed a bridge across the Scheldt at
Antwerp by means of small vessels each carrying
a considerable quantity of gunpowder which was
exploded by clockwork mechanism. Nothing
more is heard of torpedoes until 1730, when the
French scientist Desaguliers made some experi-
ments with some of the rocket type which were
fired under water and with which he is said to
have destroyed several boats. -The first torpedoes
to be used in war against ships were designed by
an American, Capt. David Bushnell, who also
built the first submarine torpedo boat, though
not the first submarine boat. After making nu-
merous successful experiments Captain Bushnell
made three attempts to destroy British men-of-
war. In the first, Sergeant Lee used Bushnell’s
submarine boat (see Tonrnno BOAT, SUBMAEINE,
for description and illustration), and actually
got under H.1\-I.S. Eagle, but failed to attach and
explode his torpedo, owing to inexperience -in
handling his novel craft and the bluntness of the
screw he tried to use. The second attack was made
on.H.M.S. Gerber-as by drifting torpedoes; this
failed, but one of the torpedoes was picked up
by the crew of a prize schooner astern of the
Cerberus and, exploding on board, killed three
men, destroyed a boat, and injured the schooner.
The fourth attempt, also at New London, was
the celebrated ‘Battle of the Kegs,’ and it failed
because the British ships had hauled in to the
wharves to avoid the ice; but it created much
confusion and alarm among their crews. The
next man to take up torpedoes seriously was
Robert Fulton, who began his experiments on the
Seine in 1797. His first attempts were chiefly
failures, but in 1801, at Brest, he destroyed a
small vessel with a submarine mine containing
twenty pounds of gunpowder. This is believed
to be the first vessel sunk by a torpedo, but he
afterwards succeeded in several instances, and
VOL. XVI.-52.
where the attack failed it was owing to the
movement of the vessel from above the torpedo
and not to defects in the torpedo. In one in-
stance a British brig was destroyed by two
torpedoes made by him containing 180-pound
charges of gunpowder fired by clockwork.
In 1812 and 1813 another American, Mr. Mix,
made unsuccessful attempts to blow up British
ships. In 1820 Captain Johnson, an English-
man, with a submarine boat attached a torpedo
to the bottom of a vessel and exploded it. In
1829 Colonel Samuel Colt began his torpedo inves-
tigations, developed the electric firing of mines
in 1842, using in one instance wires forty miles _
long with complete success.
In the Civil War in America the torpedo came
quickly to the front as_ a serious weapon. The
few ships of the Confederates offered little op-
portunity for the use of torpedoes by the Fed-
erals, but the great fleet of the latter and the
necessity which often compelled the vessels to
operate in narrow waters gave a multitude of
chances which their enterprising antagonists
were quick to seize. The unsuccessful attempts
were hundreds in number, but during the course
of the struggle 7 Federal armor-clads, 9 gu11-
boats, 6 transports, and 1 cruiser were sunk or
destroyed, and 2 armor-clads, ‘ 3 gunboats, 1
transport, and 1 large cruiser were seriously in-
jured. Of the latter, 1 cruiser and 1 armor-
clad were attacked by boats using spar tor-
pedoes. The only important Federal success was
the destruction of the armor-clad Albemarle by
Cushing, who also used a spar torpedo.
While all this was going on Captain Lupuis of
the Austrian Navy and Mr. Whitehead began the
development of the movable torpedo. The idea
of a small, self-propelled boat carrying an ex-
plosive charge and directed from a distance had
occurred to Captain Lupuis in 1860, but it was
not until 1864 upon his association with Mr.
Whitehead that any craft of the sort were
built. Mr. Whitehead, who was an English engi-
neer acting as superintendent of engineering
works at Fiume, took hold of the project with
great interest. He soon gave up the plan of
using directing wires, and bent his energies to
the development of a completely automatic de-
vice. In 1868 the first official trial was held
before a board of Austrian oflicers, and its
report resulted in the adoption of the weapon
in the Austrian service, although the speed at-
tained was only about seven knots. From this
time to the present the improvement has been
continuous, the speed rising to 35 knots and the
directive force becoming almost absolutely cer-
tain when the conditions are favorable. All na-
val powers now use the \Vhitehead or its equiva-
lent, the Schwartzkopf, and many (including
the United States) have purchased the right to
manufacture them.
Shortly after Whitehead’s successful experi-
ments Captain Harvey, R.N., brought out his
towing torpedo, which had a vogue wholly un-
warranted by its performance, but it was pleasing
from its simplicity. About 1870 Commander (now
Rear-Admiral) Howell, U. S. N., conceived the
idea of applying the principle of the gyroscope
to automobile torpedoes for the purpose not
only of steering them, but to afford motive power
as well. His torpedo was gradually improved
until in 1898 it attained a speed of about 28
TORPEDO.
TORPEDO BOAT.
812
knots with almost perfect directive force. The
application of the Obry gyroscopic gear to the
otherwise perfected Whitehead, however, drove
the Howell out of the field, and it is now prac-
tically unused.
In 1873 while the success of the Whitehead
remained uncertain in many minds, Mr. J. L.
Lay brought out his first controllable torpedo,
propelled by carbonic acid gas and directed by
electricity through wires paid out from a reel
in the torpedo as it advanced. The Lay was
followed by a host of similar inventions, the
Lay-Haight, Patrick, Nordenfelt, Brennan, Sims-
Edison, and others; but, although some are still
officially in service, none are regarded as of much
use in modern warfare. Controllable torpedoes,
steered by wireless induction currents, have been
under experiment.
The first Whitehead to be fired with hostile
intent was directed at the Peruvian monitor
Huascar by the British cruiser Shah, which
sought to capture or destroy the former to pre-
vent her from further lawless attacks on British
vessels. The shot failed because fired at too
great a distance. In 1891 two Chilean Govern-
ment torpedo vessels sank the insurgent armor-
clad Blanco Encalada with Whitehead torpedoes,
and during the Japan-China ‘War several ves-
sels were destroyed by them. The recent im-
provements in the range, speed, and directive force
of Whitehead torpedoes, as well as in torpedo
boats and firing appliances, has caused a con-
siderable change in naval opinion, which now is
inclined to regard the “'hitehead as a most
dangerous weapon; still it is not, as many un-
informed people seem to think, likely to take the
leading part in future wars, because the danger
from it may be greatly reduced by careful dis-
position of ships at night, proper scouting, and
increasing vigilance. Moreover, since it is only
useful against vessels and cannot support opera-
tions against coasts, fortifications, or men, it can
never hope to displace the gun and the well-
protected gun-carrying warship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For further information, con-
sult: Sleeman, Torpedoes and Torpedo Warfare
(2d ed., Portsmouth, Eng., 1889); Armstrong,
Torpedoes and Torpedo Vessels (2d ed., London,
1902); Annual of the Ofiice of Naval Intel-
ligence (U. S. Navy); Brassey, Naval An-
nual (Plymouth); Buchard, Torpilles ct tor-
pilleurs (Paris, 1889); Proceedings of United
States Naval Institute (Annapolis, quarterly).
See articles on TCRPEDC BCAT; TCRPEDC BCAT,
SUBMABINE ; TCBPEDC DIRECTOR; etc.
TORPEDO, or ELECTRIC RAY. A ray (q.v.)
of the family Narcobatidae, which inhabits
warm seas, and often is of large size. These rays
have a broad, fiat body with a comparatively
slender tail, and are of interest because of the
electrical powers which they possess. (See
ELECTRIC FISH.) There are about 15 species, of
which the best known is Torpedo marmoratus of
Southern Europe. A similar species, the ‘cramp-
fish,’ or ‘numbfish’ (Torpedo occidentalis) , occurs
on the Atlantic coast of the United States, and
is said to attain a weight of 200 pounds. The
same, or a very similar species is found on the
coast of California. See Plate of ELECTRIC FIsH.
TORPEDO BOAT. A small war vessel fitted
to use the torpedo as its primary weapon of at-
tack. The principal requirements of a torpedo
boat are high speed, efficient means of launching
torpedoes, handiness, and fair seaworthiness. To
attain these essentials the boats are long, slender,
very lightly built, and low in the water. The
torpedo tubes are pivoted on deck-—on small
boats on the fore-and-aft midship line; on larger
boats, near the side. Modern torpedo boats be-
long to four classes: (a) torpedo bo-at destroyers;
(b) sea-going boats; (c) harbor boats; and
((1) portable boats carried by men-of-War. Tor-
pedo boat destroyers are here classed with torpedo
boats because of similarity in general design and
because they will undoubtedly be used for torpedo
attack in the same manner as the smaller craft—-
from which they differ little except in size and
the possession of a battery sufliciently powerful
to quickly sink and destroy boats of the lesser
dimensions. They vary in size from 250 to 600
tons. The torpedo boat proper carries very few
and very small guns. Sea-going boats are of
100 to 250 tons; harbor boats (capable of going
to sea in moderate weather) of 30 to 100 tons;
and portable boats of from 5 to 15 tons. The
speeds are in somewhat similar ratio, destroyers
having 26 to 35 knots; sea-going boats, about 25
knots; harbor boats, 20 to 25 knots; and port-
able boats, 13 to 17 knots.
Torpedo boats can only hope to be successful
when attacking under cover of night or of thick
fog, and several should attack a ship simultane-
ously and from different directions. The defense
against them consists of picket boats, torpedo
nets (q.v.), rapid-firing guns (q.v.), and search-
lights (q.v.). Although it is difficult to sink a
well-built modern battleship by torpedo attack,
it is always possible, and the knowledge of this
fact exercises a great moral effect. All maritime
nations possess torpedo boats. (See NAVIES.)
In 1903 the United States boats were, with one
or two exceptions, quite new, and averaged much
larger than those of the same class in foreign
navies. The American destroyers are much more
heavily armed than the foreign ones. Sixteen of
them carry two 3-inch guns and five 6-pounders,
and the other four have four to seven 6-pounders.
Many of the foreign destroyers carry only five
or six 1-pounders or 3-pounders; while, aside
from a few of the latest British boats, none car-
ries more than one 3-inch.
In its earliest form the torpedo boat contained
merely a large quantity of powder and was it-
self destroyed by the explosion. Craft of this
type were used by Gianibelli at Antwerp in 1585.
(See TOBPEDO.) The first evolutionary step de-
veloped boats which carried torpedoes that were
designed to be attached to the bottom of the
enemy’s ship. All of this type were submarine.
(See TORPEDO BoATs, SUBMARINE.) The first
surface boats appeared during the American
Civil War and the first partial success was
achieved (October, 1863) in an attack by a Con-
federate boat on the Federal armorclad New
Ironsides, in which the latter was slightly in-
jured. Practically all of the torpedo boats of
the war used ‘spar’ torpedoes, which were carried
at the end of a long spar or boom rigged out be-
yond the bow; and nearly all were ordinary
steam launches or pulling boats, though the boat
which attacked the New I ronsides and one or two
others were specially built craft with nearly sub-
merged hulls. In 1873 the first fast (speed, 15
TORPE-DO BOAT.
TORPE-DO BOAT.
813
knots) specially designed torpedo boat was built
by Thorneycroft of Ohiswick, England, for the
Norwegian Government and was fitted for using
the Harvey towin torpedo, then in much favor.
In the next year oth Thorneycroft and Yarrow
(of Poplar, near London) constructed boats for
various foreign governments, and they built sev-
eral in the ensuing year, but none for Great
Britain. About the same time Herreshoff com-
pleted a very fast boat for the United States
Navy. In 1877 Herreshoff brought out the first
boat fitted to use Whitehead torpedoes, and al-
though many subsequent boats were designed to
carry spar torpedoes, the Whitehead rapidly made
its way, so that by 1880 it had practically dis-
placed all rivals except the Howell and Schwartz-
kopf, which were of somewhat similar type.
The advent of the ‘destroyer’ class of boat was
brought about by the realization of the inade-
quacy of the existing means of defense against
torpedo attack. The first boat was completed
for the British Navy in 1893. Experience with
these craft demonstrated their value both as
scouts and picket boats against torpedo boat at-
tack, and also showed that under many circum-
stances they were available and desirable as tor-
pedo boats.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For further information, con-
sult: Sleeman, Torpedoes and Torpedo Warfare
(2d ed., Portsmouth, England, 1889) ; Arm-
strong, Torpedoes and Torpedo Vessels (2d ed.,
London, 1902); Johnson, Defense of Charleston
Harbor (Charleston, 1890); Scharf, History of
the Confederate Navy (New York, 1887); An-
nual of the Oflice of Naval Intelligence (United
States Navy Department, Washington, current) ;
Brassey, Naval Annual (Portsmouth, annual);
Buchard, Torpilles et torpilleurs (Paris, 1889).
See also articles on TORPEDO; TOBPEDO BOAT,
SUBMABINE; and Tonrnoo NET.
TORPEDO BOAT, SUBMARINE. Modern sub-
marine torpedo boats are of two kinds, the sub-
merged and the submergible. The submerged,
when in light cruising condition, moves with only
a small percentage of the hull above water; the
submergible cruises on the surface much like an
ordinary torpedo boat, which it resembles exter-
nally. The difference in principle between the
two types is slight, but in construction details it
is very marked. Submerged boats are usually
nearly cylindrical with pointed ends, the general
shape being much like that of a Whitehead tor-
pedo. Submergence is effected by admitting
water to the ballast tanks or by means of in-
clined rudders or both. Submerglble boats have
two hulls, one inside the other. The outer hull
resembles closely that of the ordinary torpedo
boat, but has as few projections as possible rising
from the general outline, in order to present a
smooth surface when submerged. Inside this
there is a second hull of nearly circular cross-
section and as large as the shape of the outer
boat permits. To effect submergence water is
first admitted to the space between the hulls, and
this brings the boat to the ‘awash’ condition.
Further submergence is effected by permitting the
ballast tanks to fill. The advantages of each
type are apparent. The submerged boat is ready
for nearly instant service, but cannot cruise with
comfort to the crew. The submergible boat af-
fords fair speed and comfort when cruising, but
considerable time is required to effect its sub-
mergence. The section (Fig. 4) of the Holland
submarine boat shows the general features of a
submerged boat; similar boats have also been
built for the British Navy. France, which
is building more submarines than any other
nation, is the only one using the submergible
boats, and they form but a small part of those
she has completed or under construction. For the
number of boats completed and under construc-
tion in the various navies of the world in 1903,
see. N AVIES.
The difficulties in the way of submarine navi-
gation are: (a) dilficulty of securing safety;
(b) of obtaining a fair speed; (c) of steering;
(d) of securing habitability; (e) of insuring sta-
bility; to which is to be added, for submarine
torpedo boats, the difliculty of directing and
discharging the torpedo. In the present state
of development submarine boats can be made
fairly safe. The problem of reaching a speed in
excess of 10 knots when wholly submerged is a
difficult one. Storage batteries are too heavy (at
least all types now known) for the purpose of
furnishing sufficient power; steam is inadmissible
for obvious reasons; and the only practicable ma-
chineseems to be an explosive motor developing
a high pressure in the engine. So far no efficient
means of keeping the exhaust gases from escap-
ing into the boat has yet been devised; and even
if such means were found it is possible that the
escaping bubbles and the smell would enable the
course of the boat to be ascertained and followed.
As to steering and directing the course, there
remain several imperfectly solved problems. It
is impossible when under water to see more than
a few feet ahead with the boat at rest, and the
difliculty increases with the speed. Even when
near the surface of the water the hull of a large
ship is undiscernible beyond 100 feet. A sensi-
tive compass with adequate directive force is
possible only if the hull is made of copper, bronze,
aluminum, or some other non-magnetizable metal.
The most promising device is the periscope, which
(like a camera obscura) consists of a tube with
a prism or inclined mirror at the upper end
with a reflecting table below. The upper part
of the periscope is designed to project several
feet above water when the boat is entirely sub-
merged. The unsteadiness of the boat, however,
interferes seriously with the eifectivness of this
instrument; moreover, the projecting tube may
betray the boat’s position. In place of a compass
a gyroscope has been experimented with, but the
results were not satisfactory. All boats are
fitted with small conning towers projecting a.
short distance above the hull and having glass
covered peep holes of considerable size. This
conning tower can be used when cruising at the
surface and its top may be opened if the water
is very smooth. In most boats the opening in
the top of the conning tower forms the principal
way of ingress and egress. ‘
To attain a reasonable habitability in a. sub-
marine boat is very difficult indeed. The boats
are not easily susceptible of being warmed or
cooled; in fact, few attempts have been made in
either direction, so that in very warm water or
in very cold it is possible to remain in the boats
only a very short time without suffering from
the unsuitableness of the temperature. Sofar
as the vitiation of the air due to the breathing
of the crew is concerned, the problem may be
regarded as practically solved; but storage bat-
TORPE-DO BOAT.
TORPE-D0 BOAT.‘
814
teries, steam motors, oil motors, and oil give off
ases which are not only annoying and injurious,
ut may prove dangerous. It may be possible to
reduce troubles of this sort to satisfactory limits
by inclosing the machinery in air-tight casings,
but in the handling and inspection some gas is
sure to escape. There can be no cooking, no
proper sleeping accommodations, no proper water-
closets, and the natural light is feeble. The mo-
tion is as trying as it is on a surface boat. A
short consideration of these things is sufficient to
show that the ease of securing fair habitability
increases with the size of the boat, to which of
course there is a limit.
The conditions affecting the stability of an en-
tirely submerged vessel differ considerably from
those affecting the stability of one floating on
the surface. (See SHIPBUILDING.) Since the
sectional area of the immersed body remains un-
changed at all angles of heel, the position of the
centre of buoyancy is constant; the righting mo-
ment therefore grows more slowly as the boat
heels. By suitable ballasting or arrangement of
weights adequate transverse stability is not very
difficult to attain. But longitudinal stability is
quite another matter. Any possible assistance
from ballasting or the arrangement of permanent
weights is insignificant, and the change of trim
due to the using of fuel and shifting of weights
(torpedoes, men, liquid in partly filled tanks,
etc.) is a very serious matter. It is counteracted
by the use of horizontal rudders, or shape of the
hull, or quickly shifting water-ballast. If the
boat has a slight surplus buoyancy the tendency
to rise to the surface can be counteracted by
vanes or the shape of the head which tends to
make the boat descend so long as it is moving.
But as the effect of hull shape or permanent
vanes changes with the speed, while the buoyancy
effort is constant, horizontal rudders are a neces-
sity. From these facts it follows that short,
deep, and broad boats are most stable, but such
a shape is incompatible with speed.
The difficulties experienced in dis-
charging torpedoes are closely connected
with the question of stability. In ad-
dition to confined space in which tor-
pedoes are operated, and the difficulty
of giving them the correct direction at
the moment of firing, it is necessary
that the boat should be nearly hori-
zontal when the torpedo is fired, else
the latter will take too deep a dive or
rise to the surface at the beginning of C°l‘!‘|_‘lc|)‘\‘,1\§§E
its run. The shock of firing and the TORPE-D0
sudden release of weight at the bow as GEAR
the torpedo leaves it causes great longi-
tudinal disturbance in the boat, and
may bring it to the surface, while the
change in permanent trim adds to the
difficulty of maintaining a constant ‘
depth.
The submarine torpedo boat as de-
veloped in 1903 was certainly far from
a perfect weapon, being of little use
except in smooth water, difficult to use
at night, and having a very short radius of
action. But, under favorable circumstances, it
was thought that it might achieve a great suc-
cess, while the knowledge of the presence of
submarines in a port cannot but have a powerful
NMSTANDSAHa\/
WATER TIGHT “PUMPS
BULKHEAD
effect upon the nerves of the officers and crews of
blockading vessels. ‘
When or by whom was built the first sub-
marine boat will probably never be known. It
is said that Alexander the Great was interested
in submarine navigation, while subaqueous at-
tack of vessels was studied at least as early as
-rose:-:oo scmzw.
VENTILATORS 2



\.
OETACHABLE BALLAST
AND
BUSHNELUS BOAT (1775).
the thirteenth or fourteenth century. M. Del-
peuch states that some English ships were de-
stroyed in 1372 by fire carried under water. In
the early part of the seventeenth century sub-
marine boats were numerous, and in 1624 Corne-
lius Van Drebbel exhibited to King James I. on
the Thames a submarine boat of his own design.
By 1727 no less than 14 types of submarines had
been patented in England alone. In 1774 Day
began experiments with a submarine boat at
Plymouth, England, losing his life in the second
submergence trial. In the following year David
Bushnell built his first boat, with which Sergeant
TORPEDO SPIKE
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which the torpedo was to be attached to the
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TORPEDO BOAT.
TOBPEDO NET.
815
, Nordenfeldt, Tuck, Holland, etc.
Fulton’s experiments in France and America
(1795-1812) demonstrated that a vessel could be
built which could descend to any given depth
and reascend at will. Plunging mechanism was
devised about the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury, but Fulton developed the vertical and hori-
zontal rudders and provided for the artificial
supply of air. A form of periscope existed in
1692 and an improved kind was patented in 1774 ;
in 1854 Davy still further developed it. Phil-
1ips’s wooden boat on Lake Erie was crushed by
the ‘water pressure, and the same fate befell
Bauer’s iron boat Plongeur-Marin (Fig. 1 on
Plate) at Kiel in 1850. In 1863 McClintock and
Howgate built a semi-submarine hand-propelled
boat for the attack on the Federal fleet, but it
sank four times, each time drowning the entire
crew of eight men. In the same year several
larger boats propelled by engines were commenced
in Europe, and these at intervals were followed
by others designed by Hovgaard, Goubet, Zéde,
The French
Navy began experimenting with submarine boats
about 1885. The Gymnote was built in 1888 and
the Gustave Zédé in 1893. The Morse was com-
menced in 1894, but remained uncompleted until
1899, pending additional experiments with the
Gymnote and the Zédé. In that year the con-
struction of submarines was actively commenced,
10 being launched in 1901. In 1886 Nordenfeldt
built two large submarines for Turkey, but little
was ever done with them after they passed into
Turkish hands. In 1889 Spain built the Peral,
Portugal following with the Plongeur in 1892.
Italy built the Delfino in 1895. The United
States had the submarine boat under considera-
tion for several years. The first boat ordered
(about 1895) was never completed, but seven of
the Holland type were ordered in 1900 and one
was purchased when nearly complete early in
that year.
Consult: Sleeman, Torpedoes and Torpedo War-
fare (2d ed., Portsmouth, England, 1889); Del-
peuch, La navigation sous-marine it travers les
siecles (Paris, 1902) ; Burgoyne, Submarine
Navigation (London and New York, 1903) ; Bu-
chard, Torpilles et torpilleurs (Paris, 1889) ;
Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute,
particularly No. 100, December, 1901 (Annapolis,
current).
TORPEDO BOAT DESTROYER. See ToR-
PEDO BOAT.
TORPEDO DIRECTOR. An instrument de-
signed to indicate the proper moment at which
to fire a torpedo from a ship or torpedo boat.
It is placed on deck, or in a port or air-port giv-
ing a clear view of the enemy. The type shown
in the sketch is for a bow torpedo tube on a tor-
pedo boat; a broadside director differs chiefly
in having a greater are of train for the arm B.
The instrument consists of a metal sector, A,
graduated along the limb E into degrees of are.
On this are three movable arms, B, C, and D.
B and D are pivoted on A at the centre of the
are E, while C pivots on the sliding block G.
B and C are graduated into similar and equal
divisions, representing the speed of the torpedo
and the enemy respectively. The arm B is first
set parallel to the axis of the torpedo tube, and
the block G is set at the division of the scale, K,
corresponding to the speed of the torpedo. The
block ,H is set at the division of the scale L
which corresponds to the estimated speed of the
enemy, and the arm C is swung around until
parallel to his supposed course. Then the clamp-
screws M and N are screwed down. The direc-
tion MN (or IJ) is therefore the direction in


TORPEDO DIRECTOR. l - '
which the enemy must be in order‘ to be hit by
the torpedo moving in the direction MF, if the
estimated speeds of enemy and torpedo are cor-
rect. The moment that the enemy is on the
proper bearing is ascertained by looking over the
sights I and J .
TORPEDO NET. A net made of heavy wire
rings connected with one another by small steel
rings and surrounding a vessel of war below
water as a defense against torpedoes. The net
is made up in sections about 15 by 20 feet in size,
and these sections join to make the total pro-
tection, which is divided into three parts called
the ‘main defense,’ ‘bow defense,’ and ‘stern de-
fense.’ All except the main defense are frequent-
ly omitted, and it only can be carried if the vessel
is moving slowly, while no nets are of any use if
the ship is moving at fair speed. The type of
net most in favor is that devised by Mr. Bulli-
vant, an Englishman in the employ of the Ad-
miralty. The Bullivant net is made of wire rings
or grommets (see KNOTTING AND SPLIcINe) six
inches in diameter connected to each other by
galvanized steel rings. Each section weighs
about 400 pounds and has a heavy piece of chain
at the foot to keep it as nearly vertical as possible
when the ship is under way or anchored in a
current; the sections are joined to each other
by stout wire lashings. The upper edge of the
net has small rings sliding on a wire rope, called
a jackstay, which is shackled to the outer ends
of the booms. Each of the booms is of hollow
steel tubing, and is about 30 feet long. The inner
end is fitted with a ring which passes through
another ring at the upper end of a pivot bolt
which works in a lug secured to the ship’s side.
The outer end is fitted with two topping lifts
and two guys. The booms are placed about 45
feet apart. When not in use the booms are
TORPEDO NET.
TORQUES.
816
swung in alongside and with the net landed on
a sort of shelf, or if there is no shelf the net is
drawn up snugly and the whole lashed to eye-
bolts on the ship’s side. Torpedo nets are not
regarded with favor by many naval officers, as
they cannot be used except when at anchor, and
many torpedoes are now fitted with net cutters
which enable them to get through.
TORPEDO SCHOOL. See NAvAL SCHOOLS
or INSTRUCTION.
TORPEDO STATION. A torpedo supply
station and headquarters for torpedo boats. The
United States naval torpedo station is on Goat
Island, Newport Harbor. All torpedoes for the
navy are sent there from the makers and are
inspected, tested, and put into adjustment for
service. In addition, all necessary supplies for
working torpedoes are made there, together with
torpedo mines, guncotton, primers for heavy
guns, and certain other ordnance supplies and fit-
tings. There is also a small factory for the
manufacture of smokeless powder, the larger
naval powder factory being at Indian Head prov-
ing ground. Some of the schools for oflicers and
enlisted men of the navy are also located at the
torpedo station—the petty ofiicers’ school. tor-
pedo school, electrical school, school for training
torpedo boat firemen, and the torpedo school for
officers.
TORQUATO TASSO, tor-kwa’to tiis'st>. A
tragedy by Goethe (1790) suggested by a visit to
Sorrento and Sicily. It deals with the sorrows
of an idealistic poet in a jealous artificial court‘,
and in its emotional element is largely auto-
biographical.
TORQUAY, t6r-ké’. A fashionable health
resort and watering place on the south coast
of Devon, England, occupying a cove on the
north side of Tor Bay, 23 miles south of Exeter
(Map: England, C 6). Marble works and terra-
cotta manufactures are its industrial specialties,
and it is an important yachting station. Its har-
bor has an area of 36 acres. Till the beginning
of the nineteenth century Torquay was an as-
semblage of fishermen’s huts. About that time
the advantages of its climate and freedom from
fogs caused it to be resorted to by consumptive
patients; and it soon attained a European
celebrity. Saint John’s, a fine church of modern
Gothic architecture, the town hall, a museum, a
theatre, and an opera house are the chief struc-
tural features. Torquay was incorporated in 1892.
It owns valuable property, municipal water-
works, electric lighting plant, pleasure grounds,
baths, a sanatorium, and a refuse destructor,
and supports technical schools. Kent’s Cavern,
discovered in 1824, and the Brixham Cave, dis-
covered in 1858, are rich in fossils, and have sup-
plied the earliest English evidences of prehistoric
man. After the defeat of the Spanish Armada,
Don Pedro’s galley was brought into Tor Bay,
and an old thirteenth-century building, where the
survivors were housed, is known as the ‘Spanish
barn.’ Torquay was the landing place of Wil-
liam of Orange in 1688. Population, in 1891,
33,825; in 1901, 33,625.
TORQUEMADA, tor’ka-ma'Da, JUAN DE,
also known by the Latinized form TUBRECBEMATA
(1388-1468). A Spanish theologian and cardinal,
born at Valladolid. He entered the Dominican
Order in 1403 and completed his studies at the
University of Paris in 14.24. After presiding over
houses of his Order at Valladolid and Toledo, he
was made master of the sacred palace by Eu-
genius IV. in 1431, and employed in various im-
portant negotiations. He was made a cardinal-
priest in 1439, exchanging his title later for the
cardinal-bishopric of Albano and in 1464 for that
of Sabina. He devoted the large revenues of vari-
ous preferments which he held to church build-
ing and works of charity, but attained greater
renown by his numerous theological writings,
many of which dealt with the controversies of
the day. He took part in the councils of Con-
stance, Basel, and Florence, and drew up the
plan for the union between the Greek and Latin
churches at the last named. Consult Lederer,
Der spanische Cardinal Johannes von Torque-
mada (Freiburg, 1879).
TORQUEMADA, ToMAs DE (1420-98). A
Spanish Inquisitor-General. He was born at
Valladolid, of the same family as that to which
the famous theologian, better known as Tur-
recremata, belonged. He entered the Dominican
Order, and became prior of the monastery at
Segovia, a post which he held for twenty-two
years. In 1478 the Inquisition was reestablished
in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella, and four
years later some assistants were given to the
first Inquisitors. Torquemada was among these,
and so distinguished himself by his zeal that in
1483 he was named by Sixtus IV. Grand Inquisi-
tor for Castile and Aragon. He erected four
tribunals, at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Villa
Real, the last of which was afterwards trans-
ferred to Toledo. The Grand Inquisitor was
assisted by a council of theologians and jurists
named by the King, but deriving their jurisdiction
from the Inquisitor-General, in virtue of the
latter’s Papal authority. In political and legal
questions he was obliged to act only in concert
with them, but merely asked their advice in
theological matters. Torquemada drew up the
code of procedure, which was confirmed by the
Pope, though the H01 See steadily impressed
upon the Inquisitors t e necessity of exercising
charity toward those who were accused of
heresy, and frequently mitigated the rigor of
their sentences, or, if the matter was dealt with
independently by the Spanish Government, com-
plained strongly. Torquemada took a prominent
part in the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.
Toward the end_of his life he retired into the
Dominican monastery of Avila, where he died.
Consult de Molenes, Documents inédits: Tor-
quemada et l’Inquisition (Paris, 1897). As a
typical representative of the Spanish Inquisition,
Torquemada has been frequently condemned by
Protestant historians for wanton cruelty. For a
fuller discussion of the charges made by them, see
INQUISITION. '
TORQUES (Lat. torques, torquis, twisted
neck-ring, necklace, collar, from torquere, to
rack, twist, torment). A species of gold orna-
ment, meant to be worn round the neck, which
was much in use in ancient times, both among
Asiatic and North European nations. It con-
sisted of a spirally twisted bar of gold, bent
round nearly into a circle, with the ends free,
and terminating in hooks, or sometimes in ser-
pents. Numerous examples of the torques have
been dug up in Great Britain and Ireland, as
TORQUES.
TORRES VEDRAS.
817
well as in France, and are to be found in archae-
ological collections.
TORRE DEL GRECO, tor'ra del gra'kc‘>. A
seaport and bathing resort in the Province of
Naples, Italy, situated at the base of Vesuvius,
7 miles southeast of Naples (Map: Italy, J 7).
The town has been largely rebuilt since the great
eruption of Vesuvius in 1861. It manufactures
wine, coral-ware, lava-ware, and rope. There
are shipbuilding yards. The inhabitants are
largely engaged in the coral, tunny, oyster, and
sardine fisheries. Torre del Greco suffered se-
verely from lava streams in 1631, 1737, and
1794. Population (commune), in 1881, 27,562;
in 1901, 33,299.
TORRE DELL’ ANNUNZIATA, -an-no’5n'-
tsé-a'ta. A seaport in the Province of Naples,
Italy, situated at the base of Vesuvius, 12 miles
southeast of Naples (Map: Italy, J 7 ). It
makes a specialty of macaroni. There are fine
thermal baths. It has a Government arms fac-
tory, extensive fisheries, and a trade in wine
and lava products. Population (commune), in
1881, 22,013; in 1901, 28,143.
TORREDONJIMENO, -d6n-Hé-ma’n6. A
town in the Province of Jaén, Spain, 8 miles
west of the city of Jaen, on the right bank
of the Salado de Porcufia. It is a well-con-
structed town with regular plazas and wide
streets. There are gypsum quarries in the
vicinity. Spirits and soap are the chief manu-
factures. Population, in 1900, 10,044.
TORRE MAGGIORE, mad-j5’ra. A town in
the Province of Foggia, Italy, about 20 miles .
northwest of Foggia (Map: Italy, K 6) . It has
a famous Benedictine abbey and large oil re-
fineries. Population (commune), in 1901, 11,054.
TOR’RENS, LAKE. A large lake depression
in South Australia, situated about 30 miles north
of the northern extremity of Spencer Gulf (Map:
Australia, F 5) . It is about 130 miles long
with an average breadth of 20 miles, but is very
shallow. In the wet season it receives a number
of streams from the Flinders Range, but for a
large part of the year it is only a salt marsh.
TORRENS, HENRY WI-IITELOCK (1806-52).
An English writer, born at Canterbury, and edu-
cated at Charter House, and Christ Church, Ox-
ford. He held various positions in the civil
service and in 1837 became one of Lord Auck-
land’s secretaries, but his reputation rests upon
his translation of the Arabian Nights. The
first volume appeared in 1838. The work was
never completed, but the existing fragment is
considered superior to any later version. His
collected works were published by J . Hume in
1854 (Calcutta and London).
TORRENS, ROBERT (1780-1864). An Irish
economist. He is best known as an economist,
and as one of the first to state the law of
diminishing returns, the modern theories of
wealth, and theory of international trade, and
is credited with having proposed the separation
of the Bank of England into banking and issue
departments. His publications include An Essay
on Money and Paper Currency (1812), An Essay
on the Production of Wealth (1821), Letters on
Commercial Policy (1833), On Wages and Com-
binations (1834), and Tracts on Finance and
Trade (1852).
TORRENS, Sir Ronnnr RICHARD (1814-84).
An English colonial statesman, born at Cork,
and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He
went to South Australia in 1840, and in 1857
became Colonial Treasurer and Premier. In the
following year were passed the land laws which
hear his name, whereby public registration was
substituted for conveyancing. (See TORRENS
SYSTEM.) In 1863 Torrens retired from Aus-
tralian public life, returned to England, and in
1868 entered Parliament, where he sat for Cam-
bridge until 1874, but failed to introduce his
reform in the land laws. His publications in-
clude The South Australian System of Convey-
ancing (1859), and Transfer of Land by “Regis-
tration of Title” as now in operation in Aus-
tralia under the “Torrens System” (1863).
TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS MOCULLAGH
(1813-94). An Irish politician and author, who
in middle life (1863) assumed his mother’s
name of Torrens.‘ He was born at Greenfield,
near Dublin, was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, and was admitted to the Irish bar in 1836
and the English in 1855. In 1842 he was one of
the founders of the Mechanics Institute of
Dublin. Elected to Parliament in 1847, he sat
for Dundalk until 1852, was returned in 1857
for Yarmouth, but was unseated on petition, and
then sat for Finsbury from 1865 to 1884. He
was known for his interest in social questions.
He introduced the Artisans’ Dwellings Act, and
that by which the School Board of London was
established.
dustrial History of Free Nations (2 vols., 1846),
The Lancashire Lesson (1864), Our Empire in
Asia: How We Came by It (1872), and a History
of Cabinets (2 vols., 1894).
TORRENS SYSTEM. A system of registra-
tion of titles to land introduced into South Aus-
tralia by Sir Robert Richard Torrens, in 1857,
in the Real Property Act drafted by him. The
chief novelty of the system is the provision for
the guaranty of properly registered titles by the
Government. The Torrens system was adopted
in most of the Australian colonies, in New Zea-
land, and British Columbia, and a somewhat
similar system was introduced into California
and a few other States. See TITLE, REGISTRA-
TIDN or. Consult: Yeakle, Torrens System;
Dumas, Registration of Title Under Torrens
System (1900).
TORRES NOVAS, tor’ras n5’viis. A town
of the District of Santarem, Portugal, 56 miles
northeast of Lisbon. It is in an extensive olive-
producing region, and has important oil mills
and cotton and linen manufactories. Population,
in 1900, 10,738.
TORRES (tor'res) STRAIT. The channel
which separates New Guinea from the Australian
continent (Map: Australia, G 1) . It is about 100
miles in width. Its navigation, though prac-
ticable, is rendered difficult by the innumerable
shoals, reefs, and islands. It was discovered by
Torres in 1606.
TORRES VEDRAS, va’dr:is. A town‘ in the
District of Lisbon, Estremadura, Portugal, on
the left bank of the Sizandro, 24 miles northwest
of Lisbon on the Lisbon-Figueira railroad. Its
population in 1900 was 6891. It carries on
some trade in wine. The Lines of Torres Vcdras
His publications include The In-.
TORRES VEDBAS.
TO RRIGIANO.
818
consist of three lines of fortifications, begun by
Wellington in 1809 and behind which he retired
in October, 1810, before the invading army of
Massén. He held the lines against_all the at-
tempts on the part of the French, and in August,
1811, forced Masséna to retreat. The first of
these lines, extending from Alhandra, on the
Tagus, to the mouth of the Sizandro, on the sea-
coast, was 29 miles long; the second lay from 6
to 10 miles behind the first and had a ength of
24 miles; the third, situated to the southwest of
Lisbon, at the very mouth of the Tagus, was very
short, being intended to cover a forced embarka-
tion, if that became necessary. The entire ground
thus fortified was equal to 500 square miles.
TOR/REY, BRADFORD (1843—). An Ameri-
can ornithologist and author, born at Weymouth,
Norfolk County, Mass. He was educated in the
public schools, taught for two years, then en-
tered business in Boston, and in 1886 became a
member of the staff of the Youth’s Companion
of that city. Among his books, marked by ac-
curate and discriminating observation and a
happy style, are Birds in the Bush (1885), A
Rambler’s Lease (1889), Spring Notes from Ten-
nessee (1896), and A lVorld of Green Hills
(1898).
TORIREY, CHARLES TURNER (1813-46). An
American reformer, born at Scituate, Mass. He
graduated at Yale in 1830, studied theology, and
became pastor of a Congregational church in
Princeton, N. J. Later he had charge of a
church at Salem, Mass., but finally gave up his
pastoral duties to devote himself entirely to the
abolitionist movement. He removed to Mary-
land, and in 1843, for writing an account of a
slaveholders’ convention held at Baltimore, he
was arrested and thrown into prison. He be-
came an efficient ‘oliicial’ of the underground
railroad, and in 1844 was convicted of havmg at-
tempted to help slaves to escape and was sen-
tenced to a long term in the State penitentiary.
Two years later he died in prison of consump-
tion. His body was taken to Boston, where it
was given a public funeral. Everywhere he was
hailed as a martyr in the anti-slavery cause, and
the words “Torrey’s blood crieth out” became a
watchword for the abolitionists. He wrote A
Memoir of li’illiam R. Saaeton (1838), and H ome,
or the Pilgrims’ Faith Revived (1846), a volume
of sketches written in prison.
TORREY, JOHN (1796-1873). An American
botanist. He was born in New York State, grad-
uated at the New York College of Physicians
and Surgeons, 1818; was professor at West
Point, 1824-27; in the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, 1827-55; at Princeton, 1830-54; chief
assayer in the United States Assay Office, New
York, 1853-73. His best known publications are:
Catalogue of Plants Growing Spontaneously with-
in Thirty Miles of New York (1819) ; Flora of
the Northern and Middle States (1824) ; Flora
of the State of New York. With Prof. Asa
Gray he began the publication of Flora of North
America (1838-43). His valuable herbarium and
botanical library he presented in 1860 to Colum-
bia College, in which institution he held a pro-
fessorship of chemistry at the time of his death.
TORREY, Josnrn: WILLIAM (1828-84). An
American newspaper man and merchant, born at
Bath, Me. He was for a time connected with
the Boston Times and the Carpet Bag. In 1853
he went to Australia, where he entered a com-
mercial house, and in 1859 to China, where he
became editor of the Hong Kong Times and the
China Mail. He engaged in commerce, organized
the American Trading Company of Borneo, and
in 1865 was recognized by the Sultan as Rajah
of the Marudu and Ambong districts. He re-
tained the position until 1879, when he became
secretary of the American legation at Bangkok.
He returned to the United States in 1883.
TORREYA (Neo-Lat., named in honor of
John Torrey). A small genus of the order
Coniferae, somewhat resembling the yews. They
are found in North America and Eastern Asia.
Torreya tawifolia, a Florida species, reaches the
height of 50 feet and has a close-grained and
strongly scented wood. The name T11I11l0I1 has
been adopted for this genus by some botanists
on account of the name Torreya having been
used for another plant.
TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB, THE. A sci-
entific society in New York City, incorporated in
1871, and now one of the six associated societies
forming the Scientific Alliance (q.v.). It has a
valuable herbarium of several thousand speci-
mens, illustrating the flora within one hundred
miles of New York, exhibited at the Museum of
the New York Botanical Garden, which is the
home of the club. The membership in 1903 was
342, of whom /196 were active members. The
club publishes the Bulletin, Torreya, and Me-
moirs.
TORRIANI, MARIA.
l\IARIA.
TORRICELLI, tor’re-chel’le, EVANGELISTA
( 1608-47 ) . An Italian mathematician and physi-
cist, born at Piancaldoli, or, according to some
authorities, at Modigliana, in the Romagna.
From about 1628 he studied mathematics in
Rome, under Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644) , the
favorite disciple of Galileo. Galileo’s theories on
force and motion especially engaged his attention,
and led to his publishing a Trattato clel moto
(1641), a meritorious work, but containing few
new discoveries of consequence. He was then
invited by Galileo to visit him, and aided the
old philosopher, now blind, in the preparation
of his Discorsi. On Galileo’s death he was ap-
pointed his successor in the chair of philosophy
and mathematics at Florence. Torricelli was the
first to use a column of mercury in a tube closed
at one end to balance the pressure of the atmos-
phere, and found that a much shorter column
could be used than in the case of water, as in
Galileo’s experiment. This feat, actually per-
formed by his assistant, Viviani, furnished him
with the idea of the barometer (q.v.) in which
the space above the mercury in the closed tube
has since been known as a Torricellian vacuum.
Torricelli also effected the quadrature of the
cycloid, but in this he was anticipated by Rober-
val. He was also the first to construct a simple
microscope and improved the telescope.
See TORELLI-TORRIANI,
TORRIGIANO, tGr’ré-jii’no, PIETRO (also
TORRIGIANI and TORREGIANI (c.1472-1522). An
Italian sculptor, born in Florence. He was a
fellow student of Michelangelo in the Giardino
Mediceo, and was jealous of him because of his
superior talent and his intimacy with their pa-
tron, Lorenzo dc’ Medici. The result was a
TO RRIGIANO.
TORSO.
819
quarrel in which Michelangelo received perma-
nent disfigurement. Torrigiano fled to Rome,
Where he modeled the stuccoes in the Borgia
Tower for Pope Alexander VI. He was taken
by Florentine merchants to London, where he
worked for King Henry VIII., executing the
bronzes for the tomb of Henry VII. in Westmin-
ster Abbey. He also made a bronze monument for
the Duchess of Richmond,‘ and works in marble
and wood. He afterwards did some work in the
Cathedral of Seville, and executed figures of
Saint Jerome and Saint Leo for the Girolamiti
of that city. Imprisoned on a charge of heresy
by the Duke of Arcos, for destroying a statue of
the Virgin for which he considered himself under-
paid, Torrigiano starved to death in confinement.
'I‘OR’RI1\TG'I'O1\l'. A borough in Litchfield
County, Conn., 26 miles west of Hartford, on
the Naugatuck River, and on the New York,
New Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: Con-
necticut, C 2). It has a public library with
more than 5200 volumes, and a fine municipal
building. Torrington is extensively interested
in manufacturing, its various industries in the
census year 1900 having had an invested capital
of $6,544,511, and an output valued at $10,017,-
121. The leading products are brass articles, hard-
ware, needles, bicycles, novelties, woolen cloth,
and machine tools. The government is vested in a
warden and burgesses, who hold office for one
year. Population, i.n 1890, 4283; in 1900, 8360.
Torrington was settled in 1737, and was incorpo-
rated in 1740 as a town, and in 1887 as a bor-
ough. Consult Orcutt, History of Torrington
(Albany, 1878).
TORRINGTON, FREDERICK HERBERT (1837
——). An English musician, born at Dudley,
VVorcestershire. In 1853 he became organist at
Saint Anne’s, Bewdley, and in 1856 organist at
Great Saint J ames’s Church in Montreal, Canada.
He was organist and musical director at King’s
Chapel, Boston, until 1873; afterwards he be-
came organist and choirmaster at the Metropoli-
tan Church at Toronto, Canada, and conducted
the Philharmonic Society there. He founded in
1886 the first Toronto musical festival, and, in
1888, instituted the Toronto College of Music.
Among his works are organ-music, choruses,
hymn-tunes, and services.
TORSION ‘BALANCE. An instrument orig-
inally designed by the Rev. John Mitchell and
after his ‘death improved by Henry Cavendish,
who used it in performing the well-known Cav-
endish experiment of determining the mass of
the earth. The apparatus was reinvented by
Coulomb, and is often known by his name, hav-
ing been used by him to study electrical and
magnetic attractions. It consists of a horizontal
rod suspended by a fine wire or in the most
recent experiments a fibre of quartz, and carry-
ing at either end two small spheres having a
mass equivalent to one gram. Adjacent to but
on opposite sides of these small masses are two
large spheres of lead which attract the two
smaller masses and cause the horizontal rod
to deflect, the movement being observed by a mir-
ror and telescope and scale as in the case of the
reflecting galvanometer. The force of attraction
between two different masses can thus be ascer-
tained, and as the attraction of the earth for
a unit mass as well as its radius is known, we
can thus determine the mass of the earth. In
electricity, charged conductors were substituted
for the masses, and to study the strength and
action of magnetic poles a long thin magnet was
suspended and a similar magnet placed in a ver-
tical position near one of its poles. The amount -

TORSION BALANCE.
of force exerted was ascertained by finding the
angle through which it was necessary to turn the
head carrying the wire in order to keep the sus-
pended bar at its original position. The Caven-
dish experiment enables the physicist to com-
pute the mass of the earth and to determine also
its mean density, which according to Boys is
5.5268.
TORSK (Swed., Dan. torsk, dialectic Swed.
trosk, Icel. orslcr, L.G., Ger. Dorsch, torsk, cod-
fish, haddock; connected with Russ. treslca, cod-
fish, Skt. tars, to thirst, and ultimately with
Eng. thirst), or CUSK. A small cod (Brosmius
brosme) of the European side of the North At-
lantic, taken in deep water and regarded as
valuable. It is usually about 20 inches long,
and is distinguished by its long dorsal fin and
yellow color.
TORSO (It., stump, trunk.) An ancient
statue of which only the body remains. Of such
imperfect relics of classic art, the most famous
is the Torso of the Belvedere in the Vatican, the
work of Apollonios, son of Nestor, an ‘Athenian.
It is a masterpiece of the later Greek sculpture
(first century B.C.), showing a thorough mastery
of the treatment of the nude in all its details,
though without the ideality of the best period.
It represents a man of gigantic build, seated on
a rough rock over which a skin is thrown. It
is usually called Hercules, though Sauer prefers
to consider it Polyphemus. No successful or
convincing restoration has yet been made. The
common story that it was discovered in\the
Campo del Fiore at the beginning of the six-
teenth century and placed, by order of Pope
Julius II., in the Vatican, is certainly wrong.
It is only known that it was formerly in the pos-
session of the Colonna family, and was brought
TORSO.
TORT.
820
to the Vatican by Pope Clement VII. (1523-34).
Consult: Loewy, Inschriftcn der griechischen
Bildhauer, No. 343 (Leipzig, 1885); B. Sauer,
Torso von Belveclere (Giessen, 1894).
TOIVSTENSON, LENNABT, Count of Ortala
(1603-51). A Swedish general, born at Tor-
stena, West Gothland, August 17, 1603. He
became a royal page in 1618 and attended
Gustavus Adolphus in most of his earlier cam-
paigns. When Gustavus entered Germany in
1630, Torstenson was captain of the body-guard;
and the brilliant services he rendered at Breiten-
feld, the Lech, and in other battles, were re-
warded with rapid promotion. Taken prisoner at
the storming of Wallenstein’s camp near Nurem-
berg (September 3, 1632), he was released in
February of the following year and served till
1635 in Livonia, returning in that year to duty
under Bernhard of Weimar and Banér, the suc-
cessors of Gustavus. In 1641, on the death of
Banér, he was appointed to the command of the
Swedish forces in Germany. His military career
was marked by brilliancy of conception, fer-
tility of resource, resolute daring, and extraor-
dinary rapidity of execution. He invaded Silesia
in May, 1642, routed the Imperialists at Glogau
and Schweidnitz, reduced most of Moravia, and
being pressed back into Saxony by the Archduke
Leopold William and Piccolomini, turned upon
his pursuers (November 2, 1642), and signally
defeated them on the historic field of Breiten-
feld. He then laid Moravia and Austria under
contribution. The Emperor, Ferdinand Ill., de-
spairing of protecting his territories from Tor-
stenson, negotiated with Christian IV. of
Denmark to make a diversion by invading
Sweden; but Torstenson, with characteristic
promptitude. left Moravia in September, 1643,
traversed Saxony, burst into Holstein, and
in less than six weeks subjugated the Danish
mainland. The Imperialists under Gallas fol-
lowed him to aid their allies, but arrived too
late, and were routed and driven into Saxony,
and again totally defeated at J iiterbog, in at-
tempting to bar Torstenson’s return into Bo-
hemia (1644). The Swedish general won a
great victory over Hatzfeld at Jankau (March
6, 1645), and carried his arms to the Danube.
The Emperor was compelled to flee from Vienna;
the Saxons again joined the Swedes; and the
Danes, routed at sea as well as on land, sought
peace. In 1646 disease compelled Torstenson to
resign the command and retire to Sweden, where
he was created a count and appointed to vari-
ous high oflices. He died at Stockholm, April 7,
1651. Consult De Peyster, Torstenson (New
York, 1886). See THIRTY YEARS’ WAR.
TORT (Fr., wrong). A civil wrong other
than a breach of contract, which entitles the
injured person to a common-law action for
damages. It must be admitted that this is
rather a general description than an accurate
definition of the important legal term before us.
And yet, the present state of English law does
not warrant a more specific statement. A
breach of contract, without excuse, is undoubted-
ly wrongful, and entitles the party harmed by
such breach to a common-law action for dam-
ages. But this wrong is always treated under
the head of contract (q.v.), and is never spoken
of as a tort. The right to damages for breach
of contract flows from the agreement of the
parties, while that for a tort is conferred by the
law, “independent of any previous consent of
the wrongdoer to bear the loss occasioned by
his act.” Again, a trustee who uses trust
property for his own benefit without authority
wrongs his cestui que trust. As the latter’s re-
dress, however, is not to be obtained in a com-
mon-law action, but by a proceeding in equity,
the term ‘tort’ is not applied to it. The same is
true of an inexcusable refusal to pay salvage
as redress, for it is to be sought in admiralty
and not at common law. These limitations upon
the term, it will be observed, are the results
of what may be called accidents of legal pro-
cedure.
A tort is, as said above, a ‘civil’ wrong. This
element distinguishes it from a crime. It is true
that the same act or omission may subject the
wrongdoer to a tort action and also to a crimi-
nal prosecution. One person deliberately, and
without excuse, attacks and wounds another.
This assault and battery is a tort, as it gives
to the injured person a common-law action in
damages, for the invasion of his right of personal
security. It is also a crime, as it violates a
right of the State by a breach of the peace and
by harming one of its citizens.
This branch of our law was one of the latest
to receive systematic treatment, either by judges
or by text writers. Frederick Pollock declared,
in 1886, that the really scientific treatment of
this topic by judges begins with the decisions of
the last fifty years. In 1882 the New York
Court of Appeals asserted that an accurate and
perfect definition of a tort was nowhere to be
found; nor did it essay to formulate one. The
earliest treatise in which an attempt was made
to systematize the law of torts was published
in 1859.
Various classifications of torts have been sug-
gested. One of them is as follows: “First, law-
ful acts done by wrongful means or of malice.
Second, unlawful acts. Third, events caused by
negligence.” The first includes deceit, slander
of title, malicious prosecution, and malicious in-
terference with contracts between others. The
second class includes assault and battery,
conversion, defamation, false imprisonment,
nuisance, trespass, and some other forms of tort.
The third embraces the various phases of negli-
gence. (See these various topic; in this En-
cyclopaedia.) A similar classification was sug-
gested by a learned judge in a recent decision of
the House of Lords, and has received some judi-
cial approval in the United States. It follows the
ordinary classification of personal rights. The
first class of torts, according to his suggestion,
includes all wrongful invasions of the right of
reputation. The second class includes such in-
vasions of the rights of bodily safety and free-
dom. The third class includes such invasions
of the rights of property.
The domain of tort in our law is more ex-
tensive than that covered by actions ea: delicto
in Roman law. Speaking broadly, a wrongful
intent was necessary to such actions. Mere
negligence might subject one to an action quasi
ea: contractu if by agreement he had assumed
a duty of care; but otherwise it subjected him
to no liability. Certain wrongs were styled
quasi ea delicto, but as a rule the actionable
character of these was of praetorian origin. In
TORT.
TORTOISE-BEETLE.
821
' by a common carrier to a passenger.
Louisiana, whose jurisprudence rests upon a
basis of Roman law, civil wrongs are divided
into ‘offenses,’ or illegal acts which are done
wickedly and with intent to injure, and ‘quasi-
offenses,’ or those which cause injury to another
but proceed from error, neglect, or imprudence.
The term ‘quasi-tort’ has made its appearance
in judicial decisions and recent legal treatises,
both in England and the United States. It is' not
used as synonymous with the ‘quasi offense’ of
Louisiana, nor with the ‘quasi-delict’ of Roman
and Scotch law. It designates an act or omis-
sion, which subjects the wrongdoer to a contract
or to a tort action, at the injured party’s option;
such, for example, as a merely negligent injury
Consult:
Hilliard, The Law of Torts (Boston, 1859) ; Ad-
dison, A Treatise on the Law of Torts (London,
1860; Albany, 1876); Bishop, Commentaries on
the Non-Contract Law (Chicago, 1889); Cooley,
The Law of Torts (Chicago, 1895) ; J aggard, The
Law of Torts (Saint Paul, 1895); Clerk and
Lindsell, The Law of Torts (2d ed., London,
1896) ; Pollock, The Law of Torts (London and
New York, 1901) ; Sohm, The Institutes of the
Roman Law (Oxford, 1892).
TORTOISE, t€>r’tus (OF. tortue, tortugue, Fr.
tortue, tortoise, from Lat. tortus, twisted, so
called on account of its crooked feet; prob-
ably influenced its termination by Eng. Por-
poise). A turtle of terrestrial habits. The
term is rather indefinite, but usually dis-
tinguishes land chelonians from marine spe-
cies, although tortoise-shell is exclusively a
marine product, and certain fresh-water turtles,
as the terrapins, are commonly spoken of
as marsh-tortoises. Its most exact applica-
tion is probably to the family Testudinidae, in
which the shell is always covered with well-
developed horny shields. It includes the ter-
rapins or aquatic ‘mud turtles’ of the genera
Emys, Chrysemys, and similar groups, in which
the feet are adapted for both walking and swim-
ming, and the carapace is often ornamented by
gay colors or sculpturings. Many are almost
wholly terrestrial, as is the case with the com-
mon box-tortoise (see TURTLE) of the' United
States. Near allies are the famous Greek tor-
toise of the Mediterranean region and many
other species of the typical genus Testudo; also
the Florida ‘gopher’ (q.v.).
The most important and distinctive members
of the group are the gigantic land-tortoises of
various oceanic islands, now extinct or nearly
so. (See EXTINCT ANIMALS.) All these belong
to the genus Testudo and differ little except in
size from the other members of -the family.
Some of them are not larger than other large
turtles, but those most noted greatly exceed
any other living forms, although surpassed by
the Testudo atlas of the early Pliocene in India,
whose shell was six feet or more in length.
Others, with shells about four feet in length,
were its contemporaries in Europe and in North
America. Their representatives survived until a
recent date or still ‘live in the Galapagos Isl-
ands, Madagascar, and the Mascarene Islands,
but nowhere upon any continent.
Specimens of small species have been known to
live more than 100 years, and one, at least,
more than 150 years. The Madagascar species
(Testudo Grandidieri) became extinct probably
before that island was discovered by white men,
but at least two species of the Camoros have re-
mained until within historic times. One (the
elephant tortoise, Testudo gigantea, see LAND
TORTOISE) is now extinct in its original home,
the North Island of Aldabara, but preserved in
the Seychelles, and a specimen living in England
in 1897 then measured 52% X 50 inches over the
curve of its shell, and weighed 358 pounds; an-
other in Saint Helena was more than a century
old in 1900. Daudin’s tortoise, of South Alda-
bara, also survives in small numbers, and several
were taken to Europe in 1895, one of which at
least 100 years old had a shell 55 inches long.
Still larger is a representative alive in Mauri-
tius, whose recorded history goes back to 17 66,
when it had already reached large size; it is of
a species (Sumeirei) native to the Seychelles,
to which also belonged the tortoise which lived
at Colombo from 1797 to 1898. Several other
species, probably or surely extinct, inhabited
Rodriguez and other islands of the Indian Ocean,
where they were found in abundance by the early
voyagers and planters, but were slaughtered for
food or as curiosities.
The Galapagos Islands had several species of
similar gigantic tortoises, one to each island of the
archipelago, which differed from the Eastern ones
mainly in having longer necks and smaller heads.
Some were long ago exterminated by man or by
the pigs which Ecuadorans turned loose upon the
islands a century ago; others still survive in
small numbers, although in 1893 and again in
1898 large numbers were taken away and dis-
tributed to zoiilogical gardens in various parts
of the world, New York and Washington getting
several old and young specimens. The largest
collection of all living species is that at Tring
Park, England, where the biggest known Gala-
pagos tortoise (Testudo elephantopus) is one
measuring 56 X 49 inches over the curve of its
carapace, which was taken from Duncan Island
in 1813 to Rotuma, thence to Sydney in 1880,
and finally to England.
Consult: Giinther, Gigantic Land-Tortoises
(London, 1877); Giinther, Proceedings Linnean
Society (Presidential address, 1898-—“a fascinat-
ing review of the whole complicated subject”) ;
Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles (London, 1901) ;
Darwin, A Naturalist’s Voyage (London, 1860) ;
Report United States National Museum (Wash-
ington, 1889). Compare TURTLE; and see illus-
tration under {LAND TORTOISE.
TORTOISE-BEETLE, or SHIELD-BEETLE. A
leaf-beetle of the subfamily Cassidinae. The
adults are rounded convex beetles with a curious
marginal expansion of the upper surface, and
with the power of withdrawing the head into
the thorax, which gives them a resemblance to a
tortoise. Their larvae are flattened, fringed with
spines, and the anal end of the body is pro-
vided with a forked appendage which is bent for-
ward over the back; to this are attached the
cast-off skins ofthe larva and its excrement as
a protective covering. A remarkable group of
tortoise-beetles, belonging to the genus Por-
phyraspis, cover themselves in the larval state
with a dense coat of fibres of the palm tree, upon
which they live, each of the fibres being many
times the length of the insect’s bod and elabo-
rately curved so as to form a roun nest under
which the larva lives. Many species have a
TORTOISE-BEETLE.
TORTURE.
822
brilliant golden green or iridescent metallic col-
oring which disappears after death, but may be
restored by moistening the dead insect. Several
very beautiful species occur upon the morning-
glory and upon sweet potato (see SWEET Po-
TATO INSECTS), a large species (Physonata uni-
punctata) feeds upon the wild sunflower, and a
very common brick-red species (Chelymorpha
argus) feeds upon the milkweed.
TORTOISE-SHELL. The semi-transparent
and beautifully mottled material of the scales
covering the carapace of the hawksbill (q.v.), a
marine turtle found in all tropical seas. In this
species the thirteen shield-plates do not join at
the edges, but overlap posteriorly ; the larger cen-
tral ones are broadly triangular in outline,
keeled, and six or seven inches broad, and those
of a large turtle may weigh eight pounds. They
are rarely thick enough to serve the ornamental
purposes to which tortoise-shell is usually ap-
plied, but when heated in oil or boiled in water
may be welded together under pressure, or
molded into a form which will be retained when
cooled. “In genuine articles of Oriental manu-
facture these welds can generally be detected, or
their compound nature is indicated by the beauti-
ful pattern, which is too regular in the imita-
tions now common.” Even the shavings and
fragments are welded into serviceable pieces.
The turtles are taken usually when they come
ashore to lay their eggs; and the plates are (or
were) sometimes removed by roasting the living
animal until they were loosened and could be
torn off; this was done under the belief that
when the mutilated creature was returned to the
sea the plates would regrow, but there is no
evidence that this occurs, and the turtle probably
dies. This cruel process, moreover, injures the
tortoise-shell. The best and proper way is to
kill the turtle and then detach the plates by im-
mersion in boiling water. In its nature and
chemical composition the material closely re-
sembles horn (q.v.). The use of tortoise-shell
has long been known. Julius Caesar found great
quantities of it in the storehouses of Alexandria.
The Romans veneered furniture with it. In
modern times, in addition to comb-making, tor-
toise-shell is made into card-cases, trays. hand-
kerchief-boxes, and various other articles of
ornament and the toilet. It is also used still to
inlay expensive furniture, the Chinese and Jap-
anese producing the most complicated and beau-
tiful examples of this sort of art.
TORTOISE-SHELL BUTTERFLY. Any
one of the butterflies of the Fabrician genus
Vanessa. They are usually of medium size, and
have the wings on the upper side of some shade
of black or brown marked with red, yellow, or
orange. The commonest species in the Eastern
United States are the following: Vanessa anti-
opa, sometimes called the mourning-cloak (q.v.) ,
and in England known as the Camberwell beauty.
Vanessa Milberti is common in the Northern
United States and Canada. Its caterpillars feed
upon the nettle plants of the genus Urtica.
Vanessa Californica is confined to California,
and in the larval stage feeds upon Ceanothus.
Vanessa 7'-album, the ‘common tortoise,’ is a
northern species whose larvae feed upon willows.
TORTO’LA. One of the Virgin Islands (q.v.).
TORTONA, tor-to’na. A town in the Prov-
ince of Alessandria, Italy, on the Scrivia, 12 miles
east of Alessandria (Map: Italy, C 3). It has
a ruined castle overlooking the town.‘ The town
manufactures silk, markets grain and wine, and
quarries stone. Tortona was destroyed by Fred-
erick Barbarossa in the twelfth century for its
allegiance to the Guelphic cause. Population
(commune), in 1901, 17,452.
TORTOSA, tor-t6’sa. A fortified town of
Spain, Province of Tarragona, 42 miles from the
city of Tarragona, picturesquely situated on a
sloping eminence overlooking the Ebro, from the
mouth of which it is distant about 22 miles, and
which is navigable to this town for vessels of
light draught (Map: Spain, F 2) . The town has a
cathedral with fine carved work and marbles.
There are manufactures of rope, paper, leather,
soap, and pottery, of palm-leaf and feather-grass,
but the fisheries give employment to most of the
people. In the vicinity are ruins of a Roman
city. Tortosa is subject to frequent disastrous
floods, which have necessitated an almost entire
rebuilding of the city. Population, in 1900,
24,306.
TORTRICIDJE. See LEAF-ROLLER.
TORTUGA, tor-to_o"ga, or TORTUE, tor-tu’.
An uninhabited island off the northern coast of
Haiti, West Indies (Map: Antilles, L 4). Area,
about 80 square miles. Its surface is broken.
It was formerly occupied by buccaneers, and pro-
duced sugar, tobacco, etc.
TORTUG-AS, tor-tb"‘o’gaz. A group of islands
off the coast of Florida. See DRY TCRTUGAS.
TORTURE (Lat. tortura, a twisting, tor-
ture, from torquere, to rack, twist, torment).
The infliction of severe bodily pain either as
punishment or for purpose of revenge or for the
purpose of compelling the person tortured to give
evidence or make confessions in judicial pro-
ceedings. Among primitive and savage peoples
torture has been used as a means of ordeal (q.v.) ,
and as a means of punishing captured enemies.
During the Middle Ages the Church made use of
torture as a means of compelling religious con-
formity and for the purpose of extorting evidence
in heresy trials. Throughout Southern and West-
ern Europe the most extreme cruelties were prac-
ticed for this purpose (see INQUISITICN), and
it was not until 1816 that torture was finally
prohibited by Papal bull. Examination by tor-
ture, otherwise called ‘the question,’ has been
largely used in many countries as a judicial in-
strument for extracting evidence from unwill-
ing witnesses, or confessions from accused per-
sons. In ancient Athens slaves were always
examined by torture, and their evidence seems
on this account to have been deemed more valu-
able than that of freemen. No free Athenian could
be examined by torture, but torture seems oc-
casionally to have been used in executing crimi-
nals. Under the Roman Republic only slaves
could be legally tortured, and, as a general rule,
they could not be tortured to establish their
master’s guilt. Under the Empire, however, tor-
ture, besides being much used in examining
slaves, might by order of the Emperor be in-
flicted even on freemen, to extract evidence of
the crime of lcesa majestas, a prerogative fre-
quently exercised hy the Roman emperors. Cic-
ero and other enhghtened Romans condemned
TORTURE.
TORY.
823
\
its use. Until the thirteenth century torture
seems to have been unknown to the canon law;
about that period the Roman treason law began
to be adapted to heresy as crimen lcesce majes-
tatis D/wince. A decree of Pope Innocent IV. in
1282, calling on civil magistrates to put persons
accused of heresy to the torture, to elicit con-
fessions against themselves and others, was prob-
ably the earliest instance of ecclesiastical sanc-
tion being extended to -this mode of examina-
tion. Gradually the ecclesiastical courts devel-
oped from the Roman law and applied a system
of torture which reached its culmination in the
atrocities of the Inquisition. The influence of the
Church during the Middle Ages undoubtedly con-
tributed to the adoption of torture by the civil
tribunals. It was early adopted by the Italian
municipalities, but its introduction into I/Vestern
Europe as an instrument of judicial inquisition
as distinguished from the ordeal or compurgation
was slow. It first appeared in France in the
latter part of the thirteenth century and in Ger-
many in the fifteenth century, and ultimately
became a part of the legal system of every Euro-
pean nation except Sweden and England. The
use of torture seems to have been repugnant to
the genius of the law of England, and it never
became a part of the common law, although its
use by exercise of the royal prerogative was law-
ful both in State trials and in the case of ordi-
nary crimes. The first instance we have of its
use is in 1310, in aid of the ecclesiastical law,
during the struggle between Pope Clement V.
and the Templars. Edward II., when applied to
to sanction the infliction of torture by the In-
quisitors in the case of certain Templars accused
of heresy and apostasy, at first refused; but on
a remonstrance by Clement, he referred the mat-
ter to the council; and on the recommendation of
the council, the Inquisitors were authorized to
put the accused to the torture, but without mu-
tilation or serious injury to the person, or effu-
sion of the blood. During the Tudor period the
council frequently assumed the power of direct-
ing torture-warrants to the lieutenant of the
Tower, and other officers both against State
prisoners and those accused of other serious
crimes; and similar warrants were at times is-
sued under the sign manual. Under James I.
and Charles I. torture was less resorted to, and
only in State trials. In 1628, in the case of
Felton, the assassin of the Duke of Buckingham,
the judges declared the examination of the ac-
cused by torture, for the purpose of discovering
his accomplices, to be illegal. The last recorded
instance of the use of torture in England was in
the reign of Charles I. (1640) to compel a con-
fession of treason. The use of torture was never
legal in the English colonies, and the few in-
stances of torture in the American colonies were
properly forms of execution, or the infliction of
peine forte et dare as a means of compelling the
defendant to'plead to an indictment. _
Even during the period when the use of torture
was most prevalent its cruelty was recognized
and its employment deplored as an evil necessary
to the due administration of justice. In all
ages there have'been leading writers and think-
ers who denounced the use of torture, not
only because of its cruelty and its debas-
ing effect upon public morals, but because
of its unreliability as a means of discovering
the truth, since it oftentimes led the innocent
from weakness and exhaustion to plead guilty
or accuse others of crimes which had not been
committed. The horrors of the Inquisition and
the excessive use of judicial torture from the
fourteenth to the sixteenth century led to a
gradual but nevertheless progressive change of
public sentiment, which ultimately caused its
disuse in all the countries of Europe. The use
of torture was abolished in Prussia, Saxony,
Austria, and Switzerland by the middle of the
eighteenth century. Its use in Russia was lim-
ited by command of Catharine II. in 1762, and
finally abolished in 1801., In France it was
abolished in 1789 (although temporarily restored
by the Bourbons in 1814), in \/Vlirttemberg in
1806,-in Bavaria in 1807, in Hanover in 1822,
and in Baden in 1831.
The instruments and methods of judicial tor-
ture have been numerous. Among the Greeks
torture was inflicted by the rack, the scourge,
by thrusting the victim bent double into a vault
which compelled him to retain that position
until his suffering became extreme, the injection
of vinegar into the nostrils, and torture by ap-
plication of fire. The Romans also made use of
the rack, torture by fire, the scourge, and mutilat-
ing the flesh by hooks. The most celebrated in-
strument of torture is the rack, an oblong hori-
zontal frame, on which the accused was stretched,
while cords, attached to his legs and arms, were
gradually strained by a lever or Windlass, an
operation which, when carried to extreme sever-
ity, dislocated the joints of the wrists and
ankles. It is as old a.s the second century in the
south of Europe, and seems to have been known
in one form to the Greeks, but is said to have
been unknown in England till introduced into
the Tower by the Duke of Exeter, constable of
the Tower, whence it acquired the name of the
‘Duke of Exeter’s daughter.’ In Germany the
rack was sometimes furnished with a roller,
armed with spikes, rounded off, over which the
sufferer was drawn backward and forward. The
wheel, upon which the victim was bound and his
bones broken by the gradual application of
force, was also used throughout the Middle
Ages. Among the lesser tortures may be men-
tioned the thumbikins, boots, pincers, and mana-
cles; and in England an instrument called the
Scavenger’s (properly Skeflington’s) daughter,
the invention of Sir VVilliam Skefiington, lieu-
tenant of the Tower in the reign of Henry VIII.
This enumeration, however, by no means includes
all the methods, ingenious and unspeakably cruel,
by which torture was inflicted upon innumerable
victims during the Middle Ages. Consult: Jar-
dine, Reading on the Use of Torture in the (7rz'nm'-
nal Law of England (London, 1837); Lea, Sn-
perstition and Force (Philadelphia, 1866); and
Stephen, History of the Crzhninal Law of Eng-
land (London, 1883).
TORUS (Lat., protuberance, mattress, bed).
A bold and simple architectural molding, of con-
vex outline, used in doorways and cornices, but
especially in the bases of columns immediately
above the plinth.
TORY (from Ir. toridhe, tornidhe, tornlghe,
pursuer, plunderer, from torighim, to fancy,
pursue). The name of one of the historic par-
ties in England. It was originally the term ap-
plied to Irish brigands and about the year 1680
TORY.
TOTEMISM.
824
was given as a nickname to the supporters of
the Duke of York, afterwards James II., when
his exclusion from the succession on account of
his (Catholic) religion was proposed by Shaftes-
bury. It was intended to imply that those who
opposed the exclusion were ‘Papists.’ About 1830
the name ‘Conservative’ began to take the place
of Tor . In the United States during the Revolu-
tion t e adherents of the Crown were called
Tories. See WIIIG AND TOBY.
TORZHOK, tor-zhok’. A district town in the
Government of Tver, Russia, situated on the
Tvertza, 294 miles southeast of Saint Petersburg
(Map: Russia, E 3). In its vicinity lace, and
gold, and silver embroideries are extensively pro-
duced by peasant women. Torzhok was a de-
pendency of Novgorod in the tenth century.
Population, in 1897, 12,800.
TOSCHI, to/cke, PAOLO (1788-1854). An
Italian engraver, one of the last representatives
of the old school of line work. He was born at
Parma, went to Paris in 1808 to study en-
graving under Bervic, with whom he remained
until 1819, when he returned to Parma and
founded with his friend Antonio Isac a school of
engraving. In 1820 he was appointed by Maria
Louisa, Duchess of Parma, ex-Empress of France,
director of the Academy of Fine Arts, which he
was the means ofgreatly improving and enlarging.
His best known works are from Gerard’s “En-
trance of Henry IV. into Paris” (1818) ; Daniele
da Volterra’s “Descent from the Cross;” Ra-
phael’s “Spasim_o” (Madrid); Correggio’s “Ma-
donna della Scodella,” and a series of that mas-
ter’s Parmesan frescoes.
TOSTI, to’ste, FRANCESCO PAOLO (1846—).
An Italian-English song-composer, born in Or-
tona di Mare, in the Abruzzi. After studying at
the Naples Conservatory, he was appointed an in-
structor there. He resigned in 1869, went to Rome
and appeared in concerts as a singer, after which
he was made vocal instructor at the Court, Rome.
In 1875 he went to London, and in 1880 was
appointed singing teacher to the royal family.
His Works are: The Grand Dulce (opera, 1888) ;
La prima donna (opera, 1889); and numerous
Italian and English songs and duets, which have
become very popular. Perhaps his best-known
songs are “For Ever and For Ever,” and “Good-
Bye.”
TOS’TIG (died 1066). A powerful English
earl, brother of King Harold II. He was prob-
ably the third son of Earl Godwin, and shared
in his father’s banishment, returning with him
in 1052. Edward the Confessor was very fond
of Tostig, and when Earl Siward died in 1055,
Tostig received Northumbria, Northamptonshire,
and Huntingdonshire. Tostig proved an able and
energetic ruler, restoring security to the disor-
dered country. But his tyranny alienated the
Northumbrians, and in 1065 they declared Tostig
an outlaw and chose Morcar in his place. Harold
sided with the rebels against his brother, and as
a result Tostig was banished. though Edward re-
gretted it exceedingly. In 1066, when Harold had
succeeded Edward the Confessor as King of Eng-
land, Tostig offered his support to William of
Normandy. This offer was accepted and Tostig
thereupon went to King Harald Haardraade of
Norway, and induced him to make an invasion
into England. But on September 25, 1066, King
Harold met them at Stamford Bridge and totally
defeated them. Harald Haardraade and Tostig
were both slain. Consult Freeman, History of the
Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. (3d ed., Ox-
ford, 1877). See HAROLD 11.
TOTAL ABSTINENCE. See TEMPERANOE
TOTANA, to-tii/na. - A town of the Province
of Murcia, Spain, 24 miles southwest of the town
of that name, on the left bank of the Sangonera
(Map: Spain, E 4). A‘ gorge divides the town
into two parts, the Barrio de Sevilla and the
Barrio de Triana. The town is celebrated for its
oranges, the mining of saltpetre, linen-spinning,
and especially for its tinajas (terra-cotta jars),
widely used for holding oil and wine. Water
is brought to the fountains by an aqueduct seven
miles long. The town is connected by a canal
with the seacoast at Mazarr6n. Population, in
1900, 13,714.
TOTEMISM (from totem, from Algonquin
nt’ otem, my family token). The worship of a
totem. Primarily a totem is a natural object
employed by the American Indians to designate
a certain relationship between groups of human
and non-human individuals. The relationship is
always peculiarly close, but not always of the
same sort. The only general characteristic of all
forms of totemism is the belief in a closer connec-
tion between certain groups of men and certain
groups of non-human objects than naturally ex-
ists between all men and all non-human objects.
Thus totemism is distinguished from fetishism
(q.v.), though the latter has frequently been
confounded with it. In true totemism the ob-
ject of human regard is not an individual object,
as it is in fetishism, but is the group of objects
with which certain men (and women) as a group
feel themselves to be related by a peculiarly
close tie. Thus if a clan call the sun their broth-
er, they are not totemists in the strict sense of
the word. On the other hand, the Hindu who
calls the monkey his brother is also not a totem-
ist, although the monkey represents (as the sun
does not) a group, for in this case the same
Hindu calls other animals his brothers as well.
In totem-brotherhood, however, there is an im-
portant outer symbol, the name. Thus, when a
savage names himself after an animal species,
calls the individual animal of that species his
brother, and refuses to kill it, the animal (spe-
cies) is his totem, which is generally tribal and
hereditary. The reason why a tribe revere a par-
ticular species of animal or plant is, according to
Frazer, that the life of each individual of the
tribe is bound up with some one animal or plant
of the species, and that his or her death would be
the consequence of destroying that particular
animal or plant. Hence Frazer defines the totem
as the receptacle of the life of the totemist, “in
which the individual deposits his soul.” The
same mysticism pervades the elaborate theories
of other scholars who regard the connection with
the totem as a blood-relationship between men
and animals (imagined to be the ancestors and
brothers of men), and the first totemic sacri-
fices as a renewal of the blood-bond between the
divine animal ancestor and his human descend-
ants. According to this theory, the altar was
at first the bethel or home of the divine animal
ancestor. on which blood was shed to renew the
bond and so strengthen the human group of
worshipers.
TOTEM POLES. SOUTHERN ALASKA



CDNPMY

TOTEMISM.
TOTEMISM.
825
But while this theory explainscertain forms
of totemism, it fails to explain all, and here it
must be admitted that the word totemism is
not used either by Frazer or by others as if it
stood for a well-defined conception. For a clan
may have at the same time various totems; the
totem, again, is not constant, but may be ex-
changed for another; the sexes in the same clan
are credited with possessing different totems;
any one family in a clan may have its special
totem ; any individual may have a private totem
besides his clan totem ; a totem may be no one
group of objects, but be the odds and ends of
any animal or vegetable group; the tribal totem
may be divided, and each clan have as its totem
a part; or, instead of a divided totem, there may
be, besides the tribal totem, a number of ‘hon-
orific’ totems; and finally, totems may be nat-
ural phenomena, clouds, lightning, thunder, or
even colors. These different sorts of totems are
of course not found together. The ‘honorific’
totem, for example, is characteristic of some In-
dians of the Northwest; the totem-of odds and
ends, such as the tails of animals and pieces of
string, is found in Samoa; the cloud and light-
ning totems, in Australia; and the color-totem,
blue or red, among certain Indian tribes of the
Middle VVest.
Though these varieties seem to lack all co-
herence, there has been claimed for totemism
this common bond, that in all its varieties it at
least conditions the matters of bed and board.
That a totemist must marry outside of his
totem group and must not eat of his totem (if,
as in most cases, this is an animal or a vege-
table) are the foundation stones of certain
theories of totemism. But toteniism can no long-
er be said to bear this implication, for neither
has the eating of the totem nor exogamy anything
to do with the most primitive forms of totemism.
The most striking fact in the totemism of the
Australian, which is most primitive in type, is
that it has nothing to do with regulating mar-
riage, nor has the child necessarily either its
mother’s or its father’s totem. Therefore, the
totem is not a mark of blood-kinship. Accord-
ing to Australian belief, all the spirits live in
certain restricted localities, and a man’s totem is
determined by the locality in which the spirit
enters his mother’s body, conception being thus
explained. Further, far from exogamy being the
result of totemism, exogamy is by no means a
totemic law. There is in some tribes no restric-
tion on marriage within the tribal group, and
in fact endogamy, or marriage within the tribal
group, appears to have been the first rule.
Not less important are the facts in regard to
the relation between the totemist and his food.
Here, as in many other cases, it is clear that the
animal or plant first venerated by a savage is the
food that preserves his life. The redskin does
not eat maize because he regards it as his sacred
ancestor, but it is sacred and his parent because
he is dependent upon it for sustenance. Among
the Australians it is the totem animal which
was eaten by predilection in the original form of
the institution. Just as_ utility deified the
Hindu’s cow and the Indian’s maize, so the opos-
sum was sanctified by the Australian who lived
upon it, and as such it became his totem. For
this reason the Australians have certain totem
rites, the object of which was simply to increase
the food supply. But, on the other hand, as the
Waganda tribe in Africa spared certain animals
because they were indigestible, so in Australia
the men of the wildcat totem might eat wildcat
on a certain occasion when it was strictly pro-
hibited to those of that totem with whom it was
likely to disagree, such as the aged. In this in-
stance the Australian eats his totem as far as
health permits. The totem may be killed by
those not belonging to the totem group, and the
latter will even aid the alien to kill their own
totem.
In the course of time, however, the sacredness
of the totem, as among the majority of the red-
skins, becomes such as to prevent general slaugh-
ter of the totem animal. Thus we find that,
whereas the Australians of ancient days (as re-
ported by tradition) might eat freely of the
totem animal (or plant), the modern descendants
of those primitive Australian totemists dare
not do this so freely. But even to-day the totem
animal is not considered a kinsman whom it
would be wrong to kill- the connection is rather
spiritual, as indicated by the circumstance that
it is among those tribes that we find rain and sun
regarded as ‘totems.’ The explanation is in ac-
cordance with the notion of conception as given
above. The spirit of the man belongs to the same
locality as the spirit of the rain qr of -the sun.
The sun supply and the rain supply?-_ are aided by
the same sort of rites as those instituted to in-
crease the food supply. There is no 'question of
blood-kinship, but of a brotherhood based largely
on a locally limited interchange of spirits, a re-
stricted metempsychosis. The blood of a kan-
garoo man (one who belongs in the kangaroo
totem) is not shed as a symbol of kinship and
communion, but for the avowed purpose of
frightening away other kangaroo spirits, that
they may escape in their terror into female
kangaroos and so increase the food supply. The
whole system is at bottom economic rather than
religious. _
The historical explanation, as opposed to the
theoretical mystical explanation of a primitive
blood-communion with gods, shows that blood-
communion and sacrifice of the totem are far
from primitive traits, and offers an orderly and
natural sequence in the totemist’s evolution.
N or is there anything improbable in the totemist’s
changed attitude toward the totem at different
points in the historical series. In the first p1ace,we
find actually existent these two phases, one of food
supply, the other of the sacred inviolable totem,
in the development of the Australians themselves.
For had the latter phase been original, it is im-
possible that any legends could have arisen to re-
flect a phase in which a totem was the chief food
of the community; and yet all the tribal legends
represent the totem in this way. Moreover, the
connecting link in the series is fortunately pre-
served in the well-known account of Agathar-
chides concerning the troglodytes of East.Africa,
who two thousand years ago pastured their herds
there and lived upon them, drinking their milk
and blood and occasionally eating the flesh of the
cattle, but not very willingly, because “they re-
garded the cattle as their parents, inasmuch as
they got their sustenance from them.”
The institution of totemism, however, is not
homogeneous, and different causes may have re-
sulted at_ different times in totemism of different
sorts which have a general similarity. Indiges-
tion, as among the Waganda, may have resulted
TOTEMISM.
TOTERO.
826
in one clan refusing to eat one group of animals;
while the American Indian, who takes as his
private totem the animal seen in a dream the
night before he is initiated into the tribe, may
often have converted his own totem into that of
his tribe. Honorific totems are merely assumed
for politeness, so to speak. They are at least
always of secondary origin. Color totems and
odds and ends as totems are little more than
fetishes and may be explained accordingly. Sex
totems are not true tote1ns at all, but deserve a
specific name. Certainly in such cases there is
neither blood-kinship nor any trait of real totem-
ism. Nor is it a proof of totemism when a race
holds the belief that its ancestors were divine
and includes among its many ancestral gods
divine animals, any more than it is totemic to
derive a race from a tree. The Algonquin In-
dians, for example, like the ancient Scandina-
vians, hold that all men are descended from an
ash-tree; yet this tree is not their totem. It
must be remembered also that when an institu-
tion is once established it moves forward of it-
self. Hence there may be clans which take to
themselves totems unsuitable as food merely be-
cause other clans in their environment have
totems, which are no longer interpreted as pro-
viders of food, but only as tutelary objects. In
some cases totems may be assumed as coats of
arms are assumed, simply to be in the fashion.
Thus a tribe i11 Bengal a few years ago assumed as
a tutelary divinity the dog, and the dog is to-day
practically their totem. The reason why they
chose any such divinity was simply. that all their
neighbors had totems and they wished to be
fashionable, while the reason they selected the
dog was that ‘it was useless when dead’ (i.e. it
could not be eaten, and so might as well serve as
a totem) . Then, too, there are cases where what
seems to be a genuine totem shows itself on in-
spection not to be of the same class with cases of
genuine totemism. Thus an African selects be-
fore death the animal he will become after death,
- and this (species) then becomes sacred to his
descendants.
Frazer divides totemism into what he calls
the Egyptian kind and the Aino kind. Among
the ancient Egyptians it‘ was the cus-
tom, as it is to-day the custom among the
Todas of India, to slay certain animals only as
a sacrament; while among the Caucasian tribes
and the Ainos of Japan it is customary to kill
as a sacrament certain animals which are also
killed regularly. But these two kinds are only
stages of totemism. The sacramental slaying of
an animal regularly killed is an expiation, based
upon the same principle as that which induces a
savage to apologize to a bear before killing it,
but all sacrifice of totems is non-primitive.
The theory has recently been advanced that to-
temism was at first a kind of writing, indicating
a clan; that those men called e.g. Beavers came
to believe they were rbeaver sons ;’ and that wor-
ship of the beaver totem arose from this belief.
In the most primitive totemism, however, the
only support given to this version is that the
totem is tattooed on the body of a clansman,
which, obviously, might be due to a prior re-
spect for the totem.
In conclusion, certain aspects of totemism may
be mentioned because they have been more or
less utilized in creating doubtful history. Thus
totem-poles have been cited as originating all
idol-worship, and the practices of decorative mu-
tilation and tattooing have been referred to
totemism though they are found where no totem-
ism exists. More important is the fact that the
sacrifice of the totem, whether piacular or not,
appears to be of secondary origin; for this does
away with the further claim that ceremonies in
relation to the birth and death of vegetation
(such as the spring and harvest festivals of In-
dia, Babylonia, Germany, etc.), are borrowed
from totemism, a contention no longer upheld by
the best authorities. A further misunderstand-
ing on the part of some writers is due to a con-
fusion in regard to the relation between taboo
and totemism. These in themselves have noth-
ing to do with each other.
are often found in inverse proportion. Thus in
Polynesia there is no totemism except in Samoa,
while ta-boo (q.v.) is the_chief religious factor
in all Polynesia. In a word, totemism often en-
tails taboo, but taboo does not imply totemism.
Totemism is far from universal. It is found
among the American Indians, the Australians,
certain Africans, the Egyptians, etc., but not
only are there tribes even in America which have
no totemism, but there are whole races, such as
the Eskimo, which show no trace of it, and
others, such as the Chinese, which have scarcely
any totemism. The races most discussed in
this regard are the Semites and Aryans. In
proof of the Aryans having been totemists
the reverence paid by the Greeks to fishes
and storks, the existence of a wolf clan, and
the ‘murder’ of an ox have been cited. The
‘wolf’ and ‘bear,’ Greek tribal names, have also
been regarded as a proof of totemism. But here,
as among the Semites, the connecting links which
should prove the existence of the totemic insti-
tution are always found to be wanting. Rever-
ence paid to animals is no proof of totemism,
and still less proof is furnished by men having
animal or vegetable names. The only evidence
for the existence of early Vedic totemism is
found in such names. The only ancestor man
is called Cucumber, and at once the inference is
drawn that we have to do with the Cucumber
clan of totemists. But in New Zealand, where
totemism is unknown, a chief was also called
Cucumber, and the reason is expressly “because
he crept so rapidly and so stealthily” (around
his enemies). The vital point in all such cases
is whether families of men are regarded as re-
lated to families of vegetables or animals. Among
the Aryan Hindus, the Teutons, and the Romans,
or even among the Greeks, there is not the slight-
est proof of any such belief. It has been shown,
indeed, that the Semites believed in kinship be-
tween men and gods, and the proof of a belief in
kinship between gods and animals has been
thought possible; but in respect of the most im-
portant third proof, kinship between groups of
men and groups of beasts, no satisfactory evi-
dence has been offered. .
Consult: Tylor, Early History of Mankind
(London, 1870) ; Lubbock, Origin of Civilization
(ib., 1884) ; Robertson Smith, Kinship and Mar-
riage (ib., 1885) ; Frazer, Totemism- (Edinburgh,
1887); id., The Golden Bough (2d ed., London,
1900).
TOTE'RO. A North American Indian tribe.
See TUTELO.
On the contrary, they
TOTH.
TOTTEN.
827
TOTE, tot, KOLOMAN (1831-81). An Hun-
garian poet, born at Baja, County of Bacs-Bodrog.
He took part in the Revolution of 1848, and pub-
lished in 1852 his first collection of patriotic
poems, which achieved instant success. The next
year appeared Paul Kinizsi. Then came a num-
ber of plays, one of which, Egy kirrilyne’ (“A
Queen,” 1857), took the Academy’s prize. In
1860 T6th founded the comic paper Bolond M islea
(“Foolish Michael”). The same year he was
elected to the Kisfaludy Society, and in 1861 to
the Academy. The play A ntilo az alhotmzinyban
(“Women in Constitutional Life,” 1871) was the
first to be Well received on the stage, Toth’s
popularity being in the field of patriotic verse.
TOT’ILA. An Ostrogothic king whose real
name was Badvila. He was chosen in 541 to oc-
cupy the throne made vacant by the assassina-
tion of his uncle Hildibald. He prosecuted the
War with the forces of the Eastern Emperor not
only with great success, but also with chivalrous
generosity and humanity. After reducing South-
ern Italy, he laid siege to Rome, to relieve which
-Justinian once more sent out the celebrated Be-
lisarius. The city fell, however, in 546, and
after five years of fruitless warfare, in which he
was poorly supported by his Government, Be-
lisarius asked to be recalled. Totila thereupon
ravaged Sicily, reduced Sardinia and Corsica, and
harassed the coasts of Greece, but in 552 was
defeated and killed at Taginze (or Tadinae) by an
army under command of the eunuch Narses.
TOTLEBEN, t5t’la-ben, or TODLEBEN,
FRANZ EDUARD IVANOVITCH, Count (1818-84).
A Russian general of engineers. He was born at
Mitau, Courland, May 20, 1818, and after study-
ing at Riga was admitted as a student to the
college of engineers at Saint Petersburg. He
served as a lieutenant of engineers in the Cau-
casus campaign of 1848-51, and in 1854 took part
in the siege of Silistria. When the French and
English troops undertook the siege of Sebastopol,
Totleben, then a colonel, was sent to assist in its
defense. The fortifications were placed under
his direction. The principle on which he acted
was to watch the works of the allies, and to es-
tablish against them on every point a superiority
of fire, by multiplying the number and increas-
ing the calibre of his guns. The prodigious ac-
tivity displayed by the Russians in making good
the damage sustained by the heavy fire of the
enemy filled the allied army with astonishment.
Massive ramparts mounted with formidable bat-
teries rose at each threatened point within the
line of defense. In June, 1855, Totleben was
wounded and he was forced to relinquish active
supervision of the defense. After the conclusion
of peace he expanded what was at first a mere
engineer’s report into a history of the war in the
Crimea, entitled Défense de Séwastopol. For his
services T otleben was made adjutant to the Em-
peror, and in 1869 general of engineers. In
the Russo-Turkish VVar of 1877-78 Totleben was
intrusted with the investment of Plevna after re-
peated assaults on the works had been repulsed
with immense slaughter. He succeeded in com-
pletely cutting off the city from all outside relief,
so that finally nothing was left to Osman Pasha
but to attempt to break through the lines of the
besiegers, in which he failed. In April, 1878, he
received the supreme command of the Russian
forces in Turkey. He became Governor-General
Von. XVI.-53. -. ‘L3,,
of Odessa in 1879 and commandant of Vilna in
the following year. He died at Soden, Germany,
July 1, 1884, and was buried in Sebastopol. (See
CRIMEAN WAR.) There are biographies of Totle-
ben by Brialmont (Brussels, 1884) and by Kr%i.h-
mer (Berlin, 1888). -
TOTO’N AC. An ancient cultured nation
whose territory embraced the northern portion of
the present State of Vera Cruz, with the adjacent
portion of Puebla, Mexico. Their language has
numerous Mayan and Nahuatlan affinities, but
appears to be of distinct stock. They claimed
to have come from the northwest about eight
hundred years before the Spanish Conquest and
to have been the builders of the remarkable ruins
of Teotituacan, about ten miles northwest of the
City of Mexico. For several centuries they had
maintained their independence, but had been con-
quered by the Aztec emperors some time before
the coming of the Spaniards. Cortez made his
first landing in their territory. They were fully
as highly advanced as the Aztecs. Their capital,
Cempoalla, was about five miles from the sea-
coast, with houses built of brick and mortar, each
house in the centre of a small garden watered by
a constantly flowing stream, and the city itself was
surrounded by fruit trees and fields of grain.
Their religion was a ceremonial sun-worship, and
they practiced circumcision and head-flattening.
They still constitute an important part of the
population of their former territory, retaining
many of their ancient rites interwoven with
those of the conquering religion.
TOTONICAPAN, to’to-ne-ka-plain’. A town
in the department of the same name, Guatemala,
61 miles northwest of the capital city (Map: Cen-
tral America, B 3). Its population is almost
wholly native, of Quiche descent, and its indus-
tries accordingly consist of simple weaving and
wood and stone work. The country is mostly
sterile. The town was the centre of the Quiché
opposition to Alvarado. Population, about 20,-
000.
TOT’TEL, RICHARD (c.1525-94). An English
publisher, compiler of the celebrated Tottel’s
Miscellany. Of his early life nothing is known.
Granted in 1553 a seven years’ patent to print
law books, and charter member of the Stationers’
Company in 1557, his patent was renewed for life
in 1559. He reached a high position in the Sta-
tioners’ Company, finally dropping out of it in
1589 on'account of ill health. Besides the law
books which he issued, Tottel published a few
volumes of general literature which invest him
with a literary and bibliographic interest. Among
these were More’s Dialogue of Comfort (1553) ;
Lydgate’s Fall of Princes (1554); Hawes’s
Pastime of Pleasure (1555) ; Grimald’s transla-
tion of De O/ficiis (1556) ; and Surrey’s transla-
tion (1557) of the second and fourth books of
the Hi‘neid—the earliest English blank verse
known. The Miscellany appeared June 5, 1557,
and contained 271 unpublished poems by Surrey,
Wyatt, Grimald, Forrest, Heywood, Thomas,
Vaux, and others unidentified. The verse of
Surrey and Wyatt isniot known to have appeared
anywhere else. The book was the first of poetic
anthologies in England.
TOT'TEN, Josnrn GILBERT (1788-1864). An
American soldier, born at New Haven, Conn. He
graduated at West Point in 1805; and during the
I
Erorrnn.
TOUCH.
828
‘ Plattsburg.
War of 1812 served as chief engineer in the cam-
paign of 1812-13 on the Niagara frontier and in
that of 1813-14 on the Lake Champlain line of
operations; and participated in the battle of
Queenstown Heights, the capture of Fort George,
the attack on La Cole Mill, and the battle of
For gallant conduct in the last-
named engagement he was brevetted lieutenant-
colonel. In 1847, during the Mexican War, he di-
rected the engineering operations in the siege of
Vera Cruz, and for his services was brevetted
brigadier-general. During the Civil VVar he
served as commander of the corps of engineers
(1861-64) ; as president of a board to regulate and
fix the ordnance of permanent fortifications and
field batteries (1861-62) ; and on April 21, 1864,
one day before his death, was brevetted major-
general, United States Army, for “long, faithful,
and eminent services.” He was much interested
in the natural sciences, and was an authority on
conchology. Two species of shells, the Gemma
Tottenii and the Succinea Tottenii, were named
in his honor. He published: Reports on National
Defenses (1851); Essays on Ordnance (1857);
and other works.
TOTTENHAM, tot’en-am. A town in Middle-
sex, England, a connecting suburb of London, six
miles northeast of Saint Paul’s (Map: London,
C 8), on the river Lea, which affords good bathing
and boating. The town is undergoing much mod-
ern improvement; owns its water-works; main-
tains a free library, recreation grounds and parks,
including the Bruce Castle Park, the site of the
old Bruce estate and castle in which King Rob-
ert’s father died in 1303. Alexandra Palace, a
favorite metropolitan pleasure resort, is partly
within the urban limits. Population, in 1891,
71,343; in 1901, 102,519.
TOTTORI, tot-to’re. The capital of the Pre-
fecture of Tottori, in VVestern Hondo, Japan, 70
miles northwest of Kobé (Map: Japan, D 6).
It has manufactures of cotton and silk goods.
Population, in 1898, 28,496.
-TOUCAN (Brazilian toucano, probably nose-
bone, less plausibly explained as meaning
feather, or of onomatopoetic origin). A bird
of the family Rhamphastidae, related to the
barbets, jacamars, and puff-birds (qq.v.), and
not very distantly to the woodpeckers, and
containing about 50 known species, all natives of
tropical America, and remarkable for the magni-
tude of the bill. They are divided into two
groups, the true toncans (Rhamphastos) and
the aracaris (Pteroglossus), of which the latter
contains the greater number of species; the for-
- mer has the larger bill, and the tail is shorter.
There is a difference also in the prevalent colors,
the aragaris generally exhibiting much green and
yellow, while the true toncans have the ground
color of the‘ plumage usually black; the throat,
breast, and rump often gayly adorned with white,
yellow, and red. The colors, however, are not
in general finely blended, but appear in strong
contrast. The legs of toncans are short; the feet
have two legs before and two behind. The form of
the body is short and thick! the tail is compara-
tively short, rounded or even, and is turned up
over the body when the bird is at roost. The
enormous bill is at the base, of the full width and
depth of the head, and is in some species more
than half the length of the body. It is arched
toward the tip, irregularly toothed along the mar-
gins of the mandibles, and extremely cellular and
light, yet strong in structure. The tongue is
very long, narrow, and singularly feathered on
each side, and takes an important part in gath-
ering food. Toucans eat fruits with avidity, but
they also seize and devour small birds, lizards,
etc. They make a curious clattering noise with
their great mandibles and also emit a harsh cry.
They live chiefly in the depths of the South
American forests, in small flocks. They lay two
white glossy eggs in hollows of trees, making
little if any nest for them, are easily tamed, and
in captivity readily eat rice, bread, potatoes, eggs,
meat, and many other kinds of food, and make
amusing pets. The colors of the bill'are, in most
of the species, very brilliant during life, but dis-
appear from stuffed specimens in museums. The
largest species, as the toco of Argentina (Rham-
phastos toco), are about 24 inches in length, the
bill in this species measuring 7% inches, and
the tail 10 inches. One of the most familiar spe-
cies is the Brazil ariel, in which the throat is
yellow and the rump scarlet. See Plate of
HORNBILLS AND ToUcANs.
TOUCEY, tou'si, ISAAC (1796-1869). An
American politician, born at Newton, Conn. He
was educated privately, studied law, and was ad-
mitted to the bar at Hartford in 1818. From
1822 to 1825 he was State’s Attorney for Hart-
ford County, and from 1835 to 1839 was a mem-
ber of the United States House of Representa-
tives. He was again State’s Attorney in 1842-
44, and was elected Governor by the Legislature
in 1846 when the election was thrown into
that body. From June, 1848, to March 3, 1849,
he was Attorney-General of the United States.
In 1850 he served in the State Senate, and in
1852 in the State House of Representatives.
In 1852-57 he was United States Senator
and under President Buchanan he Was Secretary
of War. It was charged by the Republicans that
he had manifested his sympathy with the South-
ern cause by sending the warships of the United
States to distant stations so that they could not
readily be gotten together.
TOUCH (OF. toucher, tocher, Fr. toucher, It.
toccare, from Germ. *tuIch6n, OHG. zuclcan,
Ger. zilclcen, to twitch; connected with OHG.
eiohan, Ger. eiehen, Goth. tiuhan, AS. teen, to
draw). One of the five special senses; the
tactile sense. The sense of touch is widely dis-
tributed, but it must be distinguished from the
other varieties of common sensation—pain, and
temperature perception. These are perceived
through the same nerves-—-the sensory-—but the
nerve fibres which are identified with the sense
of touch proper are provided with special end
organs, and the sense, moreover, is only exercised
in any degree of perfection in those parts where
there is an abundance of special end organs.
These are of two kinds: touch corpuscles, situ-
ated chiefly in the skin; and end‘ bulbs, found
mainly in the mucous membranes. The lips and
genital organs, being on the border line of skin
and mucous membrane, are possessed of both
touch corpuscles and end bulbs. The Pacinian
corpuscles are widely distributed, but their part
in connection with the tactile sense is only par-
tially understood. They are numerousas the
nerves of the palmar surface of the fingers, but,
when found, are situated deeply in the skin or in '
TOUCH.
TOULCN.
829
sensational areas in the brain.
the subcutaneous tissue. The acuteness of the
sense of touch depends to some extent on the
cutaneous circulation, and this is largely in-
fluenced by the surrounding temperature. The
numbness produced by the application of cold to
the surface of the body is thus explained.
The acuteness of the sense of touch is com-
monly measured by an instrument known as
the aesthesiometer and consisting of two needle
points in arms movable upon a graduated scale.
A pair of compasses may be used in the same
way. The nearer together the points can be
separately perceived the greater the delicacy of
touch. The distance at which these two points
can be separately distinguished in various parts
of the body is indicated in the following table:
Tip of tongue ..................................................... .. 1.1 m.m.
Palm of terminal joint of finger ......................... .. 2.2 “
Palm of secondjoint of finger ........................... .. 4.4 "
Tip of nose ......................................................... .. 6.6 “
White part of lips ............................................... .. 8.8 "
Back of second joint of finger ............................ ..11.1 “
Skin over cheek bone .......................................... ..16.4 “
Back of hand ...................................................... ..29.8 "
Forearm .............................................................. .39.6 "
Sternum ............................................................. ..44.0 “
Back ................................................................... ..66.0 “
It will thus be seen that the point of greatest
delicacy of touch is the tip of the tongue, and
the seat of the least developed tactile sense is the
skin over the spinal column. The sense of touch,
like all other perceptions, can be sharpened by
exercise. This improvement is not to be ex-
plained by an increased development of the termi-
nal organs, nor by a growth of new nerve fibres
in the skin, but by a more exact limitation of the
Many artisans
acquire a highly specialized sense of touch. The
delicacy of the tactile sense in the blind is a
well-known condition; these people are able to
read fine raised letters, and to make various
articles of delicate structure, in a manner im-
possible to individuals who can see. See PSY-
OHOLOGY; SENSATION; and SKIN.
TOUCH. In music, a term denoting the
manner in which the digitals of a keyed instru-
ment are manipulated. Most important are the
smooth legato touch and the detached staccato
touch. It is of vital importance which muscles
are employed in playing different passages. The
muscles of the fingers, the wrist, and the arm
produce very different effects, generally distin-
guished as tone-color. Thus, when we speak of a
pianist as lacking in color, it means that he em-
ploys one set of muscles almost to the exclusion
of others. It is the matter of touch that produces
what are called singing, velvety, or hard tones.
TOUCHSTONE, or LYDIAN STONE. A hard,
black, siliceous stone or fiinty jasper used for
testing the purity of precious metals, especially
gold. The stone originally used was a peculiar
bituminous quartz from Lydia, in Asia Minor.
When a piece of gold is rubbed across the surface
of the stone it leaves a streak which is more
or less reddish, according to the amount of cop-
per that it contains, and by comparing the streak
with those of alloys of known composition, the
expert can determine approximately the value of
the metal.
TOUCH-WOOD. The decayed wood of wil-
lows and some other trees used as tinder. See
Ammaou.
TOUCHWOOD, LADY. (1) In C0ngreve’s
Double Dealer, the wife of Mellefont’s uncle.
Mellefont does not respond to her advances, and
in revenge she accuses him of dishonorable pro-
posals. (2) In Mrs. Cowley’s Belle’s Stratagem,
a loving wife guarded by a jealous husband.
TOUL, tifil (anciently Tullum Leucorum) . A
fortified town, capital of an arrondissement
in the Department of Meurthe-et-Moselle,
France, 14 miles west of Nancy (Map:
France, ‘M 3). The former Cathedral of
Saint Etienne is noted for its graceful propor-
tions, octagonal towers, and thirteenth-century
cloisters; the fine Gothic Church of Saint Gen-
goult also has elegant cloisters, in the flamboyant
style of the sixteenth century, and the eighteenth-
century episcopal palace is now used as the town
hall. The bishopric, founded in the fifth century,
was suppressed at the time of Napoleon. In the
latter part of the Middle Ages, and later down
to 1552, Toul was a free city of the German Em-
pire. In that year it was seized by Henry II. of
France. In 1790 its fortifications were recon-
structed upon the Vaubanian principle. In 1814
the town was stormed by the Russians, and on
September 23, 1870, it was taken by the Ger-
mans after a siege of nearly six weeks. Popu-
lation, in 1901, 12,287.
TOULIVIIN, t(_>ol’min, HENRY (1767-1823).
An American jurist, born at Taunton, England.
He removed in 1793 to Virginia, and from 1794
to 1796 was president of Transylvania Univer-
sity. In 1796-1804 he was Secretary. of State
of Kentucky, and in the latter year was ap-
pointed judge of the United‘ States Circuit Court
of Mississippi. Subsequently he served in the
Alabama Legislature, and assisted in framing
the Constitution of that State. He published A
Description of Kentucky (1792); a Collection
of the Acts of Kentucky (1802) ; a Digest of the
Territorial Laws of Alabama (1823).
TOULMIN, JOSHUA (1740-1815). A Uni-
tarian clergyman. He was born in London; be-
came pastor of a dissenting congregation in (Joly-
ton, Devonshire, in 17 61. In 1765 he accepted a
call from a Baptist congregation in Taunton.
He then became a Unitarian, and in 1804 became
minister of a Unitarian congregation at Birming-
ham. He published many biographies, includ-
ing Memoirs of Faustus Socinus (1777); also
A Historical View of the State of the Protestant
Dissenters in England Under King William
(1814) ; and edited Neal’s History of the Puri-
tans (new ed., 5 vols., 1822). A volume of ser-
mons was published after his death (1825).
TOULON, t'<m’loN'. The capital of an arron-
dissement in the French Department of Var, a
fortress of the first class, and the second naval
station in France (Map: France, M 8). It is
situated on a fine and well-protected bay of the
Mediterranean, 42 miles east-southeast of Mar-
seilles, and is partly surrounded by hills,
crowned by detached forts. The old town
in the southern part of the city is of
uninviting appearance. Surrounding it on the
north are the modern quarters embellished with
wide avenues and fine buildings.’ In the old
town is situated the only ancient building of
any particular architectural value—the Sainte
Marie-Majeure Church. It is Romanesque and
dates from the eleventh century. It contains
TOULON.
TOULOUSE.
830
a handsome reredos. Besides the numerous na-
val and military open spaces and grounds (in-
cluding the Place d’Armes) in Toulon, there are,
in the northern part, two spacious and promi-
nent squares—the Place de la Liberté (the finest
in the new town) and the Jardin de la Ville,
an attractive promenade. The most important
avenue of the city—the Boulevard Strasbourg—-
connects the two squares, and on it are the
Musée Bibliotheque (a handsome modern Re-
naissance edifice) and the immense Marine Hos-
pital. The Place d’Armes, to the southeast and
near the port, is the main square in the city.
The harbor has five principal basins. It con-
nects with surrounding bays, which stretch
away under hills bristling with forts, and ex-
tends past Fort de l’Aiguillette out into the
great harbor or roadstead which opens into the
sea. The port has an easy access and is
well sheltered. The marine arsenal, an im-
mense and complete establishment with its
buildings, basins, and canals, adjoins the city
on the west. It dates from the time of Henry
IV., and on an enlarged scale was planned by
Vauban. It embraces 650 acres. Over 12,000
men are employed.
Toulon has a lyceum, the Ecole Rouviere,
marine schools, a marine library, a marine bo-
tanic garden, and a marine observatory. The
leading theatre is a splendid modern edifice con-
taining l800 seats. Shipbuilding, iron and cop-
per founding, lace-making, fishing, and viticul-
ture are the main industries. The vicinity pro-
duces olives and figs. The principal exports are
wines, oils, and fruits. In 1899 there entered
and cleared 755 vessels of 323,415 tons. The pop-
ulation, in 1901, was 101,602.
Toulon is the ancient Telo Martius, noted for
its dye-works. It Was destroyed by the Saracens
in 889, and like calamities befel it in the twelfth
century. It surrendered to the forces of Charles
V. in 1524, and also in 1536. Henry IV. and
Louis XIV. fortified it. It repelled the allied
fleets of England and Holland in 1707. In 1793
it was turned over by the Royalists to the English
and their allies. It was thereupon besieged by
the forces of the Convention, Napoleon Bona-
parte gaining there great distinction as com-
mander of the artillery. The town was taken
in December and its inhabitants were ruthlessly
punished. Consult: Teissier, Notice sur les
archives communales ole la ville de Toulon
(Paris, 1863) ; Lambert, Histoire de Toulon
(Toulon, 1885-90) ; Rozet, Essai sur la climato-
logie de Toulon (Paris, 1890).
TOULOUSE, t6'o’l'o'-oz’. A city of France, the
former capital of Languedoc, and the present
capital of the Department of Haute-Garonne. It
is situated 130 miles southeast of Bordeaux
(Map: France, H 8). Toulouse lies in a rich
valley on the right bank of the navigable Ga-
ronne. It is subject to high winds, to floods, and
to very hot weather in summer. Three bridges
across the river connect the city with the Fau-
bourg Saint-Cyprien on the west bank. The
noble Pont Neuf, a stone bridge of seven arches,
dates from 1543. The streets of Toulouse are
for the most part narrow, unattractive, and
poorly paved. Two wide lines of boulevards,
however—-the outer one following the canals—
divide the city pleasantly from the surrounding
suburbs, and many extensive improvements have
latterly been begun.
Parc du Caousou.
In the centre of the town, in the Place du
Capitole, stands the ‘Capitole,’ or town hall. It
dates from the sixteenth century, but has re-
cently been almost wholly reconstructed. It
possesses little architectural merit. The edifice
owes its name to the city magistrates, or ‘Capi-
touls,’ who ceased to exercise their functions
about the time of the French Revolution. It is
the seat of the famous Academie des Jeux-
Floraux——an ancient, literary institution which
lends especial renown to the city. These Jeux-
Floraux, or Floral Games, which date from 1324,
are poetical tournaments, in which the prizes
allotted on May 3 of each year consist of flowers
of gold and silver. In the ‘Capitole’ also are an
academy of legislation, founded in 1851, andan
On the extreme east is the
-academy of science, inscriptions, and belles-let-
tres, founded in 1640.
Near the ‘Capitole’ are the Municipal Theatre
and a square donjon, restored by Viollet-le-Duc.
The latter contains the city’s archives. Farther
south is the museum of fine arts, occupying in
part an ancient Augustine convent. In this sec-
tion of the city is the Cathedral of Saint Etienne
—a curious inharmonious edifice belonging to
different times and architectural types.
In the extreme southern part of the city are
the Jardin des Plantes and the Jardin Royal.
Here splendid, spacious avenues unite in the
sightly Grand Rond, which is decorated with
statues. To the west is the Palace of Justice—
formerly the Palace of the Parlement, with sev-
eral beautiful rooms. In the vicinity stands the
statue of Cujas, the great French jurist, a na-
tive of Toulouse. Northward is the Church of La
Dalbade, whose square tower, splendid Renais-
sance portal, and interior merit mention. Prom-
inent among the old mansions in the vicinity is
the Hotel Lasbordes—a splendid creation of
Bachelier, much of whose work is to be seen in
Toulouse. Farther north, near the Pont Neuf,
is the church of La Daurade. Not far away is the
lycee, occupying part of the extensive Renais-
sance establishment of the merchant Bernuy
who guaranteed the ransom of Francis I. after
Pavia. In the vicinity is the Protestant church.
To the north of the ‘Capitole’ and connected with
it by the Rue du Faur, the most important street
in the city, is Saint Sernin—the finest church in
Toulouse. It is a superb cruciform Romanesque
structure, begun in the eleventh century, and re-
stored under Viollet-le-Duc. The splendid octag-
onal tower rises 210 feet, with tie-rs of triangular
arches. Saint Saturnin, the martyred apostle of
Toulouse, is buried here. '
At the head of the educational institutions
stands the university (q.v.). There are a splen-
did school of medicine, a school of fine arts, a
veterinary college, an observatory, an artillery
school, a museum of industrial art and anti-
quities, and, in addition, many learned societies
which occupy now the splendid Hotel d’Assezat,
bequeathed to them in 1896. The city library has
7 0,000 volumes. ,
Toulouse is a city (if wealth and prominence
industrially and commercially, owing to its com-
manding position in the south of France. The
Canal du Midi (q.v.) is here joined by the Canal
Lateral, and thus commerce between the Atlantic
and the Mediterranean is accommodated by
TOULOUSE.
TOURCOING.
831
water, Toulouse being the centre of this trafiic.
Much of the commerce from interior France to
Spain also passes through Toulouse. The trade
of the city is very extensive in wine and grain.
There are two historic mills on the river. One
is known to have existed in 1182; the other
traces its origin back to the ninth century.
There are a national tobacco factory, employing
about 1300 persons, iron and copper foundries,
a cannon foundry, and carriage and farm ma-
chinery works. Stained glass is also manufac-
tured. The population in 1901 was 147,696.
.HISTORY. Toulouse, the ancient Tolosa, was
long prominent before the Romans came into
Gaul. It was taken by the Consul Caepio in B.C.
106, and he despoiled its great shrine of the rich
treasures for which it had been famous. It be-
came the chief city of the Visigoths in 419 and
it fell into the hands of the Franks in 507. It
was long important as the seat of the counts of
Toulouse. In the early part of the thirteenth
century it suffered terribly in the Albigensian
troubles. In 1562 4000 Huguenots were killed
in Toulouse. The Protestant Jean Calas, made
famous by the noble exertions of Voltaire, was
broken on a wheel here in 1762, on an unjust
charge. At Toulouse Toult made an unsuccessful
stand against Wellington on April 10, 1814. Con-
sult: Toulouse histoire, archéologie monumentale
facultatir, etc. (Toulouse, 1887) ; Du Mege, His-
toire des institutions ole Toulouse (Toulouse,
1844); Jourdan, Panorama hlstorique de Tou-
louse (Toulouse, 1877).
TOULOUSE, COUNTY OF. A feudatory State,
which played a prominent role among the prin-
cipalities of mediaeval France. It was established
by Charles the Great in 778, and its rulers be-
came hereditary about the middle of the ninth
century. The dominion of the counts finally ex-
tended over the whole of Languedoc, over Rou-
ergue, and over part of Guienne and Province.
Count Raymond IV. had a distinguished share in
the First Crusade (1096-99). He died in 1205.
His son, Bertrand, established the principality of
Tripolis, on the coast of Syria. Raymond VI.
(1194-1222) is celebrated as a patron of the Pro-
vengal poets and in connection with the Albigen-
sian wars. Having refused to take severe meas-
ure against the Albigenses, he incurred the wrath
of the Church, which let loose against him the
crusading forces of Simon de Montfort, to whom
Raymond’s possessions were transferred by Pope
Innocent III. Raymond was unable to make head
against the invaders, who overran and laid waste
his country. Simon de Montfort fell at the siege
of Toulouse in 1218, and not long after Raymond
succeeded in recovering a part of his lands. He
enjoyed his regained power, however, only for a
brief time, dying in 1222. His son Raymond VII.
(1222-49) secured possession of most of the do-
minions of his house, but in 1229 he was forced
to cede a large part to Louis IX. of France and
acknowledge him as his overlord. His daughter
and heiress, Jeanne, was married to the King’s
brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitou, on whose
death, in 1271, the County of Toulouse was united
with the French crown.
TOULOUSE, Unrvnnsrrr OF. A French uni-
versity, founded as a result of the Albigensian
heresy and the crusade against Toulouse, as a
bulwark of orthodoxy, by Pope Gregory TX,
in 1230-33. It is the first of European universi-
ties founded by deliberate purpose, and thus be-
came the model for later foundations. It was
made up chiefly of migrants from.Paris, and was
for many years not very prosperous. Its chief
purpose was originally theological, but it de-
veloped into a noted school of law, and eventually
took up the royal as against Papal interests. It
was particularly rich in colleges,no fewer than ten
well-endowed foundations being enumerated. At
the Napoleonic reorganization it was, like other
universities, merged into the national system. It
includes now four regular faculties, law, phi-
losophy, mathematics—science and medicine-
pharmacy, besides the faculty of Protestant the-
ology of Montauban, and the two ‘free faculties
of theology and philosophy.’ In 1901 it had a
budget of 1,011,613 francs and 2040 students.
TOUR, tom; MAURICE QUENTIN DE LA.
LA Toun, MAURICE QUENTIN DE.
TOURACOO, or TOURAEO.
(q.v.).
TOURAINE, tm-ran’. One of the former
provinces of France, corresponding to the present
Department of Indre-et-Loire. The district has
received the name of the ‘Garden of France.’
The capital was Tours (q.v.) . After having been
under the rule of its own counts Touraine was
united about the middle of the eleventh century
with Anjou. Along with Anjou, it passed in
1154 to England. It was reacquired by France
half a century later, was made a duchy in 1356,
and was definitively united with the crown in
1584. See “Map of France, Showing Former
Provinces,” under FRANCE.
TOURANE, too-ran’, or TOUBAN. A town of
Annam, 40 miles southeast of Hue (q.v.). It is
well built and extends along the left bank of
the river for two miles. There are large sub-
stantial markets, a silk filature, an opium farm,
etc. Numerous steamers maintain communica-
tion with Europe and the adjacent ports, and
there is an extensive commerce carried on in
sugar, rattan, bamboo, areca nuts, silk, and
cassia. Tea, coffee, and the mulberry are culti-
vated in the neighborhood. Population, in 1897 ,
4650, of whom 100 were Europeans.
TOURASSIAN EPOCH. The name applied
to an epoch of European prehistoric archaeology
at the end of the Paleolithic period, just before
the close of the Quaternary. It is so named from
the rock shelter of Tourasse, at Saint-Martory,
Haute-Garonne, France. The climatic conditions
were very much as at present, and the fauna of
to-day was abundant. Industry and art declined
and caused a hiatus between the Paleolithic and
See
Same as Turacu
_the Neolithic periods.
TOURCOING, tF6r’kwi'm'. The capital of an
arrondissement in the Department of Nord,
France, 71/; miles northeast of Lille (Map:
France, K 1). It is practically a part of the
great industrial centre Roubaix. The town has a
fine modern Gothic church, a large new town
hall, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and
schools of painting, drawing, music, and archi-
tecture. In 1866 a monument was erected to
commemorate the defeat here in 1794 of the Eng-
lish and Austrians by Jourdan and Moreau. The
wool-manufacturing output of this district rep-
resents nearly the entire output of Northern
TOURCOING.
TOURNAMENT.
832
France. There are manufactories of velvet pile
carpets, woven goods, and furniture stuffs, also
cotton, linen, and silk mills, dye works, machine
shops, and a sugar refinery. Population, in 1891,
65,477; in 1901, 79,243. .
TOURGEE, toor-zha’, ALBION WINEGAR (1838
——). An American novelist, born in \Villiams-
field, Ohio. He graduated from the University
of Rochester, N. Y., i11 1862, receiving his degree
while serving in the Federal Army. He had been
wounded at Bull Run, and was discharged, but
reéntered the service, only to be taken prisoner
at the battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn. Immedi-
ately after the war he became an editor and
took up the practice of law at Greensboro, N. C.
From 1868 to 1875 he was judge of the Superior
Court of North Carolina, and was later (1881-
84) editor of The Continent at Philadelphia.
He was appointed United States consul at Bor-
deaux in 1897 and was transferred to Halifax in
1903. His numerous novels were founded chiefly
on his experience in the South during the Recon-
struction period. The list includes: Toinette
(1874) ; A Fool’s Errand—-—perhaps his best-
known Work (187 9) ; Bricks Without Stra/w
(1880); John Eaw and Marnelon (1882); Hot
Plo/wshares (1883) ; An Appeal to Caesar (1884) ;
Black Ice (1888); Button’s Inn (1887); With
Gauge and Swallow (1889); Letters to a King
(1889) ; Pactolus Prime (1890) ; Muruale East-
man, Christian Socialist (1890) ; Out of the Sun-
set Lea (1892); An Outing /with the Queen of
Hearts (1894) ; The War of the Standards
(1896); and The Mortgage on the Hip-Roof
House (1896). Tourgee also wrote legal books,
North Carolina Code of Civil Procedure (1878),
and A Digest of Cited Cases (1879) .
TOURMALINE (Fr. tourmaline, from Sin-
ghalese tournamal, turamali, tourmaline). A
complex aluminum boro-silicate, containing also
chromium, iron, magnesium, and the alkalies.
It crystallizes in the hexagonal system. Accord-
ing to composition, several varieties are dis-
tinguished, as chromium tourmaline, iron tour-
maline, lithium tourmaline, magnesium tourma-
line, and magnesium-iron tourmaline. It has a
vitreous lustre, may be either transparent or
opaque, and may be colorless as well as blue,
green, red, brown, and black. Some crystals are red
internally and green externally, and still others
are red at one extremity and green, blue, or black
at the other. Tourmaline is the most dichroitic
of all gems. The mineral is usually found in
granite, gneiss, or mica schist. It occurs also in
dolomite, granular limestone, and in certain con-
tact rocks near dikes of igneous rocks; also in
rolled pebbles in alluvial deposits. The white or
colorless tourmalines are called achroite. the black
varieties ayrhrizite and schorl, while those of va-
rious shades of blue are known as indicolite, the
red varieties as rubellite, and the green trans-
parent specimens from Brazil are known as
Brazilian emeralds. The colored crystallized va-
rieties of tourmaline, when transparent, are high-
ly prized as gem-stones. They are found in
Burma, Ceylon, and India, in the Urals, the
Harz, and Brazil, while in the United States
splendid specimens occur in Maine, especially
near Paris, also in Massachusetts, Connecticut,
New York, and California. Consult Hamlin,
The Tourmaline (Boston, 1873).
TOURNACHON, t“oTor’na’shoN’, FELIX (1820
--). A French author, artist, and aéronaut, bet-
ter known under the pseudonym N adar. He was
born in Paris; studied medicine at Lyons; and
returned to Paris as a journalist. In 1849 he
founded the Revue Comique, and in 1854 pub-
lished Le Panthéon-Madar, a gallery of contem-
porary celebrities. He soon afterwards engaged
in experiments in aerial navigation, and con-
structed Le Géant, the largest balloon hitherto
made. In it he made a number of ascensions, and
was once carried as far as Hanover. During the
siege of Paris by the Prussians he made use of
his knowledge as an aéironaut to carry informa-
tion to the outside country, and commanded the
company of aéronauts of the Place Saint-Pierre,
Montmartre. Among his numerous published
works are: La robe de Déjouire (1841; 2d ed.,
1859) ; Quand j’étais étudiant (1857) ; Mérnoires
du Géant (1864); Le droit au vol (1865); Les
ballons en 1870 (1871); and Le rnonde Oil l’0n
patauge (1883).
TOURNAMENT (OF. tournoyement, tour-
noiement, from tournoier, to joust, tilt, tourney,
wheel about, from tourner, to turn, from Lat.
tornare, to turn in a lathe, from tornus, from
Gk. 1-épvog, compasses, carpenter’s chisel; con-
nected with reipsw, teirein, to pierce, Lat.
ierere, OChurch Slav. trzlti, Lith. triti, to rub).
A knightly sport of the Middle Ages, in which
combatants engaged one another with the object
of exhibiting their courage, prowess, and skill
in the use of arms. It existed first probably in
France, whence it spread to Germany and Eng-
land, and afterwards to the south of Europe. A
tournament was usually held on the invitation
of some prince, who sent a king-of-arms or herald
through his own dominions and to foreign courts.
The intending combatants hung up their armorial
shield on the trees, tents, and pavilions around
the arena for inspection, to show that they were
worthy candidates for the honor of contending
in the list in respect of birth, military prowess,
and character. The combat took place on horse-
back, or at least was always begun on horseback,
though the combatants who had been dismounted
frequently continued it on foot. The usual arms
were blunted lances or swords; but the ordinary
arms of warfare, called arms a l’outrance, were
sometimes used by cavaliers who were ambitious
of special distinction. The prize was bestowed
by the lady of the tournament on the knight to
whom it had been adjudged, he reverently ap-
proaching her, and saluting her and her two
attendants. The period when tournaments were
most in vogue comprised the twelfth, thirteenth,
and fourteenth centuries; and the place where
the most celebrated English tournaments were
held was the tilt-yard near Saint James’s,
Smithfield, London. The Church at first dis-
countenanced tournaments, some of its decrees
prohibiting persons from engaging in them under
pain of excommunication, and denying Christian
burial to a combatant who lost his life in one.
The Church seems, however, to have looked with
more favor on these combats after the middle of
the thirteenth century. During the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries tournaments continued to be
held, but the alteration in the social life and
warfare of Europe had changed their character,
and they are rather to be regarded as state
pageants than as real combats. The death of
TOURNAMENT.
TOURS.
838
Henry II. of France, in 1559, consequent on the
loss of -his eye at a tournament, led to their
general abandonment, both in France and else-
where.
MILITARY TOURNAMENTS. The modern military
tournament embraces all the personal skill in the
use of arms of the ancient chivalric tournament
and has much of its pageantry. New inventions
and contact with many nations have incorporated
into military necessities and pastimes many nov-
elties unknown in ancient times, and these find
their supreme exposition in the national tourna-
ments of both America and England. There is
no mystery about the origin of the modern mili-
tary tournament; data, place, and reason are
all available. In 1878 the Staff of the Military
Gymnasium, Aldershot, gave an exhibition of
military exercises at the Albert Hall in London
in aid of the widows and orphans of the British
soldiers killed in the Zulu war. It was of
necessity very limited in its functions; but the
next year a fully organized competition in the
use of weapons of offense and defense, between
all branches of the service, cavalry, infantry,
artillery, engineers, and hospital corps, was held.
The programme was (and still is) practically
divided into two parts: one coming strictly
within the line of military duty, such as feats of
strength and skill with sword, lance, sabre, and
bayonet, and horsemanship, including riding and
driving; the other division consisting of sports
and pastimes, such as tent-pegging, mounted
wrestling, etc. To such an extent did the de-
sire to compete extend in Great Britain that it
has become necessary to impose the restriction
of passing through and obtaining the first place
in merit in a district tournament as a condition
precedent to competition at the national tourna-
ment. The peg used in tent-pegging is an ordi-
nary wooden tent-peg three inches broad and
a foot long, driven nearly perpendicular into the
ground until less than one-half of it is in sight.
The trooper rides at the gallop, strikes it if
possible, and without relaxing the grasp of his
lance or the speed of his horse, wrenches the peg
out of the ground and carries it away on his
lance point. In America the military tourna-
ment held each year in Madison Square Garden,
New York, has become a recognized institution.
It differs from the British tournament in that
the latter consists of competitions as well as
of exhibition performances, while in America it
is made up entirely of exhibition work. The
cadets of \Vest Point invariably take part in the
tournaments, which have been regularly held
since 1897.
TOURNAY, t'ofir’n:i’, or TOURNAI. The
capital of an arrondissment and the largest
town in the Province of Hainault, Belgium, 48
miles south by west of Ghent, on the Scheldt
River, here spanned by several bridges (Map:
Belgium, B 4). The most striking edifice is
the twelfth-century Cathedral of Notre Dame, in
the Romanesque style. The nave, dating from
1146, and the facade with its porch and sculp-
tures are of special interest. Other architectural
features of the town include the twelfth-century
belfry, the Church of Saint Quentin. in the Trans-
itional style, the Church of Saint Brice, with
the tomb of Childeric, and the Church of Saint
Jacques. The thirteenth-century bridge, the art
gallery, the museum of natural history, and the
old monastery buildings, now utilized as the
municipal headquarters, are also noteworthy.
The public library has 60,000 volumes. Manu-
facturing ‘is the principal industry, the town
being noted for its carpets and high-grade porce-
lain. Cotton and woolen goods, linen, and liquors
are also produced. Population, in 1900, 37,069.
Tournay, the ancient Otvitas N erolorum or Tur-
nacum, was for a time the capital of the king-
dom of the Franks. A bishopric was founded
here in 484. The town was at various times and
for long periods a possession of France, which
finally relinquished it in 1748. It is famous for
the gallant defense made by its garrison, under
the Princess d’Epinoy, against Alexander of Par-
ma in 1581.
TOURNEFORT, to'o'rn’for’, Josnpn: Prrron
DE (1656-1708). A French botanist, born at Aix,
Provence. After having explored the flora
of his native district, he was sent, at the
King’s expense, to Spain, Portugal, England,
and Holland, the Grecian Archipelago, and
Thrace, the shores of the Black Sea, and
Asia Minor, and other parts of the East,
adding many species to the list of known
plants. He published several botanical works,
and a Voyage to the Levant (1717). His
botanical system, which maintained its ground
till the time of Linnaeus, was of great use in pro-
moting the progress of botany; but he rendered
still greater service to science by grouping plants
1n genera.
TOURNEUR, ter’ner, CYRIL (1575 ?-1626).
An English dramatist. He found employment
in the Low Countries, and served as secretary to
Sir Edward Cecil in the expedition to Cadiz
(1625). He is the author of two plays: The
Atheists Tragedie (written about 1603; pub-
lished 1611) and The Revenger’s Tragedie (pub-
lished 1607). The latter is a powerful though
lurid tragedy. Tourneur also wrote elegies and
other non-dramatic pieces. Consult his Plays and
Poems, edited by J. C. Collins (2 vols., London,
1878) ; and the two plays edited, with Webster,
by J. A. Symonds (“Mermaid Series,” ib., 1888).
TOURNIQUET (Fr. tourniquet, turnstile,
tourniquet, from tourner, to turn). An instru-
ment for compressing an artery of the thigh or
arm, either for the purpose of preventing too
great a loss of blood in amputation, or checking
dangerous hemorrhage from accidental wounds,
or stopping the circulation through an aneurism.
The common tourniquet consists of three parts
-—viz. (1) a pad to compress the artery, (2)
a strong band which is buckled round the limb,
and (3) a bridge-like contrivance over which
the band passes, with a screw whose action raises
the bridge and consequently tightens the hand.
To prevent the loss of venous blood during
an amputation, it is customary to elevate the limb
to a vertical position or to strap it with an elas-
tic bandage for several minutes before the tour-
niquet is applied. The older forms of tourniquet
are now almost universally replaced by a simple
rubber strap or piece of rubber tubing which is
passed several times around the limb under ten-
sion and fastened. This general type is known
as Esmarch’s tourniquet.
TOURS, torn. A city of France, the capital
of the Department of Indre-et-Loire. It is 147
TOURS.
TOUSSAINT.
834
miles southwest of Paris, in the rich level valley
of the Loire, on the left bank of that stream, and
extends two miles southward to the Cher (Map:
France, G 4). The pleasant situation and the
equable climate attract many English and Ameri-
can families as sojourners. Two great lines of
boulevards, extending throughout the city, cross
at its geographical centre, where the modern
Palace of Justice adorns a fine square. In this
square stands Fournier’s bronze statue of Balzac.
The famous stately French-Gothic Cathedral of
Tours rises in the northeastern part of the city,
near the river. It dates from 1170, was finished
about 1550, and is exceptionally complete as to
execution. The flamboyant turreted fagade is
sumptuous, and the rose window is of an ex-
quisite pattern. Near the centre of the city are
the striking detached towers of Saint Martin and
Charlemagne—-remain‘s of the celebrated Church
of Saint Martin marking the site of the tomb of
the saint. The church was rebuilt about the
twelfth century in splendid proportions. The
structure was torn down in 1802, making way
for a street. “Near by the new Basilica of Saint
Martin is being built. The ruined chateau Ples-
sis-les-Tours, identified with the life of Louis
XI., and known to the lovers of Scott, lies just
southwest of Tours.
The city has an art school, a large and a small
seminary, the College de Saint Louis de Gonzaga,
and a drawing school. The public library con-
tains 100,000 volumes; also 1800 manuscripts,
some of which are precious. In the archiepiscopal
palace is a museum of archaeology, paleontology,
art, coins, etc. The Museum of Tours, near the
river, has some 500 pictures of small value and
collections of sculptures, enamels, antiquities,
etc. The city has manufactures of steel, ma-
chinery, iron implements, silk stuffs, corsets,
leather, confectionery, _ painted glass, pottery,
and chemicals. There are printing works. The
trade is very active, both by rail and by river.
The population of the commune in 1901 was 58,-
409.
HISTORY. Tours, named from the Gallic tribe
of Turones, was an active ally of Vercingetorex
against the Romans. It was later the Roman
Caesarodunum. The place became at a very early
date the seat of an important bishopric, which
soon rose to the rank of an archbishopric. Nu-
merous councils were held here. Tours was taken
by the Visigoths in 473 and by Clovis in 507. It
is famous for the momentous battle fought in
the direction of Poitiers in 732, when Charles
Martel (q.v.) repulsed the vast invading army
of the Saracens. The city was the capital of
Touraine (q.v.) . It rose to great importance un-
der the Valois kings, Louis X1. in particular fa-
voring the city, which for a time was a great seat
of the silk manufacture. The States General
were repeatedly assembled here. In October, 187 0,
g the Government of National Defense was organ-
ized at Tours, whence it was removed in Decem-
ber to Bordeaux. The Germans occupied the city
from January 8 until March 8, 1871. Consult:
Giraudet, Histoire de la ville de Tours (Paris,
187 8) ; Grandmaison, Tours archéologique(Tours,
1879) ; Chevalier, Tours capitale (Tours, 1896).
TOURVILLE, t'oor’vel’, ANNE HILARION DE
COTENTIN, Count de (1642-1701). A French ad-
miral. He was born at Tourville, near Coutances,
November 24, 1642. He entered the French Navy,
and became a captain at twenty-five, having dis-
tinguished himself by service against the Turks
and Algerians. In 1669 he participated in the
French expedition for the relief of Candia, and
in 1672-73 took part in the naval war waged by
the combined fleets of France and England against
the Dutch. He fought with distinction at Agosta,
off the coast of Sicily, in April, 1676, and re-
ceived the command of a squadron with which in
June of the following year he won a decisive
victory over the allied British and Dutch off
Palermo (June 2d). He became lieutenant-
general of marine, and from 1682 to 1688 saw
active service against the Barbary pirates, varied
by his share in the bombardment of Genoa
in 1684. In 1689 he was made a vice-
admiral and commanded the French fleets
in the operations against England and H01-
land. In June, 1690, he entered the English
Channel at the head of a powerful fleet, and in-
fiicted a disastrous defeat on the united English
and Dutch armament near Beachy Head. In
1692, Louis XIV. having decided upon an invasion
of England on behalf of James II., a fleet was
assembled at Brest under Tourville in order to
protect the descent. With 44 ships of the line
Tourville assailed an Anglo-Dutch fleet of 82 ves-
sels under Lord Russell off Cape- La Hogue, and
after a desperate fight was decisively beaten (May
29th) . Tourville, however, sufl'ered no discredit for
this defeat, in which his talents and courage were
abundantly displayed. In 1693 he was made a
marshal of France, and in June defeated a Brit-
ish-Dutch fleet under Sir George Rooke off Cape
Saint Vincent, capturing 27 ships of war and
merchant vessels and destroying 45 others. He
was subsequently charged with the defense of the
Mediterranean coasts of France, but saw no active
fighting. He died in Paris, May 28, 1701. Frau-
dulent M emoires in Tourvi1le’s name were pub-
lished in 1742-58. Consult Delarbre, Tourville et
la marine de son temps (Paris, 1889).
TOUSSAIN T, too'saN’, ANNA LOUISA GERR-
TRUIDA (1812-86). A Dutch novelist, born at
Alkmaar, of parents descended from French Prot-
estant refugees. In 1851 she married the archi-
tectural painter Jan Bosboom (1817-91) and
thenceforth lived at The Hague. The reputation
won with her first works, Almagro (1837), De
Graaf van Devonshire (1838) and De Engelschen
te Rome (1839), was enormously increased on
the appearance of Het huis Lauernesse (1841,
10th ed. .1885), an historical romance of the
Reformation, which was translated into several
languages. Among her other historical novels,
dealing mainly with English, Dutch, and Spanish
scenes, the Leicester trilogy, Leycester in Neder-
land (1846), De Vrouwen uit het Leycestersche
tijdvalc (1849-50), an.d Gideon Florense (1854-
55), is the most remarkable. Subsequently she was
eminently successful with modern character de-
lineations, of which Majoor Frans (1874) is an
excellent example. Fine artistic workmanship
distinguishes her dialogue-tale Raymond de
schrijnwerlcer (1880). For her life, consult Jan
ten Brink (Amsterdam, 1886).
TOUSSAINT, FRANgoIs DOMINIQUE, called
L’OUVERTURE (1743-1803). A Haitian soldier
and statesman. He was born near Cape Fran-
gais, in the island of Haiti, in 1743, and was a
full-blooded negro, his father and mother both
TOUSSAINT.
TOWAGE.
835
being African slaves. He was coachman and after-
wards assistant to the overseer of his master’s
sugar plantation, and acquired some little educa-
tion, which he used to good advantage. When the
French Revolution, which largely affected the
fortunes of French Haiti, broke out, he was the
overseer of his master, a planter named De
Libertat. The population of French Haiti in
1790 numbered about 500,000, of whom 38,360
were Europeans, 28,370 free mulattoes, and the
remainder negro slaves. There were thus three
sharply defined castes with different interests.
The Europeans jealously guarded all political
privileges. The free mulattoes were nevertheless
an intelligent class and large property-owners.
A decree of the French Constituent Assembly,
May 15, 1791, gave to all free persons of color the
privileges of French citizenship, but the white
planters of Haiti, an arrogant colonial aris-
tocracy, did everything in their power to delay
the application of the decree. On August 23,
17 91, the slaves became a factor in the problem
by rising in a fierce insurrection, which led
whites and mulattoes to drop their quarrel in the
face of a common danger. Toussaint took part
in the uprising, and won a prominent place
among the leaders of the insurrection. The re-
volt was temporarily suppressed, but the repeal by
the French Assembly in May, 1792, of the decree
of 1791, alienated the mulattoes, throwing them
on the side of the negroes, and reopening the civil
war. For a while Toussaint took service with
the Spaniards in the east of the island, with
whose aid he overran a part of the French ter-
ritory. Commissioners from France attempted
to settle the troubles of the island and finally
proclaimed universal freedom in August, 1793.
This decree was ratified by the National Conven-
tion a few months later. This won Toussaint
over to the side of the French Republic, and he
came to the front as the recognized leader of
his race. The English at this time had seized
Port au Prince, and were besieging the French
Governor, Laveaux, in Port de la Paix. Tous-
saint went to his assistance, and it was Laveaux
who, by his exclamation, Mais cet homme fait
ouverture partout, gave Toussaint the surname
l’Ouverture, by which he has since been known.
Toussaint was made a general of division and
acted with great vigor against the Spanish, who
had been seeking to secure control of the western
part of the island. In 1796 Toussaint was made
commander-in-chief of the French forces on the
island, and signalized himself in the following
year by compelling the surrender of the English
who had invaded Haiti, He soon came into conflict
with I-Iédonville, the French Commissioner, whom
he compelled to sail for France. Hedonville,
however, had succeeded in stirring up dissension
between the negroes and the mulatto element,
and in 17 99 a fierce civil war was waged between
the blacks under Toussaint and the mulattoes
under General André Rigaud. After being re-
duced to desperate straits Toussaint finally, in
December. 1799, succeeded in crushing his op-
ponent. By January. 1801, he had brought the
whole island under his power. He now became
virtually a dictator, but ruled the island with
moderation and firmness, and with justice toward
the different classes of the population. The pros-
perity of the island revived under his measures.
His private life was rational and modest, but in
public he assumed an elaborate state for the
purpose of impressing his followers. He had an
administrative council of nine, eight of whom
were white men. A constitution was drawn up,
providing for free trade and naming Toussaint
life President. This was submitted to Napoleon,
who saw in it a move toward independence
(which it robably was), and determined to put
down the aitian leader. After the Treaty of
Amiens had freed him temporarily of danger
from England, the First Consul proclaimed the
reiéstablishment of slavery in the island. Tous-
saint replied by a declaration of independence in
July, 1802. Napoleon sent General Leclerc with
30,000 men to reduce the Haitians to submission.
Leclerc was joined by many of Toussaint’s ene-
mies, among them being Rigaud, and the future
rulers, Pétion and Boyer. The French com-
mander, after failing to obtain possession of
Toussaint’s person by treachery while conduct-
ing his campaign, sought to arouse discontent
among Toussaint’s followers and to bribe his
officers with flattering promises. He was slowly
gaining ground in this campaign of deceit and
force combined, when he foolishly announced his
intention of restoring slavery and thereby united
the negroes once more about their leader. Le-
clerc then recalled his blundering declaration,
promised liberty and a general representative
assembly, and won over several of the negro
chiefs, who were finally joined by Toussaint,
anxious as he always seems to have been for
the greatest good of his people. He was treacher-
ously arrested after he had made his submission,
taken to France and imprisoned without trial in
the Chateau Joux, near Besancon, where he died
April 27, 1803, from cruelty and neglect. The
negroes were roused to fury by this treachery and
renewed the war. They succeeded in driving out
the French in the same year that Toussaint died.
Toussaint l’Ouverture is perhaps the most con-
spicuous example of the possibilities, intellectual
and moral, of the pure-blooded negro, even with-
out especially favoring conditions. Consult the
M émoires by himself (1853) ; Saint Remy, Vie dc
Toussaint l’Ouverture (Paris, 1850) ; Beard, The
Life of Toussaint (London, 1853) ; Gragnon-
Lacoste, Toussaint L’Oupcrture, général en chef
de l’armée de Saint Domingue, surnommé le
premier des N oirs (1877), based on the l’Ouver-
ture family papers.
TOWAGE (from tow; connected with AS.
teon, Goth, tiuhan, OHG. zoga/n, eiohan, Ger.
ziehen, to draw, Lat. ducere, to lead). Assistance
in propelling or drawing rendered by one vessel to
another. Towing is usually done by tugs, but
the service may be performed by any sort of a
vessel. A vessel thus assisted is commonly re-
ferred to as a tow. A tug is not held to the
strict responsibility of a common carrier, and
is liable only for lack of reasonable skill in such
service, and for negligence. The master of the
tug is obliged to see that the tow is properly
made up, having regard to the voyage to be
made; must have skill in navigation, and be
reasonably familiar with the course to be fol-
lowed. The master of the tow must follow all
reasonable orders of the master of the tug as
to steering, etc. A tug should not abandon a
tow, except in cases of extreme necessity, and,
TOWAGE.
TOWER BRIDGE-.
836
in general, it may be said that it must seem
inevitable that the tug will be lost unless the
tow is abandoned in order to justify that course.
The charges for towage constitute a maritime
lien upon the tow, which will follow it until
paid. All questions of towage are governed by
admiralty law. Consult the authorities referred
to under ADMIRALTY. See RULES or THE RQA1).
TOWAN'DA. The county-seat of Bradford
County, Pa., 80 miles northwest of Wilkesbarre,
on the Susquehanna River, and on the Lehigh
Valley Railroad (Map: Pennsylvania, E 2). It
has the Susquehanna Collegiate Institute and a
public library. Towanda is the shipping centre
of a rich farming section, but is primarily known
for its industrial interests. There are a large
toy manufactory, furniture and shoe factories, a
flour mill, foundry and machine shops, planing
mills, etc. The government is vested in a
burgess, chosen every three years, and a council.
Towanda was settled in 1770, and was first in-
corporated in 1828. Population, in 1890, 4169;
in 1900, 4663.
TOWER (AS. tur, from Lat. turris, Gk. 1-tppn,
tyrris, 'rl5po'(,s, tyrsis, tower). Generally, except
in fortresses (see FOBTIFICATION), a building
higher than its horizontal dimensions. The
round towers of Ireland have been much dis-
cussed, and various fantastic explanations have
been given for their appearance in the island
in considerable numbers. The round tower
accompanying a church in the mountain re-
gions of Spain, or in the flatlands of North-
ern Italy, is admitted to be a bell-tower of an
ancient type; but those of Ireland have such
small window-openings that it is evident that no
pains were taken to let the sound of the bells
reach the community outside. These towers are,
moreover, very slender, high, and costly in com-
parison with the very humble churches which
stand near them; and the soundest conclusion
seems to be that they were intended partly as
watch-towers, partly as places for the deposit of
valuables in the case of sudden forays. These
round towers of Ireland are wholly without
architectural effect. On the other hand, the
Tower of Sant’ Apollinare in Classe, near
Ravenna, is an interesting architectural design,
although it has lost its belfry story ; and that
of Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, within the city, is
one of the most beautiful towers in Italy. Each
of these bell-towers is of circular plan. Another
form of round tower worthy of special note is
the minaret of the Mohammedan cities. See
MINARET.
In antiquity the tower was a rare thing, used
only for defense, and occasionally for lighthouse
purposes, though the form of those buildings is
not accurately known. In the Far East the
tower is associated with the double purpose of
commemoration and religious sacrifice, in such
builds as the Stupa and Tope (q.v.) of
Southern Asia, and the Paoh-Tah or octagonal
tower of China. The lofty wooden structures
connected with the Buddhist temples of Japan
are, like the Indian and Chinese towers, emblem-
atic and commemorative rather than useful in
any way; they are the central and culminating
feature of the temple-group and no more. (For
the wide use of the tower in Mohammedan archi-
tecture, see MINARET.) In the Christian world,
the tower appears in Italy at an early time, and
in the North at least as early as the eighth cen-
tury. In the North, at least, its obvious purpose
of carrying large bells high above the roofs of
neighboring buildings is complicated with a
certain adaptation of the structure to purposes
of defense against an enemy. In Italy the de-
tached and separate tower (see CAMPANILE) held
its own until the complete disappearance of
mediaeval architecture in the fifteenth century;
but in the North it is found incorporated with
the main structure of the Church at a period
at least as early as the eleventh century. The
tower generally stands upon the ground, with
its vertical lines easily seen from foundation
to summit; and this remains true throughout the
Middle Ages except for the central towers of the
cruciform churches. These last-named towers
are built over the open interior, and are sup-
ported on four great arches or groups of arches,
two of which span the nave, springing across the
church from side to side, while two others con-
tinue the wall of the nave longitudinally. The
complete Gothic cathedral has at least seven
towers, two to the west front, four to the transept
fronts, and one over the crossing. These towers
all resemble one another in their appearance as
seen from without. Throughout Italy the classic-
ally designed churches are apt to retain their
mediaeval campanili. Consult Sutter, Turmbuch
(Berlin, 1895).
TOWER, tou’e'r, CHARLEMAGNE (1848—).
An American capitalist and diplomat, born in
Philadelphia. He was educated at Harvard.
From 1882 to 1887 he was president of the
Duluth and Iron Range Railroad and managing
director of the Minnesota Iron Company. He
then removed to Philadelphia, where during the
next ten years he was an officer in various im-
portant corporations. He was United States
Minister to Austria-Hungary from 1897 to 1899,
and was Ambassador to Russia from 1899 to
1902, when he replaced Andrew D. White (q.v.)
as Ambassador to Germany. He published: The
Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revo-
lution (2 vols., 1895); and Catalogue of a Gol-
lection of American Colonial Laws (1890).
TOWER, ZEALOUS BATES (1819-1900). An
American soldier, born at Cohasset, Mass. He
graduated with first honors at West Point in
1841; served under General Scott in the Mexican
War; led the storming column at Contreras, and
was wounded at Chapultepec. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he was chief engineer in the de-
fense of Fort Pickens. In November, 1861, he
was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and on
August 30, 1862, was severely wounded at Manas-
sas. After recovering he was superintendent of
West Point from July until September, 1864.
He then became chief engineer of the defenses of
Nashville, Tenn., and his skillful work at that
place contributed to the total defeat of General
Hood in December, 1864. He was brevetted
major-general in the United States Army in
March, 1865, and in November of that year be-
came lieutenant-colonel in the engineer corps.
He was promoted colonel in January, 1874, and
retired in 1883.
TOWER BRIDGE. A drawbridge spanning
the Thames just below the Tower of London,
opened in 1894. The carriageway, at a height
of 291/2 feet, consists of two approaches of 270
TOWER BRIDGE-.
TOWERS OF SILENCE.
837
feet, and a central span of 200 feet, with a ris-
ing draw formed by twin bascules, which can be
raised in 11/), minutes. There is an elevated
footway above the draw, which is used when the
draw is open, 142 feet above the river, reached
by elevators and stairs. The Gothic towers are
of steel and masonry. The cost was over £1,-
000,000.
TOWER HILL. An elevation northwest of
the Tower of London, formerly the public place
of execution for persons sentenced for treason.
Here many of the most noted men of England
were put to death, their bodies being buried in
the adjacent Chapel of Saint Peter ad Vincula.
TOWER OF LONDON. In feudal days a
powerful fortress, and long afterwards a State
prison of gloomy memories. It is now a Govern-
ment storehouse and armory. It is a collection
of buildings in the form of an irregular quadri-
lateral on rising ground adjoining the Thames,
on the north bank and immediately to the east
of the City of London. The space occupied is
between twelve and thirteen acres, and the whole
is surrounded by a broad but shallow moat.
Usually the moat is dry, but the garrison can
flood it by sluices from the Thames. The moat
is bordered within by a lofty castellated wall,
with massive flanking towers at frequent inter-
vals. Within this wall rises another of similar
construction, but of greater height, within which
are the various barracks and armories; and in
the centre of all is the lofty keep or donjon
known as the White Tower. This last named
building, erected by the Bishop of Rochester,
in the time of William the Conqueror, is the
most interesting in the whole structure. Its
walls are in parts 16 feet thick, and of solid
masonry. The White Tower was the Court of
the Plantagenet kings, whereas the various other
towers are principally noteworthy on account
of the illustrious prisoners who have been con-
fined in them. In the northwest corner of the
quadrangle is Saint Peter’s Chapel, now the gar-
rison church. In another part is the Jewel
Office, containing crown jewels of enormous value,
crowns, sceptres, golden dishes, tankards, salt-
cellars, and other plate and jewelry. Near this
building is the Horse Armory, which contains a
collection of ancient and medieeval arms and
armor, the latter exhibited in complete suits on
wooden .figures of men and horses. Some of these
figures represent English kings arrayed in the
armor which the kings actually wore while living.
To the Jewel Oflice and the Armory visitors are
admitted on payment of a small fee.
Early writers have alleged that Julius Caesar
built the Tower of London as a Roman fortress.
The spot was in fact occupied by some structure
before the time of Williain the Conqueror, as is
shown by the massive foundations discovered in
the course of later erections; but of the nature
of these earlier buildings we know little. The
White Tower, already mentioned, is the begin-
ning of the historical Tower of London. During
the reigns of the first two Norman kings, the
Tower seems to have been used as a fortress
merely. In Henry I.’s time it was already a
State prison. That monarch and his successors
gradually increased the size and strength of the
ramparts and towers, until the whole became a
great feudal stronghold. The kings frequently
lived there, holding their courts, and often sus-
taining sieges and blockades at the hands of
their rebellious subjects. On the accession of
Queen Elizabeth, however, the Tower ceased to
be a palace. Of the long list of executions for
political offenses which it witnessed, those of
Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino, and Lovat, after
the rebellion of 1745, were the last.
In 1841 a fire broke out in the Bowyer Tower,
and extended to the armories, causing the de-
struction of numerous modern buildings and
many thousand arms. At present the Tower of
London is in charge of the \Var Department, and
contains arms and accoutrements for the com-
plete equipment of a large army. The mint and
public records were formerly kept in it, but have
now been removed to more suitable buildings.
The government of the Tower is vested in a
constable, who has great privileges, and is usu-
ally a military officer of long service and dis-
tinguished rank, whose position is honorary; the
deputy constable, also an officer of repute, is the
actual governor. He has under him a small
staff and the corps of yeomen of the guard, more
commonly known as ‘beef-eaters.’ (See BEEF-
EATER.) Consult: Dixon, Her Majesty/s Tower
(London, 1869-71) ; Loftie, Authorized Guide to
the Tower of London (London, 1886); Temple,
Tozber of London, Its H istory and Contents (Lon-
don, 1876).
TOWER OF THE WINDS. An octagonal
building, north of the Acropolis of Athens, be-
longing to the second or first century BC. The
tower, 42 feet high and 26 feet in diameter, bears
on the upper part of each side the representation
of a wind. It was originally surmounted by a
bronze weather-cock in the form of a Triton. Be-
sides indicating the direction of the wind, the
exterior walls were marked to serve as a sun-
dial, and there appears to have
been connected with the tower a
water clock, the method of operat-
ing which has not been clearly
ascertained.
TOWER-SHELL. One of the
elongated, tightly coiled shells of
the gastropods of the family Tur-
ritellidae, allied to Vermetus (see
WOBM-SHELL), about 100 species
of which are known from the
warmer seas, and many fossil
forms. Most of them are covered
with a brownish epidermis, which,
when removed, exhibits a delicately sculptured
and often finely colored surface. Only the lower
part of the spiral is occupied by the adult animal,
the distal half of the shell being partitioned off.
TOWERS OF SILENCE. The structures
upon which the Parsis (q.v.) and Ghebers (q.v.)
expose the bodies of their dead to be devoured by
vultures or dogs in accordance with the precepts
of their religion as taught by Zoroaster (q.v.).
The prescription for building these structures is
as old as the Avesta (q.v.) where they are de-
scribed and called Dakhmas. The best modern
specimens are to be seen on Malabar I-lill, Bom-
bay, India, and across the Bombay Harbor at
Ooran; there is also one near Teheran and an-
other near Yezd in Persia, where the ruins of a
deserted ‘tower’ are likewise to be seen. The
older shape of the Dakhmas seems to have been
rectangular; the modern towers are circular, but


TOWER-SH E LL.
TOWERS OF SILENCE.
TOWN HALL.
838
less high than might be imagined. The best con-
structed are of massive stone or of bricks covered
with cement. They are 20 or 30 feet high, 75 to
100 in diameter, and they resemble huge gas
reservoirs in form. The top is open to the sky;
the floor below is built of large slabs resembling
flagging-stones ; in each slab is a slight depression
called a pavi in which the body is laid for the
‘heaven-sent birds’ to devour. Small ducts lead
from every pavi into the central pit where the
bones are placed after the body has been denuded
of flesh by the vultures, which is accomplished in
a few hours. From this central well there run
four carefully constructed drains, at right angles,
to carry away any deposit that might remain
and conduct it through chalk, quicklime, sand,
and other absorbents lest the earth might be
defiled by its contact. There is little, however,
to be led off thus, for the tropical sun soon
parches the bones and reduces them to dust.
Herodotus (Hist. i. 140) alludes to this method
of disposing of the dead in ancient Iran, and the
Zoroastrians, who have kept it up till the present
day, maintain that it is a solution of the sani-
tary question even in plague times. See Karaka,
History of the Parsis (London, 1884) ; Modi, A
Tower of Silence (Bombay, 1885) ; Jackson, “The
Parsee Towers of Silence,” in the Evening Bust,
June 8 (New York, 1901).
TOWLE, tol, GEDRGE MAKEPEACE (1841-93).
An American historian and journalist, born in
Washington, D. C. He graduated at Yale in
1861, and at‘ the Harvard Law School in 1863,
and practiced law in Boston. He was United
States consul at Nantes (1866-68) , and at Brad-
ford, England (1868-70), was editor of the Bos-
ton Commercial Bulletin (1870-71), an editor
of the Boston Post (1871-76), and later was
connected with Appleton’s Journal, The Art
Journal, and The Y outh’s Companion. His works
include: History of Henry the Fifth, King of
England (1866) ; The Eastern Question (1877);
Principalities of the Danube (1877); Beacons-
field (1878); Young Follt’s Heroes of History
(1870-82); Modern France, 1851-79 (1879);
Certain Men of Mark (1880); England and
Russia in Asia (1885) ; England in Egypt
(1885); Young People’s History of England
(1888) ; and Young People’s History of Ireland
(1887).
TOWN (AS. tun, OHG. min, Ger. Zaun,
hedge, inclosure; connected with Ir. dim, Welsh
din, hill fort). The name applied generally
throughout the United States to small munici-
palities or urban communities between the village
and the city. In New England it more often
denotes a quasi-corporate area, either urban or
rural, constituting a subdivision of the county,
which elsewhere is usually called the town-
ship or supervisor’s district. (For the urban
town, see MUNICIPALITY and MUNICIPAL Conro-
RATION.) The New England town is the most im-
portant local administrative unit in the govern-
mental system. The centre of political activity
is the ‘town meeting,’ which meets usually once
a year and may be attended by all the legal
voters of the town. It discusses measures of
common interest to the town, elects the town
ofiicers, and votes the taxes for the ensuing year.
The government of the New England town is,
therefore, a pure democracy, and the only_ real
example of the kind in the American political
system. The ‘town meeting’ governs through a
body of oificers, varying according to the needs
of the community. These are usually the select-
men, varying in number from three to nine, who
are the executive magistrates of the town, the
town clerk, treasurer, constables, tax asses-
sors, overseers of the poor, and school trus-
tees. In some towns there are such officers as
field drivers, pound-keepers, fence-viewers, meas-
urers, sealers, etc. In England the word town
applies to the small municipalities as in the
United States, although the word borough is
used to designate certain of the old towns. See
TOWNSHIP. Consult: Ashley, “The Anglo-Saxon
Township,” in Quarterly Journal of Economics;
Adams, Study of Church and Town Government
(1892); Bryce, American Commonwealth (Lon-
don and New York, 1900) .
TOWN HALL. A building for the legislative
and administrative business of a town or city.
In the wider sense it comprises two chief divi-
sions, the public offices of the Mayor and various
municipal administrations, and the chambers for
the meetings of the legislative bodies of the city
(Aldermen and Council). In small towns
court rooms and a jail are added, and a large
public hall is also often provided. A belfry and
clock-tower is a feature of nearly all French,
German, Flemish, and British town halls, and
of many of the more notable American examples.
The French treat with especial effectiveness the
entrances, lobbies, and grand stairways of their
town halls.
The oldest examples of the town hall in Eu-
rope belong to the Middle Ages. They date from
the time of recognition of the right of municipal
self-government, of which they are the expression.
In Southern France the town hall of Saint An-
tonin (twelfth century) is one of the oldest in
Europe. In Italy there grew up by the thirteenth
century almost as many States as cities, each of
which provided itself in time with one or more
municipal buildings according to its particular
form of administration. Of these the greater part
date from the late thirteenth and the fourteenth
centuries, some of the most important being those
at Cremona (1245); at Sienna the superb red
brick Palazzo Pubblico with its slender tower
(1289) ; at Pistoia the two palaces del Podesta
and del Comune (1294-1385); at Florence the
vast Palazzo Vecchio (1298), with its impressive
tower overhanging the street; the Doge’s Palace
at Venice; the elegant Palazzo del Consiglio at
Verona (1473). The Renaissance added but few
to the Italian list. In Germany the Rathaus or
Municipal Council house appears in the four-
teenth century (e.g. Brunswick), but the finest
and most numerous examples belong to the
Renaissance, as at Bremen, Cologne, Liibeck, Al-
tenburg, Augsburg, and Nuremberg, with pic-
turesque towers and high gables. But few
mediaeval town halls remain in France, that of
Compiegne being the finest (late fifteenth cen-
tury).
The Renaissance gave France the fine town halls
of Beaugency, Reims, Rouen, Lyons, and Paris,
the last two now replaced by modern edifices,
recalling the original structures. The Paris ex-
ample is the largest and most splendid of modern
town halls, especially in its interior decorations.
Very notable are the sumptuously ornate Belgian
town halls of the fifteenth century at Brussels,
TOWN HALL.
TOWNSEND.
839
Louvain, Ghent, Bruges, and Oudenarde and the
fine Renaissance structure at Antwerp. In Great
Britain it was not until the nineteenth century
that the town hall became important; it forms
one of the most interesting and successful sub-
jects of recent architectural design, as, for ex-
ample, at Sheffield and at Oxford. The splendid
new town hall at Hamburg is the finest of recent
German works in the same line, far superior to
the modern Gothic town hall at Vienna.
In the United States the Philadelphia City
Hall is the largest and ugliest of modern exam-
ples; that at New York, dating from 1809, one
of the most refined and elegant. The earlier town
halls of the United States follow Colonial or
‘Greek revival’ models; the more recent are in
the style of the French Renaissance or in what
may be called the neo-Roman style. The major-
ity lack distinctive architectural merit of a high
order, but recent designs show improvement, and
there are a few among them worthy of high
praise. See MUNICIPAL ARCHITECTURE.
TOWN’LEY, CHARLES (1737-1805). An Eng-
lish collector of classical antiquities, born in
Lancashire. He was educated on the Continent
under the tutorship of John Tuberville Need-
ham, and upon visiting Rome and Florence, in
1765, became interested in the study of an-
tiquities. He received much helpful advice from
Winckleman and other archaeologists‘, and in 1768
began his collection of antiquities. After re-
turning to England in 1772, he bought two houses
in London, where he established his museum. He
made frequent visits to Rome, and until 1780
continued to add to his acquisitions,‘ including
the Nollekens (q.v.) collection. In 1786 he was
made a member of the Society of Dilettanti, and
in 1791 trustee of the British Museum. He died
in Westminster, January 3, 1805. The Townley
marbles and terra-cottas were purchased for the
British Museum for £20,000, and in 1814 his
bronzes, coins, gems, and drawings were also
acquired. His collections in the Museum are
described and illustrated by Ellis, Townley Gal-
lery (London, 1846).
TOWNLEY, JAMES (1774-1833). An Eng-
lish minister of the Wesleyan denomination. He
was born in Manchester. His early education was
gained in the school of the Rev. David‘ Simpson,
of Macclesfield. He joined the Wesleyan Con-
ference in 1796, and was elected secretary of the
Wesleyan Missionary Society, 1827. As a scholar
he was second only to Adam Clarke in the de-
nomination. His most important work was
Illustrations of Biblical Literature, Exhibiting
the History and Fate of the Sacred Writings,
Including Notices of Translators and Other Emi-
nent Biblical Scholars (3 vols., 1821; 2 vols.,
1842).
TOWNLEY, JAMES (1714-78). An English
clergyman, born in Barking, near London. He
was educated at the Merchant Taylors’ School,
London, and at Saint John’s College, Oxford.
After holding various preferments in the Church,
he was appointed, in 1760, head-master of the
Merchant Taylors’ School, and in 1772-77 was
vicar of Hendon, in Middlesex. He is best re-
Inembered as the author of the satirical farce
High Life Below Stairs (Drury Lane, October 31,
1759),which has been translated into French and
German, and has been performed throughout the
world. It was formerly attributed to Garrick.
Two other farces written by Townley did not
succeed. Consult Genest, Account of the English
Stage, vol. iv. (Bath, 1832).
TOWNS’END, EDWARD WATERMAN (1855
—-) . An American journalist and novelist, nota-
ble for his studies of lower New York life and
dialect. He was born in Cleveland, Ohio. After
a common-school education, he became engaged
in journalism in New York, and attracted atten-
tion by sketches of Bowery life done in the pic-
turesque slang of the streets, and contributed to
the Sun and the Journal. These are collected in
part under the titles Chimmie Fadden and Major
Maw (1895) ; Chimmie Fadden Ewplains, Major
Mam Ewpounds (1895) ; and Near a Whole City-
Full (1897). A Daughter of the Tenements
(1896) and Days Like These (1901) are novels,
also of New York life. Later books are Chimmie
Fadden and Mr. Pard (1902) and Lees and
Leaven (1903).
TOWNSEND, GECRGE ALFRED (1841—-). An
American journalist, born in Georgetown, Del.
He was educated in Philadelphia, and was suc-
cessively connected with the Inquirer and Press
of that city, the New York Herald and World,
and the Chicago Tribune. He first gained dis-
tinction as a war correspondent. Among his
books the most noteworthy are: Campaigns of
a Non-Combatant (1865) ; Poems (1870) ; Wash-
ington Outside and Inside (1871) ; Tales of the
Chesapeake (1880) ; The Entailed Hat (1884);
and a drama, President Crom/well (1885).
Much of his newspaper correspondence was over
the signature Gath.
TOWNSEND, LUTHER TRACY ( 1838-). A
Methodist Episcopal theologian, educator, and
author. He was born at Orono, Me., graduated
at Dartmouth College, 1859, Andover Theological
Seminary, 1862, and served as adjutant in the
army, 1863-64. He entered the New England
Conference, 1862, was professor of Hebrew and
Greek in Boston University School of Theology,
1867, professor of historical theology, 1868, pro-
fessor of practical theology, 1869-93, emeritus
l893——. The best known of his publications are:
Credo (1869) ; Sword and Garment (1871) ; The
Supernatural Factor in Revivals (1877); The
Intermediate World (1878) ; Pulpit Rhetoric
(1886) ; Story of Jonah in the Light of Higher
Criticism (1897) ; Evolution in Creation (1899) ;
Anastasis (1900).
TOWNSEND, THOMAS SEAMAN (1830—).
An American compiler, born in New York City.
From 1860 to 1901 he collected and arranged all
important items concerning the Civil War that
appeared in the newspapers of the country, thus
forming a chronological history of incalculable
value to future historians. This enormous col-
lection of one hundred a.nd twenty-five volumes
is now in the Columbia University Library. It
is entitled the Townsend Library of National,
State, and Individual Civil War Records. He
published Honors of the Empire State in the War
of the Rebellion (1889).
TOWNSEND, WILLIAM KNEELAND (1849--).
An American jurist, born at New Haven, Conn.
He graduated at Yale College in 1871 and the
Yale Law School in 1874. He engaged in legal
practice at New Haven, and in 1892 was ap-
TOWNSEND.
TOWNSHIP.
840
pointed judge of the United States District
Court for the District of Connecticut, and in
1902 judge of the United States Circuit Court,
second circuit. In 1881 he became professor of
the law of contracts at Yale. He wrote The
New Connecticut Civil Officer.
TOWNSEND’S WARBLER. A wood-war-
bler (Dendrceca Townsendi) of the Pacific Coast
of the United States, black and yellow in colors
(see Colored Plate of W001)-WARBLERS) , and hav-
ing the general habits of its congeners. (See
WARBLER.) It is not numerous, and lives in the
mountain forests. This and several other birds
of the West owe their names to the naturalist
J . K. Townsend, who, in 1834, in company with
Thomas Nuttall (q.v.), traveled overland to the
Pacific Coast and brought to the notice of science
many novel species of animals.
TOWNSHEND, toun’zend, CHARLES, second
Viscount (1674-1738). An English statesman. A
descendant of a very ancient English family of
Norfolk, he succeeded to the peerage in 1687, was
educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge,
and took his seat as a Tory in the House of Lords
in 1697. He was named by the Godolphin Admin-
istration one of the commissioners for arranging
the union with Scotland (1706) ; was joint
plenipotentiary with Marlborough at Gertruy-
denberg; and negotiated with the States-General
in 1710 the Barrier Treaty, which pledged the
States-General to the Hanoverian succession, and
England to procure the Spanish Low Countries
for the United Provinces, as a barrier against
France. In 1712, upon the formation of the
Harley Ministry, Townshend was dismissed from
his places, and the Barrier Treaty was censured
by the; House of Commons, which voted that
Townshend and all who had been concerned in the
treaty.were enemies to the Queen and kingdom.
This persecution raised him from the rank of a
follower to the station of a. leader. He main-
tained a close correspondence with the Court
of Hanover, and obtained the entire confidence
of George I., who on his accession to the throne
of England made Townshend Secretary of State,
with power to name his colleagues. He selected
General, afterwards Earl, Stanhope, and formed
a Ministry entirely Whig in its party character.
He strengthened it by the addition of Walpole,
who, from being at first paymaster of the forces,
was soon made Chancellor of the Exchequer and
First Lord of the Treasury. Through misrepre-
sentations on the part of his colleagues, Towns-
hend lost favor with the King, and was, in 1716,
dismissed from office. After the breaking up
of the South Sea Bubble, and the death of Sun-
derland (q.v.) and of Stanhope, Townshend again
(1721) became Secretary of State. But he was
no longer the acknowledged leader of the Whigs.
The superior talent of Walpole, his financial
abilities, and his influence in the House of Com-
mons, caused a change in the relative position
of the two Ministers, and converted the two men
into rivals and enemies. Townshend, resigning
the contest, retired to Rainham, to cultivate his
paternal acres. “Never Minister had cleaner
hands,” said Chesterfield; and his reputation for
both private and public integrity remains un-
sullied.
TOWNSHEND, CHARLES (1725-67). An Eng-
lish statesman. He was the second son of
the third Viscount Townshend, and was edu-
cated at Leyden and probably also at Oxford.
He entered Parliament in 1747, and attaching
himself to Lord Halifax, he was given by him a
position in the Board of Trade in 1748. In 1754
Townshend was made a Lord of the Admiralty,
but resigned the following year. Becoming a
member of the Privy Council under Pitt in
1757, upon the dissolution of the Whig Govern-
ment in 1761 he was won over by Bute with an
offer of the post of Secretary of War. On Bute’s
resignation in 17 63 he was appointed president
of the Board of Trade. After opposing the Gren-
ville Administration he accepted the position of
Chancellor of the Exchequer under Pitt in 17 66.
But Pitt soon lost control over his colleagues
by his acceptance of the peerage and his long
periods of illness, so that Townshend began to
advocate measures to which Pitt was opposed.
In 1767 his first budget was rejected, and he
thereupon proposed those taxes on certain goods
imported into America which ultimately caused
the Revolution. Townshend himself did not live
to see this result, but died suddenly on Sep-
tember 4, 1767. He was ranked as an orator
with Pitt, and was far more popular than the
Great Commoner with the House of Commons.
At present he is chiefly remembered on account
of the policy which led to the American Revolu-
tion. Consult: Fitzgerald, Charles Townshend,
Wit and Statesman (London, 1866); Cobbett,
Parliamentary History of England to 1803 (Lon-
don, 1806-20).
TOWNSHIP (AS. talnscipe, from tan, in-
closure, town + -scipe, Eng. -ship). A minor
political or territorial division in England and
the United States. In England, in Anglo-Saxon
times, as a political unit it was known as the
tunscipe; as an ecclesiastical area it was the
parish. As a political unit it had a popular
assembly (tun moot); as an ecclesiastical unit
it had a vestry meeting. The chief executive
ofiicer was the tun reeve. He with the priest and
four other persons represented the township in
the popular assembly of the hundred and county.
Upon the settlement of the American colonies
the township was transplanted to America, and
still survives, like many other political institu-
tions of English origin. Here it is a subdivision
of the county, and its political importance varies
with the locality of the State. In New Eng-
land, under the name of the town, it plays a far
more important part in the work of the local
administration than the county——in fact, it per-
forms most of the business of local government
which in the Southern States is attended to by
the county. (See TOWN.) In the Middle and
Western States the township plays a somewhat
less important part in the work of the local
government than it does in New England, the
county there sharing with the township many of
the important functions of local government.
In the Southern States the township is not an
administrative unit of much importance. On
account of early social and political conditions
there, the county has been from the first the chief
unit of local government, although there are signs
of development in the Southern township which
may increase its administrative importance in
the future. In some of the Middle and Western
States the town meeting exists, having been
transplanted from New England. Elsewhere the
TOWNSHIP.
TOXICOLOGY.
841
chief governing authority is a township board.
The township has a quasi-corporate capacity,
being able to own real estate and to sue and be
sued, but in performing public governmental du-
ties it acts for the State and cannot be held
liable for the negligence or tortious acts of its
agents. The word township is also applied to
the units of the Congressional survey in some of
the Southern and Western States, these being
rectangular areas 6 miles square, each of which
is subdivided into 36 sections containing 640
acres. (See diagram under SURVEYING.) This is
probably the most simple system of land division
yet established. The Congressional township, as
it is sometimes called, is not a public corpora-
tion or juristic personality, but a geographical
convenience. Consult: Ashley, “The Anglo-Saxon
Township,” in Quarterly Journal of Economics;
Bryce, American Commonwealth (London and
New York, 1900).
TOWN S’V'ILLE. A fortified seaport on the
east coast of Queensland, Australia, situated on
Cleveland Bay, at the mouth of Ross Creek, 748
miles northwest of Brisbane (Map: Queensland,
E 5). It has a cathedral, court-house, technical
school, barracks, etc. Its industrial establish-
ments include foundries, distilleries, and meat-
packing establishments. It is the terminus of
the railway from Hughenden, 236 miles inland,
and has an extensive shipping trade; the harbor
is tidal, and has been much improved by two
long breakwaters, large vessels being enabled to
enter. Population, in 1901, 12,717.
TO'W’TON. A parish in Yorkshire, England,
about 11 miles southwest of York, noted as the
scene of a decisive victory gained by the Yorkist
forces under Edward IV. and the Earl of War-
wick over the Lancastrians, commanded by the
Duke of Somerset and the Earl of Northumber-
land, March 29, 1461. The battle is said to have
been the most sanguinary ever fought on English
soil and according to a contemporary statement
twenty-eight thousand men were left dead upon
the field. The victory secured Edward IV. ( q,v.)
in possession of the throne. See Rosns, WARS OF
THE.
TOXICOLOGY (from Gk. ro§uc6v, towikon,
poison, neu. sg. of Tofucég‘, toa-ilcos, relating to.
the bow, from 1-6501), tomon, how, so called be-
cause first used to poison arrow-points +-hoyla,
-logia, account, from 7léyav, legein, to say).
The branch of medical science which treats of
the nature of poisons, of their morbific effects on
the animal system, of their detection in the
organs or tissues of the body, of their antidotes,
of the treatment of poisoning, and, finally, of the
legal questions connected with poisoning. A
poison may be defined as any substance which
when applied to the body or introduced into the
system, in whatever manner, produces death or
serious bodily harm. Poisons may enter the
body in various ways. The mouth is the usual
channel. Poisons may be absorbed by the skin in
amounts sufficient to cause death or severe toxic
symptoms, as in the case of lotions or salves
containing opium, corrosive sublimate, arsenic,
carbolic acid, etc. Gaseous or volatile poisons
may enter the lungs through the inspired air, e.g.
illuminating gas, carbon monoxide, or chlorine.
Poisons may gain access to the circulation
through ulcerated surfaces or wounds; by direct
injection into the tissues, as by hypodermic in-
jection, poisoned arrows, or snake-bites; or they
may be introduced by way of the mucous mem-
brane of the rectum, vagina, urethra, nose, or
eye.
Most medicinal agents are poisonous if taken
in sufficient quantity, and this quantity varies
with the individual, the state of bodily health,
fullness or emptiness of the stomach, habit, and
other circumstances. The influence of habit is
shown by opium habitués who take enormous
doses of the drug without immediate evil effects.
A special susceptibility to certain substances
is noted in some individuals. This is called
idiosyncrasy. Thus, five grains of quinine have
nearly killed certain persons, or produced un-
pleasant symptoms, as blindness or deafness, in
others. Races and individuals, on the other
hand, may possess or attain a high degree of im-
munity to particular poisons; e.g. the Oriental
is much less susceptible to opium than the Euro-
pean, and the latter bears alcohol better than
savage races. In certain diseases there is a
diminished susceptibility to the action of particu-
lar poisons, while in others there is increased
sensibility. Thus in tetanus (q.v.), hydrophobia,
mania, or delirium tremens, doses of various
sedatives may be given with benefit which would
in health prove fatal; on the other hand, when
there is a predisposition to apoplexy an ordinary
dose of opium may cause death. Some poisons
are harmless when taken into the stomach, but
violently toxic when injected beneath the skin.
Poisons may be classified according to their
chemical properties or their physiological action.
The latter is the usual and most satisfactory
basis, and depends upon the effects of poisons
upon the system when it is in a healthy con-
dition. According to the physiological classifica-
tion poisons are divided into two great groups,
viz. (1) the irritants and (2) the neurotics.
An irritant poison is one which when swallowed
produces an irritant effect upon the mucous
membrane of the alimentary canal, resulting in
nausea, vomiting, purging, pain in the abdomen,
cramps in the stomach and other parts of the
body. This group is subdivided into (a) corro-
sives, whose action is chiefly local, and (b) the
true irritants, whose local effects may be slight,
but which produce their characteristic effect
after absorption. Many drugs act in both ways;
for example, oxalic acid and carbolic acid. A
neurotic poison is one which acts chiefly on the
nervous system, producing drowsiness (nar-
cotic), giddiness, headache, delirium (deliri-
ant), stupor, coma, convulsions (tetanic), or
paralysis.
Before proceeding to a systematic considera-
tion of poisons a few principles of the general
treatment of poisoning may be given. The indi-
cations are (1) to neutralize and render harm-
less the poison by the administration of the
proper antidote (q.v.) ; (2) to remove the poison
from the body by inducing vomiting or washing
out the stomach; (3) to combat the effects of
the poison already absorbed, by giving drugs
which are physiologically antagonistic to the one
absorbed, and supporting life until the body rids
itself of the poisonous substance through the
natural excretory channels. Antidotes affect a
poison either mechanically or chemically, or both,
so as to remove it from the body or alter its
TOXICOLOGY.
TOXICOLOGY.
842
character before absorption and thereby prevent
its toxic action upon the organism. Mechanical
antidotes include the use of the stomach tube or
pump, the employment of emetics, cathartics,
stimulants, injections, ligations, etc. The true
or chemical antidotes include albumen, milk,
charcoal, soap, starch, oils, tannin, turpentine,
acids, alkalies, potassium, permanganate, sodium,
chloride, iodine, iron, etc.
When a poison has been taken by the mouth
the stomach should be emptied immediately by
means of the stomach tube or emetics, except
where there is severe corrosion and perforation
of the stomach is feared. A prompt and certain
emetic is apomorphine, which has the advantage
of acting when given hypodermically. Domestic
resources are usually limited to giving large
draughts of mustard and warm water, warm
milk in large quantities, oils, butter, and lard,
common salt solution, soapsuds, and these often
act with great promptness. Ipecac in the form
of the syrup is found in most households and
may be given in doses of one or two tablespoon-
fuls to adults or as many teaspoonfuls to chil-
dren. It is a safe and unirritating emetic, but is
too slow for emergencies. Other useful emetics
are copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, turpeth min-
eral, and alum. In poisoning it is better to use
almost any emetic at once than to lose valuable
time getting just the right one. When poisoning is
due to irritants after evacuation of the stomach,
bland and viscid fluids should be given to protect
the walls of the alimentary tract and allay in-
flammation. These agents are called demulcents,
and include flaxseed tea, white of egg, milk,
barley water, and the like. Where the poison
has gained entrance by inoculation, as in the
case of dog-bites or the stings of reptiles, the
part should be washed, sucked, and a ligature
applied about the extremity above the wound,
i.e. between it and the heart. The wound should
then be thoroughly cauterized.
The stomach having been emptied, the next
step is to administer the proper antidote or
physiological antagonist. (See ANTIDOTES.) In
general it is to be remembered that alkalies coun-
teract acids and vice versa, since they tend to
form harmless salts. Poisoning by the irritant
metallic salts is best treated with albumen, in
the form of white of egg, an inert, insoluble
albuminate being formed. The antidote for the
vegetable alkaloids is tannin, most conveniently
given in the form of strong green tea. Chemical
antidotes act only on such portions of the poison
as have riot been absorbed by the stomach and
must be given promptly to be of any use.
Physiological antidotes or antagonists follow
the poison into the circulation and combat its
effects as long as it remains in the body.
Connosrvn Porsons include acetic, carbolic,
chromic, lactic, oxalic, and salicylic acids; con-
centrated mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric, etc.) ;
creosote; corrosive sublimate; the caustic alka-
lies (potassium and sodium dioxide, usually
in the form of lye, ammonia, etc.); quicklime;
potassium chlorate; and potassium nitrate. These
act either on the surface of the body, causing
deep and painful destruction of tissue, or in-
ternally, by producing intense gastro-enteritis
and collapse. The symptoms common to the
group are nausea, vomiting, pain, and purging,
the vomited and dejected matters being mucous,
serous, or bloody. The mouth and lips, hands
and face, are frequently burned and corroded.
Treatment -consists in neutralizing the poison
and the giving of demulcents. In the case of
weak acids, magnesia, chalk, soap, and dilute
ammonia may be given as antidotes; in the event
of alkaline poisoning weak acids, such as dilute
vinegar or lemon juice, may be given. When the
poison is concentrated the stomach tube should
not be used. Carbolic acid is probably the most
frequently used of the corrosives, and is best
antidoted with alcohol diluted and given up to
four ounces. The sulphate of magnesia is also
a perfect antidote.
TRUE Innrrmrrs include, besides certain of the
corrosive poisons already mentioned, bromine,
cantharides, croton oil, chlorine, antimony, ar-
senic, copper chromium, lead, tin, zinc, phospho-
rus, and iodine. In concentrated form most of
them cause irritation to the gastro-intestinal
tract, but besides this show a specific action
on various organs after their absorption by
the blood. Arsenic is the most commonly em-
ployed of this group, accidentally or with
homicidal or suicidal intent. The substance
is widely used in the arts and is a con-
stituent of some vermin exterminators. Poison-
ing may be acute or chronic. In acute cases
the symptoms are those common to irri-
tant poisons. The chemical antidote is known
as ‘arsenic antidote,’ and may be prepared by
adding ammonia water to tincture of iron. It
must be freshly prepared. Arsenic poisoning is
generally fatal, a small dose (1 to 3 grains)
being sufficient to kill. Chronic poisoning by
arsenic is also common as a result of inhalation
or contact with the various arsenical greens
used in coloring wall papers, carpets, etc., grind-
ing arsenic in mills, and from vapors in smelling
copper. The symptoms are gastric irritation,
cough, sneezing, throat troubles, gradually fail-
ing health, and paralysis. See ARSENIC.
Lead poisoning may also be acute or chronic,
the latter being the most usual form. Acute
cases are due to the ingestion of the acetate
(sugar of lead), carbonate, oxide, or chromate
of lead and mainly painters suffer. The prom-
inent symptoms are gastro-intestinal irritation,
cramps in the legs and abdomen, followed by
paralysis of the extremities, convulsions, and
coma. The sulphate of magnesia (epsom salt)
is the antidote, forming an insoluble sulphate of
lead, and acting in addition as a purge. Chronic
poisoning arises from handling paints, drinking
water conducted in lead pipes, the use of cos-
metics containing lead, and eating canned foods
contaminated by solder. The symptoms come
on insidiously and consist of a peculiar griping
colic (lead colic), obstinate constipation, muscu-
lar cramps, paralysis of the extensor muscles of
the forearms (wrist-drop), and a blue line at
the junction of the gums and teeth. Chronic
poisoning is treated by removing its source, and
by the administration of Epsom salt and potas-
sium iodide to eliminate the lead already ab-
sorbed. See LEAD.
Phosphorus poisoning ‘is due to yellow phos-
phorus, commonly derived from matches or rat
poisons. Workers in match factories are most
usually attacked, although rat poison is some-
times taken with suicidal intent. The poison is
very active and recovery is rare. The prominent
TOXICOLOGY.
TOXIC OLOGY.
843
symptoms in acute poisoning are vomiting of
matters luminous in the dark, a smell of phos-
phorus in the breath, inflammation of the stom-
ach and intestines, jaundice, convulsions, and
coma. Treatment consists in washing out the
stomach and the administration of old oil of
turpentine, or potassium permanganate.
POISONOUS Foons. There is a rather large
group of foods which, owing either to their in-
herent properties (mushrooms and other fungi)
or to the development of putrefactive bodies with-
in them (ptomaines), produce symptoms of se-
vere poisoning when eaten. The symptoms are
very diverse, but intense gastro-intestinal irri-
tation is common to all of them, and they may
therefore be appropriately classed as irritants.
Mushroom poisoning arises through mistaking
various fungi, such as mushrooms, toadstools,
and truffles, for edible varieties. The toxic sub-
stance in many of these is muscarine, a deadly
alkaloidal poison, producing violent vomiting,
colic, thirst, dyspnoea, paralysis, and death.
Ptomaine poisoning is due to the products of
putrefactive decomposition in animal or vege-
table matter. The ptomaines are alkaloids and
resemble chemically many of the vegetable alka-
loids, thus leading to confusion or error in toxi-
cological investigations. Not all ptomaines are
poisonous and not 'all food poisons are ptomaines.
The foods which sometimes produce symptoms of
poisoning, whether ptomaine or other, are corned
beef, sausage, pickled or decaying fish, putrid
game, cheese, milk, shellfish, particularly mus-
sels, and certain poisonous fish (such as cray-
fish, land crab, gray snapper, dolphin, etc.).
The treatment of food poisoning, from whatever
cause, is prompt evacuation of the stomach,
preferably by the stomach tube, using plenty of
water, and administration of tannic or gallic
acid or strong tea. See PTOMAINES; Mosa-
ROOMS.
NEUROTIG POISONS. These act principally
through the nervous system, and as a rule pro-
duce little or no tissue change.
Alcohol may act as an acute or chronic poison.
Its effects are fully considered under INTOXICA-
TION.
Opium and its chief alkaloid morphine, lauda-
num, Majendie’s solution (of morphine), and
paregoric are often used for suicidal or homici-
dal purposes. Paregoric parlticularly is responsible
for many cases of opium poisoning in children,
being a common ingredient of soothing syrups.
Acute opium poisoning is characterized by a
short preliminary stage of pleasurable excitement
followed by drowsiness, sleep, and complete un-
consciousness. In a moderately advanced case,
the pupils are contracted to a pin-point, the
respirations are slow, the pulse full, the skin
moist. The breathing grows slower and slower
until death supervenes from respiratory paraly-
sis. The stomach must be promptly emptied, and
tannic acid or potassium permanganate given
as antidote. Stupor is combated by the ad-
ministration of strong coffee, atropine, or strych-
nine, and by cold douches, flecking with wet
towels, electrical stimulation, and later by forced
artificial respiration. Chronic opium poisoning
is seen in those habituated to the drug, both in
Eastern and Western countries. See OPIUM.
Cocaine (q.v.) is extensively used as a local
anaesthetic, and alarming symptoms have followed
Von. XVI.—54.-.
its absorption by the mucous membrane, or its
hypodermic injection. Death occurs very rapid-
ly (forty seconds to four minutes), with great
depression and respiratory or cardiac failure.
If the patient can be kept alive for half an hour,
recovery is almost certain. If the poison has
been taken by the mouth, evacuate the stomach,
and in any case fresh air, artificial respiration,
and stimulants are called for.
Chloral is quite often injudiciously used by
the public to induce sleep and quiet the nerves;
it is also taken with suicidal intent and given
by criminals (knock-out drops) to induce pro-
longed stupor, often with fatal results. The
patient simply passes into a deep sleep without
previous excitement, and death occurs from heart
failure. Treatment is like that of opium and
cocaine. See CHLORAL.
Belladonna and its alkaloid atropine produce,
when taken in poisonous amounts, dilatation of
the pupil, flushing of the skin, dryness of the
mouth, delirium, and sometimes convulsions. Re-
covery is the rule, but when death occurs it is
from paralysis of the heart. Treatment consists
in washing out the stomach and opium is the
physiological antidote. Similar in their effects
and treatment to belladonna are homatropine,
hyoscyamus (henbane), hyoscyamine, hyoscine,
stramonium, and dulcamara.
Strychnine and nuac oomica. Strychnine is
contained in certain vermin-killers, and is used
both for suicide and murder. In poisonous doses
it acts principally on the spinal cord, producing
cramps and convulsions like those of tetanus
(q.v.). Death or recovery is usually speedy.
The patient is to be put in a quiet dark room,
and tannic acid or charcoal is given, followed
by stomach-washing. This must be done before
spasms set in. Chloroform and ether control the
convulsions, and the bromides and opium act in
the same way, but more slowly.
Prussic acid and the various cyanogen com-
pounds, contained in cyanide of potash, cherry-
laurel water, bitter almonds, cherry, peach, a‘ d
plum pits, are exceedingly rapid and fatal poisons.
When smaller doses have been taken sulphate of
iron may be given as an antidote and affusions
and douches of cold water, and a resort to arti-
ficial respiration are the most useful measures.
See Hronoorxmc Acm.
Among other substances in the class which are
occasionally taken in poisonous doses are aconite,
cannabis indica, curare (arrow poison), digitalis,
hemlock, and the various coal-tar products, such
as acetanilid, phenacetine, and sulphonal (qq.v.).
Anaesthetics (ether, chloroform, and nitrous
oxide) act as narcotic poisons when taken in
overdose. The symptoms may be divided into
two stages, one of excitement with rapid pulse
and respiration, struggling and flushed face;
and one of depression, in which the muscles are
relaxed, the patient is insensible, passes into
coma and dies from cardiac or respiratory fail-
ure. When dangerous symptoms come on during
the administration of an anaesthetic this is to be
stopped, the tongue drawn forward, the patient
exposed to a current of fresh air or oxygen, and
if breathing stops subjected to artificial respira-
tion. Hypodermic injections of atropine or
strychnine are also given. The inhalation or
drinking of ether and chloroform is indulged in
TOXICOLOGY.
TOXIN.
844
as a habit by a few individuals. See AN.1Es-
THETICS.
Gaseous Porsons. The more common of these
are carbonic acid gas, carbon monoxide, hydro-
gen sulphide, sulphurous oxide, illuminating gas,
sewer gas and cesspool emanations, and carbonic
acid gas (choke-damp) as found in the air of
mines, cellars, and wells. Miners are frequently
killed by the latter. Carbon monoxide occurs in
charcoal fumes, fuel gas. and illuminating gas,
and passes into the air of a room from defective
fiues or pipes. Air containing 1 per cent. of this
gas is rapidly fatal. When exposure to this
poison has been long and unconsciousness exists,
recovery is not probable. The effects of illumi-
nating gas are similar to those of carbonic oxide.
Sewer gas is a mixture of sulphureted hydro-
gen, ammonium sulphide, nitrogen, and carbonic
acid gas. The symptoms of the gaseous poisons
depend on the amount absorbed and vary from
slight headache and dizziness to suffocation and
collapse. The treatment is to get the patient
into the fresh air, give oxygen, or perform arti-
ficial respiration, and stimulate.
ANIMAL POISONS. The stings of insects, the
bites of scorpions, tarantulas, snakes, and rabid
dogs, are comprised in this group. Their action
is complicated. The local effects are irritation,
redness, swelling, and oedema, or even gangrene.
The poison after entering the circulation may
disorganize the blood, causing jaundice, haemo-
globinuria, hemorrhage into t e tissues, and
cyanosis. There are in addition general symp-
toms, such as vertigo, dyspnoea, prostration, car-
diac paralysis, and finally collapse. The local
treatment of such bites consists in the applica-
tion of a tight band or ligature above the wound
to prevent absorption; the destruction by the
knife or cautery of the area containing the poison
after removing as much as possible by suction;
and the administration of stimulants such as
ammonia, alcohol, or stryclmine, to keep up the
strength until the poison is eliminated. Quite
recently a serum known as antivenene has been
given in snake-bites with excellent results. See
GLANDERS; Hronornonm; SERUM THERAPY.
The medico-legal duties of the medical examin-
er in cases of fatal poisoning, whether suicidal
or homicidal, are: (1) to establish the presence
or absence of conditions characteristic of any
poison; (2) to preserve all necessary material
for subsequent analytical examination, and to
avoid introducing possible causes of error; (3)
to recognize or exclude natural causes of death;
(4) to perform experiments on animals, if neces-
sary, in order to demonstrate the toxic effect of
the substance separated by the chemical; and
(5) to record carefully all observations and
state clearly the conclusions as to the cause of
death. Difficult cases constantly arise in which
the post-mortem appearances are not decisive,
or are consistent either with disease or poison.
In performing an autopsy for medico-legal pur-
poses, the identity of the body must first be es-
tablished and the autopsy should be done in the
presence of witnesses. The organs and tissues
to be removed and preserved for future analysis
are deposited separately in clear glass jars,
which are sealed. The tissues and organs to be
removed are the stomach, and intestines ligated
and unopened; the entire liver; the blood from
the heart and vessels; both kidneys; the urine;
the entire brain; a large piece of muscle from
the thigh; and portions of the bone and spleen.
Important information as to the time of absorp-
tion is evidenced by the distribution of poison
in the various tissues. The unabsorbed residue
is found in the stomach and intestines. Poisons
in both stomach and liver indicate a short in-
terval between the taking and death; while
poison in the liver and other organs, with none in
the stomach, indicates a greater interval. Most
poisons remain in the liver after disappearing
from the stomach and remain longer in the
muscles and bones than in any other tissue.
Poisons are found in their greatest purity in the
kidneys and urine. Proof of poisoning has been
established by chemists by analysis of muscles
or one kidney, when all the other tissues have
been destroyed by the suspected parties. Be-
sides the examination for poisons and their
lesions, every organ must be examined for all
natural causes of death, and in particular the
causes of sudden death (q.v.) should be rigidly
excluded. Consult: VVitthaus and Becker, Med-
ical Jurisprudence, Forensic M cdicine, and Tow-
icology (New York, 1894) ; Peterson, Legal M edi-
cine and Towicology (Philadelphia. 1903) ; Brun-
dage, A Manual of Toxicology (New York, 1901).
See AU'roPsY; MEDICAL J URISPRUDENCE.
TOXIN. A specific bacterial poison whose
absorption into the body causes an infectious dis-
ease. Though formerly used, as suggested by
Brieger, to designate the poison members of the
ptomain group (q.v.) of bacterial bases it was
fortunately not so restricted. Toxins are not
albumins; they are not proteid bodies. It had
been surmised that the symptoms presented dur-
ing diseases induced by microorganisms were due
to the basic poisons known as ptomains. But
after using in experiments these bases, it was
learned that this was untrue. The ptomains are
not as potent as certain chemical products of
the bacteria. Moreover, in the highly poisonous
cultures of certain germs no ptomains have been
formed. This statement is true of diphtheria, as
confirmed by Loeffler, Roux and Yersin, Brieger
and Friinkel. Some of these investigators estab-
lished the additional fact that the toxins are
formed by synthetical processes, and not by
splitting up the constituents of the culture medi-
um or those of the animal body. The germ ap-
parently constructs its toxin out of the com-
ponents of a harmless menstruum. In several
specific infectious diseases special toxins have
been isolated. Marmier extracted a specific toxin
from glycerin-peptone cultures of the anthrax
bacillus, which does not give the reactions of
albuminoid substances nor change starch, sugar,
or glycogen. Animals immune to anthrax bacil-
lus are immune to this toxin. Alkaline hypo-
chlorites, as well as prolonged isolation in the pres-
ence of air, destroys its efficacy. Animals may
be immunized to anthrax it treated with care-
fully graduated doses of this toxin. This toxin
is contained in the bacterial cells of anthrax
and the culture must be so adapted that oppor-
tunity is offered for it to diffuse from the cells.
Similarly, the presence of a toxin derived from
the comma bacillus has been demonstrated in
Asiatic cholera, as also a toxin in tetanus, diph-
theria, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, while in
suppuration the poisoning is due to toxin derived
from the bacillus staphylococcus. Susotoxin has
TOXIN.
TRACERY.
845
been isolated in hog cholera, and the toxin
mullein or morvin is contained in the cell of the
glanders bacterium. See ANTITOXIN; BACTERIA,
IMMUNITY, and SERUM THERAPY.
TOXODONTIA, tok’so-don’shi-£1 (Neo-Lat.
nom, pl., from Gk. r6£ou, to./con, how —I— 66015;,
odous, tooth). An extinct suborder of ungulate
mammals found fossil in the Tertiary deposits
of Argentina and Patagonia, South America.
Toxodon was a heavily built animal as large as
a rhinoceros, with a large heavy head placed on
a short neck which sloped down from the shoul-
ders, so that the head was much lower than the
back. The teeth are large, compressed later-
ally, and either triangular or prismatic in sec-
tion, and they grew from persistent pulps. The
bones of the skeleton are all massive, the legs
short and thick, and the feet are three-toed.
Nesodon, an earlier genus than Toxodon, was
of smaller size and less robust build.
TOXOPBYILUS. A work in two books on
archery by Roger Ascham (q.v.), in the form of
conversations between Philologus and Toxophilus
on the attractions of books and archery (q.v.).
TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836—). A dis-
tinguished American Oriental scholar. He was
born in Norfolk, Va., and graduated at the Uni-
versity of Virginia in 1856. He studied at Ber-
lin in 1866-68, became professor of Hebrew at
the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in
1869, and professor of Hebrew and Oriental lan-
guages and lecturer on biblical literature at Har-
vard in 1879. His publications include a transla-
tion and revision of Erdmann’s commentary on
Samuel in Lange’s series (1877) ; an edition of
Murray’s Origin of the Psalms (1880) ; The Re-
ligion of Israel (1882; 3d ed. 1884) ; Quotations
from the Old Testament in the New Testament
(1884) ; Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of
the Progress of Thought from Old Testament to
New Testament (1890) ; the Book of Ezekiel in
the Polychrome Bible (Hebrew text, 1896; Eng-
lish, 1898); and the Book of Proverbs in the
International Critical Commentary (1899).
TOYAMA, t5’yZi’m:i. The capital of the Pre-
fecture of Toyama, in Japan, situated in the cen-
tral part of Hondo, near the western coast (Map:
Japan, E 5) . The old castle is used as a school.
There are manufactures of leather. Population,
in 1898, 59,558.
TOYN’BEE, ARNOLD (1852-83). A pioneer
of the Social Settlement movement. He was edu-
cated at Balliol College, Oxford, and afterwards
became a tutor and lecturer there. He was the
author of a number of well-known addresses on
political economy, but is best known by his ef-
forts to understand the economic and social prob-
lems of the working classes of VVhitechapel,
among whom he made his home, associat-
ing himself with the religious work carried on
there by his friend S. A. Barnett. Early in
life Toynbee had come under the influence of
Ruskin, but his sympathy with the artisan class
found a means of expression entirely his own.
His favorite maxim, “The welfare of the producer
is as much a matter of interest to the consumer
as the price of the product,” voiced the religion
of the student of social conditions. His name
is associated with the modern Social Settlement
(q.v.) . Two years after his death in the crowded
Whitechapel district, which had been the scene of
his efforts, Toynbee Hall was erected by the men
of Oxford and Cambridge who had shared his
labors there.
TOYNBEE, PAGET( l855—). An English phil-
ologian, distinguished for his studies in French
and Italian literature,‘ a brother of Arnold Toyn-
bee. He was born at I/Vimbledon, near London.
He was educated at Haileybury College, Hert-
fordshire, and at Balliol College, Oxford, and
then became a private tutor (1878-92). He is
especially known as a Dante scholar. His works
comprise mainly Specimens of Old French
(ninth to fifteenth century), (1892) ; Index
of Proper Names in the Works of Dante (1894,
2d ed. 1897 ) ; Historical French Grammar, which
is a skillful revision and amplification of Bracket
(1896); A Dictionary of Proper Names and
Notable Matters in the Works of Dante (1898) ;
Ricerche e Note Dantesche (1899) ; Critical Text
of the “Di/vina Commedia” (1899) ; Life of
Dante (1900, revised 1901); and Dante Studies
and Researches (London and New York, 1902).
The “Dante Dictionary” is perhaps the most
valuable commentary to Dante.
TOYOHASHI, to’yo-h'2i’she. A town in the
Prefecture of Aichi, Central Hondo, Japan, 45
miles by rail southeast of Nagoya (l\Iap: Japan,
E 6). Population, in 1898, 21,785.
TRACERY (from trace, -OF. tracer, trasser,
Fr. tracer, to trace, track, delineate, from ML.
*tractiare, frequentative of Lat. trahere, to draw,
drag). A term used of the kind of architectural
detail that is connected with pierced or
open ornamentation of any member or unit such
as a window, arcade, or gallery. It was de-
veloped in windows and then extended to almost
every part of ecclesiastical structures during the
Gothic period. Technically there may be said to
be stray examples of simple tracery at an earlier
date, as in the case of pierced marble slabs in
windows or screens, but tracery as an art and a
system sprang up with the fully developed
Gothic style in the first decades of the thirteenth
century in France, when the whole wall space
over the aisles in church interiors was devoted
to enormous windows, one in each bay. (See
VVINDOW.) The general frame of each window
inclosed those of several separate lights, and
above and between their arched summits were
minor foiled openings. The mullions, the cusps,
the quatrefoil, and other openings formed what
is termed the tracery of the windows, which be-
came more elaborate in the succeeding centuries,
seeking ever more complex geometric combina-
tions of lines. The straight lines gradually were
replaced in large part by curved lines. The
rose or wheel windows, such as those of Notre
Dame, in Paris, and the cathedrals of Rheims
and Amiens, illustrate the various stages of
this development. This tracery spread grad-
ually from the windows until it overran
almost every part of the church with its delicate
lace patterns, sometimes on a solid ground, some-
times pierced. The earlier plate tracery had at
once given way to the molded tracery. The
period of a Gothic structure can generally be
judged with tolerable accuracy by the style of its
tracery. This is particularly the case in Eng-
land, where two of the three main divisions of
the Gothic movement, the Decorated and the
Perpendicular, are so called on account of their
TRACERY.
TRACHYTE.
846
styles of tracery, which give the key-note to each,
and by means of which the merging of one style
into the other can be traced. During the Deco-
rated period the tracery became more varied in
form, being composed of squares, triangles, and
other forms, filled with foils and having the ap-
pearance of being packed together. This kind of
tracery is called ‘geometric.’ The windows of the
transition from Decorated to Perpendicular had
tracery of a more flowing character, while that of
the Perpendicular (q.v.) period became almost
entirely composed of vertical lines. The flam-
boyant (q.v.) or contemporary style in France
had tracery of a very different description, be-
ing as free and graceful as the other was straight
and stiff. See GOTHIC ART.
TRACHEA (Neo-Lat., from Lat. trachia,
from Gk. rpaysla, tracheia, trachea, windpipe,
rough artery, so called because of the rings of
gristle, from 1-payzig, trachys, rough), or WIND-
PIPE. The tube through which air-breathing
vertebrates receive air into the lungs. It extends
from the throat to the bifurcation of the bronchi.
It is sufficiently described in the article RESPI-
RATION. Tracheotomy (q.v.) is necessary for the
removal of foreign bodies lodged in the trachea
and bronchi. The trachea shares certain inflam-
mations and morbid processes in common with
the larynx and the bronchi. For figure of
trachea, see BBONCHUS.
TRACHEID. Usually elongated, taper-
pointed, woody cells, resembling tracheae in ap-
pearance, but not forming a continuous vessel.
The wood of many conifers consists almost ex-
clusively of tracheids. See HISTOLOGY.
TRACHEOTOMY (from Gk. rpaxsla, tra-
cheia, trachea, windpipe, rough artery + 70,117’),
tomé, a cutting, from ré,uvew, temnein, to cut)
and LARYNGOTOMY (from Gk. Jldpv)/5, larynac,
larynx + ro,ar'7, tome, a cutting). Opening the
trachea by incision in order to admit the en-
trance of air when suffocation is threatened.
- Among the conditions
which demand trache-
otomy are foreign
bodies in the air
passages, cut throat,
diphtheria, oedema of
the glottis, and tu-
mors either within the
larynx or pressing
upon the air passages
from without (as a
goitre). The air pas-
sages may be opened
in three different
situations —n a m e 1 y ,
through the crico-
thyroid membrane (see
LARYNX) , when the
operation is termed
laryngotomy; through
the cricoid cartilage
and the upper rings of
the trachea, the oper-
ation being known as laryngo-tracheotomy; and
through the trachea, below the isthmus of the
thyroid gland, constituting tracheotomy proper.
Laryngotomy and tracheotomy are more common-
ly performed than laryngo-tracheotomy, to which
no further allusion is required. Laryngotomy is
M
MINSTRUENTS FOB INTUBATION.
more quickly and easily performed, especially in
adult males, and is less dangerous; tracheotomy
is a more difficult, tedious, and dangerous opera-
tion, but must be employed in some cases (as, for
example, where there is any necessity for intro-
ducing the forceps and in cases where a
tracheotomy tube must be allowed to remain in
position for some time). The incision is made
in the middle line of the neck, longitudinally,
the blood vessels being pushed aside as much as
possible with the handle of the knife. “hen the
trachea is exposed and is cut through the wound
is held apart with tenacula that the tube may be
inserted. As haste is generally necessary, a
neat dissection can rarely be made, but great
care must be exercised to prevent blood from en-
terinnr the air passage. When the operation is
completed a large curved tube to breathe through
is inserted in the aperture, and secured round
the neck with tapes.
A double tube or canula possesses many ad-
vantages, as, by withdrawing the inner one,
which should slightly project at its lower ex-
tremity, it may be cleared of any mucus or blood
that may have accumulated in it, without dis-
turbing the wound. The calibre of the inner tube
should always be sufficiently large to admit as
much air as usually passes through the chink
of the healthy glottis. If left too long, the patient
may die of asphyxia. It is therefore necessary
to decide and act quickly, selecting a field of
operation certainly below the point of obstruc-
tion, and a full-sized tube should be inserted.
Up to the time of O’Dwyer the operation of
tracheotomy was frequently and successfully per-
formed. In 1885 Dr. Joseph O’Dwyer of New
York devised instruments wherewith intubation
of the larynx was performed as a substitute for
tracheotomy. Intubation consists in placing a
short tube in position in the larynx, between
the vocal cords, its lower end reaching a point as
low as an incision would be made if the air pas-
sages were opened, and thus admitting air from
the throat. The tube may crowd down false
membrane ahead of it, and in some such cases
tracheotomy may be necessary. Few other
dangers are possible. The tube may be re-
moved on the fourth day, or may remain in
situ till the eleventh day. Its presence causes
disintegration of the pseudo-membrane of diph-
theria; prevents reflex spasm; and also obviates
the granulations which are common and very
annoying after tracheotomy. If ulceration be
produced by intubation it is superficial and
trivial. The recoveries from diphtheria in cases
in which intubation is practical average over 50
per cent.
TRACHINIZE, tra-kin’i-é (Lat. nom. pl.,
from Gk. Tpaxlvlal, women of Trachis) . A tragedy
by Sophocles describing the death of Hercules,
caused by the poisoned coat of Nessus, sent to
him by Deianira, in jealousy of the captured
Iole. The play takes its name from the chorus
composed of women of Trachis, where Deianira
is awaiting the return of her husband.
TRACHOMA, tra-ko’ma. A disease of the
conjunctiva. See CONJUNOTIVITIS, section on
Granular Conjunctivitis.
TRACHYTE, trfflkit or trak’it (from Gk.
rpayvrng, trachytes, roughness. from TpaXi’)g,
trachys, rough). An igneous rock of porphyritic

TRACHYTE.
TRACT SOCIETIES.
847
texture, often possessing also flow (rhyolitic) or
vesicular textures. It generally exhibits porphy-
ritic crystals of alkali feldspar, with which is
usually associated also biotite, hornblende, or
augite. The average composition of trachyte is:
Silicia, 64 per cent.; alumina, 18 per cent. ; oxide
of iron, 4 per cent.; magnesia, 1 per cent.; oxide
of lime, 2 per cent. ; oxide of sodium, 5 .per cent. ;
oxide of potassium, 6 per cent. In composition
trachyte differs but little from syenite.
TRACTARIANS. A popular nickname given,
in the early days of the Oxford Movement (q.v.) ,
to the party led by Newman, Pusey and Keble,
from the Tracts for the Times, written by these
and other members of the party.
TRACTION ENGINE. See AUTOMOBILE.
TRACTORS, MErALLIc. See PERKINS,
ELISHA.
TRACT SOCIETIES (Lat. tractus, treat-
ment, discussion, handling, drawing, from tra-
hcre, to draw, drag). The word tract signifies
a brief treatise. In the modern use of the term,
it is applied almost exclusively to treatises upon
religious subjects, and a tract is distinguished
from a book mainly by its external (pamphlet)
form and its brevity. The earliest illustration
of a tract is found in the separate books of the
Bible, each one of which, as originally circulated
in manuscript form from hand to hand, may be
considered a tract. Apart from this, however,
we may consider Wiclif, the great English re-
former, as the first to begin the W0l'K of writing
and distributing tracts, which, though laboriously
produced by hand, yet obtained a large circula-
tion. I/Vith the invention of printing, the possi-
bilities for the development of tract literature
were wonderfully enlarged, and the religious
movement which culminated in the Reformation
may be said to mark the commencement of the
general dissemination of Christian literature in
tract form.
The availability of tracts as a means for prop-
agating Christian knowledge led to the forma-
tion of societies for that express purpose. An
early pioneer among tract societies for English-
speaking peoples was the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, which was organized in
England in 1698 and incorporated in 1701 to cir-
culate Bibles and religious tracts both at home
and abroad. The publication of tracts, begun
by John Wesley in 1742, was soon carried for-
ward upon a large scale, and in 1782 he organized
the Society for the Distribution of Tracts Among
the Poor. The first interdenominational union of
Christian effort for the circulation of tract
literature was effected in 1750, in the City of
London, by the formation of the Society for
Promoting Religious Knowledge Among the Poor.
This was followed by the organization of simi-
lar societies in other cities, and though none
of these maintained a permanent existence, they
must be regarded as forerunners of the great
tract societies of modern times. In the closing
decade of the eighteenth century, at Bath, Eng-
land, Hannah More (q.v.) initiated a move-
ment for the better circulation of Christian liter-
ature by putting forth a series of short religious
tales in tract form, named the Cheap Repository.
In 1795 the Religious Tract Society of Scotland
(now known as the Religious Tract and Book
Society) was founded in Edinburgh, by Rev.
John Campbell. This was followed, in 1799, by
the organization of the Religious Tract Society of
London, which stands foremost in age and influ-
ence among tract societies of the present day.
In America the work of religious publication
was begun by the .11 ethodist Book Concern, which
issued its first publication in 1789. The Massa-
chusetts Society for Promoting Christian Knowl-
edge, founded in 1803, may be properly regarded
as the first interdenominational organization for
tract work in America. This was followed by
the formation of various local societies, among
which were the New York Religious Tract Soci-
ety, organized in 1812, ‘and the New England
Tract Society, organized at Andover in 1814. The
latter society, in 1823, changed its headquarters
to Boston, and its name to the American Tract
Society, and two years later became merged in
the American Tract Society which was organ-
ized in New York City by friends of tract work,
who desired to see a society of national scope
and influence. Since that time tract societies
have multiplied, but the American Tract Society
still remains the principal agency for tract dis-
tribution in America.
A board of managers, consisting of a presi-
dent, vice-president, and thirty-six members, are
elected annually by this society. This board
elects the publishing, distributing, and finance
committees. The members of these three com-
mittees constitute an executive committee to
conduct the business of the society. To promote
in the highest degree the objects of the society,
the Constitution specifies that the officers and
managers shall be elected from different de-
nominations of Christians; that the publishing
committee shall contain no two members from
the same ecclesiastical connection; and that no
tract shall be published to which any member
of that committee shall object.
Some idea of the magnitude of the work of
this society may be gained from the following
statistics. The whole number of distinct publi-
cations (not including periodicals) issued by the
society from the home office from 1825 to 1903
was 8,498, of which 2,138 have been volumes and
6,360 tracts, etc. These have been published in
a score of different languages. The total number
of volumes issued during the previous seventy-
eight years is 32,743,752; of tracts, 449,554,252;
and of periodicals, 264,278,668; making a
grand total of 746,576,672 copies of publications
printed. Six periodicals are published by the
society, viz. the American Messenger, Apples
of Cold, Light and Life, Deutscher Vollcsfreund,
Amcrikanischer Botschafter, and Manzanas de
Oro. The society has made appropriations
amounting to $747,213, by the aid of which
5080 publications have been issued at foreign
mission stations in 157 languages and dialects.
The constitution of the Religious Tract Society
of London is similar to that of the American
Tract Society. Its affairs are conducted by a
committee, composed of an equal proportion of
members of the Church of England and of Prot-
estant dissenters. During its one hundred and
four years the society has printed books and
tracts in 250 different languages. In all the
society has published over ten thousand books,
tracts, etc., and its total distribution amounts
to about 3,540.000,000 copies of its publications.
In New York and many other cities there are
city mission and tract societies, which find the
TRACT SOCIETIES.
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS.
848
printed page a valuable auxiliary in reaching the
‘submerged tenth.’ Many of the evangelical de-
nominations have their own boards of publica-
tion or publishing societies, which employ tract
literature, especially in aid of their Sunday-
school work. In Great Britain, in addition to
the Religious Tract Society, there are several
other tract societies, such as the Monthly Tract
Society and the Stirling Tract Enterprise. On
the Continent of Europe there are perhaps a
score of societies which are engaged more or less
in the publication and circulation of tract liter-
ature. Among the most important of these are
the Paris Tract Society (Société des Traites Re-
ligieuw), the Toulouse Religious Book and Tract
Society, the Geneva Evangelical Society, the
Italian Evangelical Publication Society of Flor-
ence, and the German Evangelical Book and Tract
Society. In India, China, Japan, and other
heathen lands there are a large number of
tract societies which aim to provide Christian
literature in the native languages. According to
the Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, by
James S. Dennis (New York, 1902), there are
a total of 159 missionary publishing houses and
printing presses in such lands. The annual
issues from these amount to 10,800,927 copies.
There are also 379 magazines and papers pub-
lished under missionary auspices, and these have
a combined circulation of 250,809 copies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature on the subject
of tract societies consists chiefly of the annual
reports, pamphlets, etc., published by the vari-
ous societies themselves. The Story of the Re-
ligious Tract Society for One H undred Years, by
Rev. S. G. Green, D.D. (London, 1899), was pre-
pared by an editorial secretary of the Religious
Tract Society of London, and is an authoritative
history of that society. The American Tract
Society-—An Historical Sketch (New York,
1900) , though but a brief pamphlet, presents the
salient points concerning the history of the
American Tract Society. The Report of the Ecu-
menical Oonference of Foreign Missions, New
York, 1900 (New York and London, 1900). gives
some interesting facts with reference to this sub-
ject.
TRACY, tra’se', ALEXANDRE DE PRONVILLE,
Marquis de (1603-70). A French soldier and
administrator. After serving in several wars,
he was appointed lieutenant-general of the
French possessions in North America on Novem-
ber l9, 1663, and reached Quebec June 30, 1665,
accompanied by many young nobles and 200
soldiers. In 1666 with 1,300 men he .led an ex-
pedition against the Mohawks, burned several of
their towns, and forced them to sue for peace.
This expedition greatly alarmed Governor Rich-
ard Nicolls (q.v.), of New York, who attempted
in vain to secure the aid of the New England
colonies for an expedition against the French.
Soon after this expedition Tracy returned to
France.
TRACY, ANTOINE Lours CLAUDE DESTUTT,
Count de. A French philosopher. See DESTUTT
DE T RACY.
TRA’CY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1830-).
An American lawyer and Cabinet oificer, born at
Owego, N. Y. He was educated at Owego
Academy, and was admitted to the bar in
1851. In 1853 he was elected on the Whig
ticket as district attorney of Tioga County,
and in 1856 was reiélected. In 1861 he was
elected to the State Assembly on the Union
ticket. In 1862 he recruited the 109th and
137th New York Volunteers and became colonel
of the former. Failing health compelled him
to relinquish his command, but within a year
he again entered the army as colonel of
the 127th United States regiment of negro
troops. Subsequently he commanded the prison
camp at Elmira, and at the close of hos-
tilities was brevetted brigadier-general of volun-
teers. From 1866 to 1873 he was United States
District Attorney for the Eastern District of New
York, and from 1881 to 1883 was associate judge
of the State Court of Appeals. In March, 1889,
he entered President Harrison’s Cabinet as Sec-
retary of the Navy. In 1893 he resumed his law
practice in New York, and in 1897 was the un-
successful Republican candidate for Mayor of
New York City, being defeated by R. A. Van
Wyck. In 1899 he was counsel for Venezuela
before the Anglo-Venezuelan Boundary Arbitra-
tion Commission.
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS. Associations of
men engaged in manufacture or trade, for
the furtherance or protection of their mutual
interests. In England these associations antedate
the nineteenth century. In the United States
some were founded before 1850; by 1890 they had
been formed in most well-established industries;
while during the last decade of the century they
had spread to almost every subdivision of the
industrial world. In general, the trade associa-
tion may include one or more of three classes of
functions, the commercial, the industrial, and the
protective. Associations to do the work of busi-
ness agencies display most clearly the commer-
cial function. The London Association of Guar-
dians for the Protection of Trade was established
as far back as 1776. The operation of the earlier
societies was confined chiefly to the compilations
of registers of bankruptcies, insolvencies, and
private settlements with creditors. Societies may
undertake investigations into the circumstances
connected with a bankruptcy, and perform the
general agency business of their members. More
recently added features are in connection with
credit. Although large commercial concerns fur-
nish general information, there is still room for
developing information bureaus within some
trades. Many establishments have special credit
men, who have formed a national association,
with branches in thirty-five chief cities of the
United States.
The general industrial functions of trade asso-
ciations include first, the surveillance of impor-
tant influences, such as legislation or railway
rates. which affect the entire trade. VVith many
associations the tariff question is a weighty and
permanent issue, while laws affecting labor, the
quality, the method of sale, or the inspection of
goods (as in brewing or boiler-making), are
constantly watched, advocated, or contested. In
the second place, associations may seek to
establish agreement in business methods to keep
their members informed of new inventions or
processes, of market conditions, and so on. A
natural result of this activity is the pub-
lication of a trade journal. of which the Bulletin
of the National Association of VVool Manufac-
turers (formed in 1864) is a well-known ex-
ample. Various special functions, also, are often
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS.
TRADEMARK.
849
assumed. Thus provision may be made for ex-
hibits at fairs, trade schools may be encouraged,
selling agencies established, bureaus of employ-
ment maintained, local improvements furthered,
or, as in the lumber business, a system of mutual
insurance may be attempted. A very important
function is the promotion of social intercourse
and general good will. It is not always easy to
draw a sharp line between the acts of a trade
association and those of a trade combination in
which the financial management has been central-
ized. At present the typical forms of protection
are: (1) against introduction of so-called unfair
methods within the trade; (2) against railroad
discrimination in rates; and (3) against labor
organizations. Jobbers’ and retailers’ associa-
tions protest against sales direct from manu-
facturer to consumer, and sometimes establish
a boycott against recalcitrant manufacturers.
The decreasing importance of the jobber in the
distributive system makes the efforts of their
associations of particular interest. ‘Exclusive
agreements’ may be made by a middlemen’s
association with certain manufacturers, in which
case no other but the latter’s goods will be used.
The object of certain associations, in their own
words, is “to help the manufacturer decide who
are legitimate dealers.”
In trades where freight forms an important
item of cost, a prime object of the association
is likely to be the adjustment of railroad rates.
The National Association of Stove Manufactur-
ers and the National Transportation Association,
an organization of shippers, are examples. In
1903 the Georgia Sawmill Association took the
radical move of disregarding the possibility of
an appeal to the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion and themselves asked for an injunction re-
straining certain Southern railroads from advanc-
ing rates on yellow pine. They asked that the
Southern Freight Association be declared an
illegal combination in restraint of trade. In-
creased demands of labor organizations, in recent
years, have greatly stimulated defensive action
by trade associations. In the building trades of
New York, the Employers’ Association was en-
gaged during 1903 in a bitter war with the
unions, while in Chicago employers and em-
ployees of the same group of industries ap-
parently passed the stage of fighting, and settled
trade matters by agreement between their respec-
tive associations, a procedure not always to the
advantage of the public.
TRADE, BOARD OF. A department of gov-
ernment in England designated “the lords of the
committee of his Majesty’s Privy Council ap-
pointed for the consideration of all matters re-
lating to trade and foreign plantations.” Crom-
well in 1655 was the first to establish a perma-
nent committee for matters of trade. Charles II.
continued the policy and in 1660 created two
separate councils for trade and for foreign plan-
tations, which in 1672 were consolidated into one.
In 1786 the present department was established
as a permanent committee of the Privy Council.
The Board as now constituted consists of a presi-
dent who is a member of the Cabinet, together
with the First Lord of the Treasury, the Chancel-
lor of the Exchequer, and numerous other ex-
oflicio members; but, like the Treasury Board,
the Board of Trade does not meet, and consists in
practice of the president and his staff. It com-
prises the following departments: (1) The com-
mercial, labor, and statistical department, whose
principal function is the collection and dissemi-
nation of information concerning matters of
trade. Since 1886 it has published the Board of
Trade Journal. (2) The railway department,
established in 1840, with numerous duties of
supervision and inspection. (3) The marine de-
partment, established in 1850, which has general
supervision over merchant shipping and the care
of seamen. (4) The harbor department, whose
province includes besides lighthouses, harbors,
etc., weights and measures, coinage, and other
miscellaneous matters. (5) The finance depart-
ment, which keeps the accounts for the Board
and audits for Parliament the reports of the life
insurance companies. (6) The fisheries depart-
ment.
TRADEMARK. A mark, name, emblem, or
device adopted by a tradesman or manufacturer
and attached to or stamped upon his goods in
some manner for the purposes of identification
by the public, and protection against the sale
of fraudulent imitations. The law of trademarks
is of modern development. In 1742 Lord Hard-
wick declared that he could not protect a trade-
mark adopted by a trader from being used by
another. It was not until 1803 that the English
courts attempted to prevent the fraudulent use
of an adopted trademark. Since that time the
law on the subject has developed rapidly. The
statute now in force in England is known as the
‘Merchandise Marks Act.’ It provides for regis-
tration, and makes the registry conclusive evi-
dence of title after five years’ use of the regis-
tered trademark.
The first trademark statute in the United
States was passed in 1870. Under the decisions
of the United States courts, the office of a
trademark is to indicate the origin or owner-
ship of an article on which it is found. There-
fore, it follows that a valid trademark must
fulfill one of the above essentials either fro1n its
own nature or by reason of association with the
article itself and the maker’s name. A name
which is merely descriptive of the qualities or
nature of an article, cannot constitute a valid
trademark, as its use as such might tend to
create a perpetual monopoly in the sale of the
article described. For example, the United
States courts held that the words ‘acid phos-
phate’ could not be protected as a trademark,
as they were considered to be descriptive of the
essential characteristics of the preparation sold
under that name, and as it was a known form
of chemical combination, it would prevent others
from describing accurately a similar combina-
tion.
In general, a geographical name cannot be used
as an exclusive trademark. However, a person
not doing business in a locality known for a
certain product will not be permitted to use
the name of that locality as a trademark on
similar products handled by him, but not coming
from that locality where the name is already in
use by a tradesman in the well-known district.
A person’s own name will not be protected as
a trademark as against a person of the same
name, who, acting in good faith, desires to use
his name on his own goods. A trade name is,
therefore. to be distinguished from a trademark,
and can only be protected by a court of equity
TRADE-MARK.
TRADE UNIONS.
850
where some one attempts to deceive the public
and take another person’s trade by adopting
his trade name. A close imitation of a trade-
mark may amount to an infringement, especially
if there are other circumstances tending to show
that there is an intention to deceive the public
and take advantage of the business reputation of
another. -
Any one who handles goods may impress his
trademark upon them, and be protected in its
use, if he has exercised any peculiar skill or
judgment in their selection, care, or alteration.
The right to an exclusive trademark may be lost
by abandonment, but the evidence of the inten-
tion to discontinue using it must be very clear.
A trademark is not generally considered to be
property in the sense that it can be taken
under an execution, but it may be transferred
from one person to another, unless it is of such
a nature that to allow it to be used on the goods
of a person other than the one who originally
adopted and used it would tend to deceive the
public. The sale of a business, good will, etc.,
usually includes the trademarks under which
goods were sold by the owners. For the law in
the United States, see Browne, Law of Trade-
marks (Boston, 1885) ; for the English law, Se-
bastian, Law of Trademarks. (London, 1890);
Barclay, Law of France Relating to Trademarks
( 2d ed., London, 1899). See also CDPYRIGIIT;
PATENTS. ‘
TRADE-NAME. A name under which .a
person or corporation does business and which
by user becomes so associated with the good will
of the business as to be valuable. A trade-name
is to be distinguished from a trade-mark which
is affixed to or impressed on merchandise, and
when registered is protected by statute. The
wrongful user of an established trade-name will
be restrained by a court of equity on the ground
that it constitutes fraud and deceit against the
public and an unlawful appropriation of some-
thing which is so closely allied to the business of
another as to be a species of property right. A
trade-name may sometimes be registered as a
trademark, and this fact is the source of the con-
fusion resulting from the use of these terms as
being interchangeable. The statutes of most
States prohibit one corporation from adopting
the same name as another and the Secretary of
State should be consulted before a name is
adopted for a new corporation. Consult Browne,
on Trademarks (2d ed. 1898) ; also article TRADE-
MARKS.
TRAD’ESCANT, JOHN (c.1570-c.1637). A
traveler, naturalist, and gardener, said to have
been born in Holland. He is thought to have
made a voyage to Northern Russia in 1618, and
in 1620 served against the Algerine pirates.
Afterwards he was in the service of the Duke
of Buckingham, and after the Duke’s assassina-
tion seems to have become royal gardener. About
this time he established a physio garden and
museum at South Lambeth, and was the first
Englishman “who made any considerable collec-
tion of the subjects of natural history.” His
son JOHN (1608-62), born at Meapham, Kent,
added largely to his father’s collection, and in
1637 visited Virginia, where he gathered “all vari-
eties of flowers, plants, shells, etc.” In 1656 he
published his Museum Tradescantianum: or a
Collection of Rarities, Preserved at South Lam-
beth, Near London. Upon his death in 1662 the
museum went by the terms of his will to Elias
Ashmole, and in 1682 became the nucleus of the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
TRADE SCHOOLS.
CATION.
TRADES UNION CONGRESS. A .British
federation -of trade unions, organized in 1868,
See TECHNICAL EDU-
-which has met annually since that date except
in 1871. At the time of its formation the Brit-
ish unions were-engaged in an earnest struggle
for favorable legislation, and the congress played
an important part in securing the legislative
victories of 1871-75. (See TRADE UNIONS.) Since
that time it has confined itself largely to the
tasks of creating a favorable public opinion,
voicing the demands of organized labor, provid-
ing a place for common meeting, and securing
favorable labor legislation. The last function
is exercised largely through a permanent Parlia-
mentary committee, the expenses of which are
paid by a per capita tax upon the afliliated
unions of £1 10s. per 1000 members. The Par-
liamentary secretary devotes all his time to the
work and receives a salary of £250 per annum.
The congress itself is thus a deliberative body
merely, but in recent years it has started two
auxiliary federations—the Labor Representation
Committee (q.v.) and the General Federation of
Trade Unions. (See TRADE UNIONS, THE GENERAL
FEDERATION OF.) At the thirty-fifth congress,
held in London in 1902, 198 societies, with 1,-
400,000 members, were represented. The total
income for the year was £2,010. '
TRADE UNIONS. “The term ‘national
trade union,’ ” says the Federal statute provid-
ing for the incorporation of trade unions, “in
the meaning of this act shall signify any asso-
ciation of working people having two or more
branches in the States or Territories of the
United States for the purpose of aiding its mem-
bers to become more skillful and efficient work-
ers, the promotion of their general intelligence,
the elevation of their character, the regulation
of their wages and their hours and conditions
of labor, the protection of their individual rights
in the prosecution of their trade or trades, the
raising of funds for the benefit of the sick, dis-
abled, or unemployed members, or the families of
deceased members, or for such other object or
objects for which working people may lawfully
combine, having in view their mutual protec-
tion or benefit.” No definition less complete
than the above is sufficient fully to indicate the
complex character of the trade union, since the
trade union has always been an insurance asso-
ciation and a social and educational club, as
well as “a continuous association of wage-
earners for the purpose of maintaining or im-
proving the conditions of their employment,” as
Beatrice and Sidney VVebb define it.
HISTORY. The connection between the modern
trade union and the journeymen clubs of the
Middle Ages is a matter of dispute. Through-
out the later Middle Ages, and with compara-
tive frequency after the fourteenth century,
traces are encountered of journeymen clubs—the
German Schenken, the French confréries de
compagnons—which maintained a more or less
continuous existence, regulated apprenticeship,
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
851
paid friendly benefits, and engaged in protracted
conflicts with employers, characterized by the
essential element of the modern strike. Admit-
ting, as Professor Ashley suggests, that the
journeymen of these fraternities “were almost all
unmarried, that when employed they lived in
the master’s house, that the masters themselves
had usually been journeymen, that the number
of masters and journeymen was very much the
same,” there nevertheless seems to the writer
no tenable reason for denying to these associa-
tions all the essential attributes of the modern
trade union. It is evident, however, that effective
and solid trade unionism is intimately dependent
upon the existence of a body of workers who
will in the natural order of things remain wage-
earners throughout their lives. In other words,
the trade union follows in general the permanent
separation of the employing and wage-earning
classes. This separation, speaking generally, was
a product of the industrial revolution and the
factory system. Trade unions consequently did
not become numerous until the later half of the
eighteenth century. -
In England the history of trade unionism in
the eighteenth century is marked by increasing
hostility on the part of Parliament toward com-
binations of laborers. Laws regulating wages,
apprenticeship, movement of laborers from
parish to parish etc., existed, and the open
activity of the trade unions during that cen-
tury seems to have been largely directed toward
the enforcement of those laws, which the em-
ployers themselves at time found it convenient
to break. Laws against combinations of work-
ingmen in specific trades began to multiply as
the doctrine of laissez faire secured wider ac-
ceptance. These laws culminated in the Com-
bination Acts of 1799 and 1800, by which every
form of combination, whether of employer or em-
ployees, was rigidly prohibited. In effect, the
acts were enforced against the laborers only.
For twenty-five years the unions were driven
into hiding, but they were by no -means extirpat-
ed. In 1824 the whole group of combination
laws was repealed, but in the following year a
reaction set in, and in another statute the law
against combination was revived, leaving labor-
ers free to combine, however, for the purpose of
fixing the wages or hours of labor of parties to
the combination.
The act of 1825 was followed by the rise of
labor organizations or general trade unions of a
socialistic nature described in the article on
LARoR ORGANIZATIONS. During these years, how-
ever, the trade union proper was making steady
progress within the separate trades, in which
identity of interests made unity of organization
and policy a comparatively easy task. Toward
the middle of the century a reaction against the
strike set in, and widespread reforms in the
management of the friendly benefit system were
inaugurated. The union which applied the new
ideas most successfully was the Journeymen
Steam Engine and Machine Makers’ and Mill-
wrights’ Friendly Society, which in 1850 ab-
sorbed several other large unions of mechanics
and became the Amalgamated Society of En-
gineers, whose careful and elaborate set of rules
for the financial and general administration of
the union served, according to Mr. and Mrs.
Webb, as the “model for all national societies”
founded between 1852 and 1889. The reaction
from the socialistic trade unionism of the ’30’s
brought to the front a remarkable group of labor
leaders, acute, tactful, industrious, and conserva-
tive, who between 1860 and 1875 united in a
persistent and energetic campaign for legislative
reform. The first victory came in the Master
and Servant Act of 1867, which corrected the most
glaring defects of the old law on this subject.
The union leaders, however, aimed at more sweep-
ing concessions. By the celebrated Trade Union
Act of 1871 it was provided that no trade union
should be deemed illegal simply because it was
in restraint of trade, and unions were given a
legal standing carrying with it protection of
their funds, without exposing them to the ordi-
nary obligations of an incorporated company.
Finally in 1875 the unions secured the passage
of a very liberal Employers’ and Workmen’s Act
(replacing the Master and Servant. Act of 1867),
and a revolutionary Conspiracy and Protection
of Property Act, which expressly permitted peace-
able picketing, and provided that no combination
to do any act in furtherance of a trade dispute
between employers and workmen should be in-
dictable as a conspiracy unless such act if com-
mitted by one person would be punishable as a
crime.
In 1860 a giant stride toward collective bar-
gaining was taken by the formation in the hosiery
trade of the first joint conference between em-
ployers and employees for the peaceable settle-
ment of trade disputes. The federation of trade
unions began; trade councils became common in
the cities and in 1868 the first national Trades
Union Congress was held at Manchester. Finally
the successful legislation of 1871, like that of
1824, was followed by a tremendous expansion
of trade unionism and the reappearance of many
of the phenomena which had marked the epoch
of labor organizations in the ’30’s, with their
ideal of an aggressive, militant organization, free
from the incumbrance of friendly benefits, em-
bracing working women and unskilled labor, par-
ticipating actively in politics, and with ten-
dencies toward socialism.
The most noteworthy event of late years is
the formation in 1899 and 1900 respectively of
the General Federation of Trade Unions (see
TRADE UNIoNs, THE GENERAL FEDERATION or)
and the Labor Representation Committee (q.v.).
Between 1892 and 1901 inclusive the aggregate
membership of British trade unions grew from
1,503,298 to 1,922,780, constituting, according
to the latest official estimates, about 20 per cent.
of the working classes from which trade unions
recruit their membership, or 25 per cent. if we
exclude the agricultural classes.
In the United States there is no positive record
of a trade union before 1803, the year in which
the New York Society of Journeymen Ship-
wrights was incorporated. In 1806 a union of
the House Carpenters of the City of New York
was organized, and the first union of the Jour-
neymen Tailors is said to have been organized in
the same year. As early as 1817 the New York
Typographical Society had been in active ex-
istence for some time. and in 1822 the Charitable
Society of Shipwrights and Calkers of Boston
and Charlestown was formed.
The most important events of the period from
1825 to 1850 are briefly described in the article
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
852
on LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. For a time trade
unionism seems to have become involved in the
cause of general reform; wide-reaching and am-
bitious federations were formed which worked at
the same time for the abolition of slavery, for
woman’s rights, land nationalization, and co6per-
ation, as well as the improvement of the con-
ditions of employment. During this period trade
unionism proper was undoubtedly making prog-
ress in the separate trades, and by 1840 in the
principal industrial centres local unions had
been organized among the masons, marble-cut;
ters, shoemakers, saddlers, batters, tailors, print-
ers, bricklayers, roofers, painters, carpenters, and
shipworkers.
The fifteen years between 1850 and 1865 may
well be described as the period of nationalization.
Labor leaders had learned that for a time at
least the labor movement must go forward cau-
tiously, that participation in politics and broad
attempts to reform things in general were
dangerous, that labor organizations must be ex-
tended, if at all, within trade lines, and not by
all-embracing amalgamations. In 1850 the union
now known as the International Typographical
Union was organized. (See TYPOGRAPHICAL
UNION OF NORTH AMERICA, THE INTERNATIONAL.)
This was probably the first American national
union, though there is some reason to believe
that the Silk and Fur Hat Finishers’ National
Association was organized as early as 1843. The
National Association of Hat Finishers of the
United States of America was founded in 1854,
the National Protective Association (the Loco-
motive Engineers) in 1855, the Sons of Vulcan
and the National Spinners’ Association in 1858.
Since the Civil War local and national unions
have been organized on every hand, their gov-
ernment has been perfected, and their adminis-
tration improved. A large number of vigorous
labor journals have appeared; labor parties have
been formed and in places have succeeded in
electing labor candidates; permanent boards of
collective bargaining or arbitration and con-
ciliation have been formed in many trades; boy-
cotting through the union label and labor press
has been systematized and developed; favorable
legislation has been secured in every State; and,
more important than any other result, perhaps,
public opinion has been brought to concede the
utility and even the necessity of the trade union.
The most striking phenomenon of the epoch has
been the formation of large federations of unions.
Among these larger organizations may be named
the National Labor Union (1866), the Knights
of Labor (1869), the International Association
of Workingmen (1864), the Industrial Brother-
hood (1873), the American Federation of Labor
(1881), the National Building Trades Council
(1897), and the American Labor Union (1898).
By far the most important of these is the Ameri-
can Federation of Labor. (See LABOR, AMERI-
OAN FEDERATION OF.) The growth and striking
success of this organization supply a potent les-
son in the requirements and conditions of suc-
cessful labor organization. Avoiding direct
participation in politics, and sedulously refrain-
ing from compulsory interference in the immedi-
ate affairs of its constituent unions, it confines
itself to the prosecution of those aims which all
labor organizations have in common, namely, the
organization of new unions, the passage of legis-
lation favorable to the working classes, the wider
use of the union label, and the support of the
labor press.
STATISTICS OF TRADE UNIoNs IN THE UNITED
STATES. These are collected by the Labor
Bureaus of a few States, but no complete enu-
meration for the whole country has ever been
made. Estimates of the aggregate membership
of American unions vary widely. In January,
1903, President Gompers of the American Fed-
eration of Labor estimated that about two and
one-half millions of the seventeen million wage-
earners in the United States were organized.
The estimate is probably too high. The report of
the Industrial Commission gives the estimated
membership of labor organizations in the United
States on July 1, 1901, at 1,400,000. This is
probably the most reliable estimate ever made.
The increase during 1902 was very great. The
unions affiliated with the American Federation
alone reported an increase of 283,827 members
during the eleven months, November 1, 1901-
September 30, 1902. Assuming that the estimate
furnished by the Industrial Commission is cor-
rect, the aggregate membership of labor organi-
zations in the United States, at the close of
1902, was about 1,650,000. The average member-
ship of the American Federation of Labor alone,
during the year ending September 30, 1903, was
1,465,800. .
A more satisfactory idea of the growth of trade
unions may be gained from the following table,
in which the total membership of unions in Great
Britain and New York is given, and an estimate
of the members represented in the annual con-
vention of the American Federation of Labor.
NUMBER AND Msmasnsmr or LABOR ORGANIZATIONS






Represented in con-
New York State ventions of American Great Britain
Federation of Labor
YEAR
Organiza- Member- Organiza- Member- Organiza- Mem ber-
tions ship tions ship tions ship
1890... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83 199,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1891 ..................................................................................... .. 52 199,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1392 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68 228,400 1,192 1,503,298
1893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72 245,900 1,240 1,480,291
1894 ............................... .. 860 157,197 56 176,300 1,279 1,437,025
1895 ............................................................... .. 927 180,231 75 207,100 1,299 1,408,486
1896 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 962 170,296- 92 273,500 1,314 1,495,476
1897 ..................... .. 1,009 168,454 75 265,800 1,306 1,613,753
1898 ............................................................... .. 1,087 171,067 110 279,000 1,277 1,649,461
1899 ............................................................... .. 1,320 209,020 158 350,400 1,270 1,803,897
1900 ...................... .. 1,635 245,381 181 550,300 1,252 1 910,614
1901.. 1,881 276,141 221 ' 789,500 1,236 1,922,780
1902 ............................................................... .. 2,229 329,098 226 1,025,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
853
The latter estimate is secured by allowing 100
members for each delegate to the convention. The
figures for 1890-95 inclusive are taken from the
report of the Industrial Commission and are
based upon the actual number of delegates at the
conventions. The figures for 1896-1902 are based
upon the estimate made by the secretary of the
American Federation of the number of delegates
entitled to sit in the conventions, published in
the Proceedings of the 22d Annual Convention of
the Federation. To avoid duplication, the mem-
bers of city centrals and State branches have
been excluded. The real membership of the
unions affiliated with the Federation is un-
doubtedly much greater than the paid-up mem-
bership indicated in the table, owing to the com-
mon custom of paying the per capita tax, on
which the representation is based, upon a part
only of the actual membership.
TRADE UNIONS AND THE LAW. The develop-
ment of the law in the United States has been
different from that in England. A few early
cases are recorded in which trade unions were
declared illegal, but as early as 1821 in Penn-
sylvania and 1842 in Massachusetts a view
diametrically opposite to the English law was
taken, and since has been consistently main-
tained by American courts, except in so far
as it has been modified in very recent years
by the anti-trust acts. Workmen may com-
bine to improve the conditions of their em-
ployment and agree not to work for less than a
certain amount, or to refuse to work for employ-
ers paying less than this amount, without active
interference from the legal authorities; and in
several important cases the courts have gone to
the point of recognizing the legality of the by-
laws of unions and even of enforcing them
(Master Stevedores’ Association v. Walsh, 2
Daly, 1; People 1). Musical Mutual Protective
Union, 118 N. Y. 101). Our legislatures have
gone even further than the courts in recognizing
the legality of the purposes of trade unions.
The Federal Government and many of the largest
States have enacted statutes providing for the in-
corporation of trade unions under exceptionally
favorable conditions. But only an unappreciable
percentage of unions have taken advantage of the
incorporation laws, and labor leaders are practi-
cally unanimous in opposing it, on the ground that
it would subject the unions to an indefinite num-
ber of vexatious and costly suits at law. The
State legislatures have also conferred several spe-
cial privileges upon labor organizations. Massa-
chusetts and Kansas, for instance, have exempted
labor organizations from the operation of the
statutes regulating fraternal beneficiary asso-
ciations; and about fifteen of our largest States
have passed statutes prohibiting employers from
discharging workmen for joining labor organi-
zations, and even from making it a condition
of employment that they should not belong to
such organizations. Finally, at least two States
and many local legislative bodies have enacted
laws providing, directly or indirectly, that cer-
tain public work-—usually printing—shall be per-
formed only by union labor. Within recent years
the legal status of trade unions has been seri-
ously affected, at least in theory, by the so-called
anti-trust acts passed by Congress and many
State legislatures, making contracts or combi-
nations in restraint of trade or commerce illegal.
The Federal statute, which is concerned, of course,
only with inter-State trade and commerce, has
been held to apply to a labor organization of
draymen and longshoremen (U. S. 12. Working-
men’s Amalgamated Council, 54 F. R., 994) ;
and the same interpretation will probably be
given to the State statutes save where they
are specifically labor organizations. Little or no
attempt has been made to dissolve unions or
punish their officers under anti-trust statutes,
but where these laws apply the legality of the
most reputable unions is seriously threatened.
TRADE UNIoNs IN OTHER COUNTRIES. While
probably the germs of labor organizations in al-
most every country of Continental Europe may be
found in earlier and even in mediaeval organiza-
tions and movements, they owe their present
strength, spirit, and methods chiefly to the
socialistic propaganda; most of them have re-
mained in close connection with the Social
Democratic parties, and many of them-—partic-
ularly in France, Belgium, Italy, and the Scan-
dinavian countries——are as much political clubs
as trade unions. (See SOCIALISM.) There are,
however, a number of strict trade unions on the
Continent—particu1arly among the printers—and
this number is continually increasing. As the
Continental labor union grows older and more
powerful, it manifests a stronger disinclination
to be treated as a mere appendage of a political
party. The Continental union was late in de-
veloping. The year 1864, which marks the forma-
tion of the International 1/Vorkingmen’s Associa-
tion (see INTERNATIONALE), furnishes a substan-‘
tially accurate date for the beginning of the
trade union movement on the Continent.
The political character of Continental unionism
has decreased its efficiency by dividing the forces
of labor into several semi-hostile groups. In
Germany, for instance, we find the labor organi-
zations divided into three distinct classes: A
group of ‘peace’ unions, known as the Hirsch-
Dunckersche Gewerkvereine, with 88,279 mem-
bers (in 1898), assert the essential harmony of
interests between employers and employees and
depend upon arbitration and friendly benefits
rather than strikes for the improvement of the
conditions of employment. Clearly distinguished
from the former by their aggressive methods in
general are the socialistic Gewerkschaften, which
in turn are divided into two groups over the
question of direct participation in politics: the
unions federated under the Central Commission
(with 493,742 members) advocating a separation
of the labor and the socialistic movements, and
the local organizations (with 17,500 members
a proximately) opposed to this separation. The
hristian Unions, with 161,517 members, con-
stitute a third class distinct from and opposed to
the preceding groups by their anti-socialistic
principles. In Belgium the labor organizations
are practically dominated by the political
parties. In France the factional quarrels of
the socialists have been carried into the labor
organizations, with the consequence that in al-
most every city the trades are grouped into
several hostile unions whose antagonism makes
unity of action almost impossible. In Australia,
on the other hand, where according to some au-
thorities as many as 75 per cent. of the male
workingmen belong to trade unions, and where
the unions have secured a large proportion of
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
854
their victories by political action, socialism has
made little headway.
With the view of giving some idea of the be-
ginning and extent of labor organization in the
various Continental countries, the following tab-
ular statement has been prepared. It is almost
impossible to distinguish the labor organizations
from the political clubs and fraternal associa-
tions in many countries, so that the figures must
be interpreted as rough estimates of the extent
of labor organization in the several countries
rather than exact statistical measurements.
industrial union is merely a centralized union,
in which are united all the workers of any one
industry, irrespective of trade or occupation. The
United Mine Workers, for instance, aim to coa-
lesce in the same local union all wage-earners
“working in and about the mines except mine
manager and top boss.” There are also industrial
unions which do not aim to unite all classes of
workmen in the same locals, but which attempt
to unite local unions of the different trades in a
single national body. The latter are to be re-
garded as federations of trade unions, rather




_ . Approximate mem-
Begilléltlnng bership of labor
couxrnr Igodefn organizations Remarks
m°"ement Date Number
Netherlands 1811 1894 52,818 Freedom of combination was granted in 1811; the move-
ment was, however, weak until very recently.
Belgium ........................ .. 1840 1900 100,000 Constituting from 10% to 11% of the laboring popula-
tion from which unionists are drawn.
Switzerland .................. .. 1858 1900 50,000 This estimate is a very loose one.
France 1874 1900 588,832 _In addition there were 533,454 persons in agricultural
associations and 29,044 members of mixed associations
of employers and employees.
Germany ...................... .. 1865 1899 864,350 In addition, about 620,000 members of organizations
exercising some of the functions of a trade union. In
1901 the membership of the socialistic trade unions
alone was 688,870.
Austria ......................... .. 1867 1901 150,000 119%t30fli;1 the general federation of socialistic “ Gewerk-
so a 11."
Denmark..... ..... ......... .. 1871 1900 96,295 It is reliably estimated that 76 per cent. of the male
and 21 per cent. of the female industrial population
over 18 years of age belong to trade unions.
Norway ........................ .. 1871 1899 24,000 This estimate is a very loose one.
Sweden ......................... .. 1883 1898 50,000 This estimate is a very loose one.


CLASSIFICATION or TRADE Unrons. As was
pointed out in the article on LABOR ORGANIZA-
TIONS, the trade union is simply one branch of the
great family of labor organizations. The follow-
ing classification brings out clearly the great di-
versity of structure which exists both among
organizations of laborers and among trade unions
themselves:
I Not on the trade
principle _
l Continuous - 1
On the trade 4
principle

Lxnon L
ORGANIZATION!

‘ Temporary { Strike.
Boycott.
Non-feders»
tive
, Federative
than labor organizations. The ‘central’ or ‘central
union’ is merely another name for the municipal
federation of trade unions.
GOVERNMENT. The government of local unions
is distinguished by its thoroughgoing democracy.
The tenure of office is usually six months and
there is a widespread feeling in favor of rotation
in office. The most important local officers are
Political, ' e.g. Independent Labor Party.
Fraternal,’ e.g. Ancient Order of United Workmen.
Mixed assemblies, e.g. Knights of Labor.
Industrial unions, e.g. United Mine Workers.
General amalgamations, e.g. Knights of Labor.
( Sub-locals, e.g. Printers’ chapels.
Local unions. e.g. “ Big Six " of New York.
District councils, e.g. of Carpenters and
1 Joiners.
National unions, e g. Iron Molders’ Union.
International unions, e.g. Cigar Makers’ Inter-
national Union of America.
( Central unions, e.g. Chicago Federation of
Labor.
State federations, e.g. Massachusetts Feder-
ation of Labor.
l Industrial federations, e.g. National Building
Trades Council.
General federations, e.g. American Federa-
tion of Labor.

‘These are riot strictly labor organizations, but are included here because their membership is drawn almost
exclusively from the ranks of labor.
The preceding classification emphasizes the
difference between amalgamated labor unions and
trade unions or federations in which the in-
dividuality of each trade is preserved. The
‘mixed assembly’ is simply the governmental
unit of the amalgamated union. It was a per-
manent feature of the Knights of Labor, but it is
also used by the Federation of Labor, and is
known as the ‘federal union.’ It supplies a
union for workmen in unorganized trades, or in
places where there are not enough workers in one
organized trade to start a local union. The
the business agent or walking delegate and the
chairman of the grievance committee. Only a
small proportion of the locals have such officers,
but where they do there is a strong tendency to
reelect men who have proved themselves the
possessors of the unusual abilities which these
positions require. The government of the na-
tional union usually comprehends a periodical
convention, a permanent executive board, a corps
of organizers, a president, several vice-presidents,
and a secretary-treasurer. As the referendum is
apparently becoming more- and more popular in
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
855
America, the general membership must be count-
ed in many unions as the ultimate source of
legislative power, and, indeed, of the judicial and
executive power, as well as in the numerous cases
in which the general membership decides ap-
peals, votes strikes and special assessments, etc.
In unions which do not employ the referendum
system, the supreme executive and judicial pow-
ers are vested in the periodical conventions and
in the executive boards between conventions, but
as these boards are usually composed of unsal-
aried workmen living in different cities and con-
ducting their deliberations by mail, it frequently
——perhaps usually—happens that their powers
are virtually exercised by the president, who
and the vice-president and secretary-treasurer
almost invariably have seats in the executive
board.
PROBLEMS or ORGANIZATION. The great diffi-
culties of labor organizations show themselves
in bitter disputes between unions. In the first
place, there are disputes between dual unions.
This is a simple trade war between rival unions
which openly claim control of the same trade
and the same field. Secondly, jurisdiction dis-
putes are likely to arise. These disputes may be
divided into several classes according to the
cause and nature of the conflict. (a) Terri-
torial disputes. A typical instance is noted in
the 24th Annual Report of the Bureau of Sta-
tistics of New Jersey. Here the work on a large
building was seriously interrupted for months
by a quarrel between the New York and Newark
local unions of the International Brotherhood of
Electrical Workers, the New York union claim-
ing exclusive right to all work in Newark in
accordance with an agreement made with the
international union. The dispute was finally
settled by an agreement, in accordance with
which the Newark union was given “one-half the
jobs which a New York contractor may have to
dispose of on a building in Newark, the Newark-
ers to have the New York rate of wages.” (b)
Demarcation disputes are those arising from
conflicting claims to certain work lying midway
between two distinct trades. The shipbuilding
industries on the Tyne, for instance, were tied
up for eighteen months or more at one time by
demarcation disputes which hinged largely about
_the “limit of the size of the iron pipes to be
fitted by the engineers and the plumbers respect-
ively, and whether the joiners should or should
not be confined to woodwork of one and one-
half inches thickness.” (c) The third class of
disputes‘ consists of those arising between a more
extensive and a less extensive union, concerning
the autonomy of the latter. Thus the increased
division of labor in the printing trade made of
the pressmen a separate class, and new inven-
tions produced the stereotyper and electrotyper.
It was inevitable that these classes should de-
sire their trade independence, and that the origi-
nal union should strenuously oppose all seces-
sions likely to decrease its power and prestige.
And in fact there has been a long series of con-
flicts between the old Typographical Union and
bodies of discontented pressmen. bookbinders,
stereotypers and electrotypers. ((1) Industrial
organization versus trade autonomy. A similar
but far more important source of jurisdiction
disputes is the rapidly growing practice of_ adapt-
ing labor organization to industrial organization,‘
and uniting in one union all the trades repre-
sented in a single industry. Industrial organi-
zation inevitably brings the union adopting it
into conflict with the unions of the separate
trades represented in the industry. Thus the
United Mine Workers have had serious conflicts
with the stationary firemen and the black-
smiths, and the brewery workers have been in
constant strife with the painters and coopers,
the team drivers,-etc. This conflict takes its
importance from the fact that both methods of
organization are characterized by marked advan-
tages as well as defects. In the strike and in
all phases of collective bargaining, industrial or-
ganization is obviously superior, both for the
employer and for the employees. On the other
hand, the regulation of the strike and the settle-
workers to a larger number of less skilled crafts-
men is frequently a source of weakness and
always a source of dissatisfaction.
THE ULTIMATE Fonm OF QRGANIZATION. One
of the most persistently advocated remedies for
jurisdiction disputes has been that of amalga-
mation, the form of organization in which all
the trades are coalesced in a strong central union.
Amalgamation has never proved practicable.
United action is plainly necessary, but it must
be secured by federation and not by consolida-
tion. Another remedy for the jurisdiction dis-
pute, tried with only partial success, is the
‘jurisdiction statement.’ The constitution of the
National Building Trades Council, for example,
provides that “all organizations affiliated with any
local Building Trades Council shall plainly and
satisfactorily define the class of work they claim,
and no trade will be permitted to do the work
pertaining to another.” Up to the present time,
however, the jurisdiction statement has been of
but little use in preventing conflicts between
unions. The indications are strong that the
ultimate structure of union organization will be
exceedingly complex; that the unit of government
will be the simple trade union of the old type,
but that these unions will be combined in a very
large number of cross-cutting federations, each
distinct and independent, but all of them formed,
as it were, of the same material. The simple
trade union will probably retain jurisdiction over
such questions as industrial education, appren-
ticeship, and friendly benefits. On the other
hand, the regulation of the strike and the settle-
ment of demarcation disputes will in all proba-
bility come within the province of industrial
federations, which are even now multiplying
rapidly. The industrial federations have come to
stay. Yet there will undoubtedly be additional
federations. The broad, general federation repre-
sented at present by the American Federation of
Labor will surely persist, devoting itself particu-
larly, as the Federation does, to education of the
working classes, the rapid extension of labor
organization, the promotion of favorable legis-
lation, the defeat of unfavorable legislation, the
wider use of the boycott, and the maintenance
of a labor press. It is probable that the time is
almost ripe for political action by labor organi-
zations. But past experience teaches unequivo-
cally that almost without exception the entrance
of trade unions as such into politics has proved
disastrous. Such being the case. it is probable
that the trade union will enter politics by means
of a distinct political federation. A striking
example of this is the Labor Representation
Committee (q.v.) of Great Britain.
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
856
METHODS AND POLICIES OF TRADE UNIONISM.
TRADE UNIONISM AND MONOPOLY. Probably no
social institution in existence represents the move-
ment away from the old economic policy of laissee-
faire more concretely and forcibly than the trade
union. Almost every method or policy adopted
by the trade unions is in essence a regulation of
competition. The essential function of the trade
union is collective bargaining; and the first con-
dition of successful collective bargaining on the
part of the trade union is that it shall secure
substantial control of -the efficient supply of
labor. In securing and maintaining such control
two policies are adopted: a policy of inclusion
and a policy of exclusion. To obtain control of
a particular trade in a particular jurisdiction,
the utmost effort will be made to bring into the
union every effective competitor for the work to‘
be done in that jurisdiction. Once having con-
trol, there is the strongest temptation, if not a
real necessity, for limiting the supply of crafts-
men by regulation of apprenticeship and other
means. The great majority of trade unions
prosecute the work of organization vigorously
and incessantly. In the beginning trade unionism
was sporadic and instinctive, and the national
union was the product of the amalgamation of
two or more self-organized locals. At present
_ organization is deliberate, systematic, and pro-
ceeds from the top down; the local is the child
rather than the parent of the national. Even the
exclusive unions like the VVindow Glass VVorkers
enter heartily into the work of organizing ‘the
great mass of unskilled workers, because with
the increasing use of machinery this body con-
stitutes a constant menace to all trades. The
organization of wage-earners is the special
work of the Federation of Labor. In 1902,
for instance, the Federation employed fifteen
salaried organizers, who gave their whole time
to this work; 39 others who devoted from one
to six months of their time to organization;
and nearly 1,000 volunteer organizers who were
paid for each new union organized by them. The
expenditure for organization alone was over
$36,000; and new charters were issued to 14
national and international unions, 6 State
branches, 127 central unions, and 877 local trade
and federal labor unions.
RESTRICTION or MEMBERSHIP. In almost every
American union the applicant for admission must
be accepted by the local which he desires to enter,
and in voting upon applicants a minority of the
members—in some important unions as few as
three blackballsj-—are usually sufficient to ex-
clude the candidate. At present, however, in the
majority of American unions, the terms of ad-
mission are purely nominal.
ENTRANCE TO A TRADE. Trade union regula-
tions concerning the entrance to a trade fall under
four heads: apprenticeship, limitation of boy
labor, progression within the trade, and the ex-
clusion of women. The limitation of boy labor
will be treated with the limitation of apprentice-
ship, while the regulation of promotion within a
trade is not a question of great practical impor-
tance in American unions, except perhaps in the
union of the Post Oflice Clerks, where for obvious
reasons the regulation of promotion becomes the
main object. The exclusion of women is no
longer attempted by American or English unions,
the only case to the contrary in the United States
known to the writer being that of the Upholster-‘
ers’ International Union of North America.
Nevertheless, only a small proportion of the
female bread-winners are organized. In Great
Britain, for instance, in 1901, the women and
girls constituted only 6.2 per cent. of the mem-
bers of trade unions and were found in only 144
out of the 1,250 unions, though the census of
occupations showed that the female bread-win-
ners were nearly one-third as numerous as the
males.
THE REGULATION OF APPRENTICESHIP AND BOY
LABOR. The regulation of apprenticeship was not
in origin a trade union policy; it was introduced,
adopted, and sanctioned by statute law at a time
when the trade union did not exist. Consequently,
although the trade unions indorse the regulation
of apprenticeship with striking unanimity, and
still regard it as an ideal, such regulation is at
present enforced only in an insignificant number
of trades and seems to be disappearing. The
apprentice system is much less prevalent-in the
United States than in Great Britain; and in the
latter country in 1897 Mr. and Mrs. Webb esti-
mated that out of the 1,490,000 members of the
trade unions only 90,000 belonged to unions
which were actually able to enforce apprentice
regulations. The desirability and expediency of
the regulation of apprenticeship by trade unions
is extremely questionable. An examination of
the apprenticeship regulations of the few Ameri-
can labor unions which are able to enforce them
plainly shows that the educational motive is de-
cidedly a minor one, while these regulations ex-
ercise no perceptible effect in checking child labor
under any given set of conditions. On the other
hand, the unions which have acquired sufficient
power to regulate apprenticeship have evinced a
strong disposition to restrict unduly the number
of apprentices. A wide examination of the ap-
prenticeship regulations of American unions
shows that the average period of apprenticeship
is more than three years and the average number
of apprentices to journeymen somewhat less than
one to ten. Finally—and- this fact seems con-
c1usive—the restriction of membership to work-
-men who have been apprenticed is not necessary
.,to the successful operation of the union.
The
,United Mine Workers, the Locomotive Engineers,
the Carpenters and Joiners, and in fact most of
the large unions, in practice if not in theory,
are completely ‘open.’
1 MONOPOLISTIC ALLIANCES BETWEEN TRADE
UNIONS AND EMPLOYEES’ ASSOCIATIONS. The evil
possibilities of the policy of exclusion are well il-
lustrated in occasional compacts between trade
unions and combinations of manufacturers in
which the two organizations combine to monopo-
lize a certain industry for the benefit of both. In
the Birmingham (England) Metal Trades these
‘alliances,’ as they are called, were common about
1897-98. The essential feature of the Birmingham
alliance was an agreement by which the employers
bound themselves to employ none but union men,
in return for which the latter agreed to work
for no manufacturer who sold his product at
prices less than those formally adopted by a
‘wages board’ composed of an equal number of
employers and employees. For every advance in
price there was to be a proportionate, though
not an equal, advance in wages. Monopolistic
-alliances of this kind are rare and as a rule not
lasting.
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UN IONS.
857
REGULATION or WAGES. The most essential
function, as well as the explanation and justifica-
tion of trade unionism, is the determination of
the conditions of employment by collective in-
stead of individual bargaining. The most im-
portant condition of employment is the rate of
wages, as is well illustrated by the fact that in
both England and the United States more than
50 per cent. of the strikes which occur are caused
by disputes about wages. The conditions and
characteristics of the regulation of wages by
trade unions may be briefly summed up under
three heads. (1) The standard rate as main-
tained by American unions is a local rate fixed
by the local union. In a ew trades working
largely by piece, such as the Potters, Glass Blow-
ers, etc., the scale of prices is fixed for the whole
country by the national union; and in a few other
unions, such as the Brewery Workmen and the
United Hatters of North America, a national
minimum time rate is prescribed. But in the
vast majority of unions the regulation of wages
is left wholly to the local union, and no strong
demand for uniformity seems to exist. (2) Con-
trary to general opinion, the majority of trade
unions, in trades in which it is possible, favor
work by the piece rate system. In England, Mr.
and Mrs. Webb have made a careful study of the
wage system of every trade union having more than
1,000 members,‘ unskilled laborers and transport
workers excepted. Of these, 111 unions, having
1,003,000 members, were examined; forty-nine,
with 573,000 members, insisted on piece work;
twenty-four, with 140,000 members, willingly rec-
ognized piece work; and thirty-eight, with 290,000
members, insisted on time work. A similar in-
vestigation in the United States was made by
the Industrial Commission. Information was
secured concerning 50 important unions in which
piece work was possible. Of these unions 28
accepted the piece-work system in some depart-
ment without active opposition, while 22 unions
either forbade or actively discouraged piece
work. The reasons for this diversity are clear.
In some occupations, such as spinning and weav-
ing, the intensity of the labor is determined by
the speed of the machine, or, speaking generally,
the employer finds it possible to set the pace for
the employee. In such occupations it is evident
that the workers will insist upon piece payment
to prevent forcing and over-exertion. In other
occupations, such as ordinary carpentering or re-
pair work in general, it is impossible to esti-
mate how much skill or time will be required
to perform a given ‘job’ or piece, and here the
time rate is the workman’s only defense against
exploitation. The testimony collected by the In-
dustrial Commission amply proves that the ma-
jority of the labor leaders of the United States
would abolish the piece-rate system instantly if
it were possible. The leaders hold that under the
piece-work system the most proficient workmen
set the pace and fix the standard rate, thereby
depressing the earnings of the less talented but
no less industrious or deserving shopmate. In
addition the argument is made that the piece-rate
system either encourages excessive production,
and thus depresses prices, or throws the work
into the hands of a few workmen, thus increasing
the amount of non-employment, both of which
results tend strongly to reduce wages. The feel-
ing is also prevalent that the piece system stimu-
lates employees to over-exert themselves and to
work themselves out at an early age.
It must be admitted that the piece system in
practice may be, and often is, manipulated to the
injury of the general body of wage-earners. It
is undoubtedly true that employers are disposed
to reduce piece rates as soon as the more efficient
workmen in their employ demonstrate an ability
to earn an unusually high rate by the system;
and furthermore, the testimony seems convincing
that in many instances the piece-rate system
does lead over-ambitious employees to injure
their health in the attempt to earn unusually
high rates of pay; but the objection to piece
work on the ground that it leads to over-pro-
ductiofl, and the defense of a uniform wage irre-
spective of productive power, are on the face of
them evils and untenable, if not from the stand-
point of the trade union, at least from the
standpoint of the general public.
Hoons OF LABOR. In the eyes of the American
labor leaders the regulation of the hours of labor
is an even more important function of the trade
union than the regulation of wages, as the ques-
tion of the working day is primarily one of
health, morals, and the necessary leisure for edu-
cation, and social and religious duties. In this re-
spect the trade unions have from the beginning
placed unusual reliance upon the law. But they
have also worked incessantly to reduce the hours
of labor by direct negotiations with employers, by
strikes, and by boycotts.
The normal day, like the standard wage in the
great majority of American unions, is left almost
entirely to the separate locals, and even in the
few nationals which have a maximum working
day for the whole country the locals are left
free to secure a shorter working day if possible.
But although the locals are accorded a wide dis-
cretion in fixing the normal day, the national
organizations and leaders constantly urge them
to reduce the number of hours, and among the
national organizations strong enough to lead in
this matter, laws requiring increased rates for
overtime, or wholly forbidding overtime except
in cases of extreme emergency, are common.
RESTRICTION OF OUTPUT. The preceding section
makes it plain that trade unions do restrict the
industrial output openly and systematically.
The restriction of the output of individual work-
ers is accomplished in several ways: by adopting
a normal day and discouraging or prohibiting
overtime; by limiting the daily task or the earn-
ings of piece-workers; by discouraging or pro-
hibiting the grading of time-workers, and thus
leveling wages; by forbidding piece work, time
work, contract jobs, or the butty system; and in
some cases by encouraging the go-easy system of
secret loafing, or ‘the adulteration of labor.’
A variety of arguments are brought forward
in defense of the general policy of the limitation
of output. Trade unions claim that this is the
only way of preventing over-exertion on the part
of workmen, particularly under the piece sys-
tem; that it tends to prevent unemployment and
moderates the destructive competition of the
army of the unemployed; and finally that it
tends to prevent over-production. There is a
large degree of truth in all these contentions.
The history of the factory system is one long
proof of the truth that, under a regime of free-
dom of contract in the sale and purchase of
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
858
. depression
labor, wage-earners are driven by the employers
and led by the pace of the hardier workmen to
impair the health both of themselves and their
offspring. It is true also that increased leisure,
wisely spent, tends to elevate the standard of
life, and that wages are in a measure determined
by the standard of life; that collective bargain-
ing presupposes given rules based upon the aver-
age efficiency and endurance, thus restraining
in its operation the strongest workmen from
doing their utmost; that in periods of temporary
distributive justice sanctions a
limitation of the work and income of each, in
order that all may have some work and some
income.
No judgment upon this subject may, however,
be rendered except in concrete cases. When the
United Mine Workers demand an eight-hour day
in underground mines, the justice of the demand
seems unanswerable; when the Window Glass
Workers insist on a four months’ stop each year,
the demand is questionable; but when the
Chicago plumbers limit, as they did in 1889, the
amount of work in some branches to about half
as much as could be performed by an able-bodied
workman without undue strain, the demand is
prima facie inequitable.
The point is even clearer in the limitation of
wages as distinct from the limitation of hours.
That the Detroit Stove Founders should limit
piece earnings per da.y to $4.50 may seem reason-
able as a preventive of over-exertion; but that
time-workers, l_ike the stone-cutters, carpenters,
and coopers, should oppose the payment of more
than the standard rate to exceptionally eflicient
workers, or that the machinists should oppose a
classification of their workmen by the War and
Navy Departments, thus forcing all workmen
to the dead level of the idlest and most incom-
petent, seems indefensible.
ATTITUDE TOWARD MACHINERY. Historically,
trade unions have opposed the introduction of
labor-saving machinery, but, speaking generally,
the unions have realized at last that it is im-
possible effectively to oppose the introduction of
labor-saving devices; and among trade union
leaders the number of those who fully realize
that the machine in the long run is the friend
and ally of the wage-earning classes is rapidly
increasing. Trade union leaders may be said in
general to have learned how to meet successfully
the industrial problems caused by the introduc-
tion of machinery. Thus, when the printers were
confronted with a great decrease in the demand
for labor as a result of the invention of the type-
setting machine, the Typographical Union met
the problem in a rational manner. It insisted
that the operators of the machines should be
selected from ordinary printers, and that they
should be paid as much at least as the wages of
the hand printers. For a short time large num-
bers of printers were thrown out of employment,
but in three years, according to the estimate of
the president of the Typographical Union, the
increased demand for printers, consequent upon
the decrease in the cost of printing, afforded
work for more than the old supply of printers.
The justice of trade union regulation respecting
the use of machinery must in each case be de-
cided in accordance with its intent. Trade
unions are justified in the attempt, if not clothed
with the duty, of lessening the hardships occa-
sioned by the extensive introduction of revolu-
tionary inventions. It is the permanent an-
tagonism to labor-saving machinery which is
both hopeless and economically fallacious.
TRADE UNION INSURANCE. Mutual insurance
—aid to the traveling journeyman in search of
work, assistance in case of sickness, and a collec-
tion to defray burial expenses—was per-
haps the principal function of the trade union
' of the eighteenth century, and still constitutes a
principal function of trade unionism in foreign
countries, particularly in England. In the ten
years 1892-1901, for instance, the 100 principal
trade unions in England expended £299,310 in
working and miscellaneous expenses, £293,552 in
dispute or strike pay, and £919,901 in friendly
benefits.
Among American unions, however, conditions
are entirely different. Of the 96 national unions
of which information is at hand, 22 make no pro-
vision for any kind of benefits, 32 pay no strike
benefits, 48 pay no death or funeral benefits, 74
pay no sick or accident benefits, and 91 pay no
unemployment or out of work benefits. Only 2
pay a superannuation benefit, and one of these
is a branch of a British union.
While it is evident that the friendly benefit
is not essential to the successful conduct
of a trade union, it is also true that the leading
American labor leaders strongly advise the in-
stitution of the benefit system, and in unions
maintaining this system it has been of immense
service in accumulating large reserve funds, in
forcing obedience from members, in preventing
them from dropping Out when their interest
wanes, and in stir'nulating a more conservative
policy in general. The powerful Cigar Makers’
International Union, for example, and the rail-
road brotherhoods, furnish illustrations of the
advantages of the insurance system as an auxili-
ary to trade unionism. (See RAILWAY BROTHER-
HOODS.) The insurance function, however, is
strictly subordinate, except in one or two organi-
zations. The insurance funds are unprotected,
and may be expended in strikes, trade wars, or
for any purposes which meet the approval of the
constituted authorities. After having paid in-
surance assessments for years, the individual
member may be expelled for a trifling infraction
of rules, or may see the insurance system
abolished and all the funds dissipated in support-
ing a sympathetic strike. Nevertheless the in-
dividual members acquiesce in this condition of
affairs, and vehemently oppose any attempt at
regulative legislation. The widespread opposi-
tion of trade unions to incorporation rests large-
ly upon the belief that it would destroy this un-
limited freedom in the use of insurance funds.
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING, ARBITRATION, AND
CONCILIATION. Modern political economy recog-
nizes in collective bargaining a legitimate and the
most important function of trade unionism. This
concerted action, by which employers are pre-
vented from fixing wages at the rate acceptable
to the neediest competitor, is the oal and aim of
trade unionism. The walking de egate, or busi-
ness agent, who represents a body of union work-
men, advises them what rate of wages to de-
mand, and conducts their negotiations for them,
is thus not an ugly incident, but an essential
necessity of trade unionism—the very heart of
the institution.
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADE UNIONS.
859
In England systematic collective bargaining by
recurrent joint conferences was first introduced
in the hosiery trade about 1860. At the present
time Mr. and Mrs. VVebb estimate “that in all
skilled trades where men work in concert on the
employer’s premises 90 per cent. of the workmen
find either their rate of wages or their hours of
work and often many other details predetermined
by a collective bargain in which they personally
have taken no part, but in which their interests
have been dealt with by representatives of their
class.” And in the United States the system
has been introduced to an extent scarcely realized
by the general public. Thousands of local agree-
ments exist in the cities, particularly in the
building industry; and in about a dozen trades
national agreements exist. The history of trade
arbitration and collective bargaining shows that
the value of these agreements lies in the concilia-
tory spirit engendered by conferences in which
employees and employers meet on a footing of
friendly equality. The arbitrator or umpire,
with decisive vote, is relatively unimportant. The
reason for this statement lies in the important
difference between the adoption of new’ contracts
and the interpretation of existing contracts. The
latter function is judicial in nature and may
safely be left to authoritative arbiters. On the
other hand, the adoption of new principles, or
the determination of future conditions, is a mat-
ter of competitive struggle, which, except on ex-
traordinary occasions, should not be left to
outside parties, however disinterested. Recog-
nizing this truth, trade union leaders generally
oppose compulsory arbitration; and even in col-
lective bargaining arbitration seems to be going
out of favor both in England and the United
States. In the printing (newspaper) and gen-
eral foundry trades agreements for arbitration
exist, but none of the national systems of collec-
tive bargaining in the United States contain a
provision for arbitration in case the representa-
tives of employers and employees fail to agree.
Collective bargaining is to a degree dependent
upon the organization of employers, and it
increases in extent and efliciency as employers’
organizations increase. Associations of employ-
ers are not new, but in the last few years they
have become not only more numerous than in the
past, but more systematic and more thoroughly
managed. (See TRADE ASSOCIATIONS.) Most of
the existing manufacturers’ associations, like
the Stove Founders’ National Defense Associa-
tion and the National Association of Builders,
encourage collective bargaining and thus make
for industrial peace. A large majority of
American unions officially indorse arbitration
and conciliation. In Great Britain Mr. and
Mrs. Webb think that the opposition to arbi-
tration in the strict sense is steadily grow-
ing. In the United States opinion is divided,
and it is impossible to say whether opposition
is increasing or decreasing. It is, however, in-
disputable that the employees far more frequent-
ly invoke the aid of State boards of arbitration
than the employers, and that they are practically
undivided in support of collective bargaining
on the one hand and in opposition to compulsory
arbitration on the other hand.
THE STRIKE. Trade union regulations re-
specting strikes (see STRIKES AND Locxoors)
are so diverse that it is impossible to describe
Von. XVI.—55.
them in a few sentences. Generally speaking,
the local union is the active agent in the strike;
the national organizations in which a local may
be forced to strike against its will number prob-
ably less than a dozen, and in only three or four
may a local be expelled for striking against
the decision of the national officers. The con-
trol of the locals is through the purse. Many
of the unions maintain protective funds, or war
chests, which in the well-managed organizations
frequently assume very respectable proportions.
If the local desires strike pay and other financial
support it must refrain from striking except in
accordance with the established regulations of
the union. In the better organized unions a pro-
cedure of the following nature is imposed upon
locals: Before the strike may be considered a local
grievance committee, or the local president or
business agent, must attempt to settle the griev-
ance amicably with the employer in question.
If these negotiations fail, the local may then
vote upon the question of striking,-and in this
vote the ballot is usually secret, while in most
unions a two-thirds vote is required to authorize
the strike. If the local indorses the strike, the
decision must be ratified by the national presi-
dent or executive board, and at this point, again,
most unions require the national president to
proceed to the scene immediately and make
every effort to adjust the grievance by peaceable
negotiation with the employer. Only after the
failure of this attempt may the national sanc-
tion be conferred upon the strike.
The effect of such regulations can be easily ap-
preciated. The -strike of the past was sporadic,
passionate, and directed against some abuse which
the workers believed intolerable. The strike of
the present day is deliberately and systematically
conducted; it marks the rising market and pe-
riods of prosperity; with many trade unions it
has become a settled policy. It is not intended
to suggest that trade unions encourage strikes;
the general opinion of economic writer-s is
to the contrary. What is meant is that the
strike as conducted by the trade union is gov-
erned by interest and not by passion; and that
“while the most intelligent and conservative
labor leaders freely recognize the expensiveness
of strikes and desire to supplant them as far
as possible with peaceable methods of negotia-
tion, they almost uniformly maintain that work-
ingmen gain in the long run far more than they
lose by the general policy of striking.” For the
statistics of strikes, see Srmxns AND Looxours.
THE BOYCOTT. The American union has done
with the boycott what it has done with the
strike: made it less violent, but more delib-
erate and systematic. The old form of boycott
—the fiery crusade for the social and commercial
ostracism of the offending employer—-is still
met with occasionally, but the favorite method
at present is to place the recalcitrant employer
on an unfair list and spread the ban through
the medium of the labor press. The initiative
is largely taken by complaint of the local union
to the national executive board that some em-
ployer is violating union rules. The national
officers usually offer the employer a hearing at
which to disprove the charges, or offer proof of
intention to discontinue the objectionable practice,
and if such proof is not supplied the offender is
placed on the list of merchants or manufactur-
/ .
TRADE UNIONS.
TRADING STAMPS.
860
ers with whom loyal trade unionists are encour-
aged to have no business dealings either as pur-
chasers of commodities or sellers of labor. A
majority of American unions use this system to
a greater or lesser extent. The Federation of
Labor gives national scope to the more impor-
tant boycotts by indorsing them and including
the offenders’ names in the column of the Ameri-
can Federationist. Between 75 and 100 firms
and companies were under boycott by the Federa-
tion in January, 1903. It is clear that if the
1,465,800 or more members of the Federation
strictly observed every ofiicial boycott the latter
would become a formidable weapon against man-
ufacturers and sellers of commodities in general
use among the laboring classes. The observ-
ance, however, is so lax that the boycott is not
effective except in a few industries, such as the
brewing industry, and in some union strong-
holds, such as ‘Chicago, Milwaukee, and the
larger cities generally.
Boycotts proper, however, have been generally
held unlawful in American courts, though a
few recent equivocal decisions are held by some
to point the other way. American trade union-
ists, however, are practically unanimous in up-
holding the right to boycott. Their argument
rests upon the absolute and complete legality
of the act of discontinuing business relations.
Finally, trade unions exert what is often called
‘a legal boycott’ through the familiar union label,
which has played such an important part in
the building up of the Cigarmakers’, Garment
workers,’ and Hatters’ unions in America, and
the use of which is now spreading, not only
among American unions, but among those of
England, Germany, Austria, and Australia. See
UNION LABEL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the history of trade union-
ism in England, consult Webb, History of Trade
Unionisni (2d ed., London, 1896), containing an
exhaustive bibliography; for the United States,
Ely, The Labor Movement in America (New
York, 1886) ; for statistics in England, see An-
nual Reports by the Chief Labor Correspond-
ent of the Board of Trade on Trade Unions; for
statistics in the United States, 17th volume of the
Report of the Industrial Commission (Washing-
ton, 1901) ; for legal aspects, Stimson, H and-Book
to the Labor Law of the United States. This is
brought up to date in the fifth volume of the Re-
port of the Industrial Commission. For the or-
ganization, functions, and policies of trade unions,
see Webb, Industrial Democracy (London, 1902) ;
for organization, functions, and policies of Amer-
ican trade unions, 17th and 19th volumes of the
Report of the Industrial Commission. For ma-
terials and sources, England, Report of the
Royal Commission on Labor; in particular, vols.
ii., iii., and v.; United States, Report of the
Industrial Commission; in particular, vols. v.,
vii., xii., xiv., xvi.
Most of the labor and statistical bureaus of
the separate States now publish statistical and
other material upon trade unions. Much of this
information is fragmentary and untrustworthy,
' but the reader is especiallyreferred to the Re-
ports of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics
of Labor and the Annual Reports of the New
York Bureau of Labor Statistics. A notable
source of current information is the bi-monthly
bulletin of the Bureau of Labor. Almost all of
the trade unions now publish monthly journals,
among which the American Federationist, the
Typographical Journal, and the Locomotive Fire-
men’s Magazine are especially noteworthy.
TRADE UNIONS, THE GENERAL FED-
ERATION OF. The central labor organiza-
tion of Great Britain. It was organized July
1, 1899, under the auspices of the British Trades
Union Congress for the purposes of upholding
“the rights of combination of labor,” promoting
industrial peace, and establishing a fund for
mutual assistance and support. The Federation
is “open to every bona-fide trade union in Great
Britain,” but the unit of membership is the
trade union and “no branches or individuals
are allowed to join.” It is governed by a gen-
eral council of delegates which meets an-
nually, and between these sessions by a manage-
ment committee of fifteen. Appeals may be
taken from the decisions of both the council and
the committee to the general membership. The
Federation is “non-political and non-legislative,”
leaving to the Labor Representation Committee
(q.v.) the campaign for the election of labor
representatives to Parliament, and to the Parlia-
ment committee of the Trades Union Congress
the agitation for favorable labor laws. The
Federation pays, in strikes authorized by the
general council or the management committee,
two grades of strike benefits: five shillings a
week per member “on the higher scale,” and
half this amount “on the lower scale.” Unions
on the higher scale contribute sixpenee a mem-
ber per quarter, and unions on the lower scale
threepence a member per quarter, on ninety per
cent. of the total membership, exclusive of super-
annuated members. In cases of emergency the
management committee is authorized to increase
the regular dues 100 per cent. The entrance
fee is one penny per member upon ninety per
cent. of the total membership, but in addition it
is provided that “Any society desirous of joining
the Federation shall pay ten per cent. of the
average worth per member of the class or scale
the union or society is joining, in addition to
their entrance fee, but any society not in exist-
ence at the time of adoption of this scheme
shall be allowed to join on payment of five per
cent. of the average worth per member of the
Federation at the time of joining.” No union is
entitled to benefits until it has belonged to the
Federation for twelve months. The Federation
started with 343,000 members. During the fis-
cal year ending June 30, 1902, the total income
was £29,962 and the total expenditures £9,957,
of which £8,338 was for strike benefits. At that
date the reserve or defense fund amounted to
£76,969 and the membership to 419,606.
TRADE WINDS. See WIND.
TRADING STAMPS. Slips of engraved or
printed paper usually in the form of gummed
stamps, given by merchants to purchasers of
goods, and which may be presented to some per-
son or corporation in exchange for articles of
value. The trading stamp companies usually
agree to distribute books containing the names
of their subscribers among the residents of the
city and surrounding country. The scheme
amounts to an advertisement and various forms
of it are in operation in many States. The
statutes of a number of States prohibit these
TRADING STAMPS.
TRAGOPAN.
861
‘gift enterprises’ as being a form of lottery. In
New York such a statute was held unconstitu-
tional on the ground that there was no element
of chance in the scheme, and that the pro-
hibition was an interference with legitimate
trade. The United States court took a contrary
view in passing on an act of Congress prohibiting
gift enterprises in the District of Columbia. The
court held that the statute was a valid exercise
of the police power, on the ground that the
trading stamp scheme by which the enterprise
was conducted was a burden on both the mer-
chants and purchasers of their goods. The as-
sumption is that a merchant who buys the trad-
ing stamps from some corporation introducing
them will make up the amount he is thus com-
pelled to pay either in the price of his goods
or their quality, and thus in the end the public
are deceived into thinking that they are ob-
taining something for nothing. An additional
objection to the scheme advanced by the court
was that the trading stamp companies profited
by the fact that many persons did not present
their stamps for the premiums ofi"ered. The
decisions of the various States are not uniform
on this question, the two views above presented
illustrating the diversity of opinion. Where
there is an element of chance as to the value of
the article which a certain number of trading
stamps may draw, the general view is that the
scheme is akin to lottery, and illegal. See Lor-
TERY.
TRADUCIANISM (from Lat. tracluct'a‘nus,
from tradaw, vine-branch for propagation, from
traducere, to lead along, train, propagate, from
trans, across, through + dncere, to lead). One
of the theories adopted for the purpose of ex-
plaining the production of the soul in the pro-
creation of human species. It is ascribed to
Tertullian (q.v.) as its first author, and is
elaborately explained and defended by him in
his book On the Soul, written after he had
lapsed into the Montanist heresy. In opposition
to others who had held the theory of preé.xist-
ence of souls, of which preéxisting souls one is
divinely infused, or, by some natural aflinity, is
attracted into each foetus as soon as it has been
formed by generation in the procreation of man,
Tertullian taught that souls are propagated by
souls as bodies by bodies, and by the same or a
simultaneous process. In another place he de-
scribes this origin of soul from soul as genera-
tion, and even of a class analogous to corporeal
generation; and this more gross and material ex-
position of the theory of traducianism is some-
times called _qenerationism; which, however, is
commonly looked upon as a totally distinct the-
ory. A third hypothesis to explain the origin
of the soul is that of creationism (q.v.).
TRAETTA, tr:-1-ems, TOMMASO (1727-79).
An Italian composer, born at Bitonto. He stud-
ied at the Conservatorio di Loreto, Naples (1738-
48), and in 1751 produced his first opera, Far-
nace, in Naples. From 1765 to 1768 he was a
director of a conservatory in Venice. and re-
signed to become Court composer to Catharine II.
at Saint Petersburg. His most important op-
eras were Germondo (1776) and Ippolito ed
Arieia (1759), which gained for its composer a
life pension from the King of Spain. His works
were characterized by theatrical effectiveness and
harmonic vigor. Consult Capruzzi, Traetta e la
mustca (Naples, 1878).
TRAFALGAR, tra'fal-gtir’, or, more com-
monly in England, tra-f2il’gér, CAPE.
promontory on the south coast of Spain, about
29 miles northwest of Tarifa (q.v.) , at the west-
ern entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar. It is
memorable for the great naval victory obtained off
its shores by the British fleet under Nelson over
the combined fleets of France and Spain on Octo-
ber 21, 1805. The allies had thirty-three ships,
commanded by the French vice-admiral, Ville-
neuve, while Nelson had twenty-seven. The British
fleet was arranged in two columns. The first un-
der Collingwood fell upon the rear of the allied
fleet, commanded by the Spanish vice-admiral,
Gravina. After a terrible contest, in which
Nelson himself lost his life, the two British col-
umns completely disorganized the hostile line.
Eighteen ships were captured, and Napoleon’s
naval power was gone forever. For the impor-
tant influence this victory had on the course
of the Napoleonic wars, see NELSON, HORATIO;
NAPOLEON 1. Consult Mahan, Influence of Sea
Power on the French Revolution (Boston, 1892) .
TRAFALGAR SQUARE. A London square
named in commemoration of the battle of -Tra-
falgar and containing the imposing granite col-
umn in memory of Nelson, two fountains, and
statues of Havelock, Napier, Gordon, and George
IV. About it are the buildings of the National
Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Royal Hu-
mane Society, Royal College of Physicians, and
other public buildings.
TRA]-I"TON, 1\'IARK (1810-1901). A Metho-
dist Episcopal minister, born in Bangor, Me.
He joined the Maine Conference 1831, but held
most of his charges in the New England and
Providence Conferences. In 1852, while serving
his third term as pastor at Westfield, he was
elected to represent his district in the Thirty-
fourth Congress. He was a poet of no mean or-
der. He published A Plea for Infant Baptism
and Against Ewclustve Immersion (1846);
Rambles in Europe (1852) ; The Safe Investment
(1856); Baptism, Subjects and Modes (1870);
Scenes in My Life (1877).
TRAGACANTH. See GUM.
TRAGEDY. See DRAMA.
TRAGIC POET, Housn or THE. One of the
most attractive houses of Pompeii, made famous
as the home of Glaucus in Bulwer’s Last Days
of Pomyaeii. The name was assigned through
misconception of a painting discovered at the
time of the excavation. It had two stories, and
was richly decorated with paintings, among them
the two best-known Pompeian paintings, “The
Nuptials of Zeus and Hera” and_“The Sending
Away of Briseis.” both preserved in the Naples
Museum. together with the noted mosaic of a
dog with the motto “Cave Canem,” originally
in the floor of the vestibule.
TRAGOPAN (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Tpa)/6;‘,
tragos, goat + lldv, Pan, Pan), or HOBNED
PHEASANT. One of the crested pheasants of the
genus Ceriornis, which have naked cheeks, a
horn-like caruncle projecting backward from be-
hind each eye, and a loose wattle. capable of be-
ing inflated, hanging beneath the bill. Five
species are known, all found in India and China.
A low‘
TRAILL.
TRAJ AN.
is
TRAILL, tral, CATHERINE PARR. A sister of
Agnes Strickland (q.v.) .
TRAILL, HENRY DUFF (1842-1900). An
5' English journalist and author, born at Black-
heath, near London. He was educated at the Mer-
chant Taylors’ School, London, and at Saint
John’s College, Oxford. In 1869 he was called to
the bar at the Inner Temple, but he soon gave
up law for journalism. He edited the Observer
from 1889 to 1891, and was the projector and first
editor of Literature (established 1897). Traill
did much miscellaneous work of good quality.
For the “English Men of Letters” series he wrote
Sterne (1882) and Coleridge (1884); for “Eng-
lish VVorthies,” Shaftesbury (1886); for “Eng-
lish Statesmen,” William III. (1888); and for
“English Men of Action,” St-rafford (1889).
Other biographies by him are Lord Salisbury
(1891), Sir John Franklin (1896), and Lord
Cromer (1897). In politics and history are
Central Government (1881) ; the exhaustive So-
cial England (1892-96), of which he was editor;
From Cairo to the Soudan Frontier (1896) ; and
England, Egypt, and the Soudan (posthumous,
1900). For prose literature may be cited The
New Lucian (1884) and The New Fiction and
Other Essays (1897 ). Political verse contributed
to various periodicals was collected under the
titles, Recaptured Rhymes (1882) and Saturday
Songs (from The Saturday Review, 1890).
TRAIN, GEORGE FRANCIS (1829-1904). An
American author, born in Boston, Mass. Af-
ter engaging in the mercantile business in Bos-
ton and Australia, he went to England in 1860,
and undertook to form street-railway com-
panies in Birkenhead and London, but his plans
were obstructed by legal opposition. His publi-
cations include: An American Merchant in
Europe, Asia, and Australia (1851) ; Young
America Abroad (1857 ) ; Irish Independency
(1865); and Championship of Women (1868).
He also published an autobiography entitled My
Life in Many States and in I Foreign Lands
(1902) .
TRAIN BANDS. Early English militia
raised by commissions of musters, and organized
and drilled as military bodies. On the abolition
of the fyrd in 1604, James I. organized in its
place the train bands to the number of nearly
200,000 men. As an organization the train
bands were neither militia nor volunteers, but
partook of the nature of both, and in point of
efficiency lacked both discipline and drill. Dur-
ing the Civil War they sided almost to a unit
with the Parliamentarians, and rendered very
effective service. After the Restoration, the
command and control of the army was definitely
assigned to the King; before this time the ques-
tion had been in doubt. See ARMIES, section on
Great Britain; MILITIA.
TRAINING. See PHYSICAL TRAINING.
TRA’J AN ( MARCUS ULPIUS TRAIANUS )
(A.D. 51-117). A Roman Emperor (A.D. 98-
117). He was born at Italica, near Seville, in
Spain. He was descended from a family which
was probably of Roman origin, and was early
trained to arms, becoming a leader in the Par-
thian and German campaigns, during the reigns
of Titus and Domitian. He was rewarded for
his services by promotion to the offices‘of praetor
. subdued again.
(A.D. 85) and consul (A.D. 91), and was adopted
(A.D. 97) by Nerva (q.v.) as his colleague and
successor. Trajan became sole ruler in January
of the following year, and celebrated the event of
his accession by largesses to the soldiers, and to
Roman citizens and their children. He also made
provision out of the Imperial treasury for the
maintenance of the children of poor freemen in
Rome and other Italian towns. In A.D. 101 Tra-
jan set out on his first campaign against the
Dacians, who had exacted tribute from Rome
since Domitian’s time. The struggle was long
and destructive, but the Romans at last gained a
decisive superiority, and in a subsequent cam-
paign (104 to 105) completely subdued their
opponents, whose country thenceforth became the
Roman province of Dacia, and was secured by
partial colonization. This conquest, the first
since the death of Augustus, was celebrated, on
Trajan’s return to Rome, by a triumph, and by
games on a most extensive scale, which con-
tinued for four months. The Column of Trajan
was erected to commemorate this victory. In
106 Trajan again went to the east. Landing in
Syria, he marched northward, receiving on his
way the submission of numerous princes, and
conquered Armenia, which he made a province.
The record of the events of the next seven years of
Trajan’s reign is extremely defective, the few
‘notices in Dion Cassius and others being insuffi-
cient for the construction of a consecutive nar-
rative. In 115 he again set out from Syria,
directing his march this time against the Par-
thian Empire. He took Ctesiphon almost without
a struggle, and, descending the Tigris, subdued
the tribes on both banks, being the first and
only Roman general who navigated the Per-
sian Gulf. On his return he found that Mesopo-
tamia, North Syria, and Arabia. required to be
_ This being done, and Parthia
aga1n conquered, Trajan, sinking under a combi-
nation of dropsy and paralysis, attempted to
reach Italy, but died at Selinus, in Cilicia.
Though most of Trajan’s reign was spent in the
gratification of his warlike ambition, the inter-
nal administration was far from neglected; the
administration of justice was vigorous and im-
partial; that of finance was equally acceptable;
informers (delatores) were severely punished,
and peculating governors of provinces rigorously
prosecuted. The improvement and beautifying of
Rome was carried on; the Empire was traversed
in all directions by new military routes, canals
and bridges were constructed, new towns built,
the Via Appia was restored, the Pontine Marshes
partially drained, the magnificent ‘Forum Tra-
iani’ erected, and the harbor of Centum Cellae
(Civita Vecchia) constructed. During Trajan’s
reign a persecution of the Christians, of a mild
character, took place.
TRAJAN, ARCH OF. (1) An arch at Bene-
vento, Italy, somewhat resembling the arch of
Titus at Rome, erected in A.D. 114 to commemo-
rate the completion by Trajan of a new road to
Brundisium. It is of white marble with one
archway 27 feet high, the whole structure being
50 feet in height. The reliefs represent the tri-
umphs of Trajan over the Dacians. The arch is
one of the finest and best preserved specimens of
the Roman arch. (2) A triumphal arch, in good
preservation, at Ancona, Italy, built by the
Roman senate in AD. 112. It commemorates the
TRAJ AN.
TRAMP.
863
building of new quays by Trajan.
archway is 29 by 46 feet in dimension.
TRAJ AN, BATHS OF. Baths built by Trajan
on portions of the remains of the Golden House
of Nero in Rome. The scanty ruins are situated
on the Oppian, where some remains may be seen
in the Villa Field. They adjoin the Baths of
Titus (q.v.), with which they were confused un-
til 1895, on the northeast. The materials of the
magnificent edifice were used in limekilns and in
constructing other buildings.
TRAJ AN, FCRUM OF. An immense group of
public buildings in ancient Rome, filling the
space between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills.
It was named after its principal builder, the
Emperor Trajan, and included the forum proper,
entered by the famous Arch of Trajan and con-
taining his equestrian statue in bronze; the
Basilica Ulpia ; the celebrated Column of Trajan,
in the midst of a cloistered court, where were
also located the two Ulpian Libraries, one Greek,
the other Latin; and the Temple of Trajan, built
by Hadrian. See FORUM.
TRAJAN’S COLUMN. A celebrated column
at Rome, which was reared in A.D. 114, ostensibly
by the Roman senate and people, in honor of the
Emperor Trajan. The pedestal is covered with
has-reliefs of trophies of Dacian arms, and a very
remarkable series of bas-reliefs, forming a spiral
round the shaft, exhibits a continuous history of
the military achievements of Trajan in his Da-
cian wars. These are in excellent preservation,
and, independently of their beauty as works of
art, they are invaluable as records of ancient
costume, military operations, and history. A
spiral staircase iii the interior of the col-
umn leads to its summit. The height of the
column proper, including base, shaft, and capital,
but excluding the lofty pedestal (18 feet), is
just 100 Roman feet (29.57 meters). It still
stands erect in all its ancient beauty amid the
ruins of Trajan’s forum. The summit was
crowned by a colossal statue of the Emperor,
which was incongruously replaced (by Pope
Sixtus V., in 1588) by one of Saint Peter.
The ashes of Trajan, who died in the East;
were said to have been deposited under this
column in a golden vase, but no traces of
such a burial have been found. Consult: Fr5h-
ner, La colonne Trajane (Paris, 1872-74); Ci-
chorius, Die Rcliefs der Trajanss.a'ule (Berlin,
1896 et seq.) ; Reinach, La colonne Trajane
au musée dc Saint-Germain (Paris, 1896) ; Peter-
sen, Trajans dahische Kriege (Leipzig, 1901).
TRAJAN’S WALL. A line of fortifications
stretching across the Dobrudja from Czerna-
voda, where the Danube bends northward, to a
point of the Black Sea coast near Kustendje. It
consists of a double, and in some places a triple
line of ramparts of earth, from 83 to 11 feet
in height on the average (though occasionally it
attains an altitude of 19% feet), bounded along
its north side by a valley, which, being generally
marshy, serves admirably the purpose of a ditch.
The construction of this rampart is attributed to
Trajan, the general of the Emperor Valens, who
in A.D. 377 endeavored by this means to check
the advance of the Visigoths. In 1854 Trajan’s
wall became an important line of defense on the
invasion of the Dobrudja by the Russians. and
the invaders were twice defeated in their at-
The single
tempts to pass it—at Kostelli (April 10th) and
Czernavoda (April 20th to 22d) .
TRAJECTORY (from Lat. trajicere, trans-
jicere, to throw across, from trans, across,
through, + jacere, to throw; connected with
Gk. ldrrrew, iaptein, to throw). In mathe-
matics, any plane curve which cuts at a constant
angle a series of plane curves of the same species
having a common origin. If the constant angle
is a right angle, the surve is called an orthogonal
trajectory of the system. The question of such
a curve was proposed by Johann Bernoulli
(1691) in his Acta Eruditorum, and Newton
(1716) laid the foundation for the theory of tra-
jectories. For the history of the trajectory, con-
sult Terquem, in the Nouvelles annales de
mathématiques (1845, p. 292). For the various
classes, consult Brocard, Notes de bibliographic
des courbes ge6métriques (Bar-le-Due, 1897, p.
277; partie complémentaire, 1899, p. 181.) ,
TRAJECTORY (in gunnery). See BAL-
LISTICS.
TRALEE-'." A seaport of Ireland, the chief
town of County Kerry, on the Lee, one mile from
its mouth, and 207 miles west-southwest of Dub-
lin (Map: Ireland, B 4). The town is well
built and dates from the twelfth century. Popu-
lation, about 9000.
TRALLES, tral’lez. An ancient city of
Lydia, in Asia Minor, or the Eudon River, a
northern branch of the Malander. Its origin was
ascribed to Argive and Thracian settlers. It was
a thriving commercial centre. Under the Seleu-
cidee it was known as Seleucia and Antiochia.
TRAM. See SILK.
TRAMP. The American equivalent of the
English ‘sturdy beggar’ and ‘vagrant.’ His
first statutory appearance was in 1876, in New
Jersey, and he was soon recognized legally -in
21 States. He is commonly defined as an able-
bodied man without visible means of support,
wandering aimlessly, begging, and refusing work,
camping and kindling fires on highways and pri-
vate property, and terrorizing women and chil-
dren. What really distinguishes him from the
prosaic vagrant of other countries is his exten-
sive use of the railways-—stealing rides, or, in his
argot, ‘jumping trains.’ The number of tramps
in the United States cannot be accurately given.
The closest estimate is one based upon the re-
sults of a statistical inquiry made in 1890-91,
covering 1349 tramps in 14 cities, and the semi-
annual lodging-house census of the Massachusetts
Board of Charity. This showed 45,845 tramps
in the United States. The highest mark was
reached in 1895, when Massachusetts showed a
mean daily tramp population of 791, as against
451.4 in 1890, implying a total for the State of
2832, as against 1616 before, and of 79,427 for
the United States. The mean has fallen, with
but two slight intermissions. since, and in 1902-
03 was 369.6, suggesting 1323 for Massachusetts
and 38.636 for the United States. This estimate
assumes much, but may be accepted as a fair ap-
proximation. The average cost of the tramp to
the community is about $4.40 a week, independent
of his possible depredations; and although 83.5
per cent. of tramps say their health is good, 10
per cent. of them admit having had a dangerous
contagious disease.
There are no national repressive laws. Those
TRAMP.
TRAN I.
864
of the various States have been characterized by
a severity born of panic, a not uncommon penalty
being twelve months’ imprisonment, and in two
States sale at public auction for a designated
period. Contrary to the common impression, the
tramp generally has learned and frequently prac-
ticed a trade or profession—57.4 per cent. of the
1349 mentioned above. The proportion of ‘pro-
fessionals,’ or those who never work, is extremely
small, their real weakness being chronic tendency
to intermittency in work. This is fostered by
their habits and marital condition, 63 per cent.
of them being admitted drunkards, and 93 per
cent. unmarried; and again by the conditions of
industrial activity, the drunkard being employed
only when he is indispensable and discharged,
along with the unmarried man, when business
slackens, witness the great rise in tramp popu-
lation after 1873 and the fall after 1901. The
statistics seem to show that the surest way of
correction lies in prevention.
In England the ancient penalties against what
we call tramping were very severe._ In the reign
of Edward VI. the punishment was branding
on the breast with a V and two years’ slavery.
In 1572 it was whipping for the first offense,
boring the ear with a hot iron for the second,
and death for the third. A fine of ten times the
dole was imposed on the person helping the va-
grant. The vagrant may now be lodged in the
casual ward of the Union (almshouse), where
he must break stone or pick tow in payment.
In Germany the most drastic modern measure
against the prime vice of tramping, open men-
dicancy, was that taken in Bavaria in 1790-95,
under Count Rumford, where in four years 10,-
000 vagabonds were arrested. It proved effective.
The number of tramps in Germany is unknown,
but is sometimes set at 100,000. The tramp
there is the lineal descendant of the old artisan
wandering abroad to complete his knowledge of
his craft. Beginning in 1854, when Professor
Perthes, of Bonn, founded a cheap tavern for
them, where no drink stronger than beer could
be had, the. number of these home refuges, Her-
bergen zur Heimat, increased in 1901-02 to 462,
a gain of 72 from 1892 to 1902, with an aggregate
of paying guests for the year of 1,931,575 and
of non-paying guests or those rendering an equiv-
alent in work of 759,057. For 108,505 of these
situations were found. In more or less direct
communication with the Herbergen, in 240 in-
stances under the same roof. is, on one hand, a
great network of local establishments, Verpfleg-
ungstationen, where lodging and a meal is fur-
nished in exchange for work, generally wood-
chopping; or, if there is no separate building, an
order is given for cheap entertainment at a local
tavern.
On the other hand is a chain of labor colonies,
Arbeiterkolonien, the first of which was estab-
lished in 1882 at Wilhelmsdorf, in Westphalia, by
Pastor von Bodelschwingh. There are now 33
colonies, with a thirty-fourth allied branch, for
Germans, in East London. It is noticeable that
26 of them were established between 1882 and
1892, a decade of especial industrial depression.
The thirty-three colonies have accommodations
ranging from 35 to 275, with a total of 3865, for
men only, and with 3055 occupants (October 31,
1902) , and an aggregate attendance from the be-
ginning of 138,392. These work at their trades or
otherwise until permanent places are found for
them, or they resume their travels. Four of
them are under Roman Catholic, one under Evan-
gelical control; the rest are non-denominational.
The English branch has room for 83 persons and
has had 630 inmates since its establishment in
1900. The efficiency of the German system,
which depends on private initiative, has been
much contested even in its own home. It seems
to be, however, an earnest and intelligent at-
tempt to do a difficult task that cannot safely be
neglected.
The French have experimented, under Paris
municipal control, along the lines of the labor
colony, at La Chalmelle, in the Department of
Marne.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Josiah Flynt, Tramping with
Tramps (New York, 1899) ; Wyckoif, The Work-
ers (New York, 1897-98); McCook, “A Tramp
Census and Its Revelations,” in the Forum (Au-
gust, 1893) ; id., “The Tramp Problem,” in Pro-
ceedings of the Conference of Charities and Cor-
rections (l895), and Lend a Hand (September,
1895); id., “Tramps,” a lecture, in the Boston
Herald (1895); id., “Pauperism and VVhisky,”
in Journal of the Social Science Association
(1894) ; id., “Leaves from a Tramp’s Diary,” in
The Independent (1901-02) .
TRANCE (0F., Fr. transe, extreme fear,
Sp., Port. trance, crisis, hour of death, from
Lat. transitus, passage over, from transire, to
pass over, cross, from trans, across, through +
ire, to go). A general term in psychology de-
noting various forms of modified consciousness.
The nature of the abnormal nervous conditions
that constitute the physiological causes of trance
is not clear. The psychological symptoms vary
from seeming inanimation to a waking condition,
though a manifestly abnormal one, of exagger-
ated suggestibility in respect to some dominating
idea. In general there is more or less insensi-
bility to environment and to ordinary stimuli.
VVhat may be termed the waking trance is also
characterized by extraordinary concentration or
automatic mental action, while the automatic
functions of the body are little interrupted. The
thoughts of the subject are ordinarily fixed on
one kind of idea, frequently religion. In trance-
sleep, except in its protractedness and the les-
sened sensibility to external stimuli, there ap-
pears to be little abnormal. In trance-coma these
symptoms are more intense and respiration and
circulation are feebler. In death-trance, except
sometimes the inner dream-life, all animation
ceases, including the action of heart and lungs.
The thought, or dream, of trance is likely to be
more sequential and coherent in character than
that of normal sleep. Various pathological and
psychopathic conditions are often called trance,
such as deep and unusually protracted sleep,
lethargy, suspended animation, the hypnotic
state,'and altered personality. Consult: Charcot,
Lecons sur les maladies du systeme ner/ueuw
(1883); Mantegazza, Estasi umane (1887);
Preston, Hysteria and Allied Conditions (1897 ) ;
and for an account of the so-called trance me-
dium Mrs. Piper, Proceedings of the Society for
Physical Research, xii.-xv.
TRANI, tra'ne. A seaport in the Province
of Bari delle Puglie. Italy, 27 miles by rail
northwest of Bari (Map: Italy, L 6). Its an-
cient walls have given place to spacious boule-
TRAN I.
TRANSCENDENTALISM.
865
vards. The twelfth-century cathedral has a very
high tower and magnificent bronze doors. The
Santa Maria Immaculata is a beautiful church.
The Gothic palace (the seat of a priests’ semi-
nary) and the old castle (now a prison) are
both interesting. Excellent building stone is
quarried. Trani first came into notice when it
submitted to the Normans in 1073. During the
Crusades it carried on a heavy trade with the
Levant. Population (commune), in 1881, 25,647;
in 1901, 31,800.
TRANSBAIKALIA, trtins’bi-kti'lé-a. Ater-
ritory of Eastern Siberia, bounded by the Terri-
tory of Yakutsk on the north, the Territory of
Amur and Manchuria on the east, Mongolia on
the south, and Lake Baikal and Irkutsk on the
west (Map: Asia, L 3). Area, 236,800 square
miles. The region is divided by the Yablonoi
Mountains, a part of the Stanovoi (q.v.) chain,
into two parts, of which the western has the char-
acter of an elevated plateau intersected by a deep
valley that extends from Lake Baikal to the Uda
River and is used by the chief highways as well
as by the Trans-Siberian Railway. The portion
east of the Yablonoi chain is lower than the
western part, and is traversed in the southeast
by the Nertchinsk Mountains. The region is
watered by the Argun and Shilka, which unite to
form the Amur, the Vitim, a tributary of the
Lena, and the Selenga (q.v.) , a tributary of Lake
Baikal. Of the numerous lakes the principal is
Lake Baikal (q.v.). The climate is continental
and very severe, the temperature being occasion-
ally as low as —58°. Transbaikalia is one of the
most highly mineralized regions of Siberia. Gold
is found especially in the Nertchinsk Mountains,
where there are also rich deposits of silver and
lead. Coal is found near the southeastern shore of
Lake Baikal, and iron in many parts. The mining
industry,however,is of little importance, and only
the gold output (3882 kilograms in 1897) is
of any importance. The mines are owned to a
large extent by the State and worked by convict
labor, the centre of the mining industries being
the Nertchinsk (q.v.) region. Agriculture is
confined chiefly to the south, where the natural
conditions are more favorable. Stock-raising is
extensively carried on, and hunting is still of
considerable importance. The chief manufactures
are leather, spirits, and flour. The transit trade
with Mongolia through Kiakhta (q.v.) is large.
Population, in 1897, 664,071, of whom the Cos-
sacks numbered about one-third. The aborigines,
mostly Buryats ‘and some Tunguses, have still in
the main preserved their clan organization, al-
though many of them have been assimilated with
the Russians. Capital, Tchita (q.v.). ,
TRANSCASTIA. A Russian territory in
Western Asia, bounded by the Territory of Ural
on the north, Khiva and Bokhara on the east,
Afghanistan and Persia on the south, and the
Caspian Sea on the west (Map: Asia, Central, G
2) . Area, estimated at from 214,000 to 220,000
square miles. In its general features the region
resembles Turkestan, of which it may be con-
sidered a western continuation. The larger part
of the north consists of elevated table lands with
some mountains in the peninsula of Manghishlak
in the northwest, and a deep depression near the
Khivan frontier in the east. The central part is
lower and is practically a desert with shifting
sands and dried-up river courses. The southern
part is traversed by a mountain chain which
separates the sandy deserts of Turkestan from
the highlands of Northern Persia, and from its
structure and direction appears to be a continua-
tion of the Caucasus system. This region is
watered by the Atrek, which flows along the
southern boundary to the Caspian and by the
Tejend and the Murghab. The whole region is
scantily watered. Irrigation is practiced. The
coast is indented by a number of deep inlets, of
which that of Kara Bugas is noted for its ex-
treme salinity. The climate is hot and dry, and
the precipitation extremely meagre. The region
contains rich mineral deposits, of which salt,
naphtha, ozocerite, and gypsum are mined to
some extent. Agriculture is developing in the
southern part, which is more favorably situated
with regard to irrigation. The principal prod-
ucts are wheat, sorghum, rice, and barley. Cot-
ton is also successfully cultivated. The natives
have extensive herds of sheep and other stock,
and export skins and wool. A number of house-
hold industries, such as rug-weaving and the
production of various articles of felt, are more or
less developed. The chief medium of transporta-
tion is the Transcaspian Railway, which traverses
the southern part of the territory. Population,
in 1897, 372,193, of whom the Turcomans con-
stituted about two-thirds. Capital, Askhabad
(q.v.).
TRANS’CAUCA’SIA. The southern part of
the Caucasus (q.v.), comprising the governments
of Tiflis, Baku,Yelizavetpol, Erivan, and Kutais
and the territories of Daghestan and Kars. Area,
about 92,400 square miles. Population, in 1897,
5,461,911.
TRANSGENDENTAL, TRANSCENDENT
(from transcendent, from Lat. transcendens, pres.
part. of Lat. transcendere, to surpass, from trans,
across, through + scandere, to climb, Skt. skand,
to spring, ascend). Words employed by various
schoolmen, in particular Duns Scotus, to de-
scribe the conceptions that, by their universality,
rise above or transcend the ten Aristotelian cate-
gories. (See CATEGORY.) Thus, according to
Scotus, ens, or being, because it is predicable of
substance and accident alike, of God as well as
of the world, is raised above these by including
or comprehending them.
Between the hitherto convertible terms tran-
scendental and transcendent Kant drew a dis-
tinction, of considerable importance in" under-
standing his own system. By the word
‘transcendental’ he designates the various forms,
categories, or ideas assumed to be constitutive or
regulative elements of human experience; al-
though they are manifested only in experience,
they are not products of experience. Among
such transcendental elements are space and time,
causality, and substantiality. The knowledge
that these elements are not of empirical origin
is called transcendental knowledge. The word
‘transcendent’ Kant reserves for those objects
that lie in the world of things in themselves,
entirely inaccessible to experience, and for any
pretended knowledge of such objects.
TRANSCENDENTALISM. A term applied
in philosophy to Kant’s system and to those like
it in maintaining that there can be knowledge
of transcendental elements. On account of the lit-
erary reputation of Emerson and of his col-
leagues in the Transcendental Club (organized
TRANSCE NDENTALISM.
TRAN SCE NDEN TALISM.
866
in 1836), and in the Brook Farm (q.v.), the
terms Transcendentalism and Transcendental
School are now frequently used by Eng1ish-speak-
ing peoples to designate the views of these
thinkers. The so-called Transcendental Move-
ment in New England Was mainly confined to
that region, and especially to Massachusetts, and,
in point of time, to the decades from 1830 to
1850. In its origin it dates much further back,
and in its effects it can scarcely be said to be
entirely extinct to-day. In character it was part-
ly philosophical, thus connecting with German
and French thought; partly economic, thus con-
necting with French and English schemes of so-
cial reform; partly literary, thus connecting with
the poetry of such dissimilar characters as Words-
worth and Shelley, and with the gospel of Car-
lyle; partly theological in a loose sense, thus
connecting with Unitarianism; but on the whole,
as Emerson averred, primarily spiritual, thus
connecting with and finally coalescing in contem-
porary movements for regeneration of every
kind. Putting the matter another way, we may
perhaps say that New England Transcendental-
ism was in the main a result of a revolt from
the formalism both of Unitarianism and of Cal-
vinism, which coalesced with a loose system of
intuitional philosophy borrowed from Germany,
and with the romantic revolt from classicism in
literature, as well as with a contemporaneous
American movement for securing the benefits of
foreign culture (illustrated in Irving and Long-
fellow among non-Transcendentalist authors),
and which finally more or less merged in the
great anti-slavery agitation. But any effort to
sum up in a single sentence the elements of such
a movement for social and individual regenera-
tion must be both clumsy and misleading, and it
will be necessary to dwell briefly on each element.
Transcendentalism in New England was in-
volved in the Great Awakening of a century
before, for both were spiritual manifestations,
the earlier of which did much to shake the hold
of rigid Calvinism and to introduce the religious
emotionality and liberalism that were later to
culminate in men like ‘William Ellery Channing
(q.v.) and Theodore Parker (q.v.). VVithin
twenty years after the Awakening, Arminianism
and Arianism, through the agency of the Deists
and other British writers, had made many con-
verts, especially in eastern Massachusetts. Jon-
athan Mayhew (q.v.) is typical of these early
liberals or Unitarians. The followers of Jon-
‘ athan Edwards struggled valiantly against the
innovators, and held most of New England for
orthodoxy, but by 17 85 there was a distinctively
Unitarian church (King’s Chapel) in Boston,
even if thirty years were to elapse before this
name could be definitely fastened on the seceders
from Calvinism. This change of faith was not
effected without heart-burning and a develop-
ment of religious unrest among New Englanders,
which made the acceptance of new philosophical
ideas, new literary standards, and new social
theories all the easier when the time was ripe.
The appointment of Unitarian professors at Har-
vard, resulting in the founding of Andover (q.v.)
and the preaching of such men as the younger
Buckminster (q.v.) and Channing, undoubtedly
prepared the way for Emerson (q.v.) and Al-
cott (q.v.), for Ripley (q.v.) and Parker.
But although by 1825 Unitarianism had won
a decisive victory in Boston and its environs, it
was not destined to maintain its ascendency for
anything like so long a period as its foe, Cal-
vinism, had done. It, too, showed a tendency to
formalism, both in thought and in taste, and
impressionable souls soon broke away into new
paths of philosophy, theology, and literature.
Some little knowledge of Kant and his suc-
cessors, of Schleiermacher, and of Goethe, had
been obtained by a few persons prior to 1830.
Before 1840 the labors of George Ripley, F. H.
Hedge (q.v.), and other translators had con-
siderably increased this knowledge; in conse-
quence, the influence of German thought upon
New England Transcendentalism cannot be ig-
nored, although it is easily exaggerated. French
thought, as illustrated by Cousin, and more by
Fourier, was less influential, but that there was
a decided taste for foreign literature which gave
an impetus to the contemporaneous movement
for a greater and freer spiritual life seems to be
clearly established. This meant dissatisfaction
with eighteenth -century standards and with the
colonial character of American literature, and
thus involved the founding of The Dial (q.v.).
Nor in this connection should we forget the in-
terest displayed by some Transcendentalists in the
Oriental Scriptures, in Neo-Platonism, and in
more or less occult literature. But behind the
revolt from formal Unitarianism and the craving
for new forms of philosophy and literature that
characterized many young persons in New Eng-
land between 1830 and 1840, there was the gen-
eral uplift of the world’s spirit that showed itself
in revolutions and in other ways, and there was
also on the part of aspiring souls a contempt
for the vulgarity and selfishness of American
political and business life during the J acksonian
epoch. It is no wonder that New England, which
was old and homogeneous enough to produce
thinkers and writers, and not merely men of
action and affairs, was nevertheless unable to de-
velop orderly schools of thought and literature,
and seemed for a time given over to extremists
and faddists of all sorts.
If the Transcendental movement was ever or-
ganized, this did not take place until 1836 (Sep-
tember l9th), when Emerson, Hedge, Alcott, and
others formed the so-called Hedge or Transcenden-
tal Club. Little came of this organization until
The Dial was started in 1840, and Brook Farm
(q.v.) founded in 1841. Neither enterprise was
fully successful, but both were -very influential
upon literature and thought, though not greatly
upon action. Under Margaret Fuller (q.v.) and
Emerson The Dial was a hospitable receptacle
for the verses of the Transcendentalist poets—
C. P. Cranch (q.v.), the younger W. E. Chan-
ning (q.v.), and others, whose merits are slowly
being recognizecl——and for many of the best
papers of the two editors, and of Thoreau (q.v.) .
It did not create or recreate American literature,
but it undoubtedly stimulated important writers.
Brook Farm was laughed at by the hard-headed,
and not effectively supported by many of the
leading Transcendentalists themselves, but it set
up a beneficial ideal of “plain living and high
thinking,” it furnished Hawthorne material for
his Blithedale Romance, and it doubtless leavened
the utilitarian spirit of the country and the age.
No writer upon New England Transcenden-
TRAN SCENDENTALISM.
TRANSFORMER.
867
talism has failed to remark upon the exceedingly
elusive character of the movement. It is diffi-
cult to disengage its elements, to delimit it in
point of time, to say what it really accomplished,
to determine what; it became. If it had been
fully organized the case would have been dif-
ferent for the student, yet the results would
probably have been less fortunate, both to- the
Transcendentalists themselves and to the Ameri-
can people at large. Not being hampered by or-
ganization, by formulas, by the apparatus of
propagandism, the Transcendentalists were better
able to serve a more specific cause of greater
moment—that of Abolition. They were also en-
abled to follow the bent of individual genius after
having experienced, as \Vordsworth had before
them, the stimulating effects of having lived in
a visionary period, when it was bliss merely to
be alive, and when to be young was very heaven.
Emerson became the favorite moralist of his
countrymen, and an important poet; Alcott
gave full vent to his eccentricity, and ended as
the patron saint of the Concord Philosophers;
Margaret Fuller had a brilliant and only too
short career as a critic and woman of letters;
Ripley by his reviews in The Tribune and his
services with C. A. Dana (q.v.) as an encyclo-
paedist showed that a Brook Farmer was capable
of valuable, if homely, work in the cause of
letters and science; Thoreau revealed nature to
his countrymen, and became a high priest of
individualism, as well as a writer of truly classic
prose; Theodore Parker died just before the be-
ginning of the crusade of which he was perhaps
the greatest preacher. Last, but not least, thou-
sands of men and women throughout New Eng-
land were inspired by Transcendentalism to de-
vote themselves to every form of philanthropy,
including educational and temperance reform, to
acquire a varied and genuine culture, and to
become public-spirited citizens. The era of the
Transcendentalists was in many respects an
American Renaissance, the effects of which were
not confined to this country, but were spread,
chiefly through the writings of Emerson, Thoreau,
and Channing, to England and to some extent
to the Continent of Europe. That their ideas
were vague and often transcended reason, not to
say common sense, that their literary work was
largely amateurish, that their extravagances
gave much occasion to legitimate ridicule, that
their so-called movement was the forerunner of
religious and social manias of all sorts, can
scarcely be gainsaid; but it is equally idle to
deny the loftiness of their aims and the impor-
tance of their works.
Consult the various lives of Emerson, Ripley,
Channing, J . F. Clarke, Parker, Margaret Fuller,
Alcott, Thoreau, etc. Also Cooke, Unitarianism
in America (Boston, 1903); id., The Poets of
Transcendentalism (ib., 1903) ; Frothingham,
Transcendentalism in New England (New York,
1876); Swift, Brook Farm (ib., 1900); T. W.
Higginson, Old Cambridge (ib., 1900).
TRANSCRIPTION (Lat. transcriptio, from
transcribere, to transcribe, from trans, across,
through + scribere, to write). In music, an ar-
rangement of a composition for instruments or
voices other than those employed by the com-
poser, which really are not transcriptions, but
paraphrases. See PARAPHRASE.
TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across,
through + septum, sceptum, inclosure, parti-
tion; connected with srepes, hedge). The pro-
jecting wings at right angles with the nave and
aisles, forming the smaller arms of the cross, in
the ground plan of churches. In some of the
largest early basilicas it was placed at the very
top, helping to form a T-plan. In such churches
the great arch opening from the nave into the
transept was called the triumphal arch. When
the strictly cruciform plan was introduced for
churches in the early Middle Ages (Carolingian
period) the transept became quite common, and
in the Gothic age almost universal. It shows
sometimes in plan, when it projects beyond the
line of the side aisles; sometimes only in eleva-
tion, when, though not projecting, it is marked by
its vault and roof, which intersect the lower roof
of the aisles on a level with that of the nave.
The intersection is often called the crossing, and
was usually surmounted by a spire, tower, or
dome, to mark it. The crossing was also usually
marked by much heavier piers._
While single transepts were the rule, there
were two kinds of double transepts used in Eng-
land and Germany. The double English tran-
sept was on the scheme of the archbishop’s or
Passion cross, with both arms toward the choir
end; the double German transept was connected
with the double choir, one at each end of the
church. The ends of the transepts in Gothic
churches were often treated as facades only
second in importance to the main front, with
their large rose or wheel windows and their
elaborate portals. Those of the Notre Dame in
Paris, of Chartres, and Amiens are particularly
beautiful. '
TRANSFIGURATION (Lat. transfi-guratio,
from transfigurare, to transfigure, from trans,
across, through + figurare, to form, from figura,
shape, form) OF CHRIST. The temporary revela-
tion of the glory of Jesus during His earthly
ministry, recorded in Matt. xvii. 1-8, and parallel
passages. The festival commemorating it can be
traced back to the fifth century, but was estab-
lished on August 6th as a solemn feast for the
whole Roman Catholic Church in 1457, as a
thanksgiving for the victory over the Turks near
Belgrade. It was retained as a black-letter fes-
tival by the Church of England, and restored as
a greater feast by the American Episcopal
Church at the revision of the Prayer-Book in
1892.
TRANSFORMATION. See MARBLE FAUN.
TRANSFORMER. In electrical engineer-
ing, an apparatus for transforming or converting
an electric current. Machines for converting al-
ternating currents to direct currents and vice
versa are described under DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINERY. Devices for obtaining pulsating
currents of high potential from pulsating cur-
rents of low potential are described under INDUC-
TION COILS. The present article treats only of
devices used to transform alternating currents
into other alternating currents differing in mag-
nitude and potential.
A transformer may be specified as two electric
circuits, such as two independent coils of in-
sulated wire, inclosing a common magnetic cir-
cuit. This will be the case in some degree if the
coils are anywhere near each other, but not
TRANSFORMER.
TRANSFORMER.
868
placed at right angles and so that the plane of
one coil passes through the centre of the other.
lf an electric current is passed through one of
the coils, magnetic lines of force (see MAGNET-
ISM) will be created, some of which will thread
through the second coil. If the coils are placed
Iron Core

\
_____,..
__.i,,
[Hf/(HI!/I/l
\L/
\\
Primary
Coil
1
/
FIG. 1. DIAGRAM OF ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
Secondary
) Coil
'\
contiguous to each other nearly all of the lines
of force created by the first coil will thread
through the second coil, and if iron is intro-
duced in the magnetic circuit the number of
these lines, or the intensity of the magnetic field,
will be much greater with a given current in the
first coil than if air or other non-magnetic mat-
ter only were present. (See MAGNETISM.) A
device constituted in this manner of an iron
magnetic circuit interlinked with two electric
circuits becomes, when one of the electric cir-
cuits is supplied with alternating current, an
alternating current transformer.
Starting with no current in either coil, let us
consider what happens if we apply an electro-
motive force to the extremities of the first or
primary coil. A current will commence to flow,
but will not attain at once to the full magni-
tude due to the electromotive force applied and
the resistance of the circuit. This is because the
passage of the current creates a magnetic field,
the growth of which in turn creates a counter
electromotive force opposed in direction, as the
name signifies, to the impressed electromotive
force. (See ELECTRICITY.) At the same time
that the counter electromotive force is produced
in the first coil, an induced electromotive force
will be created in the second coil, having the same
direction as the counter electromotive force in
the first coil, or contrary to the electromotive
force impressed upon the first coil. Supposing
that the second coil is so connected that it forms
a closed circuit, an electric current will be set
up in it which will be opposite in direction to
the current in the first coil.
It should be noted that an electromotive force
is induced in the second coil only so long as the
number of lines of magnetic force is changing.
If the first coil is supplied from a source of al-
ternating current, this will be continually, since
the impressed electromotive force from such a
source will increase incessantly from zero to a
maximum in one direction, pass back through the
zero value to a maximum in the opposite direc-
tion, and then fall to zero‘ again. It will be seen
that the current in the primary coil will follow
a similar cycle of changes, as will also the flux
of lines of magnetic force and the induced elec-
tromotive force and current in the secondary coil.
It may be assumed that in an ideal trans-
former all the lines of force created by the first
coil pass through the second coil, and further,
that there are no losses of energy due to the re-
sistance of the two coils, to eddy currents induced
in the windings or in the iron core, or to other
causes. In accordance with the first assumption
that all lines of magnetic force thread through
both coils, the electromotive force induced by
variations of the magnetic flux will be the same
in every turn of either coil, or, in other words,
the total electromotive force induced in each coil
will be proportional to the number of turns in
that coil. If, say, the primary consists of 100
turns of wire and the secondary coil of 10 turns
of wire, and if, further, the primary coil be con-
nected with a source of supply of alternating cur-
rent having a potential difference of 1000 volts,
the potential difference at the extremities of the
secondary coil would be 100 volts. Now, while
it is seen that the voltages produced are in direct
proportion to the number of turns in the respec-
tive coils, it will be found that the currents pro-
duced bear an inverse ratio. This may be ex-
plained as follows:
Assuming the primary coil to be without re-
sistance and also, for the time being, that the
secondary circuit is open so that no current can
flow, the current in the first coil will be limited
entirely by the back electromotive force, and, un-
der the conditions assumed of a highly permeable
magnetic circuit, this would almost equal the ap-
plied electromotive force and little current would
flow. However, a current of sufficient magnitude
to create the magnetic field producing the
counter electromotive force referred to must
flow. This magnetizing current and the mag-
netic flux it produces will be varying most
rapidly when the impressed electromotive force
is maximum, since then the counter electromo-
tive force must be greatest, and again, it must
reach its maxima, that is, its limits, when the
impressed electromotive force is zero. In other
words, the magnetizing current is not in phase
with the impressed electromotive force, but lags
behind, and if the matter is considered in detail
it will be found that this current takes energy
from the circuit during two parts of the cycle
and returns it during two others. Energy is
absorbed while the magnetic field is being built
up and returned to the supply circuit as the field
collapses. If at any time much disparity should
begin between the impressed electromotive force
and the counter electromotive force, the current
and magnetic field would commence immediately
to vary rapidly, which would tend to bring the
two electromotive forces again into approximate
balance. Further, the intensity of this mag-
netizing current depends only upon the sus-
ceptibility of the magnetic circuit, the magni-
tude of the electromotive force impressed upon
the primary coil, and the frequency with Which
the impressed electromotive force is reversed.
Since the counter electromotive force depends on
the rate at which the lines of force are created
or die out within the coil, if the frequency is great,
the magnetic flux, and therefore the magnetizing
current, will not need to reach as high values
for a given applied electromotive force as if the
frequency were low.
It has just been pointed out that in the ideal
transformer without resistance or other losses
the counter electromotive force prevents any flow
of current in the primary in phase with the im-
TRANSFORMER.
TRANSFORMER.
869
pressed electromotive force. If, however, the sec-
ondary circuit be closed so that current flows
therein, this condition no longer continues. The
secondary current flows in a direction contrary to
the primary impressed electromotive force and
alternates simultaneously with it, and so tends to
neutralize the magnetizing effect of any current
which may flow in phase with the primary elec-
tromotive force. It may be here stated that the
magnetizing effect of either coil is proportional to
the size of its current multiplied by its number
of turns. Furthermore, since the secondary coil
is required to neutralize exactly the magnetizing
effect of the primary current in phase with the
applied electromotive force, the secondary cur-
rent multiplied by the secondary turns must
equal the primary current multiplied by the pri-
mary turns, that is, the currents will be in-
versely proportional to the number of turns in
the respective coils.
In the example given above, if the terminals of
the secondary coil, having a potential difference
of 100 volts, are connected by an electrical cir-
cuit having a resistance of one ohm, 100 amperes
of current will flow, the coil itself, of course,
being assumed to have no resistance. The mag-
netizing effect of this current of 100 amperes
flowing through 10 turns of wire will be 1000
ampere turns. Since the primary has 100 turns,
the current required to produce the same num-
ber of ampere turns will be 10 amperes. By
supplying 10 amperes at 1000 volts to the
primary we could take 100 amperes at 100 volts
from secondary. In other words, the output of
energy (volts X amperes) equals the input.
The actual transformer differs from the ideal
transformer just described in thq following re-
spects. In the first place, the coils have electrical
resistance, and some electromotive force will be
consumed in causing current to flow through this
resistance. The result of this is that the entire
potential difference called for by the ratio of the
numbers of turns on the coils does not appear at
the secondary terminals and that some electrical
energy is converted into heat. It is obviated, as
much as possible, by increasing the size and
conductivity and decreasing the length of the
primary and secondary conductors. In the sec-
0nd place, all the lines of magnetic force created
by the primary coil do not pass through the sec-
ondary, and vice versa. The result of this again
is that the potential difference at the terminals of
the secondary coil is not equal to that called for
by the ratio of transformation. This effect is re-
duced to a minimum by a proper distribution of
the coils with respect to each other. In the
third place, energy is absorbed by the iron core in
consequence of the magnetic changes constantly
taking place within it. This loss of energy takes
two forms, one of which is represented by elec-
tric currents (called eddy or Foucault currents)
induced in the iron itself. This is prevented, as
far as possible, by dividing the iron into lamina:
at right angles to the direction of flow of these
currents. The second loss of energy in the core
is due to the fact that the magnetism of the iron
lags behind the magnetizing force, that is. when
the magnetizing force is increasing the flux is
not as great for a given value of the force as it
is for the same value of the force when the force
is decreasing. (See MAGNETISM.) This effect,
called hysteresis (q.v.), is avoided, as far as pos-
sible by choosing the proper grade of iron. The
practical effects of these deviations from the ideal
transformer are: the first two cause a drop in the
potential at the terminals of the secondary coil;
this drop increases with the load and the part
of it due to the resistance of the conductors rep-
resents loss of electric energy which appears as
heat; the eddy currents and hysteresis in the
iron core represent transformation of electric
energy into heat.
The first transformers were constructed by Mi-
chael Faraday in England in 1831 and at nearly the
same time by Joseph Henry in the United States.
Faraday discovered that when the current in a
coil was varied a current was induced in a near-
by coil of wire, although both were stationary
and did not touch. For a long time the only
application of this discovery was in the making
of induction coils (q.v.), Ruhmkorff coils, and
other similar small apparatus. With the intro-
duction of alternating currents into electrical
engineering, however, the transformer found a
wide field of application. For instance, the
amount of energy wasted in heat by a current
traversing a circuit is proportional to the square
of the current multiplied by the resistance of
the conductor. The energy transmitted is pro-
portional to the product of the current and
the electromotive force. That is, if we have
a high enough electromotive force we can trans-
mit a given amount of energy with a very small
current, and so with relatively small conductors.
This feature becomes of great importance,
since it permits small and less costly conductors,
when we wish to transmit energy over a great
distance, as for instance from a waterfall to a
distant city. But while a high voltage is
desirable for transmission, it is dangerous and
difficult to control, both in the machinery in

FIG. 2. BRILL TYPE TRAHBIOIIIIIR. WESTINGHOUSE PATTERN.
which the electrical current is generated and in
the apparatus in which it is utilized. By means
of transformers, however, the current may at the
generating station he ‘stepped up’ for the trans-
TRANSFORMER.
TRANS-ISTHMIAN CANAL.
870
mission line and again at the receiving end
‘stepped down’ to a lower potential for distribu-
tion. As an example, the water from the melting
snows on the mountains of California is used
in water-wheels to drive dynamos generating elec-
tric current at a pressure of a few thousand volts
or less. This is ‘stepped up’ by transformers to
about 60,000 volts and is transmitted through
small overhead conductors nearly 200 miles to
San Francisco, where it is ‘stepped down’ to per-
haps-100 volts for ordinary incandescent light-
ing. See TRANSMISSION OF Powss.
The device which we have outlined is modified
in many ways to meet the requirements of vari-
ous uses, and transformers for the same purposes
are built in different forms
by different manufacturers.
In methods of construction
nearly all standard commer-
cial transformers may be
put in one of the two classes,
shell type and core type. In
the shell type of trans-
former, part of the iron of
the magnetic circuit passes
around the outside and more
or less envelope the pri-
mary and secondary wind-
ings. In the core type the
windings almost completely cover the iron core.
Very efficient apparatus is constructed in both
forms, each of which has been adopted, respect-
ively by one of the two great electrical manufac-
turing concerns of the United States.
If a transformer is supplied with a con-
stant average alternating electromotive force and
is expected to deliver a constant electromotive
force from its terminals, as we have assumed in
our explanation, it is spoken of as a constant
potential transformer. To this class the great
majority of transformers in commercial use be-
long. If the transformer is supplied with a con-
stant current and is expected to deliver a con-
stant current, although the voltages may vary, it
is known as a series or constant current trans-
former. If the secondary of a transformer is in-
serted in series in one of the distribution lines
running from a power station and used to regu-
late the voltage in that line it is known as a
booster or induction regulator.
Of special transformers for special purposes
there are many. Polyphase transformers con-
sist of anumber of pairs of windings, one for each
phase of the electrical circuit, arranged upon a
common magnetic circuit. Transformers deliv-
ering constant current at a varying potential
when supplied with a varying current at a con-
stant potential are used for series are lighting
from constant potential supply mains. This ap-
parently paradoxical result is obtained by so
arranging the primary and secondary coils that
the magnetic leakage, that is, the lines of force
passing through one coil but not through the
other, varies with the voltage required in the
secondary. This can easily be obtained if the
secondary coil is made movable and so arranged
that it can swing away from the primary coil,
which it will readily do if the current within
it increases the least, since the currents of the
primary and secondary coils repel each other by
virtue of the fact that they flow in opposite direc-
tions. Another special form of transformer hav-


CORE TYPE
F re. 3.
TRANSFORMER, GEN-
ERAL ELECTRIC co.
PATTERN.
ing a limited application is the auto-transformer,
in which the primary and secondary coils are
united into one. To explain this type we may
suppose a coil of 200 turns of wire to be wound
on an iron core with a tap taken off at the one
hundredth coil. If an alternating electromotive
force of 100 volts is applied to 100 turns, suf-
ficient alternating magnetic flux will be set up
to produce a counter electromotive force of 100
volts in these 100 coils; but this will also give
rise to a similar electromotive force in the re-
maining l00 coils, so that between the extremi-
ties of the 200 coils we will have a potential dif-
ference of nearly 200 volts. This type of trans-
former has many special uses. It is employed,
for example, to obtain the low voltages required
for starting induction motors, for balancing al-
ternating current, multi-wire distribution cir-
cuits, etc.
The capacity of a transformer is limited only
by the accumulation of heat in the windings and
core. For this reason transformers are often
immersed in oil baths, naturally or artificially
cooled, or else supplied with a blast of air from
a fan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fleming, The Alternating Cur-
rent Transformer (3d ed., London, 1901) ; Kapp,
The Electric Transmission of Energy and Its
Transformation (London, 1895) ; id., Transform-
ers for Single and Multiphase Currents (ib.,
1896) ; Steinmetz, Theory and Calculation of Al-
ternating Current Phenomena (3d ed., New York,
1900) ; Jackson, Alternating Currents and Alter-
nating Current Machinery (New York, 1900);
_and especially the Proceedings of the American
and British Institutes of Electrical Engineers, and
the current electrical magazines and periodicals.
TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD (Lat. trans-
fusio, from transfundere, to pour from one to
the other, from trans, across, through + fun-
dere, to pour). The injection into one person
of blood taken from another, either directly,
from vein to vein, or after it has been defi-
brinated. The operation has been regarded as
legitimate in obstetric surgery since the year
1824, when Dr. Blundell published his well-
known work, entitled Physiological and Patho-
logical Researches. The operation had, however,
been vaguely known to the medical profession for
the last four centuries; and there are obscure
allusions in the Roman poets, which would seem
to indicate that it was practiced as early as the
Augustan age. The older operation of trans-
fusion of blood has now given way to the opera-
tion of infusion into the veins or subcutaneous
tissues of a hot saline solution of a temperature
of 100° to 120° F. This solution contains sodium
chloride in the proportion in which it is found
in solution in normal physiological tissues (about
0.6 per cent.). The amount injected varies
usually from one to two pints. It is one of the
most useful agents at the surgeon’s command in
the treatment of shock and the acute anaemia re-
sulting from sudden loss of blood. Consult:
Jenning, Transfusion: Its History, etc. (Lon-
don, 1883) ; Zachrisson, Earperimenteller studier,
etc. (Upsala, 1902) ; Wallace, “Intra-venous Sa-
line Injections in Shock and Hemorrhage,” in
M edioal Review (Pittsburg, Pa., 1896) .
TRANS-ISTHMIAN CANAL. The pro-
jects for a trans-isthmian canal have included
TRAN S-ISTHMIAN CANAL.
TRANS-TSTHMIAN CANAL.
871
two principal routes, the Nicaragua and the
Panama, though there also has been a discussion
of a number of secondary routes the principal of
which are the Tehuantepec, the San Blas, and
the Caledonia Bay. All of these routes have been
investigated by engineers and some of them have
received continued study for many years. The
most thorough and comprehensive study of re-
cent years was that made by the Isthmian Canal
Commission in 1899-1900, and not only were the
two main routes discussed but also other possible
projects as mentioned below. The political ques-
tions involved have largely been confined to the
Nicaragua and Panama schemes and as these
propositions have attracted such widespread at-
tention in the past and as each possesses certain
unique features both engineering and otherwise,
they will be found treated under their respective
heads (see NICARAGUA CANAL and PANAMA
CANAL), while below will be given a summary of
the features of other proposed routes.
TEIIUANTEPEC ROUTE. The well-known geo-
graphic conditions at Tehuantepec and between
the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes made it
unnecessary to explore those parts of the Ameri-
can isthmus for other possible locations for an
interoceanic canal, and the commission mentioned
limited its investigations to what is generally
known as the Darien country, extending from
Panama to the Atrato River.
For about 80 miles the width of the isthmus in
this region does not exceed 40 miles, except at
one of two headlands which project beyond the
general line of the coast. The narrowest point is
at San Blas, where the distance from Mandinga
Harbor to the shore of Panama Bay is only 31‘
miles, two miles less than from the head of the
bay at Limon, at Colon, to the mouth of the Ber-
nadino. On the eastern side of Panama Bay,
about 100 miles from Panama, an estuary known
as San Miguel Bay extends into the interior to
within 33 miles of Caledonia Bay, on the Atlantic
‘side. This bay of San Miguel, on the Pacific,
and San Blas and Caledonia bays, on the Atlantic
side, afford excellent harbors and canal ap-
proaches. Between Panama and San Blas the
ridge of the Cordilleras crosses from the Pacific
to the Atlantic side and continues there to the
mouth of the Atrato River. ‘
As the existence of practicable and feasible
routes in this section depended upon the height
and continuity of the divide, its crest was ex-
amined all along the line, with as much care and
accuracy as was practicable under the conditions
which existed, for the discovery of gaps and de-
pressions, so as to ascertain whether any were
sufficiently low for canal purposes, and measure-
ments were made of those which promised the
most favorable results.
The ridge was traced continuously on the
ground from the head of the river Carti, a little
east of Mandinga Harbor, in San Blas Bay, to
the head waters of the Chagres, and thence down
the river to the Panama Railroad a total distance
of 24% miles; also near Caledonia Bay from the
Carreto summit, to the Sassardi summit, a dis-
tance of 27% miles. The lowest elevation in the
former section was 956 feet, in the latter 683
feet. Between these two sections from San Blas
Bay to Caledonia Bay, a distance of 81 miles in
an air line, and from Caledonia Bay southward to
the Atrato River, the examination was made
from the sea, and the elevations of the higher
peaks, as well as the gaps and their distances
was determined. The result showed that there
was no probability of any suitable depression
within these limits.
In addition to these investigations, a survey
was made from San Miguel Bay, on the Pacific
side, up the Chucunaque and Chucurti (Sucubti)
rivers, which was almost though not quite con-
nected with the work done near Caledonia Bay.
After the results of the general exploration were
determined, the examination of other possible
routes was limited to those sections where the
isthmus was narrowest, where the coast lines of-
fered good harbors, and the indications along the
divide were the most promising. These condi-
tions were found near San Blas Bay and Cale- -
donia Bay. East of San Miguel Bay the isthmus
widens, and no route can be expected there less
than a hundred miles in length.
SAN BLAS ROUTE. The San Blas route extends
from the bay of that name to the mouth of the
Bayano, on the Pacific; it has been advocated as
the shortest line between the two oceans, which
is true. The most complete plan developed in-
volves a tunnel at least seven miles long. While
not necessarily impracticable, such a tunnel
would be very objectionable and would render the
line inferior either to the Panama or the Nica-
ragua location.
CALEDONIA BAY ROUTE. The distance from
Caledonia Bay to tide water on the Savana River
is about 30 miles in a straight line. Studies have
been made of three lines across the divide, all of
them striking the same point on the Savana
River, near the mouth of the Lara. the approach
on the Atlantic side being through the three val-
leys of the Caledonia, the Aglaseniqua, and the
Sassardi. The distance from Caledonia Bay to
the mouth of the Lara varies from 32 miles by
the Sassardi route to 36 by the Caledonia route.
The Sassardi route has not, however, been ex-
plored through its whole length, and it is pos-_
sible that an actual survey would make it as
long as the Caledonia route. Each line would
require a tunnel. If the Sassardi route were
taken, the length of this tunnel, assuming an
open cut to be used to the depth of 400 feet,
would be about 1.6 miles. On either of the other
two the tunnel would be about two miles longer,
while the approaches on the south side would be
much heavier.
These surveys indicate that the Sassardi route
is probably the best of the three for a sea-level
canal. The indication cannot be regarded as con-
clusive, because a thorough survey and develop-
ment of the sub-surface material might show in-
superable difficulties, which would be more likely
to exist in the tunnel than elsewhere. The cost of
a canal upon this line would be excessive and the
tunnel more objectionable to navigation than the
locks on the other routes.
Caledonia Bay is virtually tideless. San
Miguel Bay has a tidal range of 20 feet or more.
This heavy tide causes currents in the Savana
River of sufficient force to be a serious menace
to navigation, and it would be necessary to build
a tide lock near the mouth of the Savana. The
distance from the mouth of the Lara to the tide-
lock site is about 14 miles, the upper portion of
which is in a narrow river which would require
enlargement for a canal. This makes the total
TRANS-ISTHMIAN CANAL.
TRANSMISSION OF POWER.
872
length of canal navigation from Caledonia Bay
to the tide look about 50 miles.
The result of all these examinations showed
that there was no probability of the existence of
any practicable canal location between Panama
and the mouth of the Atrato River, except by the
adoption of a tunnel line, and there seemed to be
no reason for further field work except in the
interest of geography. See Report of Nicaragua
Canal Commission, 1897-99 (Baltimore, 1899)
and the bibliography under NICARAGUA CANAL
and PANAMA CANAL, which articles should be
read in this connection.
TRANSIT INSTRUMENT (Lat. transitus,
passage over). An astronomical instrument
consisting principally of a telescope fixed to a
horizontal east-and-west axis, and revolving in
the plane of the meridian. It is employed, as
its name denotes, in the observation of the
meridian transits of the heavenly bodies, i.e.
in noting the exact instants when they reach
the meridian of the observatory. The axis, which
is the most important part of the instrument,
and thus demands the utmost care in its con-
struction, consists of a hollow sphere or cube,
to opposite sides of which are tightly fastened
the bases of two cones in whose apices the pivots
are screwed; the sphere or cube is pieced for the
admission of the telescope, which is firmly fas-
tened at right angles to the axis. One of the
pivots is hollowed so that a stream of light can
be directed from a lantern half way along the
interior of the axis, and through an aperture in
the side, into the telescope tube, where, being
received by a small reflector, set at 45° to the
axis and telescope tube, it is directed to the eye-
piece, rendering visible a series of fine spider-
threads stretched across the field of view. The
pivots must be carefully turned to a perfectly
cylindrical form, and fitted into the instrument,
so that they are accurately in line. One ex-
tremity of the axis carries one and sometimes
two small graduated circles, each supplied with
index, clamping screws, and vernier ; these circles
are capable of indicating angular measures to
within 1’ or 2'. There are three adjustments
necessary before a transit instrument can be
used: the axis must be horizontal; the sight line
of the telescope, as marked by the spider-threads,
must be at right angles to the axis of motion;
and the latter must be placed so as to point
accurately east and west. On the perfection of
the first two of these adjustments depends
whether the telescope sweeps over a great circle
of the sphere, and the third is necessary to in-
sure that this great circle shall be the meridian
of the place of observation. These adjustments
can never be made quite perfect, and the usual
mode is to investigate the amount of error in
each, and allow for it by a calculated correc-
tion applied to the observed time of the star’s
crossing the meridian. To note accurately this
observed time by the astronomical clock is, as
we have said, the essential part of a transit ob-
servation. It is best done by means of a chrono-
graph (q.v.), an instrument with which an auto-
matic record of the observed time can be made
by means of an electric signal sent out directly
from the observer’s hand. The transit used by
engineers will be found described and illustrated
under ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS.
TRANSIT OF VENUS. The passing of
Venus across the sun’s disk, seen when the planet
is exactly in line with the sun and the earth. The
two planets, Mercury and Venus, whose orbits
lie between the sun and the earth’s orbit, can at
times pass between us and the sun. We can then
see them in the telescope, appearing as black
dots projected on the luminous solar surface.
If the exact instant of time be observed when
the planet first touches the solar disk, and again
when it finally leaves it, we can use the observa-
tions to calculate the solar parallax and the dis-
tance from the earth to the sun. Transits of
Venus are especially well suited for this purpose,
and they have been very elaborately observed in
the past, especially in the years 1874 and 1882.
Unfortunately, experience has proved that it is
impossible to observe the required instants of
time with sufficient precision; and other methods
of measuring the sun’s distance are now pre-
ferred by astronomers. (See PABALLAX; Enos.)
The next transit of Venus will occur June 8,
2004. Transits of Mercury will happen on the
following dates in the twentieth century:
November 12, 1907.
November 13, 1953.
November 6, 1914.
November 6, 1960.
May 7, 1924. May 9, 1970.
- November 8, 1927. November 9, 1973.
May 10, 1937 November 12, 1986.
November 12, 1940. November 14, 1999.
It will be noticed that transits of Mercury
occur much more frequently than those of Venus;
but, as we have said, they are not well adapted
for solar parallax observations, and are indeed
of quite minor importance astronomically.
TRANSKEI (trans-ki') TERRITORY. A
dependency of Cape Colony, between the Great
Kei River and Tembuland. Area, 2552 square
miles; population, in 1891, 153,563, the region
thus being the most densely populated part of
Cape Colony. The territory is administered by a
chief magistrate and is subject to the ‘Native
Territories Penal Code.’
TRANS’LEITIIA’NIA. A name applied to
the eastern division of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy on account of its position east of the
Leitha River, which forms. a part ‘of the boundary
line between the two divisions of the monarchy.
See CISLEITHANIA.
TRANSMIGRATION.
SIS.
TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY ELEC-
TRICITY. The electrical transmission of energy
in considerable quantities from the point of
generation to one or more distant points of
delivery. This excludes telegraphy and telephony
(qq.v.), where energy is transmitted over a wire,
but in small quantities.
Energy is transmitted in order to utilize a
cheap source of energy supply, and the total cost
of generation and transmission to the point of
use must be less than would be the cost of
generation at the point of use, otherwise such
transmission would not be profitable. Therefore,
transmission plants are usually supplied by
water power or by cheap coal, and the electricity
is derived from generators. (See DYNAMO-
ELECTRIC MACHINERY.) The cost of the trans-
mission depends upon the distance and upon the
permissible electrical pressure, or voltage, of
the transmission line. The weight of copper re-
quired to transmit any amount of energy for any
See METEMPSYCHO-
TRANSMISSION OF POWER.
TRANSMISSION OF POWER.
873
distance at any particular efficiency is directly
proportional to the square of the distance, and
inversely proportional to the square of the volt-
age. If the distance be doubled, with the same
voltage, the weight of copper will be four times
as great; if the voltage be doubled, with the
same distance, the weight of copper will be one-
quarter as great; if the loss be doubled, the
weight of copper, for the same distance and same
voltage, will be halved.
This is the fundamental fact in the trans-
mission of energy by electricity; great distances
can be economically overcome by the use of high
voltages only. This explains the practical
elimination of the direct current as a means of
transmission; direct-current generators cannot
be built in large sizes for more than 1500 volts,
on account of trouble at the commutator; to
connect a large number of such generators in
series involves great difficultiesin the use of
the energy at the receiving end ; the motors must
also be connected in series and be insulated to
stand the maximum voltage; this limits their
use to places where skilled supervision can be
exercised. There are a few instances of the
use of direct-current transmission in Europe,
but in the United States there is none.
The maximum permissible voltage then limits
the distance of transmission. What, in turn,
limits the maximum voltage? Transformers
(g.v.) can be built to operate satisfactorily at
75,000 volts; insulators are now built for use
at 60,000 volts and for a test pressure of 120,000
volts; the insulator is at present the weak point
of the transmission system, yet it is probable
that improvements in insulators can be made at
reasonable cost to permit their use up to 75,000
volts. There is, however, another limitation due
to the material loss of energy between two wires
suspended in air, when the voltage between them
exceeds a certain value; this loss is compara-
tively small up to about 50,000 volts, but in-
creases very rapidly above that point; it can be
diminished by increasing the distance apart of
the wires, but great increase on a single pole
is impracticable, hence it would become neces-
sary to build separate pole lines for the several
wires; this added cost may easily be greater
than the value of the energy saved by such con-
struction, and a lower voltage may be more
economical. The practical limit to the voltage
is fixed by the excessive cost of the insulation of
transformers and line, rather than by the dielec-
tric loss, and at present 75,000 volts is probably
the maximum. -
The transmission of energy can be made with
as good economy in copper by the single-phase
as by the three-phase system (see DYNAMO-
ELECTRIC MACHINERY), for the same stress on
the insulator, and requires only two wires
against three for the three-phase system; but
this advantage is more than offset by the fact
that there is no good and simple motor that can
be used, under ordinary conditions, with the
single-phase system; the polyphase system, on
the other hand, has come into general use on
account of the induction motor, which is self-
starting and of extreme simplicity in construc-
tion and operation; its commercial introduction
gave the first great impetus to the transmission
of energy by electricity. Compared with the
two-phase system, the three-phase has the ad-
vantage of requiring only three wires as against
four, and 25 per cent. less copper, hence it is
practically the only system used for transmis-
sion. Copper wire is generally used, although
aluminum has some advantages; the wires are
always bare, and are supported by porcelain or
glass insulators fixed to cross-arms on poles,
which, in the United States, are generally of
wood.
The items of the cost of a 10,000 kilowatt
transmission plant for 150 miles, at 7 5,000 volts,
with a 10 per cent. loss are: Copper, $20; pole
line, $15; transforming stations, $10—a total of
$45 per kilowatt. The cost of a water-power plant,
excluding the transmission, may vary from $75
to $200 per kilowatt—the cost of the trans-
mission system is then from 18 per cent. to 38
per cent. of the total cost. The annual charges
for interest, depreciation, and maintenance of
this line will be $6 per kilowatt. Hence there
must be at least this difference in the cost of
generation at the two points to make the trans-
mission pay. At 37,500 volts, the copper would
cost $80——making the total $105 per kilowatt for
the transmission; the annual charges would then
be $10 per kilowatt. Accurate statistics are not
available, and the line of demarcation between
a transmission plant and an alternating-current
central station is difficult to draw. There are,
however, about 200 water-driven electric plants
in America, aggregating approximately 600,000
kilowatts, with single stations up to 75,000
kilowatts capacity, and with single generators
up to 7500 kilowatts capacity. The maximum
distance in daily service is 220 miles; the maxi-
mum voltage 60,000; the frequency varies from
25 to 60 cycles, with an increasing tendency to
the lower value.
The efficiency of a transmission system is
largely determined by the amount of copper,
which is in turn determined by economical con-
siderations; it usually falls between 80 and 90
per cent., and is about as high at half load as at
full load. The increasing prominence of the
steam turbine and the gas engine will probably
retard the development of transmission plants in
the immediate future, but, looking further, it is
inevitable that their importance and value will
increase as the coal supply diminishes in quan-
tity and increases in cost.
The best practice in the transmission of energy
by electricity is found on the Pacific Coast, and
the plants of the Standard and Bay Counties
Company, in California, are typical. This com-
pany supplies Oakland, San Francisco, Stockton,
and a large number of smaller places with elec-
tric energy for all purposes. It operates two
main power houses at Colgate and at Electra; it
also has the Yuba and the Nevada power houses.
It has more than 650 miles of pole line and some
800 miles of three-phase circuit, nearly all of
aluminum cable; it uses voltages up to 60,000,
and operates to a distance of 220 miles, from Col-
gate to Stockton. The poles are of Oregon cedar
or sawn California redwood, of an average height
of 40 feet, and carrying either one of two three-
phase circuits, the wires being supported on
porcelain or glass insulators. The capacity of
these power plants exceeds 25,000 kilowatts. For
detailed descriptions of modern transmission
plants, reference should be made to the files of
the electrical engineering journals and the Pro-
ceedings of the American Institute of Electrical
TRANSMISSION OF POWER.
TRANSPORTATION.
874
Engineers. See DYNAMO-ELECTRIC‘ MACHINERY;
TRANSFORMER.
TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPOSITION. An
exposition held in Omaha, N eb., from June 1
to October 31, 1898. The site covered about 200
acres, a mile to the north of the city. The main
buildings, which contained the exhibits devoted
to Agriculture, Fine Arts, Machinery and Elec-
tricity, Manufactures, Mines and Mining, and
the United States Government, were grouped
around a grand court which extended through the
middle of the grounds and surrounded the lagoon
or canal which terminated at its west end into
a three-lobed lake 400 feet across, at the extreme
west end of which was an electric fountain. The
grounds were also skillfully improved by the
presence of trees, shrubs, and flowering plants
until the arid prairie became so changed as to
gain the name of Magic City. The buildings were
covered with white stafi, adorned with intricate
carving and classical statuary, resulting in the
production of an artistic effect of remarkable
beauty. Of special interest among the amuse-
ment features was the ethnological gathering of
500 Indians, representing 25 tribes. The total
attendance was 2,613,508, and the total receipts
$1,924,077. -
TRANSPADANE REPUBLIC. A republic
formed by Napoleon in 1796 on the south side of
the Po, and in 1797 united with the Cispadane
Republic, on the north side, to form the Cisalpine
Republic (q.v.).
TRANSPIRATION (from Lat. trans, across,
through -1- spirare, to breathe). The evapora-
tion of water from the aerial surfaces of plants.
The term is used instead of evaporation, first,
because the evaporation is modified by the action
of the living organisms; and second, because the
development of heat within this organism pre-
vents the complete stoppage of evaporation when
the plant is surrounded with a saturated atmos-
phere. In most land plants, transpiration from
the epidermal cells is inconsiderable because such
become nearly waterproof by cutinization of the
outer walls. The cells bordering the interior air
chambers (see AERATION) are saturated with
water, and from them it evaporates readily into
the air occupying these spaces, whence it finds
its way by diffusion through the stomata (q.v.).
The rate of transpiration will be determined by
the relative humidity of the outer air, tempera-
ture, wind, light, etc. Transpiration is unavoid-
able, because gases must be absorbed from the air
(see ABSORPTION) ; it is necessary, at least to
some plants, for cooling; and it is advantageous
for the movement of dissolved salts. See CON-
DUOTION.
Since excessive loss of water is one of the
greatest dangers to which plants are subject,
plants growing in dry regions show a great
variety of adaptations to reduce the rate of
transpiration and to conserve the moisture which
reaches them. (See XEROPHYTES.) The amount
of water transpired varies greatly on account of
variation in external conditions and internal
structure. A few examples of transpiration
under normal conditions will illustrate. In 12
hours on a hot, dry day a sunflower 3.5 feet
high, having a leaf area of 5316 square inches,
lost 30 ounces of water. The loss of water from
100 square centimeters of leaf surface in 24
hours for the pea was 2.51 grams, for the hop
4.3 grams, for the hemp 9.3 grams. Estimates as
to the loss of water during the growing season by
the plants of wheat grown on one hectare (about
2.5 acres) equal 1,179,920 liters; and by oats 2,-
277,760 liters. If all this water could be caught
and condensed on the same area it would reach in
the first case a depth of nearly 118 millimeters
(4% inches), and in the second 228 millimeters
(9 inches). A beech tree having 200,000 leaves
was estimated to lose between 300 and 400 liters
(about 2 barrels) on a hot day.
TRANSPIRATION OF GASES. See EF-
FUSION.
TRANSPORTATION (in law). See AD-
MIBALTY; COMMERCE; CARRIER, COMMON; MARI-
TIME LAW; PUBLIC CALLINGS ; HIGHWAY, etc.
TRANSPORTATION. The carrying of per-
sons and goods from place to place. The part
which transportation plays in the practical life
of a community depends most directly upon the
complexity of its economic system. Wherever
the division of labor and the localization of in-
dustry have reached a high degree of develop-
ment transportation necessarily attains a cor-
respondingly high development. The rise of in-
dustry on a great scale and the creation of eifi-
cient means of transportation mutually condi-
tion each other.
More than a thousand years before our era
Phoenician ships were trading in the Mediterra-
nean, and later along the shores of the same sea
the Greek cities built up their colonial and trade
system. Rome was relatively late in develop-
ing maritime traffic, but by the time of the Em-
pire an extensive commercial system had arisen,
bringing to Rome the raw produce of Sicily and
North Africa, and extending westward even be-
yond Gibraltar. Ancient land transport was
comparatively insignificant. The Greek roads
were chiefly to sacred places, such as Delphi, and
their economic importance was small. The Ro-
man roads Were established for military rather
than economic reasons, but they were vastly more
extensive. Centring at Rome, they not only
stretched through Italy, but (under the Empire)
to Constantinople and Asia Minor, along parts of
the north coast of Africa, westward to Spain,
over the Alps to Gaul, and through Britain. Ex-
cellent as these roads often were, their method of
construction was wastefully expensive from the
modern standpoint.
The return to a more primitive economy in the
early Middle Ages meant that for a time trans-
portation should cease to play any important
part in the economic life of Europe. The sali-
ent points in the story of its gradual revival are
the stimulus given by the Crusades to trade with
the East, the consequent growth of the Italian
cities, and, in the twelfth century, the formation
of the great trade league (Hansa) of the North
European towns. Although the rise of towns
and the establishment of fairs made a certain
amount of land or river transport necessary, it
was slow, insecure, and costly, and, at least on
the Continent, was subject to burdensome and
arbitrary tolls. The destruction of the Eastern
caravan routes through the Turkish and Mongol
invasions gave especial importance to the dis-
covery of an ocean route to the Indies made by
Portuguese navigators at the end of the fifteenth

































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TRANSPORTATION.
TRANSPORTATION.
875
century. The introduction of the compass made
trans-oceanic voyages readily possible. The dis-
covery of America made them profitable, and
helped to shift the centre of trade from the Medi-
terranean to the Atlantic, from the Italian cities
to the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch.
The growth of colonial empires, based essentially
on transportation, marks a most important era in
more adequate means of transport, which only
the railroad and the steamship could supply.
Through them, in the nineteenth century, inter-
national industry has been made possible.
The following table, from the Report of the
United States Commissioner of Navigation
(1902), shows the Merchant Marines of the
World, according to. Lloyd.’s Register (1902-



the world’s economic history, 03) . Only vessels of over 100 tons are included.
Sail Steam Total
COUNTRY
Number Net tons Number Gross tons Number Tonnage
BRITIBH:
United Kingdom .................................................... .. 1,685 1,533,480 7,358 12,897,592 9,043 14,431,072
Colonies ................................................................ .. 1,004 _ 360,962 994 754,863 1,998 1,115,825
Total ............................................. .. . ................ . . 2,689 1,894,442 8,352 13,652,455 11,041 15,546,897
UNITED STATEs: D
Sea .......................................................................... .. 2,155 1,247,125 776 1,095,788 2,931 2,342,913
Lake .............................................................. . .7 ...... .. 59 135,863 318 858,380 377 994,243
Total .............. ............ .., ................................ .. 2,214 1,382,988 1,094 1,954,168 3,308 3,337,156
Germany ................................................................... .. 500 502,230 1,365 2,636,338 1,865 3,138,568
Norway ..................................................................... .. 1,345 766,003 905 866,754 2,250 1,632,757
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 01 415,029 690 1,104,893 1,291 1,519,922
Italy ................................................... . .. .................... .. 862 467,241 361 691,841 1,223 1,159,082
Russia ...................................................................... .. 751 244,232 544 556,102 1,295 800,334
Sp ain ........................................................................ . . 150 48,364 464 736,209 614 784,573
Japan. . . ................................................................. . . 998 135,351 535 555,230 1,533 690,581
Sweden ...................................................................... .. 789 225,468 719 464,705 1,508 690,173
Holland .................................................................... .. 109 57,873 320 555,047 429 612,920
Austria-Hungary ...................................................... . . 42 26,784 259 529,319 301 556,103
Denmark ........................ .. . 411 98,483 366 440,010 . 777 538,493
World's total, including above with all other -
countries .......................................................... .. 12,472 6,577,776 17,156 25,859,987 29,628 32,437,763



Land transport lagged far behind that on the
sea. With the growth of centralized nations
a political motive arose for the improvement
of -roads and of internal trade. Under Louis
XIV. (1643-1715), during the Ministry of Col-
bert, the French roads were greatly bettered,
and many of the local tolls were put aside. In
England little effective action was taken by the
central Government, and, despite many ‘Turnpike
Acts’ (granting rights to levy tolls in return
for maintaining roads) the English highways
remained poor throughout the eighteenth cen-
tury, till the efficient road-making methods of
McAdam (1756-1836) and Telford made possi-
ble_ the great improvements of the nineteenth.
In the United States, as in England, private or
local activity has been chiefly relied on for road-
making. Private turnpikes were constructed in
colonial times, and during the ‘internal im-
provement’ era, after 1800, Federal roads were
built. Road-building has been recently carried
on systematically in many parts of the United
States.
The slowness and costliness of land transporta-
tion, even in the eighteenth century, made it
impossible to convey ordinary goods any long
distance. An era of canal-building, which began
in England soon after 1750, met in part the in-
creasing need of the growing industrial centres
for communication with one another and with
the sea. The same movement appears in the
United States in the first quarter of the next
century. With the rise of the factory system
following 1760, with the application of steam
power to mining and manufactures, and the pos-
sibilities of machine production on a large scale,
came an imperative need for more rapid and
VOL. XVI.—-56.
- carrying trade.
It appears from these figures that steamships.
now comprise 58 per cent. of the world’s vessels
(not reckoning China, Turkey, etc.) and 80 per
cent. of their tonnage, although. for some na-
tions the percentages are much higher. The
preponderance of British ships is most not-
able in steamships. In 1801 there was in the
United Kingdom a total net tonnage of 1,786,000;
in 1850 the figure was 3,565,000; in 1880, 6,-
575,000; in 1901, 9,608,000. The percentage of
net steam tonnage was 4.7 in 1850, 41.4 in 1880,
and 79.2 in 1901. German shipping has grown
still more rapidly in recent years. The sailing
tonnage has decreased from 1,223,000 in 1885
to 667,207 in 1901, but the (net) steam tonnage
has risen from 520,186 in 1885 to 1,057,525 in
1895, and 1,548,667 in 1901.
Before the introduction of iron ships American
builders were greatly favored by the cheapness
of native timber, and for this and other reasons
American shipping was dominant in the world’s
The tonnage engaged in for-
eign traffic was 667,000 in 1800; and, though
somewhat set back by the War of 1812, it rose to
1,439,000 in 1850 and 2,497,000 in 1861. This
was its maximum. The coasting trade has con-
tinued to rise from 1,177,000 in 1840 to 2,645,-
000 in 1860 and 4,859,000 in 1902, including
vessels of all sizes. But foreign shipping had
fallen to 1,314,000 in 1880, and in 1902 was but
873,000 tons. While in 1860 63 per cent. of the
imports and exports of the United States was
carried in American vessels, in 1870 the per-
centage was only 33.1; in 1880, 22.9; in 1890,
16.7; and in 1902, 12.1. '
The growth of railway mileage since 1830 is
shown in the following table, compiled from the
TRANSPORTATION.
TRANSPORTATION.
876
Journal de 15 Société de Statistiqne de Paris
(1901-02):
TRANSPORTATION, PENAL. Banishment
from society in the form of exile, ostracism, or
Gnowrn or RAILWAY MILEAGE SINCE 1830




United Gre-at B mt‘ - The
yEAB States zflnelggg France Germ any Russia World
1830 23 57 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
1840. ............ . . 2,818 838 303 360 17 4,792
1850 ........................................................................... .. 9,021 6,624 1,870 3, 761 311 23,980
1860 ............................................................................ . . 30,626 10,437 5,865 7,285 989 67,055
1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52,922 15,151 11,019 12,253 6,982 128,407
1880 ............................................................................ . . 93,262 17,929 16,109 21,057 14,617 230,515
1 890 ......... . .. ................................................................ . . 166,654 20,334 24,030 26,638 19,225 377,746
1900 ........................................................................... .. 194, 334 21, 932 26,611 31 ,933 29,892 491,236



The railway equipment, traflic, etc., of certain outlawry. The practice is well known among un-
principal countries is shown in this table:
civilized peoples, and existed among the ancient




United United States, United King- Germany, France,
States, 1891 1901 dom,1901 1900 1900
EQUIPMENT
Number of locomotives ............................. .. 32,139 39,584 20,461 19,069 10,775
Number of locomotives, per 100 miles of line 20 20.2 94 60 41
Number of passenger cars ......................... .. 27,949 35,969 45,948 38,434 29,049
Number of passenger cars, per 100 miles .... .. 17 18.4 211 123 112
Number of freight cars ............................... .. * 947,300 1,439,328 706,982 412,744 284,601
Number of freight cars, per 100 miles ......... .. 587 749 3260 1310 1100
PASBENGERS
Number carried during year ...................... .. 531,183,998 Jr 607,278,121 1,172,395,900 842,092,000 453,193
Number carried one mile, in millions ......... .. 12,844 17,354 ................ .. 12,427 7,802
Number carried, per mile of line ................ .. 79,642 89,721 ................ .. 400,960 297,400
FREIGHT
Tons carried during year .......................... .. 675,608,323 , 1,089,226,440 413,623,025 367,180,000 (’99) 138,600,000
Tons carried one mile, in millions .............. .. 81,074 147,077 ................ .. 23,463 (1899) 10,819
Tons carried per mile of line ...................... .. 502,705 760,414 ................ .. 757,040 (1899) 412,722
REVENUE
Gross earnings from operation, million dols. 1,096. 7 1,588.5 518. 9 483 295.4
Gross earnings from operation per mile of
line, dollars ......... .. . 6,800 8.123 23,457 15 80 12,442
1st Cl. 1 83
20 Cl. 1.10 .
Revenue per passenger per mile, cents ....... .. 2.142 2.013 ................ .. 3d CL 0_ 638 (1899) .709
4thCl. 0.464
Revenue per ton oi freight per mile. cents... 0.895 0.750 ................ .. 1 1.318 1.49
TRAFFIC DISTANCES
Average journey per passenger, miles ....... .. 24.18 28.58 ................ .. (1899) 14.3 (1899) 18.1
Average haul per ton of freight, miles ......................... .. 251.98 ................ .. (1899) 63.5 (1899) 77.7
Train miles, passenger trains, in millions... 307.9 385.1 (1899) 216.4 (1899) 140.9 (1899) 106.1
Train miles, all other trains, in millions 446.2 491.9 (1899) 179.5 (1899) 145.5 (1899) 105.5

" Excluding 51,987 fast freight line cars,
1‘ Excluding season-ticket holders.
(Compiled for the United States from Interstate Commerce Commission Reports.
1: Excluding express goods.
For foreign countries. from
Various sources, chiefly the Archiv ftzr Eisen bahn vresen, 1902.)
For further statistics and general discussion
of this subject, see RAILWAYS and STEAM NAVI-
GATION.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Van der Borght, Das Ver-
keh/rswesen (Leipzig, 1894); Lindsay, History
of Merchant Shipping (4 vols., London, 1874-
76); Hadley, Railroad Transportation. (New
York, 1886); Picard, Traite des chemms de
fer (4 vols., Paris, 1887); Gotz, Die Verkehrs-
wege im Dienste des Welthandels (Stuttgart,
1888); Van Oss, American Railroads as In-
vestments (New York, 1893) ; Davis, The Union
Pacific Railway (Chicago, 1894); Fry, History
of North Atlantic Steam Navigation (London,
1896); Bibliographies in Borght, op. cit., and
Publications of Stanford Unioersitg, 1895 (Hop-
kins Railroad Library) ; Interstate Commerce
Commission Reports (annual) ; Poor’s M anaal of
Railroads (annual) ; Reports of the Commission-
er of Navigation (annual); Archin far Eisen-
bahnwesen; Statistical Abstract of the United
Kingdom; Statistisches Jahrbach des Dentschen
Reichs (annual) ; etc.
nations and in mediaeval Europe. In England,
under a statute of Elizabeth (1597), ‘dangerous
rogues’ might be banished by justices in quar-
ter sessions, but no system of transportation
can be said to have arisen till the time of
Charles II., when justices were empowered to
send certain offenders to America instead of
inflicting the death penalty. In 1717 trans-
portation was authorized as a substitute for
other punishments than hanging, and the con-
tract system, by which individuals agreed to
transport convicts in return for their labor
during the period of sentence, was established.
The business was profitable at first, but be-
came less and less so, until a payment had to
be made for each criminal transported. Pro-
tests from America were frequent, but were un-
availing. After 177 6 a twofold system was de-
veloped. To meet the immediate need, hulks
stationed in the Thames (later at Portsmouth
and other places) were arranged to receive con-
victs; and though this was begun merely as a
temporary expedient, it endured as a legalized
TRANSPORTATION.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION.
877
system for over three-quarters of a century. In-
volving as it did the crowding of prisoners under
extremely bad sanitary and moral conditions,
the hulk system was severely criticised by sev-
eral Parliamentary committees, but it was abol-
ished only gradually, as penitentiaries were
constructed.
Within a decade after 1776 another settlement
for criminals had been found in Australia. In
1787 the first lot of convicts left for New South
Wales. In 1804 they began to be sent to
Tasmania. The number transported was at first
small. The annual average up to 1816 was
less than 500, but it rose to 3000 during
the twenties and thirties. The spirit and prac-
tice of the system were essentially penal, not
reformatory, and conditions of life in a colony
where the majority of persons were convicts
were almost inevitably bad. The report of the
Parliamentary committee of 1838 condemned
the system at almost all points, and a few years
later (1842) a ‘probation system’ was planned
by which prisoners were classified and might
pass through various stages toward pardon or
freedom. The essential difficulty of the scheme
was to find work in the colonies for ticket-of-
leave men or ‘probationers,’ while the matter
was further complicated by an increasing ob-
jection of the colonists to the importation of con-
victs. Transportation to New South Wales
ceased after 1849, and to Tasmania after 1852.
Thenceforth Western Australia was the only
outlet, and though the probation system, im-
proved in 1847, worked there successfully, the
colony was quite unable to provide for all Eng-
lish convicts. With the development of the
system of penal servitude (1853-63) transporta-
tion declined, and the last shipment of criminals
to Western Australia was in 1867. _
- In France penal transportation was estab-
lished by a law of 1854. Guiana was at first
utilized as a place to send criminals, but its
climate proved quite unsuitable, and except for
negro convicts it has been abandoned as a penal
settlement since 1867. Mention might be made,
however, of the notable exception of Captain Al-
fred Dreyfus (q.v.). In 1864 convicts were sent
to New Caledonia, where conditions have been
much more favorable; but, though the system
still continues in use, it is not regarded with
much favor. Russia is the only other modern
nation which has practiced transportation on a
large scale. Siberia was made a place of settle-
ment in the seventeenth century, and after the
discovery of the mines the system grew apace.
Between 1807 and 1899 it was estimated that
865,000 persons had been transported to Siberia.
Since 1869 the island of Saghalien (q.v.) has
been used largely as a penal colony. In
1896 it contained 15,000 convicts and exiles,
and less than 3,000 free settlers. The horrors
of Siberian exile which Krapotkin, Dostoyevsky,
and others have told to the VVestern world, have
been considerably mitigated in recent years.
Convict labor does not prove of permanent eco-
nomic advantage, and in Siberia, as elsewhere,
it has been found impossible to colonize a coun-
try with convicts. In 1900, following the in-
vestigation of a commission of 1899, the Prus-
sian penal system was radically reformed. Im-
prisonment is to take the place of exile for all
except political and religious offenders. N0
further attempt is to be made to settle convicts
as colonists, but all those exiled will remain
imprisoned during their sentences. Consult: Du
Cane, Punishment and Prevention of Crime
(London, 1885); Wines, Punishment and
Reformation (ib., 1895); Holtzendorff, Die
Deportation als Strafmittel (Leipzig, 1859);
Krapotkin, I n Russian Prisons (London, 1887) ;
Kennan, Siberia and the Emile System ‘(New
Ylork, 1891); De Windt, The New Siberia
(London, 1896).
TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS (from
transpose, OF., Fr. transpo-ser, from Lat. trans-
ponere, to transpose, from trans, across,
through -1- ponere, to place). Those musical in-
struments whose natural scale is always ex-
pressed in C major irrespective of the actual pitch.
Such instruments are the horns, trumpets, cornets,
tubas, clarinets, and cor anglais. The C major
scale when played upon the B flat clarinet is
identical in pitch with the B fiat major scale.
In order to play the real C major this instru-
ment must play the scale written as D. In a
composition in the key of F major the signature
of the strings and all non-transposing instru-
ments will, of course, be one fiat; whereas the
B fiat clarinets must be written in the key of
G. See MUsIcAL INSTRUMENTS.
TRANSPOSITION (Lat. transpositio, from
transponere, to transpose). In music, the per-
formance of a composition in a key other than
the one in which it was written by the composer.
Vocal works are most frequently transposed,
as When a tenor wishes to sing a work original-
ly written for low voice. Transposition occurs
also often in transcription. Singers have no
difficulty in transposing a song into any key,
but the transposition at sight upon any instru-
ment, especially the organ or pianoforte, is diffi-
cult. See SooRE.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION (ML. transub-
stantiatio, transsubstantiatio, change of sub-
stance, from transubstantiare, transsubstantiare, -
to change to another substance, from Lat.
trans, across, through + substantia, substance,
essence, material, from substare, to stand under,
be present, from sub, under -1- stare, to stand).
A word used by Roman Catholic theologians to
designate the change which they believe to take
place in the Eucharistic elements of bread and
wine, in virtue of the consecration. The term
was first officially adopted by the Church at the
Lateran Council of 1215, and the doctrine in-
volved by it explicitly defined as an article of
faith by the Council of Trent: “The whole sub-
stance of the bread is changed into the body of
Christ, and the wl1ole substance of the wine into
His Blood, the species alone remaining.”
The definition of the manner of Christ’s pres-
ence is really rather a philosophical than a
theological one, resting as it does upon the
Aristotelian system of philosophy adopted by the
mediaeval theologians. It is based upon the be-
lief in the existence in everything of an essen-
tial distinctive principle not cognizable by the
senses called ‘substance;’ the ‘species’ or ‘ac-
cidents’ of the thing are qualities which are
perceived by the senses—color, taste, smell, so-
lidity, etc. In transubstantiation, accordingly,
the accidents remain unchanged, while the un-
derlying substances of bread and wine cease to
TRANSUBSTANTIATION.
TRANSVAAL.
878
exist, their places being taken by the substance
of the body and blood of Christ. The objections
to the doctrine have been chiefly drawn fro1n
the philosophical difficulties which are involved
in it; and the defenders of it have therefore
added to the proofs which they profess to
draw from the Scripture and tradition a general
demonstration that the doctrine, although mys-
terious, does not involve any philosophical re-
pugnance or impossibility. Leibnitz (q.v.), al-
though a Protestant, has not only entered at
great length, and in several portions of his
works, into this philosophical discussion, but
professes to prove, by strict philosophical prin-
ciples—by the consideration of the properties of
matter, of substance, of space, extension, and the
like—that the essential principle of the body
“may exist in many places at the same time, nay,
under far-distant and distinct species.”
Consult, for an excellent English treatment of
both philosophical and theological aspects of the
question, Dalgairns, The H oly Communion (Dub-
lin, 1861); and see LoRD’s SUPPER; SUBSTANCE.
TRANSVAAL, trans-viil’, or TRANsvAAL
CCLCNY; formerly SCUTII AFRICAN REPUBLIC. A
British possession in South Africa. It is situated
between latitudes 22° and 28° S., and longitudes
25° and 32° E., and is bounded on the north by
Matabeleland, on the east by Portuguese East
Africa and Swaziland, on the south by Natal
and the Orange River Colony, and on the west
by Bechuanaland and the Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate. There were transferred to Natal, in
January, 1903. 7000 square miles of area, includ-
ing the districts of Vrijheid, Utrecht, and a
section of the VVakkerstroom district, with a
total population of nearly 60,000, 8000 being
whites. The area of the Transvaal is about
104,000 square miles.
The interior of the Transvaal is a plateau ly-
ing on an average about 6000 feet above sea level.
In the east this plateau is terminated by the
northern Drakensberge, with the highest point
(Mauch Mountain) reaching nearly 9000 feet.
On the eastern border are the Lebombo Moun-
tains. Across the interior plateau stretches
from east to west the far-famed W'itwatersrand,
with Johannesburg and the rich gold fields,
which separates the Limpopo and the Vaal
basins. Just north of the W'itwatersrand and in
general parallel with it extend the Magalies
Mountains. Pretoria lies at the eastern outlet
of the narrow valley thus formed. In the centre
of the extensive Drakensberge system, which oc-
cupies the whole eastern third of the colony, is
Barberton with its gold fields. The Transvaal
is well watered. It is drained mainly by the
Limpopo River, which forms the boundary on
the northwest and north, and the Vaal River.
which forms most of the southern boundary. The
Olifant River, the principal affluent of the Lim-
popo, has nearly its entire course within the
Transvaal. The Barberton region is drained by
the Komati, which flows into the Indian Ocean.
None of the rivers of the Transvaal. however, are
navigable.
The climate west of the Drakensberge and
south of the Magalies range is subtropical, with
a European character. The mean annual tem-
perature is 67° F. January is the warmest. July
the coldest month. There are winter frosts. The
northern and eastern sections of the Transvaal
are more tropical, especially the valley of the
Limpopo. December, January, and February
witness the heaviest rainfall. The west is the
driest. The climate of the interior uplands is noted
for its healthfulness. Among the distinctive
trees are the thorny acacias and the eucalyptus.
The range of plants is very large, including the
European grains and many of the valuable tropi-
cal species. The northeastern section is the least
fruitful. The lions and elephants have been
driven into the north and northeast parts. The
flocks and herds of the Boers were very large
before the war of 1899-1902, and horses were also
bred, though to a much less extent.
Granite and slate are in general the basic
formations, upon which rests the so-called ‘Cape
Formation,’ above which are found quartzite and
coal-bearing layers. The Transvaal is excep-
tionally rich in varieties of mineral wealth, such
as copper, iron, coal (in different sections),
lead, silver (north of Pretoria), diamonds (in
the Pretoria district, and in the southwest cor-
ner in the direction of Kimberley), and notably
gold. Gold was first discovered in 1867, and is now
found abundantly in numerous districts. The
rich gold fields of the W itwatersrand-—‘The Rand’
—(of which J ohanneshurg is the mining centre),
and those of Barberton, have made the Transvaal
particularly famous. Around them developed the
history of the colony. The value of the gold
taken out from 1884 to 1898 was $350,000,000.
The mining operations after 1899 were seriously
interfered with by the war and for more than a
year ceased altogether. In eleven months in
1902 1,500,000 ounces were obtained. In that
year nearly 50,000 natives were employed in the
mines. In 1898 diamonds were taken out to the
value of $200,000. There has been no output
of copper and silver in later years. Coal was a
noteworthy item before the recent war, and was
mined to the amount of $3,000,000 in 1898.
The country is well adapted to agriculture and
stock-raising, though its possibilities are as yet
me-agrely developed. The acreage in farms is
estimated at less than 600,000. After the war
of 1899-1902 three-fourths of the burghers soon
returned to their lands. The Government made
loans to aid them in raising the crops, and
land was rented on shares under favorable
conditions to the more indigent. Syndicates of
farmers borrowed money in a large lump sum,
massing all their assets together as security.
The proceeds were to be used for only a given
number of families. The number of live stock
in the colony is unknown. The manufacturing
interests are in their infancy. There are 11
factories for machinery, 9 for tobacco, 19 for
mineral waters and ices, and 3 for explosives,
several printing works, and numerous saw mills.
The imports for 1901 were valued at £3,670,-
365. The figures for 1902 evidently quadrupled
this sum. The main articles are clothing, pro-
visions, metals; and manufactures of metals.
The largest amount comes through Cape Colony,
though almost as much enters through Natal.
Comparatively little comes via Delagoa Bay. The
figures for exports are not given. The principal
articles shipped out are gold, hides, cattle, wool,
ivory, and ostrich feathers. The colony has rail-
way communication with the important sister
colonies and with Portuguese East Africa. The
mileage is about 700.
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TRANSVAAL.
TRANSVAAL.
879
The colony Was annexed to Great Britain
September 1, 1900. Hostilities with the Boers
definitively ceased in May, 1902. Certain privi-
leges were allowed the Boer population, such as
the use of Dutch in the courts and public schools
where desired. Civil government was to replace
the military régime as soon as practicable. The
colony is administered by a Governor, Lieutenant-
Governor, and an Executive Council. There are
20 districts. The capital is Pretoria (q.v.) . Jo-
hannesburg, the principal city, is, however, to
some extent an administrative centre. For the
fiscal year 1901-02 the civil revenues and expendi-
tures each were upward of $7,000,000. For the
following fiscal year the estimated revenue in-
creased to nearly $20,000,000, derived from cus-
toms chiefly. Mines and railways also con-
tributed. For this last-named year the ex-
penditures were put at $18,500,000, of which
one-third was devoted to the South African
constabulary, though most of this last-named
amount would be recovered by the Transvaal
from the Orange River Colony and the British
Government. The total sum voted by the Im-
perial Government for the Transvaal and
Orange River colonies in 1901 and 1902 was
$40,000,000, including -$500,000 for the South
African constabulary and $4,000,000 for rail-
ways. The Boer public debt at the close of 1898
was $13,000,000, and against this was to be
reckoned the value of the State lands, then not
so valuable as now since gold has been found on
them. The debt occasioned by the war is figured
at $150,000,000. A total loan was to be floated of
$175,000,000, to be guaranteed by Great Britain
and based on the assets of the Transvaal and
Orange River colonies. Productive public works
will be undertaken. The seven banks in the
Transvaal have a combined capital of £7,000,000.
The weights and measures are those of Cape
Colony. English currency and coins minted at
Pretoria circulate. As to the military control,
the colony is divided into five districts. The
British comma.nder-in-chief for all South Africa
is stationed at Pretoria. There is a constabu-
lary. A volunteer force is also to be formed for
the colony.
The population in 1896 was 1,094,156, of whom
245,397 were whites and 748,759 natives. The
religious population is estimated as follows: in
the Dutch churches, 63,000; in other Protestant
churches, 53,000; Jews, 10,000; and Roman
Catholics, 5000.
HISTORY. The Transvaal was one of the two
States founded by the Boers after the ‘great
trek,’ or emigration, from Cape Colony. These
Boers were descendants of the colonists who had
come into South Africa under the Dutch control.
They were a hardy, vigorous, bigoted race, hold-
ing the natives in slavery and hence not getting
along well with their savage neighbors. The dis-
like of the English which naturally arose after
the latter took possession of Cape Colony in 1806
culminated in 1833 when the emancipation law
was passed. Some years later a considerable
number of the Boers went north with their fami-
lies, flocks, and household goods, and at first
founded a colony in Natal. This was broken
up by the British Government in 1843 (see
NATAL) and the Boers, going westward, founded
the Orange Free State. (See ORANGE RIVER
COLONY.) In 1848 this also was taken under
' Britain
British control (remaining thus, however, only
for a few years), and the more irreconcilable
of the Boers ‘trekked’ once more, across the
Vaal, and founded the South African Republic,
commonly known as the Transvaal. By the
Sand River Convention, concluded in 1852, Great
recognized the independence of “the
emigrant Boers living north of the Vaal River”
and boundaries were duly established. The new
State was for some years allowed to take its own
course and the only interference with its increas-
ing prosperity came from the struggles with the
natives, between whom and the Boers there was
bitter enmity. In 1877 some discontented burgh-
ers suggested to the British Government that the
Transvaal should be taken under its protection.
Mistaking the appeal of a faction for national
sentiment, the British commissioner, Sir The-
ophilus Shepstone, declared the Republic British
crown territory, and annexation was persisted in
by‘ the British Government, in spite of repeated
appeals. In 1880 the people revolted against
the British régime. On December 13th a mass
..r_neeting was held at Heidelberg and the restora-
~vtion of the independent Republic was declared.
A brief campaign, in which the Boers developed
remarkable fighting powers, according to methods
.. especially adapted to the country, followed this
act. The Boer victories of Laing’s Nek and
Ingogo were followed by the battle of Majuba
Hill (February 27, 1881), which resulted in the
worst defeat sustained by British arms in many
years. On August 8, 1881, peace was concluded by
the convention of Pretoria, in which self-govern-
ment was restored to the Transvaal burghers, sub-
ject to the suzerainty of the British Crown. This
latter reservation gave Great Britain the right to
maintain a British resident in the country and to
march her armies across the territory in time of
war and also the control of external relations. The
convention of London, signed February 27 , 1884,
omitted the suzerainty clause and the Boers
claimed that thereby Great Britain gave up all
control over their affairs. The British Gov-
ernment, on the contrary, maintained that the
convention of London was supplementary to that
of Pretoria, and that the latter was in force ex-
cept where directly contravened by the former.
In the years 1881-93 several events occurred
which reacted upon the relations of Great Britain
and the South African Republic. The first of
these was the formation in Cape Colony of the
Afrikander Bund, with a platform calling for a
union of European races in South Africa on a
basis of South African nationality and independ-
ence. This movement increased the dislike of
the British Government to the development of
any strong, independent power in the neighbor-
hood of the British South African possessions.
The advance of the English into Mashonaland
and Matabeleland, which the Boers had coveted
and which hemmed them in, was to them an
added irritation; and the climax was reached in
the aggressive attitude of the British South
Africa Company, which held rights of exploita-
tion and administration in the new British ter-
ritories.
The discovery of gold in the Transvaal in 1884
opened a new and troubled era. Hitherto the
country had been agricultural and rural, with a.
homogeneous population. Now there was a sud-
den influx of mining men, promoters, and adven-
TRANSVAAL.
TRANSVE RSAL.
880
turers of all nations. In the Witwatersrand
was founded the populous mining city of Jo-
hannesburg, inhabited very largely by these Uit-
landers, or outlanders. The Boers felt that the
primitive life they had wished to preserve was
invaded, circumscribed, and likely to be over-
whelmed. They therefore sought to restrict the
privileges of citizenship, in order to retain the
political control in their own hands. This led to
constant friction and to attempts to secure Brit-
ish intervention. It is impossible in the limits
of this article to discuss the many points of dif-
ference Which brought to a head the troubles be-
tween Great Britain and the Republic. In the
autumn of 1895 a plan was arranged between
the leaders of the British South Africa Company
——Cecil Rhodes (q.v.),his colleague, Mr. Beit, and
Dr. Jameson (q.v.) ,administrator ofRhodesia—on
the one hand, and several leaders of the Uitlanders
—Lionel Phillips, Charles Leonard, and John Hays
Hammond representing them——on the other, for
an armed raid into the Transvaal from Rhodesia,
for the purpose of bringing about by a display
of force the reforms desired. Dr. Jameson made
it understood finally that he should act in be-
half of the British supremacy. The Johannes-
burg committee did not apparently intend to
overthrow the Government, and when this was
known sought to stay action while they issued a
manifesto calling for the desired reforms. Jame-
son, disregarding their warning, entered the
Transvaal December 29th with 600 men. He was
defeated, surrounded, and obliged to surrender
(January 2, 1896). The Transvaal Govern-
ment turned the prisoners over to the Brit-
ish Government for trial. They were con-
victed in England and received light sen-
tences. Four of the Johannesburg leaders were
condemned to death by the Transvaal courts, but
this was commuted to a heavy fine. The raid
caused a great excitement and assumed inter-
national importance. It brought the agitation
and the bitter feeling between the two countries
to an acute stage. The controversy, concealing
under diplomatic phraseology much irritation on
both sides, continued for some time longer. Mr.
Chamberlain, the English Colonial Secretary,
seemed determined to force the position of the
Republic, and President Kruger was obstinate in
his refusal to yield any important point. In the
autumn of 1899, when war seemed imminent, the
Orange Free State decided to make common cause
with the South African Republic. On October 9th
an ultimatum which made peace and continued
negotiation impossible was presented to the Brit-
ish agent at Pretoria and Mr. Chamberlain sum-
marily closed the correspondence. For the sub-
sequent history of the Transvaal, see SOUTH
AFRICAN WAR.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Aylward, The Trans-vaal of
To-Day (Edinburgh, 1881); Wangemann, afrika und seine Bewohner (Berlin, 1881) ; Al-
brecht, La républiqu-e sudafricaine (Brussels,
1889) ; Kliissel, Die V erfassung und Verwaltung
der sildafrikanischen Freistaaten (Leipzig, 1896) ;
Abraham, Die siidafrihanische Republih (Berlin,
1896) ; Statham, South Africa as It Is (London,
1897); Seidel, Transvaal, die siidafrikanische
Republik (Berlin, 1898); Bryce, Impressions of
South Africa (London, .1899); Younghusband,
South Africa To-Day I‘ (ib., 1899); Tangye,
In New South Africa (ib., 1900); Keane, The
Boer States, Land, and People (ib., 1900) ; Col-
quhoun, Renascence of South Africa (ib., 1900) ;
Belloch, The New South Africa (ib., 1091) ; Le-
clerq, Les Boers et les origines des républiques
suclafricaines (Brussels, 1901); Alford, Geologi-
cal Features of the Transvaal (London, 1891);
Distant, A Naturalist in the Transvaal (ib.,
1892); Pollack, Les nrines 0l’or du Transvaal
(Paris, 1894); Goldman, South African Mines
(London, 1895-96); Talbert, Nach den Trans-
vaal-Goldfeldern (Berlin, 1896). HISTORY.
Theal, History of South Africa (London, 1887-
93), the fullest and most reliable history of South
Africa as a whole; id., History of the Boers in
South Africa (ib., 1887) ; Cloete, History of the
Great Boer Treh (ib., 1899); Statham, Paul
Kruger and His Times (ib., 1898) ; Voigt, Fifty
Years of the History of the Republic of South
Africa, 1795-1845 (ib., 1899) ; Aubert, Le Trans-
vaal et l’Angleterre en Afrique du Sud (Paris,
1899) ; Bryce, Brooks, and others, Both Sides of
the South African Question (New York, 1900) ;
Creswicke, South Africa and the Transvaal War
(Edinburgh, 1900); Fisher, The Transvaal and
the Boers (London, 1900) ; Mahan, The War in
South Africa (ib., 1900) ; Doyle, The Great Boer
War (ib., 1900); Ireland, The Anglo-Boer Con-
flict (ib., 1900), a concise account, pro-British,
but moderate and not unfair; Ogden, The War
Against the Dutch Republics (Manchester, 1901).
TRANSVERSAL (ML. transversalis, from
Lat. transversus, traversus, transverse, p. p. of
transvertere, to cross, transverse, from trans,
across, through --I— vertere_, to turn). In geome-
try, a term commonly applied to a line cutting a
pencil of parallels. In modern geometry the term
is extended to mean any straight line cutting the
C

‘ A B '\
other lines of a figure. Thus any line intersect-
ing the three lines forming a triangle ABC in
P, Q, R, is a transversal of the triangle. The
theory of tranversal is one of the most impor-
tant in modern geometry. It has its origin in a
theorem attributed to Ptolemy (q.v.), but which
is found in the Spherics of Menelaus (q.v.), and
which has been thought to go back to Hipparchus
(q.v.). This states that a straight line drawn
arbitrarily in the plane of a triangle determines
on the lines of its sides six segments such that
the product of three not having a common ex-
tremity equals the product of the other three.
Pappus (q.v.) in his Collections approaches the
theory from another standpoint and shows that
if a pencil of four lines be cut by a transversal
in the points A, B, C, D, the ratio fig :: ET? is
constant for any position of the transversal.
Pappus also showed that if a transversal cuts
the sides and diagonals of a complete quadri-
lateral, the six segments determinedon this
TRANSVERSAL.
TRAN SYLVANIA.
881
transversal are such that the product of three
not having a common extremity will equal the
product of the other three; that each diagonal
is cut harmonically by the other two ; and that
when a hexagon has three of its vertices collinear,
and the other three also collinear, the intersec-

/*/B C a
tions of the opposite sides are collinear also-
a special case of Pascal’s theorem on a hexagon
inscribed in a conic. Desargues (q.v.) in his
Essai pow les con-iqnes generalized the theorem
of Pappus with respect to the quadrilateral. He
showed that if a transversal cuts a conic and a
quadrilateral inscribed therein, the product of
‘ the segments between either point of the conic
and two opposite sides of the quadrilateral will
have to the product of the segments between this
point and the other two opposite sides, the same
ratio as between the corresponding products when
the other point of the conic is taken. The the-
ory was extended by Pascal, who was a friend
of Desargues, and later by Newton, Cotes, and
Maclaurin. In more recent times Carnot and
Poncelet have been among the foremost to elabo-
rate the theory. To Carnot is due the introduc-
tion of negative lines in the theory of transver-
sals, and the treatment of the subject as related
to modern geometry. See CONCURRENCE AND
COLLINEARITY, C-eva’s and Menelaus’s theorems
being important examples of the theory of trans-
versals.
TRAN’SYLVA’NIA (Hung. Erdély, from
erdd, forest, the name corresponding to the Latin,
Transilvanial, beyond the forest; Ger. Siebenbiir-
gen). A former grand duchy and crownland of
Austria, since 1867 an integral part of the lands
of the Hungarian crown. It occupies the south-
eastern corner of the Hungarian Kingdom, and
is bounded by Rumania on the east and south.
Area, 21,518 square miles (Map: Hungary, H 3) .
It is inclosed on the east and south by the great
range of the Carpathian Mountains, which bends
round at a right angle, the part extending east
and west being known as the Transylvanian Alps.
The interior is crossed by numerous spurs of the
border chains, and has an elevated surface-. Some
of the valleys are remarkably fertile. The chief
river, the Maros, an affluent of the Theiss, crosses
the country from northeast to southwest. The
southern part is traversed by the Aluta, an af-
fluent of the Danube, which breaks through the
Transylvanian Alps in the Red Tower Pass,
while the northern part is drained by the Szamos,
an affluent of the Theiss. Transylvania has a
number of small mountain lakes and is rich in
mineral springs. The region is famous for its
scenery, and the mixture of nationalities, with
the various costumes, adds greatly to its pic-
turesqueness. The climate is generally mild in
the interior, especially along the rivers, while in
the mountain regions the winters are long and
severe. In spite of its mountainous surface,
Transylvania has a very productive soil. The
chief crops are wheat, barley, rye, oats, flax,
tobacco, and some industrial plants. Fruits and
especially grapes are cultivated extensively.
Stock-breeding is favored by the abundance of
meadow land, and is carried on on a large scale.
The local breed of horses is superior and many are
exported. Wool is an important product. The
mineral products in 1900 included 2260 kilograms
of gold, 2574 kilograms of silver, and nearly
1,000,000 tons of coal. The total value of the
mineral output was over $7,000,000, of which
salt alone amounted to over $2,000,000. Wild
game still abounds in the mountains and large
forests, including bears, wolves, foxes, and boars.
Transylvania is well provided with transporta-
tion facilities. The population was 2,251,216 in
1890 and 2,456,838 in 1900. About 56 per cent.
of the inhabitants are Wallachs (Rumans) , about
33 per cent. Magyars (Hungarians) and Szeklers
(close kin to the Magyars), and about 9 per cent.
Germans. The Germans represent mainly de-
scendants of colonists brought into the country
from the region of the Lower Rhine by King
Gejza II. of Hungary about the middle of the
twelfth century. They dwell mainly in the south-
ern part of the country, the district inhabited by
them being known as Saxon Land. Their chief
town is Hermannstadt. The great bulk of the
inhabitants of Transylvania belong to the peas-
ant class. The nobility and gentry are Magyars.
Of the population 30 per cent. are Greek Ortho-
dox, 28 per cent. Greek Catholic, 24 per cent.
Protestant, 13 per cent. Roman Catholic, 2%
per cent. Unitarians (Transylvania having be-
come the cradle of modern Unitarianism in the
sixteenth century), and 2 per cent. Jewish.
HISTORY. The largest cities of Transylvania
are Klausenburg, which possesses a university,
Krandstadt, Hermannstadt, and Maros-Vasar-
hely. Transylvania formed part of the Roman
_province of Dacia. When the great migration of
nations took place it was for a time occupied by
Germanic peoples. They were followed by the
Avars, after whom came the Petchenegs. In the
eleventh century the country was brought under
the sway of the Magyars. The advent of Ger-
man colonists in the twelfth century improved the
condition of the country. It was probably not
long after this that the immigration of VVallachs
set in from the region now called Rumania. Un-
der the Hungarian kings Transylvania was ruled
by voivodes. In 1526, after the battle of Mohacs,
in which Louis 11. of Hungary was overwhelmed
by Solyman the Magnificent, the national party
among the Hungarians chose Zohn Zapolya, Voi-
vode of Transylvania, King. He had a rival in
Ferdinand I. of Hapsburg. Part of Hungary re-
mained in possession of John Zapolya, who was
upheld by the Turks. Transylvania was severed
from the Kingdom of Hungary, the royal crown
remaining in the possession of the Hapsburgs.
From 1571 to 1576 the country had an able prince
in Stephen Bathory, who in 1575 was elected
King of Poland. Other princes of the Bathory
(q.v.) family followed. At the beginning of the
seventeenth century Transylvania was for a short '
time in the power of Austria, but in 1604 a great
TRAN SYLVANIA.
TRAP-DOOR SPIDER.
882
rising of the Protestants in the country and in
Hungary took place under the head of Stephen
Bocskay (q.v.), who was elected Prince of Tran-
sylvania in 1605, and in 1606 forced the Haps-
burgs to recognize the liberties of the Hungarian
Protestants. In the Thirty Years’ War two
princes of Transylvania, Bethlen Gzibor (q.v.) and
George Rakoczy (q.v.),figured among the cham-
pions of the Protestant cause. When Leopold I.
of Austria, after the overthrow of the Turks at
Vienna (1683), had made himself master of the
heart of Hungary, he proceeded to secure pos-
session of Transylvania. Prince Michael I. Apafi
(q.v.) had to acknowledge the Austrian ruler as
overlord of Transylvania, which was united with
Hungary, and his son, Michael 11., was forced to
renounce his title for a money consideration. In
the Peace of Karlovitz, in 1699, the Turkish Sul-
tan recognized the sovereignty of Austria over
the country. The Diploma of Leopold I., in 1691,
had guaranteed to Transylvania its ancient privi-
leges and customs. It was erected into a grand
principality in 1765. In the Hungarian Revolu-
tion of 1848-49 Transylvania was the scene of
terrible massacres of the Magyars by the Wal-
lachs and of the victories and final defeat of
General Bern (q.v.). In 1849 Transylvania was
separated from Hungary, and made an Austrian
crownland. In 1867 it was again united with
Hungary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bielz, Handbuch der Landes-
kunde Siebenbilrgens (Hermannstadt, 1856) ;
Reissenberger, Das Grosstilrstentum Siebenb ilrgen
(Vienna, 1881): Bergner, Siebenbilrgcn (Leip-
zig, 1884); Hauer and Stache, Geologic Sieben-
bilrgens (Vienna, 1885); Gerard, The Land Be-
yond the Forest (London, 1888).
TRAP. A name commonly applied to dark
fine-grained rocks such as diabase, basalt, and
diorite, the components of which cannot be
readily distinguished.
TRAPA (Neo-Lat., abbreviation of ML. cal-
cltrapa, caltrop, from Lat. calm, heel -1- ML.

onmssn BUFFALO NUT (T1-apa bicornis).
trappa, snare, from OHG. trappa, trapa, AS.
trwppe, treppe, Eng. trap; so called from the
four spines of some species, which thus resemble
caltrops). A small genus of aquatic plants of
the natural order Haloragiaceae. Trapa natans,
the water caltrops, is found in ditches and ponds
in Southern Europe, and is grown in ponds in
Holland. The floating leaves are rhomboidal,
toothed, and smooth; those under water are cut
into capillary segments. The fruit has four
spines; the large, almond-like kernels are edible
either raw or roasted, or in soups, and taste
somewhat like chestnuts, hence the French
name marron d’eau (water chestnut). Nuts of
Trapa bispinosa, the Singhara nut, being starchy,
are widely used as food in Cashmere, where they
are made into cakes, etc. Trapa bicornis, by some
botanists considered to be a form of Trapa natans,
is much cultivated in China, for its edible fruit.
Some botanists reduce all the species to one. with
possibly several varieties.
TRAPANI, trii/pa-n/é. The capital of the
Province of Trapani, Sicily, situated on .a penin-
sula, on the northwest coast, 45 miles west by
south of Palermo (Map: Italy, G 9). There are
several fine churches with noteworthy sculptures
and paintings, and palaces architecturally inter-
esting. The lyceum has a picture gallery and a
natural history collection. The special industries
are connected with the working of coral, shell-
cameos, marble, and alabaster. There are also
ship-building yards, salt-works, fisheries, and an
export trade in wine, fruits, olive oil, etc. The
fine harbor, which is defended by a fort, is the
scene of much commercial activity. Near the city
is the ancient Annunziata pilgrimage church,
with the famous statue of the Madonna of Tra-
pani. Trapani, the ancient Drepannm and sea-
port of Eryx (q.v.) , was fortified by the Cartha-
ginians in the third century B.C. Here in B.C. 249
they defeated the Romans in a great naval battle.
Eight years later, however, Trapani became a
Roman colony. It was a royal residence in the
Middle Ages. Population (commune), in 1881,
38,231; in 1901, 59,452.
TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. Any one of the
large hairy tropical spiders belonging to the fam-
ily Theraphosidae, which make long tubes in the
earth, lining them with silk and furnishing them
at the entrance with a bevel-edged, hinged, ac-
curately fitting trap-door made of alternate lay-
ers of earth and silk. The upper surface is cov-
ered with earth or gravel so as to completely dis-
guise the entrance. The spider hides in the nest
when not seeking its prey, and with some species
3 branch to the tunnel is built with a separate
oor.
The digging of the burrow, which is always on
high sloping ground, is a very laborious task.
The earth is loosened with the mandibles, and is
carried away piece by piece supported by the
mandibles and maxillae. One observed by Mogg-
ridge took an hour to dig a hollow as large as
half a walnut. A species common in the South-
western United States (Ctcmltza Californica)
digs holes nearly an inch in diameter, and some-
times a foot in length. VVhen the spider is on
guard, holding the door down from inside by
means of its mandibles and feet, it is impossible
to raise the trap-door without tearing it. Ex-
perimenters at San Diego, California, removed
the trap-doors of sixty nests, unhinging them at
mght. Without exception the spider had by
morning completed a new door. Continued re-
moval, however, resulted in a falling off in the
quality of the successive doors owing to the fail-
TRAP-DOOR SPIDER.
TRAPPING.
883
ure of the spider’s supply of silk. The fifth door
made, by a single spider, was composed almost en-
tirely of mud with hardly enough web to coat
and hinge it. VVhen the trap-doors were fast-
ened down a side branch with a new door was
always made over night with an opening near the
original mouth.
The nests are generally built in pairs, but it is
not known whether they are occupied by different
sexes. The young hatch in the mother’s burrow,
and live there for a few weeks; then they leave
the nest and begin small tubes of their own. The
food of these spiders consists largely of ants and
other crawling wingless insects. They have been
known to eat earthworms and large caterpillars.
The trap-door spiders of Southern Europe make
thin covers which rest loosely on the top of the
hole, but they are covered with leaves or some-
thing of the sort in order to disguise them.
Consult: Moggridge, Harvesting Ants and
Trap-Door Spiders (London, 1873); Emmerton,
The Structure and Habits of Spiders (Salem,
1878) ; McGook, American Spiders and Their
Spinning Work, vol. iii. (Philadelphia, 1893) .
TRAPEZIUM. A quadrilateral of which no
two sides are parallel. See QUADRILATERAL.
TRAPEZOID (Gk. 'rpa1re§'oeL6i§s, trapeeoeides,
shaped like a trapezium, from 'rpa1ré§'l.0v, trape-
eion, trapezium, table, from 'rpd-zrefa, trapeza,
table, from 'ré'rpa.-, tetra-, four + 1r06s, peas,
foot -1- ei5os, eidosg form). A quadrilateral two
of whose sides are parallel. The parallel sides
are called the bases. The area of a trapezoid is
given by the formula A : % :(b+ b’)a, where
b and b’ are the bases and a the altitude. See
QUADRILATERAL.
TRAPP, JOHN (1601-69). A Puritan clergy-
man. He was born at Oroome d’Abetot; gradu-
ated B.A. at Oxford (1622) ;' was usher (1622-
24), then headmaster of the free school at Strat-
ford-on-Avon (1624-26) ; vicar of VVeston-on-
Avon, two miles from Stratford (1636-46) ; rec-
tor of Welford (1646-60); then went back to
Vv'eston, where he died. His fame rests upon his
commentaries on the books of the Old and New
Testaments, which furnish a specimen of Puritan
Bible study at its best, and are often both witty
and wise. They were issued in a collected edi-
tion in 1662 et seq., and reissued as Commentary
on the Old and New Testaments (1865-68) . Con-
sult Spurgeon, Commenting and Commentaries
(London, 1876).
TRAPPING (from trap, AS. trazppe, treppe,
OHG. trappa, trapa, trap, snare; connected with
Ger. Treppe, flight of stairs, ladder, Goth. trim-
pan, MHG. trampfen, trampeln, Ger. trampeln,
Eng. trample, tramp). In its strict meaning,
the taking of animals and birds by means other
than the arrow, spear, or gun. The methods used
in trapping may be divided roughly into four
classes: (1) ‘The pit,’ ‘the inclosure,’ and ‘the
heavy deadfall,’ for the largest animals, such as
the bear and the lion, and ‘the lighter deadfall’
and ‘snap trap’ for smaller yet dangerous beasts
such as wolves, foxes, and beavers. (2) The ‘box
trap,’ the ‘switch-up,’ and various ‘snap traps’
and ‘snares’ for the lesser kinds of quadrupeds.
(3) ‘Nets’ of various kinds with or without de-
coys and birdlirne for birds. (4) Nets and
baskets for fish.
‘The pit’ is a hole in the earth, lightly covered,
and completely inconspicuous. It is placed where
the game is likely to go voluntarily, or where it
may be drawn, either by judicious heating or the
employment of an enticing bait. The covering
breaks through and the quarry is caught in the
pit. The kind of animal so caught varies with
the country; for instance, the Arabs trap lions
in pits. ‘The inclosure’ is a space round which
in Africa the heavy creeping vines from tree to
tree have been woven together into rough hurdles,
and in Asia the bamboo is similarly employed.
The ‘heavy deadfall’ is a pen about three feet
wide, four feet deep, and five feet high, made of
logs driven into the soil. Four heavy corner
posts hold transverse logs, and the fall log. The
principle of the trap is that when the bait is dis-
turbed, say by a bear, a heavy log will fall upon
the animal’s back and crush its body against the
lower log fixed across the front of the pen. In
order to reach the bait the bear must enter the
trap at least half way. A slight forward pull re-
leases the lower end of the bait stick and causes
the ‘fall log’ to drop. Sometimes the ‘fall log’ is
a heavy slab set up on bait sticks. The ‘box trap’
is practically the deadfall, but instead of the log
falling on the captive, the box lid falls down on
the box’s sides and end, and incloses the catch
unhurt. Its advantage is that it can be placed
anywhere, even in a tree. For ‘the switch-up’ a
runway of the animal sought for is selected, and
on either side of it, about six inches apart, a
notched stick is driven projecting about eight
inches above ground, with a cross piece resting on
the notches. A spring sapling about five feet
long is then driven into the ground near by and
its springy head bent over the cross piece and
fastened to it, after which a noose of brass wire
is hung on it. The rabbit or other small ani-
mal hopping along the runway runs his head in
the sliding noose, this grips his neck, and in his
struggles he releases the cross piece, which lets
the sapling spring back and up to its vertical po-
sition, and the captive is lifted off its feet and
strangled. The steel spring trap is used univer-
sally for every kind of quadruped, from the bear
to the rat. It is made of two jaws of toothed
steel, which when open lie flat on the ground
harmless, but when trod on or the bait in the
centre of it disturbed, springs up and catches the
unwary intruder in a grip from which there is no
escape. Its use is avoided by the more merciful
trapper, because it does not always kill, like the
deadfall, and does not merely confine, like the
box trap.
Fish are trapped in a variety of ways. Gill
nets are spread from stake to stake across the
channels or swims of the fish when they come up
from the sea, like shad, into the estuaries in
the spring to spawn. Their heads are caught in
the mesh of the net where their fins will not
go through, and from which they cannot go back.
Other nets are- set to catch fish migrating down
from the fresh waters to. the sea, like salmon and
trout. Similar ones are sometimes set under
the ice, near holes cut into it, toward which the
fish will invariably come to breathe. Then there
is the ‘cast net,’ a circular net with lead weights
around its bottom edge, which when thrown and
spread, by a twirl of the aim, into shallow water
where a shoal of fish are, sinks rapidly at the
full extent of the circle, and when drawn in by
the caster pulls all the fish within its area up
TRAPPING.
TRASIME-NO.
884
with it on to land. Baskets are set for some
fish, such as eels, into which they can crawl, but
out of which they cannot return. Snares, too,
or snigs, as they are sometimes called, are used
to capture fish in shallow water, notably
pike. They are simply wire nooses at the end
of a rod which the snarer quietly slips over the
head of the fish and tightens with a snatch.
The Chinese have an ingenious way of trap-
ping fish. They attach a board along the side
of a boat so that it descends into the water
at a very slight angle. They paint this white
and cover it with a shining iridescent varnish.
Then, on a moonlight night, they propel the boat
toward the shoal of fish, and the fish, mistaking
the radiance of the board for that of the ele-
ments, swim u the shallow board, which is flush
at the top wit the gunwale, and over into the
boat.
TRAPPISTINE. A liqueur made at the
Trappist abbey of Grace-Dieu, France. See
LIQUEUB.
TRAPPISTS. A branch of the Cistercian
Order, following the reforms introduced in 1664
by Jean le Bouthillier de Rancé (q.v.). They
take their common name from the Monastery of
La Trappe in Normandy, of which Rancé was
abbot when he began his reforms. They are
classed among the most austere of Roman Catho-
lic religious Orders, and their very strictness
and separation from the world has brought and
still brings them many members who have held
distinguished positions in secular life, but wish
to leave it. The day in a Trappist monastery
begins with matins in the church at 2 A. M., fol-
lowed by a half hour’s meditation, and mass or
study occupies the time until ten minutes to six.
Then follows prime, and from 7.30 to 9 manual
labor or instruction. At 9.45, terce, high mass,
sext, and examination of conscience. Dinner is
at 11, except on fast-days, when it is an hour
later. The hour after it is occupied by study in
winter, but a nap is conceded in summer. Work
or teaching come again from 2 to 4; vespers and
meditation at 5, at 6 compline, at 7 supper, and
bed at 8. The dinner consists of a small
quantity of soup and vegetables with a pound
of bread and a little fruit and one glass of beer.
The supper is of a similar nature, and those
who need it are allowed a little milk, coffee, or
broth on rising. The fasting season lasts from
Holy Cross Day (September 14th) until Easter.
The Trappist sleeps in his habit, removing only
his shoes. Only the superiors have separate
rooms; each of the others has simply a curtained
alcove in a large dormitory. Perpetual silence
is the most characteristic restriction imposed
on the Trappist monk. It is absolute, unless he
has the care of guests, or needs to speak to his
superiors; any other necessary communications
are made by signs. When sick, he is nursed in
the infirmary; dying, he is carried into the
church that he may receive the last rites in the
presence of his brethren. The dead are buried
in their habits, without cofiins. Novices are re-
ceived after two years’ probation, and three years
later may be professed. Besides the choir-
brothers, who are or mean to be priests, and the
lay brothers, oblates are also received-—persons
who for some reason do not wish to take the
vows, but conform strictly to the 1ule during
their residence in the monastery.
The earlier houses of the Order were nearly
all in France; their expulsion from that coun-
try at the time of the Revolution and under the
Third Republic has caused them to plant nu-
merous monasteries in other countries. Accord-
ing to official statistics, in 1897 they had 3472
members, in 54 monasteries. They have one
house in England, two in Ireland, two in Canada,
and two in the United States--at Gethsemane,
Ky., and near Dubuque, Iowa. They do not as a
rule undertake the cure of souls, but conduct a
few mission stations in South Africa, the Congo
State, Japan, China, etc. Consult: Gaillardin,
Les Trappistes (Paris, 1844) ; La Trappe par un
Trappiste de Sept-Fons (ib., 1870); Pfannen-
schmidt, Ceschichte der Trappisten (Paderborn,
1873). For the ordinary reader, the most vivid
and accurate account of life in a Trappist mon-
astery is to be found in Huysmans’s En Route
(Eng. trans. by C. Kegan Paul, London, 1896).
TRAP-ROCKS (Ger. Trapp, from Swed.
trapp, trap-rock, from trappa, Ger. Treppe,
stair; so called because often developed in step-
like masses). A very general term, little em-
ployed in scientific language, but commonly used
to designate dense and generally fine-grained
igneous rocks of black or dark-green color. The
term is almost synonymous with basalt (q.v.)
or diabase (q.v.), but might include, as well,
gabbro, norite, peridotite, pyroxenite, etc. When
altered such rocks assume a green color from the
hornblende, chlorite, epidote, or other secondary
minerals developed in them, and they are then
known as greenstone. Both greenstone and trap
include a wide range of rock families, which by
reason of their fine texture and altered condition
are diflicult to determine without careful and
generally microscopic study.
TRAQUAIR, trak’war,
(1840—). A British naturalist, born at Rhynd,
Perthshire. He graduated at Edinburgh Uni-
versity, and in 1873 was made keeper of natural
history collections in the Edinburgh Museum
of Science and Art. From 1883 till 1887, and
again from 1896 till 1900, he was Swiney lec-
turer on geology in the British Museum. His
publications include: Structure and Afiinities of
the Palceoniscidce (Pal. Soc., 1877); Structure
and Aflinities of the Platysomidae (Trans. Roy.
Soc. Ed. 1879); and Report on Fossil Fishes
Collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland
in the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. 1900).
TRASIMENO, tr'zi’sé-ma’no, LAGO (Lat.
Trasimenus Lacus), or LAGO DI PERUGIA. A
lake in Italy, lying between Cortona and
Perugia. It is about 10 miles in length by 8 in
breadth; the'greatest depth is not above 30 feet.
The lake has no apparent outlet, and the mar-
gins are flat and overgrown with reeds. It is
surrounded on all sides by hills, those on the
north side, extending from Cortona to the lake,
being known as the Gualandro Hills—-the montes
Cortonenses of Livy. They are covered at the
present day with oaks, vineyards, and olive plan-
tations. The lake is memorable chiefly for the
great victory obtained by Hannibal in B.C. 217
during the Second Punic War, over the Romans,
under Flaminius.
RAMsAY HEATLEY
TRASS.
TRAVANCORE-.
885
TRASS. See Tnaonrrn.
TRASTEVERE, triis-ta’ve-re. A district of
Rome about the Janiculum, which was annexed
to the city by Augustus as the Regio Transfi-
berina. In Imperial times it was the abode of
street peddlers, and during the Middle Ages was
frequented by foreigners. It is now almost en-
tirely inhabited by the working classes.‘ Many
valuable antiquities have been recovered in the
district, among them the Apoxyomenos (q.v.) of
Lysippus.
TRAU, trou. A town of Dalmatia, Austria,
on the Adriatic, 12 miles west of Spalato (Map:
Austria, E 5). It is interesting for its remains
of Venetian domination, including a thirteenth-
century cathedral. Population of the commune,
in 1900, 17,064.
TRAUBE, trou’be, LUDWIG (1818-76). A
German clinician, born at Ratibor, Silesia. He
studied at the universities of Breslau and Ber-
lin. In 1849 he became assistant of Sch6nlein
in Berlin, and for many years was connected
with the Charité Hospital there. In 1857 he was
made professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelm Insti-
tute, and in 1872 he became professor at the
University of Berlin. Traube was especially
noted for his experiments on animals for the
purpose of demonstrating pathological conditions.
The practice of auscultation and percussion was
greatly promoted by him, and he also made im-
portant studies regarding diseases of the heart,
kidneys, and lungs. He published: Beitniige em‘
emperimentellen Pathologie (1846); Uebco~ den
Zusammenhang con H era and N ierenkrankheiten
(1856); Gesammelte Beitmige zur Pathologie
and Physiologic (1871).
TRAUMATROPISM (from Gk. 'rpai),u.a,
trauma, wound + 'rpo1r')§, tropé, a turning, from
'rpé1reu/, trepein, to turn). The sensitiveness of
plant parts to wounding, by reason of which
they change their growth so as to curve away
from the side wounded. This sensitiveness is
especially manifested by roots; in which, how-
ever, severe wounding may produce a purely me-
chanical effect, overpowering the true irritable
reaction, which is only manifest in response to
slighter wounds. See GROWTIL
TRAUN, troun. A river of Austria. It
rises on the Gross-Hochkasten in Northwestern
Styria and, entering Upper Austria, traverses the
Hallstiittersee and the Traunsee (q.v.) and flows
into the Danube a few miles below Linz. It is
celebrated for its trout. Near the village of
Roitham it forms a notable waterfall. Length,
about 110 miles.
TRAUNSEE, troun’za, or GMU1\TI)ENER-
SEE, gmun’dcn-Gr-za. The largest lake of Austria
after the Attersee (Map: Austria-Hungary, O 3) .
It lies in Upper Austria, at an altitude of 1376
feet, between Ebensee and Gmunden in the Traun
Valley, and is eight miles long and 626 feet deep.
It is a picturesque lake and, after the Walschen-
see and some of the Italian lakes, the deepest in
the Eastern Alps.
TRAUTEN AU, trou’te-nou. A frontier town
of Bohemia, situated 74 miles northeast of
Prague, on the Aupa, a tributary of the Elbe
(Map: Austria, D 1). It is the centre of the
linen industry of the Riesengebirge, and has in
addition paper mills. Here occurred two en-
gagements between the Prussians and Austrians,
June 27 and 28, 1866. Population, in 1890,
14,777.
TRAUTWINE, trout’win, JOHN CRESSON
(1810-83). An American civil engineer, born
in Philadelphia, Pa. In 1828 he began the study
of his profession in the ollice of \Villiam Strick-
land, then the principal architect and civil
engineer of Philadelphia. He assisted Strickland
in the construction of the United States Mint at
Philadelphia, was a civil engineer on the Colum-
bia Railway in 1831, became principal assistant
engineer of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and
Baltimore Railway in 1835, and an engineer of
the Philadelphia and Trenton Railway in 1836.
In 1836-42 he was chief engineer of the Hiawassee
Railway, connecting Georgia and Tennessee.
VVith G. M. Totten he constructed the waterway
known as the Canal del Dique, between the Bay
of Cartagena and the Magdalena River, and
executed (1850) the surveys for the Panama
Railway. Other surveys made by him include
those for the Lackawanna and Lanesborough
Railway (1856), and those for an interoceanic
railway route across Honduras (1857). He also
planned a system of docks for the city of
Montreal.
TRAVAILLEURS DE LA MER, tra’vi'yér'
de la mar (Fr., Toilers of the Sea). A novel by
Victor Hugo (1866), containing wonderful and
sympathetic descriptions of the sea. The theme
of the story is the desperate devotion of Gilliat
for Deruchette, leading to his suicide.
TRAV’ANCORE’. A native State of Brit-
ish India, lying territorially within the Province
of Madras (Map: India, 0 7). It occupies the
western part of the extreme southern end of the
Indian peninsula, and stretches from Cape Co-
morin northward along the coast to Cochin.
Area, 7091 square miles. The coast, which is
low and sandy, is lined with lagoons receiving
numerous small streams. The land rises gradu-
ally to the crest of the Anamalay Mountains,
which extend along the eastern boundary with an
average altitude of 4000 to 5000 feet, rising in
their highest peaks to over 8500 feet. The
climate is hot on the coast; the rainfall is heavy,
and the mountain slopes are covered with forests
of valuable woods, such as teak and ivory.
Rice, the sage palm, and vegetables are among
the principal products. Pepper’, coffee, tea,
cocoanut products, and timber are the chief arti-
cles exported. Travancore is one of the most
progressive of the native States of India. Its
chiefs for a long period have been highly quali-
fied by character and education for their
positions, government has been well admin-
istered, and a higher degree of prosperity has
prevailed than has been common in India. The
chieftaincy descends in the female line. The
ruling family belongs to the Hindu race. A
tribute of 810,162 rupees is paid annually to
the British in consideration of the protection
which they afford. In 1897-98, 64 per cent. of the
boys and 19 per cent. of the girls of school age
were in attendance at schools. The total popu-
lation increased from 2,557,736 in 1891 to 2,-
951,038 in 1901. The large majority of the
population, 2,035,615, were Hindus. There were
190,566 Mohammedans and 28,183 Animistics. In
few regions of India has Christianity secured so
TRAVANO ORE.
TRAVERSE CITY.
886
great a hold, the Christians numbering, in 1901,
697,387. Trivandrum (q.v.) is the capital.
TRAVELER, THE. A poem by Oliver Gold-
smith (1764), containing many familiar lines
and descriptions of various countries.
TRAVELERS, LAW As TO. See HIGHWAY;
TICKET; CARRIER, COMMON.
TRAVELER’S JOY. See CLEMATIS.
TRAVELER’S TREE, or RAVENALA (Rave-
nala Madagascariensis) . A remarkable plant of
the natural order Musaceee, a native of Mada-
gascar, where it forms a characteristic feature
of the scenery. The stem resembles that of the
plantain, but sends out leaves only on two op-
po-ite sides, like a huge expanded fan. The lower
leaves drop off as the stem grows, and in old
trees they are sometimes 30 feet from the ground.
A tree often has 20 or 24 leaves, the stalk of each
leaf being 6 or 8 feet long, and the blade 4 or
6 feet more. The blade of the leaf is oblong,
bright green and shining. The fruit is not suc-
culent, but is filled with a brilliant blue or
purple fine silky fibre, among which are about
30 or 40 seeds. Forty or fifty fruits grow in a
bunch, and three or four bunches may be seen at
once on the tree. The leaves are much used for
thatch, and for many other purposes, and the
leafstalks for the partitions, and often even for
the walls of houses. The bases of the leafstalks
usually hold water, even in the driest weather,
more than a quart being readily obtained by
piercing the thick part of the base. This water,
which may be used for drinking in case of need,
has suggested the name.
TRAVELING SIDEWALK. An arrange-
ment for the transportation of passengers, consist-
ing essentially of a series of parallel closely abut-
ting platforms traveling on wheels or rollers at
different speeds. A sidewalk of this character was
installed at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago
to convey passengers from one part of the
grounds to another, and similar structures have
been employed elsewhere. The principle of op-
eration of the traveling sidewalk may be readily


SECTION OF TRAVELING SIDEWALK.
understood by an explanation of the accompany-
ing diagram. In this diagram a, b, c, cl, e, and 7‘
are the parallel platforms. The platform a is
stationary, but the others all travel by means of
flexible rails riding on the rims of the wheels g,
h, i, 7', and 75. These wheels rotate on a com-
mon shaft at the same number of rotations per
minute, but, being of different characters, they
carry the superimposed platforms at different
speeds; thus platform b has, say, a speed of 3
miles per hour, c a speed of 6 miles, d a speed
of 9 miles, e a speed of 12 miles, and f a speed
of 15 miles. The platforms travel continuously,
and a foot passenger desiring to use them steps
from the stationary platform a onto the moving
platform b and then onto c, d, e, and f in suc-
cession; the return to the stationary platform
is made in a similar manner, but, of cqurse, in
the reverse direction. By having the difference
between the speeds of any two adjacent plat-
forms no greater than the speed of a brisk walk
the transition from one speed of travel to the
next higher or lower is accomplished without
difficulty, and the pedestrian can board and leave
the moving platforms at any point he may
choose. A traveling stairway is a similar ar-
rangement placed on an incline, but supplied
with but one moving platform. They have been
used for ascending to elevated railway platforms
and in large shops.
TRAVEMUNDE, trii've-1nun-de. A town of
Germany, the outport of Liibeck, lying nine miles
northeast of that city at the mouth of the Trave
(Map: Germany, D 2). It is a well-known
watering place. The old walls of the town Were
torn down in 1882. Population, in 1900, 1849.
TRAV’ERS, JOHN (c.1707-58). An English
musician and composer, born in London. He was a
chorister in Saint George’s Chapel, Windsor, and
served in a like capacity at Eton College as occa-
sion demanded. Owing to the good oflices of Dr.
Godolphin, the provost of Eton, he was later en-
abled to continue his studies in music under Dr.
Green, the organist of Saint Paul’s. His first ap-
pointment was as organist of Saint Paul’s and
conjointly with that of Fulham Parish Church
(c.1725). In 1737 he became organist of the
Chapel Royal, which appointment he held until
his death. His service in F and such anthems
of his as “Keep, We Beseech Thee,” and “Ascribe
Unto the Lord” are still included in the reper-
toire of English church music. His canzonets,
18 in number, the words of which were
fro1n the posthumous writings of Matthew Prior,
bear evidence of a grace of melody which even
to-day commands admiration, old-fashioned as
they are in general construction. He was also
the author of the celebrated Whole Book of
Psalms, for one, two, three, four, and five voices,
with a thorough bass for the harpsichord.
TRAVERSE. In common-law pleading, a
denial of facts alleged in a pleading. See PLEAD-
ING.
TRAVERSE (OF., Fr. travers, from Lat.
traversns, transversas, lying across, transverse,
p. p. of transvertere, to turn across, from trans,
across, through + vertcre, to turn). A term in
fortification, describing a cover or mask, con-
structed of earth in the same manner as the
parapet of a redoubt. It is constructed in the
interior of a redoubt, and is designed to protect
the defenders from enfilade fire. In gunnery
(q.v.) it describes the moving or pointing of a
gun on its pivot, when taking aim, the gear by
which the operation is accomplished being known
as the traversing gear. The platforms by which
heavy naval or fortress guns and carriages are
moved into position, or by which their direction
is changed, are called traversing platforms. See
FORTIFICATION. ‘
TRAV’ERSE CITY. The county-seat of
Grand Traverse County, Mich., 60 miles north-
east of Manistee ; at the mouth of the Boardman
River, on Grand Traverse Bay, an inlet of Lake
Michigan; and on the Pere Marquette, the Grand
Rapids and Indiana, and the Manistee and North-
eastern railroads (Map: Michigan, H 4). It
possesses an attractive situation and good fishing
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TRAVERSE CI'1‘Y._
TREADMILL.
887
facilities, and enjoys considerable reputation as
a summer resort. The Northern Michigan In-
sane Asylum is here. Traverse City is exten-
sively engaged in manufacturing. It is known
for its production of oval wood dishes and corn
starch. Other important manufactures include
baskets, lumber, interior finishings, farm imple-’
ments, flour, leather, fur coats and robes, foun-
dry and machine-shop products, etc. The gov-
ernment is vested in a mayor, chosen annually,
and a unicameral council. The water-works are
owned and operated by the municipality.
Traverse City was settled about 1850 and was
chartered as a city in 1895. Population, in
1890, 4833; in 1900, 9407.
TRAVERTINE (from It. travertino, tibur-
tino, from Lat. tiburtinus, travertine, relating to
Tibur, from T-ibur, an ancient town of Latium,
now called Tivoli). A massive or crypto-crys-
talline variety of limestone that is deposited from
springs or rivers, and usually has an irregularly
banded structure owing to its mode of formation.
A variety known as calc tufa consists of cellular
depositions from the waters of small springs, and
often contains fossil leaves, twigs, etc.
TRAVESTY (OF. travesti, p. p. of travester,
to disguise, from Lat. twvns, across, through -1-
vestire, to clothe, from vest-is, garment). A
term applied in literature to denote a burlesque
representation of something previously executed
in a serious and lofty manner. It differs from
parody (q.v.) in this respect: that while the lat-
ter changes the subject matter and the dravnatis
pcrsonaa, but mockingly imitates the style of the
original, the former leaves the subject matter
partially, and the clrahz-at/is pcrsonae wholly, un-
altered; producing a purely comic effect by the
substitution of the mean, the frivolous, and the
grotesque in action or speech, for the serious, the
noble, or the heroic. See PARODY.
TRAV'IS, WILLIAM BARRETT (1811-36). An
American soldier, born i11 Edgefield County, S. C.
After studying law he began practice at Clai-
borne, Ala., about 1830. He removed to Texas,
then beginning the struggle for independence, in
1832, and at once took part in the insurrection.
He was made a colonel in the revolutionary army,
and was captured by the Mexican forces, but was
finally released. Witli about 150 men he de-
fended the Alamo (q.v.) from February 23 to
March 6, 1836, against General Santa Anna
(q.v.) and about 5,000 Mexicans, and was killed
just before the stronghold was taken.
TRAWLING (from trawl, from OF. tmuler,
troller, tro-ler, Fr. t/roler, to ramble, stroll, drag
about; probably from MIIG., Ger. trollen, to
roll, run, and connected with \Velsh trocll, wheel,
pulley, Bret. tr6el, winding plant, W6, circle).
One of two modes of deep-sea fishing, or of ex-
ploration of the depths. In Europe a ‘trawl’ or
‘beam-trawl’ is a triangular purse-shaped net,
about 70 feet long, usually having a breadth of
about 40 feet at the mouth. The upper part of
the mouth is secured to a wooden beam which
keeps the net open; this beam is supported on
two upright iron frames, known as ‘trawl-heads’
or ‘irons.’ The under side of the net is made
with a deeply curved margin attached to the
‘ground-rope,’ the whole length of it in contact
with the ground. A trawl has also generally two
pockets, one on each side, made by lacing to-
gether the upper and under parts, so that fish
turning back from the cod may be caught in
them. The meshes vary in size from four inches
square at the mouth to an inch and a quarter
square in the ‘cod,’ or narrow hinder end of the
net. Two stout ropes about 15 fathoms long are
fastened to the trawl-heads, and form a bridle,
to which is shackled a towing-line 150 fathoms
long. Trawling is generally in the direction of
the tide, and can be followed with advantage
only on a sandy bottom or other smooth ground.
The vessels employed in trawling on the Dogger
bank and elsewhere near the English coast vary
in size from 35 to 60 tons. Many of these trawl-
ers, however, stay out at sea for six weeks at a
time ‘III all seasons of the year, their fish being
packed in ice, collected by fast~sailing cutters,
and_so'conveyed to market. Cod, haddock, and
similar fish are caught in great numbers by
trawling; and some kinds of flat fish, as soles,
are scarcely to be obtained by any other means.
Smaller trawl-nets than those above described
are used in bays and estuaries.
In the United States a ‘trawl’ is a long line
anchored on the fishing ground, from which de-
pends a row of short lines carrying baited hooks.
The device is principally used on the fishing-
banks. See DEEP—SEA EXPLORATION; FISHERIES.
TREACLE BIBLE. See BIBLE, CURIOUS
EDITIONS or.
TREACLE MUSTARD. See ERYSIMUM.
TREADMILL. A machine where the weight
of men or animals acting on a series of treads
or steps is employed to furnish power. The
treads are so arranged on a cylinder or in an
endless band that as a step is carried back
under the weight of the operating man or animal,
the latter is forced to move forward to the
next in order to keep his footing. The most
general application of this machine has been to
farming machinery, where horses and dogs are
used to supply the motive power. Such machines
are employed for cutting hay or stalks, grinding
and threshing grain, sawing wood, and in the
case of the smaller machines for churning and
similar light work. The endless band formed
by the treads is inclined and is connected with a
fly-wheel, to which the machinery to be operated
is connected by belting. The term treadmill is
most generally applied, however, to a device for
carrying out a sentence of a prisoner to hard
labor, which was formerly in general use in
prisons in Great Britain. It consists of a wheel
iii the form of a long, hollow cylinder, with steps
around its circumference and a hand rail above
the wheel, so that a prisoner may support him-
self while treading the steps and thus working
the wheel. The proper resistance may be created
by means of weights, or the motive power thus
created may be utilized to grind grain, etc. The
physical exercise is severe, and the use of this
form of prison discipline has been generally
abolished. The crank, a small wheel with
paddles, which revolves in a box partially filled
with sand or gravel, has been generally substi-
tuted where unproductive hard labor is neces-
sary. The number of revolutions of both a tread-
wheel and a crank may be recorded by a dial,
and a prisoner’s labor thus regulated according
to his physical condition. Neither device is in
use in the United States.
TREADWELL.
TREASON.
888
. single-track railroads
TREAD/WELL, DANIEL (1791-1872). An
American inventor, born at Ipswich, Mass.
Among his more important inventions are a
power printing press; a system of turnouts for
(1826); the Gypsey, a
hemp-spinning machine for the manufacture of
cordage (1829); and a method of constructing-
cannon from wrought iron and steel. Of these,
the spinning machine was probably the most
successful. In 1822, in conjunction with Dr.
John Ware, he founded the Boston Journal of
Philosophy and the Arts; and from 1834 to 184-5
he occupied the chair of Rumford professor at
Harvard. Consult Memoirs of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xi. (Cam-
bridge, 1888).
TREASON (OF. traison, traisson, trahison,
Fr. trahison, treason; from Lat. traditio, sur-
render, delivery, tradition, from tradere, to de-
liver over, betray, from trans, across, over +
-dere, Gk. n0évaz, tithenai, Skt. dha, to put,
place). At common law there were two dis-
tinct classes of crime known as treason, termed
respectively high treason and petit treason.
The first was disloyalty to the sovereign or
a violation of the allegiance due to him. The
second was a violation of the allegiance due from
an inferior to a superior, by taking the life of
the superior, as of a wife to her husband, a ser-
vant to his master, or an ecclesiastic to his su-
perior. Petit treason is now everywhere pun-
ished only as a homicide. High treason, being in
effect treachery against the sovereign, was the
highest crime which a subject could commit.
By the ancient common law, however, the crime
was not clearly defined; hence there was great
latitude as to what was held by the judges to be
treason, whereby, says Blackstone, “the creatures
of tyrannical princes had opportunity to create
abundance of constructive treasons, that is, to
raise, by forced and arbitrary constructions, of-
fenses into the crime and punishment of treason,
which never were suspected to be such.” Thus,
the accroaching, or attempting to exercise, royal
power (a very uncertain charge) has been
treated as treason; and killing the King’s father
or brother, or even his messenger, has also been
so treated. The inconvenience of these construc-
tive treasons led to the passing of the statute
of 25 Ed. III., c. 2, which attempted to define
treason; and it was defined in five forms: (1)
When a man compasses or imagines the death of
the King, Queen, or their eldest son and heir.
Under this clause it was held that the husband
of a queen-regnant was not included; but it in-
cludes a king de facto without regard to his
title. The phrase “compassing and imagining the
death of a king” has been held to mean the
mere purpose or design, as distinguished from
the carrying such design into effect; neverthe-
less, the purpose can only be proved by some
overt act, such as providing weapons or ammuni-
tion for the purpose of killing the King, or as-
sembling and consulting on the means to kill
the King, although such acts might fall short
of the legal definition of an attempt. The law
has often, however, been strained, and in those
arbitrary times even a sermon unpreached was
held to convict Peacham; and a paper found in
a closet, to convict Algernon Sidney (1683),
though merely speculative in its character. (2)
Another form of treason was the violating of
the King’s companion (i.e. wife), or his eld-
est daughter unmarried, or the wife of the King’s
eldest son and heir. (3) Another form was that
of levying war against the King in his realm
either by taking arms to dethrone the King, or
under pretense to reform religion or the laws;
by resisting the King’s forces; or by joining
an insurrection. (4) It was also treason to ad-
here to the King’s enemies in the realm by giving
them aid and comfort, as by sending intelligence
or provisions or selling arms to them. (5) Lastly,
it was treason to slap-the Chancellor, Treasurer,
or the King’s justices of the bench, or in assize,
while in their places administering justice. Be-
sides these specific forms of treason, the statute
of Edward III. enacted that, if there should be
other cases not above specified, the judge should
tarry without going to judgment, till the King
and Parliament should judge it treason or other
felony—which was a safeguard against the
judges indulging too much in refinements about
constructive treason. At a later period, between
the reigns of Henry IV. and Mary, the courts,
nevertheless, returned to the practice of invent-
ing constructive treasons, and included as such
the clipping of money, burning houses to extort
money, refusing to abjure the Pope, etc. These
and other newly invented treasons were totally
abolished by a statute of 1 Ed. VI., c. 12, but
many of like nature were established under
Elizabeth. A subsequent statute of 1 Anne,
c. 17, provided that whoever endeavors to
hinder the next in succession under the Act
of Settlement from succeeding to the crown
is to be held guilty of treason; and whoever
maliciously afiirms another to have right to the
crown, otherwise than according to the Act of
Settlement, commits treason. Moreover, by 36
George III., e. 7, whoever compasses or intends
death or bodily harm to the person of the King
is to be adjudged a traitor. The act of 25 Ed.
III., e. 2, was confirmed and made perpetual by
57 Geo. III., e. 6, which with the other statutes
referred to embody the English statutory law
upon the subject. There have been numerous
statutes making certain specific acts treason,
but most of these were repealed shortly after
their enactment. All acting and abetting in the
commission of treason are principals, there being
no accessories in the crime of treason. See PRIN-
CIPAL; Aoonssonr.
A copy of an indictment for treason and a
list of the witnesses and jurors, together with
the addresses of the latter, must be delivered to
the prisoner ten days before the trial; and he is
entitled to have counsel assigned to defend him.
This right, which prisoners accused of other
crimes have not in English law, was conferred by
a statute of Will. III.
The punishment for treason was the most
severe and revolting of the harsh punishments
imposed by the common law. The traitor was to
be drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution,
hanged by the neck, his head then severed from
the body, the body divided into four quarters,
and the head and quarters to be at the disposal
of the Crown. But in 1870 these barbarities
were abolished, and the penalty is now changed
to execution by hanging. The consequence of a
conviction of treason was also forfeiture (q.v.)
and corruption of blood, the corruption of blood
:1
TREASON.
TREASURY.
889
having the effect that the attainted person could
neither inherit lands from his ancestors nor
transmit them to ‘any heir. But this was al-
tered as regards England and Ireland in 1870
by the statute 33 and 34 Vict., c. 23. The
convict suffers forfeiture and is disqualified for
any public ofiice; the court may order him to
pay the costs of his conviction, and his whole
property is transferred to administrators named
by the Crown, who administer it and retransfer
the surplus to his heirs and representatives.
There are certain minor offenses which are
called misprision of treason, being those closely
bordering on treason. (See MISPRISION.) Such
are offenses which consist in the bare knowl-
edge and concealment of treason, without any
degree of assent thereto, for any assent makes
the party a principal traitor. The punishment
of misprision of treason was loss of goods and
lands during life.
In the United States treason may be either
against an individual State or against the
United States. In the former case it may be
an offense at common law, although the Con-
stitution or statutes of most of the States define
the crime and provide a punishment. Most of
these provisions, however, are modeled after the
provisions of the United States Constitution_de-
fining treason. The Constitution of the Umted
States (Art. 3, sec. 3) provides that treason
against the United States shall “consist only in
levying war against them, or in adhering to or
giving aid and comfort to their enemies.” It is
further provided that no person shall be con-
victed of treason unless on the testimony of two
witnesses to the overt act or upon confession in
open court. The penalty is death or imprison-
ment and fine at the discretion of the court.
Levying war within the meaning of this pro-
vision must be a defiance of public government
by armed force, and must amount to more than
a mere riot or an interference with the execution
of the laws for some private purpose. The acts
of the defendant must also proceed beyond mere
preparation, as by enlistment of men for military
service. They must meet or be assembled for a
treasonable purpose and some act done toward
executing with force their purposes. Thus an
assembly of men arrayed in a military manner
for the purpose of overawing the public and
finally assailing the Government is levying war
upon the Government, although no actual blow is
struck. Adhering to or giving aid and comfort
to the enemies of the United States means more
than mere sympathy with enemies of the Govern-
ment; it must be the voluntary giving of actual
assistance to those who are waging war against
the United States.
Most of the State Constitutions contain pro-
visions similar to the clause of the United States
Constitution, defining treason against the State
and providing a punishment. Generally they
provide that treason against a State may be com-
mitted by armed opposition to its laws or by
forcibly attempting to overthrow or usurp the
Government. In practice, the common law of
crime and the statute law of crime in the several
States have been found adequate to punish crime
of a treasonable nature without resorting to
prosecution for treason, and there have been few
prosecutions for the specific offense of treason
against a State. See ATTAINDER; cf. PBZEMUNIRE.
sion to the Presidency.
TREASURE ISLAND. A romance of ad-
venture by Robert Louis Stevenson (1883).
Though intended for boys, it first attracted the
attention of the general public to his work.
TREASURER, LORD HIGH. Formerly, the
third great officer of the Crown in England, who
was sole head of the King’s exchequer. The
office was originally held by one person, but in
1612 James I. put it in commission; and from
the accession of George I.' (1714) down to the
present time, it has been the practice to vest
.the office in a board of Lords ‘Commissioners of
the Treasury.
TREASURE-TROVE (treasure, from OF.
tresor, Fr. trésor, It., Sp. tesoro, from Lat.
thesaurus, from Gk. 0ncravp6s, treasure, treasure-
chest, storehouse, from n0évaz, tithenai, to put,
place + trove, from OF. trover, trowvelr, Fr. trou-
ver, to find). In the common law of England,
hidden treasure of gold, silver, and bullion acci-
dentally found in the earth, the owner of which can-
not be ascertained. Treasure-trove belongs to the
Crown, and in certain districts the right to claim
it has been granted to the nobility. In order
to come within this rule, the treasure must be
concealed, as distinguished from that which is
casually lost and remains on the surface, as to
which a different rule applies. A finder of treas-
ure-trove is bound by law to give notice of his
discovery to the proper officials of the Crown,
and his failure to do so may subject him to fine
and imprisonment. However, the present policy
of the English Government is to allow a finder to
keep treasure thus discovered, less a small per-
centage of its value to be paid to the Crown,
unless it is of some value as an object of his-
torical or antiquarian interest, in which cases it
is claimed by the Crown in order to be pre-
served in the national museums. By the Treas-
ure-Trove Act of India the finder may keep it if
no owner is found, in which case the latter is
entitled to three-quarters and the finder to one-
quarter of its value.
Although there are some dicta to the effect
that the common law as to treasure-trove applies
in the United States, the right is seldom, if ever,
enforced, if it exists. See FINDING.
TREASURY, DEPARTMENT or THE. The
executive department of the Government of the
United States controlling the national finances.
It was established by act of Congress in Septem-
ber, 1789, and was the successor of the Treasury
Department created by the Congress of the Con-
federation in 1781, of which Robert Morris was
for a time superintendent. It is the most exten-
sive and complex of the executive departments
and in rank stands next to the Department of
State. It is presided over by a Secretary ap-
pointed by the President, who is a member
of the Cabinet (salary, $8000), and second
among the Cabinet officers in the line of succes-
The department as
originally established consisted of a Secretary, a
Comptroller, an Auditor, a Treasurer, a Register,
and an Assistant Secretary, together with a few
clerks. From this small beginning the depart-
ment has grown to be a vast establishment em-
ploying some 5000 persons at Washington with
numerous bureaus, branches, and offices through-
out the country. The only qualification for the
office of Secretary of the Treasury is the negative
TREASURY.
TREATIES.
890
one that he shall not be interested in foreign
commerce. He is required to digest and prepare
plans for the revenue and public credit; to pre-
scribe the forms for keeping the public accounts;
to superintend the collection of the revenues; to
grant all warrants under certain limitations for
moneys issued from the Treasury in pursuance
of appropriations made by law; and, in general,
to perform all such duties relative to the finances
of the United States as shall be required by law.
Simultaneously with the development of the
country the duties of the department have been
extended to the management of the national
debt, the supervision of the national banks, the
internal revenue system, the legal-tender cur-
rency, the merchant marine, the lighthouse sys-
tem, the life-saving and marine hospital services,
the Coast Survey, etc. The Secretary is aided by
three Assistant Secretaries. The business of the
department is distributed among the following
offices and bureaus: the Comptroller of the
Treasury, six Auditors, the Treasurer, the Regis-
ter, the Comptroller of the Currency, the Com-
missioner of Internal Revenue, the Mint, the
Bureau of Engraving and Printing, and the Ma-
rine Hospital Service.
The Comptroller of the Treasury, since 1894,
has been aided by an Assistant Comptroller. He
exercises a kind of supervisory power over. the
auditors, countersigns warrants drawn by the
Secretary of the Treasury, etc. The original act
creating the Treasury Department provided for a
single Auditor; four additional Auditors were
provided in 1817, and a sixth was added in 1836.
The six Auditors are assigned to the Treasury,
VVar, Interior, Navy, Post-office, and State
and other departments respectively, with
the duty of examining accounts. The Treas-
urer is charged with the duty of signing the
paper currency and of receiving and keeping
the moneys of the United States and with dis-
bursing the same on warrants properly drawn
and countersigned. There are Assistant Treas-
urers at New York, Boston, Saint Louis, Phila-
delphia, New Orleans, Baltimore, Cincinnati,
Chicago, and San Francisco. The Register signs
all stocks and bonds and all Treasury notes and
coin certificates issued under the authority of
the United States. The Comptroller of the Cur-
rency enforces the provisions of the national
banking laws and superintends the issue of bank-
note currency. At the head of the Bureau of
Internal Revenue is a commissioner who is
charged with the enforcement of the internal
revenue laws and the collection of the internal
revenues. He is aided by a collector in each
revenue district. For the collection of the cus-
toms there is a collector in each district, a sur-
veyor in the larger parts, and a general board of
appraisers to hear appeals against decisions of
the collectors with regard to the dutiability of
imported goods. The Director of the Mint has
the supervision of all mints and assay offices.
throughout the country and makes annual re-
ports to Congress on the coinage of the couritry,
the yield of precious metals, etc. The Bureau of
Engraving, established in 1874, has charge of
the preparation of designs, stamps, bank notes,
bonds, Treasury drafts, and other securities of
the United States. The Solicitor of the Treasury
has charge of all legal measures to prevent the
evasion of the revenue laws and the counterfeit-
ing of the coin and other securities of the United
States.
. TREASURY NOTE. A certificate of credit
issued by the Treasury Department on the au-
' thority of the Government and madereceivable
for government dues. In the United States,
treasury notes bearing interest were issued at
different times before the Civil War, but it was
during that struggle that the financial necessities
of the Government first led to the issue of very
great quantities of non-interest bearing treasury
notes, which, however, were made legal tender
for all public and private debts except duties
upon imports and interest on the public debt.
See MONEY.
TREAT, ROBERT (1622-1710). A Colonial
Governor of Connecticut, born in England. He
emigrated to America with his father, and settled
in Wethersfield, Conn. In 1639 he settled in
Milford, from 1653 to 1659 was a deputy, and
from 1659 to 1664 was an assistant. He opposed
the union of the Connecticut River and New Haven
settlements, and went with the dissatisfied fac-
tion which founded Newark, N. J. In 1672 he
returned to Milford, and later distinguished
himself in King Philip’s War. In 1676 he was
chosen Deputy Governor of Connecticut, and in
1683 was elected Governor, and with the excep-
tion of the two years in which the colony was
under Sir Edmund Andros (1687-89), served un-
til 1698. From the latter year to 1708 he was
again Deputy Governor.
TREATIES, INDIAN. The first step of the
United States Government in determining its
policy in regard to the Indians, whether ex-
pressed or implied, was to decide as to the nature
of their territorial rights, this being the chief
and altogether the most important factor in
their relations with the whites. The decision
reached on this point is distinctly stated by the
United States Supreme Court in the case of
Johnson and Graham’s lessee v. McIntosh (8
Wheaton, 453 et seq.) , as follows: “It has never
been contended that the Indian title amounted to
nothing. Their right of possession has never
been questioned. The claim of the Government
extends to the complete, ultimate title, charged
with the right of possession, and to the exclusive
power of acquiring this right.” The next step
was to determine the branch of the Government
to carry out this policy. By the ninth of the
Articles of Confederation it was declared that
“the United States in Congress assembled have
the sole and exclusive right and power of regu-
lating the trade, and managing all affairs with
the Indians not_members of any of the States.”
It is evident, therefore, that while acting un-
der the Articles of Confederation the right of
managing and controlling the relations with the
Indians resided in Congress alone. When the
Constitution was framed this authority was con-
ferred upon the legislative department in the
following brief statement: “To regulate commerce
with foreign nations and among the several
States, and with the Indian tribes.”
It is apparent, from the use of the term
‘tribes,’ that the framers of the Constitution had
in contemplation the method of dealing with the
Indians as tribes through treaties. This is clear-
ly shown by the act of March 1, 1793, in which
it is stated that no purchase or grant of lands
TRE-ATIES.
TRE-ATY.
891
from the Indians shall be of any validity “unless
the same be made by a treaty or convention en-
tered into pursuant to the Constitution.” This
action of Congress necessarily placed the ini-
tiatory steps in dealing with the Indians under
the jurisdiction of the President as the treaty-
making power, subject to confirmation by the
Senate.
The colonies and also the mother country had
treated with the Indians as ‘nations,’ their
chiefs or sachems often being designated as
‘kings’—and this idea, being retained by the
founders of our Government, was ingrafted into
their policy. It must also be remembered that
the colonies then were weak, and that the Indian
tribes were comparatively strong and capable of
requiring recognition of equality. Notwithstand-
ing the evident anomaly of such a course, the
growth in numbers and strength of the whites,
and the diminishing power of the natives, this
implied equality was recognized in the dealings
between the two until the act of March 3, 1871.
During all this time Indian titles to lands were
extinguished only under the treaty-making
clause of the Constitution; and these treaties,
though the tribe may have been reduced to a
small band, were usually clothed in the same
stately verbiage as the most important treaty
with a great European power.
It was ordered by this act of March 3, 1871,
that “No Indian nation or tribe within the ter-
ritory of the United States shall be acknowledged
or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or
power with whom the United States may contract
by treaty,” thus terminating a legal fiction which
had been kept up for nearly a hundred years. It
appears from the annual report of the Commis-
sioner of Indian Affairs for 1890, that the Indian
title to all the public domain had been extin-
guished except in Alaska, in the portions included
in 162 reservations, and those acquired by the
Indians through purchase. As the title to res-
ervations is derived in most cases from the
United States, and title by purchase is derived
directly or indirectly from the same source, it
may be stated that the Indian title to all the
public domain, except in Alaska, had practically
been extinguished by the year 1890. It would
seem, in fact, that the United States Government
proceeded on the theory that all the lands within
its bounds were held by the natives, and hence
that their possessory right must be extinguished.
The only known variation from this rule was iii
the case of the Uintah Utes, where an omitted
portion of their claimed territory was taken
possession of without agreement. From the for-
mation of the Government up to March 3, 1871,
653 treaties were made with 97 different tribes or
recognized tribal organizations.
A natural corollary of land cessions by the In-
dians to the United States Government was the
establishment of reservations for these natives
either within the limits of the original territory
or elsewhere. These reservations. which up to
March 3, 187 0, were usually determined by
treaty or agreement, were the restricted areas
to which the Indians were confined in order to
bring them more directly under the control and
care of the Government, and to lessen the liabil-
ity of conflict with the whites and warring be-
tween the tribes. It was hoped also that by thus
curbing the wandering habit these reservations
Von. XVI.—57.
might become, by the fostering hand of the Gov-
ernment, the first step toward citilization. This
policy, which has been also followed in Canada
under both French and English control, was
inaugurated by the Government as early as 1786,
and continued as an‘ established policy to the
present day. The earliest reservations were chief-
ly formed as the direct result of the cession of
lands by the tribes, thus restricting their limits,
but expressly stating in the treaty defining
the bounds that the portion so limited was
‘allotted to’ or ‘reserved for’ the given Indians.
Up to 1890 162 of these reservations had
been established. The method of establishing
reservations has not been uniform, some being
by treaty, some by executive order, and others
by act of Congress. Those established by execu-
tive order, independent of the act of Congress,
were not held to be permanent before the General
Allotment Act of 1887, under which the tenure
has been materially changed, and all reservations,
whether by executive order, act of Congress, or
treaty, are held permanent. Reservations by
executive order under authority of an act of
Congress are those which have been authorized
or established by acts of Congress and their
limits defined by executive order, or have been
first established by executive order and subse-
quently confirmed by Congress.
Other respects in which the power of Congress
intervenes in reference to Indian lands, or is
necessary to enable the Indians to carry out
their desires in regard thereto, are the following:
(1) Allotments of land in severalty previous
to the act of February 8, 1887, could be made
only by treaty or by virtue of an act of Con-
gress, but by this act general authority is given
to the President for this purpose.
(2) Leases of land, sale of standing timber,
granting of mining privileges and right of way
to railroads are all prohibited to the Indians
without some enabling act of Congress. On the
other hand, it is obligatory on the Government to
prevent any intrusion, trespass, or settlement on
the lands of any tribe of Indians except where
their consent has been given by agreement.
TREATY (OF. tra'zTte, traicte, Fr. traite’, It.
trattato, treaty, from ML. tractatns, treaty,
agreement, from Lat. tra-ctare, to treat, manage,
frequentative of trahere, to draw, drag). A
compact or agreement entered into between the
governments or sovereigns of two or more States.
A treaty is somewhat analogous to a contract in
private law, the main differences being in the
origin, purpose, and manner of enforcement. Thus
a treaty is concluded with more formality than
a private contract, its purposes are usually of a'
public character, while its enforcement rests
chiefly upon the good faith of the contracting
parties. The right of entering into treaty rela-
tions is one of the essential attributes of sov-
ereignty, and is therefore not usually per-
mitted to so-called dependent States except un-
der certain restrictions, nor to the component
members of States having the federal system of
government. So-called dependent States frequent-
ly retain the right of making commercial and
extradition treaties, postal and customs conven-
tions, and sometimes treaties of alliance and of
naturalization. Component members of con-
federate States usually retain a considerable de-
gree of treaty-making power, as, for example,
TREATY.
TREATY.
892
the members of the German Bund of 1815-66
or the States of Argentina (q.v.). Under the
present German Empire the individual St-ates en-
joy the power to make treaties only with their
immediate foreign neighbors, and only concerning
postal and telegraph communication across the
boundary between them. The Commonwealths of
the United States are expressly forbidden to enter
into treaty relations with foreign States or to
make agreements among themselves except with
the consent of Congress. The treaty-making power
of a country is determined by its Constitution. In
the United States it is vested in the President,
acting by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, two-thirds of the members concurring.
The President exercises this power through the
Department of State or through special plenipo-
tentiaries appointed for the purpose. In mo-
narchical countries the treaty-making power is
usually a prerogative of the Crown, but an in-
direct influence is frequently exercised by the
legislature, especially when an appropriation of
money is necessary to carry into effect the stipu-
lations of the treaty. In the German Empire
treaties which relate to any subject already regu-
lated by Imperial law require the approval of the
legislature. In the French Republic the Presi-
dent is empowered to negotiate treaties ; but if the
treaty is one of peace or commerce, or involves
the finances or the territory of the State, or re-
lates to the personal or property rights of
Frenchmen in foreign States, the approval of the
two Chambers is necessary. With the few excep-
tions of this kind, the negotiations and ratifica-
tion of treaties in the European States are in
the same hands, but they are distinct and sep-
arate steps, and ratification may be withheld
after the treaty has been negotiated. Every-
where formal ratification is essential to the
validity of a treaty.
In the United States, where the negotiating and
ratifying authorities are in different hands, the
question of ratification assumes a double impor-
tance, for it by no means follows that ratification
is a matter of course. In several notable in-
stances treaties negotiated by the President have
been rejected by the Senate. Foreign govern-
ments, therefore, negotiating with the President
of the United States are presumed to know that
negotiation is only the initial stage in the pro-
cedure. The Senate has, moreover, claimed the
right, and has exercised it in several instances,
of ratifying only a part of a treaty instead of
sending it back as a whole for revision. An im-
portant question has arisen in the United States
as to whether Congress is bound to enact the
necessary legislation to carry into effect the
stipulations of a treaty negotiated by the Presi-
dent and duly ratified by the Senate. This ques-
tion first arose in 1794 in connection with the
unpopular Jay Treaty which called for an appro-
priation of money to carry it into effect. The
House of Representatives was at first inclined to
refuse its concurrence, and only gave in after a
sharp struggle, and then by a very close vote. It is
impossible to say even now that the question has
been decided one way or another. The rule now
is to lay reciprocity treaties before Congress for
its approval and for the enactment of the neces-
sary legislation to carry them into effect. This
practice has been followed in the case of reci-
procity treaties with Mexico, Canada, and Cuba.
The question has also been raised as to how far
the Government is bound by the action of its
negotiator provided he has not exceeded his in-
structions. Formerly the rule prevailed that if
the plenipotentiary acted in accordance with his
full power his principal was bound by his action,
since the knowledge of the full power by the other
party was a motive which induced him to ne-
gotiate. Some writers, following the doctrines of
the Roman law, still hold that the principals are
in good faith bound by the acts of their duly au-
thorized plenipotentiaries. Others make a dis-
tinction in this respect between treaties proper
and contracts, holding that, in view of the magni-
tude of the interests involved in agreements be-
tween States and the possibility of errors of
judgment or of policy on the part of negotiators,
a right of examination and of rejection is in-
dispensable. It is now universally conceded that
the principal may withhold his ratification from
treaties negotiated strictly in pursuance of in-
structions where it is found to be impossible
from physical _or other reasons to fulfill their
stipulations, or on account of mutual error by
which both parties were misled, or where a change
of circumstances upon which the validity of the
treaty was made to depend has occurred, or where
ratification of the treaty would involve injury to
a third party.
The extent of the treaty-making power unless
restricted by the Constitution is almost unlim-
ited. It includes the acquisition of foreign ter-
ritory; the disposal of domestic territory; the
recognition of new States; the creation of servi-
tudes ; the formation of alliances; the granting of
special privileges with respect to trade, com-
merce, and residence; the delimitation and recti-
fication of boundaries; the guarantee of terri-
torial integrity; the neutralization of ship
canals, etc., etc. It is a common provision in
European constitutions to restrict the treaty-
making power with regard to the cession of do-
mestic territory by requiring the approval of the
legislature in such cases. A constitutional ques-
tion has been raised in the United States as to
whether the treaty-making power extends to the
alienation of land belonging to a State, and on
this point constitutional lawyers differ in opin-
ion, but the better view seems to be that where
doubt exists as to the right of a State to land
which it claims the disputed territory may be
ceded by treaty. On the other hand, it is con-
tended that land to which the right of the State
is undisputed cannot be disposed of without the
consent of the State except in case of conquest,
where transfer is inevitable as a means of ter-
minating the war.
The usual conditions essential to the validity
of a treaty are, first, that the contracting parties
shall possess the requisite capacity for entering
into treaty engagements. Thus, neutralized
States like Belgium and Switzerland are lack-
ing in the capacity to enter into treaties which
contemplate the waging of offensive war. In
the second place, the plenipotentiaries who nego-
tiate the .treaty must be properly authorized.
In the United States the President rarely if
ever participates directly in the negotiations.
This duty generally devolves upon the Secre-
tary of State, although not infrequently the
work is intrusted to a minister resident or to a
special plenipotentiary or commissioner. Agree-
TREATY.
TREATY.
893
ments entered into in excess of their authority
are invalid and ratification may be withheld. An
unauthorized agreement is called a sponsion and
is of no effect unless approved by the sponsor’s
Government. The third essential to the validity
of a treaty is freedom of consent on the part of
the signatory powers. If either part acts un-
der constraint the resulting agreement is void
except in the case of treaties or other agreements
arising in the course of war, where from the na-
ture of the case the element is present. But an
error as to the value of a consideration such as
may result from imperfect geographical knowl-
edge with regard to a boundary will not affect the
validity of the treaty. Finally, treaties which
stipulate for the execution of objects which are
physically impossible of execution, which are re-
pugnant to the usages of international law, or
which conflict with previous engagements with
other powers are held to be invalid. Thus
treaties stipulating the establishment of slavery,
assuming joint control over a portion of the high
seas, or impairing the sovereignty of a third
power would be invalid.
Treaties are susceptible of classification along
different lines. Vattel classifies them as equal
and unequal, or those in which the reciprocal
considerations are equal and those in which they
are unequal; personal treaties, which expire with
the death of the sovereign who contracts them;
and real treaties, which bind the State perma-
nently. De Martens follows the same arrange-
ment, but adds transitory conventions and mixed
treaties. Calvo distinguishes treaties, with ref-
erence to their form, into transitory and per-
manent; with reference to their nature, into
personal and real; with reference to their ef-
fects, into equal and unequal and simple and
conditional; and, finally, with reference to
their objects, into treaties of guarantee,
commerce, neutrality, alliance, etc. Hall ar-
ranges them as follows: (1) those which are
declaratory of the law as understood by the con-
tracting parties; (2) those which stipulate for
practices which the contracting parties wish to in-
corporate into the usages of law, but which they
know to be outside the actual law; (3) those
which are, in fact, mere bargains, in which, with-
out any reference to legal considerations, some-
thing is bought by one party at the price of an
equivalent given by the other.
Cartels, capitulations, and suspensions of arms,
or truces, are sometimes involved in the classi-
fications of treaties, although strictly speaking
they are not treaties. Transitory agreements or
conventions are treaties which contemplate the
immediate execution of the stipulations and
which are complete when this act has been per-
formed. Examples are treaties of delimitation,
of cession, etc. Permanent treaties are those
which are continuous in effect, either perpetual-
ly or for a specified period. Such are treaties
of amity and commerce, of neutrality, of extra-
dition, postal and customs conventions. etc.
Cartels are agreements entered into in time of
war between the commanders of opposing armies
for the purpose of effecting an exchange of pris-
oners, and they may be transitory or for the
period of the war. Capitulations are similar
agreements for the surrender of a place, fleet,
or army. Every general commanding is pre-
sumed to have authority to enter into agreements
of this kind subject to any restrictions that may
be imposed by the authority of his own State.
A treaty of alliance is an agreement between
two or more States with a view to concerted
action for a certain purpose. It may be tem-
porary or permanent, equal orunequal, and of-
fensive or defensive or both. Defensive alliances
are usually formed with a view to preventing
armed aggression against either party while of-
fensive alliances are formed for the purpose of
waging war against another State or States. A
good example of the first class was the treaty
of 1778 between the United States and France,
while the alliances formed among various Euro-
pean States to curb the ambitions and aggres-
sions of Louis XIV. and Napoleon I. were in
form examples of offensive alliances, although
defensive in character. Treaties of guarantee are
entered into for the purpose of securing the ob-
servance and execution of already existing
treaties or for the maintenance of certain exist-
ing conditions for a limited period or in per-
petuity. Among the conditions which have been
made the subject of guarantee may be men-
tioned the independence and territorial integrity
of States, as, for example, Greece in 1832, and
the Ottoman Empire in 1856; the neutralization
of States, as in the case of Belgium and Swit-
zerland; the neutralization of ship canals, as in
the case of the Suez and proposed Panama
canals; the free navigation of rivers; and the
payment of State debts.
What are known as reciprocity treaties have
been the subject of frequent negotiations in re-
cent years, on account of the increasing impor-
tance of international commercial relations.
Such treaties provide for reciprocal commercial
advantages, usually in the form of reduced cus-
toms tariffs on the products of each State when
imported into the other. They are usually en-
tered into for limited periods of time. and are
sometimes subject to revision at stated periods.
It is generally held that the special privileges
granted by reciprocity treaties cannot be claimed
by other States having treaties which entitle
them to privileges allowed to the most favored
nation, the latter class being regarded in the
light of contract obligations. Treaties of peace
resemble ordinary treaties in form and in sub-
stance, but differ from them as regards the posi-
tion of the contracting parties, since the element
of duress usually present in the negotiations,
and hence freedom of conduct is not one of the
requisites to the validity of such treaties. See
VVAR, LAWS or.
As regards the preparation of treaties, it has
already been said that the ordinary method of
negotiation is by a regular agent or commis-
sioner. During the nineteenth century, however,
the preparation of a number of the most impor-
tant European treaties has been intrusted to
general international congresses or conferences
composed of ambassadors and in some cases of
the sovereigns of the States concerned. Such were
the Congress of Vienna of 1815 called to settle
the questions growing out of the Napoleonic
Wars; the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818,
which terminated the military occupation of
France; the congress at Paris in 1856. which
effected a partial settlement of the Eastern
Question at the close of the Crimean ‘Var and
drew up a declaration relative to the usages of
TREATY.
TREATY.
894
maritime warfare; and the Congress of Berlin of
1878' in respect to the questions growing out
of the war between Turkey and Russia-.
The language employed in the preparation of
treaties was formerly Latin. Toward the close
of the seventeenth century it was replaced by
French, which is now the general diplomatic lan-
guage of Europe and America. Each signatory
power may insist upon the use of its own lan-
age, in which case a copy is prepared for each
State in its own language and is usually ar-
ranged in parallel columns. Two States having
a common tongue naturally employ that lan-
guage. With regard to the form it may be said
that no fixed rule prevails except that the stipu-
lations of the treaty are usually preceded by a
recital of the names and titles of the negotiators,
with a statement of the purposes which the
treaty is intended to accomplish. The treaty is
divided into articles and clauses, ending with
the terms of ratification and the signatures of
the negotiators. A copy is prepared for each
contracting party and the signatures follow,
usually according to the principle of the alter-
nat—that is, the plenipotentiary from each
State signs first the copy intended for the use of
his own Government. After the act of ratifica-
tion by each of the parties there follows the
formal exchange of ratifications, when the opera-
tion of the treaty begins. Treaties sometimes
contain provisions for the accession of third par-
ties. Such were the Declaration of Paris in 1856,
the Geneva Convention of 1868, and the Treaty
of Washington of 1871.
Treaties are terminated in various ways. They
cease to be binding with the mutual consent of
the parties thereto; or with the denunciation of
either party if that right has been reserved;
when the object of the treaty has been attained,
as in the case of a boundary treaty, an arbitra-
tion treaty, or convention for the settlement of
claims; when the operation of the treaty is con-
ditioned upon terms which no longer exist, as
in the case of a treaty allowing free navigation
on a river which has ceased to be navigable; and
when either party refuses to perform mutual
stipulations. In the latter case the other party
may consider itself released from its obligations,
or it may demand a fulfillment of the treaty and
require an indemnity for injuries resulting from
any infractions thereof. By the usages of in-
ternational law the refusal of either party to
abide by a treaty, however burdensome, is a suf-
ficient cause of war, since, as in the case of an
ordinary contract, it is binding upon both
parties until mutually abrogated. Finally, it
is to be said that a treaty is terminated when
the state of things contemplated by the parties
and hence its real basis no longer exists. Thus
a treaty is entered into in contemplation of the
continuance of a particular form of government
which in the course of time is displaced by an-
other. Or the basis of the treaty may be changed
by the absorption of one State by another, as in
the case of Algeria, a State with which the United
States had a treaty previous to the French con-
quest begun in 1830. Similarly the establishment
of the German Empire in 1871 put an end to the
treaties between the ‘United States andthe sev-
eral German States with which she had entered
into treaty relations. When a State is destroyed or
loses its national character by other means its
treaties fall..to the ground, but ordinarily a mere
change in the form of government will not affect
its obligations to other States. In case of war
between the contracting parties all treaties are
suspended while certain of them are terminated.
Treaties stipulating for a permanent arrange-
ment of territorial and other national rights are
at most simply suspended during the war and
revive at peace. Such are treaties which recog-
nize Within certain territorial limits the inde-
pendence of one of the contracting parties;
treaties which establish new rules or modify old
rules of international law, such as the Declara-
tion of Paris of 1856 ; and treaties which contem-
plate a state of war and which come into effect
only at the outbreak of hostilities, such as
treaties of alliance and treaties which regulate
blockades, and define contraband of war, regulate
rules of capture, etc. Treaties of commerce and
navigation and postal conventions are usually
extinguished by war,
Sir Travers Twiss says that Great Britain in
practice admits of no exception to the rule that
all treaties as such are put an end to by subse-
quent war between the contending parties. In
pursuance of this rule the treaties of Westphalia
and Utrecht were several times reversed by
the signatory powers after they had engaged in
war with one another. A notable diplomatic dis-
cussion between Great Britain and the United
States arose after the War of 1812 over the
question of whether the treaty of 17 83, in so far
as it granted to the colonists fishery rights at
Newfoundland, was suspended by the subsequent
war between the contracting parties. The United
States claimed that the treaty provision in ques-
tion was not extinguished, it being the recognition
of a preexisting right which the colonies had al-
ways enjoyed in common with the mother coun-
try. Great Britain claimed, on the other hand,
that the permission to fish on British coasts was
in the nature of a grant of a special privilege and
therefore terminated by the war.
As in the case of private contracts, certain
rules for the interpretation of treaties have
grown up-. Phillimore arranges the rules of
interpretation under three heads: (1) Au-
thentic interpretation, that is, the inter-
pretation supplied by the lawgiver himself; (2)
usual interpretation, based on usage and prece-
dent; and (3) doctrinal interpretation, or the
interpretation founded upon scientific exposi-
tion of the terms of the treaty itself. The fol-
lowin are the commonest rules of interpreta-
tion: lords are presumed to have been used in
their ordinary sense, but technical terms are used
in the sense and with the meaning applied to them
in the particular art to which they belong; the
provision of a treaty can have but one true
meaning and the interpretation must be mutual;
the interpretation should be made with regard to
the context and spirit of the whole treaty; terms
peculiar to the language of one of the contracting
parties must be given the meaning which they have
in that language; clauses defining grants, p'rivi-
leges, and favors should be strictly interpreted;
an interpretation which renders a treaty in-
operative is to be avoided; special clauses are to
be preferred to general, prohibitory to permissive;
earlier clauses are explained by later ones and
obscure clauses by clearer ones in later treaties,
as later treaties explain and modify earlier
TREATY.
TREATY RIGHTS.
895
ones on the same subject. The rule has been laid
down by the United States Supreme 'Court that a
treaty is on the same plane of equality with a
statute of Congress, so that a later statute may
supersede a prior treaty, while a subsequent
treaty may supersede a prior statute on a given
subject. A notable instance was the supersession
in 1882 of a treaty with China by the act of Con-
gress for excluding Chinese laborers. This mode
of terminating treaties, however, is not sanc-
tioned by international law and does not affect
the responsibility of either contracting party for
the fulfillment of its obligations. In the United
States treaties go into effect from the date of
signature, so far as the contracting parties are
concerned, but only from the date of ratification
so far as the rights of the individual are in-
volved. Another rule of interpretation in the
United States is that the Supreme Court will not
undertake to enforce a treaty which requires
Congressional legislation for its execution. Un-
til such legislation is forthcoming the individual
concerned must address himself to the political
departments of the Government.
To secure the enforcement of treaties, it was
formerly the custom to demand and receive host-
ages, the last instance of the kind being in 1748 to
secure the execution of the Treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle. Solemn oaths accompanied by religious
rites on the occasion of ratification were once
common, but are no longer resorted to. Pledges
are sometimes required, as in the case of the
treaty of peace between Germany and France in
1871, when certain French fortresses were re-
tained by the Germans as security for the pay-
ment of the large indemnity exacted from France.
The organs for the enforcement of a treaty are
the courts, the legislature, the executive, and the
army and navy. Thus treaties of peace, of ces-
sion, of commerce, etc., are enforced for the most
part by the legislative branch assisted by the
executive, while in the case of treaties of naturali-
zation, extradition, and treaties afi'ecting the
rights of foreigners the judicial branch plays an
important part.
The most complete collection of treaties in Eng-
lish is that of Hertslet, four volumes. See also
The Map of Europe by Treaty, by the same
author; T'reat'ies and Oorwent-ions of the United
States (1776-1889); De Martens, Recueil des
pm'nctpaua; trcvités, etc. (1761-1818). For a gen-
eral discussion of the subject of treaties, see the
authorities cited under the article INTERNA-
TIONAL LAW, and Butler, The Treaty M aking
Power (2 vols., New York, 1902).
TREATY ELM. The tree in Shackamaxon,
Philadelphia, under which \Villiam Penn made
his famous treaty with the Indians in 1682. Its
supposed site is now occupied by the Penn
Treaty Monument.
TREATY RIGHTS, ECCLESIASTICAL. Those
rights which are secured by treaty to the sub-
jects or citizens of one State while residing in
the territory of another State, relating to the
exercise of their religion. The international
agreements from which such rights arise differ
radically from those treaties, generally known
as concordats, which are made from time to
time between sovereign States and the See of
Rome to regulate the condition of the adherents
of the Roman Catholic Church within the juris-
diction of the contracting State, since no ec-
clesiastical authority is made a party to the con-
tract, which is directly between sovereign States
in favor of the citizens of one or both. Such a
body of rights belongs to the department of pri-
vate international law. It had its origin in the
Reformation period, when the organic unity of
YVestern Christendom was broken ‘and there was
no single ecclesiastical authority with which a
State could deal in relation to all its subjects.
At the present time among the great powers of
the world, and especially among those of West-
ern civilization,-, the liberties and rights of for-
eign-born residents are amply secured by what
are known as ‘the most favored nation clause’
of the prevailing treaties. Those nations, how-
ever, which have been foremost in missionary
enterprise among peoples of a different civiliza-
tion have found their interests to require in-
tervention by their governments, and the United
States of America, in the protection of wide-
spread missionary enterprise, has secured for
its citizens ecclesiastical rights in many coun-
tries. These rights differ considerably both in
extent and kind, although, speaking generally,
they have been elaborated as time went on and
intercourse became more frequent. The first
of such rights specifically mentioned was se-
cured by the United States in its treaty of 1805
with the Sultan of Tripoli, in which it was pro-
vided that the consul or agent of the United
States should have liberty to exercise his re-
ligion in his own house, and that his servants
should not he impeded in going to his house at
the hours of prayer. The Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo concluded with the Republic of Mexico
in 1848 stipulated for American residents free--
dom from persecution on account of their re-
ligion and also liberty to propagate it. The
treaty concluded in 1856 with the King of Siam
provides that all American citizens visiting or
residing in Siam shall be allowed the free ex-
ercise of their religion, and liberty to build
places of worship in such localities as shall be
assented to by the Siamese authorities. Amer-
icans have ecclesiastical treaty rights in China
which were not abrogated by the foreign inter-
vention following the ‘Boxer’ uprising. They
are provided by two treaties, one of June 18,
1858, and the other of July 4, 1868. Ameri-
can citizens have a right by the terms of these
treaties to teach and practice peaceably the
principles of the Christian religion, to reside in
those places where foreigners are permitted to
reside and in such places to establish and main-
tain schools, and to maintain cemeteries free
from profanation. They have also the right to
attend the Chinese educational institutions under
the control of the central Government. By the
treaty of 1858 with Japan Americans are se-
cured the free exercise of their religion and the
right to erect suitable places of worship. Amer-
ican citizens are forbidden to injure any Jap-
anese temple or Mia, and neither Americans nor
Japanese are allowed to do anything calculated
to excite religious animosity. The Government
of Japan has abolished the practice of trampling
on religious emblems. By the treaty of 1859
with the Republic of Paraguay, citizens of the
United States residing in Paraguay are at liberty
to exercise in private and in their own dwellings
TREATY RIGHTS.
TREE.
896
or the dwellings of the consuls of the United
States their religious services, but no right of
propaganda is specified. The treat‘ of 1830 with
the Ottoman Empire merely con rmed as the
treaty rights of Americans privileges already
existing. American missionaries were first es-
tablished in Turkey in 1818, and the privileges
of extra-territoriality were then assigned to
them by ancient usage. The liberty to exercise
their religious functions, as a privileged class,
had been ab antiqao granted by a voluntary ex-
tension of what is known as the ‘Edict of Tolera-
tion’ granted by the Turks, upon their con-
quest of Constantinople, to the ecclesiastics of
any friendly Christian nation. VVhile the United
States was not a party to the Treaty of Berlin
(1878), yet the guaranty given by the Turkish
delegates applies to American cities: “Through-
out the (Ottoman) Empire the most different re-
ligions are professed by millions of the Sultan’s
subjects, and not one has been molested in his
belief, or in the exercise of his mode of worship.
The Imperial Government is determined to main-
tain this principle in its full force, and to give
to it all the extension that it calls for.”
protocol of 1874 a qualified right to hold real
estate is granted to American citizens. \Vhat is
known as the ‘Protestant Charter’ regulates
mission schools. By the treaty of 1880 with the
Sultan of Morocco the right to hold property is
recognized as belonging to all foreigners. The
purchase of property must take place with the
previous consent of the Government, and the title
of such property shall be subject to the forms
prescribed by the laws of the country. No free-
dom of religious propaganda is specified.
TREB’BIA (Lat. Trebia) . A river of North-
ern Italy. It rises in the Appenines of Liguria and
after a northeasterly course of 58 miles joins the
Po near the city of Piacenza. Upon its banks
Hannibal defeated the Romans under Sempronius
in 13.0. 218. (See HANNIBAL.) In the vicinity
the Austrians and Russians under Suvaroff were
victorious over the French under Macdonald,
June 17-19, 1799.
TREBITSOH, trzi'bich. A town of Moravia,
Austria, 40 miles by rail east of Briinn. A
fine abbey in the transition style of the thir-
teenth century and the palace of Count Wald-
stein are worthy of notice. VVoolens, shoes, and
malt are manufactured, and horses are dealt in.
Population, in 1900, 10,597.
T'REB’IZO1\TD (Turkish Tirabzon or Tara-
barun; Lat. Trapezus; Gk. Tpcwre§'ofis, Trape-
zoas, probably so called because founded on a
table-land, from 'rpa'.1re§'a, trapeza, table). A
city of Asia Minor, capital of the Turkish Vila-
yet of Trebizond (Map: Turkey in Asia, H 2).
It is on the Black Sea coast near its eastern end,
570 miles east of Constantinople. The city has
a remarkable location, being built on a small
table-land falling in steep precipices on either
side toward two deep parallel valleys which
run out to the coast. The highest portion is
crowned by an ancient castle, and the city is still
surrounded by Byzantine walls. The streets are
narrow, but the city has a wide extent, nearly
every house being surrounded by gardens. There
are numerous churches and mosques, some of the
latter being old Byzantine churches. The bazaars
are mostly situated outside of theywalls in the
Bya'
Christian rpuarters, the intramural portion being
reserved for the Mohammedan population. The
industries include wool, silk, and linen weaving,
tanning, dyeing, and filigree manufactures. The
harbor is an exposed roadstead, but the geo-
graphical position of Trebizond has for many cen-
turies made it the chief entrepot for the transit
trade between Persia and Europe. It is the
terminus of the main caravan route to Persia via
Erzerum. The transit trade has, however,
greatly declined since the opening of the Russian
railroad to Batum. In 1900 the exports, which
chiefly consist of cattle, hazel-nuts, tobacco, and
carpets, were valued at $3,696,850, while the
imports amounted to nearly twice as much.
The population estimated at about 35,000, of
whom considerably more than half are Moham-
medans, the rest being chiefly Greek and Arme-
700 as a colony of Sinope. It was a flourish-
after the occupation of Constantinople by the
made the city his capital. This empire lasted
TREBLE (OF. treble, treible, triple, from
which i11 general contains the melody, and is
staff, indicating that the note G oc-
use in music for keyed instruments. For the
western border of Monmouthshire, England, 18
formerly important iron and steel works have
341; in 1901, 18,574.
drzlva, Lith. derva, Gk. 6p6s,_ drys, Skt. ddra,
development of woody tissue. Trees differ from
although there are all gradations between trees
leaf characters. For a discussion of their branch-
FOREST.
He made his début in 1878 in the character of
Prince’s. He undertook the management of the
nian Christians.
Trapezus was founded by Greeks about B.C.
ing city when Xenophon and his Ten Thousand
reached it after the famous retreat. In 1204,
Crusaders, Prince Alexius of the Comnenian
family established the Empire of Trebizond, and
until 1461, when it was overthrown and the city
captured by the Turks.
Lat. tri-plus, threefold, from tres, three + -plus,
-fold). The highest part in harmonized music,
sung by a soprano voice. The treble or G clef
is placed on the second line of the
cupies the line encircled by its lower ~3
curve. It is one of the two clefs in
history of the sign of the treble clef, see NEUMES.
TRED/EGAR. A market town on the north-
miles northwest of Newport (Map: England,
C 5). Coal-mining is the chief industry. The
been abandoned. The town owns gas and water-
works, and cemeteries. Population, in 1891, 17,-
TREE (AS. tree, Goth. tria, tree; connected
with Olr. dair, danr, OChurch Slav. dryevo,
Av. aru, tree, wood). A plant which attains a
considerable height and has a relatively large
herbs in their size and in the amount of woody
tissue. They differ from shrubs chiefly in size,
and shrubs. Trees differ widely among them-
selves, especially in mode of branching and in
ing, see STEMS. For the differences between de-
ciduous and evergreen trees, see DURATION, also
TREE, HERBERT BEERBOHM (l853—). An
English actor and manager, born in London.
Grimaldi at the Globe Theatre. In 1884 he made
a great hit in The Private Secretary at The
Comedy Theatre in 1887, and successfully pro-
duced The Red Lamp. The same year he took
TREE.
TREE-—KANGAROO.
897
the Haymarket, where among his subsequent pro-
ductions were Hamlet (1892), Hypatia (1893),
The Tempter (1893) , A Bunch of Violets (1894) ,
John-a-Dreams (1894), Trilby (1895). In 1897
he opened the new Her Majcsty’s Theatre with
The Seats of the Mighty. In 1898, after a re-
vival of Julius Cresar, he produced Grundy’s
The M ushetecrs, which enjoyed an exceptionally
long run. Among his plays in 1901 was Clyde
Fitch’s The Last of the Dandies, in 1902 Ulysses.
As an actor Mr. Tree is considered remarkable
for his versatility, and he is also known as a
writer and lecturer. ,
TREE-BOA. Any of various long, slender,
active South American snakes of the boa family,
which spend their lives in trees and have ac-
quired a remarkable power of clinging to the
moving branches, even in a. high wind, without
coiling their bodies about any support. The
name is also specifically given to the large
ringed boa (Epiorates cenchria). See BOA.
TREE-CAT. See PALM-CIVET.
TREE-CREEPE-RS, or WOOD-HEWERS. A
group of birds, forming the famil_v Dendrocolap-
tidte, related to the ant-thrushes (Formicariidae)
and true oven-birds (Furnariidae) , with the tail-
feathers stiff and sharp-pointed as in the wood-
peckers, and similarly useful in climbing tree-
trunks. The bill usually curved and slender,
and often is elongated, enabling them to pull
insects out of deep crevices. About 80 species are
known. all confined to tropical America; all have
a similar style of coloration, some shade of
brown, with white spots beneath and rufous on
the wings.
TREE-CRICKET. Any one of a group of
small, pale-colored crickets which usually in-
habit trees and shrubs. They are nocturnal in
their habits, and lay their eggs in the twigs of
Various plants, a habit which, when the insects
are numerous, results in damage to vineyards
and to raspberry and blackberry plantations. The
common snowy tree-cricket ((Ecanthus niveus)
is a delicate whitish-green insect. The young
hatch about the first of May, a.nd feed upon
plant-lice and the eggs of other insects. When
full-grown they feed upon vegetation.
TREE-FISH. -One of the Californian rock-
fishes (Scbastodes scrriccps), about a foot long.
It is dark olive, blackish above and yellowish
below, with the front of the head coppery red,
two black bands downward and backward from
the eye, and several oblique black cross-bands
on the sides. Black prominent ridges cross the
cranium. See ROCKFISH; and Plate of ROCK-
FISH, ETC.
TREE-FROG, or TREE-TOAD. A frog of-the
family Hylidaee, connecting the toads with the
typical frogs, and of prevailingly arboreal habits.
Tree-frogs have teeth on the upper jaw and vo-
mers, and in some genera elsewhere in the mouth.
The toes are invariably claw-shaped and swollen
at the base; and each carries at the tip a flat-
tened, adhesive cushion, whose sticky secretion
greatly aids the animal in clinging to smooth sur-
faces. Most of them are of small size, more ele-
gant in form than the true frogs, of brighter col-
ors and more active habits. They feed on insects,
which they pursue on the branches and among the
leaves of trees or shrubs. All have loud, piping
1 are attracted by a sweet secretion.
notes, and are remarkable for their power of
changing their colors to simulate the tint of the
resting-place. (See METAOI-IRosIs.) They are also
remarkable for the great variety in their meth-
ods of placing their spawn, and the character
of their metamorphoses, which are severally de-
scribed under CRICKET-FROG, FERREIRO, MAR-
SCPIAL FROG, etc. The principal genus is Hyla,
which contains about 150 species scattered all
over the warmer forested parts of the world, but
especially numerous in tropical America. The
type is Hyla arborea, common throughout all
Central and Southern Europe and Asia. Of the
North American species the most familiar is
H yla versicolor, which is a green, gray, or brown
warty frog, whose clear, loudly trilled rattle is
an almost daily evening sound. One of the first
notes heard in the spring in the Eastern United
States is the piping of Hyla P'icl."-eringii, a
smaller, more yellowish species, often called ‘the
peeper.’ The cricket-frog (q.v.) is another nu-
merous species. Various others inhabit the South-
ern States. Many species of the West Indies and
South America carry their eggs about on the
back of the females, glued to or sunken into the
skin, as is notably the case with Hyla Goeldii.
Notable cases are described in the Proceedings of
the Zoological Society of London for 1895. Aus-
tralia possesses scveral species of great interest,
especially the familiar Hyla Cocrulca, whose cry
is a sharp crackling bark. The whole group is
one of extraordinary variety and interest.
Consult authorities cited under FROG.
Colored Plate accompanying article TOADS.
TREE-HOPPER. Any insect of the homop-
terous family hlembracidee, a very strange group
comprising a variety of grotesque forms. The
antenna are inserted in front of and between
the eyes, and the prothorax is so prolonged that
it covers the rest of the body, and its curious
modifications have been developed in order to
bring about a protective resemblance of these in-
sects to various plant st-ructures. The tree-
hoppers, like other Homoptera, have an incom-
plete metamorphosis, and the young are active
and suck the juices of plants by means of their
beaks. The species are very numerous, and the
group is one of wide distribution. The most
bizarre forms occur in tropical regions, but many
curious species are found in the temperate zone.
A common form in the United States is the little
hulnpbacked Telemona -monticola, which some-
times swarms on the branches of the Virginia
creeper in June. Another interesting form
([Jnlillia sin-uata) is found upon the leaves of
the sunflower and other annual plants. It lays its
eggs in the midrib of the upper leaves; the
mother insect broods over her eggs, and the
See
young from the time of hatching until full-'
grown are constantly attended by ants, which
The ‘buffalo
tree-hopper’ (Cc-resa bubalus), so called from its
horned prothorax, is a species of considerable
economic importance, which damages the small
twigs of fruit trees in the act of laying its eggs.
Large holes are made in the bark, in which the
eggs are inserted in clusters. Consult: Comstock,
illanual for the Study of Insects (Ithaca. 1895) ;
Howard, The Insect Boole (New York, 1902).
TREE-KANGAROO. One of a genus of
kangaroos which in the forests of Northern Aus-
TREE~KANGAROO.
TBEGE-LLES.
898
tralia and New Guinea inhabit trees, although
‘they creep awkwardly about the branches, as
if not yet well adapted to an arboreal life. They
constitute the genus Dendrolagus, and embrace
several species of which the black one (Deadwo-
lagus ursiuus) of New Guinea, which is very
dark in color, except the whitish face, and about
20 inches long, exclusive of tl1e tail, is one of the
best known. See Plate of KANGABOOS.
TREE OF HEAVEN. See AILANTHUS.
TREE-PORGUPINE. -One of the small,
short-spined, prehensile-tailed arboreal porcu-
pines of South America of the genus Sphingarus.
See PORCUPINE, and Plate of POBCUPINES AND
Hnncnrrocs.
TREE-SHREW, or SQUIRREL-SHREW. One
of the curious insectivorous animals of the fam-
ily Tupaiidae, of the Oriental region and eastward
to Borneo. They are related to the hedgehogs,
but outwardly have almost exactly the appear-
ance of ordinary squirrels, except for the long,
flexible, shrew-like nose. Some 20 species have
been named, of which the Malayan banxring
(Tupaia fcrrugiuca) is one of the best known,
and often becomes a pet, or resides, half-tame, in
gardens and village shade-trees. The Madras
tree-shrew (Tupa/ia Ell/ioti) is found through-
out India. All are much alike, feeding on both
insects and fruits, and expressing emotion by
a short, whistling cry.
TREE-SNAKE. Many snakes are more or
less arboreal in habits, but some are so dis-
tinct-ively so as to merit the name especially.
Many of the smaller boas (see TREE-BOA) live
almost wholly in tree-tops, as is necessary in
the flooded parts of the Amazonian region.
Among the colubrine groups of that region is the
genus Leptophis, whose species are very slender,
with long whip-like tails. The best known
(Leptophis Ztoccrus) is a beautiful creature six
feet long, the upper surface golden green, the
lower yellow or white; it subsists upon small
reptiles and birds and their eggs. An Oriental
genus (Dcndrophis) has the ventral scales keeled
and notched, enabling them to take hold of a
surface so securely that they are able to glide
up the branches of-trees in almost straight
lines. A group of tropical green tree-snakes
(Dipsadolnorphae) exists, the species of which
are highly poisonous; and in Africa are found
‘tree-vipers’ (q.v.).
TREE-TOAD. See TREE-FROG.
TREE-VIPER. A genus (Atheris) of rather
small, arboreal vipers of Africa. They are of
bright green and yellow colors, so as to be
readily concealed in foliage. Their tails are
especially prehensile, like those of boas. Four
species are known.
TREE-WORSHIP.
paragraph Deudrolatry.
TREFOIL. A frequent charge in heraldry
(q.v.), representing the clover-leaf, which is al-
ways depicted as slipped, i.e. furnished with a
stalk.
TREFOIL (OF. trifoil, trcfcul, Fr. tre‘/ie,
from Lat. trifolium, trefoil, three-leaved, from
trcs, three + folium, leaf ) , BIRD’S-FOOT (Lotus).
A genus of plants of the natural order Legu-
minosae. The pods are cylindrical, somewhat
See NATURE-WORSHIP,
spongy within and imperfectly divided into many
cells. The name bird’s-foot trefoil is derived
from the resemblance of the clusters of pods to a
bird’s foot. The numerous species are natives of
the temperate and colder regions of the Old
World. The common bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus
coruicul‘dtus) is common in European pastures.
The spreading decumbent stems,‘ 4 to 16 inches
long, arise from a short, thick rhizome and bear
umbel-like cymes of five to ten yellow flowers,
which have a rich, honey-like odor. The leaves
have three obovate leaflets, and at the base of
each leafstalk there are two large leaf-like ovate
stipules. The plant is by some regarded as the
shamrock (q.v.) of Ireland. It is nutritious and
much liked while young by all kinds of stock.
It has been introduced into the United States,
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BIRD'B-FOOT TREFOIL (Lotus corniculatus).
where it is common, especially in the South. A
larger species, very similar, with stem nearly
erect, more compact heads of smaller flowers, and
much smaller seeds, is the greater or narrow-
leaved bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus major) of
much the same range. The characteristic dif-
ferences remain under cultivation in every va-
riety-of soil and situation. Marsh bird’s-foot
trefoil (Lotus uligiuosus) is a species common
in damp meadows. The winged pea (Lotus
Tetragouolobus), remarkable for four mem-
branous wings which run along its pods, is a
native of Southern Europe, where it is grown
for salads and as an ornamental plant. It is
cultivated in the United States mainly as a
forage plant and a winter crop for plowing under
in spring as green manure. In some parts of
Europe its seeds are used as a substitute for
coffee.
TEE FONTANE, as fon-tii’nzi (It., Three
Fountains). The traditional scene of Saint
Paul’s martyrdom, a spot outside of Rome, three
miles from the Porta San Paolo. According to
the legend, when the Apostle’s head was
struck off, it made three bounds, and at each I‘
spot a spring gushed forth. Over the springs
stands the Church of Saint Paul without the
Walls, which contains also the column to which
Saint Paul was bound.
TBEGELLES, tré-gélz’, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX
(1813-75). An English scholar and New Testa-
TIRE GE-LLES.
TRELAWN Y.
899
ment critic, born at Falmouth, of Quaker parent-
age. Though he attended the Falmouth Classical
School for four years (1825-28), he was in the
main a self-educated man. During the greater
part of his life he was connected with the Plym-
outh Brethren, but in his last years he was in the
communion of the Established Church. T regelles’s
interest in critical studies began early, and from
1838 to his death he devoted himself almost
exclusively to the study of the New Testament
text and related subjects. In 1844 he published
The Boole of Revelation in Greek, Edited from
Ancient Authorities with a New English Version.
In 1854 his valuable An Account of the Printed
Text of the Greek New Testament appeared. This
work was not only a history, but a discussion of
principles of textual criticism as well, and as
such is still of great value. His next important
work was his revision of the New Testament part
of Horne’s Introduction under the title, An
Introduction to the Textual (Jritic-ism of the
New Testament (1856). During all these years
he was assiduously collecting material for a new
critical edition of the Greek Testament, collating
manuscripts, examining patristic readings and
the important ancient versions with greatest
care. The first part of Tregelles’s Greek New
Testa-me-nt, Edited from Ancient Authorities,
appeared in 1857. The last installment was pub-
lished in 1872, sent out while the author was
suffering from the severe illness which proved
fatal not long after. Among numerous other
writings not directly connected with the New
Testament text his facsimile edition of the
Canon Mnratorianns (1860) and his transla-
tion of Gesenius’s Hebrew Lexicon (1847) de-
serve mention. Tregelles’s scholarship was exact
and painstaking, and his industry was remark-
able. His edition of the Greek Testament ranks
with those of Tischendorf and of Westcott and
Hort, as one of the three great critical editions
of the last century. His principles, clearly
worked out and consistently applied, were simi-
lar to those of Lachmann, but his reconstructed
text was based on a wider and more thorough
survey of the field of evidence than was Lach-
mann’s. An Appendim to Tregelles’s Greek Testa-
ment, edited by Hort and Streane, from
Tregelles’s own papers was published in 1879.
TREITSCI-IKE, tritsh’ke, HEINRICH VON
(1834-96). A German historian. He was born
in Dresden, and studied at Bonn, Leipzig, Th-
bingen, and Heidelberg. In 1857 he became lee-
turer at Leipzig, and in 1863 he was called to a
professorship at Freiburg. He was an ardent be-
liever i11 German unity and the mission of Prus-
sia, and when Baden cast its lot with Austria in
the Seven VVeeks’ War he resigned his chair and
became editor of the Preussische Jahrl>-ilcher at
Berlin, to which he had been for many years a
diligent contributor. In 1866 he was called to a
chair at Kiel and the following year he became
professor of history at Heidelberg, where he re-
mained until 1874, when he was called to Ber-
lin. From 1871 to 1888 he was a member of
the Reichstag, where he became a prominent
spokesman of the National Liberals. He re-
signed the editorship of the Prenssisehe Jahr-
bileher in 1889. After Ranke’s death he became
Prussian State historian (1886). He was a most
successful lecturer in spite of his total deafness
in his later years, and he impressed his intense
German patriotism upon a large body of students
who came under his instruction. He lacked the
clear and impartial objectiveness of Ranke, but
his sincerity and ability entitle him to a place
in the group of eminent German historians. His
principal work is Deutsehe Gesehichte im neun-
eehnten Jahrhnndert (Leipzig, 1874-94), covering
the period down to 1848. This work shows in
the most marked degree the partisanship which
appeared as so strong an element in Treitschke’s
scholarship. Of his numerous other writings
may be mentioned Zehn J ahre dentscher Krimpfe,
1865-71; (1874) ; Sehriften ear Tagespolitilc
(1874-79); Der Soeialis-1n-as and seine G-o'nner
(1875) ; Ein Wort /itber nnser Jude-ntam
(1880); Zwei Kaiser (1888); and the posthu-
mous volumes Reden 'i'I7'b dentsehen Reichstag
and Biographisehe and historische Abhandlnngen
(1897).
TRELAWNY, tre-la/ni, EDWARD JOHN (1792-
1881). An English author, especially known
as the friend of Shelley and Byron. He was
born in London. Though he was of an ancient
and famous family, his education was neg-
lected. Entering the royal navy at the age of
thirteen, he served in the fleet blockading Cadiz
(1805). He subsequently deserted and passed
through some exciting adventures in the East
Indies. In January, 1822, he met Shelley (q.v.)
and Byron (q.v.) at Pisa. He was the last to
see Shelley’s boat disappear in the fog on the
memorable eighth of July, 1822; and he super-
intended the cremation of Shelley’s body at Via-
reggio, snatching the heart from the flames. In
1823 he accompanied Byron to Greece, where he
took an active part in the war of liberation, and
married, as his second wife, the sister of the _
Greek chieftain Odysseus. After living in Italy
and traveling in the United States (1833-35), he
settled in, England, where he became the lion of
London society. His last years were passed most-
ly in the country, in Monmouthshire and in Sus-
sex. He died at Sompting, in Sussex. His body
was cremated and buried by the side of Shelley’s
in the Protestant cemetery at Rome. Trelawny
charmed two generations by his rich fund of
anecdote. In his old age he was sought out by
young men who wished to see and hear the man
who had been a comrade of Byron and Shelley.
He was of magnificent physique. Millais chose
him for the old seaman in “The Northwest
Passage.” Trelawny wrote his early autobiog-
raphy under the title The Adventures of a
Younger Son (anonymous, 1831). How much is
truth and how much is fiction in this book will
probably never be determined. Trelawny is
best known for The Recollections of the Last
Days of Shelley and Byron (1858), republished,
with changes, as Records of Sh.elle-y, Byron, and
the Author (1878). Both are brilliant books,
and the latter is of great value. Consult the
edition of The Adv-e-ntnres of a You-nger Brother,
with memoir by E. Garnett (London, 1890).
TRELAWNY, Sir JONATHAN (1650-1721).
An English bishop and third Baronet of Tre-
lawny. He was born at Pelynt, Cornwall;
graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1672,
and took priest’s orders in 1676. He took an
active part in suppressing Monmouth’s Re-
bellion of 1685, and was rewarded with the
Bishopric of Bristol. The appearance of the
TRELAWN Y.
TRENCH.
900
First Declaration of Indulgence alienated him
from King James; he refused to sign the declara-
tion, and later successfully opposed the effort
of the Earl of Bath to. control the Cornish
elections in the interests of the Crown. On
May 18, 1683, he united with five other bishops
and the Archbishop of Canterbury in drawing
up a petition against the Second Declaration of
Indulgence. As a result all seven were in the
following month committed to the Tower on a
charge of seditious libel, but were acquitted, and
soon afterwards King James II. was driven from
the throne. Trelawny seems not to have united
in the invitation of. William, but after the
coronation of the new sovereigns he was made
Bishop of Exeter. Consult Strickland, Lives of
the Seven Bishops Committed to the Tower in
1688 (London, 1866).
TRELEASE, tre-lés’, WILLIAM (1857 —).
An American botanist, born at Mount Vernon,
N. Y. He graduated at Cornell in 1880, and
after serving as instructor in botany at Harvard
and at Wisconsin University, was professor at
Wisconsin in 1883-85. In 1885 he was made
Engelmann professor of botany in Washington
University, Saint Louis, and in 1889 was chosen
director of the famous Missouri Botanical Gar-
den there. He was the first president of the
Botanical Society of America (1884-85). He
translated Poulsen’s Botanical Micro-Chemistry
(1884) and Salomonsen’s Bacteriological Tech-
nology (1890).
'I.‘REM’ATO’DA (Neo-Lat. nom pl., from
Gk. rpnuarcédns, trématoclés, having many holes,
porous, from 7-pa’);/.a, trema, hole). A class of
Platyhelminthes, the fiukes, characterized by the
possession of certain suctorial pores or openings.
They have soft, roundish or flat bodies, and
their visceral organs are lodged inv the paren-
chyma of the body. Most of them are her-
maphrodites. They seldom reach a large size
(the greatest length is about five inches), but
are usually visible to the naked eye. The color
is usually dull gray, green, or brown, sometimes
mottled. The reproductive organs are com-
plicated and developed to a remarkable degree,
occupying a very large part of the body. These
worms are not all parasitic, nor are the parasitic
forms confined to a single host during the whole
of their existence. Many of them, indeed, have
a most remarkable life history, showing an ex-
traordinary succession of generations, in which
the young resemble not the parents or grand-
parents, but the great-great-grandparents. The
first three or four generations live in the body
of some invertebrate, especially water-snails; but
the next generation is a free-swimming one, and
its offspring are like the original form and para-
sitic within some vertebrate.
The Trematoda are divided into two orders: ( 1)
Ectoparasitica, trematodes with three or more
suckers, living on the outside of their hosts, and
with a direct development from the egg; (2)
Endoparasitica, trematodes with not more than
two suckers, living in the blood-vessels, alimen-
tary canal, or other spaces of the higher animals,
and undergoing a complicated alternation of
generations. This order includes a large num-
ber of species, many of which are dangerous, not
only to the domestic animals, but even to man
himself. See FLUKE (Worm).
TREMBLEY, traN’bla’, ABRAHAM (1700-
84). A Swiss naturalist, principally known for
his studies in Holland of the Hydra, and the dis-
covery of its power of regenerating lost parts.
(See REGENERATION.) His Mémoires pour ser-
oir a l’histoire d’un genre de polypes d’eau douce
e bras en forme de cornes brought him great
fame, and has become a classic.
TREMOLITE (from Tremolo, an Alpine
village, where the mineral was discovered). A
variety of amphibole, consisting of calcium and
magnesium silicate. It is white to dark-gray
in color. It occurs usually in monoclinic prisms,
although sometimes it is found in fibrous aggre-
gates with a silky lustre.
'1‘REM’0LO (It., trembling). In music, an
expression indicating that a note or a chord is to
be reiterated with great rapidity for an indefinite
number of times, so as to produce a quavering
sort of effect. In singing, the tremolo is highly
effective in dramatic situations. But with many
singers it is a mannerism arising from improper
control of the breath. (See SINGING.) For
the stringed instruments the tremolo is exten-
sively employed by composers, and is written
It is produced by a very rapid alternation of the
up and down stroke of the bow.
TREMULANT (from ML. tremulans, pres.
part. of tremulare, to tremble, from Lat. trem-
ulus, trembling, from tremere, Gk. Tpéptew,
tremein, to tremble). A mechanical device in
an organ for producing a tremolo. It is regu-
lated by a separate draw-stop affecting a thin
metal plate which interferes with the free in-
flux of air into the pipes. The rapid vibration
of this plate causes corresponding oscillations
in the column of air.
TRENCH, MILITARY (from OF. trencher,
trancher, Fr. trancher, to cut, from Lat. trun-
care, to lop, from truncus, trunk, from truncus,
OLat. troncus, maimed). An excavation of
varying dimensions, the earth from which is
placed directly in front to form a parapet.
Trenches are to be found in permanent and semi-
permanent fortifications, as well as hasty in-
trenchments (see FORTIFICATION), their nature,
number, and methods of construction varying
with the circumstances. Trenches are necessary
for both the attack and the defense, modern con-
ditions and future indications givinga constantly
increasing importance to their use by an attack-
ing force. Time is perhaps the greatest factor in
the determination of the style of trench to be
adopted, or the number of men required for its
construction. Usually, an average of one pace
per rifle is reckoned for shelter trenches, which
for troops kneeling would require a depth of
about three feet, while as a shelter for men
standing it ‘would necessary to excavate to 4
feet 7 inches, the removed earth in both cases be-
ing sufficient to provide an upper parapet of
about three feet in thickness. See FORTIFICATION
for illustrations and further material on field
intrenchments.
TRENCH, RICHARD CIIENEVIX (1807-86).
Archbishop of Dublin, poet, and scholar. He
was born in Dublin, and educated at Harrow and
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his
degree in 1829, and was intimate with the -mem-
bers of the ‘Apostles’ Club,’ including Tennyson,
Hallam, and Sterling. He was ordained deacon
TRENCH.
TRENDELENBURG.
901
in 1832, and became curate to Hugh James Rose
(q.v.) at Hadleigh, identifying himself to a cer-
tain extent with the High-Church Party. He
held the living of Curdridge, in Hampshire, from
1835 to 1841, and then once more served as a
curate under the future Bishop Wilberforce.
From 1846 to 1858 he held a theological pro-
fessorship at King’s College, London, having
meantime been appointed in 1856 to the .deanery
of Westminster. In 1863 he became Archbishop
of Dublin, and took a foremost position in the
opposition to the disestablishment of the Epis-
copal Church in Ireland, as well as in the settle-
ment of the delicate questions which arose after
it had been accomplished. He resigned his see,
owing to infirmity, in 1884, and died in London
two years later. He is remembered chiefly as a
writer. Noteworthy among his theological works
are: Notes on the Parables (1841) ; Notes on the
Miracles (1846) ; Commentary on the Epistles to
the Seven Churches (1861) ; and Studies in the
Gospels (1867), all of which were widely popular
and influential. His poetical work is graceful,
tender, and thoughtful as a whole. A collected
edition appeared in two volumes, 1885. His
best-known books in philology are The Study of
1V0-rds (1851), and English, Past and Present
(1855). To these may be added his Lectures on
M edicecal Church History (1877). Consult
Trench, Letters and ./llemo-rials of Archbishop
Trench (London, 1886).
TRENCIPARID, STEPHEN DECATUR (1818-
83). An American naval officer, born in Brook-
lyn, N. Y. He became a midshipman at the
age of sixteen; was promoted to passed midsl1ip-
man in July, 1840; was wrecked in the Washing-
ton off the coast of North Carolina in 1845; was
attached to the Saratoga during the Mexican
War; became a lieutenant in 1847; and was
slightly wounded while serving under Tatnall
when that officer assisted the English in their
attack on the Pei-ho forts in China. During the
Civil \Var he served on the Rhode Island; was
made commander in July, 1862, and participated
in the bombardments of Fort Fisher. He was
promoted to be captain in 1866, to be commodore
in 1871, and to be rear-admiral in 1875; com-
manded the North Atlantic Squadron in 1876-
78; and retired in 1880.
TRENCK, FRANZ VON DER, Baron (1711-49).
A German soldier of fortune, born at Reggio, in
Calabria, the son of a lieutenant-colonel in the
Austrian service. He became a cavalry officer
at seventeen, distinguished himself by his mental
accomplishments, his remarkable success in the
fields of gallantry, and his love for dueling, and
miscellaneous murder, which in the end forced
him to leave the army. He went to Russia,
where he was made a captain of hussars, but was
cashiered not long afterwards for gross insub-
ordination and imprisoned at Kiev, whence he re-
turned to settle on his estates in Slavonia. There
it is we first meet with the Trenck of history.
The Turkish frontier was overrun with banditti.
Trenck armed and drilled 1000 of his tenants,
whom he called Pandours, and by their means
succeeded in restoring order. In 1741 he offered
the services of his regiment to Maria Theresa,
and his aid was accepted. In 1740 he took part
in the Silesian wars at the head of his men.
On September 7, 1742, he attacked Cham, a
tradinor town in neutral territory, and anni-
hilated it. After the battle of Sohr, in Septem-
ber, 1745, he made an unsuccessful attempt to
capture Frederick the Great. His deeds of vio-
lence at last led to his trial before a court
martial and condemnation to imprisonment for
life. He was confined at the Spielberg, near
Briinn, until his death, caused by poisoning him-
self when he found escape impossible. Consult:
Hiibner, Franz von der Trench (Stuttgart, 1788) ;
and Trenck’s own Memoirs, M erkwiirdiges Leben
und Thaten des Freiherrn Franz von der Trench
(Vienna, 1770).
TRENCK, Fnmoarcn VON DEB, Baron (1726-
94). A German adventurer, born at Kiinigsberg,
the son of a Prussian general and cousin of the
preceding. At sixteen he became a comet in the
guards and in 1744 ordnance officer to Frederick
the Great, but was soon after imprisoned at
Glatz, either because of a love affair with the
King’s sister or because of his correspondence
with his cousin Franz which raised doubts as to
his loyalty. He escaped in 1746 and after many
wanderings became, in 1749, captain of cuiras-
siers in the Austrian service. While in Danzig
in 1754 he was arrested by order of Frederick and
kept in severe confinement at Madgeburg till 1763.
After his release he settled at Aix-la-Chapelle,
where he married the burgomaster’s daughter,
gave himself to literary pursuits, and went into
business as a wine merchant. In 1774-77 he
traveled in England and France, and, restored
to the possession of his Prussian estates after the
death of Frederick II., lived at Berlin and
Ktinigsberg. In 1791 he went to Paris and be-
came a zealous adherent of the Mountain Party.
He was, however, -suspected of plotting with the
foreign enemy and was guillotined July 25, 1794.
Consult the autobiographical Friedrich Trenchs
merlcwiird'ige Lebensgeschichte (Berlin, 1787),
which he rendered into French in 1789. His
collected writings were published at Leipzig in
eight volumes (1786).
TRENDELENBURG, trén ’ de - len - boom,
ADOLF (1802-72). A German philosopher, born
at Eutin. He was educated at Kiel, Leipzig,
and Berlin; was appointed professor extraor-
dinary of philosophy in the University of Berlin,
1833, and full professor in 1837. In this posi-
tion, which he held until his death, January 24,
1872, he exercised very great influence upon the
course of philosophical thought. His criticism
of Hegel procured him great renown, and was
one of the most effective forces that broke the
hold of Hegelianism on the German mind. The
foundation of his own philosophic doctrine is
Aristotelianism, which, however, was modified
by Platonic elements. He held and developed
the teleological view and maintained that it is
confirmed by empirical fact. Mechanical causa-
tion he viewed as the servant of teleology, not its
enemy. He called his philosophy the ‘organic
view of the world.’ His most important works
are Logische Untersuchungen (1840, 3d ed.
1870) and Na-turrecht auf dem Grande der
E'thiIc (1860; 2d ed. 1868). His Historische
Be'itna'g~e zur Philosophie (1846-67) are also
valuable helps in the study of the history of
philosophy. Consult: Bonitz, Zur Erinnerung an
Trendelenburg (Berlin, 1872); Bratuscheck,
Adolf ’l”rcndelenburg (ib., 1873).
TRENHOLM.
TRENT.
902
TREN'HOLM, GEORGE A. (1806-76). An
American merchant and financier, born at
Charleston, S. C. He engaged in business at
Charleston, and was very successful. During the
Civil War he successfully ran the blockade and
secured much needed supplies for the Confed-
eracy. From June, 1864, until the end of the
war, he was Secretary of the Treasury of the
Confederate States. After being imprisoned
until October, 1865, he was pardoned by Presi-
dent Johnson.
TRENT. A river rising on the northwest
border of Staffordshire, England, about 10 miles
north of Burslem (Map: England, F 4). It
flows first southeast to the border of Derbyshire,
and afterwards in a generally northeast direc-
tion, through the counties of Derby, Nottingham,
and Lincoln, to a point about 8 miles east of the
town of Goole, where it unites with the Ouse
(q.v.) to form the Humber (q.v.). It receives
the Derwent, Idle, and Tarn from the west,
and the Soar from the south; it is navigable by
barges for 120 miles, from its mouth to Burton-
on-Trent. Length, 170 miles.
TRENT. A wide and picturesque river of
Ontario, Canada, which has its outlet at Trenton,
on the Bay of Quinté, Lake Ontario (Map: On-
tario, F 3). It issues from the northeast end of
Lake Rice and drains a system of lakes and
rivers which extends to Georgian Bay on Lake
Huron.
TRENT (It. Trento, Ger. Trient). A town
of Tyrol, Austria, 76 miles northwest of Venice,
on the left bank of the Adige (Map: Austria, B
3). It is built largely in the Italian style and
has some beautiful old palaces. In the Piazza
Grande is the celebrated Fountain of Neptune,
made of red marble. A beautiful bronze statue
of Dante (by Zocchie, 1896) stands in the Piazza
di Dante. The Romanesque cathedral, begun in
its present form early in the thirteenth century
and completed in the fifteenth, constructed en-
tirely of white marble, is the most striking pub-
lic building. The Church of Santa Maria Mag-
giore is noted as the sitting place of the Council of
Trent (q.v.) . Among the other interesting archi-
tectural features are the castle (the former resi-
dence of the prince bishops) and two ancient
towers. The municipal building contains a mu-
seum of Roman antiquities and other objects.
Trent is the chief town of the Italian or ‘Welsch’
division of Tyrol. The chief industries are silk-
weaving, the making of salami (a kind of san-
sage), playing-cards, pottery, cloth, and wines,
and the quarrying of marble and gypsum. The
town is the seat of a bishop. Population, in 1900,
24,908. Trent is the ancient Tridentum, which
was a Roman colony.‘ It was under the rule of
bishops from the eleventh century to the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, when it passed to
Austria.
TRENT, COUNCIL or. The most notable of
the modern ecumenical councils of the Roman
Catholic Church, held with intermissions from
1545 to 1563. It was the culmination of the
Counter-Reformation (q.v.) , and its decrees crys-
tallized the results of that movement into the
permanent law of the Church. For centuries
those who felt the need of reform within the
Church had appealed to a general council, and
the long-growing discontent with the condition
of things after the Great Schism had led to
the great councils of the fifteenth century. The
Protestant Reformation had taken many of
the most ardent advocates of reform out of
the Church, and left the conservative-minded
party in control.
by Luther and his supporters as a means of
closing the great breach. At the Diet of
Nuremberg in 1523 the German estates appealed
to Adrian VI. for the summoning of a council
“within a year, in concert with the Imperial
Majesty and in a German city.” Adrian died in
the same year, and his successor, Clement VII.,
while not refusing a council, did nothing toward
calling one; and the political breach between
Charles V. and the Holy See made the Emperor’s
requests unfruitful. Thus it happened that when
the design was put into execution in the pontifi-
cate of Paul III., the Augsburg negotiations (see
REFORMATION) had failed, the break in Christen-
dom was an accomplished fact, and the sincere
but reactionary party was left in control.
The Council was finally assembled at Trent,
December 13, 1545. The Emperor desired to have
the discussions opened on points of general agree-
ment, in the hope of gaining the confidence of the
Protestants; but the party in control brought to
the front the questions most in dispute——the
authority of the Scriptures in the Vulgate text,
the right of interpretation, ecclesiastical tradi-
tion, and the doctrine of justification, as to
which the old positions were maintained. Cer-
tain administrative reforms were carly" decreed.
Bishops were to provide better schools in their
dioceses, and were themselves to expound the
Word of God; qualifications for the episcopal
office were defined, and penalties imposed for
the neglect of duties; dispensations and privi-
leges were restricted. The Emperor opposed the
course of the Council, and on March 11, 1547,
its sittings were transferred to Bologna, where
it was thought the Imperial influence would not
be so much felt. In 1549 Paul III. died and
was succeeded by Cardinal del Monte as Julius
III. The latter reassembled the Council at
Trent May 1, 1551; but, after the sixteenth
session, the city having become insecure on ac-
count of the activity of the Protestant forces
under Maurice of Saxony, the sittings were
again suspended for two years. After the brief
reign of Marcellus II., Cardinal Caraffa, one of
the ablest leaders of the uncompromising Catho-
lic party, came to the Papal throne as Paul IV.
The Council now proceeded to carry out a
conservative reorganization of the Church,
though its work was again suspended for a time
owing to the disturbances of Paul’s pontificate.
Pius IV., the former Cardinal Gonzaga, recon-
vened it in 1560, and much important work was
done, looking to a restoration of the Papal au-
thority in its fullness. Ecclesiastical laws were
codified; questions which had hitherto been open
were definitely ruled; uniformity of faith and
discipline was established. To regulate some of
the abuses of the system of indulgences, it was
decreed that bishops should collect the payments
made in connection with it, while the power of
granting indulgences was aflirmed as instituted
by Christ and to be retained as useful to Chris-
tians. Episcopal control of monastic orders was
provided for, though the Jesuits secured a
larger measure of freedom. Several matters of
A council was at first desired
TRENT.
TRENTON.
903
detail were referred to the Pope for decision.
The decrees were read and subscribed by about
200 bishops on December 3 and 4, 1563, and the
Council finally adjourned. The decrees were con-
firmed by the Pope January 26, 1564, and he
also prepared a confession of faith summarizing
their doctrinal features. (See PIUS IV., CREED
OF.) In spite of opposition, the work of the
Council was so clear, logical, and thorough, and
so Well supported by the hierarchy, that ithad a
permanent and far-reaching effect, setting the
standard of Roman Catholic faith and practice
(with the exception of the two definitions of the
Immaculate Conception and the Infallibility of
the Pope) to the present day. The best modern
edition of the documents relating to the Council
is Triclentin-urn Conoiliurn; Actorum, Epistu-
laruni, Traotatuum nova Collectio (Freiburg,
1901 et seq.), or Theiner, Acta G’-enuina So-cri
Concilii Triclentini (Agram, 1874). The ap-
proved English translation is that of O’Donovan.
Works supplementary to that of the Council
itself were a catechism by the Pope for parish
priests and preachers, and authentic editions of
the Vulgate Bible, the missal, and the breviary.
A permanent tribunal at Rome, the Congregation
of the Council, deals with questions which arise.
as to the meaning, authority, or effect of the
decrees and canons of the Council. The con-
temporary histories of the Council were those of
Fra Paolo Sarpi (see SARPI, PAOLO), Istoria del
Ooncilio Triolentino (London, 1619; in Latin,
1620; Eng. trans. by Brent, 1676), written from
a hostile, almost a Protestant point of view; and
Sforza Pallavicini, Istoria del Ooneilio cli Trento
(Rome, 1656-57; revised by the author, 1666;
ed., annotated by Zaccaria, 1833; French trans.
by Migne, Paris, 1844), a friendly history, a
reply to Sarpi. Consult also: Mendham, Me-
moirs of the Council of Trent (London, 1834-
42); Wessenberg, Die grossen Kirchen'versa/nim-
lungen des fa/nfzehnten und sechseehnten J chr-
hunderts (Constance, 1840), a Roman Catholic
work; Gtischl, Histoire du grand ooncile gene-
ral de Trente (Regensburg, 1840); Maynier,
Etudes historiques sur le concile de Trente
(Paris, 1874) ; Diillinger, Sammlung non Urhun-
den zur G-esehichte des Concils non Trient (N6rd-
lingen, 1876); Philippson, La contre-re’oolution
religieuse au XVI<?me sirécle (Paris, 1884).
TRENT, WILLIAM PETERFIELD (1862-—). An
American literary critic, born in Richmond, Va.
He was educated at the University of Virginia
and at the Johns Hopkins University. From
1888 to 1900 he was professor of English and his-
tory in the University of the South (Sewanee,
Tenn.), and in 1893-1900 was dean of the aca-
demic department of that institution. In 1900
he was appointed professor of English literature
in Columbia University. He founded the Se-
wanee Review in 1892, and edited it until 1900.
He contributed articles in American literature to
The New International Enc-ye-lopcerliu, and pub-
lished the following works: English Culture in
Virginia (1889); William Gilmore S-imms
(1892) ; Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime
(1896); The Authority of Criticism (1899);
Robert E. Lee (1899); Verses (1899); John
Milton (1899); ll/ar and Civilization (1901);
Progress of the United States During the Nine-
teenth Century (190l); and A History of
American Literature (1903), besides editions of
school texts of Balzac’s Coméclie Humaine (32
vols., 1900) and of Colonial Prose and Poetry
(with B. ‘V. \Vells, 3 vols., 1901).
TRENT AFFAIR, THE. A diplomatic epi-
sode growing out of the seizure by a.n American
vessel on November 8, 1861, during the, Civil War
in America, of two Confederate commissioners
on board a British mail steamer. In the autumn
of 1861 the Confederate Government sent John
Slidell and James M. Mason as commissioners to
France and England respectively. They ran the
blockade at Charleston and went to Havana,
where they embarked for England on the British
mail steamer Trent. On November 8th Capt.
Charles VVilkes (q.v.) of the United States vessel
San Jacinto stopped the Trent on the high seas,
sent a searching party on board and arrested the
commissioners, who were eventually placed in
Fort Warren, ~Boston Harbor, as prisoners. This
act was applauded by the people of the North,
and by many of the political leaders, including
the Secretary of the Navy; but President Lin-
coln and Secretary of State Seward recognized the
impropriety of the act and strongly disapproved
it, and when a formal demand was made by the
British Minister for the surrender of the com-
missioners it was speedily complied with and an
apology tendered, on the ground that the com-
missioners had been forcibly taken from a neu-
tral vessel on the high seas and in the prosecu-
tion of a voyage from one neutral point to an-
other. Consult Harris, The Trent Affair (In-
dianapolis, 1896), which contains a bibliography.
T_REN’T01\T. A town and port of entry of
Hastings County, Ontario, Canada, on both
banks of the Trent at its outlet in the Bay of
Quinté, Lake Ontario (Map: Ontario, F 3). It
has lumbering and manufacturing interests.
Population, in 1901, 4217. , -
TRENTON. The county-seat of Grundy
County, Mo., 83 miles east by north of Saint
Joseph; on the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific,
and the Omaha, Kansas City and Eastern rail-
roads (Map: Missouri, C. 1). It is the seat of
Ruskin College (non-sectarian), opened in 1900,
and l1as the Jewett Norris Free Public Library,
with 6000 volumes. Trenton is largely interested
in coal-mining. The Chicago, Rock Island and
Pacific Railroad maintains repair and machine
shops here. Under a charter of 1893 the govern-
ment is vested in a mayor, elected biennially, and
a unicameral council. Trenton was settled in
1840, and was first incorporated in 1857. Popu-
lation, in 1890, 5039; in 1900, 5396.
TRENTON. The capital of New Jersey and
the county-seat of Mercer County, 57 miles south-
west of New York and 33 miles northeast of
Philadelphia; on the Delaware River, at the head
of steamboat navigation, on the Pennsylvania
and the Philadelphia and Reading railroads, and
on the Delaware and Raritan Canal (Map: New
Jersey, C 3). ‘
An electric railway covers the city in every
direction, and four suburban trolleys radiate in
all directions to numerous towns and villages.
Cadwalader Park, a beautiful public resort of
100 acres, is supplemented by several smaller
parks. Riverside Park, embracing two miles of
river front, is being laid out (1904). A grace-
ful granite shaft 160 feet high and surmounted
TREN TON.
TRENTON SERIES.
904
by a bronze statue of Washington, of colossal size,
marks t_he spot at the ‘head of town’ where
Washington planted his cannon at the battle of
Trenton. Among other monuments is one of
granite in Riverview Cemetery over the grave of
Gen. George B. McClellan.
Conspicuous public buildings are the State
Capitol, the new white marble city library,
which has some 30,000 volumes, the new $300,-
000 county court-house, Young Men’s Christian
Association building, Masonic Temple, the high
school, and three large theatres. A State
armory, to cost $250,000, is in course of construc-
tion (1904). There are 28 public schools with
about 200 teachers and about 9000 pupils; also a
public school of industrial arts, one Catholic col-
legs, and the State Normal and Model schools.
The State schools have over 1000 students. There
are three hospitals, two day nurseries, and two
children’s homes. The State Deaf-Mute School,
the New Jersey Odd Fellows’ Home, the New Jer-
sey Home for Girls (reformatory) , a State Hospi-
tal for the Insane, the State Prison; and the State
Arsenal are also here. The Inter-State Fair held
each fall at Trenton is one of the largest exhibi-
tions of its kind in the East.
Trenton is a noted industrial centre. In the
census year 1900 the various manufactories had
$26,175,000 capital, and an output valued at
$31,646,000. The potteries, 40 in number, and
employing 5000 hands, produce annually. $5,-
000,000 worth of table ware, plumbers’ supplies,
electrical fixtures, and artistic porcelain. Of
national reputation is the John A. Roebling’s
Sons Company, wire and cable manufacturers,
whose works cover 30 acres, employ about 5000
hands, and produce $l5,450.000 worth of goods
annually. Other notable establishments are the
American Bridge plant, the Jordan L. Mott Iron
VVorks, the De Laval Steam Turbine Works, a
dozen big rubber concerns, large tile factories,
and the Trenton Iron Works. There are also
watch works, numerous brick yards, builders’
hardware works, woolen mills, shirt waist fac-
tories, carriage factories, anvil and tool shops,
breweries, an oilcloth and linoleum factory,
church and school furniture works, boat-build-
ing yard, etc. The shipping facilities by rail,
canal, and river are excellent and considerable
freight is handled. There is also a large retail
trade with the rich agricultural country which
supplies Trenton markets.
The government is vested in a mayor, elected
biennially, a common council of 28 members, and
the usual administrative boards. The assessed
valuation of property is about $35,000,000; and
the public debt is less than $2,000,000. Trenton’s
municipal expenditures aggregate about $700,000
annually, of which about $90,000 is for schools; a
like sum for the police department; $80,000 for
the fire department; and $60,000 for street
lighting. The water supply from the Delaware
is stored in a new $500,000 reservoir of 110,000,-
000 gallons’ capacity. The water-works are
owned by the municipality.
Population, in 1790, 1946; in 1810, 3002; in
1850, 6461; in 1870, 22,874; in 1880, 29,910; in
1890, 57,458; in 1900, 73,307. The total in 1900
included 16,793 persons of foreign birth and
2096 of negro descent.
First settled about 1676, Trenton was generally
known as ‘The Falls’ until in 1719 it received its
present name in honor of William Trent, Speaker
of the House of Assembly. It was incorporated
as a borough in 1746, was selected as the State
capital in 1790, and was chartered as a city in
1792. In 1776 it was occupied by the British,
who pursued General Washington to this point.
Late in December, 1776, Washington, stationed
with his army on the other side of the river,
planned a movement against Trenton and Borden-
town, where General Donop with a small Hes-
sian force was stationed. Trenton was occupied
by a garrison of about 1500 Hessians under
Colonel Rahl. General James Ewing with about
550 men was to cross the Delaware just below
Trenton, seize the Assanpink, and thus sever com-
munication between Donop and Rahl; Colonel
John Cadwalader was to cross at Bristol, below
Bordentown, and attack Donop from the south,
and General Putnam with about 1000 men was to
coiiperate with about 1000 men from Philadelphia.
The main movement, however, was to be made
by Washington in person, who with 2400 men was
to cross at McConkey’s Ferry, nine miles above
Trenton, and assail Rahl at Trenton. The move-
ment was set for the night of December 25th-
26th. By reason of storms and of the river
being clogged with ice, Ewing and Cadwalader
were unable to effect a crossing, while Putnam
Was detained in Philadelphia. Washington,
however, with the aid of Marblehead fishermen
under Glover, crossed in spite of all obstacles
by 3 o’clock in the morning of the 26th, began
his march to Trenton at about 4 o’clock, and at
about eight completely surprised the garrison,
which, after a night of Christmas festivities, had
taken little precaution against surprise and had
made little preparation for resistance. Rahl was
soon forced to surrender, and VVashington se-
cured about l000 prisoners. The American loss
was 2 killed and 3 wounded, while the Hessians
lost about 40 killed or wounded. Soon after-
wards Washington recrossed the Delaware to his
former position. This success, together with that
at Princeton on January 3, 1777, greatly revived
the spirits of the Americans, and did much to
prevent the threatened disintegration of VVash-
ington’s army. Consult: Lee, History of Tren-
to-n (Trenton, 1895) ; Raum, History of the City
of Trenton (Trenton, 1871); and Stryker, The
Battles of Trenton and Princeton (Boston, 1898).
TRENTON SERIES. An important strati-
graphic division comprising the Trenton, Utica,
and Hudson stages of the Ordovician system. The
type localities of the rocks are in central and
eastern New York, where the lowest stage——the
Trenton—consists of a thinly bedded, dark gray
to black limestone, while the Utica and Hudson
stages are represented by carbonaceous shales.
The same series of strata appears also on the
northern shores of Lake Ontario in Canada, out-
cropping as far west as Georgian Bay. In Ohio
the Hudson stage is known as the Cincinnati
shales and is of great thickness. The strata
occur also in the Upper Mississippi Valley and
in several of the Rocky Mountain States. The
Trenton rocks are the source of the great petro-
leum industry in the Lima field of Ohio and
Indiana, and in addition yield valuable supplies
of natural gas. The Salina limestone, which is
the equivalent of the Upper Trenton stage and
outcrops in Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin, con-
TRENTON SERIES.
TRESPASS.
905
tains important deposits of lead and zinc ores.
See ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM.
TREPANG (from Malay tripang), or BECHE
DE MER. The dried body of a holothurian (q.v.),
regarded as a delicate article of food by the Chi-
nese. Several species are utilized, especially
Ilolotharia ednlis, which abounds along the
coasts of Eastern Asia and all the islands to the
Philippines and Eastern Australia. These ani-
mals are usually about eight or nine inches long,
but some are two feet in length. They are often
found nearly buried in the coral sand, their ten-
tacles only appearing above it. The larger ones
are sometimes speared in shallow water; but
most of them are taken by divers. They are split
down one side, boiled, pressed flat with stones,
dried in the sun, and afterwards in smoke, and
packed in bags. Macassar is the centre of the
trade, whence several hundred tons are annually
sent to China. Trepang is also gathered and
prepared to some extent in California. It is
highly gelatinous and nutritious, though almost
tasteless. It is utilized as an ingredient in soups.
TREPI-IINE, TREPHINING (Fr. tréphine,
for *tre’pine, diminutive of trépan, trepan, from
ML. trepanu/m, from Gk. 'rp61rav0v, trypanon,
auger, trepan, from 'rpv7r¢'iv, trypan, to bore, from
1-p61r17, try/pe, hole, from Tpéirew, trepein, to
turn). The operation of trephining consists
in the perforation of a bone by means of a
trephine, which is a small cylindrical or cir-
cular saw, with a centre-pin on which it works.
The trephine produces a hole in the skull vary-
ing usually from one-fourth to an inch or more
in diameter. The larger sizes of trephines are
not now employed so much as formerly, it
being usually the custom to make as small an
opening as possible with the trephine, enlarg-
ing it where necessary by means of rongeur
forceps, the chisel, or some short special form
of saw, such as Hey’s saw. The trephine is espe-
cially employed in fracture of the skull where
the fragments of bone cannot otherwise be raised,
as by the use of the elevator and chisel alone.
In other conditions the operation of trephining
is often a mere introductory step, giving a point
of entrance at one or more places from which
extensive flaps of bone are broken away or
turned back for free access into the cranial
cavity. The operation is oftenest employed alone
in cases of abscess of the brain where a very
limited area of brain substance requires to be
exposed. The point of application of the tre-
phine in cases of abscess as well as many cases
of pressure from hemorrhage, either above or
below the dura, is often clearly indicated by
definite symptoms of brain irritation, known as
‘localizing symptoms.’
TREPORT, tra’por’, LE. A town of the De-
partment of Seine-Inferieure, situated at the
mouth of the Bresle, and overhung by a high,
picturesque cliff, 45 miles north-northeast of
Rouen (Map: France, H 1). Its proximity
to Paris has made it a popular bathing resort.
Tréport has a sixteenth-century tower, now used
as the town hall, the sixteenth-century Church of
Saint Jacques, an old Renaissance Timber House,
and a conspicuous casino. There is a consider-
able trade. Sugar is the leading expert. The
harbor is good, and a canal extends to Eu. Popu-
lation, in 1900, 4949.
TRES’COT, WILLIAM HENRY (1822-98). An
American diplomatist, born at Charleston, S. C.
He graduated at Charleston College in 1840;
studied law in Harvard, and was admitted to the
bar in 1843; became secretary of the United
States legation in London in 1852; and was
Assistant Secretary of State from June, 1860,
until the secession of South Carolina. During a
part of this period he was also the confidential
agent of his State. In 1862, 1864, and 1866 he
was elected to the State Legislature, and he also
served on the staff of General Ripley. In 1877
he was one of the agents of the United States
Fishery Commission at Halifax; in 1880 helped
to revise the treaties between the United States
and China; in 1881 was sent as special envoy
to Chile, Bolivia, and Peru, which were then at
war; and in 1882 was associated with General
Grant in negotiating a new treaty with Mexico.
Among his published works are: Diplomacy of
the Revolution (1852) ; An American View of the
Eastern Question (1854;) and Diplomatic His-
tory of the Administrations of Washington and
Adams (1857).
TRESPASS (OF. trespas, departure, Fr.
tzépas, decease, from OF. trespasser, to pass
over, depart, die, Fr. trépasser, to die, from
ML. transpassare, to pass over, from ML., Lat.
trans, across, through + ML. passare, to pass,
to step, from Lat passas, pace). This term
first appears in English law as the name of a
form of action brought for the recovery of dam-
ages resulting from an act of violence done to the
person or property of the plaintiff. Now that
forms of action are generally abolished, the term
is used almost exclusively to denote the wrongful
conduct for which an action in trespass, as dis-
tinguished from an action on the case, or of
trover, could have been brought at common law.
In this sense, trespass means a direct and forci-
ble injury to the person or the property of an-
other. The most frequent examples of trespass
to the person are afforded by assault and battery
(q.v.) and by false imprisonment (q.v.). It
does not extend to acts which are lawful in
themselves, and are actionable only because done
negligently. Such acts were remediable under
the old system of procedure by an action on
the case.
Trespass to goods or chattels consists in the
wrongful disturbance of another’s possession of
them. Thus, if one injure or destroy a chattel
which belongs to another without taking it from
the possession of the rightful owner, or if he
wrongfully deprive such owner of its possession
without doing it any injury, or if he do both
of such wrongs, he is guilty of trespass. There
is no crime involved in thus forcibly taking
property from the possession of its owner,
unless the act be done animo furandi—i.e. with
an intent to commit a felony. The mere
wrongful retention of the personalty of an-
other, even though it follow a. trespass in the
taking thereof, is not in itself a trespass, but
constitutes the tort of conversion. It is no defense
to an action of trespass that a third party was
entitled to the property at the time the defend-
ant disturbed the plaintifi"s possession, unless
it is also shown that the defendant’s act was au-
thorized by such third party. The defendant
must stand, if at all, on the strength of his
own right to possession, not on the weakness of
TRESPASé.
TREVELYAN.
906
the plaintiff’s. A wrongful intention is not neces-
sary to actionable trespass to chattels. One
who voluntarily interferes with the possession of
another is bound to know whether he is acting
lawfully or not. Inevitable accident, however, is
a defense.
Trespass to real property is an unlawful entry
upon the lands of another. Every man’s land is
regarded by the law as surrounded and separated
from that of his neighbors by a close or bound-
ary. This may be a visible, tangible object, such
as a fence or a hedge; but if none such exist,
there is thrown around the land, in contempla-
tion of law, an invisible, ideal boundary which
effectually separates it from the property of all
other persons. Any unwarrantable breaking
through this close, and thereby entering or
sending a person or _ personal property upon
the land which it surrounds, even though no
actual injury be done to the property, con-
stitutes a trespass, for which an action at law
will lie in favor of any one rightfully in posses-
sion when such act is- done. No crime is usually
committed by such a wrongful entry; and this is
so even when the owner or rightful possessor has
put up notices upon the land, as is -so frequently
done, stating that ‘Trespassers will be prose-
cuted,’ or using other words to that effect. If,
however, the trespasser wantonly injure the prop-
erty, as by breaking down the trees or crops, he
may be criminally prosecuted for malicious mis-
chief. A person may commit trespass for which
he will be liable in a civil action for damages,
not only by his own entry upon land, but also by
wrongfully sending his personal property upon
it or permitting it to go there. Thus, if he un-
warrantably drive his cattle upon his neighbor’s
soil or negligently permit them to go upon it,
he becomes liable to an action in trespass for the
resulting damages. The common law also gives
to the injured land-owner, in such cases, another
remedy by permitting him to distrain or impound
the cattle thus damage feasant, or doing damage,
until their owner renders him satisfaction for the
injury sustained.
At common law the owner of a dog or cat was
not liable for its trespasses. Various reasons
were assigned for this, such as the difficulty of
keeping these animals under restraint, the slight-
ness of the damages ordinarily inflicted by their
wanderings, and the common usage of allowing
them greater liberty than that accorded to cattle.
But if a dog, or cat, or other such animal be
known by its owner to have vicious propensities,
and, because of his failure properly to restrain it,
it injure the person or property of another, he
will be liable in damages.
There are some circumstances under which en-
try upon the land of another without his consent
is justifiable or excusable, and so does -not con-
stitute a trespass. Thus, if a public highway
be so obstructed as to be impassable, a traveler
may rightfully go around the obstruction upon
the private land of an individual; and a person
who, by virtue of a contract with another, has
become the owner of personal property upon the
latter’s land, may enter and take it from such
land; and again, when a vendor of personal
property has rescinded the sale because of fraud
practiced upon him, he may enter upon the land
of the vendee, if not forbidden by the latter, and
retake the property sold, and the same rule holds
whenever an owner of land has wrongfully ac-
quired possession of the personalty of another
and placed it upon his own land. It is general-
ly the rule, however, with these few exceptions,
that a person who goes or sends upon the land or‘
another, and takes his own chattels without per-
mission of such land-owner, however such chat-
tels may have come to be there, is guilty of a
trespass. If a trespass be attempted upon real
property, or upon personal property which is in
the actual possession of its owner, the person
rightfully in possession of the same may proper-
ly use all the force that is necessary to prevent
the commission of the wrong. But if he employ
more force than is actually needed to repel the
violence of the intruder, he makes himself liable
to an action for assault and battery, and his act
may constitute a crime. Growing out of this
right to make use of so much violence as is
requisite to prevent intrusion is the well-known
common-law maxim that “A man’s house is his.
castle.” Yet there are a few cases in which even
the privacy of a person’s dwelling-house may be
invaded without his permission. An ofiicer of the
law, when executing criminal process—-—as in seek-
ing to apprehend a cri'min_al or one charged with
a crime——may use the needed force to enter a
building in which such person is secreted. And
even in the execution of civil process an oflicer
may break open inner doors after he has peace-
ably obtained entrance into the house; but no
civil process can authorize him to employ force
or violence to obtain ingress through the outer
door of a dwelling. There are, moreover, many
circumstances under which persons are invited,
by implication, to go upon the property of others
and so do not become trespassers, if, not being
expressly forbidden to do so, they so enter. Thus,
it is ordinarily no act of trespass for a person
to enter the house of his neighbor upon matters
of business or to make a" social call; sokeepers
of stores, theatres, hotels, etc., hold out to the
public a general invitation to enter upon their
properties for the purpose of dealing with them.
But even in such cases those who enter or remain
against the express prohibition of the owner or
proprietor become trespassers in so doing. If
one go upon the property of another rightfully,
but abuse or make ill use of the privilege or au-
thority under which he entered, as if he go into
a tavern or theatre and refuse to leave within a
reasonable time or when ordered to do so, he
thereby becomes a trespasser ab initio, or from
the time when he entered.
Consult: Pollock and Maitland, History of
1English Law ( 2d ed., Boston, 1899); Pomeroy,
Remedies and Remedia-Z Rights (Boston, 1883) ;
Pollock, The Law of Torts (London and New
York, 1901).
TRESSURE.
ordinary.
TREVELYAN, tre-vel’yan, Sir CHARLES ED-
WARD (1807-86). An Anglo-Indian oflicial. He
was born at Taunton, Somersetshire; received
1is education at the Gharterhouse and Haileybury
In heraldry (q.v.), a sub-
College; entered the East India Company’s civil-
service, and in 1827 went to Delhi as assistant
to Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe, chief com-
missioner. Through his efforts in the cause of
native education the Government encouraged and
supported the promotion of European literature
TREVELYAN.
TREVES.
907
and science among the natives. In 1840 he was
appointed Assistant Secretary to the Treasury,
retaining the position until 1859. With Sir
Strafford Northcote he prepared in 1853 a report
entitled The Organization of the Permanent
Civil Service, which is the basis of all subsequent
civil-service legislation. In 1848 he was made
Knight Commander of the Bath, and in 1859
was appointed Governor of Madras. He was ap-
pointed Finance Minister in India in 1862, and
retired in 1865 on account of ill health. Important
reforms were made in the system of accounts dur-
ing his financial administration, and the re-
sources of India developed by a great expansion
of public works. He was created a baronet in
1874. He was the author of several valuable
treatises; of which the better known are: Educa-
tion of the People of India (1838); The Irish
Crisis (1848) ; Christianity and Hinduism
(1882).
TREVELYAN, Sir GEORGE Orro (1838—).
An English politician and author, the only son
of Sir Charles Edward Trevelyan (q.v.) by his
wife, Hannah More Macaulay, sister of Lord
Macaulay. He was born at Rothley Temple,
Leicestershire, and was educated at Harrow and
at Trinity College, Cambridge. After a short
period in the East Indian civil service, he en-
tered Parliament in the Liberal interest, for
Tynemouth (1865) and for the Hawick Burghs
(1868). He was appointed Civil Lord of the
Admiralty under the first Gladstone Administra-
tion (December, 1868), but resigned (July, 1870)
owing to disagreement with the Premier on the
Education Bill. In the second Gladstone Admin-
istration he became Parliamentary Secretary to
the Admiralty (November, 1880), Chief Secretary
to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (May, 1882),
and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
(1884). At the beginning of the third Gladstone
Administration he was appointed Secretary for
Scotland (1886), but he resigned (March, 1886)
because of the bill-for establishing an Irish Par-
liament‘. And again in the last Gladstone Admin-
istration he was Secretary for Scotland (1892-
95). In 1897 he resigned his seat. Trevelyan
was among the foremost in abolishing the pur-
chase of commissions in and out of Parliament
and in extending household suffrage to the coun-
ties. Among his publications are: The Competi-
tion Wallah (1864) ; Cawnpore (1865) ; The Life
and Letters of Lord Macaulay (1876) ; The Early
History of Charles James F000 (1880) ; and
the very valuable work The American Revolution
(parts 1 and 2, 1899, 1903).
TREVES, trévz (Ger. Trier). A city of Prus-
sia, in the Rhine Province, on the right bank
of the Moselle, 69 miles southwest of Coblenz
(Map: Germany, B 4). It is situated in a re-
gion of hills, vineyards, and woods, and presents
a picturesque appearance. The town lies in a
compact form, surrounded on three sides by
promenades called allées. In the old city proper
the streets are narrow and crooked. On the
north is the Porta Nigra, an ancient fortified
gate with towers—a splendid Roman relic. In
the northeastern part of the city stands the
cathedral, one of the oldest churches in Europe.
The ancient edifice on whose site it stands ap-
pears to have been used as a church already in
Roman times. The building has been repeatedly
Von. XVI.-58.
restored as the result of wars and the ravages of
centuries. Among its contents are an alleged nail
from the cross, and the famous seamless ‘Holy
Coat,’ which is exposed to view at stated, though
not frequent, times. There are fine cloisters
leading to the charming Liebfrauenkirche—an
early Gothic structure belonging to the first half
of the thirteenth century.
In the southeastern part of Treves is the spa-
cious Palace Square, at the north end of which
stands a brick basilica dating probably from the
commencement of the fourth century, now used
as a Protestant church. At the south end of the
square rises the Roman palace, a picturesque
mass of ruins. The valuable provincial museum
is near by. Among its remarkable antiquities are
60 hermae, torsos of Cupid and of an amazon, a
mosaic credited to Monnus, and the Roman tombs
from Neumagen, dating from the commencement
of the Christian Era and representing the cos-
tumes and daily life in this region at that
period. A short distance southeast of the city is
a Roman amphitheatre, built in Trajan’s time.
In the southwestern part of Treves, close to the
Moselle, are the Roman baths—a vast and im-
pressive ruin. Two miles to the west, on a hill,
rises the Column of the Virgin, commemorating
the promulgation of the dogma of the Immacu-
late Conception.
The municipal library, containing over 100,000
volumes and manuscripts, is connected with the
gymnasium, and possesses rare works of ancient
date. Among them is the illuminated Codex
Egberti, dating from the close of thetenth cen-
tury. There are also the Codex Aureus and the
Fust and Gutenberg Bible of 1450. The manu-
facturing interests are varied and important.
There are tanneries, iron foundries, dye works,
furniture and piano factories, glass painting
works, etc. The trade is extensive in wine, fruit,
and wood. The town possesses a school of viti-
culture. There are many mines in the vicin-
ity, including lead, copper, and tin mines. The
population in 1900 was 43,324.
HISTORY. Treves is usually considered the
most ancient town of Germany. It was the capi-
tal of the Celtic Treviri, from whom it took its
name (anciently Augusta Trevirorum) . The Ro-
mans made it a colony and it grew in impor-
tance. It was an Imperial residence in the later
times of the Roman Empire, which explains the
presence of the magnificent Roman relics. Treves
had a bishop at a very early date. It fell into the
hands of the Franks in the fifth century. The see
appears to have been erected into an archbish-
opric about the beginning of the ninth century.
About a century later the city, after having for
a time belonged to Lorraine, was permanently
united with Germany. It rose to great importance
under its archbishops, who exercised temporal
sway over a considerable district, and who held
a place among the Imperial Electors. After a
long struggle with its ecclesiastical overlords,
Treves was recognized as a free city toward the
close of the sixteenth century. The French took
Treves in 17 94, and within a few years nearly the
whole of the amhiepiscopal see was in their
possession. The archbishopric was abolished. The
Congress of Vienna (1814-15) handed the city
and the former see over to Prussia. Consult:
\Vilmowski, Der Dom eu Trier (Treves, 1874);
Freeman, Historical and Architectural Sketches
TREVES.
TRIAL.
908
(London, 1876) ; Woerl, Fiihrer durch die stadt
Trier (Wiirzburg, 1887) .
-TREVI, tr-a’vé, FOUNTAIN or. A noted
fountain in Rome, with which the superstition is
connected that a traveler’s return to Rome is as-
sured by dropping a coin in its basin and drink-
ing its waters. It is built aganst the facade of
the Palazzo Poli and was completed in 1762. The
water of the ancient Aqua Virgo spouts from the
crevices of the rocks and from the nostrils of the
horses of Neptune, who stands in his chariot
above the fountain surrounded by Tritons.
TREVIGLIO, tra-ve'ly6. A town in the
Province of Bergamo, Italy, 20 miles by rail and
by steam tramway east by north of Milan (Map:
Italy, D 2) . It has an attractive church. There
is a library. The town manufactures silks,
woolens, ironware, and chemicals. Population
(commune), in 1901, 15,138.
TREVISO, tra-ve’zo. The capital of the
Province of Treviso, Italy, situated in a fertile
valley, on the Sile, 18 miles north by west of
Venice (Map: Italy, G 2) . It is connected with
the lagoons of Venice by a canal. The town has
a mediaeval appearance with its high walls
flanked with bastions. The imposing twelfth-
century cathedral, restored in the fifteenth cen-
tury, has five cupolas. The Gothic Church of
San Niccolo has a curious wooden roof, and is
adorned with admirable frescoes. The Borgo
Cavour contains a library of 50,000 volumes and
a picture gallery. Among the educational in-
stitutions are a technical school, a school of navi-
gation, a bishop’s seminary, and an academy of
sciences. The city manufactures silk and woolen
goods, metal ware, machinery, chemicals, and
paper. Population (commune), in 1881, 31,-
249; in 1901, 33,987. Treviso, the Roman Tar-
visium, was an important city toward the end of
the Roman Empire. It figured among the cities
of the Lomabrd League. It came under the rule
of Venice in the fourteenth century. In 1797 it
was taken by the French under Mortier, who re-
ceived the title of Duke of Treviso.
TREV’ITHICK, RICHARD (1771-1833). ,A
British mechanical engineer and inventor, dis-
tinguished for his improvements of the steam
engine and as the designer of the first practi-
cable locomotive. He was born at Illogan, in
Cornwall, and received a common-school educa-
tion previous to becoming an engineer in the
mines in his vicinity. Engaged in the construc-
tion of pumping and other engines, he was asso-
ciated with Murdock, Bull, and other well-known
engineers and was constantly experimenting with
machinery. He was as well known in his
neighborhood for his muscular strength as for
his inventive genius. He effected various im-
provements in pumps and designed a high-pres-
sure steam engine in 1800 which was soon in wide
use in the mines of Cornwall and Wales. Turn-
ing his attention to the designing of steam
vehicles, a-s early as 1796 he made a number of
models on a small scale, and in 1801 completed
a full-size vehicle for which he received a patent
in the following year. This steam carriage
operated so successfully that Trevithick with the
assistance of Andrew Vivian was led in 1804 to
build a locomotive engine to operate on the
Merthyr-Tydvil tram road. This was the first
application of steam to the hauling of loads on
a railway and led to the construction of further
steam locomotives operating on rails, including
one which was exhibited in London in 1808 on a
circular track. As Trevithick understood that the
friction of the wheels on the rails was sufficient
for the traction of cars on ordinary grades (i11
distinction from other inventors who employed a
cog and rack), and as he was the first to use a
return flue boiler and a steam jet in the chimney,
and to couple together the wheels of a locomotive,
he is considered by many entitled to the credit of
being the real inventor of the locomotive steam
engine. It is however, to Stephenson (q.v.) that
we must look for the perfection of a practical
application of the machine. See LocoMoT1vE, in
which article will be found descriptions of Trev-
ithick’s locomotives. See also RAILWAYS.
After devoting himself to the construction of
steam drills and dredging machines he became in-
terested in an unsuccessful attempt to tunnel the
Thames, and also carried on experiments on en-
gines suitable for ship propulsion and other pur-
poses. In 1816 Trevithick went to Peru, where a
number of his engines had been introduced into
the silver mines, and after being successful in
several undertakings, lost his entire property
_through the outbreak of war, which forced him to
retire from the country. At Cartagena in 1827
he encountered Robert Stephenson (q.v.) , who as-
sisted him to return to England. The remainder
of his life was spent in further experiments, few
of which came to a successful outcome, and he
died in poverty. While Trevithick reaped but
little material reward for any of his inventions,
yet he made many discoveries which were of the
greatest use to other engineers when practically
applied and successfully developed. His work
for the steam engine stands out conspicuous and
ranks him among the most prominent engineers
and inventors of the nineteenth century. Con-
sult: Trevithick, Life of Richard Trevithick
(London, 1872) ; Smiles, Lives of Engineers
(ib., 1861).
TRIAD (from Lat. trias, from Gk. Tpads,
number three, triad, from rpeis, treis, three).
In music, a chord of three tones built upon any
tone with its third and fifth above. According
to the character of the intervals the character of
the triad varies materially. Thus, C E G con-
sists of a major third -1- a minor third; C Eb G
of a minor third -1- major third; C E Gil of two
major thirds; C Eb Gb of two minor thirds.
These triads are known as major, minor, aug-
mented, and diminished triads, respectively. If
in four or five part writing one or two tones of
a triad are doubled, the character of the triad
is not at all affected. See HARMONY.
TRIAL (OF. trial, from trier, to try,
choose, thresh, from ML. tritare, to thresh, rub,
frequentative of Lat. terere, to rub, thresh; con-
nected with OChurch Slav. trieti, tmiti, Lith.
triti, trinti, to rub). A regular and formal
examination or inquiry into the material facts
of a controversy in issue before a competent
tribunal, in order finally to determine the re-
spective rights of the parties thereto. Trials
may be divided into two classes: those by a
judge and jury, and those before a judge without
a jury. In a legal action the trial is usually
before a jury. (For the ordinary steps in a jury
trial, see JURY.) In courts of equity, trials are
TRIAL.
TRIASSIC SYSTEM.
909
conducted before the chancellor or judge without
a jury, substantially in the same manner as in
a jury trial. The codes of reformed procedure
and ractice acts in most of the States regulate
the etails of trials in their various courts.
See the articles EVIDENCE; JURY; PLEADING;
Pnxorron; Nonsurr; NOLLE PBOSEQUI; etc., and
consult the authorities referred to under PLEAD-
' ING; EVIDENCE; JURY; etc.
TRIAL BY JURY. The first comic opera
by Gilbert and Sullivan ( 1875). Its success was
due largely to its allusions to the Tichborne Case
(q.v.), then at its height.
TRIANGLE (Lat. triangulus, three-cor-
nered, from tres, three + angulus, angle). A
figure formed by three intersecting lines. The
sides of a plane triangle are straight lines, and
those of a spherical triangle are geodetic lines or
arcs of great circles. Triangles are called equi-
lateral, isosceles, and scalene according as three
sides, two sides, or no sides are equal. Of
two angles of a plane triangle that opposite the
greater side is the greater, but the angles do not
vary as the sides, the ratio of two sides being
equal to that of the sines of the opposite angles.
(See TRIGONOMETBY.) In a spherical triangle
the sines of the sides are proportional to the
sines of the opposite angles. The sum of the
. angles of a plane triangle is 180° according to
Euclidean geometry (see GEOMETRY); but in
the case of a spherical triangle the sum varies
from 0° to 540°. The geometry of the triangle
is extensive, and a few of the most important
propositions are given under CONCURRENCE AND
COLLINEARITY, and MAXIMA AND MINIMA. The
area of any plane triangle is given by the for-
mulas A = 2;’. and A : \/ s(s——a)(s—b)
(s——c), where b is the base, h the altitude, a, b,
c the sides, and s the semi-perimeter. In case
the triangle is equilateral A ='-ill/12:, where a
is the side. If one angle of a plane triangle is a
right angle the triangle is called a right-angled
triangle, the side opposite the right angle being
the hypotenuse. The spherical triangle of one,
two, or three right angles is called a rectangular,
birectangular, or trirectangular triangle, re-
spectively. The spherical triangle in which one,
two, or three sides are quadrants is called a
quadrantal, biquadrantal, or triquadrantal tri-
angle, respectively. The area of a spherical tri-
1rR"’E
180 ’
where R is the radius of the sphere and E the
spherical excess (q.v.) , or A + B + C —— 180°.
Consult Catalan. “Quelques formules relatives
aux triangles rectilignes,” in the Mémoires cou-
ronnés of the Brussels Academy (1891) ; Casey,
Sequel to Euclid (5th ed., Dublin, 1888) .
TRIANGLE. A musical instrument con-
sisting of a steel rod bent into a three-sided
figure open at one angle. It is hung by a string
at the upper angle, and attached to the perform-
er’s left hand, to his desk, or to his drums. Mod-
ern composers frequently use it in marches,
dances, and fantasias. As it is only used for
rhythmic figures, the music is written, as for
drums and other instruments without fixed pitch,
upon a single line.
angle. is given by the formula A =
TRIANGLE SPIDER. A spider (Hyptiotes
cavatus) of the family Uloboridee, common in
the Eastern United States. Its web is usually
stretched between the twigs of dead branches
and at first appears like the fragment of an orb
Web. It consists of four plain radiating lines
and a series of double cross-lines. From the
apex of the triangle a strong line extends to the
supporting twig. The spider stations itself on
this line and draws up a slack which when
loosened jars the whole web, entangling engaged
insects in the cross-threads. Consult Wilder,
in Popular Science Monthly, 1875.
TRIANGULAR NUMBERS. See NUMBER.
TRIANGULATION. A method used in sur-
veying when-the area to be surveyed is of con-
siderable extent. It consists, as the name indi-
cates, in laying out a system of triangles by
means of which intermediate points are located.
See SURVEYING.
TRIANON, tré’a’noN’. The name given to
two villas in the Park of Versailles. The Grand
Trianon was built in 1685 by Louis XIV. for
Madame de Maintenon, and is a handsome build-
ing, one story in height, containing interesting
furnishings. In it the trial of Marshal Bazaine
took place in 1873. The Petit Trianon, built
by Louis XV. in 17 76 for Madame Du Barry, was
afterwards a favorite resort of Marie Antoinette.
It has a fine English garden with a Temple of
Love, a lake, and several rustic cottages.
TRI'AR'THRUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 'rpe'Z:,
treis, three + dpdpov, arthron, joint). A genus
of Ordovician trilobites with depressed convex
carapace of elongate oval outline, of which the
middle third is occupied by the broad axis. The
thorax has 14 to 16 segments in the middle of
each of which there is a rounded knob, and the
pygidium is small and semicircular. The best
known species is Triarthrus becki of the Utica
shale of North America. See TBILOBITE.
TRIASSIC SYSTEM (from Lat. trias, num-
ber three, triad). A group of rocks immediately
following the Carboniferous and preceding the
Jurassic system. It is therefore the oldest for-
mation of the Mesozoic era. The rocks of this
system were at first associated with the Permian
under the name of the New Red Sandstone (q.v. ) ,
but they were finally separated and designated as
the Trias by German geologists, who divided the
system into three series, the Keuper, Muschel-
kalk, and Buntersandstein. The Rhaetic clays
and sandstones were subsequently added to the
system.
Much difficulty has been found in subdividing
the American Trias, and still more in correlating
it with the European beds. Indeed, in the United
States it is often diflicult to separate the Triassic
from the Jurassic, and consequently the plan
adopted by the United States Geological Survey
is to designate them as the J ura-Trias, thus con-
sidering the deposits as one formation. The
American Triassic is subdivided as follows:
Paciflc Border Atlantic Border
Bajuvaric Series .
mzrxssro Tirohc Series Newark Senes
srsrnm Dmaric Series
Scythic Series
The Pacific Coast beds are marine, while those
of the Atlantic border are estuarine. In the
Eastern States the Triassic formation consists
TRIASSIG SYSTEM.
TRIBONIANUS.
910
of a series of sandstones and shales extending
more or less unbrokenly from the Connecticut
Valley to South Carolina. The rocks were de-
posited in shallow water along the continental
shores. The Newark rocks are in many places
faulted and intruded by igneous rocks, the erup-
tions having in some cases occurred while the
deposition of sediment was still going on, be-
ing thus in the nature of submarine outbursts.
The Palisades of the Hudson River and the East
Rock at New Haven, Conn., are formed of dia-
base erupted during the Triassic period. Some
doubt exists as to Whether the Triassic rocks
of the Atlantic border were one continuous belt
or whether they were deposited in separated
troughs. In the interior of the continent along
the Rocky Mountains there are extensive beds of
red sandstone which were deposited in an in-
land sea, but whether they belong to the Triassic
or Jura-Trias is unsettled. On the Pacific Coast
the Triassic rocks have a maximum thickness of
nearly 5000 feet. Triassic rocks are known in
Central and South America, Europe, Asia, and
Australasia.
The plant life of the Triassic included ferns,
cycads, conifers, and gigantic representatives of
the Equiseta or horsetails. The accumulated re-
mains of these plants contributed to the for-
mation of important coal seams. Among the
vertebrates fishes were fairly abundant, the domi-
nant type being ganoids ; but the most character-
istic class was the Amphibia, which attained its
greatest development in this period. Of reptiles
the ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, dinosaurs, croco-
diles, and turtles were present, while the earliest
representatives of the Mammalia came into ex-
isten'ce. .
The Triassic beds of the Atlantic border
yield great quantities of sandstone (brownstone)
for building, which has been quarried chiefly in
the Connecticut Valley and New Jersey. De-
posits of coal are found in the Triassic of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina and in parts of Europe,
but they are of minor importance compared with
the great coal measures of the Carboniferous age.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Kiimmel, “The Newark Rocks
of New Jersey and New York,” Journal of Geol-
ogy, vii., pp. 23-52; Shaler and VVoodworth,
“Geology of the Richmond Basin, Virginia,”
Nineteenth Annual Report of United States Geo-
logical Survey, part ii., p. 325; Russell, “The
Newark System,” Bulletin 85, United States Geo-
logical Survey; Darton, “The Relations of the
Traps of the Newark System in the New Jersey
Region,” Bulletin 6'7, United States Geological
Survey; Davis, “The Triassic Formation of Con-
necticut,” 18th Annual Report, United States
Geological Su'ruey, part ii., p. 9; Hopkins, “The
Brownstones of Pennsylvania,” Bulletin Issued
by Pennsylvania State College. See GEOLOGY;
PALEONTOLOGY, etc.
TRIBE (Lat. tribus, tribe; possibly con-
nected with trabs, beam, Oscan triibom, Lith.
trobci, building, OWelsh, OBret. treb, habitation,
subdivision of the people, Goth. Paurp, field,
OHG. clorf, Ger. Dorf, Eng. thorp, village, or
perhaps rather with Lat. tres, three, of. Gk.
1-pi¢'vf;g, triphyés, Skt. tribhu, threefold, in al-
lusion to the three legendary tribes of early
Rome; hardly connected with Gk. 6.1-p6)/erog,
atrygetos, unfruitful, or with OChurch Slav.
or wives.
tmigii, market-place). In general, an inter-
related group, as a group of individuals defined
on the basis of relationship; specifically, a con-
sanguineal group of mankind. In savagery the
social organization rests on the basis of kinship
traced in the female or maternal line. Usually
the family comprises the mother with her chil-
dren. The role of the husband and father
is often that of a perpetual guest possessing
little if any right over property or person ; while
the several families of sisters (i.e. daughters of
the same mother) form a clan of which the mother
or elderwoman is the lawgiver and her eldest
brother the executive or chief. Commonly sev-
eral such clans coexist and are united on the
basis of real or assumed sisterhood of the elder-
women or on some other basis connected in some
way with kinship; and the union constitutes a
tribe in the specific sense of the term. Ordi-
narily the tribe is perpetuated by marital regu-
lations; mating is usually proscribed within the
clan, which thereby becomes exogamous, and
prescribed within the tribe, which is thereby ren-
dered endogamous, and in more primitive so-
cieties, such as that of the Australian natives
and that of certain American aborigines, the
laws are complex .and restrict intermarriage to
certain clans and even to a certain order within
these clans. While the elderwomen remain law-
givers in the tribe as in the clan, the larger or-
ganization requires enlarged executive powers,
which are usually vested in elder brothers of
the ma-trons, so that the control is measurably or
wholly avuncular. In a still further enlargement
of the group by multiplication of families the
chiefs assume added prerogatives, and their
power may rise above the kinship bonds and
may even become hereditary, so that a reigning
clan may be established. In the somewhat more
advanced culture commonly called barbarism the
family and tribal organization undergo a change;
paternity is recognized and kinship is traced in
the male lines; and commonly the father assumes
control of property and person, exercising author-
ity not only over his children, but over his wife
This stage is that of patriarchy with
its concomitants of enslavement and polygamy.
In the patriarchal condition the group of closely
related families forms a gens, while the less
closely related gentes are usually organized in a
tribe under a common chieftaincy. The organiza-
tion is perpetuated partly by means of marital
customs and partly by means of property regula-
tions, while the chiefship may be determined in
various ways; yet the fundamental idea of the
social organization or law remains that of kin-
ship or consanguinity, either real or assumed.
The chief function of the tribe is military, while
. that of the clan is juristic. The social organiza-
tion on this basis is conveniently styled tribal
society, in contradistinction from the national
society found among peoples organized on a
territorial basis. Consult: Morgan, Ancient So-
ciety (New York, 1877) ; Maine, Ancient Law.
TRI'BONIA’N US. A distinguished Roman
jurist of the sixth century A.D. He was of Mace-
donian parentage, but was born at Side, in Pam-
phylia. He held, under the Emperor Justinian
(q.v.), the ofiices of quaestor, master of the Im-
perial household, and consul. But he is famous
chiefly through his labors in connection with the
TRIBONIAN US.
TBICHIASIS.
911
' during their term of office.
Code of Justinian and the pandects. Tribonianus
died in 545. _
TRIBUNE (Lat. tribunus, originally a tribal
officer, from tribus, tribe). In ancient Rome
the name tribune was applied to two distinct
functionaries, the military tribunes (tribuni
militum) and the tribunes of the plebs (tribuni
plebis), which will be considered separately.
(1) In the traditional organization of the citi-
zens by Romulus the leader of the quota of war-
riors furnished by each of the three tribes was
called tribunus rn-ilituni; and the same was true
when the tribes were increased to four under
Servius Tullius, when we read also of tribuni
cerarii, whose duty it was to collect and pay into
the treasury the tribal taxes (‘tribute’). Under
the Republic each legion was under the command
of six military tribunes, at first appointed by
the consuls (who were the commanders-in-chief) ,
afterwards elected at the comitia tributa. Their
importance was greatly diminished at the end of
the Republic, when the actual command of the
legion in the field was confided to a skilled officer
called legatus legionis, and the six tribuni mili-
turn were retained only as an honorary staff of
the general. VVith the formal development of the
cursus honorum, or regular sequence of offices for
men of senatorial rank, the military tribuneship
took its place in the preliminary service, as a
stepping-stone by which young nobles might reach
the higher positions. Under the Empire the
name tribunis was given also to the officers of
each cohort of the praatorian guards, city guards
(cohortes urbance), and night-watch (vigiles) .
(2) In tl1e early period all the perquisites and
prerogatives of government in Rome were in the
hands of the patricians, while the plebs, the bulk
of the people, had only the burdens of taxation
and military service. This galling condition is said
to have been partly remedied by the secession of
the plebs in B.C. 494, when they secured the right
to have annual magistrates, called tribuni plebis,
chosen from their number to look after their
especial interests and needs. These were six in
number (at first perhaps five), served for one
year, and were reiéligible. They were invested
with three important privileges: (1) ins aur/0il'ii,
the right to defend a plebeian on any charge; (2)
intercessio, the right of vetoing any measure pro-
posed by the senate; (3) personal inviolability
After B.C. 471 the
tribunes were regularly elected by the popular
cornitia tri-buta. The power and energy of the
plebeian tribunes were responsible for the grad-
ual extension of political rights to all the people,
and to the struggle between patricians and
plebeians that marks the history of the Republic.
They caused the codification of the laws (‘Twelve
Tables’) in B.C. 451; the recognition of the popu-
lar decrees (plebiscita) as binding on all alike,
13.0. 449; the right of intermarriage between
patricians and plebeians by the lean Canuleia,
13.0 445; the successive opening up of the high
offices to the plebeians; the Licinian Rogations
(q.v.), 13.0. 367; and the agrarian agitation of
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. (See GRACCI-IUS).
Augustus Caesar took to himself the power and
rights of the tribunes (tribunicia potestas), and
hence under the Empire the office lost its im-
portance, becoming a function for senators of
plebeian rank, held between the quaestorship and
the praetorship.
TRIBUTE (Lat. tributum, from tribuere, to
grant, pay, or assign, originally to a tribe, from
tribus, a tribe). Money, commodities of value, or
services rendered by one ruler or State to another
in token of submission, as distinguished from
taxation, which is the legal imposition of financial
burdens by a State upon its own subjects. This
distinction cannot be said, however, always to
have prevailed, and under the feudal system
especially, taxation, tribute, and rent were in
many cases identical. This was natural under a
system where the political superior was at the
same time the owner of the land, and where such
land was held largely by military tenure.
‘Aids’ and ‘reliefs’ were essentially of the nature
of tribute, as also were the tolls and services
levied upon the cultivators of the soil by their
lords, or exactions like that of heriot (q.v.).
See FEUDALISM.
TRICEB/ATOPS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Tpslg‘,
treis, three + /cépag, keras, horn + trlr, ops,
face). A very interesting fossil reptile, a
horned dinosaur of most formidable aspect, of
which skeletons are found in the Upper Cre-
taceous rocks of Colorado, Dakota, Wyoming,
and Montana. The animal was about 25 feet
long, with heavily built legs and powerful tail.
The most peculiar feature is the heavy armature
of the massive head. The skull is larger than
that of any other known land animal, with a
length of six feet and a width across the crest
of about five feet. It is wedge-shaped and nar-
row in front of the small orbits, and expanded
behind into a broad solid bony frill or crest
which projects far backward over the neck and
shoulders, and the edges of which are armed with
a row of sharp projections that were covered with
horn.
' On the facial region of the skull are three
horns: a long outward spreading pair over the
orbits and a small horn on the nose. The jaws
have strong turtle-like beaks on their tips and
series of two-rooted teeth placed in sockets in
their posterior portions. The brain of this crea-
ture was smaller than that of any other known
vertebrate, with a ratio to bulk of body of two
pounds to ten tons. The feet were three-toed,
and the beast walked on all fours and fed on
plants. Consult: Zittel and Eastman, Textbook
of Pa-lceontology, vol. ii. (London and New
York, 1902); Marsh, “The Dinosaurs of North
America,” Annual Reports of the United States
Geological Survey, vol. xvi., part i. (Washington,
1896) ; Lucas, Animals of the Post (New York,
1901), which contains interesting observations on
the habits of Triceratops. See DINOSAURIA.
TRICHIASIS, tri-ki’a-sis (Neo-Lat., ‘ from
GlC.TPLXlQGL§, from Hplf, thriw, Tptxég, trichos, hair) .
An inversion of one or more eyelashes, their points
rubbing against the globe of the eye. It results
from cicatricial contraction or long continued
inflammation of the eyelids. The symptoms, like
those of entropion (q.v.), are caused by irrita-
tion of the conjunctiva by the rubbing of the
eyelashes. Unlike entropion, however, the in-
version of the hairs is not due to inversion of
the margins of the lids, which are in their
natural position. This affection causes great
annoyance, by exciting a pricking sensation, and
by the constantly irritated and watery state of
the eye which it induces. The treatment consists
TRICHIASIS.
TRICHINIASIS.
912
in plucking out the offending hairs (if they are
few in number) from time to time. Electrolysis
may be employed. If they form a little group,
they must be removed by dissecting out a por-
tion of the lid and uniting the wound with a
suture. In other cases it may be necessary to
remove the entire margin of the lid.
TRICHINA, tri-kI’nrFa (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
0ptE, thriw, hair). A peculiar nematode worm,
which, in its sexually immature state, inhabits
the muscles of mammals, usually the pig. It was
discovered in 1835.
The young trichinae, as they are seen in human
muscle, present the form of spirally coiled worms,
in the interior of small, globular, oval, or lemon-
shaped cysts, which appear as minute specks
scarcely visible to the naked eye. The cysts are
sometimes altogether absent, and hence they must
be regarded as formations resulting from local in-
flammation set up by the presence of the worm,
which in this larval condition of existence meas-
ures'about a millimeter long. These larval worms
exhibit a well-marked digestive apparatus, and
afford evidence of the presence of reproductive
organs, which are often sufficiently developed to
enable the observer to determine the sex. The
number of larval trichinee that may simultane-
ously exist in the muscles of a single man or
animal is enormous.
When an animal is fed with flesh containing
the larval worm and is killed a few days after-
wards, a large number of minute worms are
found mixed with the contents of the small in-
testines. On the second day after their intro-
duction these intestinal trichinaa attain their full
sexual maturity, and in six days the females
contain perfectly developed and free embryos in
their interior.
The female is a slender round worm, varying
in length from T1? to % of an inch. The anterior
end presents a bead-like appearance, from which
the intestinal canal proceeds. The posterior
three-fourths are mainly occupied by the repro-
ductive organ, which is filled partly with free
embryos, and partly with eggs in various stages
of maturity. The females continue bringing
forth young for a period of two or three weeks.
The embryos penetrate the walls of the intestine,
and pass either through the body cavity or by
means of the blood-vessels into the muscles of
the host, where, if the conditions are otherwise
favorable, they are developed into the encysted
form. Some of them reach the muscles of the
extremities and other distant parts; but the ma-
jority remain in those sheathed muscular groups
which are nearest to the cavity of the body
(abdomen and thorax), especially in those which
are smaller and most supplied with connective
tissue. These embryos penetrate into the interior
of the separate muscle fibres, and in the course
of fourteen days acquire the size and organiza-
tion of Trichina spiralis. In the adult condition
trichinaa perish in cold water in about an hour,
and cannot survive the decease of their host for
more than six hours_, but the larvae remain alive
in water for a month, and will live for a long
time in flesh which has become putrid. In this
way a carcass near a marsh or rivulet may com-
municate the parasites to the ruminants that
drink the water, or to pigs. The formation of
the cysts is the cause of more or less serious
injury to the host, according to the number pres-
ent. When abundant, the weakness is very
marked and is often fatal. In man infection oc-
curs, almost invariably through the eating of
raw or underdone pork containing the cysts. If
the meat is properly cooked the worms will be
destroyed. Consult Braun, Die tierischen Para-
siten des M enschen (\Viirzburg, 1902). See
PABASITES, ANIMAL.
TRICHINIASIS, trik’i-ni'a-sis, or TRICH-
INOSIS, -no’sis (Neo-Lat., from trichina, trich-
ina). A disease caused by the ingestion of food
containing trichina (q.v.), characterized by a
number of puzzling symptoms. The disease was
noted by VVormald, who saw the characteristic
specks while dissecting subjects in Saint Bar-
tholomew’s Hospital; but its cause was demon-
strated by Paget and the naturalist Robert
Brown, in 1835. Virchow (q.v.) first propagated
the nematode in an animal and demonstrated its
presence in the intestine in 1859. Leuckart in
the following year presented a full, lucid, and
complete solution of the whole question. After
being swallowed, in pork, for example, the trich-
ina worms traverse the connective tissue and
gain access to all parts of the body. They are
found, after death, in the muscles of the trunk
and head, as well as in the extremities; and
most thickly placed in the diaphragm, the in-
tercostals, the muscles of the neck (especially
of the larynx) and of the eyes. The intestinal
mucus also contains many. The intestinal canal
shows catarrhal changes. The mesenteric glands
are swollen. The heart muscle is almost in-
variably free from invasion.
The symptoms of the disease are as follows:
On the second or third day after eating the in-
fected meat the patient suffers from nausea,
vomiting, colic, and diarrhoea. Constipation may
follow. The muscles then become weak, and great
weariness is experienced. Between the tenth day
and the sixth week the muscles become stiff, of
a wooden consistency, and very tender. This con-
dition is/most noticeable in the flexors of the
extremities, and occasionally the knees or elbows
will be bent and rigid. The temperature gen-
erally remains normal or is subnormal; rarely
it rises. (Edema is characteristic and appears
about the seventh day, first in the eyelids and
the face, next in the extremities. In the legs it
may be extreme. It is probably due to toxins
excreted by the parasites. Owing to the in-
vasion of the larynx, hoarseness or aphonia is
common, as also dyspnoea, bronchitis, and pneu-
monia. Profuse sweating is also characteristic.
Acne, herpes, and boils may appear on the skin;
pruritus is common. Insomnia is a common
symptom and is constant in severe cases. Head-
ache occurs if pneumonia be present. Swine
suffer principally, among the lower animals; but
rats, mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs are easily
infected. Horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs
are with difficulty infected. It has been stated
by some that rats carry the parasites to swine.
Cats are occasionally victims of trichiniasis.
It is supposed that the parasite gained access
into Europe through the introduction of the Chi-
nese pig early in the nineteenth century. The
disease was epidemic in Syria in 1881. It has
appeared in Algiers; in South America; in the
West, and Massachusetts; in the United States;
TRICHINIASIS.
TRIEST.
913
in France; in Basle, Switzerland; in Malaga,
Spain; in Russia, Sweden, Norway, and Den-
mark; in England in 1871; in North Germany,
since 1849, an epidemic occurring in Hettstiidt
in 1863.
Prophylaxis consists in inspection of swine,
after slaughtering, by competent microscopists,
who shall take sections from the muscles of
mastication, the laryngeal and abdominal mus-
cles, and the diaphragm.
There is no treatment for the disease, and in
all probability many non-fatal cases occur which
are diagnosed as rheumatism or some acute fever,
as well as some cases of pneumonia in which the
trichina parasite is the unidentified cause. Con-
sult: Chaten, La trichine et la trichinose (Paris,
1883) ; Leuckart, The Parasites of Man (trans.
by Hoyle, London, 1886).
TRICHINOPOLI, trich’i-nop’o-li. The cap-
ital of a district of Madras, British India, on the
right bank of the Kaveri, below the island of
Srirangam (q.v.), 56 miles from the sea, and
190 miles by rail southwest of Madras (Map:
India, C 6). The old town, now inclosed by
boulevards, stands at the base and on the rugged
slope of a granite rock 273 feet high, crowned by
a temple, a much-frequented pilgrimage shrine.
The native town is inhabited by a dense popula-
tion dwelling in low, closely packed huts. The
chief building is the former Nawab’s palace, now
restored and used as Government ofiices. There
are several Protestant missions and a college,
and also a Jesuit college. Beyond the boule-
vards is Saint John’s Anglican Church, contain-
ing the tomb of Bishop Heber, who died here in
1826; to the south near Golden Rock, a hill about
100 feet high, is the central jail, one of the
largest buildings of its kind in Madras. Che-
roots are manufactured in large quantities from
excellent tobacco grown in the vicinity. Weav-
ing and the manufacture of hardware, cutlery,
jewelry, gold chains, harness, and saddlery are
extensively carried on. Trichinopoli was gov-
erned by a line of rajas that died out in 1732
when it came under the rule of the Nawab of
Arcot. It came under British control in 1801
with the rest of the region. Population, in 1891,
90,609; in 1901, 104,690.
TRICHOME (from Gk. rpixolua, trichiima,
growth of hair, from 1-pixoiiv, trichoun, to fur-
nish with hair, from 6p£§, thrice, hair). A hair-
like outgrowth from the epidermis of plants,
usually arising from a single cell. These struc-
tures are known variously as hairs, glands, bris-
tles, bladders, scales, prickles, warts, etc., and
may be one or many celled. The long hairs on
the seeds of cotton are simple and unicel-
lular. The filaments on the stamens of the
spider lily (Tradescantia) are multicellular and
simple. Branched unicellular hairs may be found
on the common shepherd’s purse (Capsella) and
branched multicellular hairs on mullein. Hairs
with flattened expansions at the top are called
scales. Glandular hairs are widely distributed
among plants, being usually unbranched and
with a knob at the apex, which secretes such sub-
stances as resins, gums, ethereal oils, mucilage,
and sugar. When the substance is secreted in a
liquid form it moistens the surface, but when
volatile it is recognized as an odor. Root-hairs
are one-celled outgrowths from the epidermis of
the root, having very delicate walls. Their office
is to absorb nutritive materials for the plants.
Many plants and organs which bear hairs during
early stages of development become smooth as
they grow older. Environment also affects the
hairiness of a structure. A plant growing in a
very dry situation may be hairy, while another
individual of the same species growing in a wet
situation may be much less hairy or even entire-
ly smooth. Systematists have made large use of
the trichome in describing plants, and have de-
veloped a large number of descriptive terms.
TRICHOPTERA, tri-k6p’te-ra (Neo-Lat.
nom. pl., from Gk. 6pl£, thriw, TPLX-, trich-, hair
+ 1r'rep6v, pteron, wing). An order of insects
containing the caddis fly (q.v.).
TRICOLOR (Fr. tricolor, from Lat. tres,
three + color, color). Literally a flag in three
colors, which is the case in almost every national
ensign, but usually restricted in sense to flags
having three colors in equal masses. The prin-
cipal tricolor ensigns are those of France-—b1ue,
white, and red, divided vertically; Germany—
black, white, and red, divided horizontally; Rus-
sia—white, blue, and red, divided horizontally;
Italy—green, white, and red; Belgium-—black,
yellow, and red; and Mexico——-green, white, and
red ; the last three all divided vertically. The
French tricolor took its use at the outbreak of
the Revolution of 1789, as the badge of the
National Guard. The red and blue were selected
as the arms of Paris, and the white was added
as the color of the army, to show the intimate
union which should subsist between the people
and the national defenders.
TRICYCLE. See BICYCLE.
TRIDEN T ( Lat. tridens, three-toothed, from
tres, three .+ dens, tooth). In classic mythol-
ogy, the attribute of Poseidon, god of the sea.
It consists of a staff, armed at one end with
three short prongs, with double barbs at the
points.
TRIDYMITE (from Gk. 1-p£6v,uos, tridg/mos,
three-fold, from rpeis, treis, three ; so called
from its frequent crystallization in groups of
three). A mineral silicon dioxide crystallized
in the hexagonal system. It resembles quartz,
from which it difiers, however, in having a lower
specific gravity. It occurs chiefly in acidic vol-
canic rocks and was originally discovered in 1868
in the trachyte of San Crystobal in Mexico. It
has since been found in various localities in Ger-
many, Hungary, and elsewhere. It has been pre-
pared artificially by dissolving a silicate in a
head of phosphorus salt.
TRIENNIAL ACT. A British statute of
the reign of William III. (1694), directing that
no Parliament should last longer than three
years. This period was extended to seven years
by the Septennial Act of George I. (1716).
TRIER, trér. The German name for Treves.
TRIEST, tre-est’, or TRIESTE. The prin-
cipal seaport of Austria-Hungary, situated at
the northeast extremity of the Adriatic Sea, on
the Gulf of Triest, 367 miles by rail southwest of
Vienna (Map: Austria, C 4). Triest and the
adjoining district form an Austrian crownland,
and the city is the general administrative seat of
the Austrian Kiistenland (q.v.). The city,
which is strongly fortified, extends somewhat
TRIEST.
TRIGONIA.
914
in the manner of an amphitheatre along the
acclivity of the Karst (q.v.). The old town,
with its narrow, crooked, and steep streets, lies
at the base of the Castle Hill and between it and
the gulf. In its northwestern corner, close to
' the water, is the Tergesteo, whose cruciform
arcades, roofed with glass, are used for the ex-
change. Near by are the two leading squares,
the Piazza della Borsa and the Piazza Grande.
From this vicinity the Corso, the principal
street, extends eastward, separating the old
town from the new quarter, where broad ave-
nues lead up toward the inclosing hills. On the
west side of the Castle Hill, in the old town,
the cathedral occupies a conspicuous site where
a Roman temple once stood. It is a composite
structure, dating from the fourteenth century.
It was formed by joining three ecclesiastical
edifices, which had stood there since the sixth
century. On the Piazza Grande are the splendid
new municipal buildings. Triest has a Museo
Lapidario, an open-air museum of Roman an-
tiquities, occupying an old cemetery. The town
possesses a nautical academy containing the
municipal museum, with Roman antiquities, and
the Ferdinand-Maximilian Museum, remarkable
for its collection of Adriatic fauna.
Toward the southern end of the city is the
Museo Civico Revoltella, in the palace of that
name. Near by stands the fine bronze monument
to Maximilian of Mexico by Schilling. From
this point leading south and following the curve
of the gulf extends the Passeggio di Sant’ Andrea,
affording fine views for more than three miles, and
reaching the vast wharves of the Lloyd Company.
The public gardens are on the northeast of the
city. Among the attractions of Triest is the fa-
mous Chateau of 1\lir-amar, situated on the sea to
the northwest, which belonged to Maximilian. It
has a lovely park and offers beautiful sea views.
The city contains a Greek church with rich
decorations, a Jesuits’ church, and a Capuchin
convent. There are a university, a royal acad-
emy with an observatory, -a public library with
over 50,000 volumes, and the literary Societa
della Minerva.
The harbor, the main attraction of Triest
proper, has been greatly extended and improved.
There are a number of moles and an immense
breakwater. The Canal Grande (only 400 yards
long) penetrates the city north of the Corso, and
permits vessels to load and unload at the ware-
houses. Triest has a naval arsenal and is the
storehouse for the Imperial Navy. Since 1891
the whole town, except the harbor proper, has
been inside the customs limit. Triest has of
late years found a dangerous rival in the Hun-
garian port of Fiume, but its commercial preem-
inence is vigorously supported by the Austrian
Government. Nearly 20,000 vessels visited the
harbor in 1901, with a total tonnage in and out
of 4,560,000, with cargoes valued at $127,000,000.
Corn, oil, wine, and many other products are
heavily dealt in. The local mercantile fleet is
large. At the Austrian Lloyd shops many ves-
sels are annually constructed, and over 3000 men
are employed. Triest builds ships of all varieties,
and manufactures marine steam engines, cables,
furniture, silks and cottons, clothing, liquors,
wax-lights, soap, etc. The population in 1900
was 134,143. The Italians largely predominate.
Hrsronr. Triest is the Roman Tergeste. It
has belonged almost uninterruptedly to Austria
since 1382. It was made a free port in 1719
by Charles VI., which date marks the beginning
of its importance. It finally became the com-
mercial rival of Venice. Consult: Liiwenthal,
Geschichte der Stadt Triest (Triest, 1857-59);
Scussa, Storia cronografica di Trieste (ib., 1885-
86). ‘
TRIFAIL, tre'fil. A town in Styria, Aus-
tria, on a tributary of the Save, 66 miles
southwest of Marburg. Trifail has one of the
most productive mines of lignite in Austria.
There are large cement, chemical, and glass
works. Population, in 1900, 10,851.
TRIFOLIUM. See CLOVER.
TRIFO’RIUM (ML., from Lat. tres, three
+ foris, door, opening), or TRIFORIUM GAL-
LERY. The arcade opened up in the wall of
the nave of a mediaeval church immediately above
the vaults of the side aisles and under the line
of clerestory windows. The name was derived
from the custom of dividing each bay of this gal-
lery into three arches, though this was by no
means the constant rule, early galleries having
often a single arch and later ones having two,
four, or more arches in each bay. The triforium
was usually inserted between the summit of the
aisle vault and the top of its slanting roof, but
in developed Gothic the roof-line was often
changed so as to let light into the gallery.
While not unknown in Romanesque architecture,
this was especially valuable as a feature of
Gothic interiors. The earlier Gothic churches
had higher galleries, especially in England, on
account of the high Norman galleries; and dur-
ing the thirteenth century the French Gothic
diminished their size and usefulness, retaining
them mainly for decorative purposes and as
blind or semi-blind galleries, whereas at first
they could be used by the congregation.
TRIGGER-FISH. -One of the fishes of the
plectognath family Balistidm, characterized by
an ovate body covered with large rough scales,
and the fact that the first spine of the anterior
of the two dorsal fins is high and very strong.
and may be lifted, when it is locked, erect by the
spine behind it; whence the name. About fifty
species are known, mainly in the Indo-Pacific
region, where they become rather large and re-
main near shore; some are herbivorous, others
carnivorous. Their flesh is rarely eaten, as it is
reputed poisonous, and in some cases, at least,
does produce death with muscular spasms and
extreme suffering. Several species of the genus
Balistes inhabit the American tropics, of which
one, the cicuyo, or leather-jacket (Balistes Caro-
linensis), is very common in the Gulf of Mexico
and on our South Atlantic coast, and also in
the Mediterranean Sea. See Plate of PLEoroG-
NATH Frsnns.
TRFGLYPH (Lat. triglyphus, from Gk.
'rpf'y)\v<,'b0s, three-grooved, from rpels, treis, three
+ 'y)\i5¢ew, glyphein, to carve). In the Doric
frieze, the projecting block between the metopes
(q.v.). It is supposed to represent the ends of
the beams in the original structure of wood and
crude brick. Its face regularly contains two
triangular, vertical furrows, and the edges are
chamfered.
TRIGO'NIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
rphwvos, trigo'nos, triangular, from rpeis,
TRIGONIA.
TRIGONOMETBY.
915
' ment,
treis, three + 'ywvla, g6nia, angle). This genus,
represented at the present time by only five
species living in the Australian seas, was one of
the most important types of lamellibranchs in the
Mesozoic seas of Europe. Trigonia appeared
first in the Liassic, became very abundant in
the Middle and Upper Jura and the Middle Cre-
taceous, and then in the Tertiary declined in
number of species to the present time. The
Mesozoic species, some of which are four or five
times the size of the living species, are arranged
into groups according to the markings of their
shells, which are often elaborately sculptured.
Consult: Louis Agassiz, Etudes critiques sur les
mollusques fossiles. lllemoire sur les trigonies
(Neuchatel, 1840); Lycett, “A Monograph of
the British Fossil'Trigonias,” Palceontographical
Society Monographs (London, 1872-79); Von
Zittel and Barrois, Traité cle paléontologie, part
i., vol. ii. (Paris, Munich, and Leipzig, 1887).
TRIG’ONOCAR’PUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
1-ptywz/os, trig6nos, triangular + xapa-bs, Icar-
pos, fruit). Fossil seed pods and fruits, prob-
ably of various kinds of plants, which in cross
section have a triangular form. See CARPOLITH;
COBDAITES; CONIFERA ; PALEOBOTANY.
TRIGONOME-TRIC SERIES. See SERIES.
TBIGONOMETRY (from Gk. 1-plywvov,
trigiinon, triangle, from rpets, treis, three +
ywvta, g6nia, angle + -uerpla, metria, measure-
from uérpov, metron, measure, from
perpeiv, rnetrein, to measure). Originally the
study of triangles, especially the theory of the
measurement of their sides, angles, and areas;
now the measure of triangles is merely a
part of the general subject. That portion of the
subject which deals with the measurement of
figures in a plane is called plane trigonometry,
and that which deals with figures on the surface
of a sphere is called spherical trigonometry.
That branch of the subject which deals with the
circular functions of angles is called gonimnetry.
The pure theory of trigonometric functions,
apart from their application to problems of
measurement, is called analytic trigonometry.
Elementary trigonometry has many useful ap-
plications, as in the measurement of areas,
heights, and distances. It is indispensable to
the study of astronomy, physics, and the various
branches of engineering.


C
l
c 3
6
A b 8
FIG. 1.
The common functions of trigonometry may be
defined as ratios of certain sides of a right tri-
angle. Thus, in the figure, the ratio -3- is called
the sine of the angle 6, commonly written sin0
is called the cosine of
The other
_
—-
a _ b
— . The ratio -—
c c
b
the angle 0, written cos0= Z.
functions are tange-nt of 0 symbolically written
tan 0 = £;- ; cotangent of 0, or cot 0: 3-; secant
of 0, or see 0 = -5; and cosecant of 0 or cosec0
There are also used the functions ver-
l b l
sine of 0, or vers 0 = 1— Z ; and coversme of
0, or covers 0 =1—- %. The propriety of calling
these ratios ‘functions’ of the angle 0 consists
in this, that the value of any ratio depends upon
the value of 6. That is, in any right-angled
triangle AB'C’, having an acute angle 0, th
I .
\
. . a a _
corresponding ratios -(-3-. . E; (Fig. 2), are
bl
F
aba
__?,_b_
equal to the ratios 6 . ; and in any right-
angled triangle in which the acute angle 0’ is not
equal to 0 the corresponding ratios are not
equal to those for 0. The trigonometric func-
tions as defined by the above ratios are evi-
(C
(/



A ' B B’
FIG. 2.
dently limited to angles less than 90°, since a.
triangle contains but one right angle. However,
the definition may be extended to angles of any
size and the functions expressed by line seg-
ments.
,.


P Q P
BI
82 R "- ---------- .-
B, . B4T'
FIG. 3.
In Fig. 3 the radius OA(::OB) may be re-
garded as the unit of length, hence the ratio
I I 0
OB2 -: B,,M1 and sm AOB1 = BIM. Similarly
cosAOB1 :: OM, tanAOB1 == AT, cotAOB1 =
PQ, secAOBJL = OT, cosecAOB1 ': OP, versAOB1
: MA, and coversAOB1 :2 QR. If the angle is
obtuse as AOB,, or reflex as AOB_.,, AOB,, the
functions are represented by the corresponding
lines. E.g. sin AOB3 = B3M,, tan AOB4 = AT’.
The following convention of signs (see Fig. 4),
however, serves to associate these values with the
proper angle: Lines measured to the right of
the vertical diameter, as OM2, are called positive,
and those to the left, as OM,, negative; lines
measured upward as B,M1 from the horizontal
diameter are called positive, and those downward

TRIGONOMETRY.
TRIGONOMETRY.
916
as M,B.,, negative; the revolving radius OB is
always positive. Thus (see Fig. 4) the signs of
the functions of an angle not exceeding 90° are
all plus. The versine and coversine are evidently


B2 B:
+ . + + +'
M2__ MI
M, + M A
+ +
B3 B4
FIG. 4.
always positive. The sine and the cosecant are
positive in the first and second quadrants, and
negative in the third and fourth. The cosine
and the secant are positive in the first and
fourth quadrants and negative in the second and
third. The tangent and cotangent are positive
in the first and third quadrants, and negative
in the second and fourth. We have, therefore,
the following relations:
sin (-— a) = -—— sin 0:
cos (- a.) : cos a
tan (— a) = -— tan a
cot (— a) = — cot a
For the definition of a negative angle, see
ANGLE.
A given value of a function does not, however,
uniquely determine the angle, as will appear
from the following table of relations:
FIRsT QUADRANT
sin (90° — 6 : cos 6 tan (90° -— 6 : cot 6
cos (90° —- 6 : sin 6 cot (90° — 6) :: tan 6
SEOOND QUADRANT
sin (180° — 6) : sin 6 sin (90° + 9) cos 6
cos (180° —-6) :—cOs 6 cos (90° + 6) - sin6
tan (180°-6) _—_-_--tan 0 tan (90° + 0) Z —cot6
cot (180° -- 6) :— cot 6 cot (90° -1- 6) — tan 6
THIRD QUADRANT
sin (180° + 6) :: — sin 6 sin (2'70° —- 6) : — cos 6
cos (180° + 6) :- cos 6 cos (270° —- 6): — sin 6
tan (180° + 6) : + tan 6 tan (2’70° -6): cot 6
cot (180° + 6) :.+ cot 6 cot (270° —6):: tan 6
FOURTH QUADRANT
sin (360° - 6 : — sin 6 sin (270° + 6) ::—cos 6
cos 360°--6 : cos 6 cos 270° +6 :: sin6
tan 360°--6 :—-tan6 tan 270° +6 :—cot6
cot 360°-6 :—-cot6 cot 270° + 6) :-tan6
Thus to express the trigonometric functions of
angles greater than 90° in terms of those of
angles less than 90°, determine first the sign of
the function to be so expressed, next subtract
from the angle whatever multiple of 90 is neces-
sary to make it less than 90°. If an even
multiple of 90° is subtracted the name of the
original function is retained, but if an odd mul-
tiple is subtracted the original function is re-
placed by the co-named function. E.g. to ex-
press cos(270°— 6) in terms of a function of .
This angle is in the third quadrant and therefore
its cosine is negative. To make the angle 270°-— 6
less than 90° we must subtract 180° and we
have cos(270°— 6) = —cos(90° -—6). But
cos(90° —- 6) = sin , and we have cos(270°
— 6) = —- sin 6.
The increasing of an angle by 360° or any mul-
tiple of 360° does not alter the value of the trig-
onometric functions of that angle. (See FUNC-
TION.) It appears from the geometric representa-
tion of the functions that the values of the sines
and cosines of all real angles lie within the inter-
val + l, —- 1; the values of the tangents and co-
tangents of all real angles lie within the interval
-|- 00 and —- 00; those of the secants and co-
secants without the interval + 1, -— 1, as is
shown in the following table:


roncrrou 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
Sine ................................. .. 0 1 0 — 1 0
Cosecant .......................... .. 0° 1 — oo — 1 oo
Cosine .............................. .. 1 0 -— 1 0 1
Secant ............................. .. 1 co — 1 —oo 1
Tangent .......................... .. 0 co 0 - co 0
Cotangent ....................... .. oo 0 — co 0 00


The variations of the functions are best ex-
hibited by means of graphs. In the figures the
arcs are laid off‘ as abscissas and the functions
as ordinates. See COOBDINATES.







' A /|'\ 31:
\-1' 2 O 1: 2 211/
._7.\.'.
GRAPH OF sm 9,
l J .
5 '3 I?
.1‘. 0 1r_ in an 51
3 2 : ' Y 7:"
i
GRAPH OF smo 0,
1 I‘
J
1
-11 ' '
I 2 3" x
X 1i 1i H as -as
T 2 P 2

GRAPH OF TAN 0,
From the definition of the trigonometric func-
tions, it is evident that they bear certain rela-
tions one to another. Some of the fundamental
ones are, sin"6 +cos"6 :1, sin6 csc6 = 1,
cos 6 sec 6 = 1, tan 6 cot 6:: 1, tan = sin 6/cos 6,
1 + tan2 6 = see2 6, 1 -1- cot2 6 = csc26, from
which many others readily follow. Besides
TBIGONOMETRY.
TRIGONOMETRY.
917
these relations existing between the functions of
a single angle, there are those connecting the
functions of several angles. Thus
sin(A i B) sinAcosB -4_- cosAsinB,
cos(A i B) = cosAcosB IF sinAsinB,
tan A —l_—- tan B
ta'n(AiB)=1-T-tanAtanB'
cot A cot B ; 1_
cOt(AtB)= cotAicotB '
and sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A, cos 2A = cos’ A —-
2 tan A
sin2A, tan 2A = 2A , and cot2A =
cot2 A — 1
1 —— tan
M. which are easily derived from
the corresponding formulas for A + B by putting
A I: B. Some- of the formulas for functions of

half an angle are: sin %A : :l_- \/1__%&, cos %A
1—cosA
1+cosA’
=i\/1_JF"&A*,tan%A=+
2
1 + cot A .
rm. By reapplymg
these formulas it is evident that functions of 3A,
4A, . . . . nA may be expressed as functions of A
and also as functions of various fractional parts
of A.
To every function there is an inverse function
or anti-function just as to every logarithm there
is an antilogarithm. The formula to express the
angle whose sine is as is sin-‘w: 0, read “6
is the angle whose sine is a:.” Similarly tan-1y
= 0 is read, “0 is the angle whose tangent is
y,” or “anti-tangent of y equals 0.” All inverse
functions admit of translation into the direct
formulas. Thus sin—1w : 0 reduces to sin0
: ac, and tan—1': y --6to tan 0: y. All in-
verse or anti-functions can be expressed in
series, as in the case of the functions. (See
SERIES.) The following will serve as examples:
'_1 _:v 1 x3 1-3 1-3....(2r—1)
81“ x-—T+2'3+2-4'5 +"'+2-4.... 21*
x2r+1 1
(27. + 1)+... . tan x__1—3-)-5--....
2n-1
+(-1)n2—Z—_—_1+
The values of the func-
tions of certain angles
may be calculated by ref-
erence to geometric fig-
ures, but the tables of
such values for all angles
have been calculated to
a close degree of approxi-
mation by means of the
trigonometric series. The
equilateral triangle serves
and cot -.1,-A = -l_-



to exhibit the values
of the functions of 60° | E
and 30°. If the side be
taken as 1, the figure
shows that sin 60° -' 4,50
1/3 \/-3-, cos60° 1/2, |
tan60° = \/5; and so on.
Similarly the functions of 45°, as sin 45° =cos 45°


:72:
square.
: 1/2 \/-2, may be obtained from the
The following problems will serve to illustrate
the use of trigonometry in practical mensura-
tion: (1) Required the height of a hill above
10 30'
A 5000 feet.
the horizontal plane of an observer, the distance
of the observer from the point below the summit
being 5000 feet and the angle of elevation 10° 30’.
The height of the hill, represented by BC in the
figure, is given by the equation BC : tanl0° 30'
5000 feet : 0.1853 X 5000 feet = 926.5 feet,
tanl0° 30’ being taken from a table of natural
tangents. (2) Required the distance between
C
-- -:»-Q-_ -
.' §%-*¢"
_~L._
I

two points A and B separated by an impassable
swamp, the line AC, as represented in the figure,
being 15 chain lengths, the angle A 40° 15’, and
the angle C 110° 32’. The length of the line AB
ACsin110° 32'
sin150° 47'
= 28.5, the sines of the angles being
is given by the equation AB :
_ 15- 0.9365
_ 0.4881
taken from a table of natural sines.
AB is 28.5 chain lengths.
From the expressions of ex, sinm, cosm (see
SERIES), it follows that eix -:cosac+i sina:
(see COMPLEX NUMBER), and that e‘ix = cosa;
——i sinw; whence by adding and subtracting,
__ Similarly
‘ 2i '
the other functions may be expressed in terms
of e“, e_ix. These are the exponential expres-
sions for the circular functions of :17. If i is
omitted from these exponentials, the resulting
functions are called the hyperbolic cosine, hyper-
bolic sine of the angle ac. Hyperbolic functions
are so called because they have geometric rela-
tions with the equilateral hyperbola analogous
to those between the circular functions and the
circle. The common notation for such functions
is sinhfl, cosb6, tanbfl, corresponding to the
circular function sin0, cos6, tan0. The values
of these functions have been tabulated and are
of service in analytic trigonometry.
Therefore
cosw = , sina:
TRIGONOMETRY.
TRIGONOMETRY.
918
The spherical triangle, like the plane triangle,
has six elements, the three sides a, b, 0, and the
angles A, B, C. But the three sides of the
spherical triangle are angular as well as linear
magnitudes. The triangle is completely deter-
mined when any three of its six elements are
given, since there exist relations between the
given and the sought parts by means of which
the latter may be found. In the right-angled
or quadrantal triangle, however, as in the case
of the right-angled plane triangle, only two ele-
ments are necessary to determine the remaining
parts. Thus, given 0, A, in the right-angled
B
a
C
A C
b
triangle, ABC, the remaining parts are given by
the formulas sina, : sine, sinA, tanb : tanc,
cosA, cotB : cosc, tanA. The corresponding
formulas when any other two parts are given
may be obtained by Napier’s rules concerning the
relations of the five circular parts (q.v.), viz.
a, b, complement of A, complement of B, comple-




ment of c. In the case of oblique triangles no
simple rules have been found, but each case is
dependent upon the appropriate formula. Thus
in the oblique triangle ABC, given a, b, and A,
C
A B
C
the formulas for the remaining parts are sinB ':
sinA sinb sin g (A + B)
sin a sin % (A — B)’
Sin a 1)
00b 2% Cztan '% 'émE_a;i—_'5)'-
It is evident in spherical trigonometry, as well
as in plane, that three elements taken at random
may not satisfy the conditions for a triangle, or
they may satisfy the conditions for more than
one. The treatment of the ambiguous cases in
spherical trigonometry is quite formidable, since
every line intersects every other line in two‘
points and multiplies the cases to be considered.
, tan-12-c-_-:tan% (a—b)'
The measurement of spherical polygons may be
made to depend upon that of the triangle. For,
if, by drawing diagonals, the polygons can be
divided into triangles each of, which contains
three known or obtainable elements, then all the
parts of the polygon can be determined. Since
the elements of the spherical polygon measure
the elements of the polyhedral angle whose vertex
is at the centre of the sphere, the formulas of
spherical trigonometry apply to problems involv-
ing the relations of the parts of such figures.
E.g., given two face angles and the included
dihedral angle of a trihedral angle, the remaining
face and dihedral angle may be determined by the
same formulas as apply to the corresponding case
of the spherical triangle. By aid of the formu-
las of spherical trigonometry the theories of
transversals, coaxal circles, poles and polars,
may be developed for the figures of the sphere.
Spherical trigonometry is of great importance
also in the theory of power circles, stereographic
projection, and geodesy. It is also the basis of
the chief calculations of astronomy; e.g. the
solution of the so-called astronomical triangle
is involved in finding the latitude and longitude
of a place, the time of day, the azimuth of a
star, and various other data.
Some traces of trigonometry exist in the earli-
est known writings on mathematics. In the Papy-
rus of Ahmes (see AHMES) a ratio is mentioned
called a seqt, and because of its relation to the
methods of measuring the pyramids, this ratio
seems to correspond to the cosine or the tangent
of an angle. But to the Greeks are due the first
scientific trigonometric investigations. The sex-
agesimal division of the circle was known to the
Babylonians, but Hipparchus was the first to
complete a table of chords. Heron (q.v.) com-
2 1r
puted the values of cot T, for n : 3, 4, . . .
ll, 12, and calculated the areas of regular poly-
gons. Thirteen books of Ptolemy’s Almagest
' were given to trigonometry and astronomy. The
Hindus contributed an important advance by in-
troducing the half chord for the whole chord as
used in the Greek calculations. They were fa-
miliar with the sine and calculated ratios cor-
responding to the versine and cosine. The sine,
however, first appears in the works of the Arab
Al-Battani (q.v.), and to his influence is due the
final substitution of the half for the whole
chord. Al-Battani knew the theory of the right-
angled triangle and gave the relation cos a- : cos b
cosc + sinbsinccosA for the spherical tri-
angle. The celebrated astronomer Jabir
ibn Aflah, or Geber, wrote a work confined
chiefly to spherical trigonometry, and rigorous
in its proofs, which was translated into Latin
by Gerhard of Cremona. Regiomontanus (1436-
147 6) wrote a complete plane and spherical
trigonometry. Vieta (1540-1603) made an im-
portant advance by the introduction of the idea
of the reciprocal spherical triangle. To Napier
are due the formulas since called the analogies.
Gunter introduced the term cosine and Fmck
(1583) introduced secant and tangent. Growing
out of the desire to construct more accurate
tables and to simplify the methods of calculation
for astronomical purposes, there was evolved
by Napier and Byrgius (q.v.) the idea of the
logarithm (q.v.). To Euler much is due
TRIGONOMETRY.
TRILLIUM.
919
for simplifying and classifying the treatment
of the whole subject. Lagrange, Legendre,
Carnot, Gauss, and others expanded the theory of
polygonometry and polyhed1'ometr_7. The nine-
teenth century has contributed the so-called pro-
jective formulas, and made further generaliza-
tion of formulas known before. A few leading
works on the subject are: Casey, A Treatise on
Plane Trigonometry (Dublin, 1888) ; id., Treatise
on Spherical Trigonometry (ib., 1889); Me-
Clelland and Preston, Spherical Trigonometry
(London, 1890); Helmes, Die Trigonometrie
(Hanover, 1881); Wittstein, Trigonometrie (ib.,
1887) ; Hobson, Plane Trigonometry (Cambridge,
1891); Chauvenet, Plane and Spherical Trig-
onometry (New York, various editions). For
the history of the subject, consult Braunmiihl,
Beit-riige zur Geschichte der Trigonometrie
(Halle, 1897), and his Vorlesungen iiber Ge-
schichte der Trigonometrie (Leipzig, vol. i., 1900;
vol. ii., 1903). For reference to valuable tables,
see the article on LOGARITHMS.
TRIISODON, tri’i’so-don (Neo-Lat., from
Gk. rpeis, treis, three —I— taos, isos, equal +
A fossil creodont mammal
from the Puerco beds of New Mexico. The skull
is the oldest known mammalian skull. Consult
‘Matthew, “Additional Observations on the Creo-
donta,” in Bulletin of American Museum of Nat-
ural History, vol. xiv. (New York, 1901). See
GREODONTA; MAMMALIA.
TRIKALA, tre-k'zi’la, or TRIKKALA. A
town of Greece, capital of the Nomarchy of Tri-
kala, situated on the Trikkalinos River, 37 miles
northwest of Larissa and on the Volos-Kalabaka
Railway (Map: Greece, C 2). It manufactures
cotton, woolen stuffs, leather, and dye products.
Its population in 1889 was 14,820, mostly Wal-
lachs. Trikala is the ancient Trikka, which was
celebrated for its temple of fEsculapius.
TRIKOUPIS, tré-l<'(T6’pis, CHARILAOS (1832-
96). A Greek statesman, son of Spiridon Trikou-
pis, born at Nauplia, July 23, 1832. He stud-
ied jurisprudence in Athens and Paris and in 1852
entered the diplomatic service as attaché to the
legation at London, where in 1863 he became
chargé d’affaires. In 1865 he conducted the ne-
gotiations with Great Britain regarding the ces-
sion of the Ionian Islands. Elected to the Boulé
in the same year, he became an adherent of the
radical party, was in 1866 appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs, became Premier in 1875, was once
more Minister‘ of Foreign Affairs under Canaris,
in the coalition Ministry of 1877, and Premier
again in 1880, 1882-85, 1886-90, 1891-93, and
1893-95, when, owing to the financial embarrass-
ment of the Government, he met with a crushing
defeat, losing even the seat in the Boulé, which
he had held for thirty years. While on his
death-bed he was reelected by the District of
Valtos. He died at Cannes, France, April 11,
1896. His endeavors to raise the economic con-
ditions of the country, by the enactment of
agrarian and tariff legislation and the building
of railways, met with little success. For a num-
ber of years his party continued to bear the name
of Trikoupists. A volume of his speeches, A670;
qrolm-ucol, appeared at Athens in 1888. Compare
Tsokopoulos, B10‘)/pa¢la Xapchdov Tpuc0t.'!1r7) (Athens,
1896).
6606: , odous, tooth) .
TRIKOIIPIS, SPIRIDON (1788-1873). A Greek
author and statesman. He was the son of
a primate of Missolonghi, where he was born,
April 20, 1788. He studied in France and Eng-
land, became secretary of the Earl of Guilford
during his occupancy of the position of Governor
of the Ionian Islands, and played an important
part in the war for independence. After 1821 he
was employed in administrative and diplomatic
business, being a member of the provisional Gov-
ernment in 1826, and of the National Conven-
tion at Troezen in the following year. He was
president of the Council and Minister of Foreign
Affairs in 1832, was thrice sent to London (1835-
38, 1841-43, and 1850-61) as Ambassador; was
Minister of Foreign Affairs and of Public Instruc-
tion in 1843; vice-president of the Senate (1844-
49) ; and Envoy Extraordinary to Paris (1850)
on the occasion of the blockade of the ports of
Greece by England. He died February 24, 1873,
at Athens. His funeral oration on Lord Byron
(whose friend and comrade he had been), deliv-
ered in the Cathedral of Missolonghi, some days
after the poet’s death, was translated into sev-
eral European languages. Many other orations,
partly religious and partly political, were col-
lected and published (Paris, 1836). His master-
piece is the history of the Greek revolution,
'Icrrpla rfis 'E)\7\v7u<fis ’E1rava61-doews (London,
1853-57).
TRIL’BY. (1) A romance by Charles
Nodier (1822). (2) A novel by George du
Maurier (1895) and its chief character, a beau-
tiful artists’ model, whose love for ‘Little Billee’
and domination by the hypnotic powers of Sven-
gali form the plot of the story. The novel
is full of reminiscences of Parisian artist life
and gained a wide popularity.
TRILL (Fr. triller, It., ML. trillare, to trill,
probably onomatopoetic in origin). In music,
an embellishment produced by the continued
and rapid repetition of one note alternately with
another, either a whole tone of semitone above
it. Its sign is tr placed over or under the princi-
pal note. The trill was known and used at the
end of the sixteenth century, but its name was
added considerably later.
TRILLIUM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tres, three,
so called from the symmetrical arrangement of
the three outer and three inner segments). A

common WAKE-ROBIN (Trillium erectum).
genus of about a dozen species of North Ameri-
can perennial herbs of the lily family growing in
moist and shady (not marshy) grounds from
TRILLIUM.
TRILOBITA.
920
Maine to Florida. They have a naked stem, 4
to 15 inches high, terminated by three ovate,
pointed, broad, beautifully netted-veined leaves.
Trillium grandifloram, also called wake-robin, is
a pretty wild flower, growing in rich woods from
Vermont to Kentucky, Wisconsin, and northward.
The flowers, which appear in spring, are at first
nearly white, but change with age to rose-color.
They are borne on a peduncle from 2 to 3 inches
long.
TRILOBITA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
1-peis, treis, three -1- N5/30:, lo-bos, lobe). An
important group of extinct marine crab-like ani-
mals, whose fossil body shields are found in
rocks of Paleozoic age in most parts of the
world. The trilobites constitute a subclass of
Crustacea, of which class they are very primitive
members. The trilobite body was covered by a
hard, calcareous dorsal shield and a thin ventral
integument. The dorsal shield or carapace is of
elliptical or oval outline and is divided by two
dorsal furrows into three longitudinal lobes,
the median axis and two lateral pleural lobes.
This trilobate division, which characterizes this
class of animals, gave the group its name. The
shield is also divided into three transverse parts:
the anterior head-shield or cephalon, the median
thorax consisting of several movable segments,
and the posterior abdominal shield or pygidium.
The cephalon is generally of semicircular outline,
and the posterior lateral corners, known as the
genal angles, are often produced into spines. The
more elevated median portion of the cephalon is
the glabella, and this is separated from the
cheeks or lateral portions by the usually well-
marked dorsal furrows. The surface of the
glabella is broken up into a series of lobes by
three pairs of transverse furrows, called the lat-
eral furrows. The paired lobes are called the
lateral lobes and the unpaired anterior lobe,
which is often very prominently developed, is
known as the frontal lobe of the glabella. The
checks are traversed in most trilobites by a
sinuous line, the facial suture, along which the
lateral portions or free cheeks break away from
the fixed cheeks.
The eyes, which in most trilobites are of reni-
form shape, are situated upon the cheeks. In some
species (as Acidaspis mira) the eyes are placed at
the summits of high immovable peduncles; cer-
tain genera, as Agnpstus, Microdiscus, and
Ampyx, are totally blind; and other genera
(as Trinucleus) have eye spots in their young
stages and are totally blind when adult. Two
types of eyes are present-—-compound, situated on
the free cheeks, and simple eye spots, ocelli or
stemmata. The compound eyes are made up of
lenses, which may vary in number from 14 in
Trimerocephalus to 15,000 in Remopleurides. The
facial suture varies largely in its course across
the cephalon, not only in the different species and
genera, but also in the individuals that represent
different stages of development of a single spe-
cies. Its position in the adult furnishes an ex-
cellent diagnostic character. In most trilobites
a groove, called the occipital furrow, runs near
to and parallel with the posterior margin of the
cephalon, and cuts off the occipital lobe from the
glabella.
The thorax is made up of several transverse
segments which articulate with one another in
such manner that some trilobites were able. to
roll themselves up into a ball after the manner of
the armadillo. The number of segments of the
thorax is usually constant in the adults of each
genus, but it varies within the subclass from
two in Agnostus to 29 in Harpes. The pygidium,
or caudal shield, is a solid plate formed by the
union of several segments, of which traces are
still evident in the ribs of its convex dorsal sur-
face. The axis and the pleural ribs are usually
present, but in some species of Asaphus and
Illeenus they are almost entirely suppressed. The
trilobite carapace is generally ornamented by
small tubercles. Many genera have smooth or
punctate tests; others have the test marked by
concentric wrinkles; and in other genera spines
are developed.
VENTRAL SURFACE. As a rule the ventral sur-
face of the trilobite body is so closely united
with the rock matrix that it is only through ex-
ceptionally favorable modes of fossilization that
anything at all has been learned about the nature
of the ventral integument and the appendages.
The principal organ on the under side of the head
is a rather prominent plate, the upper lip or
hypostome, which articulates with the anterior
margin of the cephalon, and which protected the
small mouth opening situated at its posterior
end. Each segment of the carapace, excepting
the hindermost anal segment, bears a pair of
appendages. The foremost pair, arising near the
sides of the hypostome, are simple slender whip-
like antennae, much like those of the higher
Crustacea. All the other appendages are bira-
mous; their endopodites are six-jointed crawl-
ing legs, and their exopodites are many-jointed
feathery organs that probably served both for
swimming and respiration. The basal joint of
the cephalic limbs form jaw-like organs about
the mouth.
DEVELOPMENT. The ontogeny of several genera
of trilobites is known. Small rounded bodies
supposed to be the eggs of trilobites have been
found. Those species of which continuous series
of growth stages have been studied are found to
originate in a minute ‘protaspis’ stage and to
attain their adult shape through a series of pro-
gressive changes expressed in the successive
melts, in much the same manner as do the

REPRESENTATIVE TRILOBITES.
1. Dorsal view of a trilobite ( Triarthus Becki), a species whose perfect specimens preserved in the Utica slate
(Ordovician), near Rome, N. Y., have yielded most of the known facts as to the external structure and appearance
of these animals. 2. Ventral view of the same.
3. Cephalic shield (cephalon) of Dalmanites Hausmanni (Devonian):
I, limb or border; m.fi, marginal furrow; g.s., genal spines; g.I., glabella; 11]., frontal lobe. beneath which are seen
the ‘side lobes’ and ‘side furrows ' of the glabella; n.fI, occipital furrow; n.r., occipital ring; 11s., facial suture; e, visual
surface of eye; p.I., palpebral lobe.
4. Median antero-posterior vertical section of a trilobite (Ceraurus pIeurexan-
tbemus); c, cephalon, with hypostoma below it; p, test of the abdomen (pygidium); m, mouth; v.m., ventral mem-
brane; i.e., intestinal canal.
stages of development. 7.
(Silurian). 10. Harpes ungula (Ordovician).
mirus (Silurian). 13. flbeirzzrus insignis (Silurian).
(Cambrian) without the free ‘cheeks.’ (After Zittel.)
5. A trilobite (Phacops Iatifipns: Devonian), rolled up; gl, glabella: e, eye.
ment (ontogeny) of a trilobite (Sao hirsuta; Cambrian);
Ampyx nasuta (Ordovician).
11. Trinculeus Goldfussz‘ (Ordovician).
6. Develop-
1, 1st larval stage (protaspis); 2-6, successive ‘nepionic’
Proetus Bohemians
12. Profile view of Sphaerexochzzs
8. Deipbon Forbesi (Silurian). 9.
14. Megalaspis extenuata (Ordovician). 15. Conocoz-yp12eSuIzeri
REPRESENTATIVE TR|LOBlTES

For names and description, see text.
TRILOBITA.
TRILOBITA.
921
" genera are as follows:
crabs, and other Crustacea. The protaspis is a
circular or ovate shield, generally less than one
millimeter in length, with a slightly segmented
median axis and an indistinctly marked abdomi-
nal portion. Growth of the animal takes place
through increase in the number of segments and
through increase in size in the successive melts,
and each new segment is intercalated between
the cephalon or the last formed segment and
the anterior edge of the pygidium.
CLASSIFICATION. The form and mode of de-
velopment of the free cheeks are made the princi-
pal features of the classification proposed by
Beecher, who divides the subclass into three
orders: Hypoparia are the most primitive forms
of trilobites, mostly small in size, without com-
pound eyes, and with simple eye spots in the
higher genera. They have the free cheeks ventral
or overlapping on the dorsal surface and cutting
therefrom a narrow margin together with the
genal angles. To this order belong Agnostus and
Microdiscus (Cambrian), Harpes (Ordovician to
Devonian) , Trinucleus (Ordovician), and Ampyx
(Ordovician to Silurian). Opisthoparia have
the free cheeks dorsal, separate and carrying
the genal angles. This group includes a large
number of genera ranging from Cambrian to
Carboniferous, but the majority of them are
found in the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks.
The primitive genera of the family Conocory-
phidae have rudimentary eyes or are blind; in
all others the compound eyes are usually well
developed. The more primitive Conocoryphidae
present characters which are exhibited in the
larval stages of the more specialized later mem-
bers of the order. The families and principal
Gonocoryphidaz: Cono-
coryphe, Ctenocephalus, Atops, Bathynotus
(Cambrian). Olenidce: Paradoxides, Olenellus,
Eurycare, Olenus, Ptychoparia, Agraulos, Ellip-
Socephalus, Sao, Dikellocephalus (Cambrian);
and Remopleurides and Triarthrus (Ordovician).
Asaphidce: Asaphus, ‘Ogygia, Nileus, _/Eglina
(Ordovocian), and Illaenus (Ordovician to
Silurian). Proe'tid‘ce: Arethusina (Ordovician),
Proétus (Ordovician to Carboniferous), Phil-
lipsia, and Griffithides (Carboniferous) .
Bronteidce: Bronteus (Ordovician to Devonian),
Lichadidee: Lichas (Ordovician to Silurian) and
some of its Subgenera, ranging from Ordovician
to Devonian. This family contains some of the
most specialized as well as the largest trilobites.
The family Aeidaspidw contains a number of
species, mostly of small size, ranging from the
Ordovician to the Devonian, which are remark-
able because of their excessive development of
spines. They are most abundant in the Silurian
and Lower Devonian. The genera are: Acidas-
pis, Odontopleura, Selenopeltis, Dicranurus,
Ancyropyge. In the order Proparia the free
cheeks do not carry the general angles and they
are often united in front of the glabella. The
other orders had their origin in pre-Cambrian
time, for they appear in the early Cambrian with
their diagnostic features fully differentiated and
with a considerable degree of evolution, but the
Proparia originated during the late Cambrian
and were initiated in the early Ordovician. The
order reached its maximum evolution during the
Ordovician and declined during the Silurian and
Devonian. The members of the family Encri-
nuridaa recall in the form of their cephalon the
more primitive members of the Opisthoparia, and
like them they have narrow marginal free cheeks,
which do not, however, include the genal angles.
The principal genera are Encrinurus (Ordovi-
cian to Silurian) , Placoparia, Cybele, and
Dindymene (Ordovician ) . Calymmenidce in-
cludes only Calymmene and Homalonotus
(Ordovician to Devonian). Gheiruridce is an
interesting family that begins in the Ordovician
and ranges into the Devonian and is repre-
sented, by a large number of species. The
principal genera are: Amphion (Ordovician),
Ceraurus, Sphaerexochus, Staurocephalus (Ordo-
vician to Silurian), Deiphon and Onycopyge (Si-
lurian) . Phacopidce is a large family containing
perhaps the most highly organized members of
the subclass. The frontal lobe of the glabella is
large in all, genera and in the successive species
in each ra,-cethere is a general tendency toward
coalescence or obsolescence of the lateral lobes of
the ‘glabella, and an increased prominence of the
frontal lobe. The eyes are well developed and
have large distinct facets. The family includes
Phacops (Silurian to Upper Devonian), Ptery-
gometopus (Ordovician), Acaste and Chasmops
(Ordovician to Silurian), Trimerocephalus (Si-
lurian to Devonian), Dalmanites (Ordovician to
Devonian), and a number of subgenera.
HABITS. Trilobites appear to have been en-
tirely marine animals, and to have enjoyed vari-
ous modes of existence. Some were undoubtedly
bottom crawlers, others buried themselves in
the mud of the bottom, and still others were
free swimmers er crawled about coral and
hydroid masses after the manner of the modern
isopods. The remains of trilobites are usually
found in dismembered condition, and entire cara-
paces are quite rare. This is probably due to
the fact that the majority of specimens are the
discarded molts which have been broken in the
process of shedding. Trilobites abound in all the
Cambrian formations, during which period they
were in fact the dominant forms of life, and
they are abundant in some horizons of the Or-
dovician and Silurian. During the Devonian
they declined rapidly, and only a few genera,
represented by rare specimens, continued into the
Carboniferous. They are entirely absent from
all Mesozoic rocks, and they have no near rela-
tives at the present day. They are one of the
most important groups of fossil ' animals for
purposes of correlation. In all about 2000 spe-
cies and over 200 genera have been described,
the majority of them from the Cambrian and
Ordovician rocks.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Zittel and Eastman, Tea>t-
book of Palceontology, vol. i. (New York and
London, 1900); Barande, Systeme silurien du
centre de la Boheme, vol. i. and Supplement
(Prague, 1852-1872); Salter, “A Monograph of
the British Trilobites,” Palceontographical So-
ciety Monographs (London, 1864); Hall and
Clarke, Pa-Zwontology of New York, vol. vii. (Al-
bany, 1888) ; Bernard, “The Systematic Position
of the Trilobites,” Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Societi, vols. c. and ci. (London, 1894-
1895); Beecher, various papers in American
Geologist, vols. xiii., xv., xvi. (Minneapolis,
1894-95), and in American Journal of Science,
3d ser., vols. xcvi., xcvii., and ser. 4, vol. i. (New
Haven, 1893-95) ; Beecher, “The Ventral Integu-
ment of Trilobites,” American Journal of Sci-
TRILOBITA.
TRINIDAD.
922
ence, ser. 4, vol. xiii. (1902); “Outline of a
Natural Classification of Trilobites,” vol. iii.
(1887) ; Jaekel, “Beitrtige zur Beurtheilung der
Trilobiten,” in Zeitschrift der deutschen geo-
logischen Gesellschaft, vols. liii. and liv. (Berlin,
1901-02) ; Reed, “Notes on the Evolution of the
Genus Cheirurus,” Geological Magazine, Decade
I V., vol. iii. (London, 1896) ; Schmidt, “Re-
vision der Ostbaltischen Silurischen Trilobiten,”
Memoirs de la Academie I mperiale des Sciences de
Saint Petersburg, 7th series, vols. xxx., xxxiii.,
xlii., ser. 8, vol. vi. (Saint Petersburg, 1881-98) ;
Vogdes, “A Classed and Annotated Bibliography
of the Palaeozoic Crustacea,” California Academy
of Sciences, Occasional Papers, vol. iv., supple-
ment to same in vol. v. (San Francisco, 1893-95) .
TRILOG-Y (from Gk. rp0\o')/la, trilogia,
group of three dramas, from rpeis, treis, three
+ Aéyos, logos, word) . The name given by the
Greeks to a group of three tragedies, often con-
nected by a common subject and representing dif-
ferent stages or phases of the same story. A
satyric drama was customarily added as a ter-
mination, whence the whole was sometimes termed
a tetralogy. A tragic poet who wished to take
part in one of the Athenian poetic contests had
to produce a trilogy along with a satyric drama
at the great Dionysiac, Lenaean, or Anthesteriac
festival. We possess only one perfect specimen
of the classic trilogy—the Oresteia of ZEschylus,
which embraces the Agamemnon, the Choephorce,
and the Eumenides. Consult: Welcker, Die
Aeschyleische Trilogie, etc. (Darmstadt, 1824) ;
Franz, Des Aeschylos Oresteia (Leipzig, 1846) ;
Campbell, The Oresteia of /Eschylus, trans. and
introd. (London, 1893).
TRIMBLE, trim’bl, ROBERT (1777-1828).
An American jurist, born in Berkeley Coun-
ty, in Virginia. He was admitted to
the Kentucky bar in 1803 and subsequent-
ly was elected to the Legislature. In 1808
he was appointed second judge of the Court
of Appeals, in 1810 Chief Justice of Kentucky,
and in 1813 United States district attorney.
From 1816 to 1826 he was district judge of
Kentucky and from 1826 until his death a justice
of the United States Supreme Court.
TRIM, CORPORAL. The voluble and devoted
servant and companion of Uncle Toby in Sterne’s
Tristram Shandy.
TRIMETHYLAMINE (from tri- -1- methyl
+ amine), (CH3)3N. An organic base with an
extremely powerful and disagreeable fishy odor.
It is obtained as a colorless gas, readily soluble
in water, and having a strong alkaline reaction.
With acids it readily forms soluble salts. It is
obtained by distillation from ergot of rye, from
guano, from the juice of the leaves of red beet-
root, and from putrid yeast. It may be formed
artifically by the action of methyl iodide on
dimethylamine; but the source from which it
may most readily be derived is herring brine.
See AMINEs.
TRIM’MER, Mrs. SARAH (1741-1810). An
English author, daughter of John Joshua Kirby
of Ipswich, a close friend of Gainsborough. Set-
tling with her parents in London, she met James
Trimmer of Brentford, whom she married in
1762. Mrs. Trimmer was one of the pioneers
in founding Sunday schools. Her first schools
were opened at Brentford in 1786, and were so
successful that she was summoned by the Queen
to Windsor to help start others there. In 1787
she also established at Brentford a school of in-
dustry for girls. Soon after this she introduced
into the Sunday school the plan of teaching by
prints now in almost universal use. Among her
books are Easy Introduction to the Knowledge
of Nature (1782; 11th ed. 1802); the books
with pictures and explanations which after a
large circulation were issued as New and Com-
prehensive Lessons (1814 ; 5th ed. 1830); and
the Abridgements of the Old and New Testa-
ments, which, issued separately by the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1793,
reached a sale of a quarter of a million copies.
TRIMORPHOUS. See ISOMORPHISM.
TRIMURTI, tré-mo6r’te (Skt. trimdrti,
triple form). The name of the Hindu triad of
the gods Brahma (q.v.) , Vishnu (q.v.) , and Siva
(q.v.), when regarded as an inseparable
unity of creation, preservation, and destruc-
tion, though three in form. The concept is
relatively late, and cannot be older than the
fifth or sixth century A.D. It is probable
that the gods Vishnu and Siva were first as-
sociated as representatives of the two great Hindu
sects (see SAIVAS; VAISHNAVAS), and that
Brahma was added at a later time, as he
was a later philosophical concept. The basal
idea of this triad must not be confused, as is
sometimes the case, with that of the Christian
Trinity (q.v.), since the three Hindu deities are
entirely distinct from each other. In Indian art
the Trimurti is one body with three heads: in
the middle, that of Bral1ma; at the right, that
of Vishnu; and at the left, that of Siva. The
symbol of the Trimurti is the mystic syllable
6m (q.v.).
'.l.‘RI1\T’COMALEE’, or TRINCOMALI, trig’-
ko-m'a’1e. A seaport town on the northeastern
coast of Ceylon, 99 miles northeast of Kandy
(Map: India, D 7). It is situated on an
elevated and precipitous peninsula on the
north side of the fine harbor of Trincomalee, the
best in Ceylon. Trincomalee is chiefly important
as a naval station. The Temple of the Thousand
Columns, now in ruins, was erected by the Mala-
bars and destroyed by the Portuguese in 1622. It
is still a famous place of pilgrimage of the Hin-
dus. Near the ruins rises Fort Frederick, which
was built by the Portuguese from the old ma-
terial of the temple. Population, in 1901, 13,000.
Trincomalee was one of the last towns to sur-
render to European authority. It was held suc-
cessively by the Portuguese, Dutch, and French,
and surrendered to the British forces after a
naval siege of three weeks in 1795. Consult
Cave, The Ruined Cities of Ceylon (London,
1900).
TRIN'IDAD’, Sp. pron. tre’ne-niin’. A
British West Indian island, belonging to the
Windward group, situated close to the mouth of
the Orinoco (Map: West Indies, R 9). Area,
1754 square miles. The surface is generally flat.
The northern part, however, is traversed by sev-
eral parallel mountain chains running from east
to west and from 600 to over 3000 feet high. The
island is well watered. In the southwest-
ern part is the famous pitch lake of La Brea,
which yields asphalt for export. The flora is
TRINIDAD.
TRINITY.
923
trict), in 1899, 24,271.
remarkable for its variety and beauty. Trini-
dad may be considered agriculturally one of
the most successful of the British possessions
in the West Indies. Originally sugar was the
leading product of the soil. With the decline of
the sugar industry the planters of Trinidad
turned their attention to the cultivation of cacao,
which is at present the staple of the island.
Sugar is still cultivated to a large extent, the ex-
ports of that article for 1901 being valued at
£452,210. Besides cacao and sugar, Trinidad
produces coffee, cocoanuts, and various kinds
of fruit. Commercially it occupies the foremost
position among the British West Indian Islands.
In 1901 the total value of the trade exceeded the
sum of £5,091,000, about equally divided between
exports and imports. The island has about 80
miles of railway. Trinidad, together with To-
bago (q.v.), is administered by a Governor as-
sisted by an executive council of 7 members and
a legislative council of 20 members, all nominat-
ed by the Governor. Education is largely sub-
sidized by the Government; The finances of
the island are in good condition, the budget bal-
ancing at about £650,000. The revenue is de-
rived chiefly from customs receipts. The public
debt of the colony amounted in 1902 to £992,286.
The population was 255,148 in 1901. It consists
chiefly of the descendants of the slaves imported
from Africa by the sugar planters. There is
also a considerable number of coolies, while the
whites form an insignificant part of the popula-
tion. Port of Spain, the capital of Trinidad,
had a population in 1901 of 54,100. Trinidad
was discovered by Columbus in 1498 and was
originhlly colonized by the Spaniards, who, how-
ever, soon abandoned it. In the eighteenth
century Spain renewed her interest in Trinidad,
but was soon expelled by Great Britain, to whom
it was formally ceded in 1802, in accordance with
the Treaty of Amiens. Consult: Fraser, History
of Trinidad (London, 1894) ; Eversley, The Trin-
idad Reviewer (ib., 1900) ; Fiske, History of the
West Indies (New York, 1899) ; Root, The Brit-
ish West Indies and the Sugar Industry (London,
1899).
TRINIDAD. A small, rocky, and uninhab-
ited island situated in the South Atlantic Ocean
in latitude 20° 31’ S., longitude 29° 20’ W.,
about 750 miles east by north of Rio de Janeiro
(Map: World, Western Hemisphere, M 18). It
now belongs to Brazil.
TRINIDAD. A town in Cuba, in the Prov-
ince of Santa Clara, situated about 45 miles
southeast of Cienfuegos and 5 miles from its
port, Casilda (Map: Cuba, F 5). It is within
easy reach of three ports and is of considerable
commercial importance. It is one of the most
healthful places on the island. Coffee, formerly
the chief article of export, is gradually giving
place to sugar. Trinidad was founded by Ve-
lazquez in 1513, and on account of the repeated at-
tacks by buccaneers was removed from the coast
to its present site. Population (municipal dis-
TRINIDAD. The county-seat of Las Animas
County, Col., 90 miles south of Pueblo; on the
Denver and Rio Grande, the Atchison, Topeka
and Santa Fe, and the Colorado and Southern
railroads (Map: Colorado, E 3). It has a pub-
lic library, Saint Joseph’s Academy, and Saint
Von. XVI.—59. I
Raphael’s Hospital. Trinidad is the centre of
large cattle-raising and farming interests, and
is extensively engaged in coal-mining. There are
also railway shops and bottling works. The
government is vested in a mayor, chosen every
two years, and a unicameral council. The
water-works are owned and operated by the
municipality. Population, in 1890, 5523; in
1900, 5345.
TRINITARIANS (from trinity, Lat. trini-
tas, number three, trinity, from trinus, three-
fold, from tres, three). The name most com-
monly applied in English to the members of the
Order of the Holy Trinity for the Redemption of
Captives, a Roman Catholic religious society
founded by Saint John de Matha (1160-1213)
and Saint Felix of Valois (1127-1212). Devoted
to the work of freeing Christian captives among
the infidels, they soon received the approbation
of Pope Innocent III. and the permission of
Philip Augustus to settle in France. The head-
quarters of the Order were fixed at Cerfroy, near
La Ferté-Milon, in the present Department of
Aisne, and the Pope gave them a second convent
in Rome. Their first journey resulted in the
liberation of 186 captives, who were brought to
Paris amid great rejoicings. While Felix re-
mained at home, caring for the Order’s develop-
ment, John made numerous journeys to North
Africa and the coast of Spain. Later, the Trini-
tarians erected houses for the care of penniless
captives after their release, and‘ some of them
accompanied the Crusaders to minister to their
spiritual needs; they penetrated even to India
and Tartary in search of the objects of their
charity. It is estimated that in six centuries
at least 900,000 prisoners recovered their free-
dom through the work of this Order.
The Order spread rapidly, first through France
and Spain, until in the fifteenth century it count-
ed 880 houses; the number diminished from
various causes until at the beginning of the
eighteenth century there were only 250. The
present members are chiefly occupied with other
works of mercy, especially the care of the sick,
although in the nineteenth century they devoted
considerable labor to the work for negro slaves.
Besides several branches, due to various reforms,
among the male Trinitarians, there were also two
female branches, and a third Order of associates
who labored for the cause and had a simple rule
of life adapted to persons living in the world.
Consult: Carlier, Les Trinitaires de la re'demp-
tion (Lille, 1866); Pere Calixte de la Provi-
dence, Vie de Saint Félia; de Valois (3d ed., Paris,
1878) ; id., Vie de Saint Jean de Matha (2d ed.,
ib., 1884) ; id., Corsaires et Rédempteurs (Lille,
1884).
TRINITY. A port of entry on Trinity Bay,
Newfoundland, the capital of Trinity District, 61
miles northwest of Saint John (Map: New-
foundland, G 4). It has important fishing in-
dustries and a fine harbor. The bay is the land-
ing point of the Atlantic cables. Population, in
1901, 1459.
TRINITY. A river of Texas, formed by
the union, near Dallas, of the two forks which
rise near the northern boundary of the State
(Map: Texas, G 4). It flows southeast through
a fertile and well-timbered region, and empties
into Galveston Bay about 40 miles north of the
TRINITY.
TRINITY COLLEGE.
924
city of Galveston. It is over 550 miles long and
navigable at high water for 300 miles.
TRINITY, Doornmn or run. A doctrine of
theology which declares that there are three per-
sons in the Godhead, or divine nature—the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost—and that
“these three are one true eternal God, the same
in substance, equal in power and gIOry—although
distinguished by their personal properties.” The
most elaborate statement of the doctrine is to
be found in the Athanasian Creed, which asserts
that “the Catholic faith is this: That we worship
one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity-
neither confounding the persons nor dividing the
substance—for there is one person of the Father,
another of the Son, and another of the Holy.
Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one; the
glory equal; the majesty co-eternal.”
The doctrine is not found in its fully developed
form in the Scriptures; but it is supposed to be
clearly revealed in its elements in the New Tes-
tament, and also to be indicated in many of the
statements a.nd revelations of the Old Testament.
The form of expression in speaking of God in
the Old Testament Scriptures—the plural Elo-
him, coupled with a singular verb; the apparent
distinction recognized in the revelations to the
patriarchs and Moses between Jehovah and ‘the
angel of Jehovah;’ the mode in which ‘the
Spirit’ and ‘word’ of God, and ‘wisdom’ (Prov-
erbs viii.) are spoken of; and the gradual unfold-
ing of the doctrine of a ‘Messiah,’ have all been
taken as indications from the earliest times of
the truth of a plurality of persons in the God-
head; and in the New Testament Scriptures the
doctrine is represented as clearly taught in the
Trinitarian formula of baptism—the general
character of the claims and prerogatives of Jesus
Christ by which His true deity is established,
and in the functions attributed to the Holy
Spirit. The evidence is held conclusive of the
equal divine nature and yet distinct personality
of the Son and the Spirit along with God the
Father. It is generally conceded, however, that
the Christians of the second and even of the
third century did not treat the subject with the
same definiteness and accuracy of expression
as later writers. They were content for the most
part to use Scriptural expressions in speaking of
the Father, and the Son, and the Spirit, without
defining articulately their relation to one an-
other. It was not until the progress of opposing
parties sought, on the one hand, to degrade the
divine dignity of Christ (Ebionitism in its vari-
ous forms, and Arianism) ; or, on the other hand,
to confound the personality of Christ with God
the Father (see MONARCHIANS) , that the Church
was led to define in the Nicene Creed the relation
of the Son of the Father, and further, in the
Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the relation of
the Spirit to the Father. This creed (see NICENE
CREED; F1LIoQUE) was specially directed against
the opinions of Arius (q.v.).
The evidence, here briefly sketched in outline,
has been accepted as satisfactory, not only by the
Roman Catholic and Oriental communions, but
also by all the great Protestant communions. The
only exception in modern times to the reception
of the doctrine is in the case of the Socinians or
Unitarians (qq.v.), who occupy in their teach-
ing very much the position of the ancient Hu-
manitarians (Ebionites). Consult the various
treatises on systematic theology; Bauer, Die
christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigheit (3 vols.,
Tiibingen, 1841-43); Meier, Die Lehre von der
Trinitiit (Hamburg, 1844); Dorner, The His-
tory of the Development of the Doctrine of
the Person of Christ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh,
1861-63); id., History of Protestant Theology
ib., 1871) ; Burris, The Trinity (Chicago, 1874) ;
Steenstra, The Being of God as Unity and Trin-
ity (Boston, 1891) ; on the antitrinitarian side,
Norton, A Statement of Reasons for Not Believ-
ing the Doctrines of Trinitarians (2d ed., Boston,
1856) ; Clarke, Orthoclowy, Its Truths and Errors
(ib., 1866).
TRINITY COLLEGE. A college at Cam-
bridge, England, the largest and inost splendid
collegiate foundation in the realm. It was found-
ed by Henry VIII., in 1546, by the consolidation
of several earlier foundations, with considerable
additional endowments from other sources for a
master and sixty fellows and scholars. Edward
VI. issued the statutes, Mary added twenty
scholars and increased the endowment, and
Elizabeth interested herself in the college. It
is governed by a council, consisting of the master
and four other ea:-0/ficio members, and eight
elective members. The buildings are large
and imposing; the great court is the largest
in either university, comprising more than
two acres. The gateway is striking and
characteristic, the Hall one of the finest in Eng-
land. The chapel, though of great size, is not
so fine as that of King’s. The library is a large
and important collection, comprising about 90,-
000 books and 1900 manuscripts. The list of
Trinity worthies is almost endless. Of these
may be mentioned Bacon, Newton, Barrow,
Coke, Dryden, Cowley, Byron, Tennyson, Ed-
ward FitzGerald, Thackeray, Macaulay, Richard
Porson, Peacock, Sedgwick, Pearson, Munro,
Lightfoot, and Bentley. Among the more dis-
tinguished masters of the college may be ‘named
William Bill, John \Vhitgift, Thomas Nevile,
Barrow, Bentley, and William Whe'well. The
master of Trinity is appointed by the Crown,
and the college has apartments for the oc-_
cupancy of royalty when on a visit to Cam-
bridge, as well as for the judges on assize.‘
Consult Mullinger, History of Cambridge Uni-
versity (Cambridge University Press, 1884). '
TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN.
LIN, UNIVERSITY OF.
TRINITY COLLEGE. A college at -Oxford,
England, founded in 1554 by-Sir Thomas Pope,
Privy Councilor to Henry VIII. and Queen
Mary. The college occupied the site and build-
ings of a Benedictine ‘mansion’ called Durham
College, which had been founded in 1290 by
Richard de Hoton, Prior of Durham, for the
education of the monks of that diocese. At the
dissolution of the monasteries, this passed into
the hands of the newly constituted chapter of
Durham, and thence to Sir Thomas Pope. Trinity
College was the first college founded by a layman
since Balliol, and consisted at first of a presi-
dent, twelve fellows, and twelve scholars. Pope
was a Roman Catholic, and his charter was ob-
tained from Philip and Mary. By the changes
made in 17 and 18 Victoria, the college consists
of a president, twelve fellowships, of which nine
See DUB- _
TRINITY COLLEGE.
TRIONAL.
925
are occupied, several honorary fellows and lec-
turers, a chaplain, college ofiicers, sixteen
scholars, three Millard scholars in natural sci-
ence, nine exhibitioners, and four Ford students,
and in all about 190 undergraduates. The build-
ings are of various dates a11d are arranged in a
most attractive open quadrangle. The college
presents to ten livings. Among the distinguished
men who have been connected with Trinity may
be mentioned Archbishop Sheldon, Bishop Seth
Ward, Ludlow and Ireton of Civil War fame,
Thomas Warton the poet and critic, Cardinal
Newman, the elder Pitt, Lord North, Landor,
Stubbs, Freeman, George Rawlinson, and Bryce.
TRINITY COLLEGE. An institution at
Hartford, Conn., founded by members of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1823 as \Vash-
ington College, the present name being assumed
in 1845. The college offers four courses, leading
to the degrees of B.A., B.S., and B.L. It also
offers graduate courses leading to the degree of
M.A. and M.S. There is a system of alternative
and elective studies, most of the work of the
last three years being elective. It has no pro-
fessional schools, but offers courses in civil en-
gineering. The productive endowment in 1903
was $760,000, with a gross income of $135,000.
The library in that year contained 45,130 vol-
umes and 28,185 pamphlets. The students
numbered 126 and the faculty 23. The total
value of buildings and grounds is about $1,250,-
000.
TRINITY COLLEGE. An institution at
Durham, N. C., founded in 1859, affiliated with
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The
college confers but two degrees, Bachelor of
Arts and Master of Arts. The courses are ar-
ranged according to the group system with
partially elective studies. The teachers and
officers in 1903 numbered 25 and there were 231
academic students. The college grounds of 73
acres, with the buildings and equipment, were
valued in 1903 at $534,000. The total college
property was valued at $975,750, the endowment
was $441,750, and the income $40,000. ‘
TRINITY HALL. A college at Cambridge,
England. It was founded in 1350 by lVilliam
Bateman, Bishop of Norwich, and co-founder of
Gonville and Caius College, under the name of
the College of the Scholars of the Holy Trinity of
Norwich, for a master and thirty scholars, de-
voted to the canon and civil law. It continues
to be the peculiarly legal college of the univer-
sity. By the new statutes in force since 1882,
the college consists of a master, thirteen founda-
tion fellows. and one professorial fellow. There
are also college officials, two law students, seven
scholars, and three exhibitioners, and, in all,
about two hundred undergraduates. The college
presents to seven livings. Among the distin-
guished members of the college have been Bishop
Stephen Gardiner (Master); Glisson, the anat-
omist; Lord Howard of Effingham; Chesterfield;
Thomas~Bilney; and Chief Justice Cockburn.
TRINITY SUNDAY. The Sunday imme-
diately following Whitsunday, so called as being
set aside for the special honor of the Trinity.
No such festival was known to the early cen-
turies; the general establishment of Trinity Sun-
day as a common festival of the whole Western
Church dates from a decree of John XXII., who
died in 1334. Nevertheless, the mass and ofiice
peculiar to the day are of much greater an-
tiquity, and may be traced, at least in part, in
several liturgical books of the earlier centuries.
TRINO’DA NECES’SITAS (ML., threefold
necessity). Three forms of assessment of lands
for public purposes during the Anglo-Saxon era.
No lands, either in secular or religious hands,
were exempt from these three duties, which were
known as bridge-bot, for the maintenance of
bridges and highways; burg-bot, for the erection
of and keeping fortresses in repair; and fgrcl,
for the support of the King’s military and naval
forces. Blackstone mentions that in the time
of Henry II. no less than 1115 castles were in
existence as a result of the tax for the estab-
lishment and maintenance of strongholds. Con-
sult Blackstone, Commentaries.
TRINUCLEUS, tri’n1'1’kle-us (Neo-Lat., from
Lat. tres, three -1- nucleus, little nut, kernel,
nucleus). A genus of trilobites chaiacteristic
of the middle and upper Ordovician rocks of
North America and Europe. The body is small,
seldom exceeding an inch in length, with a rela-
tively large and broad horseshoe-shaped head-
shield. The glabella is convex and consists of a
prominent median and two less elevated lateral
lobes, and the head is bordered by a wide pitted
margin and provided with long, sometimes bifur-
cated, genal spines. The creature was blind in
its adult stages, though in some forms the young
were provided with simple eyes (ocelli), and
compound eyes, such as are seen in most tri-
lobites, are entirely absent. The thorax has six
segments with narrow axis, and the pygidium is
small and of broadly triangular form. Trinu-
cleus concentricus is very common in the Trenton
series of North America. See TRILOBITE.
TRINUIVYMUS. A comedy by Plautus
(about B.o.194), founded on Phi1emon’s The-
sauros. It introduces no female characters. The
play was imitated by Lessing in his Schatz.
TRIO (It., musical composition in three
parts). In music, in a general sense, a com-
position for three voices or for three instru-
ments. In instrumental music a trio is usually
understood to mean a composition written for
piano, ’cello, and violin. But it is better to
apply the name piano trio. A string trio is gen-
erally written for violin, viola, and ’cello, or two
violins and ’cello. In a specific sense the term
trio is used to denote a middle section in min-
uets, marches, or scherzi. It derived its name
from the fact that the older composers employed
three-part writing in this middle section.
TRIONAL (CH3) (C2H5)C(SO,C2H,,),. Awhite
crystalline compound used as a hypnotic. It is
prepared by the action of methyl-ethyl ketone
(a substance similar to acetone) upon mercap-
tan (q.v.) and the oxidation of the resulting
product by permanganate of potassium. It is
readily soluble in alcohol, but sparingly in
water. It is an excellent and harmless hypnotic,
and especially if administered in connection with
a mild purgative is sure to have no injurious
after effects. Its advantage over other hypnotics
lies principally in the fact that its use does not
lead to an organic habit and that its dose does
not have to be gradually increased. Like sul-
phonal (q.v.), it is best administered with hot
TRIONAL.
TRIPOLI.
926
milk. It is prompter in its action and safer
than sulphonal.
TRIPITAKA. See PITAKA.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE. The name by which
three different European leagues are known: (1)
The alliance concluded in 1668 at The Hague
between England, Holland, and Sweden, having
for its object the checking of the conquests
of Louis XIV. (2) An alliance concluded in
1717 between England, France, and Holland
against Spain. With the accession of Austria
in 1718 it became the Quadruple Alliance. (3)
The Dreibnnd between Germany, Austria-Hun-
gary, and Italy, which has existed since the be-
ginning of 1883. An alliance between Germany
and Austria-Hungary was formed on October 7,
1879, on the terms of mutual assistance in the
case of an attack by Russia on either party to
the alliance, and friendly neutrality in case of
an attack by any other power. This dual alli-
ance became a triple alliance about three years
later with the accession of Italy. The treaty be-
tween Italy and Germany provided for common
action in case of French encroachments on either
power, and that between Italy and Austria-
Hungary for the maintenance of a friendly neu-
trality in the event of hostilities between France
and Italy or between Russia and Austria-Hun-
gary.
TRIPLET (from triple, Fr. triple, from Lat.
triplns, threefold). In music, a group of three
equal notes, to be performed in the time of two
of like value, in the regular rhythm. For in-
stance, when a quarter note is divided into three
eighth notes, the group is called a triplet, and it
is usual to place the figure 3 over it.
TRIP’OLI. A vilayet of the Ottoman Em-
pire, situated on the northern coast of Africa,
and bounded by Barca and the Libyan desert
on the east, Tunis on the west, and the desert
of Sahara on the south, on which side the
boundary is very indefinite (Map: Africa, F 2) .
The northern half is the country called Tripoli
and the southern half is Fezzan (q.v.). The
area of Tripolitania, including Barca (the mutes-
sarriflik of Bengazi), is in round numbers about
400,000 square miles. The interior of Tripoli
is elevated and sandy, with fertile spots along
the wadis. The country is exposed to the clouds
of sand from the deserts. The coasts are mostly
low and sandy, with the exception of the north-
eastern part, where some of the mountains
attain an altitude of nearly 2000 feet. Tripoli
has no permanent rivers, but there are
a considerable number of springs, and the dry
river courses fill up during the rainy season.
The climate is hot during the summer, but it has
more of a Mediterranean than African character.
During the winter the coasts are occasionally
covered with snow, while in the interior the win-
ter is marked by copious rains. In its flora and
fauna Tripoli resembles the rest of the countries
on the northern coast of Africa. Owing to the
scarcity of productive land and its small popu-
lation, Tripoli is very little developed.
Agriculture is carried on only to a limited
extent. More attention is paid to stock-raising.
The chief agricultural products are wheat, dates,
grapes, and olives. Sheep are raised on a large
scale, and cattle are also to some extent. Some
sulphur and salt are obtained near the coast, and
there are small sponge fisheries. The commerce
was formerly very considerable, and the port of
Tripoli was once an important outlet for the
products of the interior, with which it is con-
nected by numerous caravan routes. The chief
domestic exports are wool, oil, and cattle, while
from the interior of Africa come gold, ostrich
feathers, ivory, rubber, and a few other African
products. The imports from Europe consist
chiefly of manufactures. The centre of foreign
commerce is Tripoli, the capital (q.v.). The
annual value of the commerce is in the neighbor-
hood of $4,000,000 annually.
Tripoli, including Barca, is divided into four
provinces, administered by beys, who are ap-
pointed by the Governor. The latter is appointed
by the Sultan, and is intrusted with extensive
powers. The Turkish Government maintains a
considerable military force, necessitated by the
frequent political outbreaks. The population is
estimated at from 800,000 to 1,000,000. It con-
sists largely of Berbers and Moors, the latter
living mostly in the cities. The Turkish element
outside of the official circles is very limited. The
official language is Arabic.
HISTORY. Tripoli appears early to have formed
a portion of the territory of the Carthaginians.
It next passed to the Romans, who included it
within the Province of Africa, and gave it the
name of Regio Syrtica. About the beginning of
the third century A.D. it became known as the
Regio Tripolitana (on account of its three prin-
cipal cities, (Ea, Sabrata, and Leptis, which were
leagued together; whence its present name
Tripoli), and was probably raised to the rank of
a separate province by Septimius Severus, who
was a native of Leptis. Later it passed into
possession of the Vandals and Greeks. In the
seventh century it was conquered by the
Arabs (see BARBARY STATES), and the feeble
Christianity of the natives was supplanted by a
vigorous and fanatical Mohammedanism. In
1510 the city of Tripoli was captured by Ferdi-
nand the Catholic, from 1530 to 1551 it was in
possession of the Knights of Saint John. Since
1551 the country has formed part of the Turkish
Empire, though the authority of the Sultan,
down to 1835, had been virtually at zero for
more than a century. During this period
Tripoli was a piratical stronghold. In conse-
quence it was attacked by successive expeditions
of the English and the French. In 1801-5 it was
involved in an unsuccessful war with the United
States, and in 1815 an American expedition ex-
acted reparation for injuries done to American
commerce. (See BABBARY POWERS, WARS WITH
THE.) In 1835 an expedition was dispatched
from Constantinople; the ruling bey, Karamanli
(in whose family the sovereignty had continued
uninterrupted since 1714), was overthrown and
imprisoned; a new Turkish pasha, with vice-
regal powers, was appointed, and the State made
a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. Several re-
bellions have since taken place (notably in 1842
and 1844), but they have always been sup-
pressed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fournel, La Tripolitaine (Paris,
1887) ; Borsari, Geografia della Tripolitania
(Naples, 1888); Thompson, Life in Tripoli
(Liverpool, 1894); Cowper, The Hill of the
Graces (London, 1897) ; Jago, “Report on Agri-
culture and Other Natural Resources of the
TRIPOLI.
TRIPTYCH.
927
Vilayet of Tripoli,” in Great Britain Diplomatic
and Consular Reports, Series 527 (ib., 1900);
Minutelli, La Tripolitania (Turin, 1902).
TRIPOLI. The capital of the Turkish Vilayet
of Tripoli, in Africa, on a promontory in the
Mediterranean Sea, which forms a small bay,
in latitude 32° 53' N., longitude 13° 11’ E.
Sahara approaches within a short distance. The
town, whose high walls are dilapidated, lies in a
fertile plain. It is typically Oriental, with its
slender minarets and domed mosques. The castle
of the beys is handsome. There is a splendid
Roman triumphal arch, erected to Marcus Aure-
lius. Tripoli owes its importance as the com-
mercial centre of the country to the three historic
caravan routes of which it is the terminus. The
first of these runs south across the desert of Sa-
hara to Lake Chad; the second, southwest to
Timbuktu; and the third, south by east to Wadai
and points in Darfur. The city manufactures
carpets, scarfs, and Spanish leather. The harbor
is inaccessible to vessels drawing fourteen feet.
It was visited in 1899 by 600 vessels. The trade
is mostly in the hands of the Jews, who are con-
gregated in a quarter of the town called Harra.
Tripoli, one of the oldest cities of Africa, is the
(Ea of the Phoenicians. In February, 1804, the
harbor was the scene of Lieutenant Decatur’s
brave exploit of recapturing and burning the
American frigate Philadelphia. Population, in
1900, 30,000.
TRIPOLI, TRIPOLIS (the classical name),
or TARABULUS. A town in Syria, Asiatic
Turkey, the capital of a liwa in the Vilayet of
Beirut, two and a half miles from El-Mina, its
port, and 40 miles north-northeast of Beirut
(Map: Turkey in Asia, F 5). The streets
are well paved and covered in some places by
arcades. The houses are built of a porous
conglomerate, giving the town a picturesque
Oriental aspect. There are fourteen churches,
nearly equally divided between the Latin,
Greek, and Maronite sects, an American mis-
sion station and girls’ school, an orphanage
and girls’ home of the French Sisters of Charity,
a synagogue, fourteen mosques, a monastery of
dancing dervishes, a castle, and several large
khans. Tripoli is famous for its silk sashes.
Silk, sugar-cane, ivory, ostrich feathers, wool,
and sponges are exported. Mulberry trees are
extensively cultivated for the silkworms. There
is a large overland trade by camels with Aleppo.
Population, 30,000, including El-Mina. Of the
inhabitants, 24,000 are Moslems, 4500 Orthodox
Greeks, 1500 Maronites. Tripoli was a member
of the Phoenician league. At that time it
lay on the coast. In 450 and in 550 it was de-
stroyed by earthquakes. The Saracens took it in
638. It was several times captured by the
Greeks. The Romans erected many fine build-
fngs. After a siege of several years it was taken
in 1109 by the Crusaders, under whom it enjoyed
great prosperity. Destroyed by the Egyptian
Sultan, Kalaun, in 1289, it was rebuilt on its
present site.
TRIPOLITE (from Tripoli, in Africa), or
TRIPOLI. A name sometimes applied to dia-
tomaceous earth (q.v.), but also used to desig-
nate the siliceous residues left by the decay of
impure limestones and schists. The last-named
material is extensively mined in Newton County,
Mo., and is employed as an abrasive and in water
filters.
TRIPOLITZA, tré’po-lyé’ts2’1, or TRI1?’OL-
IS. The capital of the Nomarchy of Arcadia,
Greece, 34 miles southwest of Argos, on the
Argos-Kalamata Railway (Map: Greece, D 4).
It is on a plain, 2000 feet above sea level, near
the site of the ancient Tegea and Mantinea.
Tapestries and leather goods are manufactured.
Its population in 1896 was 10,465. Tripolitza
is a modern city, and under the Turkish pashas
was the capital of the Morea. ‘It was captured
and burned by the Greek patriot Kolokotronis
(q.v.) October 17, 1821. In 1825 it was taken by
Ibrahim Pasha.
TRIPOS (from Lat. tripas, from Gk. rplrrovs,
tripoas, tripod). A term peculiar to Cambridge
University, denoting the three honor classes com-
posed of successful candidates in the final exam-
inations in the various departments. In mathe-
matics the first honor men are known as senior
and junior wranglers. The term is also used of
the examination itself.
TRIPPANT. In heraldry (q.v.), a term used
of a beast of chase represented as walking.
TRIP’PEL, ALEXANDER (1744-93). A Swiss
sculptor, born at Schaffhausen. He studied in
Copenhagen under Wiedevelt and Stanley, went
in 1771 to Paris, and in 1776 to Rome, where, be-
sides antique and some biblical subjects, dis-
tinguished by noble treatment of form, he exe-
cuted a Monument of Count Tchernitcheff for
Moscow, the excellent busts of Goethe (1788)
and Herder (1789), both in the grand-ducal
library at Weimar, and the Gessner Monument
at Zurich.
TRIPTOL'EMUS (Lat., from Gk. TpL1r'r6)\e-
p-os). In Greek legend, the bestower of grain
upon mankind. In the Homeric Hymn to De-
meter Triptolemus is merely one of the princes
of Eleusis, to whom Demeter teaches her sacred
rites, when she finally leaves her temple for
Olympus. Later, however, he became the son
of King Celeus and Meteneira, and a special
favorite of Demeter, who gave him a winged
chariot, or one drawn by winged dragons, and
sent him forth to bear the knowledge of her gift
of grain among mankind. This scene is fre-
quently represented on Attic vases of the fifth
century and later. Triptolemus had a temple
at Eleusis, and was honored in Athens also in
connection with the two goddesses Demeter and
Kore. Attic belief also made him one of the
judges in the lower world, apparently in place
of Mines, who held an unfavorable place in local
legends. The Greek type of Triptolemus was
used by the Romans for Bonus E/ventus, who
seems to have had much resemblance to the Eleu-
sinian hero.
TRIP TO SCARBOROUGH, A. A comedy
by Sheridan (1777), altered from Vanbrugh’s
Relapse (q.v.).
TRIPTYCH (from Gk. Tpirrrvxog, triptychos,
folded thrice, from r,oeZg, treis, three + it-1-ix’),
ptyché, fold, from 'n'Tl5o'o'sw, ptyssein, to fold).
A set of three leaves, each painted with a dis-
tinct subject, but joined together by hinges, and
capable of being folded so as to present a new
face when closed. In ecclesiastical use, the
triptych was usually a devotional picture, and
TBIPTYCH.
TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE.
928
was a form much in use for altar-pieces during
the Gothic and early Renaissance periods. The
three panels were usually of heavy wood, with
an architectural framework, often in the form of
a pointed arch, surrounding the painted or carved
composition. Giotto, Orcagna, Gaddi, Fra An-
gelico, and many other famous artists painted
triptychs. The German and Flemish wood-carv-
ers and the Tuscan stuccoists of the Renaissance
often retained the form, which vanished com-
pletely, however, in the sixteenth century.
TRIREME (Lat. triremis, galley with three
banks of oars, from tres, three + remus, oar).
In ancient times, a galley with three banks of
oars; the common form of the ancient ship Of
war in the fifth and fourth centuries no. The
credit of the invention was given to the Corin-
thians, who were said to have used triremes in
their ‘war with Corcyra in the seventh century
B.C. The details of the structure of the Athenian
trireme are still uncertain, as the statements of
the ancient writers leave many points obscure,
and the testimony of works of art is likewise full
of uncertainties. It seems clear that the banks
of oars were arranged one above the other,
though not perpendicularly, that there was only
one man to an oar, and that all the oars could
be, and in battle were, used at the same time.
For ordinary purposes the crew was, of course,
divided into watches. The ancient trireme was
of light draught, and could be easily hauled on
shore, so that a high freeboard seems improbable,
for reasons of stability; while the difliculty of
keeping an effective stroke with oars of widely
different lengths also speaks against any such
mode of construction. The trireme was provided
with a mainmast which carried a large square
sail, that was lowered with its yard, or if pos-
sible left on shore, before going into action. In
the latter case the mast also was unstepped and
laid along the deck. There was also a small
foremast, which seems to have projected some-
what like a bowsprit and likewise carried a
square sail. The Attic trireme of the fourth cen-
tury carried 170 oars, but probably not over 150
were actually used, the rest being a reserve
equipment. Officers, sailors, and ten or twelve
hoplites brought the total crew up to about 200
men. The ship was steered by large paddles on
either side of the stern, connected inboard so
that they could be handled by a single man. The
time was given to the rowers by a special oflicer,
the keleustes. The lowest rank of rowers were
called thalamitce, the second zengitce, and the
uppermost thranitce, and these received the
highest pay, as handling the lorigest oars. In
the early battles, such as Salamis, the chief
endeavor was to lay the ships aboard and fight
from the decks, trusting little to manoeuvring,
in which the Greeks seem to have felt themselves
inferior. Later the Athenians developed a high
degree of skill in handling their long, light ves-
sels, and preferred to regard the trireme as the
weapon, and to aim at disabling or sinking the
enemy by the use of the ram, which projected at
the water line or below. The attack was aimed
at the quarter or side of the hostile ship, and
to meet bows on was held unskillful and even
dangerous, as the bow was not strongly built.
Against the Carthaginians the Romans used
boarding bridges in order to neutralize the sea-
manship of their opponents, and bring about a
conflict of soldiers. Consult: Graser, De Veterum
Re Navali (Berlin, 1864), and in Philologus,
Sppl. Bd. iii.; Serre, Les marines de guerre de
Vantiquité et du moyen-age (Paris, 1885, 1891) ;
Breusing, Die Nautih der Alten (Bremen, 1886) ,
and Die Lblsung des Trierenrdtsels (Bremen,
1889); Assmann, s. v. “Seewesen,” in Bau-
meister’s Denkmiiler des hlassischen Altertums
(Munich, 1889); Luebeck, Das Seewesen, der
Griechen and Riimer (Hamburg, 1890, 1891) ; O.
Torr, Ancient Ships (Cambridge, 1894) .
TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE (from tri-
sect, from Lat. tres, three —I— sectus, p. p. of
secare, to cut). One of the three famous prob-
lems of antiquity, the others being the duplica-
tion of the cube (q.v.) and the squaring of the
circle. (See Cmom; QUADRATUBE.) This prob-
lem, like the quadrature of the circle, is almost
as old as geometry itself, but first received
thorough investigation at the hands of the Soph-
ists (no. 400). Hippias of this school invented
the quadratrix (see QUADRATUBE), by which
any angle may be trisected. In the figure BD is
a quadrant of a circle, BG is an arc of the
quadratrix, and the construction involves the
-2% = Hence by dividing BA
into segments having any given ratio, the quad-
rant or any are BD can be divided into arcs
E) C
relation
A HG IJ
having the same ratio. If the arc is to be tri-
sected the line corresponding to BA is tri-

B
D
c NM
0

sected. The trisection of an angle is also accom-
plished by means of the conchoid (q.v.) of Ni
comedes (13.0. 180). If AOB in the figure 1s
TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE.
TRIST.
929
the angle to be trisected, C any point on OB,
CM _|_ OA and CP OA, it is easily seen
that_ if P can be found so that PN=2CO then
PO is a trisection line of angle AOB. But the
trammel of the conchoid with its directrix rest-
ing on CM, parameter AN[:CB:2CO, its
pole at O, will describe a curve cutting CP
in the required point. Many other methods have
been devised for the solution of this problem.
Viete (1591) showed its relation to the solution
of the cubic equation. Gauss (1801) showed its
relation to cyclotomic equations. Other mathe-
maticians of the nineteenth century have de-
clared its solution impossible by means of the
straight edge and compasses (that is, by the
postulates of Euclidean geometry). But the real
reason for the failure of this method to solve the
problem andalso its associates was set forth by
Klein.
The argument may be briefly stated as follows:
(1) According to the formula of De Moivre
(q.v.) the roots of the equation a"3:cos ¢+isin¢
¢ + 21*‘ <2)
. <75 .
are $1’-I-'ClSé :02-:c1s 3 , '
geometrically by

003.-_"cis ———.;
These roots are represented
the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed
its centre
in the unit circle with at the



Q+4n
3
origin. The figure shows that to the root x1
corresponds the argument Hence the equa-
tion :03: cos¢ +isin gbis the analytic expres-
sion of the problem of the trisection of the
angle. No root of the equation can be expressed
as a rational function of c0s¢ and sin¢.
That is, the equation is irreducible and can be
solved by the aid of a finite number of square
roots only for special values of ¢. Hence the
trisection of an arbitrary angle cannot be ef-
fected with straight edge and compasses. Con-
sult: Klein, Famous Problems of Elementary
Geometry (1896, Eng. ed., Boston, 1897).
TRIS'MEGIS’TUS. See HERMETIO.
TRIS’M'US NASCEN’TIUM (Neo-Lat., lock-
jaw of the new born). A form of lockjaw occur-
ring in newly born children a few days after
birth. In consequence of it the children cannot
nurse or cry, and they usually die in forty-eight
hours. In some cases the attack comes in eight
or ten days after birth. The cause is infection
with the tetanus poison, probably always through
the wound in the umbilical cord. See TETANUS.
TRISSINO, tres-sé’no, GIOVANNI Groncro
(1478-1550). An Italian author, born at Vicenza.
Excluded from his native territory by the Signoria
of Venice, he spent some time in Germany, at
Ferrara, and at Florence, and in 1514 went to
Rome, where he was received with favor by Pope
Leo X., who sent him on missions to the Em-
peror Maximilian and to the Signoria of Venice.
At the instance of Leo X., the ban of proscrip-
tion was taken off. He enjoyed the esteem of
Popes Clement VII. and Paul III., and passed
some time at Venice as nuncio of the former
pontiff. He died in Rome December 8, 1550.
Trissino sought to revive the epic in his mother
tongue ; he gave to the Italian stage its first
regular tragedy, and he made the first large use
of the hendecasyllable in blank verse. His at-
tempt to produce an epic poem resulted in the
I talia liberata dai Goti, a work of twenty-seven
cantos in eleven-syllabled blank verse, completed
in 1548. Blank verse and the hendecasyllable are
used also in Trissino’s Sofonisba (1515), which,
although it has not the conventional division into
acts, is regarded as the first regular tragedy in
the modern languages of Europe. In a comedy, I
Simillimi, which is a free imitation of the
Menaechmi of Plautus, Trissino adopted his fa-
vorite eleven-syllabled blank verse and introduced
certain lyrical strophes like those employed in
the Greek comedy. Some Latin poems, a Canzone
a Clemente VII ., and various Rime make up the
rest of his compositions in verse. Trissino gave new
life to the already mooted question of the proper
Italian tongue with his edition of the De Vulgari
Eloquio of Dante in 1529; and his treatise, Il
Castellano, advocated the doctrine of a general
Italian tongue as opposed to a merely Tuscan
standard. Of his remaining works there may
be mentioned the Poetica. Consult: Morsolin,
Giangiorgio Trissino, monografia di un letterato
del secolo XVI. (2d ed., Florence, 1894) ; Ciam-
polini, La primh tragcdia regolare nella lettera-
tura italiana (Lucca, 1884).
TRISSOTIN, tre’so’taN’. A poet in Moliere’s
Femmes sauantes, satirizing a gallant preacher,
Abbé Cotin.
TRIST, NICHOLAS PHILIP (1800-74). An
American lawyer and diplomatic agent, born at
Charlottesville, Va. He was educated at the
United States Military Academy, but did not
graduate. He studied law under the direction of
Thomas Jefferson, whose granddaughter he mar-
ried, and of whose household he was a member,
but became a clerk in the United States Treas-
ury Department in 1824, and was private secre-
tary to President Jackson in 1829. In 1834-36
he was United States Consul at Havana, and in
1845 he was chief clerk in the Department of
State. During the Mexican VVar, after the
American successes at Buena Vista and Vera
Cruz, President Polk, on April 15, 1847, ap-
pointed Trist a special agent to negotiate for
peace, but without notifying General Scott. On
the arrival of Trist a violent quarrel ensued be-
tween him and Scott. Negotiations, however,
were fruitless until after the capture of the City
of Mexico and the resignation of Santa Anna as
President. The succeeding Government wished
to make terms and Trist, though his powers had
been withdrawn, feeling that the strong desire for
peace in the United States would excuse the ir-
regularity, proceeded with the negotiations,
by the advice of General Scott, who had now
become his friend. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hi-
TRIST.
TRISTRAM.
930
dalgo was signed February 2, 1848, and was
ratified by the United States Senate.
'1‘RIS"1‘A1\T. See TBISTBAM.
TRISTAN DA CUNHA, tris-tan’ dxa
k55n’ya. A group of three small volcanic islands
in the South Atlantic Ocean, situated in 37° 6’
south latitude, 12° 1' west longitude, 1500 miles
south-southwest of Saint Helena, and nearly mid-
way between Cape Town and Buenos Ayres
(Map: VVorld, Eastern Hemisphere, N 19).
Total area, 44 square miles. The largest
and only‘ inhabited island consists of an ex-
tinct volcano 8500 feet high. The climate
is equable and healthful. The inhabitants
numbered over 100 in 1880, but only 64 in 1897.
They are chiefly the descendants of the British
soldiers stationed there during Napoleon’s cap-
tivity at Saint Helena, and of settlers from whal-
ing ships. They are supported by agriculture
and have a considerable number of cattle. The
islands were discovered in 1506 by the Portuguese
navigator Tristan da Cunha, and were taken
by Great Britain in 1816.
TRIS’TIA. (Lat., laments). Five books of
short poems, in the elegiac metre, written by
Ovid between 9 and 12 AD. during his banish-
ment at Tomi. The poems are letters to friends
at home, recalling his former life, describing his
present surroundings, and appealing for a miti-
gation of his harsh lot. '
TRIS'TRAM, TRISTREM, or TRISTAN.
The hero of a Welsh or Armorican romance origi-
nally distinct from the Arthurian cycle, but early
incorporated with it. Tristram was the son of
Roland of Ermonie by Blanchefleur, sister to King
Mark of Cornwall. His father slain, his mother
dead of grief (which she expressed in the child’s
very name), Tristram was reared by a faithful
steward. At the age of fifteen he drifted to the
Court of his uncle, King Mark, whose favor he
won by his skill in the chase and in minstrelsy.
He slew in mortal combat Moraunt, brother of
the Queen of Ireland, who had come to demand
tribute from King Mark. After suffering for
three years from severe wounds, he sailed to Ire-
land, where they were healed by Iseult (vari-
ously spelled), daughter of the Queen. On his
return to Cornwall, Tristram told his uncle of the
marvelous beauty of the Irish princess, and was
sent back to Ireland to ask her hand in marriage
for the King. On the voyage from Ireland to
Cornwall, Tristram and Iseult drank of a love-
-potion intended for King Mark and ever after
loved each other. Iseult married Mark, but con-
trived, with the aid of her clever maid, to have
many secret interviews with Tristram. At length
the lovers were discovered, and Tristram fled to
Wales, and later to Brittany, where he married
another Iseult, the White-handed, daughter to
Duke Florentine; but he never forgot Iseult
of Ireland. Desperately wounded, he sent a
messenger to Cornwall to summon her to heal
him once more. He directed the messenger to
hoist a white sail on the return voyage if the
princess were on board; if not, a black sail. The
Queen of Cornwall hastened to save her lover. As
the vessel neared the shores of Brittany, Iseult
of the White Hand saw the white sail; but,
fired with jealous hate for her rival, she told her
husband that the sail was black. Tristram sank
back and died. Iseult of Ireland fell prostrate
over the body of Tristram and died of a broken
heart. King Mark subsequently learned the
story of the love-potion, and buried the lovers in
one grave, planting over Iseult a rose and over
Tristram a vine, growing so intertwined that no
one could separate them
This passionate story, having some basis in
Celtic myth, got into literature in the twelfth
century and spread through VVestern' Europe. It
may be traced back to a poem, now existing only
in fragments, by an Anglo-Norman trouvere
named Béroul (about 1150). A little later than
this (about 1160), the theme was treated by
Chrestien de Troyes (q.v.) in a poem now lost.
So far as has been determined, the source of the
many later Tristrams is a very prolix poem by an
Anglo-Norman named Thomas (about 1170).
Before'the close of the twelfth century Tristram
and Iseult were among the favorite themes of the
tioubadours. From the French the romance
passed into the German Tristrant (about 1175)
by Eilhard of Oberge and the Tristant and Isolde
(between 1200 and 1225) by Gottfried of Strass-
burg. Gottfried’s poem, extending to 19,573
lines, is the most beautiful of all early versions.
Left incomplete, it was continued by Ulric of Tiir-
heim and by Henry of Freiburg. The great popu-
larity of the romance in Germany is further at-
tested by numerous chapbooks. To the year 1226
belongs a Scandinavian version, Tristram Saga
olc Isondar, and this in turn was put into Ice-
landic prose. The earliest extant English version
is known as Sir Tristrem. The only extant manu-
script belongs to the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury. It was composed in the last part of the
thirteenth century, and has been ascribed to
Thomas the Rhymer (q.v.). In 1469 was pub-
lished at Rouen an immense prose Tristram in
French, which was translated into German,
Spanish, and Italian. It was also used by Sir
Thomas Malory (q.v.) for his Morte D’Arthar
(1485) . In the nineteenth century Tristram and
Iseult became a favorite theme in England and
Germany. Following Malory, Tennyson wove the
story into the Idylls of the King (“The Last
Tournament”). In his noble Tristram and I seult,
Matthew. Arnold awakened pity for Iseult of Brit-
tany. But Swinburne in his Tristram of Lyon-
esse best expressed the tremendous passion of the
mediaeval tale. The theme was also treated by
Karl Immerniann (1841), and splendidly by
Wagner in his operatic poem Tristan and Isolde
(1859). Consult the English Sir Tristrem as
edited by G. P. McNeill for the “Scottish Text
Society” (Edinburgh, 1886), and by E. Kiilbing
in Die nordische and die englisohe Version der
Tristansage (Heilbronn, 1878-82); also Golther,
Die Sage von Tristan and Isolde (Miinich, 1887).
A charming version of the Tristram story is that
of J. Bédier, Le roman de Tristan et Iseat (5th
ed., Paris, 1902).
TRISTRAM, HENRY BAKER (1822—-). An
English clergyman, traveler, and author, born
at Eglingham, Northumberland. He graduated
at Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1844, and in 1880
became rural dean of Durham. He traveled ex-
tensively in biblical lands and elsewhere, and
published, among other works: The Great Sahara
(1860); Land of Israel (1865; 2d ed. 1882);
Natural History of the Bible (1867; 5th ed.
1880) ; Bible Places, or Topography of the Holy
Land (1872-97); Land of Moa-b (1873; 2d ed.
TRISTRAM.
TRIUMPH.
931
1874); Pathways of Palestine (2 vols., 1882);
Fauna and Flora of Palestine (1884) ; and East-
ern Customs in Bible Lands (1894).
TRISTRAM SHANDY, THE LIFE AND
OPINIONS OF. A novel by Laurence Sterne in 9
volumes (1759-67). The plot is slight and with-
out continuity. The chief interest of the work
is in its painting of individual characters: Wal-
ter Shandy, the father of the nominal hero, a man
of varied and useless learning; Captain Shandy
(Uncle Toby), the real hero of the story; Cor-
poral Trim, and Yorick, whose figures stand out
from a background of satire, drollery, and philo-
sophical disquisitions.
TRITHE’MIUS, JOHANNES (1462-1516). A
German Catholic theologian and historian. His
real name was Heidenberg, but he was called
Tritheim or Trithemius from his birthplace,
Trittenheim. In 1482 he entered the Bene-
dictine monastery at Sponheim, near Kreuznach,
and in 1483 became its abbot. Here he col-
lected a library which made the house famous.
His rule was strict, and his monks resented
his long absence in the neighboring country,
so in 1506 he exchanged Sponheim for the Scotch
monastery of Saint James at Wiirzburg, and
there he died. His writings are very numer-
ous ; the principal ones are his sermons to monks
(1576), but of greater value are his familiar
letters (published 1536). He was also a pioneer
author in German Church history, and invented
a popular system of shorthand, Steganographia
(Frankfort, 1606, n. e. 1635), for which see
Bailey, John Dee and the Steganographia of
Trithemius (London, 1879). Consult his Life by
L. Silbcrnagel (2d ed., Landshut, 1868) ; Schnee-
farn, Abt Johannes Trithemius und K loster Spon-
heirn (Kreuznach, 1882) .
TRI’TON (Lat., from Gk. Tpirem). In Greek
mythology, a son of Poseidon and Amphitrite,
who dwells with his parents in a golden palace at
the bottom of the sea. He seems especially con-
nected with Boeotia, and was perhaps originally
a local divinity of Alalkamenee or Tanagra. In
this region took place the conflict of Hercules
with Triton, which was a favorite subject in early
works of art. In the fourth century 13.0. and
later, we find a whole race of Tritons, to be com-
pared with Panes, Sileni, and similar multiplica-
tions. In art they are at first human to the
breast or waist, ending in the tail of a sea-ser-
pent or fish. In later art we find the legs re-
placed by fishes’ tails, or else the figure that of
a sea-centaur, with the head and trunk of a man,
the fore legs and body of a horse, and passing
into a serpent with a fish’s tail. Characteristic
is Triton’s conch-shell, on which he is represented
as blowing stormily or gently. Pausanias (ix.
22) describes a Triton exhibited in Rome, which
differed from the rep-
resentations in art,
and seems to have
been the ingenious
fabrication of some
ancient showman.
TRITON. (1) A
genus of aquatic am-
phibians, the newts
(q.v.). (2) Any of
several large gastropod shells, especially a large
species (Triton Tritonis), having a spiral shell


TRITON CONVERTED INTO A
WAR-TRUMPET.
more than a foot long, which is used as a war-
trumpet by natives of the South Sea Islands, the
example illustrated being one from the Admiralty
Islands.
TRITONE (from Gk. rplrovos, tritonos, hav-
ing three tones, from 1-peis, treis, three + 1-bvos,
tones, tone, sound, tension, strength, cord). In
music, a term denoting the augmented fourth
which is a succession of three whole tones, as
F—B. A progression by the interval of the tri-
tone was strictly forbidden by the older theorists.
Even in modern music it is used but sparingly.
TRITYI/ODON (Neo-Lat., from Gk. -rpeis,
treis, three + 1-t)\os, tylos, knob, knot, callus +
66018, odous, tooth). A small extinct reptile of
the suborder Theriodontia, known by its skull,
which has a remarkably mammalian expression
and which is found in the Karoo beds of South
Africa. See Tnnsomonrna.
TRIUMPH (Lat. triu/mphus, OLat. triumpus,
triumph, victory, shout of joy, Gk. Oplaufios.
thriambos, procession at the feast of Bacchus,
name of Bacchus; of uncertain etymology). The
name given in ancient Rome to the highest public
honor bestowed on a general who had been suc-
cessful in war. The victor, after having pro-
nounced a eulogy on the bravery of his soldiers,
ascended his triumphal car and passed through
the Porta Triumphalis (which probably stood on
the Campus Martius) , where the senate met him,
and the procession was organized and entered the
city, passing by the Via Sacra to the Capitol.
First marched the senate, headed by the magis-
trates; next came a body of trumpeters; then a
train of carriages and frames laden with the
spoils of the vanquished; then a body of flute-
players, followed by the oxen to be sacrificed, and
the sacrificing priests; then the distinguished
captives with bands of inferior prisoners in
chains; after whom walked the lictors of the im-
perator, having the fasces wreathed with laurel.
Next came the hero of the day—the imperator—-
in a circular chariot. He was attired in an em-
broidered robe and flowered tunic, bearirig in his
right hand a laurel bough, in his left a sceptre,
and having his brows garlanded with Delphic
laurel. He was accompanied by his children and
his intimate friends. His grown-up sons, the
legates, tribunes, and equites, rode behind; and
the rear was brought up by the rest of the sol-
diery, singing or jesting at their pleasure, for it
was a day of carnival and license. When the
procession had reached the foot of the Capitoline
some of the captive chiefs were put to death; the
procession, after waiting to hear their death an-
nounced, mounted to the Temple of Jupiter Capi-
tolinus, where the oxen were sacrificed, and the
laurel wreath placed in the lap of Jupiter. In
the evening the imperator was publicly feasted,
and it was customary to provide him a site for a
house at the public expense. Under the Empire
generals serving abroad were considered to be the
Emperor’s lieutenants, and therefore, however
successful in their wars, they had no claim to a
triumph. They received instead triumphal deco-
rations and other rewards.
The ovation, or lesser triumph, differed from
the greater chiefly in these respects: that the
imperator entered the city on foot, clad in the
simple toga prceteazta of a magistrate, and wear-
ing a wreath, not of laurel, but of myrtle; that
TRIUMPH.
TBOCHU.
932
he bore no sceptre, was not preceded by the sen-
ate and flourish of trumpets, nor followed by his
victorious troops, but only by the equites and
the populace, and that the ceremonies were con-
cluded by the sacrifice of a sheep instead of a
bull, whence, doubtless, the name ovation (from
ovis, a sheep). Some variations of these cere-,
monies are found in various authorities and on
various monuments. '
TRIUMVIRATE ( Lat. triumviratus, office of
a triumvir, union of three men, from triumvir,
one of a board of three men associated in a
public office, from trium, gen. pl. of tres, three
+ vir, man) . The name given in Roman history
to the private league entered into between Pom-
pey, Ceesar, and Crassus—the- three most power-
ful men of their time. This compact was not a
triumvirate, in the proper sense of the term; it
had no legally constituted existence. The term
is also applied to the division of government be-
tween Octavian (Augustus), Antoniu's, and Lepi-
dus in the civil wars that followed the murder of
Caesar—an arrangement sanctioned, and there-
fore legalized, by the senate. The former is
usually called the first, the latter the second
triumvirate.
TRIVAN’DRUM. A military cantonment
and the capital of the native State of Travancore
(q.v.), Madras, India, 53 miles southwest of
Tinnevelli and about 2 miles from the Arabian
Sea (Map: India, C 7) . Among the features are
the fort with its Maharaja palaces, the temple to
Vishnu, the observatory, and the Napier Museum.
The Maharaja College here is one of the leading
institutions for higher education in India. There
is also a Sanskrit college. W'ood-carving is the
principal industry. Population, in 1901, includ-
ing cantonment, 57,882.
TBIV’ET (or TREVET), Nrcnoms (c.1258-
1328) . An English historian, belonging probably
to a Somerset family. He is said to have studied
at Oxford and at Paris, and to have been a Do-
minican friar in London, becoming eventually the
prior of his house- He wrote extensively on the-
ology arid Latin literature, but he is chiefly
known for his Annales sea: Regum Anglia; qui a
Comitibus Andegavensibus Originem Traocerunt
(ed. by T. Hog for the English Historical So-
ciety, 1845) . This chronicle history of the Ange-
vins is particularly valuable for the reign of
Edward I., the period in which the author flour-
ished. The entire period covered by the Annalee
is from 1136 to 1307.
TRIVIER, tre’vya’, Ems-fins CAMILLE ERNEST
(l842—). A French explorer, born at Roche-
fort. He served in the expedition sent out by
Napoleon III. to Mexico, and afterwards spent
several years in Argentina. In 1888 he was sent
out by the journal La Gironde of Bordeaux to
search for the explorer Stanley. With a single
white companion and two Sengalis he started
from Loango on the west coast in December of
1888, and a little less than a year afterwards
reached Zanzibar. Upon his return to France he
published Mon voyage au continent noir.
'].‘RIV’I'UM (Lat., meeting of three roads).
In the curriculum of the early universities, the
lower section of the Seven Liberal Arts. It em-
braced grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
TROADES, tro'a-déz (Lat., from Gk. Tpqniies,
the Trojan Women). A play by Euripides (B.C.
455), the scene of which is laid at Troy in the
Grecian camp, where the captured would have
been allotted to their conquerors. The play is
made up of wonderful scenes of the fall of Troy,
but lacks unity, and is marred by rhetorical dis- ‘
play.
TROCADERO, tro’ka’da’ro’. An elevation on
the right bank of the Seine, opposite the Pont d’
Iéna, named after a Spanish fort near Cadiz
taken by the French in 1823. The ‘ground was
laid out in terraces for the Exhibition of 1867,
and for that of 1878 the present Palais du Troca-
déro was erected. The building, an immense
structure in Oriental style, consists of a central
portion flanked by curving wings each 220 yards
in length. In the middle facade is a balcony
with six allegorical bronze figures; below it a
large cascade falls into a basin 196 feet in diam-
eter. The building is surrounded by a small
park with an aquarium, and contains a hall for
concerts seating 6000, and important museums of
comparative sculpture and ethnography.
TROCHEE, tro’ke (Lat. trochceus, from Gk.
1-poxaios, trochaios, trochee, tribrach, running,
from -rpoxbs, trochos, a running, from Tpéxcw,
trechein, to run). The name of a foot, or meas-
ure, in Greek and Latin verse, consisting of a
long and a short syllable (— V ). This rapid
measure was employed both in tragedy and in
comedy. By analogy the term is used in modern
verse to designate a dissyllabic measure consist-
ing of a stressed and an unstressed syllable; for
example:
When shall we three meet again’?
See VERSIFICATION.
TRQCHILIDZE, tro-kil’i-dé. The family of
the humming-birds (q.v.) .
TROCHILUS, tro’ki-lus.
genus of humming-birds (q.v.). (2) the Ancient
name of a certain plover. See CROCODILE-BIRD.
TROCHOID, tro’koid. See CYCLOID.
TROCHOSPHERE, or Tnocnornonn. A
larval form common to many of the lower in-
vertebrates, which consists of an oval or pear-
like body of miscroscopic minuteness, with a
broader and a narrower end, and a distinct bi-
lateral symmetry. The body is encircled by a
double zone of strong cilia.- The mouth, just
behind this circlet, leads into an alimentary
which winds toward the small end, where an
anal aperture opens. The broader end exhibits
sense-organs varying in different species in num-
ber and character. From this kind of larva the
adult forms of the higher groups (_many worms,
polyzoans, mollusks, etc.) are developed by some
sort of true metamorphosis, resulting in an ani-
mal utterly different; but in certain very lowly
groups, such as the wheel-animalcules (Rotifera)
and certain closely allied microscopic aquatic
forms, no metamorphosis occurs, and the adult
may be looked upon as a somewhat modified
-trochosphere. These groups have therefore been
associated by some zoiilogists into a phylum
termed Trochelminthes. Consult Parker and
Haswell, Tent-book of Zoology (New York, 1897).
TROCHU, tro’sh1_1', Lours JULES (1815-96).
A French general, born at Palais, in the Depart-
ment of Morbihan. After studying in the General
Staff Academy, he fought, after 1846, with great
distinction in Algeria, and in 1'85l became head of
( 1 ) The typical
TROGON, HOOPOE, ETC.

1. GREEN TROGON or QUETZAL (Pharomacru:
moclnno)
2. LESSER HONEY-GUIDE flndlcator minor).
3. YELLOWPTHROATED BARBET (Caplto Rlchlrdsonlil.
4. CAYENNE PUFF-BIRD fBuO¢O Ordil.
5. MADAGASCAR HOOPOE (Upupa marglnata).
TROCHU.
TROGUS POMPEIUS.
933
a bureau in the Ministry of War. During the
Crimean War he served as aid to Saint-Arnaud
and Canrobert, Was made a general of brigade,
and at Sebastopol distinguished himself in the
storming of the Malakoif bastion, September 8,
1855. As general of division during the Austro-
Italian war of 1859 he did excellent service at
Solferino, assuming, after the conclusion of peace,
an important post in the War Department. In
1867 he published, anonymously, L’ar/mée fran-
gaise en 1867, in which he criticised severely the
defects in the French army organization, thereby
losing favor at Court. After the outbreak of the
war with Germany, he became, August, 1870,
Governor of Paris, and on the downfall of the
Second Empire, after Sedan, was made head of
the Government of National Defense, remaining
at the same time in command of the military
forces of the city. His half-hearted defense of
the capital subjected him to bitter criticism,
and when further resistance to the besieging
forces had become impossible, he laid down
the office of Governor, January 22, 1871, a
week before the capitulation of the city. He re-
mained at the head of the Government till the
meeting of the National Assembly, of which he
was a member. In 1873 he resigned from the
army and retired to private life. He died at
Tours October 7, 1896. In defense of his con-
duct during the siege of Paris, he published
L’empire et la défense de Paris deocmt le jury
de la Seine (187 2) ; Pour la vérite et pour la jus-
tice (1873); La politique et le siége de Paris
(1874).
TROCTOLITE ‘(from Gk. rpwm-6s, tr6ktos,
that which can be gnawed, from rpdryew, tr6gein,
to gnaw + Mfios, lithos, stone). An olivine
gabbro (q.v.), especially rich in serpentinized
olivine, in Germany called Forellenstein (trout-
stone.)
'.l‘R(E’ZEN (Lat., from Gk. Tpo¢g“fiv, Troizén).
An ancient city of Greece in Argolis, about 2 miles
from the Saronic Gulf, nearly opposite Calauria.
It played some part in Greek legend, being closely
associated with Attica, as the birthplace of
Theseus, whose mother, ]Ethra, was daughter
of King Pittheus. Here also was localized the
story of the fatal love of Phaedra (q.v.) for her
stepson Hippolytus (q.v.). In historic times it
was a Dorian city. During the invasion of
Xerxes it took a prominent part in the defense of
Greece-, sending ships to the Greek fleet, and re-
ceiving with great kindness the Athenian women
and children when driven from their city by the
Persian advance. It was later a faithful ally of
Sparta during the Peloponnegian and Corinthi-
an wars. Under the Macedonian supremacy it
changed masters frequently, now being in the
hands of Macedon, again under Sparta, and again
brought by Aratus into the Achaean League. In
Roman times it seems to have continued to
flourish, for Pausanias (q.v.) gives a somewhat
detailed account of the objects of interest in the
place. The site near the modern village of Da-
mala is marked by few ruins, and excavations
undertaken by the French School at Athens have
brought to light little beyond the foundations of
some large buildings of rather uncertain use.
TROGLODYTES, tr6g’li5-di'téz ( Lat. troglo-
dyta, from Gk. rpw77\o66rns, troglodytes, cave-
dweller, one who creeps into holes, from rpdn/M7,
tr6gZé, cave, hole + 515cm, dyein, to enter, creep
into). The name given by the Greeks to tribes or
races of uncivilized men, who dwelt either in nat-
ural caverns, or in holes which they had dug for
themselves in the earth. They are mentioned by
Strabo as existing as far west as Mauretania, and
as far east as the Caucasus. Perhaps the best-
known troglodytes of ancient time-s were those
of Southern Egypt and Ethiopia, where a consid-
erable extent of country was called Regio Trag-
lodytica. According to the Greek accounts they
could not speak articulately, but shrieked or
screamed like the lower animals. Their chief oc-
cupation was herding cattle, and their habits of
life were rude and debased. They are reported
to have eaten not only the flesh, but the bones
and hides of their cattle; their drink is said to
have been a mixture of milk and blood; and they
had a community of wives. They went almost
naked, and put to death the aged and infirm.
The name is occasionally applied loosely to any
class of cave-dwellers (q.v.).
TROGON (Neo-Lat., from Gk. 1'pa':'ywv, pres.
part. of 1-péryew, tr6gein, to gnaw). A bird of
the family Trogonidac, including about 50 species
remarkable for’ the beauty of their plumage,
which is soft, full, and brightly colored. The
bill is short, strong, with a wide gape; the tail
generally long, in some species very long; the
feet small, and frequently feathered almost to the
toes. The toes are two in front and two behind,
but, unlike all other zygodactylous birds, the
reversed toe-s are the first and second instead of
the first and fourth. All the trogons are tropical.
They abound most of all in South America, but a
number occur in Asia and a few in Africa. One
species, the copper-tailed trogon (Trogon ambig-
uus), is found as far north as the valley of the
Rio Grande.
tallic golden green, throat white, breast and belly
carmine, middle tail feathers coppery green, the
rest of the tail white and black. The most gor-
geous of the trogons is the quetzal (q.v.). Tro-
gons are usually seen singly or in small flocks, and
are unsuspicious. They remain most of the time
in the thick forest, resting quietly during the
heat of the day. The Old VVorld species feed
principally on insects, but American trogons eat
much fruit, and also catch insects, crabs, crayfish, '
small lizards, snails, and the like, getting most of
this food on the wing or by clinging to the
branches of trees, like woodpeckers or mouse-
birds. Their notes are loud, rather discordant
cries, varied by clucking, whistling, and other
strange notes. No nest is made, the round
whitish eggs being laid in a hole excavated in a
rotting tree-stub. The group is ancient, as is
known by fossil examples, and sufficiently dis-
tinct to be ranked as a suborder. Extended ac-
counts of the American trogons are given by
Sclater and Salvin in Biologic Oentrali-Ameri-'
ccma, vol. iii. (London, 1896). See Plate of
Tsocon, Hooron, ETC.
'1‘R0’GUS POMPE’IUS. A Roman historian
of Gallic origin who lived during the reign of
Augustus, son of one of Caesar’s secretaries. He
was the author of Historic; Philippicaa (in 44
books), a universal history from the time of Ni-
nus, King of Assyria, down to A.D. 5. The origi-
nal work, which was drawn from some of the
best Greek historical writers, is lost, but an epit-
It is 11 inches long, bright me-'
TROGUS POMPEIUS.
TROLLING.
934
ome of it by Justin is still extant. In addition to
the historical narrative, the work is said to have
contained interesting accounts relating to geogra-
phy, ethnography, and natural science. Trogus
is said to have written several zoiilogical and
botanical works, based largely on the works of
Aristotle and Theophrastus. Consult: Heeren,
Commentationes de Trogi Pompeii ejnsque Epito-
matoris Justini Fontibus et Anctoritate, printed
in Frotscher’s edition of Justinus (Leipzig, 1827 -
30) ; and Crohn, De Trogi apnd Antiquos Auctori-
tate (Strassburg, 1882) .
TRO’ILUS (Lat., from Gk. Tpwihos). A son
of Priam, or of Apollo, who was slain by Achilles.
TROILUS AND CRES’SIDA. A drama by
Shakespeare, probably originally written about
1602 and revised before 1609, when it was printed
in two editions. The sources were probably
Chaucer, Le Fevre’s Recnyen of the Histories of
Troye, Lydgate’s Troy-Boole, and perhaps Chap-
man’s Homer, partly translated in 1597.
TROIS MOUSQUETAIRES, trwa mus'ke-
tar’, LES (Fr., The Three Musketeers) . A romance
by Dumas (1844) . The scene is laid-in the time
of Richelieu, in whose affairs the three famous
guardsmen Athos, Porthos, and Aramis and their
companion D’Artagnan take part.
TROITZK, trG'itsk. A town in the Govern-
ment of Orenburg, Russia, on the Uya, 394 miles
northeast of Orenburg (Map: Russia, K 4).
It has a ‘barter court,’ where an extensive
barter trade with the Kirghizes and other tribes
is transacted. Population, in 1897, 23,100.
TROJAN WAR. A famous legendary war,
generally placed about the beginning of the
twelfth century B.C.; undertaken by the Greeks
for the recovery of Helen, wife of King Menc-
laus of Sparta, who had been carried off by
Paris, son of the Trojan King, Priam. At the
marriage of Peleus and Thetis, Paris had ad-
judged the golden apple thrown by Eris, and in-
scribed “For the Fairest,” to Aphrodite, there-
by securing Helen by her favor and bringing
down on the Trojans the lasting wrath of the
slighted Hera and Athene. The expedition to
avenge the injury to Menelaus was placed under
-the command of his brother, Agamemnon, King
of Argos, and was joined by the Greek heroes,
including Achilles, Patroclus, the two Ajaxes,
Teucer, Nestor, Odysseus, Diomedes, and Ido-
meneus. They assembled at Aulis with 100,-
000 men and 1186 ships and proceeded to Troy,
where their demand for the return of Helen was
refused. The siege was then begun. It lasted
ten years and terminated only by ‘treachery,
when the Greek warriors were introduced into
the city in the interior of a great wooden horse.
The sack and burning of Troy follow, with the
escape of ZEneas, whose progeny were to be the
founders of Rome.
The story of the war is told in various classical
epic poems, of which the Iliad is the most fa-
mous. It terminates with the death of Hector,
the principal hero of the Trojans. The Little
Iliad, ascribed to Lesches of Lesbos, was com-
posed about B.C. 660. In four books it gave the
story of the contest of Odysseus and Ajax, son
of Telamon, for the armor of Achilles, the deaths
of Ajax, Paris, and Eurypylus, the stealing of
the Palladium, and the construction of the
wooden horse. At this point the legend was
taken up by the I lion Persis or Sack of Troy, by
Arctinus, in two books, ending with the escape of
Polyxena at the tomb of Achilles. The Nostoi
(Returns), attributed to Agias of Troezen, in
five books, told of the wanderings of Menelaus,
Calchas, and Neoptolemus, and the murder of
Agamemnon. The Telegonia, by Eugammon of
Cyrene, related various adventures of Odysseus
after the slaying of the suitors, his death at the
hands of his son Telegonus, and the latter’s
marriage to Penelope.
The legendary history of Troy before the Tro-
jan War, like other Greek myths, varied much
in details. It was said that the place owed its
name to Ilus, son of Tros, son of Dardanus. Its
walls were built by Poseidon for Laomedon, who,
however, cheated the god of his promised reward.
Hercules rescued Hesione, the daughter of Lao-
medon, from the sea-monster to which she had
been exposed, but was likewise cheated by the
King, whereupon he and Telamon attacked and
captured the city.
The Trojan legend was very popular in the
Middle Ages, and formed, with the Charlemagne
story and the Arthurian traditions, one -of the
three great divisions into which the work of the
French romance-writers falls. Celtic legends
tell of a certain Brutus who, driven from Troy,
founded Brutannia or Britannia. Geoffrey of
Monmouth calls him a great-grandson of ZEneas.
The spread of the legend is due mainly to Be-
noit de Sainte-More. The gist of the Iliad was
used in the Latin of Dictys of Crete and by Dares
the Phrygian. Benoit knew both Dictys and
Dares, but preferred the drier account of the
latter, in which the people of the West were re-
ported to. descend from the Trojans. This was
used about 1200 by Herbart von Fritzlar, and
about 1250 by Konrad von Wiirzburg; before
1288 Guido della Colonna had recast it in Latin
prose. Benoit’s version may also be traced in
Boccaccio’s Filostrato (1344). This is the main
source of Chaucer’s Troylus and Cryseyde (c.
1369), as that is of Shakespeare’s play. Consult:
Dunger, Die Sage oom trojanischen Kriege in den
Bearbeitnngen des M ittelalters (Dresden, 1869) ;
Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and
the Rise of Allegory (London, 1897).
TROLLEY (from troll, from OF. troller, tran-
ler, troler, Fr. tr-oler, to ramble, stroll, drag
about, probably from MHG., Ger. trollen, to roll,
run, and connected with Welsh troell, wheel,
pulley, Bret. tr6el, winding plant, tn6, circle).
A word first coined in England, and there used
in the sense of a handcart and then of a truck.
In the United States it means a sort of pulley
in contact with an overhead wire and connected
with a rod or flexible conductor, by which an
electric current is transmitted to the motor of
a street-car or electric locomotive. See ELEC-
TRIO RAILWAYS.
TROLLING. A form of angling. Some troll-
ing is from a boat, the rowing of which gives
impulse to the line; others troll from the river
or lake bank, winding in the bait with the reel,
and still others troll in the surf, where the cur-
rent of tides or undertow of the sea carries
the bait. Whichever form is adopted the lure is
a spoon-bait, or live or artificial fish or frog.
The bait spins in passing through the water, and
rnoLL11ve.
TROLLOPE.
935
a swivel at each end of the leader is always nec-
essary to prevent the twisting of the line. The
heaviest fish trolled for in fresh water is the
maskinonge, the standard bait for which is a
frog alive or imitation, but the surest is the
spoon, preferably showing a golden hue, size No.
8, the feathers at the head of which should be
bright scarlet, and a single hook. The bluefish
is taken by trolling from a boat in motion, or
from a stationary boat, into the waters around
which have been thrown small pieces of men-
haden. The Spanish mackerel is taken by troll-
ing, and many other fish of the Atlantic and
Pacific and of the Gulf. Off the Florida coast
and in the Gulf the tarpon is taken by trolling
from a slowly rowed boat. About 100 feet of
line is trailed from the rod; the line has a piano-
wire snell and a fish line at the outer end. On
the California coast the tuna, the yellow-tail,
and barracuda have been taken on hook. See
ANGLING; FLY-CASTING; BAIT-FISHING.
TBOLLIUS. See GLOBE—FLOWEB.-
TROLLOPE, trol’l1'1p, ANTHONY (1815-82).
An English novelist, born in London, April 24,
1815, son of Frances Trollope (q.v.) . Educated at
Winchester and at Harrow, he proved a dull
scholar, and his poverty made his school days
most unhappy. About 1835 he obtained an
official position in the General Post-Oflice in
London. While connected with that depart-
ment he found time to amuse the public with
a long series of novels of remarkable merit. The
first work which attracted serious attention to
him, The Warden (1855), was followed by a con-
tinuation entitled Barchester Towers (1857),
which remains, perhaps, the most widely read of
all his books. In rapid succession to these came
Dr. Thorne (1858), The Three Clerks (1858),
The Bertrams (1859), Castle Richmond (1860),
Framley Parsonage (1861), Orley Farm (1862),
The Small House at Allington (1864), Can You
Forgive Her? (1864-65), Phineas Finn (1869),
The Eustace Diamonds (1873), Phineas Reduw
(1874), The Way We Live Now (1875), Is He
Popenjoy? (1878), and other novels. Trollope
also published several pleasant volumes of travel,
among them being North America (1862), Aus-
tralia and New Zealand (187 4) , and South Africa
(1878) . In biography, he wrote a Life of Caesar
(1870), and one of Cicero (1880), besides
sketches of Thackeray (1879) and Palmerston
(1882). He died at Harting, Sussex, December
6, 1882.
Trollope is one of the most admirable of
the English realists. He delineates the English
society of his time with wonderful penetration,
and with an equal command of humor and of
pathos. Hawthorne wrote of his novels: “They
precisely suit my ta.ste—-solid and substantial
. . and just as real as if some giant had
hewn a great lump out of the earth and put it
under a glass case with all the inhabitants going
about their daily business and not suspecting that
they were being made a show of.” He particu-
larly excels in depicting life in the cathedral
towns; and his portraits of bishops, archdeacons,
and the minor clergy are remarkable for their
truth and humor. His Mrs. Proudie, who ap-
pears in Barchester Towers and again in The
Last Chronicle of Barset (1867), is the finest
shrew since Shakespeare’s Katherine. Very at-
tractive, too, are his young girls, as Lily Dale,
Mary Thorne, and Grace Crawley. Trollope
did not himself lay any especial claim to psycho-
logical insight; yet it would be hard to find in
English fiction anything more true and delicate
than his analysis of the conscience of Septimus
Harding, in The Warden; or anything more
poignant than his study of jealousy in He Knew
He Was Right. His Lizzie Eustace, in The
Eustace Diamonds, is a type _of insincerity and
selfishness worthy to be set beside Thackeray’s
Becky Sharp. His snobs, his rustics, and his
husband-hunting young women are all drawn with
surprising vividness. On the whole, Trollope’s
best work is contained in The Chronicles of Bar-
setshire (13 vols., New York, 1892) ; yet many
of his less read novels, such as The lVay We Live
N ow, The American Senator, and The Claverings,
are very little inferior. Curious facts concern-
ing his life and methods of composition may be
found in his Autobiography (New York, 1883).
For critical estimates of Trollope, the reader is
referred to a paper by Henry James in Partial
Portraits (London and New York, 1883); and
to H, T. Peck’s Introduction to vol. i. of the
‘Royal’ edition of Trollope’s best known novels
(Philadelphia, 1900). Consult also Cross, De-
velopment of the English Novel (New York,
1899).
TROLLOPE, EDWARD (1817-93). An Eng-
lish clergyman. and antiquary, educated at
Eton and Oxford, graduating BA. from Saint
Mary Hall in 1839. Ordained priest in the
Anglican Church (1841), he held various prefer-
ments, becoming Bishop of Nottingham in 1877.
As secretary and as president of the Associated
Architectural Societies, he took an active and
judicious part in the work of church restoration.
Among his works are Illustrations of Ancient
Art, selected from Objects discovered at Pompeii
and Herculaneum (1854) ; Life of Pope Adrian
IV. (1856) ; Handbook of the Paintings and En-
gravings Exhibited at Nottingham, Illustrating
the Caroline Civil War (1864) ; and Notices of
Ancient and Mediazval Labyrinths (1866) .
TROLLOPE, Mns. FRANCES (1780-1863). An
English novelist and miscellaneous writer, born
at Stapleton, near Bristol, March 10, 1780.
Her father, William Milton, was subsequently
vicar of Heckfield in Hampshire. In 1809 she
was married to Thomas Anthony Trollope, a
barrister. In 1827 she went to America, and dur-
ing a three years’ residence in the United States
gathered the materials of her first book, Domes-
tic Manners of the Americans (1832). This
work attracted great attention, and the severity
of certain of its strictures was much resented
in the United States. Indeed, in 1833 appeared
a pamphlet entitled American Criticisms. After
the death of her husband (1835) Mrs. Trollope
had to turn to literature for a living. For
twenty years book after book came from her
pen. Of her novels perhaps the best were The
Vicar of Wreahill (1837), The Widow Barnaby
(1838), and the sequels of the latter, The Widow
Married (1840) and The Barnabys in America
(1843). Mrs. Trollope’s last years were passed
in Florence with her eldest son, Thomas Adolphus
Trollope (q.v.). She died at Florence October
6, 1863. The Domestic Manners of the Ameri-
cans was edited by H. T. Peck (New York, ‘
TROLLOPE.
TROMP.
936
1896). Consult Frances Trollope, by her daugh-
ter-in-law, Frances Eleanor Trollope (London,
1895).
TROLLOPE, THOMAS ADOLPHUS (1810-92).
An English author, born in London April 29,
1810. His mother was Frances Trollope (q.v.),
and Anthony Trollope (q.v.) was a younger
brother. He was educated at Winchester and
at Oxford. In 1843 he settled at Florence, where
his house on the Piazza Maria Antonia became
the gathering place of English and American
authors traveling in Italy. To his hospitable
wife Landor addressed the lines, “To Theodosia.”
Like his mother and brother, Trollope wielded
a ready pen. Not reckoning a prodigious num-
ber of articles contributed to newspapers and
other periodicals, he published fully sixty vol-
umes. And, it is said, he was always interest-
ing. His most conspicuous works were connect-
ed with Italy. Among them are: Impressions of
a Wanderer in Italy (1850); The Girlhood of
Catherine de’ Medici (1856) ; A Decade of I tal-
ian Women (1859); Filippo Strozzi, a History
of the Last Days of the Old Italian Liberty
(1860); A Lenten Journey in Umbria and the
Marches of Ancona (1862); A History of the
Commonwealth of Florence to the Fall of the
Republic in 1531 (1865) ; and The Story of the
Life of Pius IX. (1877). Trollope also wrote
many novels. His last years were passed in
England. He died at Clifton November 11,
1892. His second wife, FRANCES ELEANOR TROL-
LOPE, wrote Black Spirits and White (1877);
That Unfortunate Marriage (1888) ; and Frances
Trollope, Her Life and Literary Work (2 vols.,
1895). Consult Trollope’s autobiography under
the titles What I Remember (2 vols., 1887) and
Further Reminiscences ( 1889) .
TROLLS (Icel., Swed. troll, troll; connected
with Ger. Droll, Troll, troll, Eng. droll). In
mythology, misshapen dwarfs. They inhabited
hills and mounds, had abnormal thieving pro-
pensities, stole children and substituted their
own ofispring for them. They were peculiarly
sensitive to noise, which was their especial aver-
sion, as it reminded them of the hammer of
Thor, which he was accustomed to throw after
them. They were called ‘the hill-people.’
Though strong, they were easily Outwitted by
men.
TROMBONE (It. trombone, augmentative of
tromba, trumpet, probably from OHG. trumba,
trumpa, Ger. Tromme, drum, perhaps corrupted
from Lat. triumphus, triumph; ultimately con-
nected with Eng. drum). A musical instrument
of the trumpet family, the tones of which are
produced by means of a slide-mechanism. In
its present form it was known as early as the
beginning of the sixteenth century. To-day the
trombone is made in four different sizes, known
as the alto, tenor, bass, and contra-bass trom-
bone. The compass of the alto trombone is
from A to eb"; that of the tenor trombone from
E to big‘; that of the bass trombone from 1B to
f; and that of the contra-bass trombone from
1E to d‘. Besides this regular compass each
trombone is capable of producing seven pedal-
tones. descending chromatically and beginning
a tritone (q.v.) below the lowest tone of the
_ compass of the instrument. The intermediate
tones between the highest pedal-tone and the
lowest regular tone are wanting. The trombones
are non-transposing instruments and the notes
all sound as written. In playing this instrument
seven positions are used. The first position is
when the slide is completely pushed in. Taking
the tenor trombone for the purpose of illustra-
tion, the lowest tone that can be produced in
the first position is Bb. In every position all
the partial tones from 2 to 8 (see ACOUSTICS)
can be produced. Thus in the first position on
the tenor trombone the following tones are pro-
duced: Bb, f, bb, d‘, f, abl, bbl. The second po-
sition is obtained by drawing out the slide so
far that A is produced. The partial tones for
this position are A, e, a, cfli‘, e‘, g1, fl. The third
position begins on Ab and so on, descending by
semitones till the seventh position beginning
with E is reached.
Recently trombones have been constructed in
which the sliding mechanism is replaced by pis-
ten or rotary valves. These instruments permit
more rapid execution than the sliding trombones,
but are much inferior to the latter in purity
of intonation. See OROHESTRA.
TROMP, tromp, CORNELIS (1629-91). A
Dutch admiral, second son of Martin Tromp.
He was born at Rotterdam. As a youth he led
a squadron against the Barbary pirates. He he-
came rear-admiral in 1653. With Opdam he com-
manded the Dutch forces in the disastrous battle
of Lowestoft (June 13, 1665) and in the rout
succeeded in saving a part of the fleet. In June,
1666, he was with De Ruyter in a desperate four
days’ battle in the Downs against an English
fleet under Monk and Prince Rupert, the com-
bat resulting in victory for neither side. In
August his conduct in the battle of Dunkirk
led De Ruyter to prefer charges against him,
which caused his removal. When war broke
out in 1672 between Holland and the allied
English and French, Tromp was restored to
his command and fought with consummate
bravery on June 7 and 14, 1673, against the
combined English and French fleets, under
Prince Rupert and D’Estreés, driving the enemy
into the Thames. On August 21st a third great
battle was fought near the Zealand coast. After
the conclusion of peace Charles II. made Tromp
a baron (1675). Tromp subsequently fought in
the employ .of the Danes against the Swedes, and
after De Ruyter’s death was made commander-
in-chief of the naval forces of the Dutch. He
died May 29, 1691, and was buried at Delft by
his father’s side.
TROMP, MARTIN HARPERTZOON (incorrectly,
VAN TROMP) (1597-1653). A celebrated Dutch
admiral, born at Brielle. He Went to sea at a
very early age, was made prisoner in an engage-
ment with an English frigate, in which his father
was killed, and for more than two years was held
in confinement on board an English vessel. For
some time after this his history is obscure, but in
1624 he appears as captain of a frigate in the
Dutch navy, and in 1637 was made vice-admiral.
In 1639 he won a brilliant victory over a Spanish
fleet off Gravelines in the Straits of Dover, de-
stroying 49 of the enemy’s ships with the loss
of only one vessel. His greatest fame, however,
was gained in the war against England which
broke out in 1652. In May of that year he was
worsted by Blake and was compelled to yield
TROMP.
TROPEOLUM.
937
the command to De Ruyter, but, restored to his
post in November, he inflicted a severe defeat
on Blake off the Goodwin Sands and for a time
was master of the Channel. In February, 1653,
while conveying a large merchant fleet through
the Channel, he made a gallant running fight
against a superior English fleet under Blake,
Penn, and Monk. In June he encountered ‘the
English in the Channel and was compelled to
seek refuge in the Texel, after losing seventeen
of his ships. In the first days of August he
once more took to the sea, and in a battle
against the English fleet, under Monk, off Ter
Heyde, which raged from August 8th to August
10th (old style, July 29th-31st), he lost twenty-
six of his ships and his life. He was buried at
Delft, and a splendid monument marks the grave
of the victor in thirty-three naval combats.
TROMPETER von SAKKINGEN, trom-
pa/ter fon zek’ing-en, DER (Ger., The Trumpeter
of Stikkingen). An extraordinarily popular
poem by Joseph Viktor von Scheffel (1853). The
story is a legend connected with a seventeenth-
century tombstone in the churchyard of Silk-
kingen which records the death of Werner Kirch-
hofer and Maria Ursula, daughter of the Baron
of S-‘eikkingen. Werner, a musician, loved the
Baron’s daughter, whom her father therefore
sent to the Viennese Court. Werner followed,
was made leader of the Court band, and finally,
through the intervention of the Emperor, re-
ceived the reward of his constancy. Scheffel
adheres closely to the original legend, weaving
about it experiences of his own life. The poem
is one of the most perfect expressions in litera-
ture of German sentiment.
TRONDHJ EM, tron’yem, THRONDHJ EM,
or DRONTHEIM. A city of Norway, situated
at the mouth of the Nid River, on the south shore
of the Trondhjemsfjord, 240 miles north of Chris-
tiania (Map: Norway, D 5). Although it is
so far north, its climate is remarkably mild, and
the fjord never freezes. On one of the surround-
ing picturesque hills stands the fortress of Chris-
tiansten. Another fort is on the small island of
Munkholm in the fjord opposite the city, cele-
brated as the place of imprisonment of the Dan-
ish Minister Griffenfeld (q.v.). The town is
regularly laid out with wide streets. Many of
the houses are built of wood. The principal
building is the large cathedral, probably the
finest church in Scandinavia. It was founded
in the eleventhcentury over the tomb of Saint
Olaf, and consists of a‘ Gothic nave and choir
with a Romanesque transept. It has latterly
been restored. By the present Constitution of
the country the kings of Sweden and Norway
must be crowned in the Cathedral of Trondhjem.
Noteworthy also are the arsenal in the old
Kongsgaard and the fisheries museum and
the leading library. The industries are rep-
resented by sawmills, wood-pulp factories,
fish-curing establishments, machine shops, and.
shipyards. The commerce is very consider-
ble. It amounts to over $9,000,000 annually,
while the shipping entries in 1900 amounted to
277,743 tons. The chief exports are copper ore
from the Rtiros mines, also iron and pyrites,
timber, wood-pulp, and fish. Population. in 1891,
29,162; in 1901, 38,156. Trondhjem was founded
by Olaf Tryggvason, who built a palace there in
996. Its early name was Nidaros. During
the Middle Ages it was an important city and
a goal of pilgrimage.
TROOP. See ARMY ‘ORGANIZATION.
TROOPIAL (Fr. troupial, from troupe,
troop). A book name for the American hang-
nests and blackbirds of the family Icteridae.
TROOST, trost, GERARD (1776-1850). A
Dutch-American geologist and mineralogist. He
studied at the universities of Leyden and Am-
sterdam. In 1809, while on his way to Java as a
member of a naval expedition, he was captured by
an English privateer and carried to Dunkirk.
Soon after his return to Paris, where he had
studied mineralogy under Haiiy, he undertook a
voyage to the East Indies by way of America. But
on account of political changes in Java he decided
to'remain in the United States. He was one of the
founders and the first president of the Academy
of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. He was
professor of mineralogy and chemistry at the
College of Pharmacy an. at the Philadelphia
Museum, and in 1828 became professor of chem-
istry, geology, and mineralogy at the University
of Nashville. His published works include con-
tributions to scientific journals and a Geological
Survey of the Environs of Philadelphia (1826).
In 1814 he established the first alum factory In
the United States at Cape Sable, Md.
TROPEOLUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. "porraiog,
tropaios, relating to turning or change, from
'rpo1r7'7, trope‘, a turning, from Tpénetv, trepein,
to turn), NASTURTIUM, INDIAN CREss, YELLOW
LARKSPUR. A genus of the'order Geraniaceae,
containing about 35 South American species of
beautiful twining or spreading annuals and per-
ennials, producing orange-yellow and sometimes

TROPEOLUM MAJUS, GARDEN NABTURTIUM.
very dark purple or blue flowers in summer.
Many are cultivated for ornamental purposes
upon arbors, walls, and trellises. The pickled
fruits are sometimes employed as a substitute
for capers and the fleshy rootstock of several
species as a human food. The best known spe-
TROPEOLUM.
TROPISM.
938
cies is Tropceolum mains, a climbing annual in
northern climates, which has long been grown in
the United States as an ornamental plant.
Dwarf varieties of this species are commonly
grown in beds and borders. Tropceolum minus
resembles the foregoing species, but is of weaker
growth and produces smaller flowers. Tropceo-
lum Lobbianum, a native of Colombia, is a vig-
orous climbing species, of which several beauti-
ful varieties are in cultivation. Tropceolum per-
egrinum, sometimes called canary-bird flower, is
grown as an annual in outdoor culture and as a
perennial in conservatories. Tropceolnm tuber-
osum, which produces scarlet and yellow flow-
ers in the late summer, yields edible tubers,
which are used as food in Peru. In northern
climates the tubers are taken up in the fall and
kept in a dry place during the winter. The an-
nual species are grown from seeds sown in the
spring in ordinary garden soil. The perennial
species are propagated by the tubers or by cut-
tings of the young shoots grown under glass or
by seeds. The perennials prefer a richer soil
than the annuals, and they require plenty of
moisture.
TROPE. A figure of speech. See RIIETORIC,
FIGURES or. "
TROPHWNIUS (Lat., from Gk. Tpo¢dnuog).
An ancient god of the earth, worshiped at
Lebadea, in Boeotia, where he had a famous ora-
cle in a subterranean cavern. He who wished
to consult the oracle prepared himself by fast-
ing, sacrifices, and purifications in a building
dedicated to Tyche (Fortune) and Agathodae-
mon (Good Luck). After the due rites a sheep
was sacrificed to Agamedes, brother of Tropho-
nius, water from two springs, Forgetfulness and
Memory, was drunk, and the consultor descended
by a ladder to a vault, in the side of which was
an opening. Through this the feet were in-
serted, a honey-cake to appease the spirits was
grasped in each hand, and then some hidden
force swept the visitor into the inner recesses,
where he saw visions or heard voices, and finally
returned feet foremost through the same open-
ing by which he had descended. He was then
seated on the stone of Remembrance and ques-
tioned by the priests, who interpreted his visions.
Legend also told how Agamedes and Trophonius
were sons of Erginos and famous architects of
the early time, who built the temple at Delphi,
a treasury for King Hyrieus of Hyria in Boeotia,
and other buildings. According to the story,
they left a stone loose in the treasury, and thus
were enabled to avail themselevs of the King’s
riches at their pleasure. At length Agamedes
was caught in a trap, whereupon Trophonius cut
off his brother’s head and escaped, but at Leba-
dea was swallowed up by the earth. Another
" version laid the scene with King Augeas in
Elis, and represented Agamedes as the father of
Trophonius and Cercyon. Trophonius cut off
his father’s head to escape detection, and, while
Cercyon went to Athens, retired to Boeotia, where
he built himself an underground chamber. The
same story is told by Herodotus of King Rhamp-
sinitus in Egypt, and is a widely diffused folk-
tale.
TROPHY (OF. trophee, Fr. trophée, from
Lat. trophceam, tropwum, from Gk. rp61z-awv,
tropaion, monument of an enemy’s defeat, neu.
sg. of Tporraiog, tropaios, relating to turning or
change). A memorial of victory erected on the
spot where the enemy had turned to flight.
Among the Greeks (with the exception of the
Macedonians, who erected no trophies) one or
two shields and helmets of the routed enemy,
placed upon the trunk of a tree, served as the
sign- and memorial of victory. After a sea-fight
the trophy consisted of the beaks and stern or-
naments of the captured vessels, ‘set up on the
nearest coast. It was considered wrong to de-
stroy such a trophy, and equally wrong to repair
it, when it had fallen down through time, for
animosity ought not to be perpetual.
TROPIC (from Lat. tropicus, from Gk. TPOfl'L-
xég, tropilcos, relating to a turn or change, or
to the solstice, from 'rp07r'/7, trope, a turning).
One of two parallels of latitude on the terrestrial
globe, passing through the most northerly and
southerly points on the earth’s surface at which
the sun can ever be directly overhead. The
tropic north of the equator is called the tropic
of Cancer, because the sun at the summer sol-
stice (at which time it is vertically over the
tropic) enters the constellation of Cancer; and
the southern one is, for a similar reason, denom-
inated the tropic of Capricorn. The distance of
the tropics from the equator, corresponding to
the obliquity of the ecliptic, is about 231/2 de-
grees. They are not absolutely fixed at a uni-
form distance from the equator, but the limits
of their variation are extremely narrow. See
PERTURBATIONS.
TROPIC BIRD, or BOATSWAIN BIRD. A sea-
bird of the family Phaétonidae, related to the
gannets, having very long wings and the two
central tail-quills very long and slender. Only
three species are known, all tropical and often
wandering hundreds of miles from land, where
they hover about vessels. Their flight is ex-
tremely swift and graceful, and they capture the
fish upon which they subsist by plunging in the
water, often from a great height. They breed
upon rocky cliffs, making no nests, and laying
a single pale-brown, much spotted egg. They
are nearly helpless on land, and are often caught
at their breeding-places and robbed of the long
tail-feathers, which are prized among savages
as decorations. The yellow-billed tropic bird
(Phaéton flu/virostris) breeds in the Bermudas
and West Indies, and is white, with black on the
wings. The other species belong mainly to the
Indian and South Pacific oceans. See Plate of
FISHING Bums.
TROPISM (from trope, from Gk. 1-porrfy, trope,
a turning). The act of turning toward or be-
ing oriented by the stimulus of light, gravity,
wind, food, and so on. Thus heliotropism,
the first to be used of the many terms ending in
tropism, means turning to the light. At first
the term was restricted to such plants as the
sunflower, which turns after or follows the sun,
owing to the stimulus of the sun’s rays. It was
then found that animals were heliotropic, and
further studies on the acts of animals in response
to different physical stimuli have resulted in a
somewhat extensive nomenclature. Tropism
may be positive or negative. Certain plants,
as plasmodia, and animals, as the sea-cucumber,
the starfish, and even the lady-beetle, which are
positively geotropic, are forced when on vertical
TROPISM.
TROPISM.
939
surfaces to crawl upward; this is negative geot-
ropism. The investigation of tropism has
most important bearings on comparative psy-
chology and the explanation of instinctive acts.
ANEMOTROPISM. An orientation of the body
with respect to the wind, seen in flies (Bibio
ophyra, etc.), which poise in swarms in the air,
heading directly toward the wind, all the
swarms of a given locality oriented in the same
direction like weather-cocks. On the other hand,
the locusts move with the wind and head away
from it; i.e. they. are negatively anemotropic
(Wheeler).
CHEMOTROPISM. The orientation of an organ-
ism by molecules emanating from a centre of
diffusion. As the name indicates, it means re-
sponse to orders or tastes emanating from food,
decaying substances, and other matters. Thus
the maggot of the flesh and other flies are posi-
tively chemotropic toward certain chemical sub-
stances formed in decaying meat and cheese.
The female fly is led not so much by a special
instinct to these substances as by the stimulus of
the rankly smelling meat. As soon, says Loeb,
as the fly is seated on the meat chemical stimuli
seem to throw into activity the muscles concerned
in egg-laying and the eggs are deposited on the
meat. Negative chemotropism is forcibly illus-
trated by the use of the oil of pennyroyal, of to-
bacco smoke, or kerosene oil in driving away
flies and mosquitoes. For the botanical aspect
of this tropism, see CHEMQTRQPISM.
GALVANOTROPISM. When certain shrimps,
crayfish, and salamanders are subjected to the
effect of a galvanic current such changes of
tension take place in the muscles of the appen-
dages that movement toward the anode becomes
easier and toward the cathode more difficult.
The result is, says Loeb, that if the current is
continued long enough all the animals collect at
the positive pole. It differs from heliotropism
chiefly in that the curves of the current take the
place of the rays of light.
Gnornorrsnr. As the result of the action of
gravity, plants and certain animals tend to de-
scend into or toward the earth. The act of
righting in a starfish or sea-urchin, or in a
polyp (sea-anemone), is the result of geotropic
irritability, i.e. of positive geotropism. The
effects of geotropism are seen in any moth or
butterfly which has just emerged from the pupa-
case. It is restless till it finds a perpendicular
surface on which to support itself with its abdo-
men hanging down until the wings are fully ex-
panded. A fly orients its body head downward,
a position assumed by many web-weaving spiders.
Geotropism plays a part in the depth-migrations
of pelagic animals. See also GEOTBOPISM IN
PLANTS.
HELIOTROPISM or Pnorornorrsm. Originally
applied to the property certain plants possess of
turning to the light. It has been found that
many animals also are oriented toward the
light. Loeb claims that in the case of animals
which possess nerves “the movements of orienta-
tion toward light are governed by exactly the
same external conditions and depend in the same
way upon the external form of the body, as in
the case of plants which possess no nerves.”
Many young or larval pelagic animals undergo
periodic depth-migrations. They begin to mi-
grate vertically upward toward the surface of
Von. XVI.—60.
the ocean in the evening, descending in the morn-
ing, but since they never sink beyond a depth
of about 1200 feet below, where light does not
penetrate, this fact suggests that the light is
the controlling power in their depth-migrations.
Loeb finds that the free-swimming animals at
the surface of the sea are all permanently or
for a short period positively heliotropic. There
is a negative as well as a positive heliotropism.
If light strikes one side of a positively heliotrop-
ic animal, an increase takes place in the tension
of those muscles which turn the head to the
source of light, while in the negatively heliotrop-
ic animal under the influence of one-sided illu-
mination a decrease takes place in the tension
of the same muscles, with the result that the
negatively heliotropic animal is forced to move
away from the source of light. The flight of
moths toward a light is a case of heliotropism.
Being a rapid fiyer, the moth gets into the flame
before the heat can check it.
PARAHELIOTROPISM. This is defined by Dar-
win as the movement by which some leaves tem-
porarily direct their edges to the source of light.
HYDROTBOPISM. If a king-crab is placed on
shore a few feet from the water’s edge it will
seek the water, perhaps oriented by the moisture
not far away. Ants exhibit a reaction to heat
(thermotropism) and also hydrotropism. in the
care with which they move the eggs, young, and
old larvae and pupae, as the nest becomes too
warm or cold, moist or dry, at different times.
For its influence on plants, see HYDROTROPISM.
RHEOTROPISM. This is illustrated by the ac-
tion of fish in heading up stream and by the
slime protozoan in creeping against the current.
STEREOTROPISM. This form of tropism is con-
tact-irritability, which forces the animal to
bring the ventral side of the body in contact with
solid bodies. Thus the ventral side of the star-
fish is positively stereotropic; in other words,
the starfish, off the bottom, becomes restless
if its ambulacral feet are not in contact with
solid bodies. If earthworms are placed in a
transparent closed vessel they appear to be posi-
tively stereotropic. As soon, says Loeb, as they
reach an angle in the aquarium they remain
there, crawling along where the glass can touch
them on two sides. This form of tropism plays,
says Loeb, a very important part in the processes
of pairing and in the formation of organs. The
tendency of many animals to creep into cracks
and crevices has, he claims, “nothing to do with
self-concealment, but only with the necessity of
bringing the body on every side in contact with
solid bodies.” The eel is positively stereotropic.
It is forced to bring every part of its body. as
far as possible, in contact with solid bodies.
Every segment of the eel’s body is stereotropic,
and if touched with the finger on one side there
result positively stereotropic curvatures toward
the finger. There is in such an act no more con-
sciousness than in the boring of a. root in the
sand (Loeb). Stereotropism is called ‘thigmot-
ropism’ by some authors. Another form of trop-
ism is traumatotropism.
Consult Loeb, Comparative Physiology of the
Brain and Comparative Psychology (New York,
1902) ; also Wheeler, “Anemotropism and Other
Tropisms in Insects,” in Archiv fiir Entwicke-
lungsmechanilo der Organismen, vol. viii. (Leip-
zig, 1899). ‘
TROPPAU.
TROTWOOD.
940
TROPPAU, tr6p’pou. The capital of Austrian
Silesia, on the right bank of the Oppa, 37 miles
northeast of Olmiitz (Map: Austria, F 2). It
has a Gothic church, a castle, a library of 35,000
volumes, and a museum of natural history and
antiquities; also the Franz-Josef Museum of art
and industry, the provincial insane asylum, etc.
Troppau manufactures large quantities of cloth
for army use; also stoves, machines, etc. It was
founded in the thirteenth century. At Troppau,
in the fall and winter of 1820, a congress of
European monarchs assembled for the purpose of
dealing with the revolutionary disturbances in
Italy. It was one of the series of European
congresses which under the inspiration of Met-
ternich (q.v.) sought to check the spread of lib-
eral ideas and to carry out the policy of the Holy
Alliance (q.v.). Population, in 1900, 26,725.
TROS’SACHS. A picturesque and well-
wooded valley in Perthshire, Scotland, between
Lochs Acray and Katrine, eight miles southwest
of Cailander, amid hills rising from 1851 feet to
2390 feet in height (Map: Scotland, D 3). It
has been a great tourist resort since its im-
mortalization by Sir Walter Scott in The Lady
' of the Lake and Rob Roy.
TROTTING (from trot, from OF., Fr. trot-
ter, probably from OHG. trott6n, to tread, MHG.
trotten, to run, frequentative of OHG. tretan,
Ger. treten, to tread, step). A gait of the horse.
Notwithstanding that the foundation of Amer-
ica’s trotting stock came from England, and
that in Russia there are the celebrated “Orloff”
trotters and another breed in Norway, the trot-
ting racer of to-day is distinctly the product of
America. The gait was known to the ancients,
but was abominated by them. Trotting was a
favorite gait among the English sportsmen of
Suffolk and Lincolnshire at the end of the eigh-
teenth century, and a special breed there per-
formed wonders; “Locksmith’s gray” trotted 72
miles in 6 hours in 1762. Ten years later, a
Lincolnshire horse trotted 30 miles in 2 hours
and 10 minutes, with a rider weighing 220
pounds, and “Phenomena” 17 miles in 53 min-
utes. Yet as an historical fact American trotters
owe nothing to these fast English trotters, but
everything to the thoroughbred. The modern
trotter may be traced back to “Messenger,” who
was imported in 1788 by Thomas Benger, of
Bristol, Pa. His father was “Blaze;” his grand-
sire “Flying Childers;” his great-grandsire the
“Darley Barb.” His mother’s father was “Turf,”
who was directly descended from the “Godolphin
Barb.” So on both sides of his pedigree “Mes-
senger” brought the most select thoroughbred
blood into America. He was a running-bred
horse, yet from him the American trotter de-
rives its dominant characteristics, the grit of the
Arab, the gentleness of the Barb, and the hardy
endurance of the English thoroughbred. The
Hambletonians, comprising 90 per cent. of the
American trotters, are derived from “Messenger”
on both sides through Rysdyk’s “Hambletonian,”
“Abdallah,” and “Mambrino Messenger.” “Ham-
bletonian’s” dam was the Charles Kent mare, the
daughter of “One Eye,” and granddaughter of
“Silver Tail,” who was the daughter of “Mes-
senger.” Hambletonian’s family includes “Dex-
ter,” 2m. 171/_>,s.; “Goldsmith’s Maid,” 2m. 14s.;
“Rarus,” 2m. 131’)./1s.; “Saint Julien,”2m. 111/,s.;
“Jay Eye See,” 2m. 10s.; “Maud S.,” 2m. 8%s.;
“Sunol,” 2m. 8%s.; “Nancy Hanks,” 2m. 4s.;
“Alix,” 2m. 33/4s.; and “Directum,” 2m. 51/Ls. The
second great trotting family, the Mambrinos,
great for racing quality and beauty, is derived
on the father’s side from “Messenger,” and on
the mother’s from imported “Paymaster.” The
mingling of the blood of the Hambletonians and
“Mambrino Chief” has resulted in such ideal
trotters as “Azota,” 2m. 4%s., and “Cresceus,”
2m. 2%s. The founder of the Ceay family was
“Young Bashaw,” by “Grand Bashaw,” an im-
ported Barb, but on the female side are “Mes-
senger’s” progeny. The Star family, too, on
the mother’s side came from the same horse.
In the early trotting days colts were never
trained; only matured horses raced, and they
were capable of feats of endurance which no
modern horse is or could be called upon to
perform. “Fanny Jenks” in 1845 trotted 101
miles in 9 hours, 57 minutes, drawing a sulky
weighing 150 pounds. “Lady Suffolk” beat
“Dutchman” two three-mile heats in 1m. 401/zs.
and 7m. 56s. respectively, and she trotted her
fastest mile when twelve years old. “Goldsmith’s
Maid” trotted a mile in 2m. 14%s. when she was
seventeen years old. She started 118 times and
beat 2m. 30s. in 115 of them, and “Maud S.”
made her then world’s record, 2111. 8%s., when
she was eleven years old. These times, too, were
all before the days of the kite-shaped tracks,
banked and rolled with scientific nicety, and long .
before the rubber-tired wheel sulky, both of
which inventions have helped to reduce the mile
record. On August 17, 1903, at the Brighton Beach
(N. Y.) track, the trotting record was reduced
by J. K. Billings’s “Lou Dillon” to two minutes,
but in October of the same year the stallion
“Cresceus” lowered it to 1m. 59% s. The weather
conditions were perfect. A few days afterwards
“Lou Dillon” regained her laurels by still further
reducing the record to 1m. 58%,s. Weather con-
ditions were unfavorable, but the mare had the
advantage of two pacemakers, one drawing a
wire-net guard.
For pleasure driving and friendly road com-
petitions a light wagon was in use as early as
1786, but not until after that did the trotter as a
racer become prominent. In that year “Boston
Blue” trotted a mile in little less than three
minutes. By 1825 the New York Trotting Club
was formed, and dashes of speed were daily in-
dulged in on what is now Third Avenue, from
the Bull’s Head to Harlem. Up to 1898, how-
ever, the great bulk of the trotting of the coun-
try was done on tracks, 2000 of which were scat-
tered over the continent. These tracks on which
regular races are held are either exactly one
mile or half a mile from start to finish, and a
horse must win two heats to win the race. The
courses are in the main elliptical, though some,
built after 1890, are kite-shaped.
Since 1898 a great impetus has been given to
trotting competitions by the creation of civic
speedways, the first of which was constructed by
the municipality of New York, along the banks
of the Harlem River, from 155th Street to Fort
George. Many great cities throughout the coun-
try have followed the example.
TROTWOOD, BETSY. In Dickens’s David
Copperfield, the hero’s great-aunt, an eccentric
TROTWOOD.
TROUBADOURS.
941
but tender-hearted woman, with a special ab-
horrence for donkeys.
TROUBADOURS (Fr. troubadour, from
Prov. trobador, troubadour, from trobar, OF.
trover, trouuer, Fr. trouser, to find, compose).
The medieeval poets of Southern France, who
flourished from about 1100 to about 1400, singers
of war and love, whose wandering lives, full of
passion and adventure, have made them the
typical romantic figures of their age. The feudal
conditions of the region to which they belonged
were particularly favorable to the development
of this race of bards. Here, as elsewhere, society
was divided into three classes, commons, clergy,
and nobles, of whom the nobles alone possessed
either the means or the desire liberally to reward
literary and musical skill. The nobility, more-
over, consisted of an agglomeration of petty in-
dependent barons, who tended to attach them-
selves to powerful local houses, such as that of
the counts of Toulouse. There were, therefore,
many courts, not too far distant from each other,
to which the wandering minstrels could resort.
Another social condition which had an important
influence upon the character of Provencal poetry
was the position of noble ladies. They re-
ceived fiefs, sometimes by inheritance, sometimes
as dowry, and there are instances in which they
even governed and presided over a court. Usu-
ally married young and for social and political
reasons rather than for love, they became queens
of society, the objects often of fervent passion,
always of conventional adoration.
VVith the accumulation of wealth and the
progress of refinement, delight in life became
conspicuous. The love of splendor manifested
itself in gorgeousness of dress and magnificence
of entertainments. Prodigality was the fashion.
The ideal prince was he who bestowed gifts lav-
ishly. In addition to the chase and the tourney,
one of the favorite amusements of this society
was song, an amusement supplied by the jong-
leurs and the troubadours. The jongleurs (jocu-
latores) were the successors of the Latin mimi.
They wandered from town to town, from castle
to castle, and supplied amusement to the com-
mons at the fairs and in the market-place, and
to the higher classes at their feasts. The meaner
kind not only recited, sang, and played on musical
instruments, but performed as jugglers, dancers,
acrobats, and exhibitors of trained animals.
Members of this class were also to be found in
the following of every great lord, among his
permanent domestic servants or ministeriales.
They fulfilled the function of Court minstrels
and entertainers.
From such singers sprang the troubadours.
In general, it may be said that the jongleur was
one who made a trade of poetry and music; the
troubadour one who devoted himself to the pro-
duction of artistic Court poetry, whether he did
this for gain or not. The jongleurs were, there-
fore, always poor, either by origin or by fate,
whereas the troubadours, though largely belong-
ing to the humble or the middle class, included
knights, barons, counts, and even kings.
Most of the troubadours led a wandering life,
though they often lingered for several years at
the Court of somepatron, praising the mistress
of the mansion in extravagant terms, and sup-
portmg the policy of its master by vigorous ex-
hortations to his friends or by bitter denun-
ciation of his enemies. War and lady service
were the chief themes of their songs. (See PRO-
VENQAL LITERATURE.) Conventional as this
poetry was, there were no schools in which the.
art was taught. Each troubadour learned from
his predecessors, and handed down the tradition
to the next generation. Even the art of writing
was not necessary, for the pieces were not pre-
pared for readers, but for hearers. They were
almost always sung by the composer himself, to
his own accompaniment, but those masters who
could not sing taught the words and music to
their jongleurs. This was also the natural mode
of publishing a poem destined for a wider audi-
ence than could be reached by the individual
author. Poets of high rank, moreover, had their
pieces performed by servants, and whenever a
lyric was sent to some friend at a distance it was
not intrusted to writing, but to the voice of a
messenger. This poetry, therefore, required a
pleasure-loving aristocracy for its audience, and
wealthy and generous patrons for its support.
It mirrored the soul of chivalry, an ideal of hero-
ism, generosity, courtesy, and love. For flatter-
ing the vanity of the nobles and lending his
talent to their taste for pleasure, the singer was
rewarded with gifts of money, weapons, horses,
or garments. Generosity was naturally praised
as the chief of princely virtues, and growing
avarice was a sign of the hopeless degeneracy of
the times. Richard Coeur de Lion, was con-
sidered the mirror of knighthood, and the prac-
tical statesmanship of Philip Augustus of France
was judged low and unworthy. With the disap-
pearance of the society they represented, the
troubadours also vanished.
The first troubadour whose lyrics have been
preserved was William IX., Count of Poitou and
Duke of Aquitaine, but he must have had a long
line of humble forerunners. His daughter,
Eleanor, the quick-witted but licentious wife of
Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet, was the
theme of the impassioned songs of Bernart de
Ventadour. E1-mengarde of Narbonne was an-
other celebrated patroness of poetry, with many
adorers in verse. This was, indeed, the flourish-
ing period of the troubadours. Among their
chief patrons were the counts of Provence, the
counts of Toulouse, and several kings of Aragon
and Castile, the most notable of whom was
Alfonso II. of Aragon. In Italy the lords of
Este and the Emperor Frederick II. harbored
the singers of Languedoc. At these courts min-
strels were kindly received and lavishly rewarded,
taking part, apparently, in the social pleasures
mirrored in their songs.‘ This gay life, however,
was not without its bitterness, and many a
troubadour retired to a convent to pass his de-
clining years in repentance.
Much of the romantic interest that has gath-
ered about the careers of these poets is derived
from the Provencal biographies and razos which
are found in some of the manuscripts containing
their works. Many of these are merely imagina-
tive tales in which elements of folk-lore, com-
bined with a fanciful interpretation of the poems,
have been set down as fact. Growing up among
the later jongleurs and other lovers of poetry,
they represent the conception which the succeed-
ing age had formed of the heroes of Provencal
song. Another fact has tended to give a romantic
coloring to the lives of the troubadours: the
TR-OUBADOUBS.
TROUT.
942
fact that their poems deal so largely with the
subject of love. This love was, it is true, chiefly
factitious and conventional, rather than personal,
and the formulas in which it was expressed are
exceedingly monotonous; but the modern imagi-
nation has built up for these wandering min-
strels a sort of butterfly existence of poetry and
passion, to which is added the excitement of con-
stant adventures. That such a picture does not
represent the truth is obvious, but it is intensely
fascinating, and the troubadours will probably
long continue to be regarded as sentimental
heroes. -
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best work on the subject
for English readers is Justin H. Smith, The
Troubadours at Home, with bibliography (New
York, 1899), a popular view of the troubadour
country, stories of their adventures, and transla-
tions of their poems, together with copious and
scholarly notes. Less exact and scholarly are
Hueffer, The Troubadours (London, 1878) ;
Rutherford, The Troubadours; Their Loves and
Their Lyrics (ib., 1873) ; Rowbotham, The
. Troubadours and the Courts of Love (ib., 1895).
The best edition of Les biographies des trouba-
dours in Provencal is that by Chabaneau (Tou-
louse, 1885). Most of these biographies have
been translated by Ida Farnell, Lives of the
Troubadours from the M edireval Provencal
(London, 1896). Consult also the authorities
referred to under PBOVENQAL LITERATURE.
TROUBETZ’KOY, Princess AMELIE (RIVES) .
See RIVES, AMELIE.
TROUP, GEORGE Molnrosn (1780-1856). An
American politician, born in the present Wash-
ington County, Ala. He graduated at the Col-
lege of New Jersey (Princeton) in 1797, was
admitted to the bar in 1800, and began to prac-
tice in Savannah. From 1801 to 1804 he was a
member of the Legislature; was a member of
the United States House of Representatives
from 1807 to 1815; was chairman of the Mili-
tary Committee during the War of 1812, and
opposed vigorously the Yazoo compromise.
From 1816 to 1818 he was in the United
States Senate, and from 1823 to 1827 was
Governor of Georgia. During the dispute
which arose between the agents of the general
Government and the State in regard to the ex-
tinguishment of the Creek title to lands in
Georgia, he did not hesitate to defy the Federal
Government. From 1829 to 1833 he was again
a member of the United States Senate. He was
a strong defender of States’ rights, and in 1833
presided over the Georgia States’ Rights Con-
vention.
TROUS-DE-LOUP, tro'6' de-ITF’, or WOLF-
HOLES. A device formerly much used in mili-
tary fortifications. It consisted of funnel-shaped
holes, 6 feet deep, with an exterior diameter of
41/2 feet, having one or more pointed stakes at
the bottom. They were placed near the ap-
proaches and the glacis, and were designed to
break the ranks of the attacking force. The
principle is still retained in the modern shallow
military pits, and other forms of military ob-
stacles, wire entanglements, etc.
TROUT (AS. truht, from OF. truite, from
Lat. tructa, tructus, from Gk. rpénrng, trolctes,
sort of sea-fish, from rpéysw, tr6gein, to gnaw).
Any of many fishes of the family Salmonidaa. (See
SALMON.) Some are partly anadromous, but
most of the species live exclusively in fresh
waters, and occur in most of the lakes and
streams of northern regions. They are all vora-
cious and more or less gamy. Their food con-
sists of almost any sort of fresh animal matter—-
smaller fishes, crustaceans, insect larvae, and the
like. The trout, like the salmon, spawn during
the colder months of the year, varying with the
latitude and the species.
Trout may be classed into two main groups.
The one group, belonging to the genus Salmo,
has a flat vomer, supplied with teeth, the body
with larger scales than the other group, which
has a boat-shaped vomer, the shaft destitute of
teeth. The latter group is more perfectly re-
stricted to fresh waters than the former. The
former group includes the salmon-trout, and the
latter the chars, such as the brook trout. The
salmon-trout of European waters (Salmo trutta)
resides in salt water, and enters the rivers to
spawn. Its fresh-water variety, the brown trout
(Salmo fa/rio) , occurs in the lakes of Europe, and
has been extensively domesticated in English and
North American waters. Another Scottish
variety, the Lochleven trout, differs from the
brown trout in the greater growth of the pee-
toral and caudal fins, in the greater number of
caecal appendages, and in other minor characters.
The American salmon-trout (Salmo Gairdneri)
is a large trout, abundant in the Columbia and
other rivers flowing to the Pacific coast. (See
STEELHEAD.) A variety of it, the Kamloops
trout, or ‘stit-tse,’ occupies the lakes of British
Columbia and northern Washington.
The rainbow or Coast Range trout (Salmo
irideus) is smaller than the preceding, has larger
scales and brighter colors. It is native in the
mountain streams of the Pacific Coast, and prob-
ably enters the sea. It is very variable, presents
many geographical varieties, such as the brook
trout of western Nevada, the trout of Mt. Shasta,
golden trout of Mt. Whitney, the McCloud River
trout, and others. It has been transplanted suc-
cessfully into the mountain streams of the East-
ern United States, and has been domesticated to
some degree. The ‘cut-throat’ or Rocky Moun-
tain trout (Salmo mylciss) is a common trout
of very wide distribution in all the clear streams
of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, from
Kamtchatka and Alaska to Northern Mexico.
Its scales are smaller than in the nearly related
species, hyoid teeth are usually present, and it
is very closely related to Salmo Gairdneri. This
species often enters the sea, and is very variable,
many geographical races being recognized, one
of which, ‘Clarke’s trout’ of the Columbia River,
is illustrated on the Plate of SALMON.
The Great Lakes trout, ‘longe,’ ‘togue,’ or
‘namaycush,’ differs from Salmo in the absence
of teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and from the
brook trout in its larger size and well-developed
teeth on the hyoid bone. It inhabits all the
larger lakes of Eastern North America, and is
one of the more important food-fishes of the
Great Lakes region. The variety ‘siscowet,’
found only in the deep waters of Lake Superior,
has excessively fat flesh, and is not prized as
food. See NAMAYCUSIL
The principal chars of American waters are
the common brook or speckled trout, the Dolly
Varden, the oquassa, and the European brook
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1. MICHIGAN GRAYLING (Thymallus tricolor). 4. NAMAYCUSH (Cristlvomer narnaycush).
2. OQUASSA TROUT (Salvellnus oquassal. 5. RAINBOW TROUT (Salmo Mdeus).
3. DOLLY VARDEN TROUT (Salvellnus malma). 6. SUNAPEE TROUT (SalveItnus alplnus, var. aureolusl.

TROUT.
TROWBRIDGE.
943
trout. The brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
is the best known, abundant in all clear, cold
streams of Eastern North America south to the
headwaters of the Savannah. It differs from the
other species of the genus in its back being
strongly marbled with olive and black. It has
been introduced into the Western streams; and
many hybrids between this and the rainbow trout
and other species exist. Its extreme length may
be 18 inches, but it is usually much smaller. It
is a favorite for its gamy qualities and for its
flavor. See Colored Plate of GAME FISHES.
The Dolly Varden trout (q.v.), or malma, is
a native of Northwestern America, and has red
spots on both back and sides. The oquassa trout
(Salvelinus oquassa) , ‘quasky’ or ‘blueback,’ is a
small trout of the Rangeley group of lakes in
western Maine, dark blue, with small red spots,
usually confined to the sides. Similar and still
smaller varieties of this most beautiful of the
trout exist in the lakes of Quebec and in those
of subarctic America.
The European brook trout (Salvelinus alpinus)
has the red spots only on the sides, and the mouth
is rather smaller than in the preceding. It oc-
curs in the cold lakes and mountain streams of
Northern Europe and Asia, and in Northeastern
North America. It is variable and is repre-
sented by several varieties—such as the Green-
land char, the long-finned char, and the sunapee
or golden trout. The last named is very local
in its distribution, having been taken in Si1na-
pee Lake and a few other lakes in New Hamp-
shire and Maine. It is highly prized because of
its brilliant colors and graceful form. Much un-
certainty remains as to its origin and relation-
ship. It has strong affinities with the European
form and by some is considered to have been in-
troduced from there. Much pains is being taken
to increase this species by artificial propagation
and transplantation. See FISH-CULTURE.
There are other species of trout of minor im-
portance both in America and Europe and Asia;
and many fishes not truly trout are locally so
called. Compare SALMON; GRAYLING. Consult
authorities cited under ANGLING; FISH; SALMON;
and Jordan and Evermann, American Food and
Game Fishes (New York, 1902).
See Plates of AMERICAN GAME FISHES; SAL-
MCN ; TROUT AND GRAYLINC.
TROUT FISHING. With the possible ex-
ception of the black bass, there is no fish that
affords more sport to the angler or that is found
over a greater range of country than the brook
trout. It may be taken with the fly or with
bait, but the former method is considered gen-
erally the more sportsmanlike. In bait fishing,
the trout is likely to be killed or badly injured,
whereas in fly fishing the fish generally is
hooked in the lip and can be returned to the
water unharmed. In lakes and ponds in sum-
mer time, when the surface of the water be-
comes warm, trout make for deep water, and bait
must be used. It is impossible to do more than
give the general rules controlling the selection
of flies: In size, the fly should be selected to
meet the condition of the water rather than the
size of the fish; thus, if late in the season and
the water of a clear stream is low, sober-
colored flies on No. 10 or 12 hooks are usually
the best. See FISHING; FLY-CASTING.
TROUT-PERCH. One of the small fishes
of the North American family Percopsidae, rep-
resented abundantly in the Great Lakes by the
‘sand-roller’ (Percopsis guttatus) and by a sec-
ond genus and species in Oregon. This family
constitutes the suborder Salmopercae; the form
of the body and the head and mouth are perch-
like, while the fins are salmon-like. These fishes
are of particular interest because of their re-
lationship with generalized archaic forms, of
which they seem to be the survivors. Consult
Jordan and Evermann, Fishes of North and Mid-
dle America (Washington, 1896).
TROUVERE, tro_o"var’ (Fr., from trouver, to
find, compose). The Northern French term an-
swering to the Provencal troubadour (q.v.), ap-
plied usually to the original poets who composed
the works which the jongleur performed. The dis-
tinction, however, is not absolute, as there are
instances of trouveres who performed their own
works, and occasionally of jongleurs who aspired
to composition. The trouvere was usually a man
of some rank and standing, either priest or \
knight. See JONGLEUB; FRENCH LITERATURE.
TROUVILLE, tr66'vel’. A fishing town and
seaside resort of the Department of Calvados,
France, at the mouth of the Touques, 136 miles
by rail west-northwest of Paris, and 9 miles
south of Havre. It has risen from a humble
fishing village to the rank of the most fashionable
watering-place in France. Its equable climate,
agreeable situation, remarkably fine beach, and
many handsome villas make it an ideal re-
sort during the summer and autumn months.
There are a Louis XIII. Hotel de Ville and a
large and well-appointed casino. The harbor
is thronged with fishing boats, and there is some
trade. Population, in 1900, 6137. The port is
shared with Deauville, a small but well-known
sea-bathing resort, a short distance southwest,
with a casino. The August races here are
attended by the leading circles of Parisian
society.
TROVER (OF. trover, trouver, to find, com-
pose). One of the old forms of action in com-
mon-law pleading, employed to recover dam-
ages for the wrongful conversion of personal
property. It is based upon a fiction that the
plaintiff has lost his chattels and that the de-
fendant has casually found them, but refuses to
deliver them to the plaintiff. Although this
fictitious statement must be made in the declara-
tion, it need not be proved, and the plaintiff
may recover damages on proof of a conversion
of his property. Any interest which will entitle
a person to the possession of goods is sufficient
to maintain this action. See FORMS OF ACTION;
CCMMCN FCRMS.
TROW’BRIDGE. A market town in Wilt-
shire, England, on a rocky eminence in the valley
of the Biss, 10 miles southeast of Bath (Map:
England, D 5). Cassimeres, kerseys, tweeds,
and woolen cloths of the best qualities are manu-
factured. The parish church of Saint James,
which dates from the fourteenth century, con-
tains the remains of Crabbe, the poet, who
officiated as clergyman from 1814 to 1832. There
are a fine modern town hall and many hand-
some villas, the residences of wealthy manu-
facturers. The town owes its origin to an an-
cient castle, built on the mound called Courthill,
TROWBRIDGE.
TROY.
944
which held out for Matilda against Stephen. It
was demolished before the reign of Henry VIII.,
and all traces of it have disappeared. Popula-
tion, in 1891, 12,046; in 1901, 11,562.
TROWBRIDGE, EDMUND (1709-93). An
American lawyer, born in Newton, Mass. He
graduated at Harvard in 1728, and soon rose
to eminence as a lawyer. He became Attorney-
General of the State in 1749, was for several
years a member of the council, and in 1767 was
appointed a justice of the Massachusetts Su-
preme Court, presiding with great ability and
fairness at the trial of Captain Preston and his
men after the Boston massacre. In 1772 he
retired to private life. Though not in full sym-
pathy with the Patriot Party, he was strongly
opposed to the policy of the British Ministry.
He has been regarded as the most profound
jurist in New England before the Revolution.
TROWBRIDGE, JOHN (1843-). An Ameri-
can physicist. He was born in 1843 and was
educated at the Lawrence Scientific School of
_ Harvard University, graduating in 1866 and then
serving for three years as tutor. After occupy-
ing a chair at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, he returned to Harvard in 1880 and
was made professor of experimental physics, and
was appointed in 1888 to the Rumford profes-
sorship of the application of science to the use-
ful arts. He established a laboratory course in
physics and was one of the pioneers in intro-
ducing laboratory work as an essential part of
instruction in elementary science. Trowbridge
carried on many important investigations in
physics, particularly in electricity, and later in-
vestigated the various phenomena connected with
the Roentgen rays. Many of his communications
were issued under the title of Contributions from
the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College.
Besides these, he wrote The New Physics (1884).
TROWBRIDGE, JOHN TOWNSEND (1827 —).
An American novelist, juvenile writer, and poet,
born in Ogden, N. Y. After a common school
education, supplemented at home, Trowbridge
taught school for a year in Illinois and after-
wards worked as a journalist in New York and
Boston. His first work of distinction, Neighbor
Jaclcwood (1857), was one of the first realistic
novels of New England life. The more note-
worthy of his many stories, which include some
of the most wholesome of American fiction for
boys, are Father Bright Hopes (1853); The
Drummer Boy (1863); Cudjo’s Cave (1863);
The Three Scouts (1865) ; Neighbors’ Wives
(1867) ; Coupon Bonds and Other Stories
(1872); The Jack Hazard Series; The Toby
Trafiord Series; The Start in Life Series; The
Tide Mill Series. Noteworthy collections of
verse are: The Vagabonds and Other Poems
(1869) ; The Emigrant’s Story and Other Poems
(1875); The Book of Gold and Other Poems
(1877) ; A Home Idyl and Other Poems (1881) ;
The Lost Earl and Other Poems (1888) ; Poetical
Works (1903), a collected edition. His auto-
biography, My Own Story (1903), throws much
light on American literature and life during the
second half of the nineteenth century.
TROWBRIDGE, WILLIAM PETIT (1828-92).
An American engineer, born in Oakland County,
Mich. He graduated, first in his class, at West
Point in 1848; was assigned to the Corps of
Engineers as a brevet second lieutenant; was
engaged in making astronomical observations at
the Military Academy Observatory in 1848-50,
and from 1850 to 1856, when he resigned from
the army, was engaged in important work on the
United States Coast Survey. In 1856-57 he was
professor of mathematics at the University of
Michigan; and in 1857-61 was scientific secretary
of the Superintendent of the United States Coast
Survey. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil
VVar, he was in charge of the Engineer Agency
at New York City. Subsequently he was pro-
fessor of dynamic engineering in the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale College from 1870 to
1877; was adjutant-general of the State of Con-
necticut from 1872 to 1876; and from 1877
until his death was professor of engineering in
the Columbia School of Mines. He is credited
by some with having first suggested the idea of
the cantilever bridge. Besides numerous maga-
zine articles, he published Heat as a Source Of
Power (1874).
l TROY (Lat. Troia, from Gk. Tpoia). The
most famous city of Greek legend. It was
situated in the northwestern corner of Asia
Minor, in a small plain through which, from
the southeast, flows to the Hellespont the ancient
Scamander (now Mendere), entered a short dis-
tance from its month by a small stream from
the-east, the ancient Simois (now Dumbrek Su) .
In the angle once formed by these streams (the
modern courses have altered greatly) lies a
low hill, jutting from the range of Mount Ida,
which was known in Roman times as Ilium
Novum, and V) as regarded by many as the succes-
sor of the Homeric Troy. Near by is the mod-
ern village of Hissarlik. The claims of this site
had always found defenders, but since the work
of Le Chevalier at the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury there had been a strong trend of scholarly
opinion in favor of the ruins near Bunarbashi
on the Bali Dagh, a steep cliff over the Scaman-
der, south of its entrance to the plain. The
presence of warm springs near by also served
to strengthen this identification. The site, as
well as the summit on the opposite side of the
valley, was certainly fortified in very early
times as a protection against incursions from the
south, but excavation has shown conclusively
that the capital of the district lay on the hill
of Hissarlik, rather less than four miles from
both the ZEgean and Hellespont, and correspond-
ing far more closely than could have been rea-
sonably expected with the topographical indica-
tions of the Iliad. The credit for the exploration
of this site belongs to Henry Schliemann (q.v.) ,
who began excavations in 1870, and in the three
following years had laid bare enough to show
that underneath the Roman and later Greek
ruins which crowned the hill were remains of a
settlement of unknown antiquity, even though
the names “Scsean Gate” and “Priam’s Palace”
seemed extravagant. In 1878-79 another cam-
paign with scientific coadjutors led to more
definite results, which were still further in-
creased by the excavations of 1882 by Schliemann
and Dtirpfeld. Another visit in 1890 led to
further important modifications of previous re-
sults, and though the death of Schliemann in
December, 1890, prevented the immediate con-
tinuation of the work, it was resumed in 1893
by Dbrpfeld.
TROY.
TROY.
945
The history of the hill as read in the excava-
tions and later writers is that of a series of at
least nine successive settlements, many of which
were only small collections of wretched huts,
though a convenient terminology has dignified
them all as ‘cities.’ The first (1) settlement is
a small group of dwellings surrounded by a
wall, belonging to the end of the Neolithic
Period. The second (2) city, held by Schliemann
to be the Homeric Troy, was defended by a
strong wall of rough stone, topped by crude
brick, and seems to have extended its circuit
twice, the second time with marked alterations
in the situation of the gates. Within were sev-
eral houses, consisting of a great hall and vesti-
bule, of the type found later in Mycenze and
T iryns, and apparently described in the Homeric
poems. The civilization indicated by the pottery
and lesser finds shows that the inhabitants were
at the beginning of the Bronze Age, belonging to
the period of the so-called “Island” civilization.
(See ARCHZEOLOGY.) The rulers were evidently
of some wealth and power, but their identity
seems ‘lost forever. The continuity of tradition
in the pottery and general type of building, and
the similarity with much found in Phrygia, seem
to warrant the belief that there was no change
of race from the second to the sixth city, and
that this people were kindred of the Indo-
European Phrygians. Yet they were not at
peace with their neighbors, as is shown by the
fact that the second city was burned, and the
site left desolate. The place was resettled, however,
and the houses of the third (3) city were built
on the rubbish which concealed their predeces-
sors; the wall also was repaired, and the gates
narrowed for greater security. This city, too,
was destroyed, or perhaps abandoned, but was
again resettled (4) . as an open village. To this
succeeded (5) another village of little huts, de-
fended by a wall of no very great strength. The
next city (6) was, however, of a very different
sort. It was defended by a strong wall of
smoothed stone, of far greater circuit than that
of the city No. 2, and of such workmanship that a
bit discovered by Schliemann was attributed to
the Hellenistic period. This wall was pierced by
gates, provided with strong flanking towers.
Within were houses of considerable size, but of
the same simple plan as those in the second city.
Owing to a great terrace built by the Romans,
which cut down the top of the hill, the remams
of this city are only preserved around the edge,
while the centre, which doubtless contained the
royal palace, has vanished. As Sch1iemann’S ex-
cavations were almost entirely confined to the
centre of the hill, it was possible for him to miss
this city, which belonged to the Mycenaean period,
and certainly corresponds to the Homeric Troy.
It seems clear from the objects found, that the
kings of Troy, though powerful enough to build
strong walls, ruled over a people less advanced in
artistic work. The old plain pottery continued
in general use, and the Trojan imitations of the
imported Mycenaean ware, while good in form
and color, show conspicuous deficiency in the
characteristic graceful decoration. The remains
clearly show that this royal castle was destroyed
by fire, and also that after no very long period
another settlement (7) covered the hill. Myce-
naean vases have been found in its lower strata,
but whether the inhabitants were survivors of
the Trojans, or the first wave of Greek settlers,
cannot with certainty be determined. It is clear,
however, that the Cimmerian invasion in the
eighth century 13.0. reached this hill, and after
destroying the inhabitants, either Treres or Cim-
merians took up their abode on the site, till in
the seventh century they were driven forth and
Troja or Ilion \\ as occupied by Greeks (8) . The
settlers seem to have been a small band of
fEo1ian colonists, who were cut off from the sea
by other Greek towns, and seem to have lived
with little to recall the ancient glory of the
place. The prosperity of the place (9) began
with the visit of Alexander in RC. 334, and the
Temple of Athena Ilias became after his death
the centre of a league of free cities of the Troad.
Near the end of the fourth century Lysimachus
fortified it with a wall some five miles in cir-
cumference, and also built on the hill a marble
Temple of Athena. Later the town was under
the control of Seleucus, but its history during
this time is obscure. It passed under the Roman
protection BC. 189, and was honored as the city
of I/Eneas, and thus the parent of Rome. In the
first civil war, about 13.0. 85, it was stormed and
sacked by the Marian Fimbria. New prosperity
came with Julius Caesar, for the Julian family
traced their descent from Ascanius, and Augustus
rebuilt the Temple of Athena and surrounded
it with courts and porticoes. Later emperors
favored it, and Constantine planned to make it
the seat of his new capital. It was for a long
time the seat of a bishopric, but was plundered
about 1306 by the Turks and since then has
lain in ruins.
For the legendary history of Troy, see TROJAN
WAR.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The excavations of Schlie-
mann and Dtirpfeld are published in Trojan An-
tiquities (London, 1874), Ilios (ib., 1881), Troja
(ib., 1884) ; Bericht iiber die Ausgrabungen in
Troja in Jahre 1890, von H. Schliemann und
D'o'rpfeld (Leipzig, 1891) ; Dtirpfeld, Troja, 18.93
(ib., 1894) ; and finally in the definitive work by
Diirnfeld and others, Troja und Ilion (Athens,
1902). Consult also Schuchhardt, Schliemann’s
Ewcauations, trans. by E. Sellers (London,
1891).
TROY. The county-seat of Pike County,
Ala., 52 miles south by east of Montgomery, on
the Plant System and the Central of Georgia
railroads (Map: Alabama, D 4). It is the seat
of a State normal school. Troy is the shipping
centre for large cotton interests, and has some
manufactures, of which fertilizers are the most
important. The government, under the charter of
1870, is vested in a mayor, chosen every two years,
and a unicameral council. The water-works and
the electric light plant are owned and operated by
the municipality. Troy was settled in 1843 and
incorporated the same year. Population, in 1890,
3449; in 1900, 4097.
TROY. An important manufacturing city
and the county-seat of Rensselaer County, N. Y.,
on the Hudson River, at the head of steam navi-
gation, 6 miles above Albany, and 151 miles north
of New York City (Map: New York, G 3) . It is
on the New York Central and Hudson River, the
Delaware and Hudson, the Boston and Maine,
and the Rutland railroads; and additional means
TROY.
TROYES.
946
of transportation is afforded by the-Erie and
the Champlain canals on the opposite side of
the river. Four bridges here span the Hudson,
including that of the Delaware and Hudson Rail-
road and the Congress Street Bridge; also the
Waterford Bridge, finished in 1804, the oldest
wooden covered bridge in the United States.
Troy is situated partly on level ground along
the river front,the site rising to the east in a
range of hills, the highest elevation being Mount
Ida. The city is regularly laid out. There are 140
acres in the parks open to the public, of which
Beman Park is the most important. Besides this,
the city has acquired a new park site on War-
ren’s Hill overlooking the Hudson. Lagoon Island,
in the Hudson, midway between Troy and Albany,
is a popular resort, with bath houses, athletic
grounds, and other features. The Soldiers’ and
Sailors’ Monument is in Washington Square.
Oakwood Cemetery is of interest for its natural
beauty; it has also a number of fine monuments
and the Earl Memorial Chapel, one of the finest
crematories in the world. Among edifices of note
are the court house, post-office, the savings bank
building with the music hall, the Rowe Memorial
building, and the Hart Memorial building. Troy
is the seat of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
(q.v.), one of the leading schools of its class in
the country, and of the Emma Willard Seminary,
one of the first schools established for the higher
education of women. There are several libraries
in the city. ThepTroy Hospital and the Samari-
tan Hospital are important charitable institu-
tions ; there is a fine orphan asylum in the Eng-
lish style of the fifteenth century; the Gurley
Memorial and the Sage Memorial may also be
noted.
Industrially, Troy ranks fifth among the cities
of the State, its manufacturing establishments in
the census year 1900 having had $23,532,000
capital and an output valued at $28,209,000. It
enjoys the advantages of good water power, ob-
tained partly from the State dam across the
Hudson above the city, and of excellent transpor-
tation facilities, its railroad lines being supple-
mented by two great waterways, the Hudson
River and the Erie Canal. The city is well
known for the manufacture of shirts, collars,
and cuffs, having been long the principal centre
in the United States for the production of these
goods. Other important‘ manufactures are iron
and steel, foundry and machine shop products,
laundry machinery, engineering instruments,
bells, malt liquors, hosiery and knit goods, paper
and wood pulp, paints, brick and terra cotta
products, and flouring and grist mill products.
Among metal products stoves occupy a promi-
nent place. -
Troy is governed under the regular State char-
ter for cities of the second class, which went into
operation January 1, 1900. The government is
vested in a mayor and common council, elected
every two years, and in various administrative
departments, for further explanation of which
see paragraph on Administration under ALBANY.
The comptroller, treasurer, police justices, and as-
‘ sessor are chosen by popular election; other offi-
cials are appointed by the mayor. The city clerk
is elected by the common council. More than $1,-
000,000 is spent annually by the city for main-
tenance and operation, the principal items being:
Schools, about $215,000; streets, $125,000; police
department, $112,000; hospitals, asylums, and
other charitable institutions, $89,000; municipal
lighting, $83,000; interest on debt, $83,000; wa-
ter-works, $77,000; fire department, $64,000.
The water-works, which represent an outlay of
$1,856,774, are the property of the municipality.
The net debt of the city in 1902 was $2,078,534;
the assessed valuation of real and personal prop-
erty, $56,924,599. The population, in 1800, was
4926; in 1850, 28,785; in 1870, 46,465; in 1880,
56,747; in 1890, 60,956; in 1900, 60,651. The
village of Lansingburg, which in 1900 had a
population of 12,595, became a part of Troy on
January 1, 1901.
The site now occupied by Troy was included in
the Van Rensselaer grant of 1629, and in 1659,
with the consent of the patroon, was bought from
the Indians by Jan Barentsen Wemp. In 1720
Derick Van der Heyden obtained possession of a
large farm here, and it was on this farm, still
owned by the Van der Heyden family, that a town,
most of whose early settlers were New England-
ers, was laid out in 1787. The place was called
Van der Heyden’s Ferry and Ashley’s Ferry until
1789, when the present name was adopted. In
1794 Troy was incorporated as a village, and
in 1816 it was chartered as a city. Consult:
Weise, Troy’s One Hundred Years (Troy, 1891).
TROY. The county-seat of Miami County,
O., 80 miles north by east of Cincinnati, on the
Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad
(Map: Ohio, B 5). Farming is the leading in-
dustry of the surrounding country. There are
manufactures of carriages, wagons, bentwood,
dashboards, and iron and lumber products. The
water-works and the electric light plant are
owned by the municipality. Population, in 1890,
4494; in 1900, 5881.
TROYES, trwii. The capital of the Depart-
ment of Aube, France, on the left bank of the
Seine, 104 miles by rail east-southeast of Paris
(Map: . France, K 3). It presents a quaint,
mediaeval appearance, most of the houses being
of the timbered kind. The fine Cathedral of Saint
Pierre (thirteenth to -sixteenth century), with a
splendid rose window, is in the Flamboyant style.
The small Church of Saint Urbain, founded by
Pope Urban IV., is a charming example of the
thirteenth-century Gothic. La Madeleine has a
superb rood screen. Saint Jean (fourteenth to
sixteenth century) is noteworthy for its stained
glass and its two paintings by Mignard. Saint
Nicolas and Saint Pantaléon are both in the
Gothic style of the sixteenth century. In the old
Abbey of Saint Lupus are the public library
(l10,000 volumes and 2800 manuscripts) and an
interesting museum. The monument to the chil-
dren of Aube, in commemoration of the Franco-
German War, was erected in 1900. The chief in-
dustry is the manufacture of cotton and woolen
stockings. There is a school of hosiery. The
Seine is canalized here and divides into several
arms in the city. Population, in 1901, 53,146.
The capital of the Celtic Tri-casses, Troyes was
the Roman Augustobona (later Trecce). The
town was the capital of the counts of Cham-
pagne, and early rose to importance as a centre
of trade. The treaty of 1420, which provided for
the succession of Henry V. of England to the
French throne, was signed here. Jeanne d’Arc
took the town in 1429, and a century later it
was partly destroyed by Charles V. The revoca-
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TROYES.
TRUCE OF GOD.
947
tion of the Edict of Nantes reduced the popula-
tion, which was largely Protestant, to less than
one-fourth of its former numbers. Consult Bou-
tiot, Histoire de la ville de Troyes (Paris, 1870-
80).
TRO'YLUS AND CR-Y’SEYDE. A poem by
Chaucer, written about 1380, probably largely a
translation of Boccaccio’s Filostrato, though
Chaucer may have drawn directly from Benoit
de Sainte-More’s Roman de Troyes of the twelfth
century, in which the episode is first introduced,
or from Guido della Co1onna’s prose novel based
on it.
'~ TROYON, trwa’yoN’, CONSTANT (1810-65).
A French landscape and animal painter of the
Fontainebleau-Barbison school. He was born at
Sevres, August 25, 1810, and worked while a
youth as a decorator in the porcelain factory, re-
ceiving meanwhile lessons in design from Riocruz
and later from Poupart. At the age of twenty he
began as a landscape painter by making studies
in the fields. His first Salon pictures, exhibited
in 1833, were mediocre in character. A fortunate
acquaintance with the romanticist Roqueplan
modified his style and brought him the acquain-
tance of Rousseau, and a closer association with
Diaz and Dupré, his fellow-workers at the Sevres
factory. (See BARBISON Sonoon) Of great im-
portance for his career was his visit, in 1847,
to Holland, where his observation of the rich
animal life of the fields, together with his study
of Dutch art, gave a new direction to his own
work. He found inspiration in Potter and Cuyp,
and modified his technique after the example of
Rembrandt. From 1848 he became distinctively
an animal painter. His animals, however, were
never detached studies, but an integral part of
the landscape. Success and fortune came to him
early; he received first class medals in 1846,
1852, and 1855, and the decoration of the Legion
of Honor in 1849, after which orders multiplied
rapidly and his rapidity of execution sometimes
resulted in inferior workmanship. In conse-
quence of overwork he lost his reason in 1863,
and he died in Paris, February 21, 1865.
Troyon is the principal animal painter of the
French school, the worthy compeer of Potter and
Cuyp. No man has succeeded better in por-
traying the character of animals——the stolid
indifference of the ox, the helplessness of the
sheep. But more than any other cattle painter
he is a consummate master of landscape, which
he portrays with an epic simplicity equaled only
by Rousseau. At first rather heavy, his execu-
tion speedily became broad and impressive; his
poetic treatment of light and color is that of
the Barbison school. His pictures often bear
no distinctive names beyond the general designa-
tion of landscape and cattle. In the Louvre are
“Return from the Farm” (1849) and “Oxen
Going to Work in the Fields” (1855) ; other fa-
mous examples are “Valley of the Touques”
(1853, Contesse Lehow), “Cart with Ass,”
“Sheep After Storm,” “Cow Scratching Herself.”
There are good examples of his work in the pro-
vincial museums of France, and in the important
private and public collections in the United
States. Consult his biographies by Dumesnil
(Paris, 1888); Hustin (ib., 1893) ; and Van
Dyke, in Modern French Masters (New York,
1896).
TROY WEIGHT. See WEIGHTS AND MEAS-
URES.
TRUBNER, trub’ne'r, NICHOLAS (1817-1884).
A London publisher, born in Heidelberg, Ger-
many. After learning the bookseller’s trade, he
went to London in 1843, and was employed by
the Longmans. In 1851 he entered into partner-
ship with Thomas Delf, and soon became the
head of the flourishing publishing house of
Triibner & Co. One of his successful enterprises
was a development of the American trade. In
1855 he published the admirable Bibliographical
Guide to American Literature, which was greatly
enlarged in 1859. He found time to study Sans-
krit, Hebrew, and Basque, and wrote several
learned books. He performed great services to
scholarship by issuing works shunned by ordi-
nary publishers. Two remarkable series of such
works were Triibner’s Oriental Series and the
British and Foreign Philosophical Library. He
was also the publisher of the Early English Text
and other societies.
TRUCE (plur. of obsolete Eng. true, truce,
true, AS. tréo/we, trywe, Goth. triggws, Ger.
treu, true; connected with OPruss. druwis,
faith). In warfare, a truce closely resembles an
armistice (q.v.), the two terms being frequently
used as synonyms. Practically, the truce is a
prelude to or the interval necessary to arrange
for an armistice. In either case it is but a tem-
porary cessation of hostilities, and may be
merely local, arranged to afford safe conduct for
the bearer of a message, or to permit the com-
batants to bury their dead; or, if general, to
admit of peace pourparlers. International agree-
ment as well as the unwritten law of the battle-
field forbids either side taking advantage of a
period of truce to improve their strategic ad-
vantage, by changes of position, disposition of
troops, bringing up of reserves, or other re-
inforcements. A general truce is only made by
the rulers or governments concerned, while a
local truce may be arranged by the local com-
manders. During a truce a definite arrange-
ment is made detailing the liberties permitted
each combatant. It is understood, however, that
each side is at liberty to carry out such opera-
tions as would have been possible during actual
hostilities. Violation of a truce by either party,
or any form of treachery regarding it, instantly
terminates the truce. See FLAG OF TRUCE;
WAR.
TRUCE OF GOD (ML. treuga Dei). In the
Middle Ages private warfare was very common,
and the Church synods, in order to limit what
they could not wholly repress (see PEACE or
GOD), in the eleventh century and later, fre-
quently passed decrees that there should be no
such warfare during certain holy seasons and
on certain days. The seasons during which
peace was observed extended from Advent to
Epiphany, and from Septuagesima to one week
after Pentecost. In addition the time from
W’ednesday night to Monday morning of each
week and all saints’ days were included. By the
end of the eleventh century only about eighty
days in the year were left free for private war-
fare, but most of these days came in summer
when the fighting would naturally be most com-
mon. These decrees of the councils, although
frequently repeated, had little effect. Sometimes
TRUCE OF GOD.
TRUEBA Y LA QUINTANA.
948
the King, too, lent the truce the weight of his
authority and thus made it a peace of the
land. Consult: Kluckhohn, Geschichte des
Gottesfriedens (Leipzig, 1857 ) ; Huberti, Studien
sum G-ottesfrieden und Landfrieden (Anspach,
1892).
TRUCK FARMING. See AGRICULTURE.
TRUDEAU, EDWARD LIVINGSTON (1848—).
An American physician, born in New York City,
who received his preliminary education in Co-
lumbia College, and his medical degree in 1871
from the College of Physicians and Surgeons,
now Columbia medical department. After a
brief period of practice in New York City, he
was obliged by pulmonary disease in 1873 to go
to the Adirondack Mountains, where he has since
resided. In 1884 he founded the Adirondack
Cottage Sanitarium at Saranac Lake, N. Y., for
the treatment of incipient tuberculosis in work-
ing men and women, the first American institu-
tion attempting the climatic and open-air
method of treatment of this disease. In 1894
he founded the Saranac Laboratory for the Study
of Tuberculosis, the first research laboratory for
the purpose in America. Dr. Trudeau is a mem-
ber of many medical and other learned associa-
tions. He has contributed a vast number of
articles to medical periodicals.
TRUE, ALFRED CHARLES (1853—). An
American educator and agriculturist, born at
Middletown, Conn. He graduated at Wesleyan
University in 1873, was principal of the high
school at Essex, N. Y., in 1873-74, from 1875 to
1882 was an instructor in the State Normal
School at Westfield, Mass., and in 1882-84 stud-
ied at Harvard. In 1884-88 he Was an instructor
in the Wesleyan University, in 1888 entered the
office of Experiment Stations in the United
States Department of Agriculture (q.v.), was
editor there in 1889-90, vice-director in 1891-92,
and became director in 1893. He was dean of
the first graduate school of agriculture held in
the United States (at Columbus, Ohio, 1902),
and as chairman of the committee on methods of
teaching agriculture of the Association of Ameri-
can Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta-
tions, was for years prominent in the movement
for the improvement of college courses in agri-
culture, and the extension of agricultural in-
struction to the elementary and secondary
schools. He organized agricultural investiga-
tions in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, and the
work of the Department of Agriculture relating
to irrigation, agricultural engineering, and the
farmers’ institutes. He particularly studied the
organization and management of institutions for
agricultural education and research, and pub-
lished several monographs on this subject, chief-
ly in the bulletins of the oflice, including: Edu-
cation and Research in Agriculture in the United
States (1894); Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tions: Their Objects and Work (1895) ; The
Agricultural Emperiment Stations in the United
States (with V. A. Clark, 1900); Agricultural
Eaeperiment Stations in Foreign Countries (with
D. J. Crosby, 1902); and Progress in Agricul-
tural Education (1902). For ten years he was
chief editor of the Ewperiment Station Record.
He contributed articles on agriculture and horti-
culture to the New International Encyclopwdia
and Wcbster’s International Dictionary.
TRUE, CHARLES KITTREDGE (1809-79). A
Methodist Episcopal clergyman. He was born in
Portland, Maine; graduated at Harvard Uni-
versity, 1832, and entered the New England
Conference, 1833. He was agent of the New
England Education Society, 1834; principal of
Amenia Seminary, 1835; entered the New York
Conference, 1836; was transferred to the New
England Conference, 1838; was professor of intel-
lectual and moral science in VVesleyan University,
Middletown, Conn., 1849-61; and financial agent
of Wesleyan University, 1870-73. He published:
The Elements of Logic (1840); Shawmut; or,
the Settlement of Boston by the Puritan Pil-
grims (1845); John Winthrop and the Great
Colony (1875) ; The Life and Times of Sir Wal-
ter Raleigh (1877) ; The Life and Times of John
Know (1878) ; Memoirs of John Howard (1878) ;
The Thirty Years’ War (1878) ; Heroes of Hol-
land (1882) ; Life of Captain John Smith
(1882).
TRUEBA Y COSIO, tree-a'Ba s ko'se-6,
TELESFORO DE (1798-1835). A Spanish and Eng-
lish author, born at Santander and educated in a
Catholic college in England. His studies for a dip-
lomatic career he made in London and in Paris,
where he afterwards served as attaché to the Span-
ish legation until 1822. After his return to Spain
he founded an academy uniting the entire younger
generation of poets and presided over by Alberto
Lista. The two comedies, El veleta and Casarse
con 60,000 duros, which he wrote about this time,
entitle him to be ranked with the best Spanish
dramatists. In politics an ardent champion of
the constitutional party, he took refuge in Lon-
don on the restoration of the absolute régime
and presently earned wide reputation as an Eng-
lish writer. Besides the novels Gomez Arias
(1828) and The Castilian (1829), in imitation of
Walter Scott, he published a Life of Hernan
Cortés (1830) ; History of the Conquest of Peru
(1830); The Romance of History (1830); The
E.vquisites,' Salvador de Guerilla; The Incognito
(1831); produced the comedies Call Again To-
Morrow (1832), The Ewquisites, Mr. and Mrs.
Pringle, The Man of Pleasure (1832), and the
historical drama The Royal Fugitive (1834);
but won his greatest success with the descriptive
picture of manners Paris and London (1831).
Returning to Spain in 1834, he was elected to
the Cortes and secretary of the Second Chamber.
He died in Paris.
TRUEBA Y LA QUINTANA, 5 la kén-tti’-
na, ANTONIO DE (1821-89). A Spanish poet
and novelist, born in the Basque region, of
peasant stock. He went to Madrid, where he en-
tered business, but devoted his leisure hours to
study, and even succeeded in obtaining a univer-
sity degree. He was made by Isabella II. his-
toriographer of Biscay, but was deprived of his
post of historiographer when the Queen was ban-
ished in 1868. His verse, contained in the two
collections El libro de los cantares (1852) and
El libro de las montanas (1868), is marked
throughout by a tender melancholy natural to his
native Basque region, of which he sings. His his-
torical novels, such as El Cid Campeador and
Las hijas del Cid, are dreary performances. In
the short tale of manners, descriptive of his be-
loved Basque district, he succeeded. There are
various collections of these tales, for example,
the Cuentos de color de rosa, the Cuentos cam-
TRUEBA Y LA QUINTANA.
TRUMBULL.
949
pesinos, the Ouentos de varies colores, the Nar-
raciones populares, the Ouentos de madres é
hijos.
TRUE BILL. See INDICTMENT.
TRUE INSPIRATION CONGBEGATION.
See CoMMUNISTIc SOCIETIES.
TRUFFLE (OF. trufie, trufe, trufie, Fr.
truffe, truffle, perhaps from Lat. tubera, neu. pl.,
but taken as fem. Sg. of tuber, swelling, tumor,
tuber), Tuber. A genus of ascomycetous fungi
of the order Tuberales; globose, or nearly so, of
a fleshy substance, with a distinct skin, the whole
substance pervaded by a network of serpentine
threads (hymenium) which bear the spore-cases
in minute cavities. The species, which are not
numerous, are very generally diffused in tem-
perate parts of the world; they are subterranean,
found frequently in groups of 10 to 20 in-
dividuals a foot or more below the surface
soil. Some of them are among the most highly
valued of esculent fungi. The common truffle
(Tuber cibarium) is black, and has a roughened
surface. Its size varies from that of a large
plum to a large potato. On account of its
agreeable flavor, it is used in the preparation of
many dishes, It is common
in the central and southern
parts of Europe, chiefly in
loose soils, in woods and
pastures, as in the pine,
oak, and chestnut woods of
France and Italy. Other
species, as Tuber cestivum,
Tuber rubum, and Tuber
rnelanosporum, are found
in some parts of France, Italy, and other coun-
tries of Europe, and are sought and used in the
same manner as the common truffle. Dogs and
pigs are trained to seek them, and readily dis-
cover by the scent the spot where they grow under
ground. The stirring of the soil in the gathering
of truffles seems to increase productiveness. hVhite
truflles (Terfezia leonis), a species of a nearly
allied genus, which has also been found in many
places, grows half above ground, is pinkish, and
is generally as large as a walnut. It is less
aromatic than the common truffle, but is used
in the same way. AS yet edible species are little
known in the United States.
TRUJILLO, tr55-Hel’y6 (formerly TRUXILLO,
from Lat. Turris Julii). A town of the Prov-
ince of Caceres, Spain, in Estremadura, 24 miles
east of the city of C:’1ceres on the main highway
from Madrid to Portugal (Map: Spain, C 3).
The surrounding country is mountainous, but
produces wheat, wines, oil, and fruits; live stock
is raised. The principal manufactures are choco-
late, leather goods, pottery, and delft-ware.
There are valuable forests in the vicinity. The
town contains many convents and churches, of
which the 1nost famous is that of Santa Maria
de la Concepcion, which holds the tomb of Fran-
ciscp Pizarro (q.v.). The so-called ‘Tower of
Julius’ and other Roman ruins are found in the
vicinity. The population of the ayuntamiento in
1900 was 9304.
TRUJILLO, or TRUXILLO. A seaport of
Honduras, on the Atlantic coast, Bay of
Truxillo, 137 miles northeast of Tegucigalpa
(Map: Central America, E 3). The town was


TRUFFLE.
formerly the most important port of Northern
Honduras. In recent years much of its trade has
been diverted. Population, about 4000. Trujillo
was founded in 1523 and was formerly the capi-
tal of the Republic. Here the celebrated Ameri-
can filibuster Walker was captured and exe-
cuted in 1858.
TBUJILLO, or TRUXILLO. A Peruvian
city, capital of the Province of Libertad (for-
merly the Intendencia of Trujillo), situated near
the mouth of the river Moche, 320 miles north-
west of Callao, and connected by rail with its
port, Salaverry (Map: Peru, B 5). The town
is still surrounded by walls of the seventeenth
century. It contains a cathedral, a university,
and a theological seminary. It was formerly an
important commercial centre, but, as its port is an
open roadstead, its trade is now restricted largely
to the province. Near it lie the ruins of the Inca
city Gran Chimu, Trujillo was founded by
Pizarro in 1535, and named in honor of his
birthplace. It was destroyed by an earthquake
in 1619. Its population in 1900 was about 8000.
TRUL’LIBER, PARSON. A fat and brutal
curate, the antithesis of Parson Adams, in Field-
ing’s Joseph Andrews.
TRUIVUBULL, BENJAMIN (1735-1820). An
American clergyman and historian, born at He-
bron, Conn. He graduated at Yale in 1759, and
was pastor of the Congregational Church at
North Haven, Conn., from 1760 until his death.
He served in the Revolutionary Army as chap-
lain and as volunteer soldier. He published:
Twelve Discourses on the Divine Origin of the
Holy Scriptures (Hartford, 1790) ; General His-
tory of the United States of America (Boston,
1765-1810); and a painstaking and excellent
History of Connecticut from 1630 till 1713
(Hartford, 1797).
TRUMBULL, HENRY CLAY (1830-1903). An
American clergyman and author, born at Ston-
ington, Conn., and educated at VVilliston Semi-
nary, at Yale, and at the University of New
York. He was ordained a Congregational min-
ister, served as chaplain of the Tenth Connecti-
cut Regiment in 1862-65, and was in several
Confederate prisons. In 1875 he became editor
of the Sunday School Times. His publications
include: The Knightly Soldier (1865); Kadish-
Barnea (1883) ; Teaching and Teachers (1884) ;
Principles and Practice (6 vols. 1889) ; Studies
in Oriental Social Life (1894) ; IVar Memories of
an Army Ghaplain (1898); and Old-Time Stu-
dent Volunteers (1902).
TRUMBULL, JAMES HAMMOND (1821-1897).
An eminent American philologist, born in Ston-
ington, Conn., and educated at Yale. Feeble
health prevented the completion of his college
work as well as his entering upon active pro-
fessional life. After 1847 he was a resident of
Hartford. From 1847 to 1852 and again from
1858 to 1861 he was Assistant Secretary of State,
and from 1861 to 1865 was Secretary of State, for
Connecticut. He was among the foremost of
American philologists, and was a well-known
writer on historical subjects of local interest.
He also made a thorough study of the Indian
tongues, and prepared a glossary of Eliot’s
Indian Bible. He was the State librarian in
1854-56, and from 1863 until his death was
librarian of the Watkinson Library of Hartford;
TRUMBULL.
TRUMBULL.
950
from 1849 to 1863 was secretary of the Connecti-
cut Historical Society, and was its president from
1863 until his death. He was one of the editors
of the Colonial Records of Connecticut (15 vols.,
1850-90); he also edited the Memorial History
of Hartford County (1886) ; and he prepared an
edition of T. Lechford’s Plain Dealing (1867),
and of Roger Williams’s Key into the Indian
Language (1866). His own publications in-
clude: The Composition of Indian Geographical
Names (1870); The Best Method of Studying
the Indian Languages (1871); Historical Notes
on the Constitution of Connecticut (1872) ; The
True Blue Laws of Connecticut, and the False
Blue Laws Invented by Rev. Samuel Peters
(1876) ; and Indian Names of Places in and on
the Borders of Connecticut’, with Interpretations
(1881) . He also wrote numerous articles in his
particular fields of study, and also secured fur-
ther recognition as a bibliographer by preparing
the catalogue of George Brinley’s library (1878-
97).
TRUMBULL, JOHN (1750-1831). An Ameri-
ican judge and poet, born in Watertown, Conn.
Precocious in childhood, he passed his examina-
tions for Yale at the age of seven, but spent six
further years in preparatory study, and was not
graduated until 1767. Two years later he wrote
essays in imitation of Addison for local journals.
In 1771 he became tutor at Yale, studied law,
and was admitted to the bar in 1773, having al-
ready signalized his satiric powers in The Prog-
ress of Dullness (1772). To this he added a
second and third part in 17 73, and in that year
entered the law office of John Adams in Boston.
At New Haven in 1774 he composed the first
portion of his most famous satire, M cFingal, a
mock epic after the fashion of Hudibras. Dur-
ing the Revolutionary War he lived in VVestbury
and Hartford, where he completed M cFingal
(1782). This work became very popular, no less
than thirty pirated editions being known to col-
lectors. From it is taken the familiar quotation
“A thief ne’er felt the halter draw With good
opinion of the law.” His political writing after
the Revolution was Federalist in spirit and a
protest against anarchical tendencies. His poet-
ical works were collected in 1820. He cotiperated
with the famous Hartford Wits in the Anarchiad,
and was State Attorney (1789), legislator (1792,
1800), and Superior Court judge from 1801 to
1819, when he moved to Detroit, where he died.
M cFingal, which may be best read in the edition
of B. J. Lossing (1860), is a vigorous produc-
tion, and, though lacking in sprightliness, is one
of the few Revolutionary poems worth a glance
to-day.
TRUMBULL, JOHN (1756-1843). An Ameri-
can historical and portrait painter. The son of
Jonathan Trumbull, War Governor of Connecti-
cut, he was born at Lebanon, Conn., June 6,
1756, graduated at Harvard in 1773, and two
years later entered the Continental Army. Hav-
ing made for Washington a plan of the British
works before Boston Neck, he was appointed an
aide-de-camp, and the following year a deputy
adj utant-general under Gates. He retired from the
army in 1777, but in 1788 he took part as a vol-
unteer in General Sullivan’s expedition to Rhode
Island; and in 1780 he became a pupil of Benja-
min West, in London. The news of André’s exe-
cution fastened upon him the suspicion of being a
spy, and he was imprisoned for eight months. In
1782 he returned to America and remained until the
Peace of Paris had been signed, when he went back
to London to continue his studies. In 1784 he went
to Paris, where, in consultation with Thomas Jef-
ferson, he painted his first historical picture, “The
Signing of the Declaration of Independence.”
This picture and those of the “Surrender of
Burgoyne,” “Surrender of Cornwallis,” “Resig-
nation of Washin ton at Annapolis,” hang in
the Capitol at Was ington. Most of his pictures
are at the Art Gallery of Yale College, to
which he presented them in return for an an-
nuity of $1000. Among the principal are
the “Battle of Bunker Hill” (1786); “Death
of Montgomery” (1781) ; “Battle of Prince-
ton,” “Battle . of Trenton,” and portraits
of Washington, Hamilton, the Duke of Wel-
lin ton, and others. Other well-known por-
traits by him are those of Washington, George
Clinton, John Jay, and Alexander Hamilton, in
the New York City Hall; of General and Mrs.
Washington in the National Museum, Washing-
ton; of John Adams, of his father, Jonathan
Trumbull, and of Rufus King. Although not of
the highest rank, his work is good in composition
and color, and is pervaded by a healthy realism.
In 1794 he served under Jay as secretary of
legation in England; and from 1816 to 1825 was
president of the Academy of Fine Arts, New
York, in which city he died, November 10, 1843.
Consult his Autobiography (New York, 1841);
Durand, in American Art Review (1881).
TRUMBULL, JONATHAN (1710-85). An
American patriot and political leader, born at
Lebanon, Conn. He graduated at Harvard in
1727, studied for the ministry, and for a time
held a pastorate at Colchester, Conn., but in
1731 joined his father in mercantile pursuits.
Meanwhile he began the study of law, and in
1733 was sent to the General Assembly, of which
he became Speaker in 1739. In 1740 he was ap-
pointed Governor’s assistant, in which position
he was retained for many years; and from 1766
to 1769 he was Deputy Governor, and as such
the ea-oflicio Chief Justice of the Superior Court
of Connecticut. From 1769 to 1783 he was
Governor, and at the outbreak of the Revo-
lutionary War was the only one of the
colonial Governors who gave his unqualified
support of the Patriot Party. At the close of
the war he was prominent as an advocate of a
strong federal government. According to a long
accepted tradition he was called by Washington
‘Brother Jonathan,’ a phrase which later came
into general use to personify the United States.
See NATIONAL NICKNAMES.
TRUMBULL, JONATHAN (1740-1809). An
American political leader, the son of Jonathan
Trumbull (1710-85) , born at Lebanon, Conn. He
graduated at Harvard, 1759, was for several
years in the State Legislature; was paymaster-
general of the Northern Department from July,
1775, to July, 1778; and was military secretary
to General Washington, with the rank of lien-
tenant-colonel, in 1781-83. He was a Federalist
member of Congress from 1789 to 1795, being
Speaker of the House in 1791-95; was a member
of the United States Senate in 1795-96; was
TRUMBULL.
TRUMPET FLOWER.
951
Lieutenant-Governor of Connecticut in 1796-98;
and was Governor from 1798 to 1809.
TRUMBULL, Josnrn (1782-1861). An
American lawyer, grandson of Jonathan Trum-
bull (1710-85) . He was born at Lebanon, Conn.
After graduating at Yale in 1801, he studied
law and from 1804 to 1828 practiced at Hart-
ford. In the latter year he became president
of the Hartford bank. He was a member of the
Legislature from 1832 to 1848, and in 1851. In
1834-35, on appointment, he served in Congress
as a Whig, and again in 1839-43 was a member
of that body. In 1849-50 he was Governor of
Connecticut. He was actively interested in
public internal improvements and in educational
matters.
TRUMBULL, LYMAN (1813-96). An Ameri-
can jurist and politician, born at Colchester,
Conn. He received an academic education, taught
school in Georgia, and was admitted to the bar
in 1837. He removed to Belleville, Ill., and in
1840 was elected to the Legislature as a Demo-
crat. In 1841-42 he was Secretary of State, and
from 1848-53 was a justice of the Supreme Court.
From 1855 to 1873 he was a member of the
United States Senate. When the slavery ques-
tion became acute he joined the Republican
Party, was chairman of the Judiciary Committee
after 1861, supported the Emancipation Procla-
mation, and the suspension of habeas corpus,
and drafted the Thirteenth Amendment to the
United States Constitution. After the war
he was one of the five Republican Senators
who refused to vote for the impeachment of
President Johnson, and thereafter acted with the
Democrats. In 187 3 he returned to the practice
of law in Chicago. In 1880 he was the unsuc-
cessful Democratic candidate for Governor of
Illinois. He joined the Populists in 1894, and
defended the leaders of the great railway strike
in Chicago in that year.
TRUMPET (OF., Fr. trompette, It. trom-
betta, trumpet, diminutive of Fr., OF. tro/mpe,
It. tromba, trumpet, probably from OHG. trum-
ba, trumpa, Ger. Tromme, drum, perhaps cor-
rupted from Lat. triumph‘us, triumph; ulti-
mately connected with Eng. drum). A musical
instrument of great antiquity, which, in its pres-
ent form, consists of a tube 8 feet long, less in
diameter than the horn, doubled up in the form
of a parabola, and sounded by a mouthpiece. By
means of crooks the instrument can be adjusted
to any degree of the chromatic scale. With the
exception of the one in C, all trumpets are trans-
posing instruments. The music is always written
in the treble clef. The sound is bright and pene-
trating. The older composers, including Bee-
thoven, had to be very careful in the selection
of the trumpets for a particular composition,
and even then it was not always possible to have
the trumpet play all the notes desired. To
remedy this serious defect the instruments were
provided with valves, enabling them to produce,
all chromatic intervals from g to g2.
TRUMPET CALLS. See BUGLE AND TRUM-
PET CALLS.
TRUMPETER (so called from its note), or
AGAMI. One of the birds of the family Pso-
phiidae, allied to the cranes, and natives of South
America. They have the plumage of the head
and neck short and velvety, while that of the
rump is long and loose, and possesses the remark-
able character of having a series of sub-orbital
bones as in reptiles. The best known species is
Psophia crepitans, which occurs in large flocks
north of the Amazon, especially in the forests of
British Guiana. These birds, of which several
species exist, have little power of flight. The
flesh is palatable, and they are domesticated by
the Indians. Another species (Psophia Zeucop-
tera) is termed ‘corcosoda.’ See Plate of CBANES,
ETC.
TRUMPETER BEE. The member of a col-
ony of bumblebees whose office it seems to be to
arouse the denizens of a nest to work in the early
morning.
TRUMPETER-FISH. The most important
of the commercial food-fishes of New Zealand,
Latris uecatia, often reaching a weight of 50
pounds. It is a member of the ‘long-fin’ family
Cirrhitidee, related to the sea-breams (Sparidae) ,
which furnishes many valuable food-fishes
throughout the Indo-Pacific region. One species
(Chilodactylus /macropterus) is highly prized
both at the Cape of Good Hope and in Australia,
and reaches a weight of 25 pounds. These fishes
are called ‘long-fins’ on ‘account of a prolonga-
tion of one of the rays of the pectoral fins.
TRUMPETER HORNBILL. See HORNBILL
TRUMPET-FISH. See SNIPEFISH.
TRUMPET FLOWER (so called from the
shape of the flower). The popular name of the
genus Tecoma (natural order Bignoniaceae) , com-
prising about twenty-four species of Asiatic, Aus-

TRUMPET cnnnpnn (Tecoma radicaus).
tralian, African, and North American mostly
climbing and twining shrubs without tendrils,
producing large flowers with a long tubular co-
rolla which suggested the common name. The
trumpet creeper, or trumpet vine (T ecom-a radi-
cans) , is a beautiful North American hardy spe-
cies which climbs by means of aerial rootlets and
has large attractive funnel-shaped, orange-
yellow, and scarlet flowers. Tecoma australis is
an ornamental Australian climber. Tecoma jas-
minoides, another Australian species, is grown
in greenhouses. Tecoma capensis is a South
TRUMPET FLOWER.
TRUST.
952
African climbing shrub with clustered racemes
of orange scarlet flowers. Tecoma grandiflora,
a rather tender Chinese and Japanese species, is
in common cultivation. Tecoma stans, a yellow-
flowered Texan species, is an erect shrub. The
plants are propagated by seeds, layers, cuttings
of well-developed shoots, and most commonly by
root cuttings. Species of the closely related
genus Bignonia are sometimes also called trum-
pet flower. ‘
TRUNK-BACK TURTLE.
back (q.v.) .
TRUNKFISH (so called from its incase-
ment, which resembles a trunk), or BOXFISH.
A fish of the order Ostracodermi, and family
Ostraciidae, with a short, cuboid body, covered by
a carapace formed of firmly united polygonal
bony scutes, the jaws, bases of the fins, and
caudal peduncle free and covered by smooth skin.
They swim by means of a curious sculling motion
of the small dorsal fins and anal fins, the tail
acting as a rudder, while the pectoral fins fan
water into the gills. There are about twenty
species, all of tropical seas, and dwelling near
the bottom, feeding on minute animals. The
common trunkfishes, such as the ‘Nest Indian
Lactophrys trigonus, have the carapace or ‘box’
three-angled. A somewhat different one (Lacto-
phrys tricornis) is the ‘cowfish’ or ‘toro’ of
Florida and Cuba, and distinguished by the
stout spines that form three ‘horns’ on the head.
It ranges to the Cape of Good Hope, reaches 18
inches in length, and makes good food when
baked in its shell. See Plate of PLECTOGNATH
FISHES.
TRUN'NIO1\T, COMMODORE. In Smollett’s
Peregrine Pickle, a retired sailor, the eccentric
uncle of the title character. His household is ar-
ranged on naval lines and subjected to the dis-
cipline of a ship.
TRU’RO. A seaport in Cornwall, England,
eight miles north of Falmouth, at the junction
of the Allen and the Kenwyn with an inlet of
the sea called the Truro River (Map: England,
A 6). Truro is the centre of a mining district,
and exports tin and copper ore. Its cathedral,
an Early English structure in granite, conse-
crated in 1887, ingeniously incorporates portions
of Saint Mary’s Church, a Perpendicular edifice
of the reign of Henry VII. The grammar school
dates from 1546. Anciently called Truera and
Truruburgh, Truro was the sea of the Stannery
Parliaments of Cornwall, and was a privileged
tin coinage town. Population, in 1901, 11,562.
TRURO, THOMAS WILDE, Baron (1782-1855).
An English jurist and Lord Chancellor. He was
born in London, was educated at Saint Paul’s
School, and was trained as a lawyer. In 1805
he was admitted as attorney and for some years
practiced as such, but in 1817 was called to the
bar as barrister, and in 1820 made himself cele-
brated by his defense of Queen Caroline. In 1831
he entered Parliament and gradually won for
himself as great distinction there as he had won
in the courts. In 1839 he became Solicitor-Gem
eral, and in 1841 became Attorney-General, but
held the office only a few months. In 1843 he in-
troduced Rowland Hill’s plan for postal reforms
in the House of Commons, in 1846 was again
made Attorney-General on the resumption of
The leather-
office by Lord John Russell, and a few days later
was appointed Chief Justice of the Court of Com-
mon Pleas. In 1850 he was made Lord Chan-
cellor and created Baron Truro of Bowes, but was
relieved by the fall of the Government in 1852.
TRUSS (OF., Fr. trousse, from trousser, to
pack, bind, tie, It. torciare, to twist, wrap, tie,
from Lat. tortus, p. p. of torquere, to twist). An
instrument employed in the palliative treatment
of hernia, with the view of preventing its de-
scent, and in some cases of effecting a permanent
cure. It consists essentially of a pad or cushion
attached to a metallic spring, with straps so
arranged that its position may be retained during
the varied positions of the body. The necessity
of having recourse to a suitable truss the mo-
ment that the slightest protrusion shows itself
in any of the parts liable to hernia cannot be
too strongly urged. Many varieties of trusses
have been devised. The choice of the instrument
required in any particular case should be left to
the surgeon. See HERNIA.
TRUST (ME. trust, trost, trist, tryst, Goth.
trausti, covenant, treaty, OHG. tro'st, Ger. Trost,
trust, protection; connected with Eng. true,
OPruss. druwis, faith, druwit, to believe). In
its broadest sense, a legal relation existing be-
tween two or more persons such that a court of
equity will compel one to hold property or an in-
terest in property of which he has the legal title
for the benefit of the other or others. The per-
son so holding the legal interest in property is
called the trustee, and the person entitled to the
benefit, or, as is sometimes said. the ‘equitable in-
terest’ in the property, is known as the beneficiary
of the trust, or the cestui que trust. The fidei
com missum (q.v.) of the Roman law, which was
a form of trust created by will, has been sup-
posed to have been the model of uses, the early
form of trust introduced into England by the
clergy as a means of avoiding the operation of
the mortmain statutes (q.v.) . Another analogy has
been found in the Roman idea of usufructus, or
the right of temporary enjoyment of a thing as
distinct from the legal ownership of it. The
analogy, however, between uses or trusts on the
one hand, and the fidei commissum and the
usufruotus on the other, fails in many impor-
tant particulars, and it seems most probable that
the use is an independent product of English
jurisprudence, although its development was
greatly aided by the doctrines of the Roman law
with which the clergy were familiar.
The practice of conveying land to uses, that is,
the granting of land to one to be held by him
for the benefit of another, seems to have existed
as early as the reign of Edward III. Such grants
were made by debtors to avoid levy of execution
by creditors, and by disseisors to avoid the claims
of rightful owners of the land. By thus convey-
ing land to another to the use of the grantor, the
grantor retained all the benefits of a purely legal
ownership, while he divested himself of all its
burdens. First, the obligation of the grantee to
uses to hold the land to the use of his grantor -
seems to have had only a moral or religious sanc-
tion, and, resting as it did upon conscience and
good faith, was a proper subject for the then
rapidly growing jurisdiction of the Court of
Chancery. (See CHANCERY.) There is some
evidence that the Chancellor took jurisdiction to
TRUST.
TRUST.
953
enforce such obligations upon equitable grounds
in the reign of Richard II., and the jurisdiction
became well established during the reigns of
Henry VI, and Edward IV. By virtue of the
Chancellor’s power to command things to be done,
he could compel the feoffee to uses to carry out
fully the equitable obligation imposed upon him
by the grantor, and in the reign of Edward IV.
we find the Chancellor imposing the same obliga-
tions upon those who acquired the legal title
from the feoffee by inheritance or by pur-
chase, if the purchaser had notice of the claim of
the cestui que use. Equity also came to recog-
nize the right or interest of the cestui as analo-
gous to a legal interest in the land which might
be freely conveyed or assigned and which might
be inherited. Thus, in addition to the power of
the legal owner of land to divest himself of the
burdens of legal ownership by the conveyance to
uses, he was also enabled to grant the use in
ways not permitted at common law, as, for ex-
ample, the grant of the use of property by the
husband to his wife.
At this period (Edward IV.) there were three
recognized methods of creating a use 'or trust in
lands: (1) By fcoffment or transmutation of pos-
session as already mentioned. Analogous to this
was the practice of enfeolfing another to the uses
to be declared in the feoffor’s will. Equity in such
cases compelled the feoffor or trustee to hold the
property for the benefit of those named in the
feofl’or’s will. (2) By bargain and sale. When
the legal owner entered into a legal contract for
the sale of land in which the buyer paid, or
agreed to pay, the vendee for the land, a court
of equity treated the vendor as a trustee and
compelled him to hold the land for the use or
benefit of the buyer. (3) By covenant to stand
seized. This was a covenant by which the legal
owner of land covenanted to stand seized or
possessed of the land to the use or for the benefit
of a blood relative. Courts of equity treated
such an instrument as a valid declaration of
trust, enforceable against the covenantor for the
benefit of the relative named in the covenant.
The use of the trust as a means of evading the
obligation of legal ownership led to the enact-
ment of the Statute of Uses, 27 Henry VIII.,
cap. 10. Its purpose was to abolish the practice
of creating uses or trusts of land, and its effect
was to declare that, by operation of law, the
legal title should be deemed vested in the benefi-
ciary or cestui que use. Upon its face the statute
was effectual to serve this purpose, and its im-
mediate effect was to permit the creation and
transfer of legal estates in the same manner as
uses or equitable estates had been created and
transferred before the statute, and incidentally
to permit the conveyance of a legal interest in
land by mere deed of bargain and sale without
feoffment as at common law. (See CCNVEYANCE;
Usns, STATUTE or.) Influenced, however, by the
same powerful motives which were responsible
for the development of the system of uses, the
early lawyers, by a method of reasoning now dif-
ficult to understand, ultimately gave to the stat-
ute a meaning and effect the exact opposite of
that intended. It was held that when land was
granted to A for the use of B, the efficiency of
the statute to vest the grantee to uses with the
legal title was exhausted, so that if the grant was
made to A for the use of B for the use of C, then
B, who acquired the legal title by operation of
the statute, would hold it for the benefit of C.
It was also held that vshen an active duty was
imposed upon the grantee to uses or trustee, as
by a grant of real estate to A to collect and pay
over the rents to B, the use was not executed by
the statute by making B the legal owner, but was
enforceable by Chancery as before the statute. The
result, therefore, was that the system of trusts
was preserved and its development stimulated
rather than hindered by the statute. In both
England and the United States there is a com-
plete system of trusts of both real and personal
property, either as developed by courts of equity
or modified by statutes.
In order to create .a trust all that is now neces-
sary is that one should convey or grant, either by
will or by grant inter vivos, specific property to
one in trust for another, or that one having the
legal title to such property should declare that he
holds it in trust for another. No consideration
is necessary to create a trust, and no writing or
other formal document is required except that
trusts of real estate are required by the Statutes
of Frauds to be evidenced by writing. No par-
ticular words are necessary, but the intention of
the person creating the trust must be clear. Any
legal person or a corporation if within its cor-
porate powers may become a trustee. Formerly
the legal title held by the trustee, according as it
was real or personal property, passed upon his
death to his heirs or next of kin, whom equity
would compel to hold the property for the bene-
fit of the beneficiaries under the trust, but gen-
erally by modern statutes provision is made in
case of the death or misconduct of a trustee for
the appointment by the court of a new trustee,
who acquires the title of the first trustee. Any
legal person may be a cestui que trust, but it has
been held upon somewhat unsatisfactory reason-
ing that trusts for the benefit of unascertained
beneficiaries or for the benefit of inanimate objects
were invalid, even though the trustee was able
and willing to carry out the trust. In general,
also, all the rules governing and determining the
illegality of agreements are applied by courts of
equity in determining the validity of trusts.
Trusts have been classified with reference to
the manner of their creation as Express, Implied,
Resulting, and Constructive. (1) The express
trust is one created by the intent of the person
creating or declaring the trust, expressed in
written or spoken language, such as the trust
created by express clauses in a will or by a for-
mal declaration of trust. (2) The term ‘implied
trusts,’ which has been sometimes applied to
constructive trusts, denotes trusts created by the
intent of the person creating or declaring it, when
his conduct or language, either written or spoken.
is such that the court infers or implies the in-
tention to create the trust. (3) Resulting trusts
are trusts which are not created as a consequence
of actual intention, but which courts of equity
in certain instances treat as trusts intended to
be created. As it is said, under certain circum-
stances, the intention to create a trust is pre-
sumed. Thus, if the purchaser of real estate
pays the purchase price, but takes the title in
the name of a third person, the courts of equity
hold that a resulting trust is created in favor of
the purchaser, or when one conveys property to
a trustee upon a trust which fails or is illegal,
TRUST.
TRUST COMPANIES.
954
a resulting trust is deemed to be created in favor
of the grantor, and in many cases when volun-
tary conveyances or conveyances without consid-
eration are made a resulting trust is implied in
favor of the grantor. (4) Constructive trusts
include all those cases not included in the pre-
ceding classes in which courts of equity upon
some equitable ground will compel the person
having the legal title or interest in property to
hold it for the benefit of another. Like result-
ing trusts, they differ from express and implied
trusts in that they are not created as a conse-
quence of intention of the interested parties.
Thus, whenever the legal title of property has
been wrongfully acquired by fraud, the person
guilty of the fraud, or any person claiming under
him who is not a bona-fide purchaser of the
property for value, will be treated as a trustee
and compelled to turn the property over to the
person defrauded who is a constructive cestut
que trust. Equity acts in a similar manner in
enforcing equitable liens (q.v.) by compelling the
lienee to hold the property subject to the claim
of the lienor.
The so-called doctrine of tracing trust funds
is a special application of the doctrine of con-
structive trusts. Not only will equity follow
property acquired by fraud or breach of trust
into the hands of any person who is not a pur-
chaser in good faith for value, but it may compel
any such constructive trustee who has disposed
of the property to account for its proceeds in
his hands, even though the proceeds have in time
been converted into other property. As neither
resulting nor constructive trusts are created by
intention of the interested parties, neither is
within the Statute of Frauds requiring the trust
to be evidenced by writing. The trustee is, strict-
ly speaking, the legal owner of the property, with
all the rights and obligations of legal ownership,
subject only to the right of the cestui que trust
to compel with the aid of a court of equity per-
formance of the trust. The trustee may sue and
be sued with reference to the trust property with-
out joining the cestut que trust. He may convey
it, giving a complete legal title, although he may
act in violation of the trust. With reference to
the cestml que trust, however, he must perform
completely the terms of the trust, and he cannot
delegate his authority. He must act in good
faith and with due care in administering his
trust, and for failure to do this he must account
to his cestui. When he has funds in hand he
must keep them properly invested. In many
States the investments which a trustee may make
are regulated by statute or by settled practice.
Aside from his fees allowed by law or specifically
granted by the terms of the trust, he cannot make
any gain or profit from his position as trustee.
In several of the United States, notably in New
York, statutes have been passed defining and gen-
erally regulating trusts and attempting to some
extent to limit the doctrine of trusts as devel-
oped by the English Court of Chancery. It may
be said, however, that neither by legislation nor
otherwise has there been any material modifica-
tion of the notion of a legal interest vested in
one person and held by him for the benefit of
another, the obligation to so hold the property
being enforced by courts having equity powers.
More changes have been made in the direction of
substituting one trustee for another with facility
in case of death or misconduct of a trustee, and
in providing for the accounting of trustees and
regulating their acts. Breach of trust or misap-
propriation of trust funds was not a crime at
common law. It is now generally made a crime,
being punishable as one of the statutory forms of
embezzlement. In New York misappropriation
of trust funds falls within the statutory defini-
tion of larceny and is punishable as such.
Consult the statutes of the various States; also
the works on the law of trusts and trustees
by Lewin (10th ed., London, 1899) ; Romer (Lon-
don, 1898) ; Robbins and Maw (3d ed., London,
1901) ; and also the authorities referred to
under EQUITY. See CHANCERY; EQUITY; FRAUD;
FIDUCIARY.
TRUST,
TRUSTS.
TRUST COMPANIES. Institutions char-
tered by the several States of the United States
for the purpose of performing, as corporations,
the general acts and assuming the general re-
sponsibilities imposed upon individuals under
the law of trusts. The trust company in the
United States exists in various forms, and com-
bines with its trustee business numerous other
lines of banking; as, for instance, the private
savings bank business in certain States, chiefly
in the West; mortgage investment in nearly all
States; title guarantee and other insurance; and
of recent years a general banking business simi-
lar in all respects to that of the ordinary deposit
bank._
The growth and extension of trust companies
in the United States has been one of the most
noteworthy incidents in the country’s recent
financial history. The Comptroller of the
Currency, in his annual report summarizing the
various banking institutions in the United
States, had returns in 1898 from 246 institutions
of this class, which number had at the close of
1902 risen to 417. In 1902, according to the
same report, the assets of the 417 companies ag-
gregated $1,983,214,707. On January 1, 1899,
there had been incorporated in New York State
49 trust companies, having aggregate resources
of $579,205,442. At the opening of 1903 there
were 77 institutions in existence, with total as-
sets of $1,039.956,625. On January 1, 1898, the
deposits of the New York trust companies aggre-
gated $383,328,724. At the opening of 1903
their total was $734,342,837. The loan account,
which amounted at the opening of 1898 to $261,-
765,000, had risen at the opening of 1903 to
$597,194,389. At the opening of 1898 invest-
ments by trust companies in stocks aggregated
in New York State $113,525,797; at the opening
of 1903 they had very nearly doubled, rising to
$219,378,946.
The trust companies have occupied public in-
terest and discussion chiefly because of the ex-
ceptional increase of deposits since 1896-97, which
is a result partly of the general practice main-
tained by these companies of offering interest on
deposit accounts—a practice very generally aban-
doned nowadays by banks in the larger cities.
The trust companies in New York City offer in-
terest on all deposits at a rate varying from 2 to
4 per cent., according to the agreement made as
to the permanency of the deposit. In addition
to the large amount of deposits thus attracted,
the immense credit fund in the hands of the
CHARITABLE. See CHARITABLE
TRUST COMPANIES.
TRUST COMPANIES.
955
trust companies for loaning purposes has made
possible the increase of their deposits, through
the making of such loans, at a far more rapid
rate than heretofore.
Public discussion has converged on these opera-
tions, not only because of their magnitude, but
because banking deposits maintained by the trust
companies have not been guarded in the same way
as have those of the banks. In general, there is
no restriction in the State laws as to the amount
of cash reserve which a trust company must keep
against its deposits, the presumption of the law
being that trustee business pure and simple was
being carried on. The question whether this po-
sition was altogether safe from a banking stand-
point has been debated with considerable energy,
and various reforms or remedies have been sug-
gested. In the making of such reforms, whether
through private arrangement or through legis-
lative act, two difficulties arise, due to differ-
ences either in the character or practices be-
tween the trust companies and the banks. First,
the trust companies, though keeping on hand a
cash reserve amounting at times to barely 2 per
cent. of their deposit funds, nevertheless main-
tain on deposit at demand in other institutions
an amount bearing a much larger proportion to
their own deposit liabilities. On such deposits
with other institutions trust companies usually
draw 2 per cent. interest. The magnitude of
these deposits may be shown from the New York
trust company returns of January 1, 1903. As
against their own deposit liabilities of $734,342,-
837, they then had 011 hand in cash only $10,493,-
236, but reported also as on deposit with other
banks to their credit $128,166,652. The second
difficulty in the way of arbitrary regulation of the
trust company reserve fund lies in the fact that
not all trust companies do a general banking
business, some of them restricting their activities
to trustee business of the old-fashioned order.
In general, it has been recognized that deposit
accounts held in a trustee business as originally
contemplated need no more than a nominal cash
reserve.
The trust companies of New York State may
be taken as typical in a study of the problem.
The important point to notice in these companies
is that the law which created them is acknowl-
edged not to have contemplated the doing of
business on precisely the lines now followed by
many of the institutions. Seventeen trust com-
panies in New York State were chartered by
special act of the Legislature between 1822 and
1887. In the latter year the general trust com-
pany law was passed, which, as subsequently
amended, is now the basis of authorization for
the business of the 60 subsequently incorporated
companies. The purpose of the law, as clearly
shown in these various enactments, was to create
a class of institutions which in their powers,
duties, and responsibilities should be able to
act as substitute for the individual trustee. The
general trust company law of New York State
as it now stands authorizes the companies to
perform the following functions: (1) To act
as the fiscal or transfer agent of any State,
municipality, body politic, or corporation, etc.
( 2) To receive deposits of trust moneys, securi-
ties, and other personal property from any per-
son or corporation, and to loan money on real or
personal securities. (3) To lease, hold, purchase,
Von. XVI.—61.
and convey any and all real property necessary
in the transaction of its business, or which the
purposes of the corporation may require, or
which it shall acquire in satisfaction or partial
satisfaction of debts. (4) To act as trustee un-
der any mortgage bond issued by any municipal-
ity, body politic, or corporation. (5) To accept
trusts from and execute trusts for married
women, in respect to their separate property, and
to be their agent in the management of such
property. (6) To act under the order or ap-
pointment of any court of record as guardian,
receiver, or trustee of the estate of minors. (7)
To take, accept, and execute any and all such
legal trusts, duties, and powers in regard to the
holding, management, and disposition of any
estate, real or personal, and the rents and profits
thereof, or the sale thereof, as may be granted
or confided to it by any court of record, or by
any person, corporation, municipality, or other
authority. (8) To take, accept, and execute any
and all such trusts and powers of Whatever na-
ture or description as may be conferred upon or
intrusted or committed to it by any person or
persons, or any body politic, corporation, or
other authority. (9) To purchase, invest in,
and sell stocks, bills of exchange, bonds and
mortgages, and other securities. (10) To be
appointed and to accept the appointment of ex-
ecutor or of trustee under the last will and testa-
ment, or administrator with or without the
will annexed, of the estate of any deceased per-
son, and to be appointed and to act as the com-
mittee of the estates of lunatics, idiots, persons
of unsound mind, and habitual drunkards.
These functions make plain both the nature
of the trust company’s business as contemplated
by the legislators, and its difference from the
banking business as conducted by an ordinary
deposit bank. It will be observed that the act
above quoted does not specifically in any place
authorize the trust company to transact a gen-
eral deposit banking business. But the statute
does not deny such powers, and in section 8 it
provides that a company incorporated under the
act may accept “any and all such trusts and
powers, of whatever nature or description, as
may be conferred upon or intrusted or committed
to it by any person or persons.” This is a suf-
ficiently sweeping proviso to cover the doing of
banking business in any deposits intrusted to the
company by individuals, and on that basis a
great part of the trust company business as
nowadays understood has been built up.
It is because of this growth of a business not
contemplated in the original authorizing act
that the most interesting recent controversy over
the trust company business has grown up. In
New York State, trust companies which report
semi-annually to the State Banking Department
showed in 1898 ‘deposits in trust’ of $185,099,-
694; at the opening of 1903 their ‘deposits in
trust,’ which still should have referred to de-
posits under the strict purpose of the original
act, were given as $205,341,290. On the other
hand, what are classed in the reports as ‘gen-
eral deposits,’ referring presumably to the funds
of depositors subject to all the rules which gov-
ern deposits of individuals in banks, amounted
on January 1, 1898, to $198,229,029, but at the
opening of 1903 had risen to $529,001,547. It
is probable that the classification of deposits as
TRUST COMPANIES.
TRUSTS.
956
above is somewhat loose; nevertheless, the state-
ment is suflicient to show the enormous growth
of the purely banking side of the trust company
business. The banking laws of the United States
and of the various States provide without excep-
tion for the maintenance of a specified percent-
age of deposit funds in cash reserves. This
percentage, in national banks, varies from 7 per
cent. to 25 per cent. of the total deposit lia-
bilities. As the above citation from the trust
company act will show, no such restriction has
been applied in the case of the trust companies.
The question whether the cash deposited with
the banks was a legitimate reserve for all purposes
has been the bone of contention in controversy on
the subject of trust companies. The banks have
contended that it is not and that the trust com-
panies should be required to maintain in cash an
adequate reserve. The trust companies have in
general answered that the funds deposited by
them with the banks, if they are properly se-
cured by the banks’ own reserve, should be a
sufficient guarantee against any sudden demands
by the trust companies’ depositors. In the early
part of 1902 this controversy became acute. At
that time 27 trust companies in Greater New
York used by arrangement the facilities of the
New York Clearing-house, for the purpose of ex-
changing and redeeming checks paid into them.
Such checks were delivered by the trust com-
pany to a bank specified as its clearing-house
agent, and by that agent were properly exchanged
in the daily clearings. On April 29, 1902, the
New York Clearing-house adopted the following
resolution: “Every institution which hereafter
may be granted permission to clear through a
member of this association shall be required to
keep in its vaults such cash reserve to its de-
posits as the clearing-house committee may de-
termine. The percentage of such reserve, how-
ever, is not to exceed that required of banks
members of the Clearing-house Association.”
The rule did not apply to any of the numerous
trust companies at that time actually using the
clearing-house facilities. A year later, on Feb-
ruary 8, 1903, the following more drastic reso-
lution was adopted by the clearing-house:
“Every non-member institution (not a bank re-
quired by law to maintain a specified reserve)
now or hereafter sending its exchanges through
a member of the association shall on and after
June 1, 1903, keep in its vaults a cash reserve
equal to 5 per cent. of its deposits; and on and
after February 1, 1904, such casl1 reserve shall
be at least 71/2 per cent. of its deposits, and on
and after June 1, 1904, such cash reserve shall
be such percentage as shall from time to time
be fixed by the clearing-house committee, but not
less than 10 nor more than 15 per cent. of its
deposits. The reserve hereby required shall be
an average reserve as against the average de-
posits as shown upon its weekly statements.”
A vigorous controversy arose as to whether
the trust companies should submit to this regu-
lation. It was pointed out that for many of
them the clearing-house facilities were not in-
dispensable, and that they could arrange indi-
vidually for the redemption of checks paid in
to them. On the basis of this reasoning 10 trust
companies, including several of the largest in-
stitutions of the kind in New York City, formally
withdrew from the clearing-house. Those which
remained, numbering 17, acceded to the clearing-
house rule and began to build up a cash reserve
in accordance with its requirements.
TRUSTEE. See TRUST.
TRUSTEE PROCESS. A legal process used
in Massachusetts and several other New England
States, corresponding to the garnishee process
in use in most jurisdictions. See ATTACHMENT
and GARNISHMENT, and consult the authorities
there referred to.
TRUST FUND DOCTRINE. A theory
adopted by the United States courts, to the ef-
fect that the capital stock of a corporation is a
trust fund for the payment of its debts. This
theory probably originated in the rule that sub-
scribers for stock are liable up to the par value
of the stock subscribed for by them. The inci-
dents of an equitable trust are not applied in
case of an insolvent corporation. Any diligent
creditor may satisfy his whole claim, even to
exhausting the entire assets of the corporation,
if he levies execution before the other creditors,
and in absence of a statute to the contrary an
insolvent corporation may make a preference of
creditors in paying debts. If the assets and
capital stock were a true trust fund for the
benefit of creditors, a court of equity would com-
pel an equal distribution of the assets among all
the creditors. The term trust fund, therefore.
seems an unfortunate misnomer of a just and
equitable rule, but no hardship is created there-
by. See EQUITY, and the authorities there re-
ferred to. See also TRUSTS.
TRUSTS. The word Trusts in this article
is used of large corporations or associations of
corporations or of individuals mostly engaged
in manufacturing, which possess sufiicient power
to fix the prices of their products, in part at
least, on the principle of monopoly. It does not
include railways or combinations of railways, or
Trusts in the technically legal sense.
INDUSTRIAL CoNnITIoNs LEADING To FORMA-
TION OF TRUSTS. The Trusts are a late develop-
ment, since, until late in the nineteenth century,
industrial conditions were not favorable for their
formation. In earlier times organizations pos-
sessing monopolistic power were either created
by law or secured their power through the pos-
session of some natural advantage, such as the
exclusive possession of certain natural resources,
as mines, etc., or through the advantage which
comes from the exclusive occupancy of positions
of advantage in doing their work—railroads,
telegraphs, etc. In the modern Trust we often
find combined with the advantages of great
capital and perfected business organization also
some of these natural advantages, but they are
not the essence of the Trust advantage. The
chief causes, from the industrial point of view,
which have led to the organization of Trusts,
are: (1) The existence of competition which
was practically ruinous in its nature, brought
about in part by the ease of intercourse between
persons in different localities, and by the diffi-
culty of withdrawing readily capital once in-
vested in fixed plants. Such competition almost
of necessity at times will become so fierce that
all parties concerned will fail of making any
profit. ( 2) The possibility of saving industrially
many of the wastes which come from the com-
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS.
957
petitive system, provided the interests of the
various competitors are harmonized. Without
discussing in detail these wastes of competition,
there may properly be mentioned the salaries of
traveling salesmen, the expense of keeping up
expensive show windows, the cost of competitive
advertising, the loss from undue extension of
credits, the loss of custom which comes from
carrying only a partial instead of a complete
stock, the loss from the payment of cross
freights, the loss from running manufacturing
plants to only part of their capacity or part of the
time. There may be mentioned also as a gain
from combination the saving from standardizing
the machinery and from prevention of the waste
of time due to stopping and changing machinery,
the saving from the most efficient organization
of laborers and from managing all plants in an
enterprise by the most skillful men instead of
having part of them directed by men of meager
ability, the certainty of a regular supply of raw
material, and the most efiicient use of by-
products.
OTHER INELUENeEs AS CAUSES. Aside from
the industrial conditions that have led to the
organization of Trusts, certain other influences
are to be noted. (1) The promoters of the large
enterprises have in many cases succeeded in
making very large profits from the organiza-
tion. Likewise the financiers who have under-
written the stock have been able to exact very
large payment for the risks which they have
taken. The immediate personal interest of the
promoter and financier has thus been a very
powerful factor———sometimes even the most pow-
erful factor in bringing about the combinations.
(2) Governmental favors of various kinds have
sometimes tended in the same direction. Al-
though the protective tariff can scarcely be men-
tioned as a direct cause of the organization of
industrial combinations, it is doubtless true that
when an industry which otherwise would not
have prospered has been first made very profit-
able by a protective tariff, so that numerous
rival establishments have invested large sums
of money in it, the consequent rivalry has led
to the formation of combinations. It is also
probable that in certain instances the protective
tariff, by lessening foreign competition, has
promised to the promoters of a combination the
opportunity for greater profits than could have
been anticipated without the existence of the
tariff. In this indirect way, therefore, we may
well consider the legislative favor of the pro-
tective tariff under certain circumstances as an
indirect cause of the Trust. Similarly, the
monopoly granted by the patent laws, by copy-
rights, by trade-marks, and other legislative
benefits, have led to the organization of some of
the great combinations.
EXTENT or COMBINATION MOVEMENT. As yet,
there are no satisfactory statistics regarding the
extent of the combination movement in this
country. The only material of this nature that
is trustworthy is that secured by the United
States Census of 1900, published in volume vii.,
part i., of the Report on Manufactures. This
report included only those ‘Trusts’ which con-
sist of a number of formerly independent mills
which had been brought together into one com-
pany under a charter obtained for that purpose.
Accordingly many establishments which might
properly have been included under the word
‘Trusts’ were excluded. Moreover, many of the
largest corporations organized during the last
few years, including the United States Steel Cor-
poration, were organized later and hence were
not included. The figures given, however, in-
clude 185 combinations with 2040 plants. The
total capitalization was $1,436,625,910. The
total cost of materials used was $l,089,666,334,
and the value of the products $l,667,350,949.
The total gross value of all manufactured prod-
ucts enumerated in the census was $13,004,400,-
143. For the purpose of comparison there
should be subtracted from this total the value
of the products of the hand trades or the me-
chanical and neighborhood industries, since these
are not adaptable to the form of management
known as the industrial combination. There
remains a total gross product of industries sus-
ceptible of combination into Trusts of $11,820,-
784,665. Comparing this with the product of
the industrial combinations, it seems that in
1900 the Trusts produced nearly 14.1 per cent.
of the total gross product of the manufacturing
industries of the country, as enumerated by the
census.
Doubtless at the present time this ratio would
need to be somewhat increased. Yet it would
probably be fair to say that even at the present
time the Trusts do not manufacture more than
25 to 30 per cent. at the outside of all the in-
dustries in the country readily susceptible of in-
dustrial combination. It is impossible at the
present writing to say more than that the
Trusts have developed very rapidly of late years,
and that they apparently, though not certainly,
are absorbing steadily a continually growing per-
centage of the entire industries of the country.
It seems, however, to be equally clear that there
are many lines of industry which are not suscep-
tible of management under the Trust organiza-
tion, and a point will probably be reached within
the not far distant future when industries which,
from their nature, can be advantageously or-
ganized into Trusts will all substantially be so
organized, and those not capable of advantageous
organization in this form will be recognized as
industries normally managed by independent pro-
ducers.
THE MoNoPoLY CHARACTER or THE TRUSTS.
Many of the Trusts are closely connected with
natural monopolies which give them a decided
advantage over their competitors. It is well
known that the Standard Oil combination, in its
earlier days at any rate, derived great advan-
tage from the special rebates which it received
from the railroads. There is also reason to be-
lieve that many other of the later combinations
have received somewhat similar favors. The
United States Steel Corporation, as well as some
of its constituent companies, has made it evi-
dent that one of the great advantages possessed
by these organizations is the ownership of mines
from which they derive a large part of their raw
material. Through this ownership of a large
percentage of all the available raw material _in
the country they are able to put their rivals at
a decided disadvantage. Certain Trusts also may
in certain localities control so large a per-
centage of the raw material that they may
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS.
958
readily crush their rivals in those localities, as,
for example, the Standard Oil Company_ in .ltS
local control of oil wells, the salt combination
in its control of salt wells and mines, etc. The
extent to which a Trust, therefore, may in itself
be a monopoly depends often to a great degree
upon the extent to which it has a monopoly of
the raw material of the industry which it seeks
to control. The effects of the Trusts upon prices
and their legal and social status in the com-
munity may in many cases depend upon this one
factor.
Psomorrne AND FINANCING. If, as is often
the case, the promoter organizes a new com-
pany to take over the various plants which he
is intending to combine under one management,
or to develop some new patent, it has been the
common practice for him to issue stock far be-
yond the actual cash value of the plants under
consideration; then to pay for these plants with
as much of the stock of the new company as
was necessary to secure them, retaining the bal-
ance for his own services. In other cases, when
the company is organized, the distribution of
the stock among the different parties in interest
is agreed upon jointly, and the promoter} receives
a certain percentage of the entire amount as his
reward. Inasmuch as he in many cases takes
considerable risk, and as the success of the enter-
prise is practically due largely, if not entirely,
to his initiative, it has at times been possible
for him to secure for his reward as high as 20
per cent. of the capital of the organization, paid
to him in common stock. W'th such large rewards
as are often hoped for and sometimes obtained,
it is evident that the interest of the promoter
may become a very direct cause for the forma-
tion of the Trusts.
Scarcely less prominent than the promoter in
this regard is the financier. VVhen either a new
enterprise is to be started or a combination of
existing establishments is to be made, it is
usually necessary to raise a considerable amount
in cash, in order that the new institution may
start with capital in hand. Frequently also
many of the plants purchased need to be paid
for in cash. The stock of the new company is
ordinarily the source from which it is desired
that such cash should come. Inasmuch, how-
ever, as the general public is not likely to take
the stock immediately and pay for it in cash,
it is desirable that some one be found who will
underwrite it, that is to say, who will take the
stock and agree to furnish in exchange therefor
an agreed-upon sum in cash at a certain fixed
date in the future. For this service, so specula-
tive in its nature, the financier ordinarily de-
mands and frequently receives very high com-
pensation. In certain instances, which were
cited before the United States Industrial Com-
mission, for each $100,000 in cash furnished,
the promoter received $150,000 in common stock,
while the underwriter, the capitalist, received
$150,000 of common stock, and in addition
thereto $100,000 in preferred.
CAPITALIZATION AND OVEROAPITALIZATION. Of
late years there has been a. strong tendency
toward overcapitalization. The promoters have
ordinarily adopted secret methods in the or-
ganization of their companies, and many of the
larger Trusts have not been ready to give much
information, even to the stockholders them-
selves. In consequence, large blocks of stock
have at times been unloaded upon the public in
prosperous times which have proved to have
comparatively little value. It is usually stated
by business men that overcapitalization has
practically no influence upon wages or upon
prices of products-—that in a comparatively short
time the stocks are estimated a.t substantially
their true value, and that in consequence an
overissue of stock does little harm. On the
other hand, it is asserted by many, and there is
certainly reason in their contention, that the
overissue of stock by somewhat secret methods
gives a decided advantage to those who are man-
aging the organization, and that in many cases
without laying themselves open to legal attack
the promoters may easily secure from the public
much more capital than the actual business
would justify. Moreover, even when the organi-
zation is running, if secret methods are adopted,
the directors who know the exact conditions of
the business are often tempted to manage the
business for their own benefit as dealers in
stocks, rather than for the legitimate profit that
would come only from manufacturing.
\Vhen a company has once been overcapitalized,
also, there is naturally and properly a desire on
the part of the directors to pay reasonable divi-
dends to the stockholders. This temptation is
at times so great or the pressure from the stock-
holders themselves is so insistent that often, es-
pecially when competition is not severe, prices
will be held at rates higher than would be bene-
ficial to the business in the long run. So, also,
efforts to reduce wages may often be attempted
temporarily, in order to secure dividends before
the next election of directors. While this policy
must in the long run prove unwise, and while in
the long run stocks will doubtless exchange for
something like their actual value, for consider-
able periods of time, if secret methods are prac-
ticed, overcapitalization may do harm not only
to investors, but also to laborers and to the gen-
eral consumers.
Fomus on ORGANIZATION AND l\’lANAGEMENT.
\Vhile the form of organization of the Trust
may often not have any material effect upon its
economic influence, it is still very frequently true
that the form is determined to a considerable
extent by the legal institutions of the country;
and sometimes the form of organization is of
significance not merely from the legal point of
view, but also from the economic. When some
years ago the pressure of competition arising
from the large amount of capital for investment
in this country had tended to lessen the profits
of manufactures, the first effort to lessen this
competition naturally resulted in agreements
upon prices or in agreements among different
manufacturers to divide the selling territory
among themselves, or in some other similar form
of agreement which left to each establishment
complete autonomy as regards its own manage-
ment, but which brought about some form of an
alliance to lessen the competition. Such agree-
ments were usually and more or less accurately
called Pools. (See POOLING.) This form of
agreement (Kartell) is still common in Ger-
many, and is, in fact, the usual form of agree-
ment there where the courts uphold such con-
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS.
959
tracts. In the United States, on the other hand,
the courts have very generally held that such
agreements were in unreasonable restraint of
trade, and in consequence void, as contrary to
public policy. The parties to the pools, there-
fore, knowing that they could not be legally
bound, frequently violated the terms of the
agreements by increasing their output beyond
the amount agreed upon. cutting prices, and by
other similar means. To overcome these diffi-
culties, the form of the Trust was at length in-
vented and put in praetice——in the first place
by the Standard Oil Company, in 1882. Under
this form of organization, the stockholders of
each of the separate companies assigned their
stock to a few trustees, giving thus an irre-
vocable power of attorney. In lieu of the stock
assigned, the trustees issued trust certificates to
the stockholders of the separate companies, and
upon these trust certificates profits were di-
vided. All of the earnings from the different
members of the company were pooled, and each
manufacturer received his due share as evidenced
by the certificates regardless of the question
whether his establishment were running or
closed. The trustees, having in their hands the
voting power of all the stockholders, elected
whatever persons seemed to them best as
officers of the separate companies. In this way
the management was absolutely unified and the
interests of all parties concerned became one.
The courts finally holding that this Trust agree-
ment was illegal, the plan was later adopted of
organizing a new company which should buy up
all of the separate plants of the different com-
panies entering the combination, so that in this
way a unified management was secured within
the law.
In order that a more convenient form of
handling the properties of the different com-
panies might be secured, and that under certain
circumstances somewhat greater flexibility of
management could be attained. a third form of
organization was later adopted which was in
many respects quite like that of the earlier
Trusts. In this form a new company 1s or-
ganized as a stock-holding company. This com-
pany then buys up all or a large proportion of
the stocks of each of the companies coming into
the organization, and holds these stocks. The
officers of the central organization are thus in a
position. by voting the stocks of the different
companies, to elect the directors and officers of
those companies and thus control their policy.
PRICES. Competitive prices, it is frequently
assumed, will in the longr run he fixed mainly
by the cost of production of that part of the
stock which is produced at the greatest disad-
vantage. Monopoly price, on the other hand, is
fixed at that point which will secure to the
monopolist the greatest net return. If greater
return will be secured by lowering the price and
increasing the sales, the price will be lowered.
If the net returns will be greater by increasing
the price, even though the number of sales be
lessened. that policy will be adopted. In tech-
nical discussions regarding prices, the assump-
tion is usually made of either a regime of free
competition, or of what is substantially monopoly.
In a practical discussion of the effects of Trusts
upon prices, we must recognize that there may
be certain monopolistic powers which may en-
able prices to be raised somewhat above the
competitive rate, but which are still not suf-
ficient to enable the Trust to fix prices entirely
regardless of a potential competition. So, also,
this monopolistic power may Vary in degree in
different industries or in the same industry at
different times.
If the economies of industrial combination
spoken of before are great, it is evident that
without lessening profits prices of the finished
product might be placed somewhat lower than
those under the competitive régime, or prices
of the raw materials used might be raised above
those prevailing under the competitive régime
without lessening profits. VVe see, therefore,
that it is within the power of the managers of
the Trusts, provided the Trust has been care-
fully organized in an industry adapted for com-
bination to put prices below the competitive
rates in order to drive out competitors, and then
if they have secured monopolistic power thereby,
to put prices, within certain limits at any rate,
above competitive rates.
Whatever may be the theoretic possibilities,
however, under the Trust system, it is essential
to note what has in fact been the result, inas-
much as, in addition to the technical economic
powers that have been suggested, the psycholog-
ical factors of public opinion, of demands of
laborers, of the boldness of the managers, etc.,
may all enter into the problem as factors in price
determination. Although the Trusts have been
in existence for a considerable length of time, it
is still as yet altogether too early to determine
what the ultimate effect of the Trust upon
prices is to be. At the present time, however,
there are many instances to show that in in-
dividual cases, for short periods of time at any
rate, the Trusts have actually lowered prices
below the former competitive rates. Likewise
numerous instances can be found of prices raised
by the Trusts above former competitive rates.
The surest way to test the effect of the combina-
tion upon prices is to determine the margin of
difference between the cost of leading raw ma-
terials used and of the finished products. If an
industry is simple in its nature, so that the raw
material forms a large part of the value of the
finished product, this test can be made with com-
parative ease, as. for example, in the case of
sugar refining, oil refining, the manufacture of
alcohol, etc. Several industries were subjected
to this test by the Industrial Commission, with
the general result that up to date the influence
of the Trust had apparently been to raise the
margin between the price of the raw material
and that of the finished product somewhat above
that obtained under the competitive system. This
is a result which seems to establish beyond all
doubt the fact that unless the cost of manufac-
ture had been increased——a supposition clearly
contrary to the fact as claimed by the Trust peo-
ple themselves——their profits must have been
materially increased; and that the Trust had
in reality raised prices to consumers, even
though the actual price of the finished product
may over a series of years have fallen. On the
other hand. in certain instances, it was shown
that although this had been the early experience
and the first result, showing clearly a decided
monopolistic power on the part of the combina-
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS.
960
tion, this margin had later been lessened, ap-
parently under the pressure of potential, if not
of actual competition. It is a fair assumption
to make that for the time being at any rate, if
the Trust secures considerable monopolistic
power, it will place prices somewhat above the
competitive rates, although in certain instances
it may possibly be true that the saving in the
cost of production will enable the combination to
keep prices as low as would be possible under the
competitive system, while still increasing its
profits. On the other hand, it is also safe to
conclude that where the chief source of monop-
olistic power is merely that which is derived
from great capital or from a minor association
with some natural monopoly, either actual com-
petition will eventually set in or a potential
competition will appear so threatening that
prices in the long run will be maintained at
only a little above—possibly not even at all
above——competitive rates.
WAGES. As indicated in the discussion on
prices, so far as the Trusts really make savings
through their new method of organization, they
have a surplus fund which could be used in
some way. Testimony before the Industrial
Commission, and also the events of the last few
years as reported in the public press and in
public meetings, seem to show that in certain
instances the laborers have gained slightly from
being able to take advantage of this increased
ability of the Trusts to pay. The statistical in-
vestigation made by the United States Depart-
ment of Labor at the request of the Industrial
Commission in 1900, while the material was
not complete enough to reach positive con-
clusions, indicated that, so far as the evidence
went, the industrial combinations had, on the
whole, not brought about any lowering of the
wages of labor, and had probably produced a
slight increase.
The attitude of the Trusts toward the laboring
classes and toward the labor unions has ap-
parently not differed materially from that of
individuals and corporations under the com-
petitive system. Some oppose trade unions;
some favor them. Some are kindly disposed
toward the laborers; some are disposed to grant
them no favors. So far as a tendency can be
detected, it seems to be toward the consolidation
on the one hand of the laborers into larger and
larger unions in order that they may be able
to hold their own against the combinations, and
on the other, for the larger combinations to
recognize that as they are themselves organized,
they must themselves deal with an organized body
of laborers. If this tendency can be seen, how-
ever, it must be recognized that there are many
exceptions.
It is somewhat encouraging to note that in
many instances the unions and the Trusts are
uniting upon trade agreements for a period of
a year or several years, and that through this
system of trade agreements the danger of ex-
pensive strikes is being lessened, although as yet
this custom has become by no means universal.
There appears also to be a tendency for the
trade unions and the employers to unite for the
benefit of both and to exercise their power at the
expense of the consumers by maintaining prices
higher than would obtain under the competitive
system. It is to be expected that this union of
employers and laborers against consumers is
likely to become more frequent if the Trusts and
the unions increase in number and strength.
SOCIAL EFFECTS. It has often been charged
that the great corporations and Trusts exert a
corrupting influence upon legislatures and the
courts. It is probable that in individual cases
this charge is true. On the other hand, legis-
latures have not been free from such charges
under the competitive system, and it probably
would be difficult to prove absolutely that con-
ditions are worse now than they were before the
great industrial corporations were formed. The
remedy for such an evil would seem to be
chiefly in improving the character of our legis-
latures.
A more significant consideration is whether
the Trust, by bringing so many individuals under
one centralized management, destroys to any ma-
terial extent the powers of self-reliance and of
self-direction on the part of individuals which
are naturally developed by the struggles of the
competitive system. Opinions difier to a con-
siderable extent on this subject, but there can
be no doubt that, although the opportunities for
a man to start an independent business in cer-
tain lines of industry are lessened, on the other
hand the competition for promotion and for
positions of responsibility within the combina-
tion itself is severer in the case of the great
corporation than in the case of the private busi-
ness or partnership. When a group of two or
three partners are managing a business, they
may readily give preference to their sons or
friends even when the business ability of such
persons is not of the highest type. When the
interests of thousands of stockholders must be
considered, and there are large boards of di-
rectors, each feeling that his position depends
to a considerable extent upon the success of the
business, favoritism cannot be shown to any very
great extent.
LEGAL POSITION. When a Trust or combina-
tion is organized, its rights and powers are de-
termined by the ordinary rules of common and
statute law applicable to the particular form
of organization adopted. That is, if the com-
bination is a Trust, its rights and powers are
determined by the ordinary rules of law gov-
erning Trusts; or if the combination is effected
by one of the methods of corporate combination,
its rights and powers are determined by the
general law of corporations. Aside from these
questions of the methods of organizing combina-
tions, the Trusts raise no peculiar legal issues
except that as to their legality when organized.
In ascertaining whether a combination is un-
lawful at common law, it should be remembered
that the mere combination or cooperation of sev-
eral individuals is not in itself unlawful, and
in the case of partnerships and corporations com-
bination of individuals is encouraged by the law.
Combination by corporations, however, as has
already been indicated, when not authorized by
statute, may be such an abandonment or mis-
use of their corporate franchises as to be illegal
uhder the general law of corporations. In gen-
eral it may be said that combinations are un-
lawful per se only when the purpose of the com-
bination is unlawful or against public policy,
or when the means adopted by the combination
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS.
961
for effecting its purposes are unlawful or against
public policy.
The grounds upon which combinations have
been held to be unlawful at common law may
be somewhat roughly classified as follows: (1)
That the contract (when the combination has
been effected by contract) is illegal and void at
common law because in restraint of trade. (2)
That the combination is an unlawful conspiracy
either civil or criminal. (See CONSPIRACY.)
Technically the second class includes the first,
since there can be no combination without two
or more parties to it who are technically guilty
of conspiracy where the purpose is to enter into
an illegal contract. Since, however, each is
recognized as a distinct ground for declaring
combinations illegal, the classification may be
adopted as both convenient and practical. For
a full discussion of the legal doctrines relating
to restraint of trade and conspiracy, reference
should be made to those topics. (See also
MoNoPoLY, Encnossmo, FORESTALLING, REGRAT-
ING.) With reference to conspiracy, it may be
said that combinations are conspiracies, and
therefore unlawful, when the purpose of the
agreement or combination is either to do some-
thing unlawful or to do something lawful in an
unlawful manner. In general, combinations are
held to be illegal because of their purposes and
methods when they restrain fair competition or
create oppressive monopolies. Owing to the
difficulty of applying this test to any particular
case, it may be extremely difficult to draw a
clear line of distinction between those combina-
tions which are lawful and those which are
unlawful.
At common law the remedies of individuals
against acts of illegal combination are limited
to the recovery of any damage suffered because
of the unlawful conspiracy invoked in the com-
bination or to the securing of an injunction re-
straining those joined in the combination from
doing some threatened injury to the plaintiff.
In either case it is necessary for the plaintiff
to show actual damage suffered by him or that
the defendant threatened to do some act caus-
ing such damage. When the combination is in
the corporate form and is acting outside its
corporate powers, or its constituent corporations
have ceased to act as separate corporations so
as to amount to an abandonment of their char-
ters, the State may proceed against the cor-
porate combination or any of the constituent
corporations to compel a forfeiture of its char-
ter by quo warranto. There is, however, no other
method at common law by which either the State
or a private individual could proceed against a
combination on the ground that it is illegal and
is working a public injury. As a result of
agitation upon the subject of Trusts, almost all
of the United States have adopted statutes or
clauses in their State constitutions restraining
or prohibiting all contracts, agreements, under-
takings, or combinations in restraint of trade
or tending to create monopolies, whether such
restraint would have been unlawful at common
law or not. In general the courts have held
that these statutes are constitutional under
both State and Federal constitutions, and not in
violation of the constitutional provisions against
abridging the freedom of contract, depriving
citizens of liberty or property without due pro-
cess of law, or denying them equal protection of
the laws. In the interpretation of these statutes,
however, the courts have justly regarded them
as an innovation upon the common law to be
interpreted with strictness and caution. More-
over, the difiiculty of giving such legislation its
proper effect without making it subversive of
established rights of property has to some extent
prevented all these restraining acts from having
the effect intended. It may be said that the prin-
cipal test to be applied in determining whether
statutes of this class are violated is whether the
act or agreement complained of was done with
intent to control prices or whether such would
be a natural result of the act or agreement.
They usually provide that contracts made in con-
nection with such an act or agreement shall be
void, and attach criminal or quasi-criminal pen-
alties for their violation. In some States parties
injured by such violations of anti-monopoly
statutes are given rights of action to recover
damages for the injury suffered.
A far more effective agency for restricting the
growth of monopoly is the exercise of the power
of the several States to control all corporate en-
terprises within their respective territories. A
State may grant to a corporation its charter
and power to do business upon such terms as
the Legislature may choose, and it is also within
the constitutional power of a State to impose
any terms, however exacting, as a condition to
which corporations created under the laws of
other States must conform if doing business
within its limits, provided such conditions do
not interfere with interstate commerce, the power
of regulation and control of which is by the
United States Constitution lodged with the Fed-
eral Government.
A State may thus limit the amount of capital
of a corporation organized under its laws; and it
may by its charter or general laws existing at
the time of its creation limit or regulate its busi-
ness. In the same manner a State may impose
similar or even additional conditions upon all
foreign corporations wishing to do business that
is not interstate commerce within the State. In
this connection, however, it should be remem-
bered that the charter or other legislative au-
thority to a corporation to do business once
granted is deemed to be a contract, and that the
State is forbidden by _the United States Con-
stitution to impair the obligation of contract.
See CORPORATION; CHARTER; DARTMOUTH Cor.-
LEGE CASE.
It will be seen that the powers of restriction
just referred to are limited to corporations and
have no application to natural persons or part-
nerships. he important above-mentioned limi-
tations upon the power of the States to control
corporations, coupled with the fact that it has
been the policy of many of the States to grant
to corporations organized under their laws prac-
tically unlimited power, have in effect seriously
interfered with any effective statutory restriction
of monopolies by the several States.
The Federal Government may to some extent
restrain monopoly under cover of its constitu-
tional power to regulate interstate and inter-
national commerce. Its power in this respect
has been deemed to be practically absolute. It can-
not, however, be said at this time (1903) that the
power of Congress to control or restrain the busi-
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS.
962
ness of individuals or corporations by enactments
that are not intended primarily for the purpose
of controlling or regulating interstate commerce,
but for the purpose of restricting, or making un-
lawful, or assuming control over, a business which
is lawful and unrestricted in the several States,
is without limitation, since that question has
not been definitely and finally determined by
the Supreme Court of the United States. Acting
under its power to regulate commerce, Congress
in 1887 enacted the Interstate Commerce Act,
having for its purpose the control and regula-
tion of business carried on by common carriers
engaged in interstate commerce. Its particular
object was the prevention of unlawful discrimina-
tion in rates by common carriers engaged in
interstate commerce, which had contributed in a
large degree to the growth of monopolistic enter-
prises. This was followed in 1890 by a statute
for the protection of interstate and international
trade, commonly known as the Sherman Act (26
United States Statutes at Large, 209).
This statute provides that all contracts, com-
binations in form of Trusts or otherwise, or
conspiracies in restraint of interstate or inter-
national commerce are illegal, and that all per-
sons participating in such agreement, combina-
tion, or conspiracy are guilty of a misdemeanor
and subject to a penalty for violation of the
act. The statute also provides that all goods in
transportation in violation of the act may be
seized, and their forfeiture compelled by a pro-
ceeding brought in behalf of the Government, and
that a proceeding may be brought by the Attor-
ney-General enjoining all acts in violation of
the statute and for the dissolution of contracts
entered into in violation of it.
It has been held by the courts that this act
does not apply to monopolies created and au-
thorized by a State, but that it is intended to
apply to all direct restraints of trade by in-
dividuals or corporations, whether such restraints
would have been deemed reasonable or unrea-
sonable at common law. The restraint or
monopoly need not be complete. The statute is
violated if the contract or combination tends to
such monopoly. Notwithstanding the scope and
severity of the statute, it has been found not to
be particularly effective in restraining the growth
of monopolies or Trusts. so called, and it is not
unlikely that further legislation of a similar
character will be enacted.
In the Congressional session of 1902-03 the
law creating the Department of Commerce and
Labor made provision for a Bureau of Corpora-
tions, whose duty it should be to collect full data
regarding Trusts, with the Purpose of thus ac-
quiring information which might be used, if
deemed advisable, for further legislation. The
President was given power to make public such
of this information as he thinks wise, in order
that through the remedy of publicity some of
the evils might possibly be checked. Likewise,
the Interstate Commerce Act was amended by
the so-called Elkins law, which, it is thought,
will prevent, better than the previous provisions
of the law could do, discriminations in railroad
rates.
The decisions of the Supreme Court of the
United States and of the United States Circuit
Court, both in earlier cases, and especially in
the case of the Northern Securities Company, in-
dicate that the Federal Government has the
power to prevent combinations among railroads
or manufacturing corporations engaged in inter-
state commerce which are created for the pur-
pose of securing monopoly, or which in actual
practice do tend toward restraint of trade, and
that whether this restraint is reasonable or un-
reasonable.
The English Government has gone no further
in the way of anti-monopoly legislation than
the old provisions of the common law against
monopoly and the somewhat rigid provisions of
their corporation act regarding publicity in the
promotion and management of companies.
In France the status of the law seems not to
be definitely fixed, for although there are statutes
existing against combinations to influence prices,
and although there have been certain successful
prosecutions under this law, notably in the case
of the Copper Syndicate, still industrial com-
binations in the form of joint selling bureaus
do exist without apparent legal opposition.
In Germany, contracts for fixing prices, con-
trolling output, or in other ways tending toward
the prevention of destructive competition have
been upheld by the courts as reasonable, and the
restriction of such combinations is apparently
limited to those that can be shown to be contrary
to public policy. In Austria the Government has
made efforts to put the combinations under some-
what more rigid supervision, especially for finan-
cial reasons, but although there has been consider-
able feeling against the Trusts, as yet compara-
tively little has been done by either the legislature
or the courts, and some very strong combinations
have been in existence there for several years.
Both in Austria and iii Germany, however, Gov-
ernment commissions have been studying the
subject with reference to further legislation,
and so far as their recommendations go, the in-
clination is to recognize the combinations as
proper, provided they place themselves suf-
ficiently under Government supervision and con-
duct their business so that it will not be consid-
cred by the Government oflicials as contrary to
public policy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Steinmann-Bucher, lVesen und
Bedeutung der gewerblichen Kartelle (Leipzig,
1891) ; Halle, Trusts or Industrial Combinations
(New York, 1895); Liefman. Die Unternehmer-
verbiinde (Leipzig, 1897); Pohle, Die Kartelle
der gewerblichen Unternehmer (ib., 1898) ;
Rousiers, Les industries monopolisées (Paris,
1898) ; Baker, Monopolies and the People (New
York, 1899); Corporations and Public Welfare,
report 4th annual meeting, American Acad-
emy of Political and Social Science (ib.,
1900); Report of Chicago Conference on Trusts
(Chicago, 1900) ; Collier, Trusts (New York,
1900) ; Ely. Monopolies and Trusts (ib., 1900);
Jenks, Industrial Combinations, Bulletin of
Department of Labor (Washington, 1900), id.,
The Trust Problem (4th ed., New York. 1903) ;
Reports of the United States Industrial Com-
mission, vols. i.. ii., xiii., xviii. and xix. (Wash-
ington. 1900-1902) ; Trusts and Trade Combina-
tions in Europe, State Department. Consular
Reports. vol. xxi. (ib., 1900) ; Le Rossignol,
M onopolies Past and Present (New York, 1901) ;
Raffalovich, Les trusts (Paris, 1903). Also con-
sult the authorities referred to under such titles
TRUSTS.
TRYON.
963
as RESTRAINT or TRADE; CONSPIRACY; CONSTI-
TUTIONAL LAW, etc.
TRUTCH, Sir Josnrn WILLIAM (1826-). A
Canadian statesman, born at Ashcot, England.
He was educated at Exeter, studied civil engi-
neering under Sir John Rennie, and in 1849 re-
moved to the Pacific Coast. From 1859 to 1864
he was employed in the construction of public
works for British Columbia, and from 1864 to
1871 was chief commissioner of lands and works,
and surveyongeneral, for the same colony. He
was also an ear-oflicio member of the excutive
and legislative councils from 1864 until in 1871
British Columbia joined the Dominion federation.
From 1871 to 1876 he was Lieutenant-Governor
of British Columbia, and in 1876-89 was resi-
dent Dominion agent for British Columbia.
TRUXILLO, tr'o_o-IIel’yo. See TRUJILLO.
TRUX’TUN, THOMAS (1755-1822). An
American naval officer, born at Jamaica, L. 1.
Going to sea at the age of twelve, he was first
an apprentice on an English packet, was subse-
quently impressed for service on an English
frigate, and finally entered the merchant marine.
Coming to Philadelphia late in 1775, he was made
captain of the Congress, the first American priva-
teer sent out during the Revolution. In com-
mand successively of this vessel, the Independ-
ence, the Andrew Caldwell, the Mars, the Saint
James, and the Commerce, he captured numer-
ous prizes, and overcame many vessels more
powerful than his own. After engaging for a
time in the East Indian service, he was appointed
captain in the newly organized United States
Navy, 1795, and was put in command of the
Constellation. On February 9. 1799, during the
short naval war with France, he captured, with
the loss of only two killed and three wounded,
the French frigate Insurgente, which lost 29
killed and 41 wounded. In the following year
(February 1st), he likewise defeated the Ven-
geance, which, however, after surrendering, man-
aged to escape. The French loss in killed and
wounded was 160, the American 39. Subsequent-
ly he was put in command of the West India
Squadron with the rank of commodore. Retiring
from the navy in 1802, he lived for a time in
New Jersey, and then removed to Philadelphia,
where he was sheriff, 1819-1821. He published
Remarks, Instructions, and Eacamples Relating
to Latitude and Longitude, also the Variation of
the Compass (1794).
TRY’01\T, DWIGHT WILLIAM (1849—). An
American landscape painter, born in Hartford,
Conn. He studied under C. Daubigny Chevreuse
of the Hartford School of Art, and professor of
and Guillemet in Paris; in 1886 became director
of art at Smith College, Northampton, Mass., and
afterwards he settled in New York City. His
earlier works show a trace of the influence of
Daubigny, but his own personality was strong
enough to prevail. His subjects are confined
to New England, and are of the simplest descrip-
tion. His skill in analysis and in technique has
given him a high place among American land-
scape painters. His general treatment is broad,
and he is fond of the hazy effects of spring and
autumn. Notable paintings, but in a higher key
than is usual with Tryon. are “October After-
noon” (1903) and “Autumn——New England”
(1903). Other important works include: “Morn-
ing Twilight” (1903); “New England Hills—
August” (1901); “Dawn” (1901); “Winter
Afternoon” (1894); “Morning” (1893). Some
of his water-color work is also well known.
TRYON, Sir GEORGE (1832-93). An English
admiral, born at Bulwick Park, Northampton-
shire. He was educated at Eton, and entered
the navy in 1848. In 1860 he was promoted to
commander, and in 1866 to captain. In the fol-
lowing year he showed considerable talent for
organization and foresight as director of trans-
ports for the Abyssinian expedition. In 1874-
77 he was in command of a ship in the flying
squadron, and from that time till 1887 served
with the Mediterranean fleet. In 1884 he became
rear-admiral, and in 1889 vice-admiral. His
appointment in 1891 to the command of the
Mediterranean station was a popular one, but
there on June 22, 1893, off Tripoli, he was re-
sponsible for one of the most terrible naval acci-
dents of modern times. During some manoeuvres
he ordered the battleships Carnperdown and Vic-
toria, which were proceeding in parallel lines,
to turn inward, thus causing the former to ram
and sink the latter with great loss of life. He
went down with the Victoria. Consult C. C.
Penrose-Fitzgerald, Life (London, 1897).
TRYON, THOMAS (1634-1703). An English
zealot, known as the ‘Pythagorean.’ He was born
near Cirencester, in Gloucestershire, England.
He was taken from school before he had learned
to read and put to spinning and carding (1643-
46); and thereafter till his eighteenth year he
tended his father’s sheep. He then drifted to Lon-
don. He joined the Anabaptists, but afterwards
renounced their doctrines, through the influence
of the mystical writings of Jakob Biihme (q.v.).
At the age of forty-eight he began a long series
of pamphlets, in which he recommended for drink
only water, and for food only bread and fruit,
with some liberty in the use of butter and cheese.
His book on this theme is known as The Way to
Health (1698), published originally in 1682 as
H ealth’s Grand Preservatine.
TRYON, WILLIAM (c.1725-88). A British
colonial Governor, born in Ireland. He secured
a commission as captain in the British Army
in 1751, and became lieutenant-colonel in 1758.
Through his marriage to Miss Wake, a rel-
ative of the Earl of Hillsborough, First Com-
missioner of Trade and Plantations, he was ap-
pointed Lieutenant-Governor of North Carolina
June 27, 1764, and succeeded to the Governor-
ship July 20, 1765, after the death of Arthur
Dobbs. He succeeded through the tact of his
wife in securing £15,000 to build a Governor’s
house at New Bern, pronounced the handsomest
building in the Americas. The heavy taxation
required for this and the Cherokee expedition
was one of the causes of the insurrection of the
Regulators (q.v.), which he suppressed with
severity. In July, 1771, he was transferred to
New York, where he greatly strengthened the
militia. In 1773 the Government house, at Fort
George, near New York City, was burned,
and Tryon and his wife barely escaped with
their lives. He made a large grant of land to
King’s College (Columbia), and he himself specu-
lated in Western lands. He visited England in
1774. and on his return in June, 1775. found the
colony in rebellion. In October he took refuge
TRYO N.
TSCHAIKOWSKY.
964
on shipboard and remained in the harbor until
Howe’s entry in September, 17 76. In 1777 he
took active command of some loyalist troops, and
in June, 1778, gave up civil for military duties
entirely, and was promoted ‘major-general in
America.’ In 1779 he made an expedition into
Connecticut, where he burned Danbury. During
the winter of 1779-80 he was in command of the
New York district, but returned to England in
1780, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-
general in November, 1782.
TRY’SA (Lat., from Gk. Tp6oa, now called
Geul-Bashi). An ancient town, situated on
a plateau (2475 feet high) in Southern Lycia,
a short distance west of Myra. The site is
of interest only from the Heroiin erected near
the end of the fifth century B.C. by a native
prince. This is a quadrangular inclosure about
60 X 75 feet, with a door in the south wall. In
the northeast corner stood the large sarcophagus,
and in the southeast the small booths for the
guard and the funeral feasts. The importance
of the monument is in its sculptured decorations.
Around the inner wall near the top are two rows
of sculptured frieze, and a similar decoration
adorns the outside of the south wall. Only the
sculptures around the door show any trace of
Oriental influence; the rest are evidently derived
from good Greek models. On the outside are
represented the expedition of the Seven against
Thebes, a battle between Greeks and Trojans
on the right of the door, and on the left battles
of the Greeks with Amazons and centaurs. In-
side on the south wall on the right are Odysseus
slaying the suitors and the Calydonian Hunt, on
the left a banquet and dance of youths and
maidens. On the east wall, which is much muti-
lated, can be traced the deeds of Theseus, a
battle with centaurs, and a banquet. The north
wall contains the Dioscuri carrying away the
daughters of Leucippus, a hunting scene, and the
conflict of the Lapithae and centaurs. The west
wall contains the battle of Greeks and Trojans
between the city and the ships, apparently the
storming of the city of Troy, and the battle of
Achilles with the Amazon. Apparently the artist
was influenced by the great painters of the fifth
century, and for this reason the frieze possesses
a unique importance. Its total length is nearly
350 feet, and the height varies between three and
four feet. First mentioned in 1841 by Schilnborn,
the ruins were excavated between 1881 and 1883
by an Austrian expedition, and the sculptures
brought to Vienna. Consult Benndorf and Nie-
mann, Das Hero5n /von Gjiilbaschi-Trysa, with
Atlas (Vienna, 1889).
TS’AIDAM or CIPAIDAM, chi'dEim. See
TIBET.
TSANA, LAKE.
TSAR. See CZAR.
TSARITSYN, tsa-ré’tsin. One of the most
important ports on the Volga, situated in the
Government of Saratov, Russia, where the Volga
approaches within 40 miles of the Don (Map:
Russia, F 5) . Connected by rail and water with
the interior of Russia, Tsaritsyn is the natural
outlet for the region of the lower Volga, and
to some extent of the region of the Don. The
chief articles of commerce are fish, salt, petro-
leum, grain, lumber, wool, and mustard. The
local manufactures are spirits, beer, and machin-
See TZANA.
ery. The town is poorly built. There is a fine
Lutheran church. Population, in 1897, 55,967.
TSARSKOYE SELO, ts':ir'sko-ye sye-16'. A
district town and the summer residence of the
Russian Emperor, situated in the Government of
Saint Petersburg, about 15 miles south of the
capital (Map: Russia, C 3). It is a pretty town
with extensive parks belonging to the royal resi-
dences and villas of the Court aristocracy. The
Old Palace is characterized by great splendor
and contains a fine picture gallery and the cele-
brated amber room. The Palace of Alexander,
built by Catharine II., is less pretentious. A
considerable part of the town’s permanent popu-
lation is made up of the military and Court em-
ployees. Tsarskoye Selo was formerly the seat
of the Alexander lycee, where many of the most
prominent literary men (including Pushkin) and
statesmen of Russia were educated. Population,
in 1897, 22,353. The railway line from Tsar-
skoye Selo to Saint Petersburg, constructed in
1838, was the first railway in Russia.
TSCHAIKOWSKY, chi-kov’ské, PETER ILYITCH
(1840-93). The greatest composer Russia has
thus far produced, born at a small place called
Votkinsk, in the Ural mining region, on May 7,
1840. He studied jurisprudence in Saint Peters-
burg, and in 1859 obtained a position in the
Ministry of Justice. In company with a young
poet named Apukhtin, who greatly influenced his
future, he listened to Italian opera whenever an
opportunity presented itself. This love of Italian
music left its traces in T schaikowsky’s scores. He
entered the Conservatory where Anton Rubin-
stein, its director, was attracted by the young
man’s ability. Tschaikowsky resigned his Govern-
ment position, studied music with all the vigor
of his nature, and on his leaving the Conserva-
tory three years later, he continued to study
orchestration with Rubinstein and took up the
flute, piano, and organ. In 1866 he accepted the
position of teacher of harmony at the Moscow
Conservatory. It was at this time that he met
the poet Ostrovsky, who gave him the libretto
for his first opera, Voyeoocla [“The Chieftan”].
Tschaikowsky’s first musical idols were Glinka,
the father of modern Russian music, and
Mozart. He venerated Beethoven and admired
Schumann, but, singularly enough, he never cared
much for Chopin. Schumann, with his short-
breathed phrases. was the Russian’s model in
writing for the pianoforte. Tschaikowsky went
on composing, undeterred by the lack of ap-
preciation on the part of both the Rubinsteins.
Even the brilliant and effective first piano con-
certo was picked to pieces by Nicholas, and so
hurt was the young composer that he erased the
dedication to Nicholas and substituted the name
of Hans von Biilow, who rewarded the courtesy
by producing the concerto in Boston on the oc-
casion of his first visit to America (1875-76).
Tschaikowsky made the acquaintance of Bala-
kireff, who urged him to compose the Romeo et
Juliette fantaisie overture. Now flowed forth a
stream of songs, symphonic poems, concertos,
symphonies, operas, chamber music, overtures,
dances, many experimental in form, much that
was mediocre and also some genuine master-
pieces. An unhappy marriage, briefly endured,
sent him into a retirement at Klin, which was
occasionally interrupted by trips to Germany,
France, Italy, Switzerland, and England. He
TSCHAIKOWSKY.
TSCHUDL
965
met Brahms and liked the man, but never con-
cealed an antipathy for his music. He admired
Wagner, with many reservations, though he will-
ingly visited Bayreuth. But he took no great
interest in the music drama, preferring old-
fashioned operatic forms. All his opinions, musi-
cal and otherwise, may be found in his Diary,
and in his musical criticisms, which were edited
by G. A. Laroche. His fame grew apace, and in
the spring of 1891 he visited America, in re-
sponse to the invitation of Walter Damrosch,
and was present at the dedication of Carnegie
Hall, New York. On November 6, 1893, Tschai-
kowsky died in Saint Petersburg, after a short
illness, of cholera. His death evoked universal
sympathy, and Russia learned from the western
world that she had lost her greatest composer.
For many years the opposition to Tschaikowsky
was based upon the allegation that he was not
really one of the Neo-Russian nationalists, who
with Tolstoy ‘went to the people’ for their
themes.- Tschaikowsky, like Turgenieff, was a
traveled man of culture, and a cosmopolitan on
certain sides of his art; but there was no truer
patriot than this fiery-souled poet, who demon-
strated his slavophilism in a hundred of his com-
positions. His happiest work is in the pure
fantasy, or what he was pleased to term, ‘over-
ture fantaisie.’ Thus his Manfred, Romeo et
Juliette, The Tempest, and Francesca da Rimini,
gives us Tschaikowsky at the very top of his
powers. The unfailing invention which marked
his poetic_works seemed to desert him when he
attempted purely abstract music. A poet first,
musician afterwards, Tschaikowsky was inspired
by poetic themes. He was a born master of
orchestration. The timbres of his instruments
meant for him so many voices, and so his works
are often tone-dramas, operas without words.
Tschaikowsky’s music reveals the mighty pes-
simism of his nation. His symphonies are often
built upon typical phrases, taken from the folk-
song; he is Russian in his operas, with their
national texts and treatment. Some of his songs
——-he wrote over a hundred———are masterpieces:
“Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt,” “Don Juan
Serenade,” “Disappointment,” “Warum sind die
Rosen so blass ?” His Florentine string sextet is
warm in color, and in his three string quartets he
often strays across the borders into the pleasing
country of the operatic. The world has come
to recognize the last movement of the Pathetic
symphony as an unapralleled embodiment of
woe. But as a whole the work hangs loosely
together. The fifth symphony is more homo-
geneous, the fourth, in F minor, more Russian.
There are three piano concertos, a violin con-
certo, and many piano pieces. The symphonic
poems, with their wealth of musical imagery,
their dramatic power and thrilling effects con-
stitute Tschaikowsky’s claim to immortality. He
had a predilection for ballet-music and left
charming specimens of dance music in the Nut-
Oracker suite and other compositions in a light
vein. His operas are seldom heard outside of
Russia. Eugene Onegin (187 9) is said to be a
work of unequal genius. Besides it, The Voye-
uocla (1869); The Maid of Orleans (1881);
Mazeppa (1882), and Iolanthe (1893) met with
success. Other noteworthy works include the
lyric drama Snowdrop; three ballets; Le lac des
cygnes; Le belle au bois dormant (1890); and
Le cassenoisette; symphonies, symphonic poems,
and a great mass of miscellaneous compositions.
He published a Treatise on Harmony (1872) ; a
translation of Gevaert’s Traité d’Instrumenta-
tion; and also wrote M usikalische Erinnerungen
und Feuilletons ( 1899) .
Consult the biographies by Rosa Newmarch
(London, 1900), Knorr (Berlin, 1900), Modest,
Tschailcowslcy (Germ. trans., Leipzig, 1901) , and
Hruby (ib., 1902) ; also Huneker, Mezzotints in
Modern Music (New York, 1899); Runciman,
Old Scores and New Readings (London, 1899);
and Imbert, Profile de musiciens (Paris, 1888).
TSCHEBMAK, chér’mak, GUSTAV (1836--).
An Austrian mineralogist. He was born at Lit-
tau, Moravia; was educated at the University
of Vienna, and in 1868 was appointed a pro-
fessor in the university and director of the
Royal Mineralogical Cabinet. In 1877 he resigned
the directorship. His contributions to the pro-
ceedings of the Vienna Academy are very numer-
ous, and treat for the most part subjects of
crystallography and petrography. He is also a
prominent authority on meteorites. In 1871 he
established at Vienna the Mineralogische Mit-
teilungen, published since 1878 as the Mineral-
ogische und petrographische Mitteilungen. His
publications include: Die Porphyrgesteine Oestcr-
reichs (1869); Die milcroslcopische Beschaffen-
heit der M eteoriten (1883) ; and a Lehrbuch der
Mineralogie (1884; 5th ed. 1897).
TSCHIRNHAUSEN, chern’hou-zen, EHREN-
FRIED WALTER, Count (1651-1708). A German
scientist and mathematician. He was born and
educated at Leyden. He traveled considerably
in France, Italy, and Switzerland, and served in
the army of Holland (1672-73). Tschirnhausen
erected large glass works in Saxony, Where he
constructed burning glasses of unusual perfection
and carried on his experiments (1687-88). To
him are due some valuable discoveries in the
manufacture of porcelain. His M ed-icina M entis
(1687) testifies to the philosophic tendency of
his thought. In mathematics Tschirnhausen is
known as the founder of the theory of cata-
caustics, or caustics by reflection. The original
articles appeared in the Acta Eruditorum from
1682 to 1698. These publications contain also
his work on equations and quadratics. In con-
nection with the latter he invented the quadratrix
(see QUADRATUBE) known by his name. Consult
Weissenborn, Lebensbeschreibung des Tschirn-
hausen (Eisenach, 1866).
TSGHISTOPOL, chis’to~pol. A district in
the Government of Kazan, Eastern Russia (Map:
Russia, .H 3). Area, 3592 square miles. Popu-
lation, in 1897, 307,224. The principal indus-
tries are the raising of cereals, flax, and hemp,
and the curing and manufacture of leather. The
district town Tschistopol, on the left bank of
the Kama, 90 miles southeast of the city Kazan,
has three churches, a mosque, a gymnasium for
girls, a bank, and various industrial establish-
ments. There is considerable trade in cereals
and wood products. Population, in 1897, 20,161.
TSCHUDI, chi?/de, ZEGIDIUS or GILG (1505-
72). A Swiss chronicler, known as the father
of Swiss history. He was born at Glarus, stud-
ied at the universities of Basel, Vienna, and
Paris, and after holding several administrative
offices entered the French army in 1536, serving
till 1544. Once more he held office in various
TSCHUDI.
TSI-NAN FU.
966
cantons and became, in 1558, chief magistrate of
Glarus. He was a bitter opponent of the Refor-
mation and sought to check the spread of the new
doctrines by force of arms. This brought him
great unpopularity and necessitated his tem-
porary absence from the canton. During his last
years he took little share in political affairs,
and devoted his time to a study of the vast
amount of historical materials which during
many years he had gathered from public archives
and the libraries of monasteries. His Die uralt
wahrhaftig alpisoh Rhetia was published at Basel
in 1538, but his two great works, the Sehweizer-
chronik, or Chronicon Heleetieum, and the Gallia
Uomata, did not appear till more than one hun-
dred and sixty years after the author’s death.
The Schweieerchronile covers the period 1100-
1470, and is valuable for the large number of
original documents incorporated in the text.
Though uncritical, the Sehweieerchronilc has re-
mained the great source for Swiss history. The
Galliu Gomata is in nature antiquarian, and was
intended as an introduction to the Chronicon
H elvetioum.
TSCHUIDI, CLARA (1857—). A Norwegian
author, born at Tiinsberg of Swiss parents. In-
tending to become a dramatic singer, she studied
at Dresden and Berlin, but presently turned her
attention to literature, and after publishing some
works bearing on women’s rights, such as If uinde-
bevregelser (1885) and Tre nutiskvinder (1887),
became known through the historical portraits
Eugenie Keiserinde of Frankrig (1889, 2d ed.
1897), Keiserinde Augusta, Slcildringer fra Hof-
Zifet i Berlin (1892) , and especially through her
Marie Antoinettes Ungdom (1894) and Marie
Antoinette och Reeolutionen (1895-96), which
were followed by Napoleonia Moder, Silhouetter,
and Reiserninder og Skieeer (all 1898) .
TSCHUDI, FRIEDRICH VON (1820-86). A Swiss
scholar, brother of Johann Jakob von Tschudi.
He studied theology first at Schaffhausen, then at
Basel, Bonn, and Berlin; and was made pastor of
Lichtensteig in 1843, but resigned in 1847. He
settled in Saint Gall, where he wrote, under the
pseudonym of C. Weber, Der Sonderbund und
seine Aufliisung (1848), and under his own name
several agricultural studies and the often reed-
ited and frequently translated Das Tierleben der
Alpenwelt (1853). He held several official posts,
and was distinguished for his services to edu-
cation.
TSCHUDI, JOHANN JAKOB (1818-89). A
Swiss naturalist, born at Glarus. He studied
at Swiss, French, and German universities, and
then traveled extensively in South America,
visiting Peru (1838-43), and Brazil, the Plata
States, Chile, and Bolivia (1857-59). From
1860 to 1862 he was Swiss Ambassador to Brazil,
and in 1866 became diplomatic representative at
the Court of Vienna, retiring in 1883. He pub-
lished System der Batrachier (1838); Unter-
suchungen itber die Fauna Peruana (1844-47) ;
Peru, Reiseslcizzen (1846); Die Kechuasprache
(1853) ; Antiguiédades peruanas (1851), with
Don Mariano de Rivero; Reisen durch Sud-
amerilcct (1866-69) ; Ollanta, an ancient Peruvian
drama out of the Quichua language (1875).
His son HUGO (1851——), born at Jakobshof,
Austria, studied in Vienna jurisprudence and
art-history, and after extensive travels through
Europe became connected with the royal mu-
seums in Berlin, in 1884, and was appointed di-
rector of the National Gallery in 1896. Besides
numerous important essays in various art-peri-
odicals, he published, in collaboration with
Pulszky, the text to Die LandeseGenmldegallerie
in Budapest (1883) , and with Bode, Beschreibung
der Bildwerke der christlichen Epoche in den
lofiniglielten museen eu Berlin (1883). Since
1894 he has edited the Repertorium fiir Kunst-
wissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1875 et seq.) , conjointly
with Thode.
rsfine KI-TSEH, tsfmg’ ke’ tséh’ (1837-90).
A Chinese statesman and diplomat, better known
as the Marquis Tseng, born in Hu-nan. He served
under his father as secretary, and in 1877 suc-
ceeded to the paternal title. In the following
year he was appointed Minister to Great Britain
and France. In 1880 he was further intrusted
with an embassy at Saint Petersburg, and there
negotiated the treaty by which Kulja was re-
stored to China. In 1881 he was created vice-
director of the Imperial Clan Court, and vice-
presidentof the Board of War, and in 1885 arranged
a convention with Great Britain in regard to
the opium traffic, and was appointed assistant
director of the newly established Admiralty
Board. In 1886 he returned to Peking, became
a member of the Tsung-li Yamen (q.v.), and in
1887 vice-president of the Board of Revenue.
Two years later he was appointed director of
the Tung Wen Kwan, or Peking School of Lan-
guages, and held this position until his death.
TSETSE-FLY (South African name). A
biting fly (Glossinu morsitans) of the family
Muscidae, related to the common stable-fly (q.v.),
which occurs in portions of Africa. The tsetse-
fiy bites all warm-blooded animals, but seems
particularly attracted to cattle and horses. lts
bite was formerly considered poisonous, and ap-
parently produced death in beasts of burden
coming from regions where the fly does not occur.
The disease produced by the bite is called
‘nagana.’ Animals which have once recovered ap-
pear to be immune, or ‘salted.’ It has been de-
termined that the bite of the tsetse-fly is not
specifically poisonous, but that the insect acts
as the carrier of a haematozoan parasite, taking
it with the blood of diseased animals and carry-
ing it to non-immunes. The tsetse-fly does not
lay eggs, but multiplies by producing, one at a
time, full-grown larvae which immediately change
to pupae, just as do the so-called pupiparous
Diptera. It was at one time supposed that the
tsetse-fly would form a serious obstacle to the
settlement of Africa by civilized races, but this
is not the case. Only certain animals are affected
by the disease, and the fly acts simply as a car-
rier; moreover, cattle became immune after
residence in infected regions.
TSHI, tshe, or CHWI. A negro people on the
African Gold Coast. See SUDAN.
TSI-NAN FU, or TSE-NAN F00, che'n'an'-
f66’. A city of China, capital of the Province of
Shan-tung. It lies in a large fertile plain 3%
miles south of the Yellow River, 245 southeast of
Peking, and 400 west of Chi-fu, the principal
treaty-port of the province (Map: China, E 4).
The walls of the city proper have a circuit of 12
miles and are well built, but there is a large
extramural population protected by a great en-
TSI-NAN FU.
TSO TSUNG-T’ANG.
967
circling mud rampart. The principal streets are
comparatively clean, and are lined with good
shops. The city is noted especially for its silk
brocades, its trade in precious stones, and the
varied glass and other products of Po-shan-hien,
the chief city of the ‘black country’ of Shan-tung.
It has a drum-tower, a great examination hall
capable of accommodating over 10,000 candidates,
many fine temples, a Roman Catholic cathedral,
besides the Yamens, or ofifices of the Governor
and the high officers of the province. In the west-
ern part of the city are several geyser-like springs
said to be connected with similar springs in Tai-
shan (q.v.), some 60 miles distant. A few miles
east of the city are several important iron mines.
Population, 250,000, including 2000 Mohamme-
dan families, and the inhabitants of the suburbs.
Tsi-nan is on the railway line projected by the
Germans, and now under construction.
TS’I1\TG-TU, or JODO. The Chinese and the
Japanese names respectively of "The Land of
Bliss,” sometimes called the “Paradise of the
West,” presided over by Amitabha (or Amida)
Buddha, re-birth in which is promised to all who
put their faith i11 Amida. Life is there so long
that it is practically eternal, and as it is a
place of surpassing deligh‘, free from all troubles,
all pain and all misery, and can be reached with-
out the performance of works of any kind, its
attainment has become the aim of the adherents
of the Ts’ing-tu sect of Buddhists in China, and
the Jodo and Shinshiu sects of Japan. Nirvana
is too difficult. See Suhhfwati and Shinshiu;
and Edkins, Chinese Buddhism (London, 1880).
TSI-TSI-HAR, ché’che’hiir’. The largest,
the most northerly, and the most thinly popu-
lated of the three provinces of Manchuria (q.v.),
known to the Chinese as Hei-lung-kiang. It is
generally mountainous, covered with forests, and
abounds in both large and small game—tigers,
bears, leopards, deer of various kinds, antelopes,
wild boars, wolves, foxes, badgers, wild cats,
sables, and other fur-bearing animals, and hunt-
ing and trapping are extensively carried on. In
the southwest are great prairies occupied by the
Mongols, who maintain large herds of cattle,
horses, etc., upon them. The climate is severe,
the mercury falling in winter to 40° F. below
zero, and lower. In summer it sometimes rises to
90° and 95°. Agriculture is chiefly confined to
the river valleys, where are produced pulse, maize,
millet, tobacco, wheat, sesamum, and the poppy.
The drainage is to the north through the Sun-
gari. Gold is found in the northwest, north, and
east, and is mined at Moho. Much soda is pro-
duced and exported to China. The province is
crossed by the Trans-l\Ianchurian branch of the
Russian Trans-Baikal Railway, which connects
at Harbin with the Russian Railway that runs
south-southwest to Port Arthur and Dalny. The
population, estimated at 2.000,000, consists of
Manchus, Korchin Mongols, Solons, Yakuts from
Siberia, 6600 families of whom settled on the
banks of the Nonni in 1687, and Chinese, chiefly
from the northern provinces. The government
is military, but there are two civil officials in as
many localities where the population is largely
Chinese. Besides the Bannermen a force of 7000
foreign-drilled Chinese troops is maintained. Tsi-
tsi-har has long been a penal colony; and there is
much brigandage. The capital, Tsi-tsi-har, on the
N onni, was built in 1692 in order to overawe the
neighboring tribes. It is a few miles north of
the Trans-Manchurian Railway, and is a dirty
poorly built city with a population of between
30,000 and 40,000.
TSONG KHA-PA, tsong’ k’hii’pii’, TSONG-
K’A-PA, or TSON-K’A-PA (the man from
Tsong-k’a) ; generally spoken of as Jé-rim-po-ch’é
(c.1355-1419). A noted Tibetan reformer of
Lamaism (q.v.). He was born at Tsong-k’a, in
the Province of Amdo, near the Chinese frontier,
and while still a child he was devoted by his
parents to a religious life. At sixteen he began
theological studies and a year later proceeded
to Central Tibet. In Southern Tibet he spent
eight years as a hermit and became convinced of
the need of reform. Identifying himself with the
Kah-dam-pa, ‘The Sect bound by the Orders’ (of
the Vinaya, or ‘Books of Discipline’), which had
been purified and reformed by the Indian monk
Atisha in the eleventh century, he reorganized it,
and gave it the name of Ge-lug-pa, ‘the Followers
of the Virtuous Order.’ In 1409 he built the
great monastery of Gah-ldan (‘Paradise’), 25
miles from Lhasa (q.v.) , where he preached regu-
larly, and by the time of his death his followers
numbered over 30,000 in Lhasa alone. His re-
forms consisted in a stricter observance of the
235 rules of the Vinaya, or ‘discipline,’ a life of
ethical purity, strict celibacy, simplicity in
dress, the abandonment of the red robes which
had become common, and the readoption of the
yellow hat and the patched yellow robes worn
and prescribed by the Buddha. He also rein-
stated the fortnightly ‘disburdenment,’ or re-
hearsal of the Pratimohsa Svltra in regular as-
semblies of the Order at Lhasa, and restored the
custom of retiring yearly for meditation. Tsong-
kha-pa was buried in the Gah-ldan, where his em-
balmed remains form the chief object of vener-
ation.
TSO TSUNG-T’ANG, tso’ tsfing’t’-‘sing’
(1812-85) . A Chinese general and administrator.
He was born at Hiang-yin, in Hu-nan, secured his
second or ‘master’s’ degree in 1832, and during
the earlier years of the Taiping Rebellion served
in Hu-nan and Hu-peh. In 1861 he had the
command of the army operating in Che-
kiang, and in the following year was also made
Governor of that province. In 1863 he was
also appointed Governor-General of the com-
bined provinces of Che-kiang and Fu-kien,
and by October, 1864, he had entirely re-
covered Che-kiang and was rewarded with an
earldom. When the rebellion ended in 1865, he
was also in command of Kiang-si and Kwang-
tung. Appointed in 1866 Governor-General of
Shen-si and Kan-su, then in the hands of the Mo-
hammedan rebels, he first turned his attention to
the Nien-fei insurgents, drove them from the
neighborhood of Han-kow. entered Shen-si and
defeated them there in 1867, and utterly routed
them near Tien-tsin in August, 1868. He re-
turned to Shen-si, pacified that province in 1869,
drove the rebels beyond the Great Wall, and cap-
tured Su-chow in Kan-su in 1873. In 1875 he
was appointed Imperial commissioner for Turk-
estan, and in April, 187 6, he advanced with the
main body of his army beyond the Great Wall,
crossed the desert of Hami, and by October 10,
1877, had captured 1n succession Urumtsi, Tihua,
TSO TSUNG-T’ANG.
Tour.
968
Manas, Pidjan, Turfan, and Ku-che, north of the
Tian-Shan; and by January 2, 1878, Harashar,
Aksu, Kashgar, Yarkand, Yengi-shar, and Kho-
tan—all in Eastern Turkestan, south of the Tian
Shan—had been reconquered, and the campaign
brought to a close. Tso was made a marquis and
received many other honors. On his return to
Peking in 1881 he became a member of the Tsung-
li Yamen, and immediately succeeded in having
all the Chinese students in the United States
recalled. In the same year he was transferred
to Nanking as Governor-General of Hu-nan and
Hu-peh, whence in 1884, on the outbreak of
French hostilities in connection with the Tong-
king affair, he was ordered to Fu-chow to direct
the military operations, and died there in the
following year.
TSOW-HIEN, tsou’hyén’. A small district
or prefectural city of Shan-tung, China, noted
as the birthplace of Mencius (q.v.) and the home
of his lineal descendant and representative. It
is about 15 miles east of Kiuh-fow (q.v.),
the birthplace of Confucius, and in the midst of
a region of great historic interest, hallowed in the
eyes of the followers of these two early sages.
'1here is a temple in honor of Mencius, and south
of the city is his tomb, approached from the
south by a fine avenue of cypress and yew.
TSU, tsoT)'. The capital of the Prefecture of
Miye, Central Hondo, Japan, situated on the
eastern coast, 47 miles south-southwest of Na-
goya (Map: Japan, E 6). It has a number of
fine temples, of which that of K0-no Amida at-
tracts many pilgrims. Population, in 1898, 33,-
287.
TSUNG-LI YAMEN (or YAMUN), tsbiing’
ls’ yEi’mUn' (Chin., general managing office).
The office or bureau through which the foreign
Ministers in China until recently communicated
with the throne and the Six Departments of
Government. It was established in 1861, and
was organized by Prince Kung (who became its
first president) in conference with Sir Frederick
Bruce, the first British Minister, and comprised
between eight and twelve members. In 1901 it
was superseded by the Wai Wu Pu, or ‘Depart-
ment of Foreign Affairs.’
TSURUGA, tso“‘o-Wg’éi. A seaport of the
Province of Echizen, Japan, about 50 miles north
of Kioto, with which it is connected by rail
(Map: Japan, E 6). It stands at the head of a
deep bay, and is well situated for trade with
Korea and Manchuria. Its harbor is protected
by a breakwater and a lighthouse, and is the best
on the northwest coast of the main island.
Junk-building is the chief industry. It contains
one of the oldest Shinto temples of the country.
Population, about 12,000.
TSURUOKA, tsW’r'6'6-5’l<:'1, or TSURUGAO-
KA. A town in the Prefecture of Yamagata,
Northern Hondo, Japan, 75 miles north-northeast
of Niigata (Map: Japan, F 4). It was formerly
a castle town. Population, in 1898, 20,461.
TSUSHIMA, ts'o‘6’she-mti. An island of
Japan, commanding the southern entrance to the
Sea of Japan, less than 50 miles south of Korea,
and separated from the island of Kiushiu by
Krusenstern Channel (Map: Japan, A 6). It is
penetrated by a deep inlet on the west, which at
its narrowest is only 16 yards wide. At high
water the narrow connecting spit is overflowed,
forming two unequal islands. They are both
mountainous, with peaks ranging from 1128 to
2130 feet above the level of the sea. Area, 262
square miles. The northern or larger island is
indented with many fine bays, and the chief coast
town is Waniura. Fishing is the chief industry
and dried cuttlefish the chief export. The chief
city, Idzunohara or Fuchiu, on the south island,
has a population of about 10,000. Total popula-
tion of the island, 38,636. Tsushima was held
for centuries by the So family, who served as in-
termediaries in all relations between Japan and
Korea, and Korean blood is very noticeable
among the inhabitants.
TUA, to'6’a, TERESINA (1867—). An Italian
violinist, born in Turin. Her principal teacher
Was Massart of the Paris Conservatory, under
whom she made such rapid progress that in 1880
she won the first prize. She was uniformly suc-
cessful fron1 the beginning of her artistic career.
In 1891 she retired from the concert platform
owing to her marriage with Count Franchi-Ver-
ney della Valetta, but in the autumn of 1895 she
again took up her concert work and made a very
successful European tour.
TUAMOTU (too"a-mo’to'6) ISLANDS. See
Low ARCHIPELAGO.
TUAREGS, tm-ti’regz. Berber nomads in the
Middle Sahara, numbering some 300,000, and per-
haps descendants of the ancient Gaetulians. (See
G./ETULIA.) In various places they have mixed
with negroes. They are tall, with slender fig-
ures and regular features, dark in complexion,
with an occasional blond, and, owing to their
frugal diet are long lived. The costume varies
with location, but a common article of dress is
the litham, a cloth wrapped about the face to
protect the eyes and breathing organs from
the dust of the desert. The Amoshagh or Noble
Tuaregs wear a black litham and the Imghad
or servile a white one, which gives rise to the
epithets Black Tuaregs and White Tuaregs.
Their weapons are a long, straight sword, a dag-
ger, a spear six feet long, and occasionally a gun.
They were monogamists until the Mohammedan
conquest, when they began to vary somewhat in
this respect. The women have great freedom
among them, go unveiled, and have a part in
public affairs. Consult: Duveyrier, Les Touaregs
du nord (Paris, 1864) ; Bissuel, Les Touaregs de
Z’ouest (Algiers. 1888) ; Bernard, Deum missions
chez les Touareg (ib., 1896); King, Search for
the M asked Touarehs (London, 1903) ; Mas-
querai, Dietionnaire fra/ngais-touareg (Paris,
1893) .
TUAT, are-at’. A group of oases in Algerian
Sahara, North Africa, comprising the oases of
Gurara and Tidikelt. It is a comparatively well-
settled region and abounds in date palms. It is
watered principally by the VVadi Saura or Mzaud
and also by some subterranean watercourses.
The largest lake is the Sebkha Gurara. The
population of the region is estimated at 100,000,
composed of Tuaregs, negroes, and Arabs. Tuat
was formerly regarded as a dependency of
Morocco, but with its occupation by French
troops in 1900 has practically become a part of
the French sphere of influence, and attempts are
being made to extend the Algerian railway
system into Tuat.
TUATARA.
TUBERCULOSIS.
969
TUATARA, to_6'a-ta’1'a (Maori, spiny). A
reptile of New Zealand (Sphenodon or Hatteria
punctatum) , which looks like a large stout lizard,
but whose structure shows it to be the sole sur-
viving representative of a primitive group, the
Rhynehocephali, otherwise extinct in the Triassic
age. Large males reach a length of 21/2 feet,
are dark olive green, and have a row of short
yellowish, horn-sheathed spines along the verte-
bral line. The skin is rather granular, except
on the belly, where it is scaly. All its anatomy
distinguishes this animal from lizards and allies
it with the ancient Prosauria—the carpus, for
example, has the primitive number of 10 bones,
all separate; and there is an entire absence of
external copulatory organs.
The tuataras were once numerous through New
Zealand, but have been killed off by civilization
and bush-fires, until now they inhabit only some
small parts of the North Island. They dwell in
burrows of their own digging, which they share
with sundry petrels. They are fond of water,
and are able to remain submerged for hours
without breathing. During the day they sleep,
but at night hunt for food, which consists of in-
sects and worms in the interior and on the coast
of small fishes, crustaceans, etc. ; all food is
taken alive. They move very slowly and lazily,
but are fierce fighters when called upon to de-
fend themselves. They lay in summer about ten
eggs, elongated and hard-shelled, which are buried
in warm sand and left to hatch, but this does
not happen until about thirteen months,later, al-
though the embryos grow to nearly their full size
in half that time or less, and then seem to aesti-
vate. Consult: Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles
(London, 1901) ; Newman, Transactions Zoologi-
cal Society, vol. xv. (ib., 1897) ; I-Iowes, Trans-
actions New Zealand Institute, vol. X. (Welling-
ton, 1878); Van Haast, id., vol. xiv. (1881).
TUATHA-DE-DANAAN, to_o‘-a'tha as da-
niin’ (Ir., Race or Tribe of Danaan). A pre-
historic people of tall stature and blond type,
who, according to the ancient annals of Ireland,
invaded the island from the north several cen-
turies before the Christian Era and by defeating
the Firbolgs (q.v.) in the battle of Moytura be-
came masters of the country until in turn over-
come by the Milesians (q.v.) . They were prob-
ably of Scandinavian origin.
TUBA (Lat., trumpet). A name given to the
bass instruments of the saxhorn family, also
called bombardons. Tubas are made in many
keys, and, as they are played from the notes as
written, they require no special transposition.
They are the lowest of the brass instruments and
their range is from 1Bb-f‘. Their tone is full and
majestic; the most usual sizes are the bass
tuba in Bb and the contrabass tuba in ,Bb. Their
introduction into the orchestra is due to Wagner,
Who obtained fine effects through them. The tuba
has since then become a fixture in the orchestra,
being used as the bass of the trombone choir.
As such it has entirely superseded the ophicleide
(q.v.). The instrument is built in two forms,
obolng, like the euphonium, and round. See
HELICON.
TUBA. A tribe of Western Siberia. See
YENESEIANS.
TUBE-NOSE. A tube-nosed or harpy bat, a
small East Indian fruit-bat of the genus
Harpyia, remarkable for the fact that the nos-
trils are in the form of two extended and some-
what divergent tubes projecting above the upper
lip. See Plate of BATS.
TUBER (Lat., swelling, tumor, knob on
plants). A thickened and shortened branch from
a subterranean stem. The leaves are usually
reduced to minute scales with buds in the axils,
forming in the potato the so-called ‘eyes.’ Its
function is to act as a food reservoir, and to give
rise directly to new plants. See STEM.
TUBERCLE. See TUBERCULOSIS; BACTERIA;
Drsnxsrz, GERM THEQEY or; SERUM THERAPY.
TUBERCULIN, Kocn’s LYMPH, or PARATO-
L011). A glycerin extract of pure cultures of the
Bacillus tuberculosis, first prepared in 1891 by
Robert Koch (q.v.). It is a brownish, albu-
minoid liquid, neutral in reaction and soluble in
water, and consists mainly of ptomaines of the
bacillus, with coloring matters, extractives, and
salts. When injected into the tissues of a
healthy (non-tuberculous) person no reaction fol-
lows; but in the presence of tuberculosis, wher-
ever situated, both a local and general febrile re-
action is observed. The general symptoms are
fever and chills; locally it affects the skin, which
becomes red and swollen. A better serum was
introduced by Koch in 1897, and efforts in the
same direction were made by Klebs in Germany
and Hunter in England, the earlier product hav-
ing been found to contain substances very toxic
to man. Of the curative value of tuberculin there
appears to be some doubt. With the first serum
treatment was tedious and prolonged, and the
result uncertain. But it was hailed as a specific,
and widely used by unskilled observers and on
unsuitable cases. The results were disappoint-
ing and the remedy fell into disrepute. With
the production of purer serums treatment has
been more successful. Tuberculin is chiefly valu-
able as a diagnostic agent. It is largely used as
a test for tuberculous cattle, to guard against
the consumption of infected milk and meat. See
TUBERCULOSIS.
TUBERCULOSIS (Neo-Lat., from Lat. tu-
berculum, little swelling, pimple, tubercle, di-
minutive of tuber, swelling, tumor, knob on
plants), or CONSUMPTION. An infectious dis-
ease, caused by the Bacillus tuberculosis,
characterized by the formation, in the tis-
sues, of nodular bodies, called tubercles,
and manifested symptomatically by fever,
cough, dyspnoea, and progressive loss of strength.
The disease is widespread and causes about
one-seventh of the deaths throughout the
world. Its clinical features were recognized
many centuries ago, and Hippocrates and Galen
described them very accurately; but it was not
until the growth of anatomical study in the sev-
enteenth and eighteenth centuries that the char-
acteristic lesions (tubercles) were recognized and
associated with the disease. Important addi-
tions to the pathological knowledge of tubercu-
losis were made by Bayle (1810) and to its
physical diagnosis by Laennec (about 1834).
Virchow’s work in cellular pathology and final-
ly Koch’s brilliant discovery of the causative
bacillus in 1882 settled all doubts as to the
genesis and pathology of the disease, and since
then nothing essential has been added to our
knowledge concerning it.
TUBERCULOSIS.
TUBERCULOSIS.
' 970
Consumption prevails in all latitudes. To-
ward the poles and in very high altitudes the
mortality is somewhat lower. No race is ex-
empt, but negroes and Indians, and other races to
whom the disease is comparatively new, are espe-
cially susceptible. In rare instances the disease
is congenital, derived from the mother; there has
been found no proof of paternal transmission
either in man or animals. The great frequency
in young infants of tuberculosis, whether of the
lungs, meninges, or bones, is taken by many ob-
servers to prove that the virus can be trans-
mitted. Heredity plays an important role in de-
termining the disease in individuals. Children
of tubercular parents are more liable than others
to contract consumption, and hereditary pre-
disposition can often be traced in a family for
several generations. Two classes of individuals
naturally predisposed toward consumption have
long been recognized: the one tall, with straight
limbs, regular and even beautiful features, dark
hair, long eyelashes, thin and delicate skin; the
other stunted, with coarse features, thick lips,
light hair, sluggish action, and a tendency to en-
largement of the lymph glands. A predisposition
to tuberculosis is acquired under conditions that
seriously lower vital resistance. Among those
are overcrowding, deficient ventilation, poor
food, prolonged and exhausting disease, preg-
nancy and lactation, and unhealthful occupa-
tions, such as glass-blowing, coal-mining, street-
sweeping, exposure to cold and damp, and the
excessive use of alcohol. The disease is most
frequently acquired in early adult life (from
twenty to thirty-five). The pulmonary compli-
cations following measles and whooping-cough
in children are often forerunners of a tubercu-
lous deposit in the lungs. The direct medium of
contagion is the sputum of the tuberculous pa-
tient. The number of bacilli thrown off in this
manner is enormous. By a patient moderately
advanced in the disease Nuttall estimated there
were expectorated in the twenty-four hours be-
tween two and four billions of bacilli. The
sputum becomes dry and desiccated, the bacilli
are distributed by the dust and obtain entrance
to the body again through the respiratory tract.
The flesh or milk of tuberculous cattle is capable
of transmitting the disease both to man and to
other animals. Many cases of intestinal and
mesenteric tuberculosis in children are attribut-
able to this source. Finally, infection can be
brought about by direct inoculation. Demonstra-
tors of morbid anatomy, butchers, and handlers
of hides are subject to a local tuberculosis of the
skin. Infection has taken place from circum-
cision, washing the clothes of phthisical patients,
and through a cut from a broken sputum cup.
When the tubercle bacilli have once definitely
invaded the lungs the disease runs its course with
different degrees of rapidity. It may be fatal in
three or four months, or ten to fifteen years may
elapse between infection and death. During this
time it may be quiescent for months or a year or
more. Two types are usually recognized. The
rapid form (galloping consumption) begins after
a cold or exposure, with rapidly rising tempera-
ture, pain in the side, difficult breathing, rust-
colored sputum, and consolidation of one or more
lobes of a lung: in other words, like an attack of
pneumonia. Instead, however, of improving at
the end of the tenth day, the symptoms become
graver, the fever continues high, the lung is
rapidly softened and destroyed, and the patient
dies in from three weeks to as many months.
This form is always fatal. The second type,
sometimes called chronic ulcerative phthisis,
comes on more slowly and runs a longer course
and includes the majority of cases of pulmonary
tuberculosis. The disease begins with a slight
but annoying and unproductive cough, chilly sen-
sations, indigestion, loss of appetite, and grad-
ually increasing weakness. As the trouble pro-
gresses, the cough becomes severe and constant,
with yellow or whitish expectoration, contain-
ing usually multitudes of bacilli, and sometimes
tinged with blood. Fever is higher in the after-
noon and evening and the temperature rarely
drops to normal. Night sweats, pains in the
chest, steadily progressing weakness, dyspnoea,
and wasting are now present. Occasionally quan-
tities of blood are brought up (hemoptysis) dur-
ing a paroxysm of coughing. It is bright red,
frothy, and due to the ulceration of an artery of
some size. The course is not always fatal; the
disease may be arrested at any stage, and partial
or complete healing take place, leaving scars or
cavities in the lung. Improvement may be only
temporary and the process start up again under
favorable conditions. In fatal cases the last stage
is marked by an exhausting diarrhoea, and swell-
ing of the lower extremities. Death may take
place suddenly from hemorrhage or gradually
from exhaustion. Examination of the chest shows
a deficient expansion of the ribs, rapid heart ac-
tion, exaggerated voice sounds, irregular and
high-pitched respiration, and different varieties of
rides, depending on the stage of the morbid proc-
ess. The prevention of tuberculosis is one of the
most difficult problems with which the sanitarian
has to grapple, the disease being so widely dis-
seminated, and so insidious in its approaches.
Efforts in this direction are mainly directed to
destroying tuberculous cattle, segregation of
phthisical individuals, and destruction of their
sputum. Municipal ordinances against spitting
in public places have been passed in many cities.
In sanatoria patients use special receptacles for
their sputum, which is thoroughly disinfected
and burned. Boards of health in the larger cities
are taking note of cases in private life and urging
them to dispose of expectorated matters in a
sanitary way.
Individuals predisposed to consumption should
lead an exceptionally careful life in an equable
climate and out of doors. Particular attention
should be given to keeping the upper respiratory
passages in a healthy condition and guarding
against colds. Tuberculosis is a curable disease
in its earlier stages. Spontaneous cure is an
every-day phenomenon and a large proportion of
individuals dying of other diseases are found on
autopsy to possess healed tubercular lesions in
the lungs. -
There is no successful specific treatment.
Koch’s tuberculin and its various modifications
and the different antitoxins and antitubercle
serums are being used, but are still in the ex-
perimental stage, and have to be administered
with great circumspection. The treatment of
consumption is in most cases best carried out in
well-regulated sanatoria, where the patient’s life
and habits are under expert surveillance. The
main objects in view are to place the sufferer in
TUBERCULOSIS.
TUBERCULOSIS.
971
an environment favorable for the attainment of
the best possible nutrition, to relieve the cough,
sweats, and other wearing symptoms, and to give
medicines that tend to check the progress of the
disease. Fresh air is an essential consideration,
whether treatment is carried on in sanatoria or
at home. In general, a dry, germ-free bracing
atmosphere, with an equable temperature and
plenty of sunlight, where the patient can live
practically out of doors, should be selected. There
is no advantage in sending inevitably fatal cases
away from home. Moderately advanced cases
are as a rule more comfortable in warm climates
like that of Florida and South California. The
sleeping room of the consumptive should be well
ventilated. Nutrition should be kept up to a
high point by a plentiful supply of good, easily
digested food, given at frequent intervals and
carefully adapted to the patient’s digestive pow-
ers. Milk, eggs, koumiss, or broths may be
taken between meals, and when the stomach is
not equal to solid food, a small amount of wine
or whisky may be given at meal time to stimu-
late appetite and digestion. Life should be out
of doors, but exercise should stop short of
fatigue. The mental condition of the patient is
of the utmost importance and cheerful surround-
ings and occupation should be chosen where pos-
sible.
Of the drugs that seem to have a definite cura-
tive value, the creosote group, cod-liver oil, and
the hypophosphites are most valuable. Creosote,
creosote carbonate, guaiacol and guaiacol car-
bonate, given in gradually increasing doses,
are of use in all stages, but particularly in the
active inflammatory stages. They diminish
cough very markedly. Iodoform is sometimes
given instead of creosote. Cod-liver oil improves
the nutrition and is especially useful in what
is illy termed the pretubercular stage. It acts
better in children than in adults, and better in
glandular and bone tuberculosis than in pulmo-
nary. The emulsified fats or cream are good sub-
stitutes when cod-liver oil cannot be taken. Iron,
arsenic, strychnine, and similar tonics are given
according to indications. Besides general meas-
ures, special symptoms have to be watched and
treated. Fever is combated by rest, fresh air,
and small doses of quinine; severe cough by
opiates; night sweats by belladonna, strychnine,
and the mineral acids. Hemorrhage from the
lungs calls for complete rest, large doses of
opium or morphine, and suprarenal extract,
with ice over the point of bleeding when it can
be located. Vomiting, headache, indigestion,
diarrhoea, etc., are all present and have to be
managed as in other diseases.
Attempts to treat the disease locally by means
of inhalation of antiseptic vapors, and ozonized
air, and later by the X-ray and concentrated sun-
light, have had a very small measure of success.
Tuberculosis attacks, primarily or secondarily,
the lymph glands, bones, joints, intestines, peri-
toneum, brain, kidneys, bladder, spleen, liver,
pleurae, pericardium, heart, generative organs,
and skin. Its manifestations in these situatio-.s
are described in the articles on SCROFULA;
ADENITIS; PLEURISY; Pr-Imrovrrlsz .\lExI:\'oITrs:
KIDNEYS, Drsnasns or; BLADDER; Psarcuxnnrrrs;
etc.
PATHOLOGY AND Bacrnnronocr. Tuberculosis is
invariably due to the presence in the body and to
VOL. XVI.-62.
the action upon the body tissues of a specific
micro-organism known as the tubercle bacillus.
The tubercle bacillus is a thin bacillus from
three to four micromillimeters long, i.e. about one-
half the diameter of a red blood cell. It is often
slightly curved and there is a marked tendency
of the bacilli to hang together, two often lying
in the shape of a letter V. The bacillus grows on
ordinary culture media at body temperature, but
the growth is extremely slow. Thus, cultures on
blood serum or on nutrient agar rarely show any
signs of growth earlier than two weeks, when thin
grayish dry scales begin to appear on the surface
of the medium. Cultures grow best in the dark;
in fact, the bacillus is killed by exposure for a few
hours to the direct rays of the sun. From a pure
culture successive cultures may be made in-
definitely. Such cultures show a gradual loss
of virulence, but no changes in growth char-
aeteristic. Inoculation of susceptible animals,
such as the guinea-pig, with these cultures re-
produces the disease. See Plate of Drsnasn GERMS.
The bacillus stains with difliculty with the
aniline dyes, but when once stained retains the
dye with great tenacity. It is upon this staining
characteristic that our most important method
for morphologically differentiating the tubercle
bacillus depends. This consists in staining a sus-
pected specimen with a strong solution of a red
dye known as fuchsin, to which carbolic acid has
been added to increase its penetrating powers.
After staining, the specimen is washed in dilute
acid, which extracts the stain from all other bac-
teria. The tubercle bacilli retain the red stain
in spite of the action of the acid and may thus
be differentiated. But three other bacilli re-
semble the tubercle bacillus in this staining re-
action. They are the bacillus of leprosy, the
smegma bacillus, and the so-called ‘hay bacillus.’
The first and last of these can usually be excluded
on the ground of the impossibility of their being
present. The smegma bacillus as a rule enters
into consideration only in examining urine for
the tubercle bacillus.
The changes which the tubercle bacillus causes
in the body tissues are various. Thus it may
stimulate the passage of serum and white blood
cells from the blood vessels into the tissues, caus-
ing an exudative inflammation ; or it may stimu-
late the production of new connective tissue, caus-
ing what is known as a productive inflammation;
or its effects may be more severe and lead to
death of tissue or necrotic inflammation. Any
one of these effects may be produced separately,
or, as is commonly the case. they are combined.
The most distinctive feature of the action of the
tubercle bacillus in the body is the production
of what are known as tubercles or tubercle tissue.
This tubercle tissue may occur either as the
nodular tubercle or as diffuse tubercle tissue. In
either case, according to Osler, “The ‘tubercle’
presents in its early formation nothing distinct-
ive or peculiar either in its components or in
their arrangement. Identical structures are pro-
duced by other parasites, such as the actionomy-
cosis and the strongyllls in the lungs of sheep.”
In the production of the ‘tubercle’ the bacilli, ac-
cording to the extensive researches of Baum-
garten. first cause a proliferation of the connec-
tive tissue elements with the production of epi-
theliod and giant cells. Following this is an in-
flammatory reaction with the exudation of serum
TUBERCULOSIS.
TUBERCULOSIS.
972
and white blood cells. The ‘tubercle,’ which is
now fully developed, may next undergo degenera-
tive changes consisting of either caseation or
sclerosis. Caseation begins in the centre of the
growth and consists in a degeneration of the cells
and their reduction to a homogeneous, struc-
tureless mass. Coincident with the caseation or
following it is a sclerosis by which the tubercle
is converted into a firm, hard substance composed
of connective tissue rich in fibres. Osler describes
very graphically these two processes as follows:
“In all tubercles two processes go on: one—-casea-
tion—-destructive and dangerous; and the other
-—sclerosis—conservative and healing. The ulti-
mate result in a given case depends upon the
capabilities of the body to restrict and limit the
growth of the bacilli. There are tissue soils in
which the bacilli are, in all probability, killed at
once——the seed has fallen by the wayside. There
are others in which a lodgment is gained and
more or less damage done, but finally the day
is with the conservative protecting forces—the
seed has fallen upon stony ground. Thirdly,
there are tissue-soils in which the bacilli grow
luxuriantly, caseation and softening, not limita-
tion and sclerosis, prevail and the day is with the
invaders——the seed has fallen upon good ground.”
Small tubercular nodules are called miliary
tubercles. Seen with the naked eye the nodular
tubercle is a small white, gray, or yellowish body,
the smallest not visible without a miscroscope.
Microscopically these tubercles show around their
edges proliferated connective tissue and endo-
thelial cells, with often some giant cells, while
the centre is composed of tissue undergoing
caseation or coagulation necrosis. Tubercle ba-
cilli may be few or numerous,
Diffuse tubercle tissue usually results from a
rather extensive local infection resulting in many
small foci near together. From these tubercles
start to grow, and these coalescing form consid-
erable areas of tubercle tissue. In addition to
the formation of tubercles the bacilli or the pres-
ence of the tubercle tissue may set up secondary
inflammatory processes.
Suppuration in connection with tubercular in-
flammation frequently occurs. In the so-called
‘cold abscess,’ however, the fluid is not, properly
speaking, pus, but the products of breaking down
of the tubercles. The question as to whether the
tubercle bacillus alone is capable of causing sup-
puration is still debated. It seems probable,
however, that most cases of suppuration in tuber-
cular conditions are due to what is known as
‘mixed infection,’ that is, the presence of pyo-
genic cocci with the tubercle bacilli.
Acute general miliary tuberculosis is charac-
terized by a rapid development of tubercles, usu-
ally of small size, in many parts of the body at
about the same time. The number of tubercles
is frequently very large. One of the explanations
ofi'ered for such sudden general diffusion of tu-
bercles is that the infection is secondary to tuber-
cles located in the walls of some of the small
blood vessels or lymphatics.
Pulmonary tuberculosis, tuberculosis of the
lungs, lung consumption, or, most commonly
called simply ‘consumption,’ is a form of tuber-
cular infection in which the only or the most
prominent lesions are in the lungs. The bacilli
usually gain entrance by being taken into the
lungs with the inspired air. Less commonly in-
fection of the lung may occur through bacteria
being brought to them by means of the blood or
lymph channels from tubercular foci in other
parts of the body. Several factors must be con-
sidered as determining the character of the in-
flammation which the tubercle bacillus may
induce in the lungs. Among these may be men-
tioned the number of bacilli introduced, their
virulence, the manner in which they enter the
lungs, whether in respiration or by means of the
blood or lymph, the susceptibility of the indi-
vidual, etc. As a result of variation in these
factors we find a variation in the character of the
inflammation set up. Thus there may result an
exudative inflammation in which the air spaces
of the lung and the smaller bronchi are filled
with serum, leucocytes, fibrin, and cast-off epi-
thelium. Such reaction is quite similar to that
induced by the pneumococcus in pneumonia. On
the other hand, instead of an exudative inflamma-
tion, the tubercle bacillus may bring about the
production of new tissue, that is a productive
inflammation. This new tissue is composed of
small round cells and epithelioid cells, such as
have been described above as tubercle tissue. In
some cases there is death or necrosis of lung tis-
sue with the formation of abscesses.
While it is common for these difl’erent lung-
tissue reactions to tubercular infection to be as-
sociated, the predominance of one or another
allows us to differentiate several quite distinct
types of tuberculosis of the lungs.
ACUTE MILIARY TUBERCULOSIS OF TIIE LUNGS.
This occurs usually as a part of a general
miliary tuberculosis, although it may be difficult
to find lesions in other organs. The tubercles
vary in size and are found in both lungs, lying in
the lung tissue proper, in the walls of the vessels
and bronchi, or in the connective-tissue septa.
They may be quite evenly scattered or distributed
in groups. The structure of the tubercles has
been already described. The tubercles undergo
coagulation necrosis, and there is apt to be some
inflammatory reaction in the adjacent air spaces,
as evidenced by more or less exudation. Some of
these tubercles may be of considerable size, but
many of them are often too small to be visible to
the naked eye. These tubercles may go on to
suppuration. They may coalesce to form larger
tubercles. On the other hand, instead of breaking
down, the tissue is sometimes converted into
masses with or without calcified centres. These
are known as ‘healed tubercles,’ and may or
may not contain tubercle bacilli.
TUBERCULOUS Bsoncno PNEUMONIA. In this
form of tuberculous infection of the lungs, the
tuberculous areas occur in the walls of the small-
er bronchi and in the contiguous lung tissue. In
its early stages the inflammation is mostly catar-
rhal, there being a more or less extensive exudate
into the affected bronchi. As more and more
bronchi are'afiected, there is frequently a coales-
cence of adjacent areas, with the formation of
quite large masses of consolidation. These break-
ing down form cavities. The progress of the
affection may be slow or rapid, and is one of the
forms of pulmonary tuberculosis popularly called
‘phthisis.’
The term ‘phthisis’ is also applied to diffuse
exudative tuberculosis inflammation of the lungs,
which may be either acute or chronic. In the
acute form extensive areas of lung tissues may
TUBERCULOSIS.
TUBERCULOSIS.
973
be involved, become consolidated, and, undergoing
necrosis, result in the formation of large cavities.
In the chronic form there is a slower. involvement
of the lung tissues, and there is apt to be more
fibrous tissue, especially in the walls of cavities.
These cavities may be small or large; are usually
at first devoid of any wall, but soon acquire a
wall of fibrous tissue, often lined with new tu-
bercle tissue or with granulation tissue. This
lining tissue often contains enormous numbers of
tubercle bacilli, which are cast off in the sputum.
It also furnishes a lodgin place for pyogenic
cocci, which cause suppuratmn of the membrane,
and it is not at all improbable that these pyo-
genic cocci are very largely concerned in the for-
mation of the cavities themselves. This secondary
or concurrent infection, as it is called, is also
largely responsible for the bronchitis and yellow
or greenish expectoration which so usually ac-
companies phthisis. Blood vessels stretch across
these cavities or lie exposed in their walls, to be
broken either by an extension of the disease itself
or from a strain too sudden for their weakened
walls. In this way may be caused the hemor-
rhages so frequently associated with phthisis.
The most frequent site of tubercles in the adult
lung is the apex, although the initial lesion may
occur in any part of the organ. In children the
bronchial lymph nodes are usually first affected.
‘Healed tubercles’ of the apex are found in a
large proportion of autopsies.
Associated with the lesions in the lungs may
be lesions in other parts of the body. These may
be secondary to the pulmonary infection or the
lung lesion may be secondary to other lesions.
Acute or chronic inflammation of the pleura com-
monly accompanies the disease of the lung tissue
proper. This inflammation may be simply exu-
dative or may be tuberculous. Infection with the
pyogenic cocci sometimes results in an empyaema
(purulent pleurisyl ; or the opening up of bronchi
or air spaces into the pleura may result in a
pneumo-thorax.
TUBERCULOSIS OF SERoUs MEMBRANES. That of
the pleura has been mentioned. Tubercular pleu-
risy may, however, occur independently of any
lesion in the lung proper. Tubercular peritonitis
may be primary, but is more frequently associ-
ated with tuberculous disease of some adjacent
organs. Thus in women nearly half the cases are
due to extension from the Fallopian tubes. In
man the initial lesion may be in the seminal vesi-
cles or prostate. It may be part of a general
miliary tuberculosis. In the tubercular peritoni-
tis of pulmonary phthisis the infection seems to
reach the peritoneum through the intestines. In
some cases minute tubercles are scattered over a
part or all of the peritoneum and are usually ac-
companied by a serous or sero-fibrinous exudate.
There may be larger areas of tubercular tissue
which undergo necrosis. Secondary infection by
the pyogenic cocci may occur, resulting in a
purulent exudate. In what is known as chronic
fibroid tuberculosis of the peritoneum there is
little exudation, the tubercles are firm and pig-
mented, and the peritoneal surfaces matted to-
gether by fibrous adhesions. It is not uncommon
to have tumor-like formations. These may be
due to sacculated exudations, to matting together
of omentum or intestinal coils, or to enlargement
of mesenteric glands. Tubercular pericarditis
may be primary or secondary, acute or chronic.
In the acute miliary form the membrane is
studded with tubercles and there is usually some
sero-fibrinous exudate. In rare cases the exudate
is large, Mussér in one case reporting 34 ounces
of fluid in the pericardial sac. In chronic cases
the membrane is thickened, adherent, and usually
shows several cheesy tubercular masses. The
bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes are regu-
larly involved.
Tuberculosis occurs in bones, periosteum, and
joints. In tuberculous osteitis the tubercles may
be small and scattered, or less in number and of
considerable size. Abscesses are sometimes
formed. The adjacent joints are frequently in-
volved. The spongy parts of the bone are more
susceptible than the hard parts. The vertebrae,
carpal and tarsal bones are most commonly
affected. The chronic, purulent periostitis of
poorly nourished children is frequently tubercu-
lar. For description of the lesion in tubercular
arthritis, see SYNOVITIS.
GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM. Tuberculosis of the
kidney may be primary, a part of a general
miliary tuberculosis, or, as is most commonly the
case, secondary to lesions in other organs. There
may be small nodules in the kidney proper, or in
the pelvis; or there may be quite large areas of
tubercular tissue with necrosis. These may occur
in only one kidney or in both kidneys. With
much destruction of kidney tissue, cavities or
cysts are formed, in some cases the kidney being
almost wholly replaced by cysts of various size.
There is apt to be thickening of the pelvis and
tubercle tissue in its walls. Tuberculosis of the
ureter and bladder is almost always secondary,
especially to disease of the kidney pelvis. Small
tubercles or patches of tubercle tissue are present
in the ureter or bladder walls. Tuberculosis of
the testes occurs as a primary lesion or, more fre-
quently, as secondary to lesions elsewhere. In
tuberculosis of the Fallopian tubes, the tubes are
enlarged, their walls thickened, and the lumen
usually filled with cheesy matter. Both tubes
are frequently involved. Adhesions and the for-
mation of abscesses are common results.
LIVER. Miliary tubercles of the liver are quite
common as a part of a general miliary tuberculo-
sis. Many of these tubercles are microscopic in
size. Sometimes the tubercles are in among the
liver cells, in other cases they develop in the
walls of the smaller bile vessels, forming ab-
scesses. Large tubercular patches having a diam-
eter of an inch or more are sometimes found. In
connection with the tubercular process there may
be a marked increase in the connective tissue of
the liver, constituting what is known as a tuber-
culous cirrhosis.
Lrrs, MOUTH, ETC. In tuberculosis of the lips,
which is a rare disease, there develops on the lip
an extremely sensitive ulcer. This ulcer has
much the appearance of an epithelioma or a chan-
cre. Tubercular laryngitis is most frequently
secondary to tuberculosis of the lungs. Miliary
tubercles form in the submucosa and are accom-
panied by a catarrhal inflammation of the mucous
membrane. With necrosis of the tubercles, ulcers
are formed. These ulcers often run together,
involve adjacent parts, and determine extensive
destruction of tissue. Tuberculosis of the tongue
is marked by the appearance of small nodules on
the upper surface or edge of the organ. These
open on the surface and become ulcers. It is a
TUBERCULOSIS.
TUBEROSE.
974
rare condition except when associated with tu-
berculosis of other parts. Tuberculosis also
occurs in the palate, tonsils, pharynx, oesophagus,
and stomach. The lesions are similar to those
described in other mucous membranes, that is,
the formation of nodules, a catarrhal inflamma-
tion, and necrosis with the formation of ulcers.
INTESTINES. In tuberculosis of the intestines
there is involvement of Peyer’s patches and of
the solitary lymph nodules as well as ulcers of
the mucous membrane between the patches. As
a primary lesion it is extremely rare in adults,
much less rare in children, where there is apt to
be involvement of the mesenteric glands or a
tubercular peritonitis. In the secondary form of
the disease in adults the lungs are the usual seat
of the primary lesion. The ulcers occur chiefly in
the colon, caecum, and ileum. They may be very
extensive, affecting the greater portion of the
mucous membrane of both large and small intes-
tines. The ulcers are irregular in shape, rough
in outline, their long axes transverse to the
lumen of the gut. They usually involve not only
the mucous membrane, but also the submucosa
and muscular coats. They rarely perforate. With
healing of the ulcers, extensive scar tissues may
form, so contracting the bowel as to cause steno-
sis. Not uncommonly tubercles are present on
the peritoneum adjacent to the intestinal ulcers.
Tuberculosis of the rectum is quite frequently
associated with fistula, the fistula being of the
nature of a tuberculous ulcer.
In tuberculosis of the breast, nodules form in
the gland. These may become necrotic, commu-
nicate by fistulous openings with the surface, and
form ulcers. In the majority of cases the axil-
lary glands are involved.
Tubercular lesions may occur in the brain as
part of a general miliary tuberculosis. In such
cases it affects the meninges, causing a tubercu-
lous meningitis, usually associated with an in-
crease in the fluid within the ventricles (acute
hydrocephalus). In chronic tuberculosis of the
brain the lesion is a meningo-encephalitis, the
tubercles affecting both meninges and brain tissue
proper. The lesion is usually localized and there
are in most cases several nodules. These nodules
vary in size from a quarter of an inch to nearly
an inch in diameter, sometimes being even larger.
The nodules on section present a grayish yellow
appearance, a necrotic sometimes almost fluid
centre, and are surrounded by an area of clear
soft tissue. The nodules are usually attached to
the pia mater and extend from the surface into
the brain. The nodules may interfere with cere-
bral circulation, causing softening, or sinus
thrombosis, or may incite an acute meningitis.
The pia is apt to be thickened and adherent to
the brain surface. Instead of several nodules
there may be one large solitary tubercle. Lesions
quite similar to those described for the brain may
occur in the cord either with or without brain
lesions. See BACTERIA; Drsnasn, GERM THEORY
OF.
Consult: Latham, Pulmonary Consumption
(London, 1903) ; Osler, Practice of Medicine
(New York, 1901) ; Ziegler, Pathological Anato-
my (Eng. trans., ib., 1887); Klebs, Taberculose
(Hamburg, 1894) ; and monographs by Virchow
(1863-65) and Koch (1882-90).
TUBERCULOSIS (in animals). Viewing
the evidence at hand, investigators have attribut-
ed the various forms of tuberculosis in animals
to Bacillus tuberculosis. Birds are commonly
supposed to be affected by a different form, but
the differences observed are also considered to be
due to differences in the anatomy and resisting
power of different animals. Horses, sheep, goats,
dogs, and cats are rarely affected; poultry and
parrots frequently; cattle and hogs most com-
monly. European and American statistics from
tuberculin tests and from meat inspection indi-
cate that from 10 to 50 per cent. of the cattle
examined are affected. Tubercles may be found
locally or generally distributed in the respiratory,
alimentary, and lymphatic structures and in the
bones of the animal examined. The popular no-
tion that tuberculosis in man is caused by the
consumption of tuberculous meat and milk is
without sure proof, and obviously experiments
cannot be made to determine this point. Since,
however, such food products are feared, and since
they suggest uncleanness and negligence on the
part of both producer and consumer, they should
be avoided. Governmental inspection of dairies
and meat has wrought great improvements in the
sanitary conditions of stock and dairy farms, and
methods of handling milk and meat. and has
educated the public to demand pure animal prod-
ucts. The danger is far less than is generally
supposed, since experiments indicate that milk
from cows suspected to be tuberculous may be
fed to calves without danger, and when pasteur-
ized it may be used as human food with no unto-
ward results.
For the detection of incipient cases of tubercu-
losis in cattle tuberculin is usually employed.
This substance contains what is called the toxin
produced during the growth of the bacillus, but
does not contain the living organism. When in-
jected into healthy cattle tuberculin produces no
reaction, but in affected cattle an elevation of
from ll/2° to 3° or more of the body temperature
and a slight swelling at the point of injection are
looked for. Animals which show these symptoms
are considered tuberculous and are separated
from the rest of the herd. If they are valuable
they may be used for breeding purposes, since the
progeny rarely exhibit tuberculous symptoms.
The calves are usually separated from their
mothers very soon after birth. No reliable
medical treatment has been discovered, though
repeated injections of tuberculin have in some
instances appeared to be slightly curative. Some
cases recover spontaneously. Preventive meas-
ures are cleanliness, airy quarters, pure water
and food, and free range upon good, well-man-
aged pastures.
TUBEROSE (from Lat. tuberose, fem. sg. of
tuberosus, tuberous, from tuber, swelling, tumor,
knob on plants; associated by popular etymology
with Eng. tube rose), Polianthes tuberosa. The
only species of its genus, which belongs to the
natural order Amaryllidaceae. The plant, which
is a native of Mexico, has a tall stem with long
leaves at the base and shorter ones toward the
top of the several-flowered spike of very fragrant
white blossoms. The plant grows well in mild
climates, but it bears the open air in northern
countries only during the summer. Near Grasse,
in Southern France, the tuberose is largely grown
as a source of perfume. The popularity of a
double-flowered form has suffered from Its too
extensive use in funeral designs, etc. In outdoor
TUBEROSE.
TUBINGEN SCHOOL.
975
culture in mild climates the plants are not dis-
turbed during the winter, but in northern climates
the tuberous rootstocks are taken up and stored
in a dry, frost-proof place. In the colder regions
where the bulbs fail to mature completely they

TUBEROSE (Poliantlzes tuberosa).
are imported usually toward the end of the year,
planted in pots, and given bottom heat. 'When
danger of frost has passed they are set in light,
moist, and rich soil and kept well supplied with
Water.
TUBES. See PIPES.
TUBES OF FORCE. See ELECTRICITY.
TUBES OF INDUCTION, TUBES OF
MAGNETIC FORCE. See MAGNETISM.
TUBE-WEAVER. Any one of the tube-
building spiders of the families Drassidae and
Clubionidae. They are, as a rule, dark-colored
spiders, which spin no web, but wander about at
night in search of prey and hide during the day-
time. They make silken tubes in which they
hide in the winter and while melting or laying
eggs. See SPIDER.
TUBIGON, t6'5’Be-gc'>n'. A town of Bohol,
Philippines, situated about 28 miles from Tagbi-
laran (Map: Philippine Islands, H 10). Popu-
lation, in 1887, 11,616; now 15,850.
TUBINGEN, t1_1’bing-en. A town of Wiirttem-
berg, Germany, crowning a hill on the Upper
Neckar, 18 miles south-southwest of Stuttgart,
on the edge of the Black Forest (Map: Germany,
C 4) . It owes its celebrity chiefly to the ancient
university. (See TUBINGEN, Umvnnsrrv or.) The
antique houses and narrow streets of the old part
Of the town give it a quaint appearance. Saint
George’s Church (Stiftskirche) contains a beau-
tiful choir, and the new Catholic church is a
superb edifice. The town hall is an interesting
timber-built structure, recently restored. The
poet Uhland, who was born in Tiibingen, is
commemorated by a fine statue. On a hill above
the city stands the interesting Renaissance
castle, Hohentiibingen, completed in 1540. It
affords a magnificent view. The university
library and observatory are here. North of
Tiibingen is the Cistercian monastery of Be-
benhausen (1185), an exceptionally fine example
of Gothic architecture. It has beautiful clois-
ters and an art collection. The Protestant semi-
nary, dating from 1536, became noted under
Baur, who founded the Tiibingen school of the-
ology. (See TUBINGEN SCHOOL.) There is also
a Catholic seminary. Both of these institutions
possess good libraries. The town has a surgical
clinic, a woman’s hospital, and a hospital for the
insane. The manufacture of surgical and sci-
entific instruments, book printing, and the culti-
vation of hops and the vine are the leading in-
dustries. Population, in 1900, 15,338, nearly all
Protestants.
Consult: Eifert, Geschichte der Stadt Tiibin-
gen (Tiibingen, 1849); Fink, Tiibingen (Zurich,
1891).
TUBIN GEN, UNIVERSITY OF. A German uni-
versity, founded in 1477 by Count Eberhard im
Bart of Wiirttemberg. It was organized
with the usual four faculties. Reuchlin, Me-
lanchthon, and Heinrich Bebel taught there at
various times. Under Dukes Ulrich and Chris-
topher, the university took an active part
in the Reformation. What made the university
famous in its early days and since is the Protes-
tant seminary established in 1536 for the edu-
cation of evangelical ministers, which is direct-
ly under the Minister of Public Worship and
Education. It thus became the leading theological
university in Germany. The institution main-
tained a steady growth until the establishment of
the Karlsschule by Duke Charles Eugene, when
it suffered a temporary decline. King Frederick
took away from the university in 1811 most of
its rights and privileges. In 1817 the Catholic
university founded at Ellwangen in 1812 was
united with Tiibingen, and a Catholic theological
faculty was added; at the same time the faculty
of political science was created, and in 1863 was
added the natural science faculty. In the nine-
teenth century the institution experienced a vig-
orous growth, due chiefly to the great theologians,
such as Baur, the head of the Tiibingen school
of criticism, Strauss, and many others. Since
1832 the whole university has practically been
rebuilt. In 1902 the university consisted of the
following faculties: (1) Evangelical-theologt
cal; (2) Catholic-theological; (3) law ; (4)
medicine; ( 5) natural science; ( 6) philosophy;
(7) political science. It includes numerous
seminaries. laboratories, and clinics. The library
now contains over 390,000 volumes and nearly
3800 manuscripts. The attendance in 1902 was
1524. Consult Kliiptel, Die Universizfiiit Tiibin
gcn in ihrer Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Leip-
zig, 1877).
TUBINGEN scnoon. A term applied to
a modern theological movement which had its
origin in the teachings of Ferdinand Christian
TUBINGEN SCHOOL.
TUCKER.
976
Baur (q.v.), of the University of Tiibingen.
Though he was unwilling to admit that he was a
disciple of Hegel, Baur’s distinctive and guiding
principles were those of the Hegelian philosophy.
It was his aim to reconstruct the history of early
Christianity so that it would be seen to be in
harmony with the laws which everywhere govern
historical evolution. He began with the Apos-
tolic age, a method which has since won uni-
versal approval. In 1831 he published his essay
Die Ohristuspartei in der lcorinthisohen Ge-
meincle, der Gegensatz des paulinischen und
petrinischen Ohristentums in der ailtesten Kirche,
der Apostel Petrus in Rom. In this were fore-
shadowed all his later critical results. His posi-
tion was that the early Apostolic Church was
split into two hostile factions, Pauline (Gen-
tile) and Petrine (Jewish), between whom there
was a bitter conflict. Although an element of
Jewish Christianity remained unreconciled to the
last (the Ebionites), the Pauline party (mainly
after Paul’s death) made concessions, and thus
brought about a reconciliation which resulted in
the establishment of the Old Catholic Church.
These views were elaborated and fully stated in
the works: Ueber die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe
(1835, the same year in which Strauss’s Leben
J esu appeared) ; Paulus der Apostel Jesu Christi,
sein Leben und Wirlcen, seine Briefe und seine
Lehre (1845, 2d ed. 1866); Die lcanonischen
E’/vangelien (1847); and Das Christentum und
die ehristliehe Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhun-
derte (1853). Baur’s position led him to at-
tempt a thorough reconstruction of the history
of the origin of the New Testament literature.
His theory demanded that the New Testament
books in which the evidences of the conflict were
most patent, or in which either of the two con-
flicting views was positively stated, should be
considered earliest in date. Therefore, Paul’s
four genuine letters (Rom., I. and II. Cor., and
Gal.) of the Pauline wing, and the Apocalypse
by John with the early Hebrew form of the
Gospel of Matthew, of the Petrine or Jewish
party, were named as the earliest productions of
the Apostolic Church. The other books were
dated according to the exigencies of the general
theory-—Mark, as altogether neutral, being set
down as the latest of the Synoptics, and with
our Greek Matthew, Luke, Acts, John, and the
Pastoral Epistles placed very late, altogether
outside of the Apostolic age. In Acts, in par-
ticular, the desire to reconcile the two parties,
even at the expense of genuine Paulinism, was
said to be quite manifest. This criticism, based
on the supposed tendency (Tendenz) of the New
Testament documents and now known as ‘tendency
criticism, (Tendenzkritih) , was thoroughly under
the control of the Hegelian conception (“thesis,
antithesis and synthesis”) of history. Baur’s
theory, practically unaltered, was advocated with
great brilliancy by E. Zeller in the organ of the
school, the Theologische Jahrbiicher (from 1842
on), and in Die Apostelgeschichte nach ihrem
Inhalt und Ursprung (1856) , by A. Schwegler in
Des /nachapostolische Zeitalter (1846), and by
Karl Planck and Karl Ktistlin in various pub-
lications. Others of the school differed from
the master in important details, but fully ac-
cepted the main principle. Of these Volkmar
in Switzerland, Hilgenfeld and Holsten in Ger-
many, Scholten in Holland, S. Davidson in Eng-
land, may be cited as representatives. David
Strauss is also often spoken of as a representa-
tive of the Tiibingen school. This, however, is
not strictly correct. Strauss was indeed influ-
enced by Baur in his early years, but that was
before Baur himself had fully formulated his
views.
The most important defection in the ranks of
Baur’s disciples was that of Albrecht Ritschl
(q.v.), who in the second edition of his Die
Entstehung der althatholischen Kirche (1857)
asserted that it was a mistake to explain the
origin of Old Catholic Christianity as a union of
early Jewish or Petrine Christianity and modi-
fied Paulinism. His trenchant criticism and that
of others gradually showed the baselessness of
many of Baur’s positions. At his death in 1858
it was already evident that the dates he assigned
to New Testament books could not longer be
defended. The whole theory, in fact, as originally
formulated by Baur, has no advocates at the
present time, although many prominent scholars
of to-day, as Hilgenfeld, Hausrath, O. Pfleiderer,
H. J. Holtzmann, Schmiedel, while independent
of any formal adhesion to Baur’s theory, are
at one with the great Tiibingen professor on im-
portant points.
LITERATURE. Besides the writings noted above,
see the estimates by Reuss, Geschichte der heiligen
Schriften des Neuen Testaments (2d ed., Bruns-
wick, 1890); Dorner, Geschichte der protestan-
tischen Theologie (Munich, 1867) ; R. M, Mackav,
The Tilbingen School and Its Aclherents (London,
1863); Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in
Germany Since Kant (ib., 1890).
TUBULAR BRIDGE. See BRIDGE.
TUBULIFLORJE. A suborder of composite
plants. It consists of eleven tubes, the members
of which are characterized by having all their
perfect flowers tubular, the ray flowers when
such are present are either neutral or pistillate.
Among the genera are Eupatorium, Aster, Inula,
Helianthus, Veronica, Helenium, Anthemis, and
Calendula.
TUBURAN, to6’B‘65-riin’. A town of Cebu,
Philippines, situated on the coast, 51 miles
southwest of Cebu (Map: Philippine Islands, H
9). Population, 10,760.
TUBUS. A Nigritian people. See TIBBUS.
TUCANO, tea-1<a'ne. A tribe residing upon
the Uaupés River, on the Brazil-Colombia border,
and supposed to be remotely of Arawakan stock
(q.v.). They take their name from the toucan
bird. They tattoo three lines upon each cheek,
build circular houses of poles covered with palm
leaves, are good canoemen, and are noted for
their skill with the blowgun.
TUCK, FRIAR. The jolly chaplain and boon
companion of Robin Hood and his men. He fig-
ures in the Robin Hood legends and appears in
Scott’s Ivanhoe as the Holy Clerk of Copman-
hurst.
TUCK’ER, ABRAHAM (1705-74). An English
moralist, born in London. He studied at Merton
“College, Oxford, and was entered at the Inner
Temple, but was never called to the bar. Inherit-
ing a large fortune from his father, he purchased
in 1727 Betchworth Castle and estate, near Dor-
king, in Surrey. During his last years he was
blind. Tucker’s great work is entitled The Light of
TUCKER.
TUCKERMAN.
977
Nature Pursued (1768-78). It was begun in
1756, and formed the chief literary occupation
of the rest of his life. It extended to seven
volumes, only four of which were published in the
author’s lifetime, under the pseudonym of Ed-
ward Search. It is not a systematic treatise, but
consists of a series of disquisitions on meta-
physics, theology, and morals, all of which
exhibit remarkable originality, simplicity of
humor, and ingenuity of illustration. Consult
his Works, edited with a Life by H. Mildmay
(London, 1805; several times reprinted).
TUCKER, GEORGE (1775-1861). An Ameri-
can historian and miscellaneous writer, born in
Bermuda. He was graduated at William and
Mary College in 1797, studied law, practiced at
Lynchburg, was a member of the Virginia Legis-
lature, and of Congress (1819-25), gained dis-
tinction as a debater and constitutional lawyer,
and was (1825-45) professor of moral philosophy
and political economy in the University of Vir-
ginia. He was a frequent contributor to political
periodicals, and published, among many other
works, Letters on the Conspiracy of Slaves in
Virginia (1800) ; The Valley of the Shenandoah
(1824), a novel; A Voyage to the Moon, a
satirical romance (1827); Principles of Rent,
Wages, and Profits (1837 ) ; Life of Thomas J ef-
ferson (1837) ; The Theory of Money and Banks
Investigated (1839) ; Progress of the United
States in Population and Wealth in Fifty Years
(1843) ; History of the United States (to 1841,
1856-58); Banks or No Banks (1857); and
Essays, Moral and Philosophical (1860). His
History of the United States is still a work of
some importance.
TUCKER, Jorm RANDOLPH (1812-83). An
American naval oflicer, born at Alexandria, Va.
He entered the United States Navy as a midship-
man in 1826, and in 1855 reached the rank of
commodore. After Virginia passed her secession
ordinance in 1861, Tucker resigned his commis-
sion and entered the Confederate service. In
command of the Patrick Henry, he took part in
the Hampton Roads engagements, receiving com-
mand of the wooden fleet after the Monitor-Men
rimac battle, and assisted in the repulse of the
Union squadron at Drury’s Bluff‘. He was
promoted captain in May, 1863, commanded at
Charleston and then at Drury’s Bluff, and after
the evacuation of Richmond was attached to
Lee’s retreating army. In 1866 Tucker became
commander of the Peruvian Navy, with the rank
of rear-admiral, and he commanded the naval
forces of Peru and Chile in their war with Spain.
Subsequently he explored parts of the Upper
Amazon region. He died at Petersburg, Va.
TUCKER, JOSIAH (1712-99). An English
economist and divine, the son of a Welsh farmer.
He was educated at Saint John’s College, where
he graduated in 1736. He became rector of Saint
Stephen’s, Bristol (1749) , and dean of Gloucester
(1758). In 1755 he received from Oxford the
degree of D.D. Tucker was a thorough student,
and careful writer on political economy and sub-
jects pertaining to religion. He also published
several pamphlets in the beginning of the con-
test between the English Government and its
American colonies in favor of separation. As an
economist he has some claims as a forerunner of
Adam Smith (q.v.), but Tucker elaborated no
system.
TUCKER, NATHANIEL BEVERLY (1784-1851).
An American lawyer. He was born at Williams-
burg, Va.; was educated at William and Mary
College; studied law and practiced in Virginia
until 1815, when he removed to Missouri. He
was a judge in the Circuit Court until 1830;
professor of law in William and Mary College
1834-51. He published works on Pleading and
Constitutional Law and several practical essays.
His best literary effort was his novel, The Parti-
san Leader, a Tale of the Future (1836). He
also wrote Balcombe (1836) .
TUCKER, ST. GEORGE (1752-1828). An
American lawyer, born in Bermuda. He came
early to Virginia and was educated at William
and Mary College, after which he was called to
the bar. During the Revolutionary War he com-
manded a regiment at Yorktown, where he was
badly wounded. In 1778 he married the mother
of the afterwards celebrated John Randolph of
Roanoke. He served in the Legislature, but won
his chief distinction as professor of law in Wil-
liam and Mary, and as presiding judge of the
Virginia Court of Appeals, and of the United
States District Court. He is still remembered
for a scholarly edition of Blackstone’s Com-
mentaries (1803) and for a single lyric begin-
ning “Days of my youth.” He also published a
Dissertation on Slavery and other politico-legal
works, and composed poems and dramas.
TUCKER, SAMUEL (1747-1833). An Ameri-
can naval officer, born at Marblehead, Mass. The
son of a ship-master, he ran off to sea when only
eleven years old, became commander of a mer-
chantman in 1768, and in January, 177 6, was
commissioned captain in the American navy.
In command of the Franklin and later of the
Hancock, he captured more than thirty British
vessels, and in March, 1777, was transferred to
the frigate Boston, which (in February, 1778)
carried John Adams as commissioner to France.
After taking many prizes, he was forced to sur-
render at Charleston (May, 1780), but was soon
exchanged, and as captain of the Thorn secured
many prizes. In July, 1781, he was again cap-
tured and released on parole. He removed to
the site of the present Bremen, Me., in 1792, and
in 1813 captured a British vessel which had been
threatening the neighboring coast. Subsequently
he served in the Massachusetts Legislature
(1814-18), helped frame the Maine Constitution
(1819), and sat in the Maine Legislature (1820-
21). Consult Sheppard, Life of Commodore
Samuel Tucker (Boston, 1868).
TUCK'ERMA1\T, BAYARD (1855—) . An Ameri-
can author, lecturer on English literature in
Princeton University. He was born in New
York. He graduated from Harvard in 1878,
completed his studies in Paris, and became
favorably known through the following pub-
lications: History of English Prose Fic-
tion (1882); Life of General La Fayette
(1889); Diary of Philip Hone (1889); Peter
Stuyvesant (1893) ; William Jay and the Aboli-
tion of Slavery (1893); and Philip Schuyler,
M ajor-General in the American Revolution
(1903).
TUCKERMAN, EDWARD (1817-86). An
American botanist, born in Boston. fie studied
TUCKERMAN.
TUCUNA.
978
at Union College and Harvard University, fre-
quenting in the latter the law and divinity
schools, was in Europe in 1841-42 given to the
study of botany, and completed his courses at
Harvard in 1847 and 1852. From 1854 to 1873
lecturer on history at Amherst, he was appointed
professor of botany there in 1858, and held this
chair to the end of his life. Although devoted
to a variety of botanical studies, he made a
specialty of lichenology, and besides numerous
contributions to various journals on this subject,
published A Synopsis of the Lichens of New
England, etc. (1848); Genera Lichenum: an
Arrangement of the North American Lichens
(1872); A Synopsis of the North American
Lichens, part i. (1882); part ii. was edited,
with an appendix, by Henry Willey (1888). His
Lichenes Americce Septentrionales Eassiccati
(1847-55) contains 150 species. From 1834 to
1841 he contributed to the New York Church-
man many articles on historical, biographical,
and theological topics under the titles Notitia
Literaria and Acluersaria. Consult the Memoir
by Farlow (Washington, 1887).
TUCKERMAN, HENRY THEODORE (1813-
71). An American critic and essayist, born in
Boston and prominent in the literary life of New
York City after 1845. The more important of
his numerous publications were: The Italian
Sketchbook (1835) ; Isabel, or Sicily: a Pilgrim-
age (1839)—-each the outcome of a residence in
Italy; two volumes of verse, Poems (1851) and A
Sheaf of Verse (1864) ; Artist Life, or Sketches
of American Painters (1847) ; Characteristics of
Literature (1849, 2d series 1851) ; America and
Her Commentators (1864); Thoughts on the
Poets (1864) ; and Book of the Artists (1867),
a study of the rise and progress of art in
America. He wrote a Life of J. P. Kennedy
(1871), and was a useful writer in his day.
TUCKERMAN, JOSEPH (1778-1840). An
American clergyman and philanthropist. He
was born in Boston; graduated at Harvard Col-
lege, 1798; studied theology, and became a Uni-
tarian pastor in Chelsea in 1801. In 1826 he was
appointed by the American Unitarian Associa-
tion minister at large, devoting himself to city
mission work. He is best known as one of the
founders of the first sailors’ aid societies in the
country, and as one of the pioneers in the sci-
entific direction of philanthropy. He wrote much
in behalf of his projects. Consult the collection
of his writings under the caption On the Eleva-
tion of the Poor (Boston, 1874) and his Life by
W. E. Channing (Boston, 1841), and by Miss
May Carpenter (London, 1849).
TUCKERMAN, SAMUEL PARKMAN (1819-
90). An American organist, church composer,
and musical lecturer. He studied the organ in
Boston under Zeuner and became organist and
choirmaster of Saint Paul’s Church of that city
in 1840. Nine years later he went to England
and studied cathedral and church music gener-
ally, and at the same time lectured on musical
subjects. He returned to Boston and took up
church work and lectured on early cathedral
and church music. His compositions are prin-
cipally services, hymns, and anthems for the
Episcopal Church service. He also edited col-
lections: The Episcopal Harp; National Lyre;
Cathedral Chants (1858) ; Trinity Collection of
Church Music (1864).
TUCO-TUCO. A small burrowing rat-like
rodent, a ‘spiny rat’ of the genus Ctenomys,
several species of which are so called in imitation
of their loud, treble call.
TUC’SON. The largest city of Arizona, and
the county seat of Pima County, 130 miles south-
east of Phoenix; on the Santa Cruz River, and
on the Southern Pacific Railroad (Map: Arizona,
C 3) . It is the seat of the University of Arizona,
opened in 1891, and of Saint Joseph’s Academy.
The public library has about 3500 volumes. Cat-
tle-raising and farming are the leading indus-
tries of the surrounding district, which also
has considerable mineral wealth. The indus-
trial establishments of the city are for the most
part connected with the mining industry. The
water-works are owned by the municipality. Pop-
ulation, in 1890, 5150; in 1900, 7531.
Tucson was first permanently settled as a
presidio by the Spaniards about 1776, though
there had been previously a small Indian village,
or rancheria (abandoned in 1763), under the con-
trol of the Spanish authorities. It lies within
the territory obtained for the United States by
the ‘Gadsden Purchase’ of 1853. It was the
capital of Arizona Territory from 1867 to 1877,
and was incorporated in 1877 and reincorporated
in 1883. There seems to be no foundation for the
belief that Tucson was founded by the Spaniards
in 1560, and thus antedates Saint Augustine.
Consult Bancroft, History of New Meacico and
Arizona (San Francisco, 1880).
TUCUMAN, tw)'1<ss-man’. The smallest and
most densely populated province of Argentina,
bounded by the Province of Salta on the north,
Santiago del Estero on the east, and Catamarca
on the south and west (Map: Argentina, D 9).
Area, 13,000 square miles. The eastern portion
is rolling, but the western portion becomes quite
mountainous. The mountains, offshoots of the
Andes, afford extensive forests in the valleys and
some mines of gold, silver, and copper, but these
are not extensively worked. Sugar and rum are
the chief products, but cereals, rice, tobacco, and
fruits are raised. The soil generally is fertile,
but in some portions use must be made of
irrigation. The population, which is largely
mestizo, in 1895 numbered 215,693. Tucuman
(q.v.) is the capital. Tucuman was originally
a portion of the dominions of the Incas. After
the conquest the Gobernaci6n of Tucuman in-
cluded many of the surrounding provinces and
was first subject to the Audiencia of Charcas,
and after 1776 to the Viceroyalty of La Plata.
TUCUMAN, or SAN MfGUEL DE room
MAN. A city of Argentina, capital of the
Province of Tucumein, 690 miles northwest of
Buenos Ayres, on a plateau to the right of the
River Tala or Sali (Map: Argentina, D 9). It
is a regularly built city, but with narrow streets.
The cathedral is modern. The city was founded
in 1565. Here, July 9, 1816, the representatives
of the Plata Provinces signed the declaration of
independence from Spain. The population in
1895 was 34,305; in 1901 (estimated), 50,000.
TUCUM PALM. See ASTROCARYUM.
TUCUNA, too-k6'6’na. A wild tribe of the
Upper Amazon. See TICUNA.
TUCUXI.
TUFTS.
979
TUCUXI, t66-k56'He (South American name) .
A South American dolphin (Sotalia Guianensis),
very abundant in the Bay of Rio J aneiro, where
the natives regard it as able to bring ashore
drowned persons, and have other fanciful ideas
in regard to it. The genus Sotalia is represented
by other species in various parts of the world,
some of which live wholly in fresh water. Con-
sult Beddard, Book of IVhales (London, 1900) .
TUDELA, too-Da’la. A town of the Province
of Navarre, Spain, on the left bank of the Ebro,
here crossed by a bridge of nineteen arches. It
is 47 miles by rail from Saragossa (Map: Spain,
E 1). Most of its important public buildings
are modern, but it is especially famous for the
romanesque Colegiata (formerly the cathedral),
which is regarded as one of the finest churches in
Europe. The chief industries are the sawing of
lumber, the manufacture of licorice, cloth, silk
goods, earthenware, and the production of oil and
wine. The best wine of Navarre, resembling Bur-
gundy, is produced in this vicinity. The popula-
tion in 1900 was 8996. Tudela fell into the hands
of the Moors in the eighth century, but was re-
taken by Alfonso I. of Aragon in 1114. In 1808
the Spanish forces under Castafios and Palafox
were here twice defeated by the French under
Lannes.
TUDELA, BENJAMIN OF. A media-.val travel-
er. See BENJAMIN OF TUDELA.
TU’DOR. The family name of the dynasty
which occupied the throne of England from 1485
to 1603. Its founder was Owen Tudor, an obscure
Welsh knight, who married Catharine, widow of
Henry V., and thus laid the foundation for the
future greatness of his house. His son Ed-
mund was made Earl of Richmond by Henry VI.,
kinsman of Edmund’s wife, Margaret. It is
through Margaret that the family derived its
defective title to the crown. She was the heiress
of the Beauforts, children of John of Gaunt by
Catharine Swynford, who had been legitimized
for every purpose except succession to the throne.
Her son, Henry, Earl of Richmond, became head
of the Lancastrian house in 1471, and in 1485, at
Bosworth Field, defeated Richard III., who fell
in the battle. Henry was able to secure the sup-
port of the Yorkist faction of the nobility upon
promising to marry Elizabeth, the heiress of the
York family. Parliament confirmed Henry’s
claim to reign of his own right, though the
lawful heir was either his wife, Elizabeth, or, if
females could not inherit the crown, her cousin
Edward, the Earl of Warwick. The Tudor mon-
archs were Henry VII. (1485-1509), Henry VIII.
(1509-47), Edward VI. (1547-53), Mary (1553-
58), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). The Stuart
dynasty, which succeeded to the throne in 1603,
derived its title through Margaret, daughter of
Henry VII., who married James IV. of Scotland.
During the Tudor period the Crown was nearly
absolute. The dynasty as a whole was a strong,
purposeful one, and while the rights and func-
tions of Parliament were not formally denied, its
deliberations were controlled either by royal in-
fluence over the elections or by vigorous and tact-
ful management. The local institutions, how-
ever, retained their full vigor and the English
people thereby retained their training in self-
government. When the danger of feudal anarchy
and foreign invasion had passed away, and
public safety no longer required a strong execu-
tive, Tudor absolutism speedily disappeared
under the weak and tactless Stuart dynasty. For
details and bibliographies, see the names of the
separate sovereigns. See also ROSES, WARS OF
THE ; YORK, Housn on.
TUDOR, MARY (1496-1533). Queen of
France. She was the daughter of Henry VII. of
England. In 1514 she was married to Louis
XII. of France and after his death, in 1515, to
Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her only
child, a daughter, Frances, became the wife of
Henry Grey, Marquis of Dorset, and was the
mother of Lady Jane Grey.
TUDOR, WILLIAM (1779-1830). An Ameri-
can merchant and author, born in Boston. He
was founder (1815) and first editor of the North
American Review. He graduated at Harvard
(1796), engaged in business, visited Europe, and
on his return took part in founding the Anthology
Club and contributed frequently to its magazine,
The Monthly Anthology (1803-11). Out of this
club grew the Boston Athenaeum (1807 ), of
which Tudor was also a founder. He originated
the movement for erecting Bunker Hill Monu-
ment. In commerce he gained distinction as a
pioneer in the ice trade with tropical countries.
He was a member of the Massachusetts Legis-
lature for some years, appointed United States
consul at Lima, Peru (1823) , and charge d’afiaires
in Brazil (1827). He published Letters on the
Eastern States (1820), Miscellanies (1821), Life
of James Otis of Massachusetts (1823), and an
anonymous political allegory, Gebel Teir (1829),
written in Rio de J aneiro, where he died.
TUDOR STYLE. In English architecture,
a rather indefinite term applied to the late Per-
pendicular (q.v.) and the transition from that to
Elizabethan (q.v.)
TUFA (It., calcareous rock) . A name ap-
plied to any crypto-crystalline variety of calcium
carbonate which has a cellular structure, especially
those varieties deposited from springs or streams.
A similar material emanating from volcanoes is
known as /volcanic tufa.
TUFF (Fr. tuf, tufie, from It. tufo, tufa,
from Lat. tophus, tofus, tufa, calcareous rock).
Fragmental volcanic material when compacted
together to form a rock. The material which by
cementation of some kind has formed the tuff
may be finely comminuted (volcanic ash or
sand), or of larger fragments (lapilli and
bombs). A large proportion of tuffs have been
laid down under water, or have been carried by
water in the form of volcanic mud. In rare
cases they are composed largely of crystals. Un-
consolidated volcanic fragments are called ag-
glomerate, or agglomerate tuff. If large and
angular fragments predominate in a tuff it is
often called a volcanic breccia. Such breccias
are produced when a stream of lava flows over
and picks up an agglomerate, and also when
certain viscous lavas flow down a slope. In the
latter case the lava stream consolidates in a shell
about a central molten mass, the shell constantly
fracturing and as quickly healing its fractures
by outflow and consolidation of molten material.
TUFTS, COTTON (1734-1815). An American
physician, born in Medford, Mass. He graduated
at Harvard in 1749, studied medicine, and settled
TUFTS.
TUILERIE-S.
980
at Weymouth, Mass., and in 1765 wrote the in-
structions regarding the Stamp Act to the repre-
sentatives of Weymouth in the Provincial Legis-
lature. He was one of the founders of the Massa-
chusetts Medical Society and of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, being president of
the former in 1787-95, and was a member of
the State convention which ratified the Federal
Constitution.
TUFTS COLLEGE. A coeducational institu-
tion under Universalist control at Medford,
Mass., founded in 1852, comprising the College of
Letters, the Divinity School (1869) , the Medical
School (1893), the Dental School (1899),
and a Summer School. It confers the de-
grees of Bachelor of Arts, Philosophy, Sci-
ence and Divinity, Master of Arts, Doctor
of Philosophy, Medicine, and Dental Medicine,
and Civil, Electrical, and Mechanical Engineer.
The course of study is almost entirely elective,
only two subjects, English and mathematics,
being required for one year. Provision is made
in the Bromfield-Pearson School for students
whose preparation for engineering studies is de-
ficient. It has a biological laboratory at South
Harpswell, Maine. The attendance in 1903 was
340 in the College of Letters, 18 in the Divinity
' School, 407 in the School of Medicine, and 197 in
the School of Dentistry. The campus of 125 acres
and the 20 college buildings were valued at
$1,000,000. Among the buildings is the Barnum
Museum of Natural History, given by the late
P. T. Barnum, with a large zoiilogical collection,
especially rich in skeletons and mounted skins of
mammals. In 1903 the college owned property
to the amount of $2,000,000, and had an endow-
ment of $1,700,000 and an income of $200,000.
The library contained 50,000 volumes and is a
depository for Government publications.
TU FU, t66 f'db' (712-70). One of the most
noted of the poets of China. He was born in
712 in Siang-yang (q.v.) in the present Province
of Hu-peh, according to one authority, or in Tu-
ling in Shen-si, according to another. An official
career having been closed to him through lack
of success in the literary examinations, he be-
came a professional poet, and between the years
742 and 755 he produced three descriptive poems
which gained for him the favor of the Emperor
then reigning, and a position at Court, where
he became very popular. Internal troubles,
however, compelled the Emperor to flee, and Tu
Fu fell into the hands of the rebels, from
whom he managed to escape in 757. He was re-
called by the new Emperor, and became a censor.
Having in this capacity defended an official who-
had incurred the displeasure of the Emperor, he
fell into disgrace, was banished from the Court,
and given the petty position of a sub-prefect in a
-small town of Shen-si. This he promptly resigned
and retired to Sze-chuen. He made the ac-
quaintance in 761 of the military commandant of
the province, who brought his case to the notice
of the Emperor, and a post was provided for him
in connection with the Board of Works. This he
held for six years, until the death of his friend
the commandant, when he resumed his wandering
life. He produced a great many poems. The-edition
published in 1059 contained 1405 compositions. He
is the most quoted poet in China. See specimens
in Giles, Chinese Literature (New York, 1901).
TUGENDBUND, tE5’gGnt'-bb‘5nt. An asso-
ciation organized at Kbnigsberg, Prussia, in Feb-
ruary, 1808, for the purpose of furthering the
physical and moral regeneration of the Prussian
people in~the period of national degradation fol-
lowing the disasters of the years 1806-07 and
the dismemberment of the Prussian kingdom by
Napoleon I. at Tilsit. Its secret purpose was
the overthrow of the French domination. It was
dissolved in December, 1809, after it had ac-
complished much good in its self-appointed task
of bringing to life the spirit of Prussian patriot-
ism.
TUGUEGARAO, to‘-6-ga'ga-ra"6. The capital
of the Province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippines
(Map: Philippine Islands, F 2) . Cagayan is the
most northern province of Luzon and is exceed-
Ingly mountainous. The climate is very severe in
the winter, and not healthful in the summer,
owing to the excessive humidity. The province is
well watered and has a fertile soil; its area is
6587 square miles; the population numbers 112,-
360. The capital is situated on the river Ca-
gayan, in the southern part of the province. It
has a town hall, court-house, and a government
gi21glding. Population, in 1887, 19,446; now 16,-
TUILERIES, twel’re’ (Fr., tile-works) . A
former royal palace in Paris, situated on the
right bank of the Seine, on ground occupied, be-
fore the fifteenth century, by a number of tile-
works. The site was acquired by Louise of
Savoy, mother of Francis 1., in 1527, and the erec-
tion of the palace was begun about 1565 by Cath-
arine de’ Medici. The work was under the direc-
tion of Philibert Delorme (q.v.), who was suc-
ceeded in 1570 by Jean Bullant. The main struc-
ture of the original palace comprised a central
pavilion, circular in form, and crowned by a
cupola. Henry IV. caused the erection of the
Pavillon de Flore on the south wing and began
the construction of a long gallery connecting it
with the Louvre (q.v.). Under Louis XIV. the
central 'pavilion was altered from round to
square and the Pavillon de Marsan on the north
wing was erected. In spite of its imposing size,
the palace possessed little artistic interest, owing
to the great and rather unharmonious diversity
of architectural form displayed in its long facade.
Before the Revolution it was only intermittently
a royal residence, though it was frequently the
scene of splendid fetes ; in its theatre were given
plays of Corneille,_ Moliere, and Voltaire. ‘On
October 6, 1789, Louis XVI. and the royal family, '
brought by the Parisian mob from Versailles,
took up their residence in the Tuileries. The
palace was invaded by a mob on June 20, 1792,
but little harm was done. On August 10th,
however, the organized sections of Paris stormed
the Tuileries and after a bloody-battle cut down
the Swiss Guard, who, after defending the great
stairway of the palace with devoted courage,
were ordered by the King to lay down their
arms. The royal family were forced to take
refuge in the hall of the Assembly and thence
were removed to the Temple. In 1793 the Con-
vention began to hold its sessions in the north
wing of the palace, the Pavillon de Marsan be-
ing given up to committee-rooms, administrative
offices, etc. After the establishment of .the Con-
sulate the Tuileries became the resid@I1QQ Qf. 916*
TUILERIES.
TULANE.
981
poleon, and, with successive changes in internal
construction, it remained the residence of the
rulers of France to the fall of the Second Em-
pire, with the exception of the years 1848-52.
During the \Var of the Commune in 1871 the
palace was set on fire (May 24th) at the orders,
it is supposed, of the Communist leaders. In
the night of May 24th-25th heavy explosions of
gunpowder completed the ruin of the 1nain struc-
ture. The right wing alone, containing the Pa-
villon de Flore, escaped destruction. The Pa-
villon de 1\/Iarsan was restored in 1875-78. The
ruins of the main buildings were removed in
1883. The Garden of the Tuileries, covering
about 75 acres, lies between the Place de la Con-
corde, the site of the palace, the Rue de Rivoli,
and the Quai des Tuileries. It was laid out by
Le N6tre in the time of Louis XIV., but has un-
dergone extensive changes, especially under the
Second Empire. It contains some notable ex-
amples of sculpture, and is a popular resort of
the Parisians, being especially a favorite play-
ground with children. See PARIS.
TUKE, DANIEL HACK (1827-95). A cele-
brated English alienist, born at York. He studied
medicine at Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital Col-
lege, of London, and in 1852 became a member
of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which he be-
came a fellow in 1857. He was afterwards visit-
ing physician to the York retreat for the insane,
and subsequently medical practitioner at Fal-
mouth. He wrote many essays on the treatment
of insanity for scientific periodicals, and was
_co'é-ditor of the Journal of Mental Sciences, 1878-
92. He wrote a prize essay on the Progressive
Changes which have taken place since the time of
Pinel, in the Moral Management of the Insane
(1854) ; The Asylum-s of Holland, Their Past and
Present Condition (1854) ; On the Canon of the
New Testament (1860) ; Insanity in Ancient and
Modern Life (1878) ; and a Dictionary of Psy-
chological Medicine (1892).
TUKE, HENRY (1755-1814). A Quaker writer,
born at York, England. His father was William
Tuke (q.v.), one of the founders of the first
asylum for humane treatment of the insane. After
his education in liberal studies he engaged in
business with his father at York, and at the age
of twenty-five he became a minister of the Society
of Friends. His books were extensively read at
home and some of them were translated into
French, German, and Danish. The chief of them
are: The Faith of the People Called Quakers
(1801) ; The Principles of Religion as Professed
by the Society of Christians Usually called Quak-
ers (1805) ; and The Life of George For (1813).
—-His son, SAMUEL TUKE (1784-1857), studied
medicine and became widely known for his strenu-
ous defense of the asylum at York, and for varied
philanthropic work. Among his publications are
Descriptions of the Retreat (1813) and Practical
Hints on the Oonstructio-n and Economy of
Pauper Lunatic Asylums (1815), which are high-
ly important in the history of the treatment of
the insane.
TUKE, WILLIAM (1732-1822). An English
philanthropist. He was born in York, was a
Quaker in religion, and engaged in mercantile
pursuits the greater part of his life, but found
time for many works of benevolence. His great-
est achievement was the foundation of the York
Retreat in 1796, the first institution in England
where the insane were treated with kindness
and humanity. In this undertaking he had the
aid of his son, Henry, Lindley Murray, and other
Quakers. Tuke’s biography was written by his
great-grandson (York, 1856) .
TULA, t*oTo’1a. A government of Central Rus-
sia. Area, about 11,960 square miles (Map: Rus-
sia, E 4). It belongs to the Central Russian
plateau and has an undulating surface cut by
deep river valleys. It is watered chiefly by the
Oka and its tributaries and the Don. Tula be-
longs to the black soil belt of Russia. In the
southwest are deposits of coal, and iron ore is
found in all parts. Agriculture is the main oc-
cupation, but the household industries are also
remarkably developed. The chief manufactured
products are small metal articles, ‘samovars’
(tea-kettles), wagons, musical instruments,
arms, etc. The total output was valued at $10,-
000,000 in 1899. The trade in grain is extensive.
Population, in 1897, 1,432,743.
TULA. The capital of the Government of
Tula in Russia, situated on the Upa, 121 miles
south of Moscow (Map: Russia, E 4). It is an
interesting and important town, with an old
Kremlin rising above the river, an extensive Gov-
ernment arms factory and a museum. Tula
has also a number of private arms factories,
and extensive metal works, where the ‘samovars’
(tea-kettles) for which Tula is famous are
manufactured. Population, in 1897 , 111,048.
TULA. A Mexican town of the State of
Hidalgo, 45 miles by rail north of the City of
Mexico, on the Tula River (Map: Mexico, J 7).
The town, the ancient capital Tollan, is be-
lieved to have been founded by the Toltecs and
contains the ruins known as ‘Montezuma’s Pal-
ace,’ and others of interest attributed to those
people. The fortress-like church and cloister of
San José date from 1553. There are some cotton
manufacturing establishments. Its present muni-
cipal population, based on the census of 1895,
is about 5000.
TULA. A Mexican town of the State of
Tamaulipas, 66 miles southwest of Ciudad Vic-
toria. It is an important commercial centre in
a rich agricultural district. The population of
the municipality in 1895 was 19,421.
TULALIP, t66-lii’lip (North American In-
dian, bay, inlet). A tribe of Salishan stock
(q.v.) occupying a reservation of 36 square miles
on Tulalip Bay, an eastern inlet of Puget Sound,
Washington. They are the remnant of the Snoho-
mish -and subordinate tribes, who were assigned
to the present reservation by the treaty of Medi-
cine Creek in 1854, at which time they num-
bered 1000, but are now reduced by one-half.
Through the efforts of Catholic missionaries
they are now entirely civilized, half of them be-
ing church members, while the rest adhere to
their ancient‘ religion or to the new ‘Shaker’ In-
dian ceremonial. They are entirely self-support-
ing, depending partly upon the abundant natural
fish supply and partly upon labor among the
whites.
TULANE, ii-1~1.-m’, PAUL (1801-87). An Amer-
ican philanthropist, born near Princeton. N. J. He -
received a common school education and in early
life removed to New Orleans, where he engaged
TULA1\l'E~.
TULIP.
982
in business and acquired great wealth. He re-
tired in 1867, and returned to Princeton. In
1882 he gave $2,000,000 worth of real estate in
New Orleans for the erection and endowment of
Tulane University (q.v.).
TULANE UNIVERSITY. An institution
at New Orleans, La., organized on its present
basis in 1884, when the State placed the existing
University of Louisiana, chartered in 1845, under
the perpetual care of the Board of Adminis-
trators of the Tulane Educational Fund. In 1882
Paul Tulane (q.v.) gave his property in that
city for the higher education of the “white
young persons in the city of New Orleans.” His
donations up to the time of his death amounted
to $1,050,000. In 1886 Mrs. Josephine Louise
Newcomb of New York gave the sum of $100,000
to establish the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial
College for the higher education of white girls
and young women. A new and thoroughly
equipped building for the medical department
was given in 1891 by the widow of Dr. Richard-
son, a former professor, and in 1900 Mrs. Caro-
line Tilton gave a library building named in
honor of her husband. The university consists of
the Graduate Department, the College of Arts and
Sciences, the College of Technology, the Newcomb
Memorial College, the Law Department. and the
Medical Department. It confers the bachelor’s
degree in arts, science, engineering, and law,
the master’s degree in arts and pharmacy, the
doctor’s degree in philosophy and medicine, and
the degrees of mechanical, civil, chemical, and
sugar engineer. All the departments are situated
in the city of New Orleans. The campus contains
about 18 acres, with 6 acres devoted to athletics.
The total attendance in 1903 was 1364, the
faculty numbered 91, and the library contained
45,000 volumes. The value of the grounds and
buildings was estimated at $830,000, the total
valuation of the university property being $2,-
186,000. The endowment was $1,230,000 and the
gross income $129,000.
TULASNE, tu'lan’, Loms RENE (1815-85).
A French botanist, born at Azay-le-Rideau (In-
dre-et-Loire). After studying law, he turned
his attention to botany and made a specialty
of parasite mushrooms, becoming the founder of
modern mycology. From 1842 to 1872 he was,
at first ‘aide naturalists,’ then professor at the
Museum of Natural History in Paris, lived af-
terwards at Cannes, and died at Hyeres. His
most important publications include: Histoire et
monographie des champignons hypogées (1851) ;
Selecta Fnngornm Garpologia (1861-65) , with his
brother Charles; and many monographs in the
Annalee dn Maséam, Annales des Sciences Nat-
nrelles, Flora Brasiliensis, and other periodicals.
Among several discoveries he made, that of poly-
morphism of mushrooms created an epoch in the
science.
TULCEA, or TULTCHA, i:%l'ch:'1. A district
town of the Dobrudja, Rumania, situated on an
arm of the Danube, about 45 miles from the
Black Sea( Map: Balkan Peninsula, G 2) . It has
a good harbor, with an extensive trade in fish,
grain, and wool. Population, in 1900, 18,800.
TULIP (OF., Fr. talipe, from talipan, tulip,
talipant, talpant, toliban, tolopan, turban, from
Turk. tnlband, dulband, from Pers. dalband,
turban), Tulipa. A genus of showy hardy plants
of the order Liliaceae, easily recognized by its
fleshy brown-skinned bulbs, broad or linear leaves,
and generally erect and usually solitary-flowered
scapes. About 45 species are described, mostly
natives of the warmer parts of Asia and South-
ern Europe. For several centuries the tulip has
been a popular ornamental plant for spring and
early summer flowering and has recently been
used by florists for winter flowering. The species
from which most of the cultivated varieties have
been derived, Talipa Gesneriana, is a native of
Asia Minor and was brought from Constantinople
to Germany by Conrad Gesner in 1559, since
when innumerable varieties have been originated,
1800 varieties being offered by Dutch growers,
who are the leading producers of these bulbs.
The cultivated varieties of tulips are classified
by florists as to their color into ‘selfs,’ flowers
of one solid color: ‘bizarres,’ flowers with a
clear yellow base or centre with orange, red,
crimson, and other markings; ‘roses,’ flowers
variegated with shades of rose, deep red, or
scarlet; and ‘bybloemans,’ flowers of dark colors
such as lilac, purple, brown, and black. Several
other species have given rise to cultivated varie-
ties, but to a much more limited extent. Talipa
suaveolcns, a native of Southeastern Europe, is
the wild species from which the early red and
orange Due van Thol tulips have been obtained.
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TULIP (Tulipa Gesneriana).
They are inferior to the common garden tulip
in beauty, but are prized for their fragrance
and earliness. (See Colored Plate of LILI-
ACEZE.) Tnlipa proecoac is the generally culti-
vated form of Talipa Ocalns-solis, a beautiful
species from Southern France, characterized by
a large black spot with a yellow border at the
TULIP TREE





FLOWERING BRANCH.
TULIP TREE (Llrioden-dron tuliplferal.
TULIP.
TULLOCH.
983
base of each petal. Talipa Greigi, a native of
Turkestan, is a very fine species from which
several cultivated forms have been developed.
The natural species are rarely grown. Tulips
are cultivated in gardens on all kinds of soils
and in all positions, but they prefer a rich,
sandy loam. The bulbs or offsets are planted in
mid-autumn and the flowers appear in spring.
When the plants have blossomed and the leaves
have begun to dry the bulbs are taken up, dried
in a cool airy place, and stored in a dry place
until planting time. For pot culture tulips are
treated like hyacinths. Young plants are also
obtained by sowing the seed in light sandy soil
under a cold frame in late winter. Seedlings
seldom flower before they are five years old and
are rarely stable; that is, after flowering one or
more times they ‘break’ or develop a new form
of color, which remains stable not only with the
individual bulb, but with its offsets.
During the first half of the seventeenth cen-
tury interest in the tulip rose to a speculative
basis which has since been dubbed ‘tulipomania.’
Bulbs sold for fabulous prices, even 13,000 florins
($5,200) being paid for a single specimen of
Semper Augustus. Indeed, ownership in in-
dividual bulbs was divided into shares; bulbs
were sold before their existence and by men who
possessed none; and of some varieties far more
were sold than existed. The craze was short-
lived, but during its progress it financially
ruined many families.
TULIP TREE (Liriodenclron tulipifera). A
beautiful North American tree of the natural
order Magnoliaceae, found from Vermont to
Michigan and south to Florida, Mississippi, and
Arkansas, having a stem sometimes 100 to 140
feet high, and 5 to 9 feet thick, with a grayish-
brown cracked bark, and many gnarled and
brittle branches. The solitary terminal flowers
resemble tulips. The bark has a bitter, aromatic
taste, like other members of the Magnoliaceae.
The tulip tree is one of the most beautiful orna-
ments of pleasure-grounds. In some parts of
the Mississippi Valley it forms considerable
forests, seldom or never occurring alone, but
in mixed woods. The heart-wood is yellow, the
sap-wood white. The timber is easily wrought,
takes a good polish, and is much used for house
carpentry and other purposes where a light wood
is desired. Fossil leaves of ancestors of the
tulip tree are found in abundance in the North
American and Arctic Cretaceous rocks. These
earliest representatives had leaves that were not
so distinctly lobed and that resembled, in their
entire margins, more nearly those of the very
young individuals than those of the full-grown
trees of the modern plant.
TULL, JETIIRO (1674-1741). A noted British
agriculturist and writer. He was born at Basil-
don, Berkshire, and entered Oxford in 1691, but
two years later took up the study of law at
Gray’s Inn. In 1699, shortly after becoming a
barrister, he settled upon a farm at Howberry,
where, having trouble in making his laborers
carry out his advanced ideas, he endeavored to
make implements which would do the work
“more faithfully than such hands would do.”
The results of his experiments are set forth in
his Horse-Hoing Husbandry, or an Essay on the
Principles of Tilling and Vegetation (1733; 2d
ed., with addenda, 1743; 3d ed. 1751). French
translations appeared in 1753 and 1757 and a new
and somewhat altered edition was put forth by
William Cobbett in 1822. This work, which is
the first of its kind, exercised a profound in-
fluence on methods of soil management, and up-
on it Tull’s fame chiefly rests. See TILLAGE.
TULLA, t1_1l’la, JOHANN GOTTFBIED (1770-
1828). A German engineer. He was educated in
Heidelberg and Freiburg, and after filling vari-
ous engineering appointments became chief en-
gineer of the construction of water and road
ways for the Grand Duchy of Baden in 1813.
He was the founder of the Engineer School of
Baden, and subsequent to 1818 had much to do
with the preparation of the plans for the deep-
ening of the channel of the River Rhine. His
writings include Ueber die ewechmiissigste Be-
handlang oles Rheins (1822), and Ueber die
Rektifikation des Rheins (1825).
TULLE, tul. The capital of the Department
of Correze, France, 106 miles by rail south-
west of Clermont-Ferrand, in the deep valley
of the Correze (Map: France, H 6). It is a
picturesque town with quaint houses. The cathe-
dral (fifteenth century), with a fine bell tower,
and the abbott’s house (fifteenth century), are
worthy of notice. A large Government firearms
factory is situated in the suburb of Souilhac.
From Tulle first came the famous machine-made
lace of that name. Population, in 1891, 15,384;
in 1901, 17,412.
TUL’LIA. In the legendary history of Rome,
one of the two daughters of Servius Tullius, the
wife of Aruns, son of Tarquinius Priscus. She
murdered her husband and married his brother
Lucius, whom she had persuaded to kill his wife.
She then instigated the murder of Servius, and
on her return from the senate house, where she
had greeted her husband as king, drove her
chariot over her father’s corpse.
TULLIANUM. See MAMERTINE PRISON.
TULLIBEE (North American Indian name).
A well-marked and valuable whitefish (Argyroso-
mas tallibee) of the Great Lakes, Lake of the
WVoods, and northward. It is bluish with white
sides showing silvery stripes.
TUL’LIVER, MAGGIE. The heroine of George
Eliot’s Mill on the Floss. She is the daughter of
the miller, and with her brother is drowned by
a tidal wave.
TUL’LOCH, JOHN (1823-86). A Scottish
scholar and educator. He was born at Dron,
Perthshire, was educated at Saint Andrews, and
ordained at Dundee, in 1845, as a minister in the
Church of Scotland, and became principal of
Saint Mary’s College, in the University of Saint
Andrews. In 1859 he was appointed one of her
Majesty’s chaplains for Scotland. He was highly
appreciated as a broad-minded, progressive the-
ologian, was moderator of the General Assembly
in 1878, was appointed dean of the chapel royal
and dean of the Thistle in 1882, and died at
Torquay. Among his works are: Theism ( 1855) ;
Leaders of the Reformation (1859; 3d ed. 1883) ;
English Puritanism and I is Leaders (1861) ; Be-
ginning Life (1862) ; Rational Theology and
Christian Philosophy in England in the Seven-
teenth Centnry (1872; 2d ed. 1874); The Chris-
tian Doctrine of Sin (1876) ; Modern Theories in
TULLOCH.
TUMOR.
984
Philosophy and Religion (1884) ; Movements of
Religious Thought in Britain During the l\’z'ne-
teenth Century (1885). Consult his Life by Mrs.
Oliphant (London, 1888; 3d ed. 1889).
TULTCHIN, to_o'l’chén. A town in the Gov-
ment of Podolia, South Russia, about 100 miles
east of Kamenetz-Podolsk. Population, in 1897,
19,202.
TULUS, t%’l?fiz. One of the civilized, or half-
civilized, Dravidian peoples of Hindustan. They
inhabit the coast region about Mangalore, and
number some 350,000. Their language is closely re-
lated to ancient Kanarese. Consult: Brigel, Gram-
mar of the Tulu Language (Mangalore, 1872) ;
Mliinner, Tulu-English and English-Tutu Dic-
tionary (ib., 1886-88) .
TUMACO, tm-mii'kf>. A town of the Depart-
ment of Cauca, Colombia, 150 miles southwest
of Popayan, on the Pacific coast (Map: Colom-
bia, B 3). It is the most southerly port of
Colombia, and has an extensive local steamer
trade with Guayaquil and Panama. Population,
about 6000. '
TIIMBEZ, tmm/bath. A seaport in the De-
partment of Piura, Peru, 80 miles southwest of
Guayaquil (Map: Peru, A 4) . The town was an
important port of the Incas and the landing
place of Pizarro. Population, about 2000.
TUMBLE-BUG. See DUNG-BEETLE.
TUMBLEWEEDS. Plants, chiefly annuals,
especially abundant in prairie regions. They
scatter their seeds as they are rolled or tumbled
from place to place by the wind. See SEED.
TUMBOA. See GNETACEEE.
TUMOR (Lat., swelling, state of being
swollen). In medicine, an abnormal increase in
size of an area of tissue or of an organ; a swell-
ing, excluding swellings occurring in the course of
simple inflammation. In pathology, a tumor is
an overgrowth or hypertrophy, deviating in size
and shape from the normal, with an inherent
power and method of growth, this growth being
independent of the rest of the body. Pathologists
include under the term tumor ulcerations and
their boundaries, when such boundaries are com-
posed in part, at least, of new tissue. Pathologi-
cally, then, a tumor is a growth of new tissue in
the body which causes local increase in the size
of the part or organ in which it occurs. Tumors
are distinctly pathological formations, subserving
no useful physiological purposes; in fact, usually
growing at the expense of useful tissues and
organs.
The tissues of which tumors are composed
conform to the same general types as are nor-
mally found in the body, with the exception that in
the case of some tumors there is a tendency to-
ward the reversion of the tissues to embryonic
forms. Tumors usually originate in tissues
which are of like structure with that of the
tumor itself. Thus connective-tissue tumors
usually take their origin in connective tissue,
epithelial tumors in epithelium, etc. When such
tumors remain confined to the tissues in which
they originate they are known as homologous
tumors. When, however, they spread to surround-
ing tissues of a different type, or when, as oc-
curs in the case of malignant tumors, new tumors
are started in distant tissues and organs by
means of the dissemination of bits of tissue from
the primary growth through the blood and
lymph, they are known as heterologous tumors.
Some tmnors are congenial, notably the naevi
or vascular tumors. In some cases there appears
to be a distinct hereditary tendency to tumor
formation; yet ideas as to the heredity of can-
cer are grossly exaggerated in the minds of the
laity, for, while the occurrence of cancer in sev-
eral generations has been observed, the absence
of cancer in the children and grandchildren of
persons who have been afflicted with the most
malignant forms has been equally noted. In-
flammation resulting from injury, especially
from long-continued slight irritation, seems to
be a frequent cause of tumor formation, injuries
to bone being quite frequently followed by the
development of osteo-sarcoma. Also injury, as
for example from a blow or from a fall, not in-
frequently precedes the development of cancer
of that organ. Cancer of the tongue or lip is
often apparently traceable to the constant irri-
tation of a broken clay pipe or of a rough tooth.
In general it would seem that tumors of the con-
nective-tissue type (sarcoma) most frequently
follow a single injury, as for example from a
blow, while tumors of the epithelial type (epithe-
lioma, carcinoma) are more apt to occur as the
result of frequently repeated slight irritations.
Chronic inflammation seems to bear some causa-
tive relation to tumor formation. This is evi-
dent in the frequent association of carcinoma of
the liver with cirrhosis of that organ. Again,
malignant tumors or cancer not infrequently find
their starting point in such local malformations
as skin naevi. Age and sex also play important
roles among the predisposing causes of tumors.
Thus epithelial cancer or carcinoma is rare in
persons under thirty years of age. Cancer of
the breast is far more common in the female, this
being undoubtedly due to the greater functional
activity of that organ in the female. Cancer of
the tongue and lip is, on the other hand, much
more common in the male. This is probably due
to the fact that frequent irritation from smoking
is much more common in that sex.
As to the primary causative factor in the pro-
duction of tumors we have as yet very imperfect
knowledge. Of the many theories which have
been advanced in explanation of tumor growth,
probably the most ingenious and the one to
which at present greatest credence is given is
one advanced by Cohnheim. According to his
theory, during embryonal development some cells
stop developing. These cells may either remain
in among tissues of their own kind or may be-
come displaced in the course of further develop-
ment of the surrounding tissues and so come to
lie among other tissues. Such cells lie dor-
mant for long periods until something in their en-
vironment calls them into activity, when they
proceed to develop with all the potential growth
of young embryonal cells. Furthermore, being
unlimited by the wear and tear of physiological
function, as is the case with normal tissues and
organs, they are free to devote their entire ener-
gies to growth. For these two reasons, the high
potentiality for growth of embryonal tissue and
the lack of any control of the growth by the re-
quirements of function, tumor tissue, especially
of the embryonal type, is apt to be characterized
by a sort of irregular, wild cell-growth quite
different from the orderly arrangement of cells in
TUMOR.
TUMOR.
985
normal tissues. While Cohnheim’s hypothesis
offers a very satisfactory explanation of most
of the Phenomena connected with the growth of
tumors, it must be remembered that it is as yet
purely a theory, with absolutely no basis in
known facts; that no one has ever been able to
demonstrate any of these little islands of embry-
onal tissue lying dormant and waiting to be
excited into tumor formation. Bacteria as the
excitants of tumor formation have been exploited
by some investigators. While some at present be-
lieve that the true cause of cancer will ultimately
be found to be bacterial in nature, the majority
tend to the opinion that the presence of bacteria
in tumors is an external accidental occurrence
rather than an internal causative factor.
Tumors grow (1) by direct extension from
the periphery, and (2) by a growth of the tumor
at its centre and a consequent pushing outward
of its peripheral parts, or ‘central growth.’ (3)
Tumors also extend by what is known as metas-
tasis. This with the formation of what are
known as metastatic tumors occurs by the dis-
semination of cancer cells by means of the blood
and lymph. In this way bits of cancer tissue are
carried to remote parts of the body. This met-
astasis from a single primary focus may occur
in any tissue or organ, and quite commonly occurs
in many tissues and organs either in succession
or at approximately the same time. It is one
of the surest evidences of the malignancy of the
original tumor. These cancer cells lodging in the
tissues set up new centres of growth, of the same
nature as the mother growth. As the process of
growth goes on in tumors so also does the pro-
cess of degeneration. Tumors may ulcerate or
become gangrenous, abeesses may form in them,
and they may undergo fatty or calcareous de-
generation. Degenerative changes are more fre-
quent in the softer more rapidly growing forms.
Various classifications of tumors have been
suggested, all of which are more or less un-
satisfactory. Clinically, tumors are frequently
simply divided into two classes: (1) benign
tumors, or tumors which are in themselves harm-
less, and (2) malignant tumors, as cancer and
sarcoma. The most common and as yet most
satisfactory classification of tumors is morpho-
logical, based upon their structure relative to
the normal body tissues. The following is the
classification given in Delafield and Prudden’s
Handbook of Pathological Anatomy and Histol-
ogy (1902) :
CONNECTIVE-Trssun TYPE.
Normal Tzssuc. Form of Tumor.
Fibrillar connective tissue : Fibrom a.
Mucous tissue: Myxoma.
Embryonal connective tissue : Sarcoma.
Endothelial cells : Endothelioma.
Fat-tissue: Lipoma.
Cartilage: Chondroma.
Bone: Osteoma.
Neuroglia: Glioma.
MUSCLE-TISSUE TYPE.
Smooth-muscle tissue: Leiomyoma.
Striated-muscle tissue: Rhabdomyoma.
NERVE-TIssuE TYPE.
Neuroglia.
VASCULAR-TISSUE TYPE.
Blood vessels: Angioma.
Lymph vessels: Lymphangioma.
EPITHELIAL-TISSUE TYPE.
Adenoma.
Glands :
} Carcinoma.
Various forms of epithelial cells and
associated tissues:
Classification according to histogenesis (de-
velopmental history of the tissues) has been at-
tempted; and while there are reasons for believ-
ing that embyrology may ultimately furnish the
proper basis for tumor classification, that which
it has thus far furnished is less satisfactory
from a practical standpoint than the morphologi-
cal classification. When, as is not infrequently
the case, more than one kind of tissue is present
in a tumor, a combination of terms is used to
designate its nature. Thus a combination of a
tumor composed of embryonal connective tissue
with a bony tumor is known as an osteo-sarcoma ;
a muscle-tissue tumor in which much more than
the usual amount of connective tissue is' present,
as a fibro-myoma, etc. In addition to the new
growths included in the classification given there
are other forms of tumors or of structures some-
times called tumors which do not fall within
any of the subdivisions of the classification.
Among these may be mentioned cysts of various
kinds, including the so-called ‘dermoid cyst’ and
teratoma; such congenital tumors as 1noles, naevi,
and angiomata, etc. The peculiar placental tis-
sue tumor known as deciduoma may also be men-
tioned.
NON-MALIGNANT Tumons. These are composed
of tissues of the types found in the adult and are
in themselves not dangerous to life, although
sometimes serious from pressure upon or involve-
ment of important organs. They do not as a rule
grow as rapidly as do malignant tumors; they do
not tend to recur when completely removed, do not
form metastases, do not involve neighboring
lymph glands, and do not as a rule interfere with
the general health of the patient.
Fibroma.—This tumor is composed of fibrillar
connective tissue of the type found in the adult.
Fibromata vary even more greatly in consistency
than does ordinary fibrous tissue, those contain-
ing many fibres and few cells being hard and
firm, fibroma durum; those containing propor-
tionately many cells being soft, fibroma molle.
They are commonly inclosed in a definite fibrous
capsule. The softer fibromata are frequently
very vascular, while the harder forms usually
contain few vessels. They are found in the
skin and subcutaneous connective tissue, in the
connective tissue framework of the various or-
gans, in the mucous membranes, in the intermus-
cular septa, in nerve sheaths, etc. ll/lucous polypi
of the nose are examples of this kind of tumor.
Mywoma.—-Myxomata are tumors composed of
tissue which resembles a type of tissue found only
in extremely small amount in the adult and
known as mucous tissue. Mucous tissue is there-
fore essentially embryonic. These tumors re-
semble the fibromata in structure, being made up
of connective-tissue cells with a fibrillar inter-
cellular substance. The softer tumors are known
as mywoma gelatinosum, or mywoma molle, while
those of greater consistency are known as mya:o-
ma medullare. Myxoma is of comparatively rare
occurrence in pure form. More commonly myxo-
mata are combined with tumor tissue of other
types to form complex tumors of which the most
common are lipo-myxoma and fibro-myxoma.
They most frequently develop in fat.
Lipoma.-—Lipomata are fatty tumors. They
may be quite firm from the presence of fibrous
tissue, fibre-lipoma, or soft, lipoma molle. Lipo-
ma is a very common form of tumor, being often
TUMOR.
TUMOR.
986
superficial, developing in the subcutaneous fat.
Lipomata may, however, develop anywhere where
fat is found and consequently have a wide dis-
tribution. They are generally inclosed in firm
fibrous capsules and occur usually on the shoul-
ders, back, or forearms.
Chondroma.-—-These are tumors in which the
new-formed tissue resembles cartilage of either
the hyalin or fibrous variety.
Osteoma.—Osteomata or bony tumors are
rather rare as pure tumors. Associated with
other forms of tumor tissue (as osteo-sarcoma,
osteo-fibroma, etc.), they are more common.
Osteomata as a rule develop in bone. Less com-
monly they originate in other tissues.
Glioma.-—Gliomata are connective-tissue tumors
which follow the structure of the nervous system
connective tissue, or neuroglia. Gliomata are soft
and usually vascular, thus predisposing to
hemorrhage. They are also extremely liable to
fatty degeneration. As a pure type they are
rare. Associated with other forms of connective-
tissue new growths, the glyo-sarcoma, glyo-myxo-
ma, etc., they are more common. They occur
chiefly in these parts of the nervous system where
neuroglia is found, e.g. in the brain and cord,
the ganglia, and in the optic and olfactory nerves.
Myo/ma.——Myomata are tumors whose tissue
elements are analogous to those found in muscle
tissue. Like normal muscle, they may be divided
into two forms, one in which the tissue elements
are smooth, or involuntary muscle, the other in
which the tissue elements are striated, or vol-
untary muscle. To the former the name ‘leiomy-
oma’ or ‘myoma levicellulare’ has been given, to
the latter the name of ‘rhabdomyoma’ or ‘myoma
striocellulare.’ Myoma is rare.
Neuroma-.——Neuromata are divided into true
neuromata and the so-called false neuromata.
True neuromata are extremely rare. They con-
sist of nerve tissue and may be of the ganglionic
type in which new nerve cells develop, or of the
fibrillar type which consist of new-formed nerve
fibres. Neuromata may be single or multiple,
the latter frequently occurring along the branches
of distribution of a single peripheral nerve. They
occur in stumps after amputation of a limb and
are often extremely painful. The ‘false neuro-
mata’ are not neuromata at all, but fibromata,
sarcomata, myxomata, etc., of the connective
tissue of the nerve trunks.
Angioma.——These tumors consist of newly
formed blood or lymph vessels and are of two
kinds, haemangioma and lymphangioma. The
former are subdivided into simple angioma or
angioma telangiectoides and angioma caverno-
sum. The simple angiomata are composed of
masses of blood vessels, mainly capillaries, held
together by connective tissue. The so-called
‘strawberry’ marks or vascular neevi, usually
of the face, are congenital tumors of this varie-
ty.
TUMORS SOMETIMES BENIGN, SOMETIMES
MALIGNANT. Endothelioma-—These tumors orig-
inate from that type of connective tissue known
as endothelium which forms the linings of
blood vessels, lymphatics, etc. On account of
their extremely cellular character and on ac-
count of the reduction of their intercellular base-
ment substance to a minimum, these tumors
bear a close morphological resemblance to the
carcinomata, among which they are often classed.
Endotheliomata are most common in the pleura,
peritoneum, dura mater, and pia mater. Less
frequently they occur in brain, liver, ovaries,
testicle, lymph nodes, salivary glands, bone. and
skin. They may be large or small, single or
multiple, and may form metastases.
Adenoma.—-Adenomata are epithelial tumors
in which the epithelium is glandular in type and
is arranged in more or less distinct alveoli. They
thus correspond in structure to a gland. The
alveoli are supported as tumors in the irregu-
larity of the arrangement of their component
elements. Blocking up of the ducts of the
glandular tissue sometimes leads to an accumu-
lation of secretion within the alveoli and the
formation of cysts. When this cyst formation
is a prominent feature of the growth the term
cyst-adenoma is used to designate the tumor. Of
these the most important is the multilocular
cyst-adenoma of the ovary. Most adenomata are
non-malignant, rather slow growing tumors. The
most common sites are the ovary, mammary
gland, kidney, liver, submaxillary, sublingual,
parotid, thyroid, and lachrymal. They also occur
in those mucous membranes which are supplied
with glands, as for example the mucous mem-
branes of the stomach, intestines, nose, pharynx,
etc. The most common sites of malignant adeno-
mata are the stomach, intestines, mammary
gland thyroid, and uterus.
MALIGNANT TUMoRs. Sarcoma.-—Sarcomata
are tumors of the connective-tissue group. They
differ from connective-tissue tumors in that the
connective tissue of which the sarcomata are com-
posed is of the embryonal form. This has a
very distinct bearing upon their malignancy,
for, as has been already mentioned, embryonal
tissues possess much greater powers of growth
than do adult tissues. Sarcomata are usually
classified according to the character and ar-
rangement of their cellular elements. Thus we
have small round-celled, large round-celled,
small spindle-celled, large spindle-celled. giant-
celled or myeloid, stellate-celled sarcoma, etc.
The ends of long bones like the tibia and
humerus are frequently affected. The mammary
glands are sometimes the sites of sarcoma, as
also the sheaths of peripheral nerves. Sarcoma
is as a rule an affection of early life. From ten
to forty it is most common, and uncommon after
the latter age. The two sexes are about equally
susceptible.
Carcinoma.-——Carcinomata are malignant tu-
mors of epithelial tissue. The epithelium is as
varied in character as is normal epithelium. The
epithelial elements are supported by a more or
less abundant connective-tissue framework, or
stroma, which forms bundles of fibres irregular
in arrangement, and in the meshes of which are
cavities or alveoli in which the epithelial cells
lie loosely without any definite arrangement. In
general the epithelial cells conform to the dif-
ferent normal types; but we find, as is the
case with all cancerous growths, an irregularity
as to shape, size, and arrangement which is
much more marked than in normal epithelium.
And even in a carcinoma where a particular
type of cell predominates, other forms of cell
are frequently intermingled with the predom-
inating form.
Carcinoma occurs as a primary tumor in tis-
TUMOR.
TUMOR.
987
sues of epiblastic origin. It originates in any
of the various forms of epithelium. It is not be-
lieved to occur as a primary tumor in such tis-
sues as bone, muscle, etc., which originate in
other embryonic layers. Carcinoma may,
however, involve any of the body tissues. When
it involves tissues other than epithelial, it is
probable that the growth is secondary, the pri-
mary tumor in epithelium being so small as to
have passed unrecognized.
The very hard and firm form of carcinoma so
common in the female breast is known
as ‘scirrhous cancer’ or fibro-carcinoma. Its
hardness is due to the large amount of
dense fibrous tissue, the cellular elements
being comparatively few. Very soft car-
cinomata, made up almost entirely of cells with
a minimum amount of connective tissue, are
called ‘medullary cancer’ or carcinoma molle.
Melano-carcinomata are tumors in which more
or less brown or black pigment is deposited in
the cells or in the connective-tissue stroma.
Carcinomata whose cells have undergone mucoid
degeneration or whose stroma is of the type
found in mucous connective tissue are known as
‘carcinoma myxomatodes.’ Gelatinous carcino-
ma is a form of carcinoma in which the cells be-
come filled with a translucent gelatinous mate-
rial. In some tumors these droplets of gelati-
nous substance, which have taken the place of
the epithelial cells, coalesce to form considerable
areas of gelatinous material. These areas fre-
quently give an alveolar appearance, for which
reason this form of carcinoma is frequently re-
ferred to as ‘alveolar carcinoma.’
Epithelioma is a form of carcinoma which
originates in squamous epithelium. The struc-
ture of the tumor tissue corresponds roughly to
that of squamous epithelium as seen in the skin
and mucous membranes. Thus there are flat-
tened squamous surface cells, irregular cells
such as are found in the deeper layers of the
skin, ‘prickle’ cells, cuboidal cells, etc. Not in-
frequently squamous cells are packed in to-
gether in crescentic forms knoum as epithelial
‘pearls.’ Epithelioma or ‘epithelial cancer’ is
most common around the orifices of the body
where skin and mucous membranes unite, as for
example around the openings of the mouth, nose,
eyes, vagina, etc. The malignancy of an epithe-
lioma depends much upon the growth powers of
its cells and the extent to which these cells tend
to infiltrate surrounding tissues. In general it
may be said that epitheliomata are the most
slow growing and least malignant of all forms
of cancer. They may, however, recur unless
completely removed and may form metastases.
MALIGNANOY OF TUMORS. Many tumors which
are in themselves benign in character may be
dangerous to life from their position and conse-
quent interference with the functions of impor-
tant organs. Such tumors, although sometimes
causing death, are not classed as malignant
tumors. Malignant tumors proper present cer-
tain well-defined characteristics of their malig-
nancy. Among these may be mentioned, first,
their tendency to local recurrence after removal.
This has led to the rule of the surgeon when
operating on cancer to cut wide of the growth,
even though the tumor may seem small and in-
significant, in the hope of removing all trace
Von. XVI.-63.
of cancerous tissue even at the sacrifice of some
healthy 'tissue. This local recurrence after ap-
parently complete removal is undoubtedly due
to the fact that cancer cells have extended out
beyond the limits of the visible tumor. It is
customary in some cases to have immediate mi-
croscopical examination made of the periphery
of the mass ’removed, to determine the presence or
absence of cancer cells at the outer limits of the
operation. Secondly may be mentioned the tendency
of a malignant tumor to extend by direct conti-
nuity of growth to surrounding tissues. In ‘dis-
continuous peripheral growth’ there are at first
microscopic extensions outward of cancer cells
from the periphery of the tumor. These grow
and form nodules near, though at first separated
from, the main tumor mass, but which after-
wards spread and usually join the original
tumor. A third and very characteristic mark of
malignancy in a tumor is the formation of what
are known as metastatic tumors. These are sec-
ondary tumors of -the same general nature as
the parent growth. They may occur in any tis-
sue or organ, no matter how distant, and are
the result of cancer cells disseminated through
the blood and lymph. These cells, lodging, form
the starting points of new or secondary or meta-
-static growths. These secondary growths may also
act as new centres of infection from which
other metastatic tumors may arise. A fourth
evidence of malignancy is the effect of the pres-
ence of the cancer upon the general health of
the patient. General impairment of the patient’s
health is due to many factors, such as the drain
upon the whole system of a rapid new growth,
the absorption of injurious matter from the
tumor itself, the effect of suppuration or necro-
sis, etc., and is known as ‘cancerous cachexia.’
DEVELOPMENT AND TREATMENT 0E CERTAIN
TUMORS. Carcinoma, or scirrhous cancer, is the
form most frequently seen in the breast, where
it is invariably primary. It follows a blow or
other injury, in many cases; often no cause can
be assigned. It most commonly commences as a
small, circumscribed tumor, round, hard, slowly
growing, and with little or no pain. As it in-
creases in size it becomes irregular, granular, and
adherent to the adjacent parts. Infiltration of
the surrounding structures follows, the pectoral
muscles may become involved, and the skin may
become attached. The skin also becomes stretched
and shining, stiff and brawny. (Edema of the
arm follows, with enlargement of the axillary
glands. The pain now becomes intense and fair-
ly constant, extending not only to the shoulder,
but down the arm to the hand. The nipple, as
in some non-malignant tumors, becomes retracted
and deeply attached. As the process goes on
the cellular tissue, intcrcostal muscles, and ribs
may become attacked, the pleura may be in-
vaded, and h_vdrothorax as well as visceral de-
posits may follow.
The duration of life after the occurrence of
scirrhus of the breast is about three years. In
old people the progress is slow, and in a few
recorded cases life was prolonged for ten years.
Most cases occur between the ages of thirty
and forty-five years. The treatment consists of
removal of the growth as early as found. In
most cases the whole breast should be removed,
and the axilla be laid open, that all enlarged
TUMOR.
TUN GUS.
988
lymphatic glands may be excised. Caustics are
rarely successful. Quacks are prone to diagnose
simple fibromata as cancers, and then cure them
with caustics. The use of light has proved of
increasing efficacy in the removal of malignant
growths, and it is confidently expected that Fin-
sen’s light or the X-ray will become a substitute
for the knife. See PIIOTOTHERAPY; X-RAY.
Epithelioma, or ‘epithelial cancer,’ is often
diagnosed from other tumors with much difli-
culty. The following points are of assistance:
(1) It occurs almost invariably on muco-cutane-
ous surfaces. (2) It ulcerates very early. (3) U1-
ceration follows upon the new growth so rapidly
that it seems to spread by ulceration. (4) It
arises after local irritation. (5) There is no
metastasis to internal organs in the vast ma-
jority of cases of epithelioma. It is common
in middle-aged or elderly people. Epithelioma
of the lip, an ordinary form, follows smoking
(and hence is called ‘smokers’ cancer’), or irri-
tation from a broken tooth, intermittent pressure
of some article held in the mouth, as a painter’s
dust-brush, etc. It commences generally as a
small wart or fiat tubercle with hard edges and
a. suppurating surface. Ulceration spreads, the
edges of the ulcer being hard and thickened. It
scabs over and the scab scales off again. Glands in
the neck become enlarged, and the muscles of the
face become involved. Early excision of a liberal
V-shaped section of the lip, the larger part being
removed from the vermillion border, and the cut
edges being stitched together afterward, is the
proper treatment. Frequently from three to
seven years pass before recurrence in the scar fol-
lows, or recurrence may never take place. In
some instances the ligature, or the écraseur, or
caustic is preferable. The X-ray or Finsen’s
light may also succeed.
Consult: Delafield and Prudden, Handbook of
Pathological Anatomy and Histology (New York,
1901); Virchow, Die krankhaften Geschmllste
(Berlin, 1900) ; Park, Surgery by American Au-
thors (Philadelphia, 1901).
TUNA. See PRIoKLY PEAR.
TUN’BRIDG‘rE. A market town in Kent,
England, on the Medway, 27 miles southeast of
London (Map: England, G 5). The manufac-
ture of toys, boxes, and articles of wood in Tun-
bridge ware, a mosaic veneer of beech, holly, etc.,
is a specialty. A notable feature is the remains
of a mediaeval castle, which stands on the Med-
way, near the entrance of the town. It has
a noble gate tower of great size, richly orna-
mented. Among other structures are the parish
church, a large restored building, and the gram-
mar school, founded in 1553, with an endowment
of £5500 a year. Population, in 1901, 12,736.
TUNBRIDGE WELLS. An English inland
watering-place, on the border of Kent and Sus-
.sP.X. five miles south of Tunbridge (Map: Eng-
land, G 5). Its picturesque surroundings,
healthful climate, and chalybeate springs have
rendered it a fashionable resort since the seven-
teenth century. It has a la.rge trade in the vari-
ous articles made of Tunbridge ware. The wells,
discovered in 1606, are situated at the head of
a promenade called the Pantiles. The principal
buildings are the corn exchange, town hall,
public hall, sanatorium. and mechanics’ insti-
tute. The town was incorporated in 1889; it
owns an excellent water supply, sewage farms,
electric lighting works, and a cemetery. Po u-
lation, in 1891, 29,254; in 1901, 33,388. Consult
Ward, Surrey and Sussew (London, 1897).
TUNDRA (Russ., from Finnish tuntur,
marshy plain). The name given to regions in
Arctic America, Asia, and Europe, characterized
as swamps of hog moss on which the snow-
white reindeer moss and various kinds of
lichens flourish. A luxuriant growth of flower-
ing plants is also a characteristic of some of the
tundras. The tundras are visited by wild birds
in the summer, at which time they are inac-
cessible morasses, but in the winter they may
be readily crossed. The soil at a depth of one
or two feet below the surface remains frozen
throughout the year, and the thickness of the
vegetable growth increases annually, so that the
surface of the tundra slowly rises. The rivers
that flow through the tundras expose a great
depth of layers of ice and frozen soil, in which
the bones of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and
other extinct animals are sometimes found. See
ALASKA; SIRERIA.
TUNGSTEN (Swed. tungsten, from tung,
heavy -|- sten, stone), or WOLFRAM. A metallic
element discovered by d’Elhujar in 1781. It is
not found native, but occurs as the tungstate of
iron and manganese in the mineral wolframite,
as the calcium tungstate or scheelite, as the tri-
oxide or wolfra/m ochre, and in small quantities
in other rare minerals. The metal itself may
be prepared by heating the trioxide with carbon
or in a current of hydrogen, or by heating the
chloride in vapor of sodium.
Tungsten (symbol, W (wolfram); atomic
weight, 184.83) is a bright, steel-gray, hard,
brittle, crystalline substance, with a specific
gravity of 19.12. It melts only at the strongest
white heat. It is chiefly used to increase the
hardness and tenacity of steel and thus im-
prove it as a material for hard tools. Tungsten
combines with oxygen to form a dioxide and a
trioxide, the latter of which unites with water
to form tungstic acid, which in turn combines
with bases to form a series of salts called
tungstates. Of these the sodium tungstate is
sometimes used to replace sodium stannate as
a mordant in dyeing and printing. Fibres dipped
in a solution of this salt are rendered fireproof.
TUNGSTITE. A mineral tungsten trioxide
crystallized in the orthorhombic system. It is
of a bright-yellow or green color. It is found
with other tunsten minerals in Cornwall and
Cumberland, England, and as a coating or in
cavities in Monroe, Conn., and Cabarrus County,
N. C. The preparation of artificial crystals of
this mineral has been reported.
TUNGUS, tun’guz. A group of peoples of
the Ural-Altaic or Sibirie stock embracing the
tribes of the Tungus proper, whose territory ex-
tends from the Yenesei to the Pacific and from
the Arctic Ocean as far south as latitude 40°, and
the Manchus. The Tungus proper consist of the
northern Tungus, comprising the Olchas or Man-
gun, at the mouth of the Amur, the Oroks in the
northern part of the island of Saghalien, the
Orochons, on both banks of the Amur, the
Manegers, on the left bank of the Amur east
of the Orochons, and the Olennyie or Rein-
deer Tungus; the southern Tungus, including
TUNGUS.
TUNING.
989
the Golds of the lower Amur and the Ussuri,
the Oroches on the coast, and the Daurians, or
Solon-Daurs, mixed with Mongols in Kulja;
and the maritime Tungus or Lamuts of the
shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. Among some
of the Tungus Shamanism of a primitive sort
prevails. The influence of the Russians, which
began in the middle of the seventeenth century,
is felt chiefly in the social life of the people.
The Golds of the Amur, who have long been
under the influence of China, have developed an
exceedingly interesting ornamental art. _ They
show considerable capacity for civilization.
The Manchus are being more and more absorbed
by the Chinese, whom their ancestors once con-
quered. The Tungus generally are of medium
height, but the Manchus are often very tall.
The skull-form tends to be mesocephalic. Con-
sult: Hiekisch, Die Tungusen (Saint Petersburg,
1879); Schrenck, Reisen und Forschzmgen im
Amurlcmde (ib., 1881-91); Castrén, Gmndzilge
miner tungusischen Sprachlehre (ib., 1856).
TUNG-USKA, tun—goT)’sk:a. A name given to
each of the three large eastern tributaries of the
Yenisei River in Siberia. They are distinguished
as the Upper, Middle, and Lower Tunguska.
The first is more commonly known as the An-
gara (q.v.), the second as the Stony Tunguska,
and the third as the Lower Tunguska.
TUNGUSKA, LOWER. The northernmost of
the three chief tributaries of the Yenisei River
in Siberia (Map: Asia, K 2). It rises on the
Vitim Plateau in the Government of Irkutsk,
about 200 miles northwest of Lake Baikal, and
flows first north, then northwest, joining the
Yenisei near Turukhansk, not far from the Arctic
Circle, after a course of 1600 miles. Its upper
course flows between low banks covered with pine
forests, but lower down the banks become higher
and rocky, and the river penetrates a range of
mountains in a series of rapids. The river is
navigable about 450 miles, but it is frozen in
its lower course for seven months in the year.
The ice here blocks the upper waters in the
spring, causing extensive inundations. The Low-
er Tunguska comes within 14 miles of the Lena
River.
TUNICA, too-ne’ka. A North American In-
dian linguistic stock. See TONICA.
TUNICATA (Lat. nom. pl. of tunicatus,
p. of tun/icare, to clothe with a tunic, from
tunica, tunic) . The single class of the Urochorda
(q.v.), containing small marine animals inclosed
in a soft elastic tunic, which opens by two aper-
tures (oral and anal), and contains tunicin, a
substance resembling cellulose. The tunic is usu-
ally thick, tough, and leathery, but may be very
thin and delicate, especially in some of the
smaller forms. The mouth, supplied with tactile
organs, opens into a capacious pharynx, which
contracts abruptly into a narrow oesophagus,
then expands into a stomach, followed by a more
or less coiled intestine that terminates close to
the atrial pore or orifice (the other opening in
the tunic). The walls of the pharynx are per-
forated by numerous slits. through which the
water, entering at the mouth passes out into the
cavity of the tunic and thence escapes through
the atrial pore, carrying with it the waste mat-
ter, reproductive products, etc. The pharynx is
thus an important respiratory organ and is corre-
spondingly richly supplied with blood vessels.
The heart is peculiar, in that it reverses its
beating, pumping the blood in one direction for
a time, then pausing and presently pumping the
blood in the other direction for an equal length
of time. The nervous system is greatly reduced,
and sense organs, except those of touch, are gen-
erally wanting. The muscular system is well
developed in some forms, especially in the
tunic, but in others it is ‘reduced and
serves chiefly for closing the oral and
atrial pores. Reproduction is not only by
eggs, but takes place in many forms also by
budding. In size and color, the tunicates offer
the greatest possible diversity. The smallest
forms are, as individuals, only a few millimeters
long, though the colonies which they compose
are often many inches in diameter. The largest
individuals are six or eight inches high, though
some forms are on stalks of much greater length.
In color we find some species jet black and some
pure white, and others fire red, but dull shades
of greenish, grayish, or brownish are more com-
mon. Many of the free-swimming forms are al-
most transparent and nearly colorless.
The number of species of tunicates is large
and the classification has varied greatly with
different writers. They are a comparatively
well defined group and are now considered as a
considerably degenerated offshoot of the branch
from which the Chordata have arisen. (See
ASCIDIAN.) The tunicates may be conveniently
divided into three orders, the Larvalia, the
Thaliacea, and the Ascidiacea. The Larvalia are
a very small group, containing only one family
and few species, remarkable for their small size
and free-swimming habits, and the retention
throughout life of certain characters which in the
other orders occur only temporarily during their
development. These larval characters are especial-
ly the tadpole form with a tail, the nerve cord,
and the persistent notochord or urochord. The
Thaliacea are also free-swimming, but are much
larger and more degenerate or specialized forms.
There are three families, one of which contains
the beautiful salpas (q.v.) The order Ascidiacea
contains three suborders and a dozen or more
families. One suborder is free-swimming like
the salpas, and s0 is called the Salpiformes;
the second, called Compositae, contains fixed
forms which multiply extensively by budding
and thus form compound organisms, the in-
dividuals of which are usually very small;
the third suborder, the Simplices, are almost al-
ways fixed individuals (see ASCIDIAN); but in
many cases large numbers of individuals are
united by a common stolen from which they
have arisen by budding, and these forms are
sometimes known as social ascidians. The Sim-
plices are better known, popularly, than the other
suborders, and many of them have popular
names, as sea-pork, sea-peach, sea-potato, and
sea-squirt.
Consult Herdman, “Report on the Tunicata,”
in Challenger Reports, vol. vi. (London, 1888) .
TUNING. The process of bringing into per-
fect musical accord the strings, pipes or mem-
branes which constitute tone-producing elements
of the various musical instruments. As a rule
the wind instruments do not require special tun-
ing, for their pitch is constant. Keyed instru-
ments (the piano and organ) require onlv occa-
TUNING.
TUNIS.
990
sional regulation of their strings and pipes; but
the stringed instruments need to be tuned con-
stantly. See MUSIGAL INSTRUMENTS; PITCH;
TEMPEBAMENT.
TUNING-FORK. A contrivance for regulat-
ing the pitch of the voice or of a musical in-
strument. It consists of two prongs of steel
springing from a handle, and so adjusted as to
produce a fixed note when struck. It is tuned in
a‘, which has 435 double or 870 single vibrations
per second. The tuning-cone is a hollow, metal
cone used in tuning the metal flue-pipes of an
organ. To lower the pitch of a pipe, the in-
verted cone is pushed down over its top; to
raise the pitch, the point of the cone is inserted
in the pipe.
TU’NIS (Fr. Tunisie). A French protecto-
rate in North Africa. It is the most northern
of African countries, and is bounded on the
north and east by the Mediterranean Sea, on
the south by Tripoli and the Sahara, and on
the west by Algeria (Map: Africa, E 1). Its
boundaries are still indefinite, but the area is
estimated at 51,000 square miles. Tunis is
physically continuous with the rest of North-
western Africa. The northern part is a moun-
tainous plateau constituting the eastern exten-
sion of the Algerian coast range and the main
range of the Atlas Mountains. Its elevation is
on an average about 1500-2000 feet, rising in the
peak of Sidi Ali, and in other summits to
heights of 5700-6500 feet. This plateau region
is fairly well watered by numerous small
streams, many of which are perennial, the vege-
tation in the northern mountains being abundant,
with dense forests. The chief stream is the
Mejerda, the ancient Bagradas. The southern
half of the plateau, generally treeless, is cov-
ered with esparto grass. On the north coast the
plateau falls abruptly in steep cliffs toward the
sea ; on the east coast, however, there is a low re-
gion about 60 miles wide, fertile in the north, but
becoming arid in the south. The southern half
of Tunis belongs to the Sahara region, and, with
the exception of a group of mountains in the
southeast, is generally low, in some places even
below sea level. In its northern part is the
great salt marsh of the Jerid, surrounded by
numerous hot springs, which are used for irriga-
tion. The date palm is here indigenous, and
grows in large numbers, but the rest of the
Sahara region is arid. The climate of Tunis
is healthful, with a temperature ranging from
50° to 96°. The rainfall averages 22 inches in
the north, and is there fairly regular. In the
south years may pass without any regular rains,
though occasionally there are heavy showers
which raise the average to nearly ten inches.
The flora and fauna are almost identical with
those of Algeria (q.v.). Geologically Tunis is
of comparatively recent formation, the moun-
tains being mostly Tertiary, the coast region
Quaternary, and parts of the plateau Cretaceous.
The chief mineral products are zinc, lead, iron,
salt, gypsum, phosphates, and marble. Agricul-
ture, the main industry, shows signs of progress.
Cereals and the vine are mainly cultivated in the
northern part, where the holdings are small.
Farther south the holdings are large and dc-
voted to stock-breeding and the cultivation of
olives (about 500,000 acres) and date palms.
The chief products are olives and olive oil,
grain, fruits, and cork. The leading acreages
in 1900 were 1,075,000 each for wheat and for
barley. Large numbers of sheep, goats, cattle,
camels, asses, and mules are reared. Tunis has
practically no industries except the native or
household. Carpets, saddles, and other leather
articles and woolen goods are produced. The
fisheries, controlled by the Italians, are active
and yield principally allaches, sardines, and
sponges. There are sixteen ports, three of
them excellent. In 1901 they registered an en-
tering tonnage of 2,724,092——about one-half
French. The trade is increasing, but chiefly in
imports, the exports in 1901 having been only
about 60 per cent. of the imports. The total
commerce in 1895 amounted to about $16,400,-
000; in 1901, to $20,760,000. Olives and olive
oil, cereals, animals and animal products rep-
resent the leading items of the exports; cereals
and textiles (notably cottons) those of the im-
ports. Nearly one-half the total trade is with
France. There are 576 miles of railway—all
controlled by the French.
The French protectorate dates from 1881. At
the nominal head of the Government is the
native Bey, assisted by nine ministers—seven
French and two native-—~who administer nine de-
partments. There is also the Minister of For-
eign Affairs, who is the French Resident-General.
He is virtually the Viceroy. All foreigners are
governed directly by the French. Tunis has
thirteen civil and two military districts and a
military post—-all in charge of French repre-
sentatives. French tribunals of justice deal with
cases involving foreigners and native courts,
with those of the Tunisians. The French army
stationed here numbers about 20,000 men. The
capital is Tunis. The budget for 1901 balanced
at $8,000,000; for 1902, at $l0.800,000——including
the large items connected with the State rail-
ways (nearly 50 per cent.). The other prom-
inent items are expenditures in connection
with the debt. The debt was consolidated in
1884, and amounted to $27,768,740. In 1888 it
was put in the form of a 3% per cent. loan
guaranteed by France. The coinage, weights, and
measures are for the most part French.
The population is estimated at about 1,900,000
and consists chiefly of Berbers and Arabs. They
profess Mohammedanism. The foreign popula-
tion in 1901 was composed mainly of 67.420
Italians and 38,889 French. There are numer-
ous French as well as Mohammedan schools, a
Mohammedan university in Tunis, and a college.
Tunis is as rich in antiquities as almost any
part of Italy. Punic, Roman, and Byzantine
ruins abound, the two former classes represent-
ing magnificent epochs. The site of Carthage is
still marked by the remains of substructures. A
fine museum of relics has been established here.
The Bardo collection near the capital is valuable.
The early history of Tunis is connected with
that of Carthage (q.v.). After the fall of
Carthage the region became the Roman province
of Africa (Africa in the narrower sense), sub-
divided into the northern district of Zeugitana
and the southern district of Byzacium (Provincia
Byzacena). Carthage was rebuilt, and in the
second and third centuries of the Christian Era
was one of the most important cities of the R0-
man Empire. The Romans were vanquished by
TUN IS.
TUNNEL.
991
the Vandals under Genseric in 429. The Vandals
held the country until their King, Gelimer, was
conquered and taken prisoner in 534 by Beli-
sarius (q.v.), the general of the Byzantine Em-
peror Justinian. Tunis then remained under
Byzantine rule until the conquest by the Arabs
in the seventh century. Under Mohammedan
rule the city of Kairwan rose to great splendor.
After having formed for more than a century
a part of the dominions of the caliphs, the coun-
try was ruled successively by the dynasties of
the Agla-bites, Fatimites, Almohades, and Meri-
nides. In the middle of the twelfth century it
was for a short time u11der the rule of Roger II.
of Sicily. In 1270 Louis IX. of France, having
undertaken a crusade, died during his invasion
of Tunis, and in 1390 the French under the Duke
of Bourbon were again unsuccessful, being re-
pulsed at Mahdiya. In the fourteenth century
Tunis became independent under the Hafsite
rulers and had an era of comparative prosperity.
In 1535 Charles V. undertook an expedition
against the famous corsair Khair-ed-Din (Bar-
barossa), who had established himself at Tunis,
captured the city, and liberated over 20,000
Christian slaves. In 1575 Sinan Pasha con-
quered the country and incorporated it with
the Ottoman Empire. The government was
placed in the hands of a Turkish pasha, a divan
or council, composed of the oflicers of the
Turkish garrison, and the commander of the
janizaries.
After a few years, however, an insurrection of
the soldiery broke out, and a new government
was established, the head of which was a ‘dey’
possessing limited authority, the chief power
being at first exercised by the military divan.
But ‘gradually an oflicer, with the title of ‘bey,’
whose original functions were confined to the
collection of tribute and taxes, acquired a su-
premacy over the other authorities, and finally
obtained a kind of hereditary sovereignty. The
beys of Tunis made conquests on the mainland
and piratical enterprises against Christian pow-
ers at sea. During the eighteenth century Tunis
became tributary to Algeria. About the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century Hamuda Pasha
put an end to this dependence, subdued the Turk-
ish militia, and created a native Tunisian army,
in consequence of which Tun.is virtually attained
independence. The subsequent rulers, Achmet
Bey (1837-55), Mohammed Bey (1855-59), and
Mohammed Sadyk Bey (1859-82), were liberal,
enlightened sovereigns. In 1871 the Sultan
renounced the tribute formerly exacted, and
fixed the future relations of the Sublime Porte
to Tunis. The Bey was to receive his investi-
ture from Constantinople; without the Sultan’s
authority he could neither declare war, conclude
peace, nor cede territory; the Sultan’s name was
to appear on all the coinage; the army was to
be a.t the disposal of the Porte. In internal mat-
ters, however, the power of the Bey was to be
absolute. In 1881 France, with the ostensible
purpose of chastising the Khrumirs, who had
made raids into Algerian territory, sent an ex-
pedition into Tunis. At the same time a. French
squadron appeared before the capital and the Bey
was forced to enter into an engagement estab-
lishing a French protectorate over the country.
Thereupon an insurrection broke out, and it
was only after much bloodshed that the French
were able to compel submission. In July, 1881,
they took Sfax, and in October they occupied
Kairwan. By the close of the year the country
was subdued. The French protectorate has con-
tributed to the material progress and prosperity
of Tunis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Desgodins de Souhesmes, Tunis,
histoire, mceuifls gouvernement (Paris, 1880);
Reid, The Land of the Bey (London, 1882) ;
Hesse-VVartegg, Tunis, Land und Leute (Vienna,
1882; Eng. trans., London, 1899) ; Graham and
Ashbee, Travels in Tunisia (London, 1887),
which has a bibliography; Olivier, La Tunisie
(Paris, 1898) ; Desfosées, La question tunisienne
et l’Af-rique septentrionale (ib., 1881); Riviere,
La Tunisie; geographic, évenements de 1881, or-
ganisation, politique et administration (ib.,
1886) ; _Lallemand, La Tunisie, pays de protec-
torat frangais (ib., 1891); Faucon, La Tunisie
acan.t et depuis l’occupation franeaise (ib.,
1893); La Tunisie francaise (ib., 1896),
published by the Government; Bertholon, Les .
populations et les races en Tunisie (ib., 1896) ;
Leroy-Beaulieu, L’Algérie et la Tunisie (2d ed.,
ib., 1897); Tissot, Eazplo-ration scientifique de
la Tunisie (ib., 1884-88); Carton, Décou/vertes
épig-raphiques et archéologiques, faites en Tunisie
(Lille, 1895) ; Clarin de la Rive, Histoire géné-
rale de la Tunisie (Paris, 1895).
TUNIS. The capital of Tunis. It is situated
near the southwestern extremity of the Lake
of Tunis, about three miles from the ruins
of ancient Carthage (Map: Africa, F 1). The
lagoon or Lake of Tunis is shallow, and com-
municates with the Gulf of Tunis, an inlet of
the Mediterranean, by a narrow strait known as
the channel of Goletta. The gulf itself is, 45
miles broad at the entrance. The town occupies
rising ground, and both the city proper and
the suburbs are surrounded by walls. The
streets of the inner town are narrow, unpaved,
and dirty, but the bazaars are well furnished,
and many of the mosques are splendid, par-
ticularly the Mosque of Yussuf. The palace
of the bey is probably the finest building in
Tunis. The citadel, begun by Charles V., and
finished by Don John of Austria, is interesting
from its collection of old arms. The newer
French or foreign quarter, established since 1893,
has a European aspect. The city contains a
Mohammedan university and a national museum
of arts and antiquities. Water is supplied by
means of a restored ancient aqueduct from
Jebel Zaghwan. Tunis is the commercial centre
of the State, and carries on an important trade
with Europe and Central Africa. Ocean-going
vessels reach the town directly by means of a
canal opened in 1893. Tunis has silk and woolen
manufactures of shawls, tapestries, mantles,
burnooses, caps, turbans, colored cloths; also
leather, soap, wax, and olive oil, all of which it
exports, together with grain, fruits, cattle, fish,
ivory, gold dust, coral, etc. The climate is un-
healthful.
Tunis (ancient Tunes) was a Carthaginian
city, frequently mentioned in connection with the
Punic wars. It became important under the
Arabs. (See TUNIS, Protectorate.) The popu-
lation is estimated at about 170,000, of which
50,000 are Europeans and 40,000 Jews.
TUNKERS. See GERMAN BAPTIST BBETHREN.
TUNNEL (OF. tonnel, tunnel, tun, pipe, ton-
nclle, arbor, arched vault, tunnel, diminutive of
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
992
tonne, pipe, tun, ML. tnnna, OHG. tanna, Ger.
Tonne, AS. tanne, Eng. tan, both the Romance
and Germanic words apparently borrowed from
I'r., Gael. tn-nna, tun). An artificial gallery,
passage, or roadway beneath the ground, under
the bed of a stream, or through a hill or moun-
tain. The art of tunneling has een known to
man since very early times. A king of Egypt
upon ascending the throne began at once to drive
the long narrow passage or tunnel leading to the
inner chamber of the rock-cut tomb at Thebes
which was to form his final resting place. Simi-
lar rock-cut tunneling work was performed by the
Nubians and Indians in building their temples, by
the Aztecs in America, and, in fact, by most of the
ancient civilized peoples. The first built up tun-
nels of which there are any existing records
were those constructed by the Assyrians. The
vaulted drain or passage under the southeast
palace of Nimrud, built by Shalmaneser II. (B.O.
860-824), is in all essentials a true soft-ground
tunnel. A much better example is the tunnel un-
der the Euphrates River, which may quite ac-
curately be claimed to be the first subaqueous
tunnel of which there exists any record. It was,
however, built under the dry bed of the river,
the waters of which were temporarily diverted
and then turned back into their normal channel
after the tunnel work was completed, thus mak-
ing it a true subfluvial tunnel only when finished.
The Euphrates River tunnel was built through
soft ground, and was lined with brick masonry,
having interior dimensions of 12 feet in width
and 15 feet in height. Only hand work was em-
ployed by these ancient peoples in their tunnel
construction. In soft ground the tools used were
the pick and,shovels or scoops. For rock work
they possessed a greater range of appliances.
Research has shown that among the Egyptians,
by whom the art of quarrying was highly de-
veloped, use was made of tube drills and saws
provided with cutting edges of corundum or other
hard, gritty material. The usual tools for rock
work were, however, the hammer, the chisel, and
wedges; and the excellence and magnitude of the
works accomplished with these limited appliances
attest the unlimited time and labor which must
have been available for their accomplishment.
The Romans should doubtless rank as the
greatest tunnel-builders of antiquity in the num-
ber, magnitude, and useful character of their
works and in the improvements which they de-
vised in the methods of tunnel-building. They
introduced fire as an agent for hastening the
breaking down of the rock, and also developed the
familiar principle of prosecuting the work at
several points at once by means of shafts. Their
method of operation was simply to build large
fires in front of the rock to be broken down, and
when it had reached a high temperature to cool
it suddenly by throwing water upon the hot sur-
face, thus producing cracks and fissures.
The Roman tunnels were designed for public
utility, especially for aqueducts and roads. One
of the most notable of the tunnels of larger sec-
tion is that which gives the road between
Naples and Pozzuoli passage through the Posi-
lipo hills. It is excavated through volcanic
tufa, and is about 3000 feet long and 25 feet
wide, with a section of the form of a pointed
arch. In order to facilitate the illumination of
this tunnel, its floor and roof were made gradu-
ally converging from the ends toward the mid-
dle; at the entrances the section was 75 feet
high. This double funnel-like construction
caused the rays of light to concentrate as they
approach the centre, and thus to improve the
natural illumination. This tunnel was probably
excavated during the time of Augustus, although
some authorities place its construction at an
earlier date.
During the Middle Ages the art of tunnel-
building was practiced for military purposes, but
seldom for the public need and comfort. Every
great castle had its private underground passage
from the central tower or keep to some distant
concealed place to permit the escape of the
family and its retainers in case of victory by the
enemy, and during the defense to allow of sorties
and the entrance of supplies. The tunnel-build-
ers of the Middle Ages added little to the knowl-
edge of the art. Indeed, until the seventeenth
century and the introduction of gunpowder no
particular improvement was made in the tunnel-
ing methods of the Romans. Although gun-
powder had been previously employcd in mining,
the first important use of it in tunnel work was
at Malpas, France, in 1679-81, in the tunnel for
the Languedoc Canal. This tunnel was 510 feet
long, 22 feet wide, and 29 feet high, and was
excavated through tufa.
With the advent of gunpowder and canal con-
struction the first strong impetus was given to
tunnel-building in its modern sense as a commer-
cial and public utilitarian construction. Canal
tunnels of notable size were excavated in France
and England during the last half of the seven-
teenth century. These were all rock or hard-
ground tunnels. Indeed, previous to 1800 the
soft-ground tunnel was beyond the courage of the
engineer except in sections of such small size as
hardly to deserve the name of tunnels. In 1803,
however, a tunnel of 24 feet wide was excavated
through soft soil for the Saint-Augustine Canal
in France. Timbering was employed to support
the walls and roof as fast as the earth was re-
moved and the masonry lining was built closely
following it. From the experience gained in this
tunnel were developed the various systems of
soft-ground subterranean tunneling since em-
ployed. It was through the development of the
steam railway, however, that the art of tunneling
was to be brought into its present prominence. In
1820-26 two tunnels were built on the Liverpool
and Manchester Railway in England. This was
the beginning of the rapid development which
has made the tunnel one of the most familiar of
engineering structures. The first railway tunnel
in the United States was built on the Allegheny
Portage Railroad in Pennsylvania, in 1831-33;
and the first canal tunnel had been completed
thirteen years previously (1818-21) by the
Schuylkill Navigation Company, near Altoona,
Pa.
The art of tunneling entered its last and great-
est phase with the construction of the Mont
Cenis Tunnel in Europe and the Hoosac Tunnel in
America. The Mont Cenis Tunnel was undertaken
to facilitate railway communication between Italy
and France, or, more properly, between Piedmont
and Savoy, the two parts of the kingdom of Vic-
tor Emmanuel II. separated by the Alps. It is
7.6 miles long and passes under the Col de Fréjus
near Mont Cenis. Work was begun in 1857 and
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
993
finished in 1870. It was from the close study of
some of the difficulties, the great length of the
tunnel, and the desire of the engineers to finish
it quickly, that all the different improvements
were developed which marked this work as a
notable step in the advance of the art of tunnel-
ing. Thus the first power drill ever used in tun-
nel work was devised by Sommeiller, one of the
engineers. In addition compressed air as a mo-
tive power for drills, aspirators to suck the foul
air from the excavation, air compressors, tur-
bines, etc., found at Mont Cenis their first appli-
cation to tunnel construction. This important role
played by the Mont Cenis Tunnel in Europe in in-
troducing modern methods had its counterpart in
America in the Hoosac Tunnel, completed in 1875.
In this work there were used for the first time in
America power rock-drills, air compressors, ni-
troglycerin, electricity for firing blasts, etc.
There remains now to be noted only the final de-
velopment in the art of soft-ground submarine
tunneling, namely, the use of shield and metal
lining. The shield was invented and first used by
Sir Marc Isambard Brunel in excavating the first
tunnel under the River Thames at London, which
was begun in 1825 and opened in 1843. In 1869
Peter VVilliam Barlow used an iron lining in con-
nection with a shield in driving the second tun-
nel under the Thames at London. From these
inventions has grown up one of the most notable
systems in tunneling now practiced, known as the
shield system.
CONSTRUCTION. Tunnels may be classified ac-
cording to the general nature of the materials
penetrated, into hard-rock tunnels and soft-
ground tunnels. WVhatever the material pene-
trated, the general methods of construction are
the same, but a variety of differences in detail
exist. In certain kinds of tunnels, such as sub-
aqueous tunnels and tunnels under city streets,
other conditions than the hardness of the mate-
rial penetrated exercise a controlling influence.
For the purpose of description, therefore, it is
common to classify tunnels into hard-rock tun-
nels, soft-ground tunnels, open-cut tunnels, and
submarine tunnels. In open-cut tunnels and sub-

FIG. 1. DIAGRAM SHOWING CROSS-SECTION OF POLYCENTBIO
FIGURE.
marine tunnels the material penetrated may be
either rock or earth. When it has been decided
to construct a tunnel the first task is to construct
a geological map which will show as accurately
as may be determined the character and inclina-
tion of the earth’s strata to be penetrated, the
probability of water being encountered, etc., all
of which exercise an important influence upon
the difficulties and cost of the work. The next
step is to establish exactly the centre line of the
tunnel; this is done on the surface of the ground
and its purpose is to find the exact length of the
tunnel and to furnish a reference line by Which
the excavation is directed. The determination of
the centre line is a simple problem in surveying,
requiring only skill and exactness for its success-
ful solution; the longer the tunnel, and the
higher and more inaccessible the mountain is
above it, the more difficult is the work. So per-
fect, however, has the skill of the surveyor be-
come that it is a common thing to work within
a small fraction of a foot in alignment in driv-
ing a long mountain tunnel.
The centre line being established, the next task
is to establish the form and dimensions of the
cross-section of the hole or passageway which
it is proposed to excavate. The form and dimen-
sions of cross-section adopted are determined by
the purpose to which the tunnel is to be put and
by the character of the material penetrated. The
best one for the majority of conditions, and the
one most commonly employed, is the polycentric
figure (Fig. 1), in which the number of centres
and length of the radii are fixed by the engineer
/\
FIG. 2. DIAGRAM SHOWING SEQUENCE OF GALLERIES IN
DRIFT METHOD OF HARD-ROCK TUNNELING.
to meet the particular conditions which exist.
The dimensions to be given to the cross-section
of a tunnel depend upon the purpose for which it
is to be used, as will be observed in the succeed-
ing descriptions of prominent tunnels. In all
cases the form and the dimensions are those of
the inside of the completed tunnel, which is of
course the inside of the lining in all cases except
those of unlined hard-rock tunnels, where it is
the inside of the original excavation.
EXCAVATION. The work so far described is of
the nature of engineering investigation and de-
sign. The actual construction of work consists
in excavating in the earth or rock a passageway
which follows the established centre line and
conforms in dimensions and shape to the estab-
lished cross-section. In performing this work of
excavation the whole area of the cross-section is
seldom removed at once, but it is subdivided
into two or more galleries, which are excavated
in a measure independently of each other and
which together form the full cross-section. The
objects of thus subdividing the work are several
in number, the more important being as follows:
By driving a number of galleries each somewhat
in advance of the succeeding one, several gangs
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
994
of men can be worked without interfering with
each other; the first gallery, being driven far
ahead, serves to drain the earth and to disclose in
advance the nature of the material that will be
6
FIG. 3. DIAGRAM saowme SEQUENCE or cxnnnmns m
EUROPEAN HARD-ROCK TUNNEL.
encountered; in soft material several small gal-
leries can be driven and timbered with much less
danger of caving than can one large gallery. The
number and arrangement of the galleries vary
with the materials penetrated and with the sys-
tem of tunneling adopted. The first gallery ex-
cavated is called a heading when it is situated at
the top of the cross-section, _and a drift when it

FIG. 4:. DIAGRAM SHOWING SEQUENCE OF GALLERIES IN
AMERICAN HEADING METHOD OF HARD ROCK TUNNELING.
is situated at the bottom of the cross-section.
The excavation of the main sections is termed
enlarging the profile.
Two general methods of excavating rock tunnels
are considered practical by engineers; in one the
profile is enlarged from a drift and in the other
it is enlarged from a heading. The sketch Fig. 2
shows the usual sequence of galleries by which
the full cross-section is enlarged from a drift.
This method of excavation is quite commonly
practiced in Europe, but is seldom employed in
America. Among the most notable tunnels built
by enlarging a drift are the Mont Cenis and the
Simplon, both of which are more fully described
farther on in this article. The more common
method of tunneling through hard rock is to be-
gin the work by a heading instead of by a drift.
This heading may be of small dimensions and the
remainder of the section may be removed in suc-
cessive small parts, or it may be the full width
of the section and the enlargement completed in
one other cut. When the tunnel is excavated by
means of several cuts, which is the method usual-
ly employed in Europe, the sequence of galleries
is indicated by Fig. 3. When the excavation is
made by a single wide heading and a single other
cut for removing the bench, which is the method -
preferred by American engineers, the sequence
of galleries is the simple one indicated by Fig. 4.
The Saint Gotthard Tunnel, described farther on,
is one of the most notable tunnels excavated by
enlarging a heading by means of several cuts;
the Cascade Tunnel in Montana is a ‘notable ex-
ample of the wide heading and single-bench
method. -
In all rock tunnel work the various galleries
are excavated by drilling and blasting the rock.
The most difficult gallery to excavate is the first
heading or drift, as the case may be. Based ‘on
the mode of blasting employed, there are two
methods of driving the advance gallery, known
as the circular and the centre-cut methods. In
/7
FIG. 5. DIAGRAM SHOWING SEQUENCE OF GALLERIES IN
BELGIAN METHOD OF SOFT GROUND TUNNELING.
the first method a set of holes are first drilled
near the centre of the front in such a manner that
they inclose a cone of rock; the holes, starting
at the perimeter of the base of the cone, con-
verge toward a junction at its apex. Seldom
more than four to six holes are comprised in the
first set. Around these first holes are driven a
ring of holes which inclose a cylinder of rock,
and, if necessary, succeeding rings of‘ holes are
driven outside the first ring. These holes are
blasted in the order in which they are driven, the
first set taking out a cone of rock, the second set
enlarging this cone to a cylinder, and the other
sets enlarging this cylinder. These holes are
seldom driven deeper than four or five feet. In
the centre-cut method, which is the one commonly
employed in America, the holes are arranged in
vertical rows and are driven from 15 feet to 20
feet deep. The two centre rows of holes conver'ge
toward each other so as to take out a wedge of
rock, but the others are bored ‘straight’ or par-
allel with the vertical plane of the tunnel. In
conclusion it may be stated that the present
high development of labor-saving machinery for
excavating rock makes this material one of the
safest and easiest to tunnel, with which the en-
gineer ordinarily has to deal. A necessary equip-
ment for tunneling through rock requires a steam
or a water-power plant for pumping air or water
under pressure, and in large tunnels these power
plants are often of considerable size. See DRILLS;
BLASTING.
There are a variety of methods of tunneling
through soft ground. Some of these, like the
open-cut method and the shield method, differ en-
tirely, while in others, like the Belgian, German,
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
995
English, Austrian, and Italian methods, the dif-
ference consists simply in the different order in
which the drifts and headings are driven, in the
difference in the number and size of these advance
galleries, and in the different forms of strutting

2 6 3



FIG. 6- DIAGRAM SHOWING SEQUENCE OF GALLERIES IN
GERMAN METHOD OF SOFT-GROUND TUNNELING.
framework employed. The shield system is con-
sidered separately under the succeeding heading
of Submarine Tunnels. The other methods may
be described briefly as follows: The Belgian
method of tunneling is the one most commonly
employed in soft soils. It consists in excavating
the upper part of the section first; then building
the masonry arch which is supported upon the
unexcavated ground; and finally in excavating
the lower portion of the section and building the
side walls and floor or invert. The sequence of
galleries is shown by Fig. 5. In the German
method two drifts are first opened at each side
of the tunnel near the bottom. Other galleries
are excavated one above the other on each side to
extend or heighten the first two until all the
perimeter is open except across the bottom. The
masonry lining is then built from the bottom up-
ward on each side of the crown of the arch, and
then the centre core is removed and the invert is
built. The sequence of galleries is shown by Fig.
6. In the English and Austrian methods short
lengths of the whole sectional profile are ex-
cavated before beginning the masonry. In the
. \
- \
Fla. 7.
English method the lengths of section excavated
vary from 10 to 25 feet. The masonry invert
is built first, then the side walls, and finally the
roof arch. The excavators and masons work al-
ternately, the excavation being stopped while the
masonry is being built and vice versa. The
Austrian method differs in two particulars from
the English; the length of section opened is made
great enough to allow the excavators to continue
work ahead of the masons, and the side walls and
roof are built before the invert. The Italian
method is very seldom employed because of its
_ cost, but it can often be used successfully in very
soft ground when other methods fail. It consists
in excavating the lower half of the section and
building the invert and side walls and then filling
the space between the walls in again except for
a narrow passageway for the cars for handling
structural material and removing the waste; next
the upper half of the section is excavated, as in
the Belgian method, and the arch is built; and
finally the filling in the lower part is permanent-
ly removed. Tunnels through quicksand are
driven by one of the previously described soft-
ground methods after draining away the water,
or else as submarine tunnels.
In short tunnels or tunnels of great depth be-
neath the surface the excavation is carried on
from the two ends only, but in long tunnels when
the depth is not too great shafts are sunk at in-
tervals along the tunnel-line, and excavation is
carried forward in both directions from the foot
of each shaft as well as from the two ends. Tun-
nel shafts are merely vertical walls, and they
may be either temporary or permanent. Tem-
porary shafts are usually made rectangular in
section and are filled in after the tunnel is com-
pleted; permanent shafts are usually made cir-
cular, lined with brickwork, and left open to sup-
ply ventilation. 'When shafts are used, elevators
operated by hoisting engines have to be employed
to hoist out the cars loaded with excavated ma-
terial.
TIMBEBING AND LINING. The purpose of tim-
bering or strutting in tunnel work is to prevent
the caving in of the roof and side walls of the
excavation previous to the construction of the

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TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
996
lining. Timber is nearly always employed for
strutting in tunnel work, but iron strutting of
special form is sometimes employed. The method
of strutting employed depends upon the nature
of the material penetrated. (Fig. 7.) In the
hard, firm rock no strutting is employed; when
the rock is cracked or shelly in spots only, an
occasional prop and beam is all that is neces-
sary; in soft and broken rock and in soft ground
the framing is continuous, and in very soft ma-
terial often forms practically a water-tight lin-
ing. Tunnels are lined with timber (Fig- 8),
with masonry (Figs. 9 and 10), and with cast-iron
cylinders. Timber lining is used only in America
and is intended to be replaced by masonry at
some future date. The most common form of
masonry lining is brickwork or a brickwork roof
arch with stone masonry side walls. In recent
years monolithic linings of concrete have been
considerably used.
Iron lining is practically limited to submarine
tunnels driven by the shield system. In masonry-
lined tunnels niches (Fig. 11) are built into
the side walls at intervals to serve as places of
refuge and in some cases for the storage of tools
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OPEN-CUT TUNNELING. When a tunnel or
rapid transit subway has to be constructed at a
small depth below the surface, the excavation is
generally performed more economically by mak-
ing an open cut, building the lining inside it, and
filling in the space outside the lining, than it is
by subterranean tunneling proper. The neces-
sary condition of small depth which makes open-
cut tunneling desirable is most generally found
in constructing rapid transit tunnels under city
streets. This fact introduces the chief difliculties
encountered in such, work,
traffic makes it necessary to obstruct the streets
as little as possible.
cut tunneling commonly practiced may be classed
as the longitudinal-trench method and the trans-
verse-trench method. The simplest manner by
which to construct open-cut tunnels is to open a
single cut or trench the full width of the tunnel
since the surface
The two methods of open-
masonry. This trench is strutted by means of
side struttings of vertical planks held in place
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by transverse beams extending across the trench
and abutting against longitudinal timbers laid
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Longitudinol Section.
FIG. 8. A TYPICAL FORM on TIMBER LINING FOR TUNNELS.
and supplies. The ends of the tunnel lining near-
ly always terminate in a portal designed and con-
structed with some pretensions to architectural
beauty. -
against the strutting planks. The lining is built
in this trench and then filled around and above
with well-rammed earth, after which the surface
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TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
997
of the ground is restored. Generally the trench
is opened in short lengths and each length is
completed ready for surface trafiic before the ad-
jacent length is opened. Another form of longi-
tudinal trench method is to open two narrow
parallel trenches in which are built the side walls.
The soil between these walls is then removed to a
sufficient depth to permit the roof to be built and
covered over, and the final process is to take out
the core of earth inclosed by the side walls and
roof. Generally one side wall and one-half of the
roof arch are completed and covered over before
the other side wall and half arch are begun. By
this arrangement of the work one-half of the
street is always unobstructed.
strengthened and sharpened to form a cutting
edge. The rear end extends backward so as to
overlap the completed lining of the cast-iron
rings. Around its inside hydraulic jacks are at-
tached at frequent intervals so that their piston
rods bear against the front edge of the completed
lining. By applying power to the jacks their
piston rods pass with great force against the
immovable lining and thrust the cylinder forward
into the soft earth. Generally the cylinder has
a vertical position or diaphragm near the front
end, which prevents the soft earth from rushing
back into it except as it is allowed by opening
suitable doors. In operation the cylinder is
thrust forward until its sharp cutting edge pene-


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In the transverse-trench method a trench about
12 feet wide is opened across the street, and in
this trench a short length or ‘slice’ of the subway
is built. Owing to the small size of the opening,
it is possible to cover it with a timber platform
which carries the street traffic during construc-
tion. This method was extensively used in con-
structing the subway at Boston, Mass., and at
New York.
SUBMABINE TUNNELING. Submarine or suba-
queous tunnels are tunnels excavated under the
bed of a river or other body of water, generally
for the purpose of providing land communication
between the opposite shores. Inflowing water,
which is always a serious difliculty in tunnel
work everywhere, is here the most serious prob-
lem with which the engineer has to deal. Where
the tunnel is deep below the stream bed and pene-
trates a material impervious to water it may be
excavated by any of the methods commonly em-
ployed in subterranean work. WVhen, however, the
opposite conditions exist, resort is had to the use
. of compressed air or to the shield system or to a
combination of the two. In the compressed-air
method the forward end of the tunnel where ex-
cavation is progressing is filled with air under
sufficient pressure to counterbalance the pressure
of the water which seeks to enter. In the shield
system the work is carried on by the aid of a
rather elaborate mechanical device commonly
called a shield. The importance of this invention
to the tunnel-builder can hardly be overesti-
mated.
The shield devised by Barlow already referred to
was greatly improved by Mr. J . H. Greathead, and
was first used in building the London Tower tun-
nel begun in 1869. The remarkable success of
this work led to the rapid adoption of the shield
system for tunnel work in England and America.
Briefly described, the modern tunnel shield is a
steel plate cylinder, with its forward edge
; ;___, .


MASONRY WORK IN TUNNEL.
trates the earth a little distance. Workmen then
withdraw the earth in small quantities through
the openings in the diaphragm. After enough
material has been thus withdrawn to leave the
front of the shield clear, the shield is again
thrust ahead and more earth is removed. As
fast as the shield moves ahead the lining is
erected under the shelter of its tail end. A con-
stant repetition of these processes completes the
tunnel. When the earth is very soft and carries
much water, compressed air is often used in con-
nection with the shield. The shield system of
tunneling has been extensively used in England
‘and America and to a less extent in most other
civilized countries.
NOTABLE TUNNELS. The number of tunnels
notable because of their length, the difficulties
encountered in their construction or for other
reasons, has become so great that mention can be
made here of only a few of them which are most
celebrated. The Mont Cenis Tunnel through the
Alps places France in direct communication
with Italy. It passes from a point near
Modane, in France, under the Col de Fréjus,
about 18 miles west of the actual Mont Cenis,
into Italian territory, at a point near Barde-
necchia, about 24 miles from Susa. The length of
the tunnel between extremities is 7.6016 miles.
It is formed with a rising gradient from each
end, at the rate of about 1 in 45% from Modane
and 1 in 2000 from Bardonecchia, the summit or
meeting of the gradients being half way through
the tunnel. The railway does not enter at the ex-
tremities of the tunnel, but joins it by means of
special curved sections of tunnel at each end.
The total length of tunnel traversed by trains is
7.9806 miles. The following is the geological for-
mation of the rock traversed by the direct tunnel
advancing from the north end: Carbonaceous
schist, 1.3027 miles; quartz, 0.2414 miles; lime-
stone, 0.2210 miles; calcareous schist, 5.8365
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
998
miles. The tunnel on leaving Modane is of the
following dimensions: 25 feet 3%, inches wide at
the bottom, 26 feet 23/,-,_ inches wide in the broad-
est point, and 24 feet 71/2 inches high, the arch
being semicircular. At Bardonecchia the height
is greater by ll-‘I/4, inches and the arch is made
elliptical to enable it to resist the greater strain
caused by a different inclination of the strata.
The tunnel is lined with the exception of about
300 yards on the north side. The side walls are
8 feet 6 inches thick throughout. The arch to
the south side is constructed principally of
brick, and to the north side of stone, a brick key
being applied throughout. There are side paths
of flagstones 20 inches wide.
Work was begun in 1857, and for three years
hand labor was used entirely, but it was
planned from the beginning by the engineers,
Sommeiler, Grandis, and Grattoni, to introduce
machinery ultimately. In 1861 power drills were
put at work at the south end, and in 1862 the
north end was similarly equipped. The drills
used were operated by compressed air and ‘they
‘and also the compressors used were invented by
Sommeiler. The tunnel was completed and
opened for traffic in 1872. In 1872, however,
work was begun on the Saint Gotthard rail-
way tunnel through the Alps between Italy
and France, which far exceeded the Mont Cenis
in magnitude. This tunnel crosses the moun-
tains between Goeschenen and Airolo, and is 9.25
miles long. The excavation was through rock
consisting chiefly of gneiss, mica schist, serpen-
tine, and hornblende, the strata having an incli-
nation of from 45° to 90°. At many points the
rock was fissured and disintegrated easily, and
water was encountered in large quantities, caus-
ing much trouble. In this work, as at Mont Cenis,
power drills and compressed air were used, but
in a much improved form as a result of the pre-
vious experience and years of study. The exca-
vation was lined throughout with masonry, the
side walls being of rubble stone and the roof
arch of brick. Along the bottom there was a cul-
vert of brickwork. The Mont Cenis Tunnel had
been excavated by means of a drift as an ad-"
Vance gallery, but at Saint Gotthard the advance
gallery was a top centre heading. VVater power,
secured by draining near-by mountain torrents,
was used to compress the air used in operating
the drills and for driving the compressed-air
locomotives used in hauling the debris from the
excavation. The tunnel was opened for traffic in
1882.
The third great Alpine tunnel is tfi Simplon
Tunnel, -nearing completion in 19 . Many
schemes for the connection of Italy and Switzer-
land by a railway near the Simplon Road Pass
have been devised. The scheme which was put
forward in 1881 by the Jura-Simplon Railway,
consisted broadly of piercing the Alps between
Brigue, in the Rhone Valley, and Iselle, on the
Italian side, from which village the railway de-
scends to the southern terminus at Domo d’Os-
sola, a distance of about 11 miles. Starting from
Brigue, the new line, running gently up the val-
ley for 1% miles, on account of the proximity
of the Rhone, enters the tunnel on a curve to
the right of 1050 feet radius. At a distance of
153 yards from the entrance, the straight por-
tion of the tunnel commences, and extends 12
miles. The line then curves to the left with a
radius of 1311 feet before emerging. Commenc-
mg at the northern entrance, a gradient of 1
111 500 miles for a length of 51/2 miles to a level
length of 550 yards in the centre, and then a.
gradient 1 in 143 descends to the Italian side.
The tunnel will be a double tunnel. That is,
there will eventually be two parallel tunnels,
having their centres 50 feet apart, each carrying
one line of railway; but at the present time
only one tunnel, that known as No. 1, has been
excavated to full size, No. 2 being left, masonry-
lined where necessary, for future developments.
By means of cross headings every 220 yards,
the problems of transport and ventilation are
greatly facilitated. In cross-section tunnel No.
1 is 13 feet 7 inches wide at the bottom, and
16 feet 5 inches wide at the widest part, with a
total height of 18 feet above rail level. The
n".aterial penetrated is rock. Rotary drills
operated by hydraulic pressure were used, there
being an elaborate water-power plant at each
end of the tunnel. ~ .
The three great European -railway tunnels
which have been described find their nearest
counterpart in America in the Hoosac Tunnel, the
Stampede Tunnel, and the Cascade Tunnel. The
Hoosac Tunnel is on the line of the Fitchburg
Railroad in Massachusetts, and passes through
a southern extension of the Green Mountains
known as the Hoosac Mountains. It is 4%,
miles long, and was driven from the two ends
and from an intermediate shaft 1028 feet deep.
VVork was begun originally in 1855 and was car-
ried on intermittently, there being many long
delays due to lack of funds and the obstacles en-
countered. The tunnel proper was completed in
1873, but several additional years were con-
sumed in the masonry work. The cost of the
Hoosac Tunnel was about $11,000,000. The tun-
nel is 24 feet wide in the widest part, and
22 feet 8 inches high, and carries two lines of
railway track. The Stampede Tunnel carries the
Northern Pacific Railway through the Cascade
Mountains, and was begun in 1886. From the
time it was determined to make Puget Sound
the western terminus of the Northern Pacific
Railway, the question of a feasible route across
the Cascade Range was prominently before
the company. Between the years 1873 and
1884, several proposed routes were examined
by the company’s engineers, of which those
via the Natchess, Stampede, and Snoqualmie
passes were prominent. The Stampede route,
lying between the other two, was finally recom-
mended, and was formally adopted by the com-
pany in 1884. Each of the routes named required
a tunnel through the backbone of the Cascade
Range; but the Stampede route was the longest
of the three. The altitude of the mountain be-
neath which it was necessary to tunnel was 3970
feet above sea level, and the greatest thickness
over the top of the tunnel is 1400 feet, the average
depth being about 1200 feet. The elevation of the
east portal of the tunnel above the sea is 2827 feet,
and that of the west portal is 2800 feet. Work
was begun in February, 1886. Probably no other
tunnel was ever undertaken where the difficulties
and cost of reaching the site and preparing for
work were so great as at the Stampede Tunnel.
The distance from the nearest railway to the
east portalwas 82 miles, and to the west portal it
was 87 miles, and all men, plant, and material
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL.
999
had to be conveyed these distances on wagons and
sleds. By the terms of the contract the size of
the tunnel was 16% feet wide and 22 feet high.
The method of driving it was as follows: An 8-
foot heading was driven along the top of the tun-
nel and was kept about 30 feet in advance of the
bench where the tunnel was excavated to its full
width. With the exception of about 500 feet in-
ward from each portal, where the rock was firm
and stable, the entire tunnel was timbered as fast
as the work progressed. The timbering made it
necessary to enlarge the section called for by the
contracts to a width of 19% feet and a height of
23 feet. 10 in. The total length of the tunnel was
9850 feet, with a rising grade from each end to-
ward the middle. Power drills operated by com-
pressed air were used. The amount of explosive
used was 309,625 pounds. The total cost of the
tunnel was $1,160,000.
The Cascade Tunnel carries the Great Northern
Railway through the summit of the Cascade
Range in Montana. This tunnel is of particular
interest because of the representative illustration
which it affords of modern rock-tunneling meth-
ods and machinery in the United States. The
crossing of the summit proper of the Cascade
Mountains since the construction of the Pacific
extension of the Great Northern Railway in 1891-
92 was efl'e'cted by means of a switchback. This
switchback was built merely as a temporary line.
Business conditions, however, did not justify the
construction of a tunnel between 1892 and 1897,
but in the latter year orders were given to com-
mence the work and push it as fast as possible
to completion. The length of the tunnel is 13,813
feet, of which about 400 feet (or 200 feet at each
end) is an extension of the permanent lining, to
-take the place of the wooden snow shed, but the
length of the tunnel proper, from face to face of
portals, is 2.61 miles. The width in the clear,
inside of the permanent lining, is 16 feet, and the
height from top of rail to bottom of arch is 21
feet 6 inches. For the first 500 feet at the west
portal, the tunnel was driven through a. slide com-
posed of gravel and large boulders. This ground
was heavily impregnated with water, and the
pressure from above was tremendous. The pres-
ence of the large- boulders made it difficult to
drive poling boards, and a hole a few inches in
diameter, if left open, would soon let in sand
enough to fill the heading. To carry this heavy
ground required three concentric sets of timbers,
as well as tie-rods, connecting the wall plates.
The ordinary American system of tunnel exca-
vation was employed. The overhead heading was
taken out to the full size of the rock section,
10 X 20 feet, and the bench taken out in two lifts.
Rock from the heading and top bench was wheeled
in barrows, out onto a large traveling carriage
called a ‘jumbo,’ where it was dumped through
chutes into the muck cars. Material from the
lower bench was shoveled directly into the cars.
On. a secondary floor, under the main floor of the
‘jumbo,’ was a hoist operated by compressed air,
which was used to load large pieces of rock, some
of them weighing six tons, on the flat cars. This
obviated the necessity of blockholing large pieces
of rock, to enable them to be handled. This cable
and hoist was also used to move the ‘jumbo’ back
from the rock face when blasting was to be done.
Compressed air, at 100 pounds’ pressure, operated
drills, hoists, and pumps with the exception of
one large pump which was operated by elec-
tricity. Four vertical columns in the heading
carried six 3%-inch Rand ‘Slugger’ drills. From
24 to 28 holes, 12 feet deep, were drilled in the
breast, and fired by electricity, in three rounds.
Holes were drilled to lift the top bench, and ver-
tical holes for the main or lower bench, enough
to break the rock to subgrade. Altogether an
average of fourteen 3-1/4-inch drills were used in
each heading and benches.
All hauling out of muck, and hauling in of con-
crete, was done with electric motors, of which
eight were in service. Six of these were con-
structed at the tunnel machine shop. One of these
motors hauled loaded trains of from 16 to 20
dump cars, of 1 cubic yard capacity, up the 1.7
per cent. grade, at 10 miles per hour. The foul
air was exhausted from the heading through 24-
inch galvanized iron pipe, by means of a No. 9
Sturtevant fan, running at 1700 revolutions.
The tunnel is permanently lined throughout its
entire length with concrete, this lining being no-
where less than 23 inches thick, and in places 3%
feet thick. VVhere the section was larger than
would admit of solid concrete, it was backfilled
with spawls and broken stone, the result being a
monolith of concrete from portal to portal. The
tunnel excavation proper was commenced August
20, 1897, and completed October 13, 1900. The
average monthly progress in the tunnel was 350
feet; average daily progress 11.53 feet. The work
of concrete lining the tunnel was commenced
November 17, 1899, and completed November 17,
1900. The average monthly progress was 1115
feet.
Probably the most notable submarine tunnel
through rock is that under the river Severn in
England, which is known as the Severn Tunnel.
The Great Western Railway system west of Bris-
tol was formerly separated -soutl1 of Gloucester by
the Severn and its estuary, from the lines between
Gloucester and the South \Vales ports, as Well as
from the western lines between Hereford and
North \Vales, Liverpool, Manchester, and the
north. This want of connection was only partly
remedied by a steam ferry across the estuary of
the Severn. A tunnel under the Severn was, ac-
cordingly, proposed in 1871 to provide for
through traffic, and was authorized in 1872.
Work was begun in 1873. The -site selected for
the tunnel was about two miles below the mouth
of the \-Vye, where the width of the estuary at
high tide is about 21/4 miles. The strata trav-
ersed by the tunnel consist of conglomerate, lime-
stone, carboniferous beds, sandstone, marl, gravel,
and sand; the least thickness of soil between the
top of the tunnel and the deepest part of the
channel is 44% feet. The total length of the tun-
nel is 4 miles, 624 yards. The tunnel was exca-
vated from four shafts, work being commenced
in 187 3 and completed in 1886. Great difliculty
was experienced with water, which flooded the
workings on several occasions. On one of these
occasions a diver was employed to enter the tun-
nel and close a bulkhead door, which he did by
carrying a knapsack filled with compressed oxy-
gen to sustain life during his submarine journey.
Another subaqueous tunnel through rock is the
Mersey Tunnel, about one mile long, connecting
Liverpool and Birkenhead. In this work a venti-
lating tunnel of smaller size than the main tun-
nel was excavated under the main tunnel by a
TUNNEL.
TUNNE-I.l.
1000
rotary boring machine which cut out the passage-
way to full size at one operation. Except for
the Mersey Tunnel, which is a passenger tunnel,
all the tunnels previously described are for rail-
way purposes. They are also all rock tunnels.
Among the many important railway tunnels
which have been built through soft ground only
two will be mentioned. The Baltimore Belt
Tunnel, 8350 feet long, in Baltimore, Md., was
excavated through water-bearing sand, loam,
clay, and gravel by the German method of
soft-ground tunneling. It provides for a double-
track railway line. The Saint Clair Tunnel
carries the double tracks of the Grand Trunk
Railway under the Saint Clair River between
1\-lichigan and Canada. In 1886 the Saint Clair
Tunnel Company was formed to build this tunnel.
Borings showed the materials to be penetrated to
be a soft blue clay throughout at the site chosen,
which was just below Sarnia and Port Huron.
The excavation consisted of an open cutting on
the American side 2500 feet long ; a tunnel 6000
feet long under the river, and an open cutting on
the Canadian side 3100 feet long. Work was be-
gun by means of two shore shafts in 1888, but
these were abandoned, and in 1889 work was com-
menced on the cuttings. These were completed so
that shields were started on the tunnel proper in
the same year. The shields used were 211/; feet
outside diameter, and the cylindrical shell con-
sisted of 1-inch steel plates. The cylinder was
stiffened by five diaphragms dividing it into
twelve cells. In front the shield had a cutting
edge, and at the back it was prolonged 4 feet to
cover the lining of the tunnel. As the shield was
shoved forward a paste of cement and water was
forced out through holes left in the lining to fill
the space left between the lining and the clay.
The excavation was done in front of the shields,
which were then forced forward by hydraulic
jacks, and the erection of the permanent cast-
iron lining followed up, the ring being erected in-
side the tail of the shield. There were 24 hy-
draulic jacks at the back of each shield, each
capable of exerting a power of 125 tons, but the
greatest total power used did not exceed 1800
tons. The lining is 21 feet in outside diameter.
Each ring of lining is 18 inches long, measured on
the line of the tunnel, and is made up of 13 seg-
ments and a key piece. Each segment weighs
1050 pounds, and the total weight ofcast iron in
the lining is 27,000 tons. The Baltimore Belt
Line tunnel is a fairly representative example of
railway tunneling through soft ground on land,
and the Saint Clair Tunnel is an equally good ex-
ample of railway tunneling under water by means
of the shield method.
Next to their use for railways, tunnels are more
frequently built to conduct water than for any
other purpose, perhaps. A good example of rock
tunneling for this purpose is afforded by the
Niagara Tunnel, built to carry the water away
from the wheel pit of the Niagara Power Com-
pany at Niagara Falls, N. Y. This tunnel is
7600 feet long, 19 feet wide, and 21 feet high, and
runs through solid limestone rock. The Chicago
water-works tunnels, through which the city of
Chicago draws its. water supply from Lake Michi-
gan, constitute the most elaborate system of wa-
ter-supply tunnels anywhere in the world. They
comprise 21.97 miles of subaqueous tunnel and
15.92 miles of land tunnel.
The subaqueous
tunnels are as follows:


Diame- Length, Cost Capacity,
ter, ft. ft. gallons
Lake View. ...... .. 6 9,999 $701,792 45,000,000
5 10,567 464,866
Chicago Ave.... 7 10,560 415,709 170,000,000
1 7 10,908 299,897
Twel th St. or 8 9,139
Four-mile .. 6 25,200 1'm4’744 95,000-'°°°
Hyde Park or 7 12,353
Sixty-eighth 5 8,132 741,371 105,000,000
t ............... .. 6 5,026
N ortheast ........ .. 10 14,108 610, 560 200,000,000
Total (21.97)
miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115,992 $4,338,939 615,000,000

At Milwaukee, Wis., there is a water-supply
tunnel 3200 feet long and 7% feet in diameter
lined with brick masonry throughout, completed
in 1895. At Cleveland, O., a water-supply tunnel
26,000 feet long and 9 feet in diameter has recently
been constructed, and two other older tunnels are
also in use, one being 5 feet in diameter for 6662
feet and 5% and 6 feet in diameter for 2580 feet,
and the other being 7 feet in diameter and
9200 feet long. One of the most notable water-
supply tunnels in the world is that which brings
water to New York City, and which is known
as the Croton Aqueduct. (See AQUEDUCT.) This
tunnel is 33 miles long and about 14 feet high
and 14 feet wide; it was built through rock. The
Vyrnwy Aqueduct, 77 miles long, for bringing
water to the city of Liverpool, England, has
three tunnels. The first and longest is the
Hirnant Tunnel, 2 miles 3 furlongs in length
through solid rock. The second is the Cynynion
Tunnel at mile 16. It is seven furlongs long;
but the aqueduct only comes out of the tun-
nel to pass in a siphon across a valley, entering
the Llanforda Tunnel, which is one mile long.
These tunnels are circular in section and 7 feet
in diameter. The third tunnel is that under the
River Mersey, which is 805 feet long and lined
with iron rings 10 feet in diameter on the out-
side.
VVithin recent years many important tunnels
have been constructed to carry rapid transit rail-
ways under city streets. Some of these, like the
London tunnels, have been deep tunnels, but oth-
ers, like those at Boston, Paris, and New York,
have been constructed for the most part by open-
cut methods at a small depth below the surface.
The City and South London Railway, in London,
was begun in 1886 and completed in 1890, elec-
tricity being ultimately adopted as the means of
traction. It is 3% miles long from the city to the
Swan at Stockwell, and is entirely underground.
Briefly the road consists of two 10 feet 6 inch
cast-iron lined tunnels substantially parallel to
each other, which converge into a single tunnel at
the termini to permit the transfer of trains from
one line to the other. These tunnels were con-
structed by means of the shield system. The
Waterloo and City Railway in London extends
from the Waterloo station of the Southwestern
Railway to the Mansion House, a distance of
1 mile 4 furlongs and 150 yards. It consists of
two parallel circular tunnels 12 feet 1-? inches
interior diameter except at the curves, where the
dimension is increased to 12 feet 9 inches. The
tunnels were driven by the shield method, Work
having been begun in 1894 and completed in
TUN N EL.
TUNNEL.
1001
1897. A single electric railway track in each
tunnel forms a double-track railway between the
termini named. The Central London Railway
runs from Shepherds Bush to the Bank, a dis-
tance of 5;”; miles, the whole distance being in
deep tunnel at depths varying from 60 to 90
feet. It consists, like the two roads previously
mentioned, of two parallel circular tunnels. Each
tunnel is 111/2 feet in diameter and has a cast-
iron. lining. The shield system of construction
was employed. To be added to these tunnels
are the Metropolitan District railways, parts of
which are underground, begun in 1853, the
Waterloo and Baker Street Railway, and the
projected Euston and Hempstead Railway.
The longest of the London tunnels is the
Blaclcwall Tunnel for street traffic under the
River Thames. The total length of this work is
6200 feet, of which 3088 feet are tunnel proper,
1,370 feet are open cut roofed over, and 1742 feet
are open cut without covering. The exterior di-
ameter of the tunnel is 27 feet. It was driven
by means of a shield 27 feet 9 inches in diameter
and 181/; feet long, with two diaphragms, from
horizontal partitions or stages and four vertical
partitions. The lining is of cast-iron rings.
Work was begun in 1892 and completed in 1897.
The tunnel provides a roadway 16 feet wide and
two sidewalks each 3 feet 1% inches wide. In
Glasgow, Scotland, the Glasgow City and District
Railway has a length of 3.123 miles. Of this dis-
tance one mile is deep tunnel, and 3483 feet are
tunnel built by the open-cut method. Work was
begun in 1883 and completed in 1886. The Glas-
gow Oentral Railway has 0.84 of a mile of deep
tunnel and 3.13 miles of open-cut tunnel. The
Glasgow District Subway, 61/; miles long, con-
sists of two parallel circular cast-iron lined tun-
nels ll feet in interior diameter. The tunnels
were driven by the shield method. Construction
was begun in 1891 and completed in 1894. The
Metropolitan Railway of Paris, comprising alto-
gether some 40 miles of projected railway, com-
pleted in 1900 the main line from the Porte de
Vincennes to the Porte Maillot and the Porte
Dauphine, 8.7 miles. This is entirely underground.
In the tunnel excavation the Berlier type of
shields ordinarily were used; but progress by this
means was found too slow, and open, timbered
excavation of the ordinary type was employed.
The so-called Belgian method of tunneling was
used; the arch was first built and then the
side walls were erected by underpinning the
arch. After the earthen core was removed the
bottom arch, or invert, was set in place. At the
stations, however, the side walls were first con-
structed and upon them the arch, or metallic roof,
Was built. . The removal of the earth from the core
then took place, as in a tunnel, and the last
stage was the construction of the invert. The
line is double-track electric railway throughout.
The Boston Subway, begun in 1894, is prac-
tically the underground tunnel of_ the surface
electric lines entering the business district of
the city of Boston. The nertion cf the ~line
completed in 1898 was 10,810 feet long, divided
between double-track and four-track tunnel. The
bulk of the tunnel was built by open-cut methods,
but on certain portions the shield system was
employed. In 1900 work was begun on a 1%,-
mile extension of the original line under Boston
Harbor to East Boston. The East Boston tunnel
has a polycentric cross-section 231/2 feet wide
and 201/; feet high and is lined with concrete
masonry. The double-track subway section is
approximately rectangular and 24 feet wide by
14 feet high, while the four-track section is a
similar form, but twice as wide. The lining con-
sists of concrete side walls and brick roof arches
supported by columns and I-beams of steel.
The New York Rapid Transit Railway, as con-
tracted for in 1899, comprises some 20% miles of
line mostly in tunnel. A four-track line runs
from the City Hall to 103d Street, and then
divides into two double-track lines running to
Bronx Park and to Spuyten Duyvil, respective-
ly. The cross-section of the underground line
will be of three different types; rectangular sec-
tion will be used for the greater part of the
road. The dimensions adopted for two tracks
are 25 X 13 feet, and for four tracks, 50 X 13
feet. The barrel-vault section, composed of a
polycentric arch, is 24 feet wide and 16 feet
high. The circular sections are 15 feet in di-
ameter, two tunnels being built side by side for
double-track line. The work was done partly by
open-cut methods and partly underground, ac-
cording to the depth of the line below the surface.
Among other notable tunnels the following may
be briefly mentioned: Arlberg Tunnel, in Austria,
begun in 1880 and completed in 1884 for a
double-track railway, 6.38 miles long. Tequia:-
quiac Tunnel, begun in 1888 to drain the valley
of Mexico, 6 miles long and about 14 feet wide
and 14 feet high, completed in 1898. Trans-
Andean Railway Tunnel, through the summit of
the Andes on the railway line between Buenos
Ayres and Santiago, three miles long, at an
elevation of 10,460 feet above the sea. First
Thames Tunnel at London, England, begun in
1825 and completed in 1843, 1200 feet long with
two parallel ways of horseshoe section, each 13%
‘feet wide and 161/3 feet high. East River Gas
Tunnel, between New York and Brooklyn, 2516
feet long and 10 feet 2 inches in diameter, be-
gun in 1892 and completed in 1894. Khojalc
Tunnel, on the Northwestern State Railway in
India, 12,870 feet long, begun in 1889 and com-
pleted in 1891. Striclcler Tunnel, for the water
supply of Colorado Springs, Colo., 6441 feet
long, with a section 4 X 7 feet through the rock.
Graueholz Tunnel, on the Bergen Railway, in Nor-
way, single track, 17,400 feet long. Bush Tunnel,
on the Colorado Midland Railway, in Colorado,
9094 feet long, with a section 15 feet wide and
21 feet high through rock.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature on tunneling
which is readily available is exceedingly limited.
The most comprehensive book on the subject is
Drinker, Tunneling (New York, 1874), which is
now out of print. The book which ranks next in
importance is Simms, Practical Tunneling (ib.,
1896). The most recent book on the subject is
Prelini, Tunneling (ib., 1901), which is a thor-
oughly up to date text-book of some 300 pages.
Legouez, De l’emploi du boudier dans la con-
struction des souterraines (Paris, 1897), is a
comprehensive treatise on the shield system
of tunneling. Among the works describing
individual tunnels are: Von Rosenberg, The
Vorburg Tunnel (New York, 1887); Walker,
The Severn Tunnel (London, 1888); Burr, Tun-
neling Under the Hudson River (New York,
1885); Sutro, The Sutro Tunnel (ib., 1887).
TUNNEL.
TUPI.
1002
Among foreign books on tunnels the following are
notable: La Dame, Les grands tmmels des Alpcs
et du Jam (Paris, 1889) ; Rziha, Lehrbuch der
gesamten Tunnel-Bauhzmst (Berlin, 1874); Da-
nino, Galleria della tmlversata dell’ Appeaino,
nella linea Foglio (Rome and Naples, 1875).
The Proceedings of the various societies and the
engineering papers contain many descriptions of
important tunnel works.
TUNNY (from OF. ton, thon, Fr. thou, from
Lat. thwmus, thy-1-mus, from Gk. 625111/os, thyn-
nos, Hfivos, Thynos, tunny, from Hzivew, thynein,
to dart along), or Honsn MAoKEBEL. The larg-
est species of mackerel (Th-unnus thynnus), also
called ‘tuna,’ and ‘great albacore.’ It has the
typical form of mackerel (q.v.), except that its
body is thicker, and the tail is widely forked, be-
coming crescent-shaped. It is pelagic, and oc-
curs in all the warm seas, attaining a length of
10 feet and a weight of 1500 pounds. The flesh,
even of the larger specimens, is highly esteemed,
and in Southern Europe it has become the object
of important fisheries. Tunny fisheries were
early established by the Phoenicians, and salted
tunny was much esteemed by the Romans. The
fish are captured by nets, and iniaddition to the
large sale of them fresh, vast numbers are dis-
posed of by canning. Every part of the body is
utilized, the various parts being packed and sold
separately, especially in Italy, under distinctive
names. A closely related species is the long-
finned albacore (G-ermo alalwnga) , very common
in the Mediterranean and widely distributed else-
where, and extremely abundant in the spawning
season on the southern coast of California. It is
about three feet long, and very handsome, but its
flesh is poor. See Plate of MAOKERELS.
TUN-SHELL. ‘One of the large, thin, glo-
bose, finely ribbed shells of the gastropod mol-
lusks of the family Doliidae, closely related to the





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TUN-SHELL.
helmet-shells and cowries They are
(qq.v.).
mainly tropical, but a well-known one (Dolium
galea) inhabits the Mediterranean, and becomes
ten inches in length, making it the largest mol-
lusk of that region. The fig-shells (q.v.) also
belong to this family.
TUN’STALL. A modern manufacturing and
market town in Staffordshire, England, four
miles north-northeast of N ewcastle-under-Lyme
(Map: England, D 3). It has collieries, chem-
ical works, iron foundries, and manufactures of
pottery and tiles. The chief building is the town
hall. Population, in 1901, 19,490.
TUNSTALL or TONSTALL, CUTHBERT
(1474-1559). An English bishop and author.
He was born at Hackforth, Yorkshire; was edu-
cated at Oxford and Cambridge, and studied at
Padua; became rector of Harrow-on-the-Hill,
1511; Archdeacon of Chester, 1515, and was ap-
pointed Master of the Rolls in 1516, after his
return as commissioner to Brussels, where he
made the acquaintance of Erasmus and nego-
tiated two treaties with Charles I. of Spain,
afterwards Charles V. He was appointed Dean
of Salisbury, 1521; Bishop of London in 1522;
Lord Privy Seal in 1523; Ambassador to Spain
in 1525, and to France in 1527, and became
Bishop of Durham in 1530. He was deprived of
his bishopric in 1552, and committed to the
Tower on a charge of treason; was reinstated by
Mary, but, declining the oath of supremacy to
Elizabeth, was again deprived in 1559, shortly
before his death. He was considered one of the
ripest scholars and wisest diplomats of his
period, and was the author of various theological
and educational works, including In Laudem
Matrimon/h', Omtio ( 1518) ; De Arte Supputand-i
Libri Quatu-or (1522), an arithmetical treatise
frequently republished (1522) ; and De Veritate,
Gorporis et S'a-nguim's Domini nostri J esu Christi
in Eucharistia (1551), one of the best contem-
porary statements of the doctrine of the
Eucharist.
TUPAC AMARU II. (1742-1781). A Peru-
vian revolutionist, whose real name was José
Gabriel Condorcanqui, and who l1as been called
‘the last of the Incas,’ though it seems he did not
himself lay claim to that title. He was born
at Tinta (south of Cuzco), and was directly
descended from the original Iricas. Under the
Spaniards he ruled several villages, and in 1780,
after failing to get better treatment for the
Indians, organized a rebellion in which 60,000
natives joined. During the next three months
the insurgents got control of all the country be-
tween Lake Titicaca and Cuzco, but in 1781
Tupac was defeated and captured, and with most
of the members of his family, was executed with
frightful torture, as were also his cousin, Diego,
and others of his family. It has been estimated
that, during this war, 80,000 Indians were killed,
the Spaniards’ object apparently being to exter-
minate the Inca race. Fernando, Tupac’s son,
was condemned to life imprisonment, and sent to
Spain when a child ten years old. His fate is
not known, although in 1828, a man calling him-
self Fernando Tupac Amaru was pensioned at
Buenos Ayres, and afterwards was a monk at
Lima.
TUPAIA, or BANXRING. See TREE-SHREW.
TUPELO (North American Indian name),
Nyssa. A genus of trees of the natural order
Cornaceac, natives of North America, chiefly of
the southern parts of the United States. Nyssa
multiflora, which attains a height of 60 to 70
feet, is often called black gum tree (q.v.).
Nyssa aquatica, referred by some botanists to
Nyssa uniflora, by others to Nyssa multqlflom,
is the large tupelo, a lofty and beautiful tree,
remarkable for the extraordinary enlargement
of the base of the trunk, which is sometimes 8 to
9 feet in diameter, while at no great height the
diameter diminishes to 15 or 20 inches. The
fruit (drupe) resembles a small olive, and was
preserved in the same way by the French settlers
in America.
TUPI, tfifi-pe’ (allies, or village), or .TUPI-
NAMBA. An ancient tribe from which the wide-
TUPI.
TUPPER.
1003
spread Tupian stock (q.v.) takes its name, and
whose language is the basis of the lingoa geral
or Indian trade‘ language of the Amazon region.
At the period of the first Portuguese occupation
of Brazil, about 1550, they were one of the most
populous and powerful tribes of the country,
occupying the territory about the mouth of the
Amazon and extending far southward along the
coast. Being broken and driven back by the
whites, they retired from the coast region into
the interior, the bands taking different names.
In 1640 some of them were still settled, under
their own name, along the Lower Amazon from
Para up to the entrance of the Madeira. They
cultivated corn and ma11ioc, but lived chiefly by
hunting and fishing. Their religion was a simple
animism, with but little ceremonial. Those yet
remaining in the same vicinity are now called,
improperly, Tapuya (q.v.). They are all civil-
ized, quiet, and intelligent. Physically, they are
strong and compactly built, and supply the bulk
of the crews for the Amazon River trade.
TUPI'AN srocx, or TUPI-GUARANI. The
most widespread and important linguistic stock
of South America. When the Portuguese took
possession of Brazil the Tupian tribes held the
greater portion of the territory from the Rio de
la Plata (Paraguay or Parana) on the south
to the Amazon on the north, and extended an
unknown distance inland, in some places even to
the eastern slope of the Andes. The two prin-
cipal tribes were the Tupi (q.v.), about the
mouth of the Amazon, and the Guarani (q.v.),
on the Lower Paraguay. Of the numerous other
cognate tribes, the most important were the Chir-
iguano, Guarayo, Mundurucu (q.v.), Mura
(q.v.), and Omagua (q.v.). Many of the eastern
tribes were gathered into missions by the Jesuits
at an early period, the Guarani missions in par-
ticular at one time containing more than 300,000
Indians; but through the raids of the slave-
hunters and the subsequent expulsion of the
Jesuits, the missions were finally broken up, the
more civilized Indians remaining to be incorpo-
rated with the Spanish settlements, while others
retired far into the unexplored western wilder-
ness. In general culture the Tupian tribes as
a rule were superior to the other aborigines of
Brazil, though much inferior to the Quichua of
Peru. They practiced agriculture to some ex-
tent, raising corn, manioc, and tobacco, and were
expert stone-workers, hammock-weavers, and
makers of pottery. They kept monkeys and pec-
caries for food, but their main dependence was
upon hunting and fishing. Their houses were
light structures, usually communal, and most of
them went entirely naked. With the exception
of the Omagua, who had acquired considerable
of the Quichua culture, they had no metals. The
Tupian languages have been extensively culti-
vated, the Guarani having been adopted by the
Jesuits for use in all the missions of the Para-
"uay, while the Tupi,
B in its corrupted form, is
still the trade medium throughout the Amazon
region. Consult: Adam, Matériaua: pour servir
a l’e’tablissement dhme grammaire comparée des
dialectes de la famille Tupi (Paris, 1896).
'1‘UP’MA1\T, TRACY. In Dickens’s Piclcwick
Papers, a susceptible member of the Pickwick
Club.
Von. XVI.-64.
TUPPEB, Sir CHARLES (1821—). A Cana-
dian statesman. He was born at Amherst, Nova
Scotia, where he was educated, and he studied
medicine i11 Edinburgh. He settled in his native
place as a medical practitioner; in 1862 was ap-
pointed Governor of Dalhousie College, Halifax,
and was President of the Canadian Medical As-
sociation from 1867 to 1870. In 1835 he had
been elected member of the Nova Scotia Pro-
vincial Assembly, and for two terms was secre-
tary, and from 1864 to 1867 Premier. He took
a prominent part in Canadian federation, and in
the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
After the union he was President of the Council
from 1870 to 1872; Minister of Inland Revenue,
1872; Minister of Customs, 1873; Minister of
Public 'Works, 1878; and Minister of Railways
and Canals, 1879. In the latter year he was
made a Knight Commander of Saint Michael and
Saint George, having been a C. B. since 1867.
After representing his native country first in the
provincial and then in the Dominion Parlia-
ment for twenty-eight consecutive years, he re-
signed in 1884 on proceeding to London as High
Commissioner for Canada, an appointment he
again received in 1888. He was one of the
British plenipotentiaries on the Fisheries Com-
mission at Washington, 1887-88, which effected
an agreement concerning the Canadian fisheries
dispute, and in 1888 he received the honor of a
baronetcy. In 1896 he succeeded Sir Mackenzie
Bowell as Premier, but resigned six months later,
after the Conservative defeat over the question
of religious education. At the general election
in 1900 he was rejected by Cape Breton, the
scene of his continuous electoral triumphs during
forty years, and retired to private life.
TUPPER, SIR CHARLES HIBBERT (1855—).
A Canadian Cabinet Minister, born at Amherst,
Nova Scotia. He studied at McGill and Har-
vard universities, and in 1878 was admitted to
the bar. In 1882 he was returned to the Do-
minion Parliament, and subsequently also in
1887, 1888, 1891, and 1896-1900. From 1888 to
1895 he was Minister of Marine and Fisheries,
and from 1895 to 1896 was Minister of Justice
and Attorney-General. In 1893 he served as
agent for the British Government in the Paris
tribunal of arbitration on the Bering Sea ques-
tion.
TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUIIAB (1810-89). An
English versifier, born in London. His father,
Martin Tupper, was a well-known London sur-
geon belonging to a German family which had
long been settled in Guernsey. Martin was edu-
cated at the Charterhouse, and at Christ Church,
Oxford. In 1832 he entered Lincoln’s Inn, where
he was called to the bar three years later. He
never practiced law, but turned at once to litera-
ture. He twice visited the United States (1851
and 1876). He died at Albury, near Guildford,
November 29, 1889. Tupper published thirty-
nine volumes. His first on of
poems called Sacra Pocsis (1832), attracted slight
attention. This was followed by G~e'rald'ine
(1838), a ludicrous attempt to complete Cole-
ridge’s Christabcl. In the same year appeared
the first installment of Prooerbial Philosophy in
verse. The work was continued and completed
in 1876. The earlier parts were enormously
popular. Large sections of the poems were also
.
work a collect:
TUPPER.
TURBINE.
1004
translated into German, French, and Danish. It
is now hard to account for this vogue, as the
poem is the merest commonplace. Consult the
autobiography, My Life as an Author (London,
1886), and the reviews in contemporary period-
icals, especially Fra-ser’s Magazine (October,
1852).
TURACO, toii-r3i’ko (African name). A bird
of the African family Musophagidm or plantain-
eaters (q.v.). The species are numerous, of
large size, and brilliant plumage, and have strong,
thick bills, more or less curved on the top, the
cutting edges jagged or finely serrated, so as to
render them very efficient instruments for cutting
soft vegetable substances, on which they feed.
The colors are chiefly bright green, verditer-blue,
crimson, and yellow; red and green predominate.
These birds have an elegant helmet-like crest,
which they elevate when excited. One of the
largest species is the giant turacou (Corythceola
cristata), of Western and Central Africa, which
is 28 inches long. It is verditer-blue, without
. red, but the tail has a broad, black, subterminal
bar, and the bill is red and yellow.
TURANIAN. A term formerly applied
loosely to all Asiatic peoples, excepting those of
Indo-Germanic or Semitic stock. In the early
Iranian chronicles of the Persian era the term
Turan, in contrast with Iran (the home of the
Aryan Iranians), was given to the region to the
northeast, including modern Turkestan, the home
of non-Aryan,-nomadic, uncivilized peoples. The
theory once ut forth according to which, in
prehistoric times, Western Asia and most of
Europe were peopled by Turanians, whose de-
scendants could be seen in Pelasgians, Hittites,
Etruscans, Iberians, Basques, Picts, Finns, and
Lapps, has now no currency among the best
authorities. The term Turanian still has, how-
ever, some ‘scientific currency, although in a
much modified sense. Thus De Morgan styles
the peoples of the Caucasus Turanians, and Den-
iker uses the word as synonymous with Turke-
Tatars.
In linguistics Turanian formerly had some
vogue as a term proposed by Max Miiller for all
languages of Europe, Asia (excepting China),
and Oceania, which are neither Indo-Germanic
nor Semitic. The division of these languages
into Ural-Altaic or Finno-Ugric, Dravidian, Ko-
larian, Tibeto-Burman, Khasi, Tai, Mon-Anam,
and Malayo-Polynesian is now adopted.
TURBAN-SHELL. An herbivorous scuti-
branchiate mollusk, closely ‘allied in habits and
structure to the top-
shell (q.v.). It takes
its name from a resem-
blance in the shell to
an Oriental turban, and
when denuded of its
outer coating is richly
pearly, making it one
of the shells most wide-
ly sold as an ornament.
In the Orient, where
most of the species live,
the animals are often
eaten. The aperture is
large and flaring, and
the operculum calcareous. The typical genus,
Turbo, the genus Phasianella (see PI1EASANT-


A TYPICAL TURBAN (Turbo
argyrostom us) .
SHELL), and the spiny genus Delphinula, consti-
tute the family Turbinidae, which may -be traced
back to Ordovician time, and especially flourished
during the Silurian period.
TURBELLARIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from
Lat. turba, disturbance, crowd; referring to the
whirlpools caused by the movements of their
cilia) . The first and most highly organized of the
three classes of flatworms, composed of free-living
worms. The body epithelium is densely ciliated.
The turbellarian worms are found in both
salt and fresh water in the warmer parts of the
world, and in moist places on land in the tropics.
They are usually of small size, less than two
inches long, but some species are four or five
inches long. The body is generally very flat and
leaf-like, but in some species, especially among
the land forms, is narrow, elongated, and slightly
arched. The colors are sometimes dull, but many
of the marine forms are brightly colored, and are
very beautiful objects. Most of the Turbellaria
are carnivorous, and are very active, especially
in swimming. The class is divisible into three
orders, based chiefly on the arrangement of the
intestine. See PLANARIAN.
TUR’BERVILLE, GEORGE (c.1540-c.1610).
An English poet of an ancient Dorset family.
He was born at Whitchurch, in Dorsetshire, and
was educated at Winchester, and at New Col-
lege, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in
1561. Leaving Oxford the next year without a
degree, he studied law at one of the inns of court
in London. In 1568 he accompanied Thomas
Randolph, a special ambassador of the Queen,
to Russia, where he wrote verses describing the
manners of the people (reprinted in Hakluyt’s
Voyages, 1589). Of his iater life nothing is
known. He probably died about 1610. Tuber-
ville occupies a rather interesting place in Eng-
lish literature, as a translator from the Latin
and the Italian, and as one of the first among
English_poets to employ the ottava rima (q.v.)
and blank verse (q.v.). Chief among his works
are Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs, and Sonnets
(1567, in Chalmer’s British Poets, vol. ii., Lon-
don, 1810) ; The Boo-he of Faulconrie, or Hawk-
ing, with which is bound The Noble Art of Vene-
rie, or Hunting, ascribed to Turberville (1575;
enlarged 1611) ; Tragical Tales from the Italian,
with original epitaphs and sonnets (1587 ; re-
printed, Edinburgh, 1837); and The Heroycall
Epistles of O/vidius in English (1567 ) . To Turber-
ville have been doubtfully ascribed two versions
of Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered (manuscript in
Bodleian Library at Oxford). Selections from
Turberville’s poems are in Early English Poetry,
edited by H. M. Fitzgibbon (London, 1887).
TURBINE (Fr. turbine, from Lat. turbo,
turben, wheel, whirlwind, from turbare, to dis-
turb, move, from turba, disturbance, crowd). A
motor for utilizing the energy of water by caus-
ing it to flow through curved buckets or chan-
nels on which it exerts a reactionary pressure
constituting the motive force. Turbines may be
divided, as regards their construction, into radial,
axial, and combined or mixed flow. In radial
turbines the water in passing through the wheel
flows in a direction at right angles to the axis
of rotation, or approximately radially. In
axial turbines, or parallel-flow turbines, the water
flows through in a direction generally parallel
TURBINE.
TUBBOT.
~ 1005
with the axis of rotation. In co-mbiued or mixed
flow turb-ines, both the previously described sys-
tems are combined. Another classification of tur-
bines is also employed, namely, reaction turbines
and impulse turbines. In a reaction turbine all
parts are entirely filled or ‘drowned’ with mov-
ing water; in the z'mpulse turbine the construc-
tion is such that the buckets are only partly
occupied by the water passing through them,
the atmosphere having free access to the remain-
ing space. A reaction turbine is driven by the
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IMPULSE TURBINE.
dynamic pressure of the flowing water, which
at the same time may be under a certain static
pressure, due to the fact that the inflow takes
place under pressure, since the wheel is always
filled with water. In the impulse turbine the
inflow takes place freely against air pressure
only. Most turbines are built on the reaction
principle, but any turbine may be made to work
either as a reaction turbine or an impulse tur-
bine.
Structurally, a turbine consists (1) of a ring
or a pair of rings, to which are attached curved
vanes arranged uniformly around the circum-
ference, revolving on a shaft or spindle to which
the ring or pair of rings is connected by a boss
and arms or other suitable means, and (2) of a
casing which incloses the part just described, and
which generally is provided with guide vanes be-
tween which the water enters the wheel, and
which cause the water to enter in the desired
direction. The supply of water to the turbine is
regulated by a gate or gates, which can partially
or entirely close the orifice where the water en-
ters or leaves. The guides and wheel with the
gates and the surrounding cases are made of iron.
Numerous forms of turbines with different kinds
of gates and different proportions of guides and
vanes are on the market. They are made of all
sizes from 6 to 60 inches in diameter, and larger
sizes are built for special cases. On account of
their cheapness, durability, -compactness, and
high efficiency, turbines are now more extensively
used than all other kinds of hydraulic motors.
See WATER-WHEEL and HYDRAULIC PRESSURE
ENGINE. ‘
The three kinds of turbines, namely, radial,
axial, and combined, may be mounted on either
vertical or horizontal shafts, and the water
may flow through them in both directions. Thus
in a radial turbine the water may flow inward
from the circumference to the centre, or outward
from the centre toward the circumference; in an
axial turbine it may flow from the top down-
ward or from the bottom upward; and in a com-
bined turbine it may flow inward and up or


down or outward and up or down. Ordinarily
turbines are mounted on vertical shafts and
water flows through them either inward, outward,
or downward. In all cases the water should
leave the turbine with low velocity, or, in other
words, the most of the energy should have been
taken up in passing through the wheel. The
three ordinary forms of turbine are often called
by the names of those who first invented or per-
fected theni; thus the outward-flow turbine is
called the Fourneyron turbine, the inward-flow
turbine is called the Francis turbine, and the
downward-flow turbine is called the Jonval tur-
bine. Besides these there is the combined tur-
bine, in which ordinarily the flow is usually in-
ward and downward. The usual efliciency of tur-
bines at full gate is from 70 per cent. to 85 per
cent. of the power theoretically available.
The speed of rotation of a turbine is regulated
by opening and closing the gate which admits
the water to the wheel. \\/"here the power used
fluctuates the speed will fluctuate unless some
method is adopted to adapt the power developed
to the power utilized. This is usually done by
means of a governor, which is so devised that
when little power is being used the resulting in-
crease in speed will actuate it to close partly
the gate, and when much power is being used
the decrease in speed will actuate it to open
the gate wider. The wheel and the shaft
which it carries have to be supported from
a bearing near the top, but more often they
are carried on a sort of point bearing at
the bottom. At Niagara Falls the weight of
the wheel and shaft is supported by the upward
pressure of the water against a disk in the top
of the wheel case. For every turbine there is a
certain velocity of rotation which gives a higher
efficiency and power than any other velocity, and
this may be calculated mathematically when the
form and dimensions of the vanes and guides
are known, or it may be determined experi-
mentally. The theory of turbines is a com-
plicated subject, and the reader interested in in-
vestigating it should consult one of the following
books: Merriman, Treatise on Hydraulic Motors
(New York, 1900) ; Bodmer, Hydraulic Motors,
Turbines, and Pressure Engines (New York,
1889). A description of a number of the most
used turbines is given in Frizell, Water Power
(New York, 1901). See VVATER POWER and
WATER WI-IEELS. STEAM TURBINES are described
under that title.
TURBIT. A fancy breed of domestic pigeons,
varying in colors and crest, with a flattened head,
very small beak, rufiied breast, and other oddi-
ties. See Colored Plate of PIGEONS.
TURBOT (OF. turbot, from Lat. turbo, top).
The most valuable of the flatfishes (Rhombus
max-imus), and one of the most toothsome of all
fishes. It abouhds off the northern coast of
Europe, and attains a large size, sometimes 70
to 90 pounds'in weight. Its form is shorter,
broader, and deeper than that of almost any
other flatfish. It is brown in color on the upper
surface, which is studded with hard roundish
tubercles. Like the other flatfishes, it generally
keeps close to the bottom of the sea; and is
found chiefly on banks where there is a con-
siderable depth of water. See FLATFISH; and
Plate of FLATFISH AND FLOUNDERS.
TURCARET.
TURGENIEFF.
1006
TURCARET. A comedy by Lesage (1709),
satirizing the corruption of the French financiers
and the foibles of the time. The title character
is an illiterate stock-jobber, whose name has be-
come proverbial for a rich vulgarian.
TURENNE, tu'ren’, HENRI DE LATOUR
D’AUVEBGNE, Viscount de (1611-75). A Marshal
of France. He was born at Sedan, September 11,
1611, the second son of Henry, Duke of Bouillon,
and was brought up in the Reformed faith. He
entered the French army in 1630, served with dis-
tinction under Bernhard of Weimar in 1637-38,
and his victory over the Spaniards before Casale
in 1640 added to his laurels. He conquered Rous-
sillon from the Spaniards in 1642, and was re-
warded with the baton of a Marshal of France.
At the close of 1643 he was placed at the head
of the army operating in Germany, where the
French had sustained a great defeat at the hands
of the Bavarians and Imperialists. Together
with the Duke of Enghien (later Condé) he
fought against General Mercy at Freiburg in
August, 1644. After suffering defeat at Marien-
thal, May 5, 1645, at the hands of Mercy, he
shared in Condé’s victory near Ntirdlingen,
August 3d. The next year Turenne united with
the Swedes to complete the conquest of Bavaria,
and by his successes hastened the close of the
Thirty Years’ War (1648). Under the influence
of his elder brother and the Duchess of Longue-
ville (q.v.) he joined the Fronde (q.v.), but,
together with his Spanish allies, was defeated
by Duplessis at Rethel in December, 1650. In
the following year he became reconciled with the
Court, and successfully commanded the royal
armies against Condé, who had in the meanwhile
gone over to the Fronde. In 1667, on the out-
break of the so-called War of Devolution (see
LOUIS XIV.), the King gave him the supreme
command of the army, with which he overran
Flanders and Franche-Comté. Louis XIV. suc-
ceeded in inducing him to embrace the Catholic
faith (1668). Turenne’s campaign in Holland
(1672) was a triumphant one; and the Elector
of Brandenburg, who had ventured to side with
the Dutch, was forced to sue for peace. In the
following campaign, however, Turenne was out-
manoeuvred by the Imperialist general, Monte-
cuculi. In 1674 he laid waste the Palatinate and
defeated the Duke of Lorraine at Sinzheim.
Forced from Alsace by superior forces, Turenne
executed a masterly retreat, and found safety
behind the Vosges Mountains; then in a mid-
winter campaign he succeeded in reconquering
the country after two decisive victories at Miihl-
hausen and Tiirkheim. Once more he crossed the
Rhine to take up the game against his old rival,
Montecuculi, but was killed while reconnoitring
before Sasbach, near Offenburg, July 27, 1675.
He was buried at Saint-Denis, and his body was
placed by Napoleon in the Invalides. Turenne
left memoirs of his campaigns from 1643 to 1658,
which are of considerable interest to the student
of military history (Paris, 1782; new edition
1872). For his biography, consult Armagnac
(Tours, 1880), Duruy (5th ed., Paris., 1889),
Hozier (London, 1885),. and Ramsey (ib., 1774).
Consult also: Neuber. Tt7"€')t7t6-(1186 Knie_qsthco-
retiker and Feldhenr (Vienna, 1869) ; and Roy,
Turenne, sa vie ct les institutions de son temps
(Paris, 1895).
TURGAI, to'6r-gi’. A territory of Russian
Central Asia, an administrative division of the
Governor-Generalship of the Steppes, bounded
by the Government of Orenburg (European Rus-
sia) on the north, the Territory of Akmolinsk. on
the east, the Territory of Syr Darya and the Sea
of Aral on the south, and the Territory of Ural
on the west (Map: Asia, F 3). Area estimated
at 176,300 square miles. The larger part is flat,
with sandy deserts in the south. The western
part is covered with the Mugajar Mountains,
offshoots of the Ural system. The region is
watered by the Ural and the Tobol, which are
almost waterless during the dry season. The flora
is poor and the forests are few. The fauna, on
the other hand, is very rich, especially in fur-
bearing animals. The climate is continental, with
extremely hot summers and severe winters.
Agriculture is as yet little developed. The
nomadic Kirghizes are engaged principally in
stock-raising and hunting. The mineral deposits
of the region, which include iron, copper, silver,
coal, etc., are practically untouched. The natives
export small articles of metal, saddles, musical
instruments, carpets, etc. There are also ex-
ported furs and animal products. The barter
system still prevails. Population, in 1897, 453,123
-——Kirghizes, over 400,000, and Russians, about
30,000.
TURGENIEFF, t1_1r-gen’yef, ALEXANDER IVAN-
ovrrcrr (1784-1845). A Russian historian. He
traveled extensively in Germany, Italy, France,
and Denmark, making investigations in regard
to the mediaeval history of Russia. He published
Histonice Russias Monumenta (2 vols. 1841-42)
and a »S'npplementum (1848).
TURGENIEFF, IVAN SERGEYEVITOH (1818-
83). A Russian novelist. He was born at Orel,
the son of a wealthy nobleman. At home he
learned German and French, besides some Eng-
lish, while a self-taught serf implanted in him
a love for the Russian poets. Neglected by his
parents, the boy made many friends among the
peasants, and became a keen observer of their life.
At fifteen he passed a brilliant entrance examina-
tion at the University of Moscow, and entered
the University of Saint Petersburg a year later.
Here he came to know Pushkin, Byelinski, and
other literary lights. After graduating, he went
to Berlin to complete his study of classical phil-
ology under Boeckh and Zumpt, of history under
Ranke, and of philosophy under Werder. He
returned to Saint Petersburg in 1841. His re-
lations with his mother, formerly strained, were
now openly broken off on account of her treat-
ment of the serfs. He had to take service as
a Government clerk, but soon gave up his position
and set himself to write. His poem Parasha
(1845) was heartily praised by Byelinski. But
it was the great success of KolosofiC (1846) and
Khor and Kal/inyfch (1847 ) that induced him to
write the Annals of a Sportsman (1847-51).
These sketches, pervaded with the spirit of hu-
manity and a sincere love for the oppressed peas-
ants, became the favorite book of Alexander 11.,
then heir to the throne. When Turgenieff’s
mother died in 1850 he immediately liberated all
the serfs belonging to the estate. Meanwhile,
he had incurred the suspicion of the Govern-
ment by a sojourn abroad in 1848 and later;
and in 1852, after the publication of an article,
TURGENIE-FF.
TURGOT.
1007
liberal in tone, on the death of Gogol, he was
forbidden to leave his estate. After two years he
was pardoned through the influence of powerful
friends, and left Russia in 1855. The remainder
of his life was spent abroad, mainly in Paris, in
close friendship with the famous singer Pauline
Viardot-Garcia and her family. Of his few visits
to Russia, that in 1879, and especially that in
1880, when he was feted as no one else at the
Pushkin festival, were the most memorable. In
1881 he visited Russia forthe last time. He
died at his Bougival villa, near Paris, in 1883,
and was buried at Saint Petersburg in the Volk-
off Cemetery, the funeral procession exceeding
anything of the kind previously witnessed in
Russia.
The great fame of Turgenieff rests on his
Yakofi Pasynkofic (1855) ; Rudin, Faust (1856) ;
Asya (1858) ; Nobles’ Nest, or Liza (1859) ; On
the Eve, First Love (1860), and Fathers and
Sons (1862). The works of the preceding period
were devoted to pleading the cause of the serfs
against their owners; in these later works, Tur-
genieff turned to the mental and moral bank-
ruptcy of the upper classes as resulting from a
life of idleness amid hundreds of overworked
serfs. Fathers and Sons marks an important
point in Turgeniefl"s career. Its hero, Bazaroff,
a young student disdaining all but utilitarian
science, was called by the author by the newly
coined name nihilist, meaning ‘a man who looks
at everything from a critical point of view.’
With one or two exceptions the radical critics
savagely attacked what was considered a cari-
cature on the young generation. With the reac-
tionaries Nihilism soon became equivalent to ‘re-
spect for nothing,’ or ‘political unreliability,’ and
this helped to widen still further the breach with
the liberals. The animosity of Turgenieff’s critics
turned the melancholy manifest in his earlier
works into pessimism, and his Smoke (1867) de-
picted the whole liberal movement of ‘the sixties’
as a mirage. Virgin Soil (1876) pictured the
‘new’ generation of ‘the seventies.’ Here Tur-
genieff fully applied his favorite division of all
people into two types, a classification proclaimed
by him in the essay Hamlet and Don Quiwote
in 1860--Hamlet representing endless self-analy-
sis and skepticism; Don Quixote, enthusiastic
devotion to the ideal. But Turgenieff, living
abroad, could no longer be a faithful painter of
the new social currents in Russian life. Clara
Militch (1883), in spite of its mystical effect, is
a story of the real life of the great Russian
singer and actress Kadmina, who ended life by
suicide on the stage of Kharkoff. His Senilia,ror
Prose Poems (1883), are poetic gems in the most
perfect prose.
Turgeniefi, the lineal literary descendant of
Pushkin, is the greatest prose-artist in the history
of Russian letters. His figures do not stand out
boldly against the background, but form an har-
monious organic part of the whole s-heme, and
as such impress one still more forcibly when the
whole scheme is comprehended. The language of
Turgenieff has been at once a model and source
of despair for the young Russian writers. His
influence on modern literature has been very
great, and many young French writers consider
themselves his pupils. The latest edition of his
works appeared in 10 vols. (Saint Petersburg,
1891). An excellent English translation by Con-
stance Garnett appeared in 14 vols. (London,
1894-97), with short introductions to the novels.
TURGENIEFF, NIKoLAI IvANovIToH (17 90-
18’7l). A Russian historian, brother of Alex-
ander Ivanovitch. He studied at Gbttingen, en-
tered the civil service, and in 1813 was associated
as Russian commissary with Baron Stein in gov-
erning the German provinces taken from France.
He was afterwards Deputy Secretary of the In-
terior and Agriculture in Russia. He advocated
the emancipation of the serfs, and in 1825 was
sentenced to death in contumaoiam, for his con-
nection with the insurrection of the Decembrists.
He lived thenceforth in Paris, where he published
La Russie et les Russes (1847).
TURGITE (from Turginsh, a copper mine in
the Ural Mountains). A hydrated ferric oxide
that is found massive, with a dull earthy lustre,
and is reddish-black to dark-red in color. It is
found in the Urals, in Prussia, and in the United
States at Salisbury, Conn., where it occurs in
large botryoidal masses with limonite. This
mineral is regarded as an intermediate stage in
the alteration of limonite to hematite by the loss
of water, and is a valuable ore of iron.
TURGOR (Lat., a swelling). The condition
of a plant cell when it is stretched by the in-
ternal pressure of the cell sap. The word is also
applied to the stretching force. The mature plant
cell usually consists of a protoplasmic body, sur-
rounded by an elastic membrane composed of
cellulose and other materials, and inclosing one
or more vacuoles filled with water, the cell sap.
This is not pure water, but a solution of various
substances, whose total osmotic pressure (see
OSMOSIS) is usually equal to 4-6 atmospheres,
and sometimes rises as high as 20 atmospheres.
Whenever such a cell is surrounded by a solution
of lower osmotic pressure, water will enter the
cell and find its way to the vacuole. On account
of the high osmotic pressure, the protoplasm is
driven outward against the cell wall as water
enters, and the cell wall itself is stretched (unless
this is prevented by the opposing pressure of ad-
jacent cells) until its resilience balances the out-
ward pressure. This stretched state of the cell
is favorable for growth (q.v.) , and is the opposite
of the condition known as plasmolysis (q.v.).
Turgor may be reduced by the withdrawal of
water from the cell, either by evaporation or by
surrounding the cell with a solution of higher
osmotic pressure than that inside it. Turgor of
all the cells of a tissue renders the mass rigid.
By the combined turgidity of all the tissues in
the young parts of the plant or those whose cells
are thin-walled (e.g. leaves), such parts main-
tain their normal form. When turgor diminishes,
the parts become flaccid.
TURGQT, t1_1r’go’, ANNE Roenrrr JACQUES,
Baron dc l’Aulne (1727-81). A French economist
and statesman. He was born in Paris,May 10, 1727,
of an old family of Normandy, and was destined
for an ecclesiastical career, but after studying for
a time at the Sorbonne, where he won some dis-
tinction, he turned from the Church and devoted
himself to the study of jurisprudence and po-
litical economy. In these fields he allied himself
with the philosophical and liberal thought of his
time. He was a contributor to the Eneyclopédie
and became a member of the physiocratic school
of economists. He became councilor to the Parle-
TUB-GOT.
TURIN.
1008
ment in 1752, and in 1761 was made intendant of
Limoges, administering the affairs of that prov-
ince for thirteen years, and carrying out within
this field such reforms as the ancient prejudices
would allow. He introduced a more equitable
administration of imposts, and succeeded in
abolishing the old method of repairing1 roads and
bridges by the compulsory labor of t e poor in-
habitants of the district, the corvee (q.v.). He
also exerted himself for the protection of com-
merce. A wider field opened before him when
he was called into the Ministry after the death
of Louis XV. The finances were in the utmost
disorder, and the whole social and political sys-'
tem of France needed regeneration and reform.
Turgot was first made Minister of Marine, and
afterwards Comptroller-General of France, when
to fill that post was to be virtually Prime Minister.
His first achievement was so far to reduce the
expenditure as to leave a surplus of 20 millions
of francs a year to be applied to the liquidation
of old debts. He augmented the public revenue
without imposing new taxes. One of his first
measures was the carrying out of free trade
in corn throughout the interior of the kingdom.
He aimed at establishing complete freedom of
trade within the country, and to make the no-
bility and clergy contribute to the public reve-
nue in the same proportion as the third estate.
He wished, by means of provincial assemblies, to
accustom the nation to public life, and prepare
it for the restoration of the States-General. But
the privileged classes whose exemptions were
threatened, nobles, courtiers, farmers of the rev-
enue, and financiers, united against him. The
King forsook him, and Turgot retired in May,
1776, having held office for only twenty months.
After his retirement he again devoted himself to
literary pursuits and to his favorite scientific
studies. His most important work, Réflewions
sur la formation et la distribution des richesses
(1766), is one of the chief productions of the
physiocratic school. (See PHYSIOCRAT.) His
complete works were published in nine volumes
(Paris, 1808-11), and have since been reprinted.
Consult: Condorcet, Vie de Turgot (Paris, 1786) ;
Stephens, The Life and Writings of Turgot
(1895).
TURIN (It. Torino-). The capital of the
Province of Turin, in Piedmont, Italy, situated
on the Po, here navigable near the junction
of the Dora Riparia, 76 miles west-southwest of
Milan (Map: Italy, B 2) . Turin is an open un-
fortified town. It is unique among Italian cities
because of its rectangularity of construction—-
long, straight, in part arcaded streets, rec-
tangular blocks of houses or ‘islands,’ and regu-
lar squares. It is well built, and is embellished
with numerous squares, statues and monuments,
and beautiful parks. Several churches have been
constructed since 1870, and also four public ar-
cades.
The extensive Piazza Castello, in the north-
eastern part of Turin, lined by arcaded streets,
is the centre of the city’s life. Thence the most
important thoroughfares diverge, the fine Via di
Po (the Corso of Turin) leading southeast to one
of the four bridges over the Po, and traversing
the large Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. In the
Piazza Castello rises the mediaeval Palazzo Ma-
darna, a huge ungainly pile, now occupied by
various institutions. Northward looms the royal
palace, a plain brick edifice, dating from 1660.
\/Yithin it are located the valuable royal armory
(with many historic relics of interest), a fine col-
lection of coins, etc. Adjoining the palace is the
royal park. Near it stands the commonplace
Gothic cathedral (fifteenth century) containing
the fine impressive chapel of the Santissimo Su-
dario, treasuring some of the linen reported to
have covered the body of the Saviour. The Pa-
lazzo Carignano, in the Carignano Square to the
south, in which met the Sardinian Chamber of
Deputies (1848-59) and the Italian Parliament
(1860-64), holds natural history collections. The
fine square of San Carlo is situated south of the
Castello. The gardens of the Citadella, south-
west of the royal palace, as well as the gardens
of Carlo Felice, to the south, are both attractive.
The public park is in the southeastern part of
the city, along the left bank of the Po, where
are also located the Botanic Gardens. On the
eastern side of the Po rises the wooded Monte
Dei Cappuccini, 164 feet above the river. A
short distance east of the city, on a height
ascended by a cable railroad, is the royal burial
church of the House of Savoy——the Superga——a
splendid edifice affording a fine view. The most
Important monuments are those of Duke Victor
Amadeus I., King Charles Albert, Duke Emman-
uel Philibert, and the imposing monument of
Cavour.
Turin is industrially and commercially pros-
perous. lt manufactures mainly steel and iron
products, silks, lace, velvet, ribbons, cotton and
woolen stuffs, jewelry, porcelain, pianos, and
furniture. Prominent among the exports are wine
and silk from Piedmont. The transit trade is
heavy. The opening of the Simplon tunnel prom-
ises greatly to favor the city’s trade advantages.
Educationally Turin is prominent. (For the
university, with its museums, etc., see TUBIN,
UNIVERSITY on.) The valuable National Library
has some 250,000 volumes and 4200 manu-
scripts. Turin has among its numerous educa-
tional institutions a royal polytechnic school, an
astronomical observatory (in the Palazzo Ma-
dama) , a royal military school for artillery and
engineer officers, a military ‘school and hospital,
a Liceo Musicale, an archiepiscopal seminary, an
agricultural school, a philharmonic academy,
four gymnasia., and an industrial school. In
the Palace of the Academy of Sciences are
the picture gallery and museums of antiqui-
ties and natural history. There are an
Italian Industrial 1\/fuseum, the civic museum,
and the museum of the Risorgimento Italiano, in
honor of Victor Emmanuel II. The last is located
in the modern Mole Antonelliana, a curious
tower-shaped edifice, ha.‘ ' a total height of 538
feet, thus overtopping e Cologne Cathedral.
The Royal Albertine Library, in the royal palace,
contains 60,000 volumes and 3000 manuscripts.
The Municipal Library has about 75,000 volumes.
Turin is an important military station, owing
to its nearness to the French frontier and to the
passes of the Western Alps. The budget in 1900
balanced at about $2,700,000. The municipal
debt amounts to $5,270,000, but is more than
offset by the value of the municipal properties.
The population in 1901 was 335,656.
HISTORY. Turin was the chief city of the
Ligurian Taurini. It was taken by Hannibal,
TURIN.
TURKESTAN.
1009
and became a Roman colony in the time of
Augustus, when it received the name of Augusta
Taurinorum. It was prominent under the Lom-
bards, became later the seat of marquises, and
in the eleventh century passed to the House of
Savoy. It has been repeatedly in the hands of
the French. Here Prince Eugene won a bril-
liant victory over the French on September 7,
1706. From 1861 to 1865 Turin was the capital
of the new Kingdom of Italy. Consult: Promis,
L’antica Torino (Turin, 1871) ; Borbonese,
Torino_illastrata e deseritta (ib., 1884).
TURIN, UNIVERSITY or. An Italian uni-
versity founded in 1405 by Louis of Savoy. It
became at once a refuge for the professors at the
universities of Pavia and Piacenza, then suffering
from civil wars. Toward the latter part of the
fifteenth century it shared the general reputa-
tion and prosperity of the Italian universities of
that period. It comprised two colleges, one
founded in 1457 (Collegio Grassi), and one in
1482. The university was reorganized in 1632,
and in 1713 the present building was erected. In
1901 there were about 2800 students. The li-
brary contains about 260,000 volumes and 3300
manuscripts. There are connected with the uni-
versity the Collegio Carlo Alberto and the In-
stitute Dionisio.
TURIN PAPYRUS. A hieratic papyrus,
preserved in the Museum of Turin, containing a
dynastic list of the kings of Egypt. It formed
part of the collection offered for sale to the
French Government in 1818, by M. Dovretti, the
French Consul-General in Egypt, and was at
that time perfectly preserved. The French Gov-
ernment declining to buy it, the papyrus after-
wards was acquired by the King of Sardinia, and
was finally sent to Turin. It was, however, care-
lessly packed, and on its arrival it was found to
be broken into 164 fragments. Champollion (q.v.)
was the first to recognize its nature and value,
and in 1824 collected from it between 160 and 180
royal prenomens, but, except in a very few cases,
was unable to determine the order of succession.
In 1826 Seyffarth (q.v.) attempted to piece
together the broken fragments and reconstruct
the papyrus, but his attempted restoration is
altogether unreliable, partly on account of his
limited knowledge of the hieratic character, and
partly because a large proportion of the frag-
ments are so minute as to afford little or no
indication of their proper order. Subsequent
attempts to restore the text have met with little
success. In its original condition the Turin
Papyrus contained a list of the kings of Egypt,
beginning with the mythical period and ending
with Dynasties XV. and XVI., with the exact
duration of each monarch’s reign in years,
months, and days. It would supply, if complete,
an invaluable guide for the earlier period of
Egyptian history, but in its present mutilated
state it is of little use for historical and chrono-
logical purposes except in the portions covering
the thirteenth and fourteenth dynasties, where
the text is somewhat better preserved. Else-
where, the papyrus serves at best to confirm
data derived from other sources, and furnishes
scarcely any independent information. The text
is published in Lepsius, Auswahl der i0/iohtigsten
Urkunden des iigyptisch-en Alterthums (Berlin,
1842), and in Wilkinson, The Fragments of the
Hie-ratio Papyrus at Turin (London, 1851). Con-
sult: Transactions of the Royal Society of Litera-
ture, 2d series, vol. i. (London, 1843); Revue
arehéologique, vol. vii. (Paris, 1850); VViede-
mann, Aegyptische Geschichte (Gotha, 1884-88) ;
Budge, A History of Egypt (New York, 1902).
TURK’ESTAN’, Turk pron. t66r’ke-stiin’. An
extensive region in Central Asia, included be-
tween the Russian territory of the Steppes on
the north, the Mongolian Desert on the east,
Tibet, India, Afghanistan, and Persia on the
south, and the Caspian Sea on the west. A por-
tion of Turkestan territoryis comprised within
Afghanistan. Politically the region is divided
into Western or Russian Turkestan and Eastern
or Chinese Turkestan. The Russian protectorates
of Khiva and Bokhara and the Russian Province
of Transcaspia are now considered and treated as
separate divisions.
RUSSIAN TURKESTAN. This region embraces
the territories of Ferghana, Samarkand, Semi-
ryetchensk,‘ and Syr-Darya (Map: Asia, F 4).
Total area, about 411,500 square miles; total
population, about 4,888,200. Together with the
Transcaspian province and a portion of the
Pamir, it constitutes the general government
of Russian Turkestan. It is bordered by the ter-
ritory of the Steppes on the north, Sungaria and
Chinese Turkestan on the east, Bokhara and
Khiva on the south, and Khiva and the Sea of
Aral on the west. The western and northern
parts are fiat and sandy; the southeastern part is
mountainous. In the west and north are the
great deserts of Kizil-kum, Mujun-kum, and
Kara-kum. In the northeast is the extensive
Lake Balkhash. The mountains of the south be-
long to the three systems of the Hissar, the Alai,
and Tian Shan, and form a wild Alpine-like dis-
trict, interspersed with fertile valleys. The
Karatau chain stretches northwest and divides
the territory into two parts. There are- numer-
ous oases. The Syr-Darya, rising on the central
mountain border, flows west through the centre
of Ferghana, then northwest along the southwest-
ern side of the Karatau, finally reaching the Sea
or Aral. The Ili, an affluent of Lake Balkhash,
is the chief river in the East. It flows northwest
through the centre of Semiryetchensk. These
streams have numerous tributaries. The south-
ern section of Russian Turkestan is subject to
earthquakes. The climate is continental. The
summers are hot and dry and the winters com-
paratively severe and accompanied by destruc-
tive snowstorms. The flora in the west belongs
to the Aral Sea district, in the east to the mid-
Asiatic region. The fauna, though essentially of
the Central Asiatic type, comprises many tropi-
cal representatives, among them the tiger. Salt,
coal, and asphalt are obtained, and precious
stones are exported.
Numerous irrigation canals tap the rivers and
provide agricultural conditions which would
otherwise be impossible. This is especially true
in the southern part of the country, where the
bulk of the population is located. The staple
crops are wheat, rice, millet, and oats. Cotton
is a promising crop in Ferghana. Rice and
cocoon silk are also produced in noteworthy
quantities. Various kinds of fruit, including the
grape, thrive. Stock-raising, however, is the
leading occupation. Great numbers of sheep are
reared. There are upward of 1,000,000 camels
TURKESTAN.
TURKESTAN.
1010
and over 2,000,000 horses in the country. The
domestic industries are widespread, and some
of the native products, such as carpets and rugs,
are highly valued in Europe. The manufacturing
industries properly so called are in their infancy.
The exports consist chiefly of raw products,
which go largely to Russia. The Transcaspian
Railway has been a great pacificator in Russian
Turkestan. It reached Samarkand in 1888 and at
present extends to Tashkent and Andijan. From
Tashkent a line is building northwest to Oren-
burg on the European frontier, and other lines
are in contemplation. While the general admin-
istration is intrusted to Russian officials, the na-
tives suffer little interference, and taxation is
scarcely more than nominal. Public education almost entirely in the hands of the native re-
ligious bodies, although the Russian Government
has shown considerable concern for the instruc-
tion of the natives. ‘Turkestan forms one educa-
tional district, and had, in 1898, 125 schools with
5560 pupils. The inhabitants are almost wholly
Mohammedans. The Kirghizes form about 36
per cent., the Sarts 24 per cent., and the Usbegs
and Kiptchaks together 19 per cent. The Rus-
sians, therefore, constitute but a small element.
The leading cities are Tashkent, the capital,
Khokand, Namangan, and Samarkand. Andijan
was ruined by an earthquake in 1902.
CHINESE 0R EASTERN TURKESTAN. A depend-
ency of China, bordered on the north by Sun-
garia, on the east by Mongolia, on the south by
Tibet, on the southwest by Kashmir, and on the
west and northwest by the Pamir and Rus-
sian Turkestan. The country is isolated and
forbidding in many aspects. It is in the main a
large and elevated desert plateau, surrounded
by lofty mountain ranges, of which the Tian
Shan lines the northern frontier, and the Kueu-
lun, Altyn Tag, and the spurs of the Karakorum
the southern. The southern range reaches more
than 18,000 feet. The desert of Gobi occupies a
portion of the eastern section. The mean eleva-
tion of Chinese Turkestan is assumed to be about
3500 feet, but there are a number of markedly
low levels, and along the southern face of the
Bogdo-Ola mountains, in the depression of Luk-
tchun, the surface drops 200 feet or more below
sea-level. The region is watered chiefly by the
Tarim River (q.v.), which rises in the west, and
its tributaries. The Tashun-Gobi desert occupies
the centre of the eastern part. At the foot of the
frontier ranges there are chains of oases which
mark the chief caravan routes of the region.
Along the -foot of the Tian Shan stretches a series
of lakes, of which the largest is the Bagrach Kul.
The climate is severe and extremely dry. Do-
mestic animals abound, and the tiger, jackal,
wild camel, bear, and wolf a_re found. The oases
and the strips along the base of the mountain
ranges alone offer conditions for permanent habi-
tation. The people are engaged principally in
agriculture, stock-raising, commerce, and hunt-
ing. Cotton. silk, and animal products are ex-
ported, and in some of the larger cities, such as
Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu. and Kashgar, there are
manufactured copper-ware, silk, carpet, felt, and
leather goods. There are extensive mineral re-
sources, but mining is engaged in only by the
natives and accordingly in a primitive way.
Asbestos, sulphur, and saltpetre are obtained.
A heavy caravan commerce traverses Eastern
Turkestan en route to and from China, this
region being in the direct central western route.
Administratively, Eastern Turkestan has formed
since 1885 a part of the Chinese Province of Sin-
kiang,and is divided into the three dao-tais of
Kashgar, Aksu, and Urumchi. The seat of the
administration is at Urumchi (qq.v.). The in-
habitants are of mixed Aryan and Turanian de-
scent. The most numerous are the Kirghizes,
Sarts, Kalmucks, Usbegs, and Tajiks. The lan-
guage is Eastern Turkish with an admixture of
Chinese words.
Hrsronr. (See BOKHARA, KIIIVA, MONGOLS,
SAMARKAND, etc.) The invasion of Central Asia
by Russia was begun soon after the conquest of
Siberia and the desultory raids on Khiva by
pioneers from the north were made as early as
the end of the sixteenth century. The expedition
into Central Asia sent out by Peter the Great
in 1714 ended in disaster, but the submission of
the Kirghizes during the eighteenth century
gave Russia the territory between the Ural and
the Lake of Balkhash. In 1839 a well-equipped
Russian army sent against Khiva under the com-
mand of Perovski succumbed to cold, hunger, and
sickness. By the end of the first half of the
nineteenth century Russian forts were established
at the mouth of the Syr-Darya and during the
following decades a chain of Russian forts was
built along the southern frontier. In 1854 a
second expedition under Perovski against Khiva
met with success. In 1867 the Governor-Generah
ship of Turkestan was established with Tashkent
as the capital. In the following year Samarkand
was taken and a treaty of peace was concluded
with the Ameer of Bokhara by which Russia ac-
quired a considerable part of the Zerafshan Val-
ley, and Bokhara became practically a vassal
State of Russia. In 1873 a Russian expedition
forced the Khan of Khiva to cede to Bokhara the
Khivan territories on the right bank of the Amu-
Darya, which were soon annexed by Russia. In
1876 Russia annexed the Khanate of Khokand
(Ferghana). The subjugation of the Tekke-
Turkomans was terminated with the capture of
Ge6k-Tepe by Skobelefl' in 1881. The Turkomans
of Merv submitted in 1884. In 1887 the Afghan
boundary was demarcated by an Anglo-Russian
commission.
The authentic history of Chinese Turkestan
can be tracedalmost to the beginning of the
Christian Era. when the region was partly un-
der the rule of China. Buddhism was then the
predominating religion, but there were also
sects of Nestorian Christians. In the seventh
century the western part of the country fell
under the sway of Tibet, whose rule had been ex-
tended by the end of the century to the entire re-
gion. Islam began to spread over Eastern Turkes-
tan in the tenth century, but even with the con-
quest of the country by Genghiz-Khan (q.v.) at
the beginning of the thirteenth century there was
perfect toleration. It was only with the arrival
of the mollahs from Bokhara in the fourteenth
century that Islam became a cause of strife, and
gave rise to the two factions of White and Black
Mountaineers, whose struggles gave China an
opportunity to reconquer the country at the end
of the eighteenth century. The history of Eastern
Turkestan during the nineteenth century is
largely made up of repeated attempts on the
part of the followers of Islam to wrest the coun-
TURKE STAN.
TURKEY.
1011
try from the rule of China. From 1872 to 1876
Eastern Turkestan was practically independent
under Yakub Beg, ‘but the rule of China was
restored soon after his death.
Consult: Schuyler, Notes of a Journey in Rus-
sian Turkestan (London, 1876); Jaworski,
Turkestan (in Russian, Saint Petersburg, 1889) ;
Albrecht, Russisch Centralasien (Hamburg,
1896) ; Phibbs, A Visit to the Russians in Cen-
tral Asia (London, 1899); Schwarz, Turkestan
(Berlin, 1900); Kraft, A travers le Turkestan
russe (Paris, 1901).
TURKESTAN. A town in the Territory of
Syr-Darya, Russian Turkestan, situated about
20 miles east of the right bank of the Syr-Darya,
about 180 miles northwest of Tashkent (Map:
Asia, F 4). The Mosque of Hazret-Yassavi is a
noted place of pilgrimage. Population, in 1897,
11,598.
TURKEY, or THE OTToMAN EMPIRE (so named
from its founder, Othman) . An empire in Europe.
Asia, and Africa, with its capital at Constanti-
nople. The bulk of the territories over which the
Turkish Sultan exercises actual sovereignty is
Turkey in Asia, which, exclusive of Arabian pos-
sessions, has an area of nearly half a million
square miles. A broad strip of country extend-
ing the whole length of Arabia along the west
coast, and containing Mecca, with an area
of about 175,000 square miles, is included
within the Ottoman Empire. The European
territory actually under Turkish rule (includ-
ing Novibazar) has an area of nearly 70,000
square miles. Bulgaria (with Eastern Rumelia)
is tributary to Turkey. Bosnia and Herzegovina,
nominally reckoned a part of the Ottoman Em-
pire, virtually belong to Austria-Hungary. Crete
is a vassal State of Turkey and Samos pays
tribute to the Sultan. Cyprus virtually passed
in 1878 from the po;ssession of Turkey to
that of England, which turns over part of the
revenues to the Sultan. In Africa Turkish rule
extends over Tripoli and Barca (Bengazi), the
territory claimed (mainly desert) having an
area of about 400,000 square miles. Egypt is
tributary to Turkey, but is independent of
Turkish rule. The Ottoman Empire, with the
various tributary States and alienated provinces
nominally reckoned as included in it, has an area
in round numbers of about 1,500,000 square
miles. The Ottoman domain, owing to internal
weakness and external aggression, is in a state
of disintegration, and is held together less by the
cohesive power of the Turkish Government than
by the jealousies of the European powers. This
article deals especially with Turkey in Europe.
For the other parts of the empire, see the articles
on ANATOLIA (Asia Minor), SYRIA, ARMENIA,
etc.
Turkey in Europe embraces about one-third of
the Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the east
and west by the Black and Adriatic seas, on the
north by Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, and Monte-
negro, and on the south by the Sea of Marmora.
the £Egean Sea, and Greece.
TOPOGRAPHY. Turkey in Europe shares the
topographic characteristics of the whole Balkan
Peninsula. It is chiefly covered with mountains,
which, generally speaking, extend in parallel
chains from northwest to southeast, often, how-
ever, interrupted by short, transverse ranges.
There are no large plains excepting those pf the
Maritza Valley and the central coastal plain
north of the island of Thasos. The greatest ele-
vations are in the west and south. Here the
Albanian-Greek Mountains rise in the Shar-Dagh
to a height of about 10,000 feet and to a nearly
equal altitude in Mount Olympus. Above the
low coasts of the Black Sea rise hills of small
elevation, west of which is the fertile valley of
the Maritza River. \Vest of the Maritza Valley
are the Rhodope Mountains or Despoto-Dagh,
towering up on the Bulgarian border to a height
nearly equal to that of the western mountains.
A little to the southwest is the Perim-Dagh, not
greatly inferior in elevation. Mount Athos, at
the southeast end of the mountainous peninsula
of Chalcidice, which projects into the ZEgean,
rises steeply to a height of over 6000 feet. In
the extreme west is the wild and almost inacces-
sible mountain land of Albania, descending to the
marshy and unhealthful coastal plain of the
Adriatic.
The coasts are valuable features for the trade
of the country, though the Black Sea coast is
poor in havens. The winding river-like strait
of the Bosporus, which connects the Black Sea
with the Sea of Marmora, and through it with
the Mediterranean, has ample depth for the
largest vessels. Here is the magnificent harbor
of Constantinople, the great meeting place of the
Eastern and Western trade. On the strait of
the Dardanelles, leading from the Sea of Mar-
mora into the Mediterranean, is the harbor of
Gallipoli. The Egean coast abounds in bays and
excellent harbors, of which the chief are Dedea-
gatch, the outlet of the grain exports of the
Maritza Valley, and Saloniki, which shares with
Constantinople most of the foreign trade. The
Adriatic coast, though less irregular, also has
good harbors, none of them, however, being of
much modern importance.
HYDROGRAPHY. The principal rivers of Euro-
pean Turkey are the Maritza, the Struma, and
the Vardar, flowing into the ZEgean Sea. They
are of little use for navigation except the lower
part of the Maritza. Their great importance is
that their alluvium has converted the valleys
into very fertile lands, and these valleys are very
useful for communication in connection with the
overland routes from Western Europe to Con-
stantinople and Saloniki. In Albania, among
the limestone mountains, there are only turbu-
lent torrents forcing their way through wild
gorges, like the Drin, flowing into the Adriatic
Sea. Scattered among the valleys of Turkey are
a few lakes and even extensive marshes, partly
filling larger lake basins. The largest lake is
Scutari, which projects across the frontier into
Montenegro.
CLIMATE AND SoIL. Climatic conditions vary
greatly in different parts of the country. The
mildest regions are on the ZEgean Sea, where in
the valleys o ening to the south the climate is
that of the Iediterranean, with mild winters
and with the South European flora, including
even cotton. The mountainous regions of the
interior, largely cut off from the influence of
the sea air, have, on the contrary, a very ex-
treme climate, with cold and snowy winters, when
the temperature often sinks below zero F.,
followed by summers so hot that the snow melts
even on the loftiest summits. At Constantino-
ple the mean temperature in January is 43° F.,
and in July 72.5°. The precipitation on the
TURKEY.
TURKEY.
1012
Adriatic coast is h.eavy the year around, but
decreases toward the east and is small in the
southeast. The soils are extremely fertile ex-
cept among the mountains of the western lime-
stone district. -
FLDRA AND FAUNA. The typical Mediterra-
nean vegetation is luxurious along the Adriatic
coast, but is poorly developed in the south, and
is entirely lacking in the interior. The climate,
however, permits the cultivation on the southern
plains and among the mountain valleys of all
the Central European plants, while many of
those of South Europe thrive along the 1/Egean
plains. The fruits of Central Europe abound in
the interior. Many of the mountains are cov-
ered with forests. Animals of European, Asiatic,
and Mediterranean origin abound; the wolf and
bear are found among the mountains, jackals
on the southern plains, and buffaloes and fat-
tailed sheep are reared on the same farms with
ordinary cattle and sheep.
GEoLooY AND MINERAL RESOURCES. The
folded limestone (Dinaric) mountains of Albania
extend parallel to the Adriatic coast, showing
in many regions the subterranean channels and
sink holes peculiar to the Karst. In contrast
with these younger folded mountains is the very
irregular relief of the intricate mountain region
in Thrace and Macedonia, formed of crystalline
rocks. In the extreme southeast the whole pen-
insula on which Constantinople stands belongs
geologically to Asia. Its hills are separated
from the granitic mountains of Europe by a wide
plain covered with recent formations. The rocks
on both sides of the Bosporus are Devonian, con-
taining the same fossils, and there is no doubt
that this European peninsula was at one time a
portion of Asia Minor. Turkey is rich in min-
erals, especially in the Asiatic provinces, but they
are little worked. Considerable manganese ore
(45,000 tons in 1898) is mined near Saloniki.
In Asia Minor there are mines of chrome, silver-
lead ore, copper, antimony, coal, etc. Large
quantities of meerschaum are obtained at Eski-
Shehr, in Asia Minor. A small royalty is paid
on all minerals exported. ~
AGRICULTURE, ETC. Though the inhabitants
live almost exclusively by farming and cattle-
raising, agriculture is in a very primitive con-
dition. The reasons are the oppressive taxation,
which consumes one-third of the harvests, the
wretched government, the lack of roads, the low
standard of civilization, and the unfavorable di-
vision of the soil. As nearly all the land belongs
to the Crown or the Church, there is little free-
hold property, and the peasantry are oyer-
whelmed with poverty. The great ecclesiastical
estates (vakuf) are farmed in as primitive a
manner as the humblest peasant’s leasehold.
Fertilizers are rarely applied to the soil. The
fact that in spite of these drawbacks the soil 1s
able to produce more than sufficient to meet the
wants of the country is proof of the fertility and
capabilities of these lands. The chief agricul-
tural productions of Turkey in Europe and Asia
are cereals (maize, wheat, and barley being the
'most important), of which there is usually a
surplus for export; wine, figs, and raisins, olives
for oil produced on the coasts; roses for the
manufacture of attar; tobacco of superior qual-
ity; flax, hemp, cotton, opium, and silk. After
years of decline the culture of silk in 1895 be-
gan to revive, and in 1901 203,675 ounces of
silkworm eggs and 11,600,000 pounds of cocoons
were produced in the provinces of Brusa and
Ismid in Asia Minor. A very small amount of
raw silk is consumed in the home industries, the re-
mainder being exported, chiefiy to France. Turkey
and Bulgaria supply most of the oil of roses
in the general trade, and the Turkish production
in 1901 was about 5800 pounds. Forestry is
entirely unknown, and forests have been pre-
served only in those districts where the want
of roads has made their destruction difiicult.
Elsewhere wide mountain tracts are perfectly
bare and are used for pasturage. Over 3,-
000,000 acres are still under forests in European
Turkey, which is about one-seventh of the forest
area of the empire. The raising of live stock
is the chief occupation of the inhabitants of the
central and western parts of the country. This
industry more than meets the local require-
ments, though little is done to improve the
breeds of cattle. The small, but sturdy, Turk-
ish horses are used for riding and as pack ani-
mals, and buffaloes for draught purposes. Goats’
flesh and mutton are the chief meats consumed,-
and Albania exports a considerable quantity of
wool. The fisheries are prominent, those of the
Bosporus alone representing a value of over
$1,000,000 a year, while the Mediterranean coast
produces sponges of excellent quality, and the
Red Sea mother-of-pearl.
MANUFACTURES. The manufacturing indus-
tries Vare chiefly represented by hand-loom weaving
and the work of artisans, who -transform brass
and copper into household utensils. Concessions
have been granted for glass manufactures, paper
mills, and textile looms, but the numerous at-
tempts to establish factories with Western cap-
ital in order to utilize the raw produce of the
country have nearly all been wrecked by the
pasha system of government and the religious
fanaticism of the inhabitants. Constantinople
and Saloniki still retain a few steam mills, silk
factories, and a factory for fezes, but this na-
tional headwear is chiefly imported. Even the
few articles in which Turkey formerly claimed
preéminence, such as Turkey leather, some grades
of silk fabrics, carpets, Turkish yarns, etc., can
no longer compete in their own home with the
products of foreign factories.
COMMERCE. The result of the conditions above
mentioned is that Turkey is an important market
for the manufactures of Western Europe. The
Turks are deficient in -trading spirit, and both
the domestic and the foreign trade are chiefly
carried on by Greeks, Jews, Armenians, and other
foreigners. In part, Turkey pays for the cotton,
the groceries, woolen fabrics, metal goods, gen-
eral manufactures, and coal and petroleum that
it imports with the grain, wool, skins, raw silk,
tobacco, wine, southern fruits, gall nuts, attar of
roses, leather, and carpets that it sends abroad.
The imports are always much larger than the
exports.
are very unsatisfactory, but the following table
shows the approximate amount of its foreign
trade, including gold and silver:


1891 1898 1899
Imports .................... .. $100,800,000 $103,100,000 $117,100,000
Exports ..................... .. 64,800,000 59,000,000
56,400,000
\____
The commercial statistics of Turkey -
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TURKEY.
TURKEY. .
1013
ain, Austria-Hungary, France, Russia, Italy, and
Bulgaria. The trade with the United States is
very small, but the exports to this country are
steadily growing. The following table shows
‘the trade (in millions of dollars) for six fiscal
years, each ending on June 30:
' The larger part of this trade is with Great Brit-

‘ 1898 , 1899 ‘ 1900 ‘ 1901 ‘ 1902 ‘ 1903

Imports from F. 0.26 2?.
Exports to U. s .... 2.1 9
O1
2
.9

0.27
.4
QC/CD
.25 0. .49
.4 4. .7
03¢
I

MO
Turkey’s exports to the United States are chiefly
rugs and carpets, tobacco, hides and skins (goat
skins), oils, and wool. The small imports from
the United States into Turkey include cotton
cloths, provisions, a few agricultural implements,
and manufactures of iron and steel. All imports
pay a tariff of 8 per cent. ad oalore-m except
the Government monopolies, tobacco and salt. A
duty of 1 per cent. is collected on all exports
except cereals. -
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION. The
chief ports, Constantinople and Saloniki, are
in direct rail communication with the rest of
Europe by lines extending to Belgrade. There is
also a railroad extending westward from the
Maritza Valley along the ./Egean to Saloniki and
thence farther west to Monastir; and a branch
road connects Uskub, on the Belgrade-Saloniki
road, with Mitrovitza. These railroads, 1269
miles in length, have been a great boon to the
internal and foreign commerce of the country,
which, however, is still very poorly supplied
with means of land transportation. The com-
mon roads are scarcely worthy of the name
and are used chiefly by pack animals. All land
freights are excessive. The maritime trade
on the naturally favored south coast is more
active. As Turkey’s mercantile marine in 1901
included only 107 steamers, of 58,861 tons, and 916
sailing vessels, of 179,883 tons, most of the for-
eign trade is carried in British, Greek, and other
foreign vessels. In the yearbeginning March,
1897, 188,034 vessels, of 34,332,877 tons, entered
and cleared at all the ports of Turkey. Of this
number 11,996, of 12,542,149 tons, were employed
in the foreign trade and the remainder in the
coasting trade. There is a steamship line trading
directly between Constantinople and United
States ports, which is to some extent stimulat-
ing the commercial relations of the two countries.
GOVERNMENT. Turkey is an absolute theocratic
monarchy, the executive and religious authority
being vested in the Sultan (Padishah), who re-
gards himself as the successor of the caliphs.
The succession is vested iii the eldest male mem-
ber of the House of Othman. The form of gov-
ernment takes its inspiration from the Koran
and the opinions and sayings of Mohammed, and
has been from time to time supplemented by de-
crees of the various sultans. Attempts to reform
the Constitution and bring it into conformity
with the constitutions in \Vestern European coun-
tries have invariably failed. The will of the
Sultan is absolute so long as it does not con-
fiict with the teachings of the Koran. The Sul-
tan is assisted in the administration of affairs
by the Grand Vizier, whom he appoints, and
who is in turn assisted by a Cabinet of 10
members. consisting of the Ministers of Foreign
Afi'airs, Finance, Justice, War, etc. There are also
a Ministry of the Civil List (which has charge of
the Imperial domains) and the hlinistry of P0-
lice. The public functionaries are divided into
three classes: those connected with the laws and
cults, the governmental department, and the
army and navy. The functions of the legislative
branch of government are performed by the Sul-
tan together with the Grand Vizier and the
Sheikh ul-Islam, who is also an appointee of the
Sultan, and is the direct head of the Church.
The appointment of the Sheikh ul-Islam, however,
is nominally subject to the approval of the Ulema
(q.v.), an assembly of the clergy and leading
jurists and educators of the Empire. This body
is called together by the Mufti (see below).
For purposes of local government, the Empire is
divided into vilayets (pashaliks) , ruled by Valis,
or Governor-Generals, appointed by the Sultan.
Each Vali is assisted by a provincial council. A
few of the provinces are designated as mutessar-
rifliks. The minor divisions are- termed sanjaks,
kazas, etc._, and are under the supervision of
officials appointed by the valis. The Sultan’s
subjects possess freedom of their persons and
nominally equality before the law. The judi-
cial department is in a sense an adjunct of p
the executive, all executive officials being vested
with authority to perform all duties connected
with the administration of justice. The learned
class of Turks form three sections: those in the
service of the cults (Imam), the law expounders
(Mufti), and the judges (Kadi). The ideas and
practice of justice, both secular and religious,
are based on the Koran, and cases are decided
according to the compilation which exists of the
decisions that have been rendered during the
centuries. The highest court is the Court of Ap-
peals in Constantinople, with two chambers. There
may be mentioned also the civil courts, criminal
courts, and the commercial courts, whose de-
cisions are based on the Code de Commerce. The
commercial courts are formed of a president,
two judges, and also two merchant judges se-
lected from the colonies of foreigners. The lack
of system and the prevalence of corruption in the
judicial branch of government have necessitated
measures called ‘capitulations,’ which provide
that all foreigners settled in the country who are
accused of crime or misdemeanor shall be tried
only before courts presided over by their respec-
tive consuls. Litigation between foreigners of
difi'erent nationalities is heard in the court of the
defendant, and cases between foreigners and
Turks are tried in local courts, to which the for-
eign consuls have free access. This affords a
guaranty that such trials will be legally con-
ducted.
FINANCE AND BANKING. The country is very
heavily taxed ‘by a variety of imposts, which in-
clude tithes, taxes on land, personal property, in-
come, and sheep, as well as payments for exemp-
tion fro1n military service, etc. Other sources of
revenue are the customs, the tobacco and salt
monopolies, stamp tax, special taxes on various
businesses such as the manufacture of spirits and
the fisheries, taxes on silk products, etc. The
revenue amounted in 1899 to $8l.893,462 and the
expenditures to $81,533,341. The total funded
and floating debt in 1902 was more than $710,-
000,000. The Imperial Ottoman Bank, with a
TURKEY.
TURKEY.
1014
capital of $48,400,000, had on September 30,
1901, a note circulation of $4,484,000, and cash
on hand $10,890,000.
DEFENSE. See under ARMIES and NAVIES.
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND 1)/IEASURES. Tl1e gold
standard is used and the unit of coinage is the
piaster—4.4 cents. The national money in the
Empire is estimated in round numbers, at: Gold,
$150,000,000; silver, $40,000,000. Turkish weights
and measures were assimilated to the metric sys-
tem in 1882, but the change has not generally
been ado-pted.
POPULATION. The estimated population of the
so-called Turkish Empire with its tributary
States and the other regions nominally included
in it was, in 1903, 40,440,957. The population of
European Turkey (in the strict sense) is esti-
mated at about 6,000,000, and that of all the
countries actually under the rule of the Sultan
at about 25,000,000. The population of the E111-
pire without the tributary States is placed at
24,931,600. The largest cities are: Constanti-
nople, Damascus, Smyrna, Bagdad, Aleppo, Bei-
rut, Saloniki, and Adrianople. The list of Vila.-
yets and mutessarrifliks with their areas and
populations, is as follows:





, , l Area, sq. K"Popula-
VILAXEPB I miles tion
In Europe :
Constantinople ........................... .. 2,702 1,136,000
Adrianople .................................. .. 15,015 1,206,500
Saloniki .......... ... ......................... .. 13,684 1,165,400
Monastir ..................................... .. 10,690 847,400
Kossovo ...................................... .. 12,100 961,000
Scutari (Albania) ........................ .. 4,516 322,000
Janina ........................................ .. 7,045 648,000
Total in Europe .................... .. 65,752 6,086,300
In Asia :
Asia Minor.
Ismid (mutessarriflik) ................. .. 4,323 222,800
Brusa (khodavendikyar) ............. .. 28,486 1,626,900
Bigha (mutessarriflik) ............... .. 2,625 129,400
Archipelago ................................ .. 2,744 325,900
Smyrna (Aidin) ........................... .. 20,844 1,396,500
Kastamuni ................................ .. 19,184 1 018,900
Angora ....................................... .. 26,055 892,900
Konieh ........................................ .. 39,779 1,088,000
A dana ......................................... .. 14,359 403,400
Sivas ........................................... .. 24,240 1,086,500
Trebizond (1898) .......................... .. 11,850 1,163,800
194,489 9,355,000
A rmem'a and Kurdistan.
Erzerum ...................................... .. 19,686 597,000
Mamauret-ul-Aziz ....................... .. 13,240 .' 575,300
Diarbekir .................................... .. 13,703 471,500
B itlis ........................................... .. 10,345 398,600
Van ............................................. .. 15,517 430,000
72,491 2,472,400
Mesopotamia.
Mosul .......................................... .. 29,220 300,300
B agd ad ....................................... .. 54,503 850,000
Basra .......................................... .. 16,482 200,000
100,205 1,350,300
Syria.
Aleppo ......................................... .. 30,340 995,800
Zor .............................................. .. 32,849 100, 000
Syria ........................................... .. 23,816 955,700
Beirut ......................................... .. 11,773 533,600
Jerusalem (mutessariflik) ............ .. 8,222 333,000
Lebanon ................... ................ .. 2,509 399,500
109,509 3,317,600


, Area, sq. Popula-
VILM ETS miles tion
Arabia.
Hedjaz (approximate) ................ .. 96,500 _ 300,000
Asir, Hodeida, Sana, and Tais (all
until recently included in the
Vilayet of Yemen) ................... .. 77,200 750,000
173,700 1,050,000
Total in Asia ..................... .. A 650,394 17,545,300
In Africa:
Tripoli (approximate) ................ .. ) __ , 8()(),0()()
Bengazi " ................ .. I 398,900 500,000
Total in Africa ..................... .. 398,900 1,300,000


Total of immediate possessions as above:




Square Popula-
miles tion
In Europe .................................... .. 65,752 6,086,300
In Asia ........................................ .. 650,394 17,545,300
In Africa ..................................... .. 398,900 1,300,000
1,115,046 24,931,600

The tributary States and provinces under for-
eign occupation, with their areas and population
according to the most recent census, are:


Sq. miles Population
Bulgaria(and Eastern Rumelia)... 37,860 3,733,189
Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novi-
bazar ...................................... .. 23, 57 0 1,591,046
Crete ............................................ .. 3, 326 309,253
Samos ....................................... .. 180 54,824
Cyprus ......................................... .. 3,584 237,022
Egypt .......................................... .. 400,000 9,821,045
468,520 15,746,379

Totals for the Empire: Square miles, 1,583,566;
population, 40.677,979. _
EDUCATION AND RELIGION. Education is great-
ly neglected, though public schools are established
in most of the towns and colleges and public li-
braries are attached to most of the large
mosques. There are no educational statistics.
(See under CONSTANTINOPLE.) Only about one-
half of the population are Mohammedans, the re-
mainder being Greek and Roman Catholics,
Armenians, Jews, etc. There are 2120 mosques
in the Turkish Empire, of which 379 are in Con-
stantinople.
ETHNOLOGY. The Turkish Empire presents an
extraordinary medley of nationalities. The rul-
ing race, the Osmanli Turks, whose blood is great-
ly mixed with various foreign elements (Slavic,
Greek, and Albanian in European Turkey), con-
stitute a minority of the population even in the
regions actually under the rule of the Sultan.
The only section of the Empire in which they are
numerically dominant is the interior of Asia
Minor. The most important peoples in Asiatic
Turkey after the Osmanlis are the Arabs (Syria,
Mesopotamia, Arabia), Armenians (who are
found in large numbers outside of Armenia), and
Kurds. The Greeks and Jews (in addition to the
Armenians) are important elements in the urban
population of a large part of Asiatic Turkey.
There are less than a million persons of Turke-
Tatar blood in Turkey in Europe, and these are
chiefly in the portions nearest to Asia. The
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COPYRIGHT, 1803' BY DODO, HEAD 6- COMPANY
TURKEY.
TURKEY.
1015
Turks form a large element in the population of
Constantinople and Adrianople, in the interior of
Thrace, and in parts of Macedonia. All the remain-
der of the population of European Turkey, with a
small exception, is divided between Slavic peoples
and those belonging to the Mediterranean race,
chiefly Greeks in the south and east, and Alba-
nians (Shkipetars) on the Adriatic. The Slavs of
Turkey are of Serb and Bulgarian stock. There
are a number of VVallachs (Rumans) in the
southwest, who are known as Tsintsars. The
Jews are numerous in Constantinople and Sa-
loniki, and the Armenians are also well repre-
sented in the urban population of European
Turkey. The trade of the Turkish Empire is to a
great extent in the hands of the Greeks (who
carry on much of the sea trade), Armenians,
Jews, and Arabs. For the religion of the non-
Turkish inhabitants, see ALBANIA, ARMENIA,
KURDS, etc.
HISTORY. In the first half of the thirteenth
century, at the time of the Mongol invasions un-
der Genghis Ghan, a small body of Mohammedan
Turks moved westward from their home in Iran,
and made their way to Asia Minor. Under the
lead of Ertogrul, they entered the service of Ala-.
ed-Din, the Sultan of Iconium (or of Rum, as
the State was known to the Moslems), the last
surviving remnant of the great empire estab-
lished by the Seljukian Turks in Western Asia.
Ala-ed-Din granted them some land in Phrygia.
The son of Ertogrul, Osman or Othman (1288-
1326), laid the foundations of the independent
power of his tribe (to which his name became at-
tached) on the ruins of the Seljuk dominion in
Asia Minor. Osman’s son and successor, Orkhan
(1326-59), continued the aggressive policy of
his father. He made Brusa, the ancient capital
of Bithynia, which had been wrested from the
Byzantines, his residence, and gained a foothold
in Europeby the taking of Gallipoli (1354) . Orkhan
was the organizer of the Ottoman power. He ex-
acted a tribute of children from conquered Chris-
tian peoples, and these, reared as Mohammedans
and trained under rigid military discipline, were
organized into that efficient fighting machine,
the Janizaries (q.v.). He was succeeded by
Amurath I. (1359-89), under whom the Otto-
man realm became a European as well as an
Asiatic power. At this time, by the side of the
declining Byzantine or Greek Empire, the King-
dom of Servia had risen to considerable power.
Eastward to the Black Sea, south of the Danube,
the Bulgarian czars held sway, and beyond the
Danube the principalities of Moldavia and Wal-
lachia had been struggling into existence. Venice
and Genoa had extended their power and do-
minion into the eastern Mediterranean. Amurath
I. conquered Adrianople in 1361 and made it his
capital. The Turks began to close in upon the
Byzantine Empire, and the dominion of Con-
stantinople was reduced to Thrace, Macedonia,
and parts of Greece. Amurath greatly extended
the Turkish dominions in Asia Minor, and in
1389 he broke the power of Servia in the bloody
battle of Kossovo. The Sultan was struck
down in the moment of victory and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Bajazet I. (1389-1402). Ba-
jazet began his reign with the conquest of
Bulgaria and with a war against the Wal-
lachs. A crusading army of Hungarians, Poles,
and French, under the command of Sigis-
mund, King of Hungary, was totally routed at
Nicopolis in 1396. In 1402 Timur with his Mon-
gol horde swept over Asia Minor, overthrew
Bajazet at Angora, and carried him off a cap-
tive. On the fall of Bajazet (who died in 1403)
there was a struggle for dominion between his
sons, which lasted a decade. Finally, in 1413
the youngest son, Mohammed I., found himself
in undisputed possession of the whole empire.
Amurath II. (1421-51) extended the Turkish
dominion over Macedonia, conquered part of
Greece, waged fierce wars with the Hungarians,
over whom he finally triumphed, and attacked
the Albanians, although without success. The
most memorable event of his reign was his vic-
tory over the Hungarians under King Ladislas
(q.v.) and Hunyady (q.v.) at Varna in 1444.
Mohammed II. (1451-81) , the son of Amurath
II., prepared immediately on his accession to ef-
fect the conquest of Constantinople. The city
fell on May 29, 1453, and the Byzantine Empire
was at an end. An ofi'shoot from the Greek
realm, the Empire of Trebizond, was conquered
in 1461, and about the same time the Turks com-
pleted the conquest of the Morea. The seat of
the Ottoman Empire was transferred from Adria-
nople to Constantinople. The Turks, merciless as
they were toward their conquered foes, allowed
the Christian churches to maintain their organi-
zation. In 1456 Mohammed II. undertook the
siege of Belgrade, the key to Hungary, but the
city was delivered by the signal victory of Hun-
yady. A few years later Servia was incorporated
into the Turkish Empire and Bosnia was sub-
dued. In 1470 Negropont (Euboea) was wrested
from the Venetians and in 1475 the Tatar Khan
of the Crimea became a vassal of the Ottoman
Sultan. ' Albania, which under the lead of Sean-
derbeg had long heroically held out against the
Turks, was at last subjugated. In 1480 the
Knights of Saint John successfully defended
Rhodes against a Turkish attack. At this time
the Turks obtained a momentary foothold in
Italy by the conquest of Otranto. The reign of
Bajazet II. (1481-1512), the successor of Mo-
hammed II., was uneventful, but under Selim 1.
(1512-20) the tide of Ottoman conquest rolled
irresistibly eastward and southward. He carried
his arms successfully into Persia, conquered
Syria (1516), annexed Egypt (1517), and as-
sumed the guardianship of the sanctuary of
Mecca, thus proclaiming himself the successor
of the caliphs. At this time Moldavia became
tributary to the Porte, a position to which
the sister principality of Wallachia had been pre-
viously reduced.
At the close of Selim’s reign, the famous
corsair Khair-ed-Din (Barbarossa), who ruled
Algeria, placed himself under Turkish suzer-
ainty. Under Solyman the Magnificent (1520-
66) the Ottoman Empire stood at the height
of its power and splendor. Belgrade was taken
in 1521 and Rhodes was conquered in the
following year. The victory over the army of
Louis 11. of Hungary at Mohzics in 1526 broke
up the Hungarian realm. It was followed by a
succession of campaigns against the Hapsburgs,
in one of which (1529) Vienna itself was be-
sieged, and which converted the heart of H_un-
gary (including the capital, Buda) into a Turk-
ish province. (See HUNGARY; SOLYMAN II.)
Conquests were also made from Persia. On the
TURKEY.
TURKEY.
1016
Mediterranean Sea the Turks were the undis-
puted masters. Venice had been gradually
stripped of her possessions in the Morea and the
Archipelago. Tripoli became subject to Turkey
in 1551. Toward the close of Solyman’s reign
in 1565, a vast Turkish force was beaten back
by the heroic defenders of Malta. In the follow-
ing year the little Hungarian fortress of Szizet
long kept at bay the Turkish host which the Sul-
tan had marshaled against the Austrians. Soly-
man died‘ before the fortress fell. Selim 11.
(1566-74) undertook to wrest Cyprus from the
Venetians and this brought about a Holy League
between Venice, Spain, and the Pope, whose
fleets inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Turks
in the battle of Lepanto (1571). Cyprus, never-
theless, was taken by the Turks. In the reign of
Selim II. the subjugation of Yemen was com-
pleted, and about the time of his death the Span-
iards were driven from Tunis, which became
subject to Turkey.
With the disaster at Lepanto the decline of the
Ottoman power began. In the line of Osman
the first impulse of barbaric vigor had been lost
in the effeminacy that attends success. The
European nationalities were now establishing
their relations on broader grounds of policy and
the Ottomon rulers found that diplomacy must
in a measure take the place of conquest in the
future. Under Amurath III, (1574-95) a war
with Persia, in which conquests were made in
Armenia, was followed by a contest with Aus-
tria, which continued under Mohammed 111.
(1595-1603) and extended into the reign of
Achmet or Ahmed I. (1603-17). At this time
Persia rose to a high pitch of power under Abbas
the Great, who in 1605 won a great victory over
the Turks at Basra, and who wrested large terri-
tories from them, even making himself master of
Bagdad (1623). The cruel but able and energetic
Amurath IV. (1623-40) restored the fortunes of
Turkey in the East, retaking Bagdad in 1638. Af-
ter his death maladministration and internal dis-
orders hastened the decadence of the Empire. In
1656 the Venetians, on whom the Turks had made
war for the possession of Crete, appeared in the
Dardanelles and defeated the Turkish fleet. The
realm was raised for a brief period from this
state of depression by the abilities of Mohammed
Kiuprili and his son Ahmed (see KIUPRILI),
who successively held the position of Grand
Vizier during part. of the reign of Mohammed
IV. (1648-87). They infused fresh vigor into
the administration and to some extent enabled
the Turkish arms to reassert themselves. A war
with Austria, in which the Turks finally suffered
a great defeat at the hands of Montecuccoli at
Saint Gotthard, on the banks of the Raab (1664),
was terminated by a peace -slightly advantageous
to Turkey. In 1669 the fortress of Candia fell
and Venetian rule in Crete came to an end. In
the regions to the north of the Black Sea the
Turks fought with varying success against the
Poles, and it was in the reign of Mohammed IV.
that they first came in collision with the rising
power of Russia, whose Czar, Feodor II., came
off victorious in the conflict. In 1683 the Porte
took up the cause of T6k6lyi, the leader of the
Hungarians in their rising against Leopold I.
of Austria, and once more,the tide of Moslem
invasion rolled up to the gates of Vienna. Kara
Mustapha (q.v.), the successor of Ahmed Kiu-
prili, advanced with a vast army and laid siege
to the Hapsburg capital. For a moment the fate
of Central Europe hung in the balance, but after
the siege had lasted two months, the chivalry
of Poland, led by King John Sobieski, and a
German army came to the relief of the city, and
on September 12th the Turkish army was put to
flight in a great battle before its walls. The
blow was a crushing one and ended the role of
Turkey as a formidable aggressive power. Aus-
tria, Poland, and Venice now made a great on-
slaught upon the Ottoman Empire. The Aus-
trians drove the Turks before them in Hungary,
capturing city after city. In 1686 Buda, over
whose walls the crescent had been displayed for
a century and a half, fell into their hands. At
the same time John Sobieski overran Moldavia
and Wallachia and the Venetians success-
fully invaded the Morea. In 1695 Peter
the Great took up arms against the Turks and
in 1696 he wrested Azov f.rom them. The Aus-
trians, under Prince Eugene (q.v.), annihilated
the Turkish army opposed to them at Zenta
in 1697. In the Peace of Karlowitz in 1699,
Turkey was forced to give up all of Hungary
between the Danube and the Theiss, to restore to
Poland a great part of the Ukraine, acquired
in 1672, and to surrender the Morea to the Vene-
tians. In the course of the seventeenth century
Turkey had been gradually tightening her hold
on Moldavia and Wallachia, which early in the
following century were placed under the rule of
Fanariot hosporlars, appointed by the Porte.
In 1711 Sultan Achmet III. took up arms for
Charles XII. of Sweden against Peter the Great
of Russia, who had triumphed over his rival at
Poltava (1709). The Czar invaded Moldavia,
where he was hemmed in by the Turks on the
banks of the Pruth, and was glad to purchase
peace by the surrender of Azov. In 1715 the
Turks reconquered the Morea from the Vene-
tians. The struggle with Austria was renewed
in 1716. The Austrian forces under Prince Eu-
gene gained a great victory in the same
year at Peterwardein and another in 1717 at
Belgrade, which they captured. In the Peace of
Passarowitz (1718) the Turks were compelled to
cede the Banat, part of Servia (with Belgrade),
and parts of Bosnia, and Wallachia to Austria.
The Morea remained in their hands. In 1736
Russia entered upon her role as a great assail-
ant of the Ottoman Empire with the seizing of
Azov and the invasion of the Crimea, which were
followed by the capture of Otchakov (1737),
and a victorious advance into Bessarabia and
Moldavia. Austria joined Russia in 1737; but
a scheme for the partition of Turkey between
the two powers was foiled by the defeats inflicted
upon the Austrian armies by the Turks. In the
Peace of Belgrade in 1739 Austria relinquished
the Servian and Wallaehian territories acquired
in 1718, while Russia concluded a peace in which
she gained but little. Alarmed at the aggressive
intervention of the Empress Catharine II. in the
affairs of Poland‘ and believing the safety of his
realm to be endangered by Russian intrigues,
Sultan Mustapha III. ventured in 1768 on a war
with Russia, which proved disastrous to Turkey.
The Russians advanced victoriously through Mol-
davia and Wallachia, defeated the Tatar Khan
of the Crimea (the vassal of the Sultan), won a
victory on the Kagal (in Bessarabia), stormed
TURKEY.
TURKEY.
1017
Bender, broke into the Crimea, and in 1773-74
advanced into Bulgaria, where, however, the Turk-
ish fortresses withstood their attacks. In 1770
the Russians burned the Turkish fleet at Tchesme.
Peace was concluded at Kutchuk-Kainarji in
1774, Turkey rcnouncing her suzerainty over the
Crimea and other Tatar territories in the region
of the Black Sea, and according to Russia a sort
of protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia
and the free navigation of the Turkish waters.
During this war Turkey was to a certain extent
crippled by the revolt of the Mameluke Governor
of Egypt, Ali Bey (q.v.) . In 1787 Sultan Abdul-
Hamid I. plunged Turkey into a fresh war with
Russia. Joseph II. of Austria seized the oppor-
tunity to make a sudden onslaught on the Turk-
ish territories, and fresh disasters befell the
Ottoman arms. Potemkin stormed Otchakov
(1788) ; the allies won a great victory at
Fokshani (1789) ; Belgrade and Bender were cap-
tured in the same year ; and Ismail was stormed
by Suvaroff at the close of 1790, the Russians
enacting a carnival of blood. Austria, through
pressure from Prussia, withdrew from the
struggle in 1791 without reaping any benefit
from it, and Catharine II. in 1792 concluded
the Peace of Jassy with Sultan Selim III.,
which made the Dniester the boundary be-
tween the Muscovite and Ottoman dominions.
Rent by internal disorders, Turkey was unable to
offer resistance when Bonaparte in 1798 suddenly
swooped down upon Egypt, which, under its
Mameluke beys, was already almost severed from
the Empire. In Syria the advance of the French
was stayed by the brave defenders of Acre
(1799). Bonaparte returned to France, and in
1801 the English drove the French from Egypt.
The downtrodden Servians rose in insurrection
in 1804 under the leadership of Czerny George.
Selim 111., under the influence of French
thought, had conceived extensive ideas of reform,
which he endeavored to put in operation when
he ascended the throne. Many of his innova-
tions were premature and he aroused the anger
of the Janizaries by his attempts at military
reorganization. A revolt forced Selim to abdicate
in 1807, and placed his nephew, Mustapha IV.
(1807-08) , on the throne. Mustapha was soon de-
posed and Mahmud 11. (1808-39) was made
Sultan. A war begun by Russia in 1806 was
terminated by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812,
by which the country between the Dniester and
the Pruth was ceded to Russia. The authority
of the Sultan was reéstablished in Servia, but the
people rose again under Milosh Obrenovitch and
achieved a partial independence. Greece threw
off the Turkish yoke in 1821 and after an heroic
struggle secured its independence through the
armed intervention of the European powers in
1827-29. A revolt of the Janizaries in 1825 was
successfully met by Mahmud; in 1826 thousands
of the famous corps were slain, and the organiza-
tion was abolished. Russia waged a suc-
cessful war against Turkey in 1828-29. General
Diebitsch advanced as far as Adrianople, and
Paskevitch was equally successful in Armenia.
In the Peace of Adrianople (1829) Turkey sur-
rendered to Russia the northeastern coastland of
the Black Sea and transferred to her the suzer-
ainty over the tribes of the Caucasus; Russia was
accorded a regular protectorate over Wallachia
and Moldavia, which for a time were reduced to
the position of Russian dependencies. Mehemet
Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, who had raised himself to
an almost independent position, made war in
1831 on his liege lord, the Sultan. The victories
of Ibrahim Pasha (1832) secured to the Egyptian
ruler the possession of Syria and Cilicia, while
Russia took advantage of the desperate state of
Turkey to force upon the Sultan the Treaty of
Unkiar Skelessi (1833), which closed the Black
Sea to the vessels of war of all nations save
Russia. In 1839 Mahmud II. made war upon
Mehemet Ali. The Turkish army was utterly
defeated by Ibrahim Pasha at Nisib (June 2-1,
1839), and soon after the Turkish fleet was
treacherously delivered up to the Egyptians.
Only the intervention of the Quadruple Alliance
(q.v.) in 1840 prevented the downfall of the
Turkish power. Mehemet Ali was forced to re-
linquish Syria and other territories; he was
recognized as hereditary, though tributary, ruler
of Egypt. Soon after the beginning of this war
Mahmud II. died (July 1, 1839). His son,
Abdul-Medjid (1839-61), continued the reforms
commenced in the preceding reign. Russia’s
truculent attitude brought on a war with Turkey
in 1853, in which that country would have suf-
fered severely but for the effective intervention
in 1854 of England and France, soon joined by
Sardinia, all bent on humbling Russia. The
allies of the Sultan made the Crimea the scene
of their land operations, and in 1855 Sebastopol
fell. (See CRIMEAN WAR.) The Treaty of Paris
(1856) restored to Turkey the command of both
sides of the Lower Danube, excluded the Czar
from his assumed protectorate over the Danu-
bian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia),
and closed the Black Sea against all ships of war.
Wallachia and Moldavia secured almost complete
independence and were soon united into the Prin-
cipality of Rumania. The Porte, adopted into
the family of European nations, made a procla-
mation of equal civil rights to all races and
creeds in the Turkish dominions. A massacre
of Christians in the Lebanon and at Damascus
(see DBUSES) provoked Western intervention in
1860. Abdul-Medjid was succeeded by his
brother Abdul-Aziz (1861-76) .
The Treaty of Paris in 1856 was supposed to
have settled the Eastern question (q.v.) by guaran-
teeing Turkey’s integrity, but Russia was merely
awaiting an opportunity to press its old policy,
and in 1871 the Russian Government seized the
opportunity of war between Germany and France
to declare that it felt itself no longer bound by
that provision of the Paris treaty which forbade
‘Russia to have a fleet in the Black Sea. A Lon-
don conference sanctioned this stroke of Russian
diplomacy. An insurrection in Crete in 1866-68
was suppressed with difficulty. Between 1854
and 1871 the Turkish debt had increased by
nearly $600,000,000; and in 1875 the Porte was
driven to partial repudiation of its obligations.
An insurrection which broke out in Herzegovina
in 1875 served to stir up all the neighboring
Slavic peoples and was skillfully encouraged by
Russian emissaries.- In May, 1876, frightful
massacres of Christians in Bulgaria took place.
At the close of that month Abdul-Aziz was
deposed and soon after was found dead. His
nephew, Amurath or Murad V., son of Abdul-
Medjid, reigned only three months, when he was
deposed as an imbecile, and his brother, Abdul-
TURKEY.
TURKEY.
1018
Hamid 11., succeeded to the throne. In July,
1876, Servia and Montenegro declared war
against the Porte. Before the end of the year
the Servians were utterly defeated, in spite of
the help of many Russian volunteers. The state
of affairs in the Turkish provinces seemed to call
for a conference of the Great Powers at Con-
stantinople.v The proposals then made for the
better government of the Christian subjects of
Turkey were rejected by the Grand Council of the
Turkish Empire. Simultaneously, however, with
the assembly of the conference the Turkish Gov-
ernment had taken the extraordinary step of
bestowing a parliamentary constitution on the
Ottoman Empire. The Parliament assembled in
March, 1877, but this ostensible remodeling of
the political fabric of the Empire did not get
beyond its incipiency. Russia took it upon her-
self to enforce on Turkey the demands made by
the Powers, and on April 24, 1877, declared war.
(See RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.) The Turks made
a brave stand, but at last succumbed, and at the
close of January, 1878, the Russians were al-
most before the walls of Constantinople. The
Treaty of San Stefano was signed on March 3d,
but the European Powers intervened and re-
adjusted the whole Eastern question at the
Congress of Berlin, Russia being forced to con-
tent herself with a much less radical disruption
of the Turkish Empire in Europe than she had
sought to -bring about. See BERLIN, CONGRESS on.
For a few years under the settlement effected
at Berlin, there was comparative quiet in the
Ottoman dominio'ns, although in 1883, in con-
sequence of disturbances in Egypt, and the bad
condition of the finances in that province, Great
Britain established a control there which prac-
tically nullified what little was left of the Otto-
man sovereignty. Following on a revolutionary
movement at Philippopolis in September, 1885,
the Prince of Bulgaria proclaimed the annexa-
tion of Eastern Rumelia, and after a decade the
Porte was compelled to recognize the change
which thus deprived it of its fairest province.
In 1895-96 there were massacres of tens of
thousands of Armenian Christians, which were
connived at by the local officials of the Ottoman
Government. The protests of Europe were of no
avail, because Abdul-Hamid knew well how to
play off the Powers against one another so as
to prevent interference of an effective kind. A
rising of the Christians against the Mohammedans
in Crete (q.v.) followed in 1896, and was the
signal for the outbreak of long-repressed hos-
tilities in Greece, which recklessly entered upon
war with Turkey in April, 1897. The campaign
of a few weeks showed the utter futility of the
Greek preparations. (See GREECE.) Greece was
forced to sue for peace, the terms of which pro-
vided for the payment to the Ottoman Govern-
ment of an indemnity of $18,000,000, and the
rectification of the Greco-Turkish frontier in
favor of Turkey. Meanwhile Crete was taken
in charge by Great Britain, Russia, France, and
Italy, and a settlement was finally made in 1898
by which the suzerainty of Turkey was renewed,
but the island was given an autonomous gov-
ernment for three years, its executive head being
Prince George of Greece, as high commissioner
of the four Powers. This settlement was renewed
indefinitely upon its expiration in December,
1901. (See CRETE.) The peoples of ancient
Macedonia have long been restive under Turkish
control, and in 1903 there were bloody conflicts
and massacres over a large territory. The rivalry
of Bulgaria and Greece and the influence of the
Great Powers have made a successful revolt diffi-
-cult.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lejean, Ethnographic de la
T-urquie d’Europe (Gotha, 1861); Reclus, Ge'o-
graphic universelle, vol. i. (Paris, 1876); Von
Samo, Die V6lker des o-smanischcn Reiches (Vi-
enna,- 1876) ; Clark, The Races of European Tur-
key (Edinburgh, 1878); Geary, Asiatic Turkey
(London, 1878) ; Keene, The Turks in India (ib.,
1879) ; Isambert, Grece et Turquie d’Europe
(Paris, 1881) ; Lozer, Turkish Armenia and East-
ern Asia Minor (London, 1881) ; Vambery, Das
Tilrkenuolk (Leipzig, 1885) ; Ramsay, Historical
Geography of Asia Minor (London, 1890) ; Gar-
nett, The Women of Turkey and Their Folklore
(ib., 1890-91) ; Cuinet, La Turquie d’.-fsie: G’éo-
graphic adm-i-nistrative (Paris, 1891-98); Geor-
giades, La Turquie actuelle (ib., 1892) ; Knight,
Whe1‘e Three Empires Meet (London, 1893);
Latimer, Russia and Turkey in the Nineteenth
Century (Chicago, 1893); Salmone, The Fall
and Resurrection of Turkey (London, 1896);
Macoll, The Sultan and the Powers (ib., 1896) ;
Lunay, Ghee les Grecs dc Turquie (Paris, 1897) ;
Lobel, H ochzeits_gebniiu.che in der Tilrkei (Amster-
dam, 1897) ; Steevens, With the Conquering
Turk (London, 1897); Ramsay, Impressions of
Turkey During Twelve Years’ Wanderings (New
York, 1897); liaunenberg, Kleinasiens Natur-
schrlitze (Berlin, 1897); Bérard, La Turquie et
l’Hellé-nisme contemporain (Paris, 1897) ; Davey,
The S'ult-a-n and His Subjects (London, 1897);
Fazy, Les Turcs d’aujou-rd’hui (Paris, 1898);
La Barre de Nanteuil, L’Orient et l’Europe
depu-is le XVII<§me s-ie-cle (ib., 1898); Bernard,
fl'urquie d’Europe et Turquie d’Asie (Paris,
1899) ; Kaudor, Reisebilder aus Persien, Turke-
stan und der Tilrkei (Breslau, 1900); Percy,
The Highlands of Asiatic Turkey (ib., 1901);
Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks (London
and New York, 1877); Freeman, The Ottoman
Power in Europe, I ts‘ Nature, Its Growth, and Its
Decline (ib., 1877); Von Hammer-Purgstall, Ge-
sehichte des osmanischen Reichs (10 vols., Pesth,
1827-35, containing a great body of documents;
a second revised edition, without the documents,
-1 vols., Pesth, 1836), the standard authority;
Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches in
Europa (7 vols., Gotha, 1840-63), another stand-
ard work, better than Hammer for the general
reader; Lane Poole, Story of Turkey (New York,
1888); Rosen, Geschichte der Turkei neuester
Zeit (2 vols., Leipzig, 1866-67); Hecquard, La
Turquie sous Abdoul Hamid II. (Paris, 1901) ;
Seignobos, Political History of Europe Since
1811;, translated by Macvane (New York, 1900).
TURKEY (abbreviation of Turkey-cock, Tur-
key-hen, so called as being supposed to come
from Turkey, vaguely applied to Tartary or Asia
in general). The turkeys are natives of North
and Central America, and the only two species
known are the common wild turkey (Meleagris
gallipa-vo) with three subspecies and the beauti-
ful Yucatan turkey (M eleagris ocellatus) . They
were once regarded as a distinct family, but are
now considered the sole American representatives
of the Phasianidae. The wild turkey is like the
domesticated one, but more brightly colored. The '
ocellated turkey of Central America is a smaller
TURKEY.
TURKISH LANGUAGE.
1019
and more beautiful species; the plumage is lus-
trous, and parts of it are ocellated, like the
peacock’s feathers; the bare head is blue with
orange caruncles. This fine species is confined to
Yucatan and Central America. The common
wild turkey is still found in Mexico, Texas, and
Arizona, and in other parts of the West and
South, but is scarce east of the Mississippi and
north of Virginia or Kentucky, though it former-
ly ranged well up into New England.
The domestic turkey, the largest of gallina-
ceous birds, appears to have been introduced into
Europe by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth
century. The domestic birds vary greatly in
plumage from the tints of the wild species to
buff, or brown, or pure white, and occasionally
produce a crest. On account of its size, and the
excellence of its flesh and eggs, the turkey is one
of the most valued kinds of poultry. The man-
agement of turkeys differs little from that of
the common fowl. The young are tender for the
first few weeks, and require care, particularly to
keep them from getting wet by running among
the wet grass, or the like; but afterwards they
are sufficiently hardy. See Colored Plate of
PEAcocK, TURKEY, and GUINEA-FowL.
TURKEY BUZZARD. See VULTURE.
TURKEY GNAT. An insect (Simulium
pictipes) of the dipterous family Simuliidae, iden-
tical with the Southern buffalo-gnat, which
usually makes its appearance about the time
turkeys are setting, and sometimes causes great
mortality among those birds. See BLACK FLY;
BUEEALo-GNAT.
TURKEY RED. A name applied to one of
the most durable and beautiful colors which
have been produced on cotton. The process of
dyeing" cotton Turkey red is said to have been
practiced in India from time immemorial; at
present, the main seat of the industry is in the
neighborhood of Glasgow. The operations are
long and tedious, and their effect could scarcely
be explained theoretically. Thus no reason could
be given for the part of the process which con-
sists in soaking the cloth in olive oil for a
considerable length of time; yet this is well
known to be one of the most essential opera-
tions in the dyeing process and is believed to be
the cause of the rich apparance of the dye.
Turkey red is one of the colors of alizarin which
can be obtained either from madder (Rubia tinc-
torum) or by an artificial process of manufac-
ture from coal-tar. See ALIZARIN.
TURKEY STONE. A honestone found in
Turkey. See HONES.
TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE. The Turkish language belongs to the
Finno-Ugrian linguistic group, where it holds a
first place for conformity to type as well as for
extent of domain. Its territory is a zone aver-
aging about 300 miles in width, extending along
the fortieth parallel of latitude from the shores
of the Adriatic Sea eastward through one hun-
dred degrees of longitude to the westward border
of Manchuria.
The chief structural characteristics of the Turk-
ish language are four: (l)The root of every word is
inviolable; (2) the root is emphasized by making
its leading vowel dominate the vowels and to some
extent the consonants added for purposes of in-
VOL. XVI.—65.
flection, subjecting them to change under regular
rules of euphonic harmony. (3) Grammatical
forms, especially in the conjugation of the verb,
are abundant, regular, logical, and efficient. (4)
Determining or modifying syllables are placed at
the end of the root. The Turkish verb begins
in simplicity. For instance, bak means ‘look
thou,’ and is the root of the verb bakmak, to
look. Upon this root a series of new verbs may be
built: (1) Causative: bakdirmak, to cause or allow
to look; (2) reciprocal: bakishmak, to look at one
another; (3) reflexive: bakinmak, to look at one’s
self, i.e. to be perplexed. From these again a
further series of new verbs can be made by insert-
ing in each the causative particle; (4) bakdirt-
mak, to make or let one cause another to look; (5)
bakishdirmak, to cause or allow one to look at
another; (6) bakindirmak, to cause or allow one
to look at himself, i.e. to be perplexed. All of
these new verbs can be conjugated in the positive,
the negative, and the impossible form (to look;
not to look; and not to be able to look), and, if
the sense permits, in all the moods and tenses of
the active and passive voices. The same is true
of the root of every verb in the language, if the
sense permits. It has been computed that, count-
ing all the moods and tenses and numbers and
persons, the permutations of which each Turkish
verb is capable amount to over 25.000. Yet so
simple and clear are the rules that the memo-
rizing of forty-four syllables or particles enables
one to build and understand the whole series. The
eflicieiicy of the system appears on realizing that
Turkish grammar has but one conjugation and
no irregular verbs except the auxiliary. The
scheme of the verb is that of a form which will
fit every root and which is yet so transparent
that the root is always visible. The same prin-
ciple of agglutination to the root is followed
in making new verbs from nouns or adjectives
and in declining nouns a11d pronouns. There is
no gender for noun, pronoun, or adjective. Ad-
jectives are subjected to no change except for
comparison. The Turkish syntax is peculiar.
The unit of expression is the paragraph, and
there is no punctuation. The subject of the rul-
ing verb is placed as near as possible to the
beginning of the paragraph. All subordinate
sentences and clauses adding particulars have
their verbs in participial form, the sense being
thus suspended during the process of building the
paragraph, until the chief verb coming in at the
very end illuminates the whole.
The investigations of Thomsen and Radloff
among the so-called ‘Runic’ inscriptions of the
vicinity of Urga and the Orkhon River. south of
Lake Baikal, have shown these inscriptions to
be Turkish historical records, some of them dat-
ing back as far as the sixth century. One of
the ancient Turkish alphabets has thus been
recovered. But as the Turks became Moham-
medans they began to adopt the Arabic alphabet,
which is the only one now used by them, except
as some of the northern tribes have adopted the
Russian alphabet. They have increased the 28
Arabic letters to 33 by the device invented by the
Persians of adding dots to five of the Arabic
letters. Nevertheless the alphabet is quite un-
suited to the Turkish, owing to its lack of proper
vowels.
The onrush of the Turks from the Far East
into all civilized lands, including China, which
TURKISH LANGUAGE.
TURKISH LANGUAGE.
1020
continued from the tenth century to the end of
the seventeenth, enlarged the meagre Turkish
vocabulary. The tribes which invaded India,
now known under the name of Moguls, lost their
language; but those which conquered Persia and
overthrew the Byzantine Empire came under the
literary influence of Persian at first, then of
Arabic, and finally of Greek and the European
languages. The consequence was that the Otto-
man Turkish (Osmanli) , as the Western branch
of the language is called, adopted into its literary
vocabulary Persian words for poetry a11d history,
Arabic words for religious and legal writings,
Greek words for the winds and currents and fishes
of the sea, Italian words for all that relates to
sailing vessels, and, later on, English terms for
steam, the steamboat and its manoeuvres, and
French words for many of the terms of diplo-'
macy.
The language of the Turkish tribes left in
Central Asia and Persia and Southern Russia
after the centre of the Turkish power had been
transferred to Constantinople ceased its develop-
ment at that point. That language is what is
now known as Eastern Turkish. What it was at
the end of the fifteenth century, that it is now.
The dividing line between Eastern and Western
Turkish is the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, and
the western frontier of the Persian Province of
Azerbaijan. Beyond the Caspian Sea the dif-
ference of dialect is so great that a Turk from
Bokhara, though able to make his simpler wants
known in the streets of Constantinople, requires
an interpreter for satisfactory conversation. The
general characteristics of the Eastern Turkish,
called Jagatavl by the Turks of Constantinople,
are a broader and harsher vocalization, a very
confusing substitution of consonants, as on for
b, b for w, 7' for y, etc., and a preservation of
those ancient tense and case words which in the
Western Turkish have become mere arbitrary
particles added to the root to indicate tense or
case forms. For this reason study of the Eastern
Turkish in its purest form, as found, for in-
stance, in Chinese Turkestan to-day, reveals the
processes of evolution of the Turkish grammar.
The grammar is practically the same in Turkes-
tan as in Turkey, but in the East its forms have
lost little by attrition. At the same time the
unity of the two dialects is clear.
Eastern Turkish has many dialects. The lan-
guage of some of the Kirghizes and that of the
Yakuts of the river Lena is strongly tinged with
Mongolian, and some Finnish affects the speech
of the Tchuvashes of the Upper Volga. On the other
hand, the Nogai tribes of the Caucasus and the
Crimea use a dialect so nearly like the Ottoman
Turkish that newspapers published in the Crimea
have regular subscribers at Constantinople. The
Kiptchak is the only one of these Eastern Turkish
dialects which has literary life at present. It
is the one, too, which most nearly approaches to
the pure type of old Turkish found in the so-
called Jagatai or Uighur of the East.
TURKISH LITERATURE.
Turkish literature is a term which at present
implies the literature of the Western or Ottoman
Turkish language. It may be regarded as fall-
ing into three periods: (1) The early period,
when writers were from the region of Central
Asia, and when the Persian was the model and
often the instrument of their highest expression.
(2) The middle period, beginning about the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century and extending well
into the nineteenth, when Arabic dominated the
Turkish literary world, having replaced Persian
as model except in poetry. (3) The modern
period, dating from about the time of the
Crimean War (1853-56). In it the tendency of
Turkish writers is to copy French, rather than
either Persian or Arabian models, and to bring
back into the language half-forgotten Turkish
expressions.
The earliest literary remains of Turkish writ-
ers are the inscriptions mentioned above, de-
ciphered by Thomsen, collected by Radlofl‘, and
their relation to the Chinese pointed out by
Hirth. One of the earliest books of the early
period, celebrated for its pure Turkish, is a
genealogical history of the Tatars by Abul Ghazi
of Khwarezm, dating from the twelfth century.
The judge Burhaneddin of Sivas, a descendant of
Genghiz Khan, an adventurer, ruling over two
provinces, who lost his life in trying to conquer
another in 1398, has left some poems written in
good Turkish, although after the Persian school.
Another of the early poets was Suleiman Effendi
(died 1410), chaplain to Sultan Bajazet, whom
Tamerlane carried off. He wrote a poem in
honor of the birth of the Prophet Mohammed
which has been read throughout Turkey on public
occasions in each year during nearly 500 years,
and still retains its power to move its hearers.
Another of the poets of the early period was
Amudeddin, who wrote under the name Nesimi.
Like the others of these early poets, he was under
the influence of Sufiism (q.v.), and so incensed
the more orthodox Mussulmans that he was
flayed alive at Aleppo in 1417. Sheikhi, whose
real name was Sinan (died 1420), was a doctor
as well as a poet. His fame rests mainly upon
his poem, the Khar-namé, or Donkey Book, in
which he classifies his enemies according to the
diiferent types of asses found in the East.
Nevayi, whose real name was Ali Shir (died
1500), is the great representative of Turkish
poetry in this period. He was Prime Minister
for a time to Sultan Hussein of Herat, but re-
tired early that he might write. He was a
master in both Turkish and Persian. The thor-
oughly human quality of his writings appeared
from the fact that one main source of our knowl-
edge of the old Eastern Turkish language is a
dictionary written by a Persian in order that
Persians might profit by Nevayi’s writings. The
greatest prose writer of this period was Baber,
great-grandson of Tamerlane, and ‘Mogul’ con-
queror of India in 1525-26. His annals of his
campaigns are written in plain Turkish, Arabic
and Persian words being used to eke out his
vocabulary.
Of the middle period of Turkish literature
Saadeddin (died 1599) offers a type. He was a
warrior of great renown, and afterwards Chief
Justice of the Turkish Empire (Sheikh ul-Islam)
under Sultan Mohammed III. The work on
which his literary fame rests is a history of the
Ottoman Empire, called Taj-et-Te/vamllch. The
style is of the most ornate Persian order and
there is hardly any Turkish in the book except
those auxiliaries essential to the binding of the
sentences. Saadeddin followed the principle,
which ruled literature throughout the middle
TURKISH LANGUAGE
TURKISH LANGUAGE.
1021
period, that Arabic words must be brought into
Turkish with all their grammatical rules and
appurtenances. The effect is to make the finest
Turkish literature of this period a mere mass of
macaronics quite unintelligible to those who have
not enough knowledge of Arabic and Persian to
use dictionaries of those languages. Baki (died
1599), rated by Turkish critics as the ‘king of
the poets of Osmanli Turkish,’ was a contem-
porary of Saadeddin. He was the son of a
mosque servant who became one of the Cazi-
askcrs, or judges of the Supreme Court, under
Sultan Selim 11. His poetry was strongly Per-
sian in flavor, but without slavish imitation.
Another great poet of this time was Fuzuli
(died 1563), whose real name was Mehmed, of
Bagdad. To a foreign taste he offers more of
originality than Baki. His poems are warm with
the peculiar fire of Sufiism, and in both poetry
and prose he loved the strong virile Turkish
words. The list of Turkish poets is long, but
those mentioned are still the greatest names.
To them we may add at some distance Nedim
(died 1725), who was buffoon to Sultan Achmet
III. The name of Kiani, whose real name was
Abu Bekr (died 1791), too, should have a place in
the list of notable poets of this period. The sim-
plicity and transparent beauty of his lines are
such that had it not been for his inveterate wag-
gishness he would hold very high rank among
the Turkish poets. Another of the great poets
of this period was Nabi (died 1712), whose
Ghaeels are accounted among the finest. His
real name was Yusuf of Urfa. One of his longer
poems, the Khairiye‘, has been translated into
French by Pavet de Courteille. \Ve may also
mention the poetess Sherif I-Ianum, who died in
1809, leaving a Divan of some merit.
The historians of the middle period make a
long list. But their work is blemished, as a rule,
by a diflicult, stilted style, and the pettiness of
the annalist. Among exceptions in the long
series we may select Pechcvi Ibrahim, who shows
some inkling of what a historian should be;
Solak Zade, who died about 1680, and wrote in
the graphic style of an eye-witness; and espe-
cially Kiatib Tchelebi, sometimes called Hajji
Khalfa (q.v.). His real name was Mustafa, and
he died in 1658, leaving an enormous mass of ex-
tremely valuable writings in history, geography,
and bibliography.
To the same period probably belong certain
writings of value which are passed over in scorn
by the Turkish literary critics because they are
not in the mongrel language of the pedants.
Hence their authors are unknown. Of this class
is the History of the Forty Viziers, dedicated to
Sultan Mustapha I. ( 1617-23) . It is a cycle of some
seventy-five stories grouped about an incident
of the Joseph and Potiphar order. The book is
directed against the idea of trusting the fair
sex and winds up, after all wrongs have been
righted, with the quaint prayer, “May the Most
High bring us all near to the good and to God,
and keep us from the tricks of deceitful woman.
Amen." Another of these unconsidered classics
of Turkish is the Life of Nasr-eddin Hoja, a col-
lection of bulls acted or spoken by a Turk of
Asia Minor, who is delightfully humorous. To
the same class belongs the story of Shah Miran,
a collection of fairy-tales, religious in purpose,
which is remarkable for its pure Turkish diction.
As a fruit of the Crimean War a revolution
took place in the educational system of '1arkey.
The result has been the appearance of the mod-
ern school of writers who are yet to change en-
tirely the character of Turkish literature. The
heavy scholastic theologians are seeking to arrest
the movement by the censorship, and they have
persecuted or imprisoned some of the most pow-
erful writers, like Ebuzzia Tewfik, or sent them to
die in exile on a barren island like Kernel Bey. The
aim of the new school of writers is to free the
Turkish language from the incubus of Arabic
grammatical purism. The writers who have
perhaps done the most toward accomplishing
this object are Ahmed Vefik Pasha (died 1893),
whose dictionary of Turkish in two volumes was
a revelation to multitudes, and Ahmed Mithad
Effendi, noted for his novels, essays, and his-
torical studies. Great as is the linguistic value
of Ahmed l\Iithad’s writings, they are too close
imitations of French works to have permanent
literary value. Of far greater weight was Kemal
Bey, who died in 1878. Jevdet Pasha, illustrious
as an historian, whose works show a steady de-
velopment toward the simpler Turkish style;
Zia Pasha, a brilliant essayist and poet; and
Jevad Pasha, who has written a fine history of
the origins of the Turkish military organization,
are other examples of this school. Other notable
names of this period are Muallim Naji, poet and
essayist; Ebuzzia Tevfik, literary critic; Sezayi
Bey, Hussein Rahmi. Ahmed Rasim. and Aliye
Hanum, daughter of the historian Jevdet Pasha,
all of whom are novelists, dealing with current
life in a realistic style entirely new in Turkish
literature. The modern period cannot be said
to have entirely revealed its qualities while strife
with reactionist control continues. But it has at
least shown that there is a future before the
writers of Turkey, if they ever have freedom to
speak and to develop.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For analysis of the philosophy
of Turkish grammar, consult: Shaw, Sketch of
the Turkish Language as Spoken in Eastern Tur-
kestan (Calcutta, 1878-80) : for the Eastern Turk-
ish language, De Courteille, Dictionnaire turc-
oriental ( Paris. 1870) : Vambery, Cagataische
Sprachstudien (Leipzig, 1867) ; Radloff, Die alt-
tiirlcischen I nsch ri/' ten der Mongolei (Saint Peters-
burg, 1897) ; id., Proben der Volloslitteratur der
titrltischen Stalmme Said-Siberiens (ib., 1868);
Biihtlingk, Ueber die Sprache der Jaleuten (ib.,
1851). For the Ottoman Turkish language, con-
sult: Wells. Practical Grammar of the Turkish
Language (London. 1880) ; Wahrmund, Praia-
tisches Handbuch der osmanisch-ttlrkischen
Spraohe ( 2d ed., Giessen, 1885) ; August Miiller,
“Tiirkische Grammatik.” in the Porta Linguarum
Orientaliurn (Berlin. 1889) ; Youssouf, Gram-
maire complete cle la langue otfomane (Constan-
tinople. 1892); Redhouse, Lewicon of the Otto-
man Turkish Language (Constantinople, 1884),
the most complete Turkish lexicon in existence;
id., English-Turkish Dictionary (ib., 1861);
Sami, Dictionnaire turc-frangais. frangais-turc
(Constantinople, 1883), is a small but very use-
ful work. For Turkish literature, consult:
Jacob, Turlcische Litteraturgeschichte in Eineel-
darstellungen (Berlin, 1900 et seq.); id., Tiirk-
ische Volkslitteratur (ib., 1901); Gibb, History
of Ottoman Poetry (London, 1902); Hammer-
Purgstall, Geschichte der osmanischen Dicht-
TURKISH LANGUAGE.
TURNBULL.
1022
kunst (Pesth, 1836-38). “Turkish Literature,”
in the Worl0l’s Great Classics (London, 1901), is
a convenient collection of translations of typical
Turkish works; except in the Ottoman poetry
translated by Gibb, however, the articles are not
taken directly from the Turkish, and often miss
the point of the original. Poole, The Story of
Turkey (New York, 1888), has some valuable re-
marks on the characteristics of Turkish litera-
ture.
TURKISH MUSIC. See ARABIC‘ Mosro.
TURK ISLANDS. A group of small islands
in the Bahamas, connected politically with the
Caicos Islands (q.v.).
TUB/KOMANS. A people whose principal
home is in the great plains between the Caspian
Sea on the west and the Sea of Aral and the Amu
Darya on the east——the western part of Turke-
stan in the broader sense. Some of them are to
be found in Persia, Afghanistan, and other re-
gions. They belong by language, and largely by
blood, to the Turkic stock. The Turkomans of
Turkestan are under Russian rule. See TURKE-
STAN.
TUBKO-TATARS, ter’ko-ta’tarz. A term
used by certain ethnologists to designate a group
of Ural-Altaic peoples composed of the Turkic and
related so-called Tatar tribes and nations. Under
Turko-Tatars are included: The Siberian peoples
of Turkic stock, such as the Yakuts and Siberian
Tatars; the Kirghiz-Cossacks of the Irtish Cas-
pian steppes; the Kara-Kirghizes of the Tian-
Shan; the Uigurs, Sarts, Uzbegs, and Turko-
mans of Central Asia; the Tatars of the Volga;
Bashkirs, Tchuvashes, and Meshtcheriaks, in Eu-
ropean Russia; the Tatars of the Crimea and
the Caucasus, including the Nogai, Karatchai,
Kumyks, and Basians; the Azerbaijani; the
Yuruks of Anatolia; the Osmanli Turks; and
others. Many of these peoples, like the Osmanlis,
Starts, Turkomans, Uzbegs, Azerbaijani, and the
Turks of Turkestan, are largely Aryanized in
blood, with often an added Semitic strain. Ex-
cept the Yakuts, whose religion is Shamanism,
and those Tchuvashes who have become Chris-
tian, the Turkic peoples profess Islam. The em-
pires founded by Turko-Tataric peoples have had
a rather ephemeral existence, and the realm of the
Osmanli Turks in Europe owes its perpetuation
not a little to the very mixed physical character
of that people. Consult: Vérmbéry, Etymolo-
gisches Wiirterbuch cler turlco-tatarischen
Sprachen (Leipzig, 1878) ; id., Die primitive
Kultur des turlco-tatarischen Vollces (ib., 1879) ;
id., Das Tilrkenvolh (ib., 1885); Radloff, Eth-
nologische iibersicht cler Tiirkstiimme Siberiens
und der Mongolei (ib., 1883) ; Ujfalvy, Ewpédi-
tion scientifique frangaise en Russie, en Sibérie
et en Turkestan (Paris, 1878-80) ; Chantre, Re-
cherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase (ib.,
1885-87) ; id., Recherches anthropologiques dam
l’Asie occidentale (Lyons, 1895).
'1‘URK’S HEAD. A name given to a number
of coffee-houses in London, among which that on
the Strand, frequented by Dr. Johnson and Bos-
well, was the most noted. Others of the name
were situated in Change Alley, in Soho, and in
Westminster.
TURMAIR, t'6‘o'r'mir, JOHANNES. The real
name of the German historian best known as
Johannes Aventinus (q.v.) .
TURMERIC (Fr. terre-merite, Neo-Lat. term
merita, turmeric, apparently deserved earth, best
earth, but probably a corruption of an Oriental
name, perhaps of Ar. kurkum, from Skt. hun-
kuma, saffron), Uurcuma lo/nga. A plant of the
natural order Scitamineae or Zingiberaceae, a na-
tive of the East Indies, much cultivated both in
India and in Cochin-China, for its fleshy roots,
more than $500,000 worth of which are annually
exported from India alone. - The lanceolate
sheathing leaves and a short leafy spike of small
cream-colored flowers spring from the crown of
the root. Young roots abound in a kind of
arrowroot, but older ones contain a large quan-
tity of a resinous yellow substance called tur-
meric, which is used mainly for dyeing. The
color is not very stable. Some of its other uses
are in chemistry as a test for alkalies, their
carbonates and phosphates, some of the alkaloids,
and boracic acid, which change it to reddish
brown, and as a condiment with many kinds of
food, especially as a principal ingredient in
curry-powder. The plant thrives best in a rich,
friable soil, and a situation not liable to be
flooded. It is propagated by cuttings of the
root, which are planted at distances of eighteén
inches or two feet, in April or May. The crop
is gathered in December. This kind of turmeric

TURMERIC (Curcuma Ionga).
is sometimes distinguished by the name long
turmeric; and the name of round turmeric is
given to Kaempferia pandurata, a plant of the
same order, also a native of the East Indies, the
roots of which are shorter and rounder, but other-
wise of very similar quality. They are especially
valued for the preparation of an artificial gold
varnish, as they yield a better color than the
former kind. The Arabic name of turmeric is
kurlcum, whence curcuma. Turmeric is not cul-
tivated commercially in the United States. See
CURCUMA.
TURN, ’066rn. A town adjoining Teplitz, in
Bohemia, Austria. It has a magnificent park,
bathing establishments, and thriving manufac-
tures of many kinds, particularly porcelain.
Population, in 1900, 12,408.
TURIWBULL, LAURENCE (1821-1900). An
American physician, born in Sholts, Lanarkshire,
TURNBULL.
TURNER.
1023
Scotland. He graduated at the Philadelphia
College of Pharmacy in 1842, and for a while was
occupied in the manufacture of chemicals. In
1845 he graduated at the Jefferson Medical Col-
lege, and was appointed house physician of the
Philadelphia Hospital. He lectured on chemistry
at the Franklin Institute from 1848 to 1850, and
from 1857 to 1887 was attached to the Howard
Hospital, in charge of eye and ear diseases, of
which he became a well-known specialist. During
the Civil War he served as a volunteer surgeon.
Among his writings, some of which passed
through many editions, are: Defective and Im-
paired Vision (1859); Hints and Observations
on Military Hygiene (1862) ; Imperfect Hearing
and Hygiene of the Ear (1871) ; The Nature and
Treatment of Nervous Deafness (1874) ; A
Clinical Manual of the Diseases of the Ear
(1881); A Manual of Anwsthetic Agents and
Their Employment in the Treatment of Disease
(1885) .
TURNBULL, ROBERT JAMES (1775-1833).
An American publicist, born in New Smyrna,
Fla., where his father, an English physician,
had established a Greek colony. He was edu-
cated in England, was admitted to the bar in
Charleston in 1794, and practiced there until
1810, when he retired to his plantation. From
the beginning he was active in the Nullification
movement, and under the signature of ‘Brutus’
published thirty-one papers in the Charleston
during 1827, which were after Wards
collected as the Crisis, and had much influence.
In 1830 he published The Tribunal of Dernier
Ressort. He was prominent in the Free Trade
Convention at Charleston in 1831, and wrote the
report. He was a delegate to the Nullification
Convention in 1832, and prepared the address
to the people. When the proclamation of Presi-
dent Jackson was read, he was the first to volun-
teer to resist the general Government.
TURNBULL, WILLIAM (1800-1857). An
American civil engineer. He was born in Phila-
delphia; graduated at West Point in 1819, and
was commissioned in the artillery. He was en-
gaged largely in topographical work, and was
promoted to a captaincy in the topographical
engineers in 1831, being brevetted colonel in 1847.
In the Mexican War he was with General Scott
as chief topographical engineer, and took part
at Contreras, Cherubusco, and the capture of the
City of Mexico. He was superintending topo-
graphical engineer on the Potomac Aqueduct for
the water supply of Washington, D. C. Among
his more important professional works were the
building of the New Orleans Custom-House and
the Cape Fear River improvements.
TURNBULL, WILLIAM BARCLAY DAVID DON-
ALD (1811-63). A Scottish antiquary, born at
Edinburgh. He was educated for the law, and
in 1832 was admitted as advocate at the Scottish
bar, but he devoted the greater part of his time
to the study of the antiquities and older litera-
ture of Great Britain. In 1834 he founded the
Abbotsford Club. which did great service by print-
ing works preserved only in manuscripts or old
editions. In 1859 he was employed by the Record
Commission, and in the course of the next two
years published two valuable volumes of calen-
dars of State papers, but on account of his
Catholicism he was attacked by the ultra-
Mercury,
Protestant party and compelled to resign. He was
an industrious and careful editor, who without
possessing systematic knowledge of language did
excellent service by his editions of Middle Eng-
lish and early modern English poetry. Nor was
his work as genealogist and historical editor of
small value. Among his publications may be
named: Ancient Mysteries (1835) ; Arthour and
Merlin (1838); The Romances of Sir Guy of
Warwick and Rembrun His Son (1840); The
Visions of Tundale (1843); Letters of Mary
Queen of Scots (1845) ; and The Poetical I/Vorhs
of William Drummond of Hawthornden (1856).
TURNBULUS BLUE.
CYANIC ACID.
TURNE'BUS, ADRIANUS (Fr. ADRIEN TUR-
NEBE) (1512-1565). An eminent French schol-
ar, born at Andelys, famous as one of the
leaders of the Renaissance in France. After
completing his studies in Paris, he became pro-
fessor in the University of Toulouse. In 1547 he
was called to Paris, where he taught Greek and
Latin, and later philosophy, until his death.
From 1552 he had charge of all Greek books pub-
lished by the royal press. Under him appeared
the first editions of Philo and Synesius; he him-
self edited ZEschy1us, Aristotle’s Ethics, Cicero’s
De Legibus, Horace and Varro’s De Linyua
Latina, and made many translations. Turnebus’s
influence extended far beyond the limits of
France thiough his writings and pupils, of
whom the most famous was J. J. Scaliger (q.v.).
After his death his commentaries, translations,
and other writings were published in three
volumes (Paris, 1564-80). Consult the Life
prefixed, and also Mattaire, Historia Typo-
graphorum Aliquot Parisiensium (London, 1817).
TUIR/NER, CHARLES TENNYSON (1808-79).
An English poet, brother of Alfred Tennyson
(q.v.). He was born at Somersby, in Lincoln-
shire. Like his more famous brother, he attended
the Louth Grammar School, and then studied at
home under the direction of his father, the vicar
of Somersby. With Alfred, he published Poems
by Two Brothers (1827; reissued 1893). In 1828
he entered Trinity College, graduating B.A. in
1832. In 1835 he was ordained curate of Tealby,
in Lincolnshire, and two years later became
vicar of Grasby, in the same county. On in-
heriting a small estate from a great-uncle, Sam-
uel Turner, he added Turner to his name. His
last years were passed at Cheltenham, where he
died. After his juvenile verse, he published
Sonnets and Fugitive Pieces (1830), which were
appreciated by Coleridge; and similar volumes
in 1864, 1868, and 1873. In 1880 Hallam Tenny-
son brought together all of his uncle’s sonnets
and lyrics under the title Collected Sonnets, Old
and New.
TURNER, CHARLES YARDLEY (1850-). An
American landscape and figure painter, born in
Baltimore, Md. He studied in the National
Academy and the Art Students’ League of New
York City, and afterwards was a pupil of Lau-
rens. Munkzicsy. and Bonnat in Paris. He first ex-
hibited at the National Academy in 1882. His
pictures include “Nooning” (1882), “The Wed-
ding Procession” (Metropolitan Museum, New
York City), and “The Courtship of Miles Stan-
dish” (1884).
See HYDRO-FERRL
TURNE-R.
TURNER.
1024
_of the English school.
TURNER, Fnnnnnrcn JACKSON (1861-—). An
American historian, born at Portage, Wis. He
graduated at the University of Wisconsin in
1884, and after pursuing graduate courses in Johns
Hopkins University, returned to the former in-
stitution as instructor in American history. Sub-
sequently he became in succession an assistant
professor and a professor, and upon its organiza-
tion in 1901 was made director of the School of
History. He has been one of the editors of the
American Historical Magazine, to which he has
contributed largely. He published a number of
historical articles in the Reports of the Ameri-
can Historical Association and in magazines, and
also The Indian Trade in Wisconsin (1890), in
“Johns Hopkins Studies.”
TURNER, Josnrn MALLQRD WILLIAM (1775-
185l). The most celebrated landscape painter
He was born in Covent
Garden, London, April 23, 1775, the son of
William Turner, a barber. Almost in his in-
fancy he began to paint and draw. He had but
little schooling beyond reading, which he learned
from his father, and writing, which was all he
acquired at the schools of Brentford and Har-
gate. During this time he was constantly em-
ployed in coloring prints and similar work.
His »father offered him every facility for artistic
education in his power. Before 1789 the lad
was placed with Thomas Walton, an architect,
to learn perspective, but proved a sorry pupil.
Afterwards he studied with Thomas Hardwick,
on whose advice he entered the Academy Schools
in 17 89 to study landscape. He was admitted
to the studio of Reynolds, under whom he copied
portraits and perhaps learned oil technique; but
Sir Joshua had but little influence upon the
rising pupil.
His first drawing exhibited at the Academy
was a view of Lambeth Palace (1790). During
the following years he was much occupied with
designs for prints in magazines. which necessi-
tated sketching tours over a great part of Eng-
land and VVales. He continued his artistic edu-
cation, however, as one of the coterie of young
artists who frequented the hospitable abode of
Dr. Thomas Munro, whom Ruskin calls “Tur-
ner’s real master;” this is only true in the sense
that the artist profited by his patronage and
more by his encouragement. In Munro’s house he
had opportunity to copy the early English water-
colorists and also the older masters; there, too,
he met Girtin and Cozens. He was especially in-
fluenced by Girtin. the founder of modern water-
color painting, with whom he sketched much and
formed a fast friendship. The success of Gir-
tin’s Yorkshire aquarelles moved Turner, in
1797, to make a similar attempt, and his travels
in Yorkshire and the north resulted in his
forming several important friendships among the
northern gentry, like that with Dr. Whitaker,
whose works Turner afterwards illustrated with
some of his best designs. More than this, it had a
marked influence upon his artistic career, as is
shown by his exhibit at the Academy in 1798,
which proclaimed his genius as a painter of poetic
landscape, in such pictures as “Morning on the
Comston Fells, Cumberland” (National Gallery),
and aquarelles like “Norham Castle,” which
Turner esteemed of high importance -in his de-
velopment. In 1799 he exhibited several Welsh
subjects, in rivalry with Girtin, and his first
picture of a naval engagement, the “Battle of the
Nile”-—-works which secured his choice as asso-
ciate of the Royal Academy.
With this year ceases what Ruskin calls Tur-
ner’s period of development. and the period of
his first style (1800-20) begins. Dropping the
topographical subjects which had previously been
his chief interest, he introduced historical and
mythological motifs into his pictures, deliberately
striving to equal or surpass the masters then
most celebrated, William van de Velde, Nicolas
and Gaspard Poussin, and Claude Lorraine, in
their own subjects. He was especially influenced
by Claude, the great painter of light, which Tur-
ner also considered the chief problem of paint-
ing. In 1802 he paid his first visit to the Con-
tinent. the results of which appeared in the ex-
hibition in the following year of pictures and
drawings of the Savoy Alps, most of which are
now in the National Gallery. as well as “Calais
Pier,” and a “Holy Family” of the same year.
The same collection possesses his famous “Ship-
wreck” (1805) ; his "Garden of the Hesperides”
(1806). painted in the classical style in rivalry
with Poussin: and the “Sun Rising Through
Vapor” (1807) . one of his best and most individ-
ual works. From 1807 to 1819 he was engaged in
his Liber Stndiormn (q.v. ) , in rivalry with Claude’s
Liber l’eritatis. His work. however. went fur-
ther than Claude’s, in that it purposed to illus-
trate all classes of landscape, while Claude’s
was merely for purposes of identification of his
pictures. The etchings for these plates. all of
which were supervised or executed by Turner
himself, show the master at his very best. Dur-
ing this period he also made travels in Devon-
shire, in the North of England, in Scotland, and
on the Continent. Among other important works
of this period are: “Apollo and Python” (1811) ;
“Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps”
(1812); “Crossing the Brook” (1815) ; and
“Dido Building Carthage” (1815), the best of a
Carthage series——-all in the National Gallery.
With his visit to Italy in 1819 begins his
second style (1820-35), the period of his most
perfect works, distinguished‘ by lightness and
brilliancy of color. Ceasing to imitate the
old masters, he nevertheless clung to the clas-
\lC1Sl§ idea of ideal composition. This mature
style is well represented by the first of the series
of the wonderful Italian pictures upon which his
fame chiefly rests—the “Bay of Baiae, with
Apollo and the Sibyl” (1823); also by “Dido
Directing the Equipment of the Fleet” (1828);
“Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus” (1829); “Cali-
gu1a’s Palace and Bridge” (1831) ; and “Childe
Harold’s Pilgrimage” (1832). During 1833-46
he often visited Venice, which for some time ex-
ercised a paramount influence upon his art. Of
his numerous Venetian subjects the National
Gallery possesses a rich collection of water-
colors, and the “Grand Canal.” in the Metro-
politan Museum, New York City, is a fine ex-
ample of the oils. He found time, however, for
other subjects, like “Saint Michael’s Mount,
Cornwall” (1834), and “The Fighting Te’me’-
raire” (1838), the best known and most popular
of his works. His time was still much occupied
with designs for illustrations, like Rivers of
England and Ports of England, in 1824. The
drawings for the series England and Wales
xx?» 262 _E< B 23%;; z<.:._o¢oEm__>_ mg 7: wzFz_<¢ Bi 20$ :.mo_z.“_> J<z<o ozfié MI?
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TURNER.
TURNER.
1025
(1827-38), in which several line engravers under
Turner’s supervision brought this art to a new
perfection, are wonderful in color and atmos-
pheric effect. In 1830 appeared the lovely illus-
trations to Rogers’s Italy; in 1833 the first of his
Rivers of France, the drawings for which are
among the most perfect of l1is works. He also
illustrated the works of Byron, Scott, Milton,
Campbell, Rogers’s Poems, and Moore’s Epi-
curean.
The third period of Turner’s art (1835-45) is
characterized by the relinquishment of classic
composition and a more direct communion with
nature, of which he endeavored to render his
splendid impressions, foreshadowing the modern
Impressionists. Though it tended to become
more dreamlike and unreal in character, his
work was more wonderful in color than ever.
To this period belong many of his greatest works,
such as the “Slave Ship” ( 1840, Boston Museum) ;
“Snow Storm” (1842); “Approach to Venice”
(1843) ; “Rain, Steam. and Speed” (l844)——all in
the National Gallery. Here belongs also a series of
attempts to represent vague thoughts in color
language, like “VVar—The Exile" (ib., 1842),
and many of his pictures of Alpine scenery, the
grandeur of which he has rendered as no other
painter, in such paintings as “The Spliigen.”
After 1845 his mind and sight began to fail;
but though his work was incoherent, it was
still good in color. He began a new series,
“The VVhalers,” which he did not live to com-
plete. He died at Chelsea, December 19, 1851,
and was buried in Saint Paul’s Cathedral. He
left a fortune of £140,000, and a splendid collec-
tion of his own works, 262 oils, 135 water
colors, 1757 studies in color, and almost innu-
merable sketches. In later life he refused
most tempting offers to sell his best works,
although the buyers intended to bestow them
upon the nation. because he wished to do
this himself. Most of these works are in the
National Gallery. He intended that his fortune
should be devoted to the establishment of pen-
sions for indigent English artists, but his will
was broken and most of it fell into the hands of
the lawyers and relatives. Though very economi-
cal, even sordid in his personal habits, he was
generous to others. There has been much useless
prattle about his private life and character.
Those who knew him best found him infinitely
tender, a kind and dutiful son, and a faithful
friend. His brusque manner was but a foil of
his retiring disposition, which made him inac-
cessible to society. It is difficult to reconcile
these characteristics and the exquisite refinement
of Turner’s art with the supposed coarse char-
acter of his relation to women.
Turner’s life was one continuous course of
prosperity, and he fully achieved the fame he
so ardently desired; in 1802 he was elected
Academician, and in 1808 became professor of
perspective at the Academy. He easily eclipsed
in the public favor all landscapists of his day. In
later life his works were attacked, but to atone
for this he found in John Ruskin the most elo-
quent advocate ever possessed by any artist,
though these eulogies have created several wrong
ideas about Turner’s art. The chief characteris-
tic of Turner does not consist, as Ruskin main-
tains, in his fidelity to Nature. He was indeed
one of the profoundest students of Nature that
ever lived; but he sought to render her more
ideal, beautiful, and sublime than reality, much
as was done by Byron and Shelley in literature.
His master passions in art were the rendition
of light, in which he surpassed even Claude, and
that subtle quality which Ruskin calls the
“Turnerian mystery,” by which objects are ren-
dered with a certain hazy indistinctness of the
highest poetical effect. His chief technical qual-
ity is not naturalism, but a splendid and bril-
liant, though sometimes unreal, color. He was as
subtle and refined in drawing as in composition.
Others have painted more intimate phases of
landscape than he, but in range of subject, im-
agination, and sublimity Turner l1as never been
equaled. Though unsound in oil technique, as
is evinced by the ruined state of many of his
best works, he was a consummate master of
water-color (q.v.), which in his hands became
a new art. He was himself an excellent etcher
and engraver, trusting to mezzotint to produce
the light and shadows; and his designs for illus-
trations produced a new school of line engraving
in England. His facility of execution and dili-
gence were well-nigh incredible, as may be seen
from the large number of works in the public
and private collections of England. A number
of collections in the United States, including the
Metropolitan Museum, Lenox Library, and Van-
derbilt collection in New York City, possess good
examples of his work, both in oil and water-
color.
Brsmoenxrnr. The most brilliant and sym-
pathetic appreciation of Turner is Ruskin’s Mod-
ern Painters (London, 1843-60), the chief pur-
pose of which is to show his superiority to all
painters who preceded. Its value is, however,
rather literary than critical, and it should be
compared with the more sober judgment of
works like Hamerton’s Life of Turner (ib., 1879).
Of the other lives, Thornbury’s (ib., 1862) is
uncritical, though containing valuable material;
far better is that of Cosmo Monkhouse (ib.,
1882), who also wrote the good article in the
Dictrio/nrwy of National Biography. Consult also
the monographs by Burnet (London, 1859) and
Dafforne (ib., 1877).
TURNER, NAT (c.1800-31). An American
negro slave and insurrectionist, who was born
and lived in Southampton County, Va. From his
childhood he fancied himself set apart from his
fellows for some great purpose, and claimed to
hear voices and see visions. In 1828 he declared
he had a command to rise and slay his enemies,
when a sign should be given. The eclipse of
the sun in February. 1831. was accepted as the
sign, but nothing was done until after a peculiar
solar appearance on August 13th. \Vith four
or five companions, he began near Cross Keys, on
Sunday night, August 21st, by killing five mem-
bers of his master’s family in their beds. The
conspirators proceeded, being joined by recruits
until the number reached 53, killing all, even in-
fants, in every house in the neighborhood. On
the next morning they killed all the pupils at a
school. By noon the news had spread and the
band was routed by a party of white men. The
excitement was intense. United States troops
from Fortress Monroe and the militia from vari-
ous counties of Virginia and North Carolina
gathered and the conspirators were hunted like
TURNER.
TURNIP.
1026‘
Scriptural Prophecy (1852) .
wild beasts. Turner kept himself concealed for
six weeks. When his hiding place was discovered
he fled, but was captured near Cross Keys Oc-
tober 30th, was tried and convicted at Jerusalem,
and on November 11th was there hanged. In all
only 17 negroes were executed, as it was proved
that some in the party were there under com-
pulsion. Fifty-seven whites were slaughtered
and more would have been killed but for the
faithfulness of slaves, who in several instances
defended their masters. The results of the mas-
sacre were immediate. More stringent slave
codes were passed in many States, free negroes
were deprived of their privileges, and the Manu-
mission movement, which had considerable
strength previously, was effectually checked.
Consult: Weeks, “The Slave Insurrection in Vir-
ginia,” in Magazine of American History (New
York, June, 1891); Drewry, The Southampton
Insurrection (Washington, 1900) .
TURNER, SAMUEL HULBEART (1790-1861).
A Protestant Episcopal theologian. He was born
in Philadelphia, and graduated at the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania in 1807. He was rector of
churches in Chestertown, Md., New York, and
Brooklyn, and became in 1818 professor of his
toric theology in the New York General Theo-
logical Seminary, and in 1821 professor of bibli-
cal learning and Scripture interpretation. He
was also professor of Hebrew in Columbia Col-
lege after 1830. Among his works are com-
mentaries on Romans (1824 to 1853), Hebrews
(1852), Ephesians (1856), and Galatians
(1856) ; Bibliographical Notices to the Most Dis-
tinguished Jewish Rabbis (1847) ; Companion to
the Book of Genesis (1841) ; Parallel References
of the New Testament (1848) ; Thoughts on
Consult his autobi-
ography (New York, 1863).
TURNER, Snanon (1768-1847). An English
historian. He was born at Pentonville, and at
the age of fifteen was articled to an attorney, to
whose practice he succeeded six years afterwards.
He was a successful practitioner until 1829,
when he retired. From an early time his en-
tire leisure had been devoted to a study of the
Anglo-Saxon period of English history from the
hitherto almost unused Anglo-Saxon manuscripts
in the British Museum. These studies culminated
in his famous History of the Anglo-Sawons (Lon-
don, 1797-1805; 7th ed. 1852). He continued his
narrative in subsequent years under various titles
to the end of Elizabeth’s reign, but with less
happy results. These historical works were final-
ly published in a collective edition under the title
History of England from the Earliest Period to
the Death of Elizabeth (London, 1839) . He also
wrote Sacred History of the World as Displayed
in Creation and Subsequent Events to the Deluge
(ib., 1832; 8th ed. 1848), and other works.
TURNER, Sir WILLIAM (1832-). An Eng-
lish anatomist and naturalist, born in Lancaster -
and educated at Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital.
In 1854 he became a demonstrator of anatomy,
and in 1867 professor of anatomy in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh.
various other teaching positions, and for many
years represented the University of Edinburgh in
the General Council of Medical Education. From
1866 to 1894 he was one of the editors of the
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. In 1886 he
Besides these offices, he held
was made a knight. Among his longer- works are
An Introduction to Human Anatomy (1875);
Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the
Placenta (1876); and an Atlas of Human An-
atomy and Physiology.
TURNER, WILLIAM WADDEN (1810-59). An
American philologist, born in London. In 1818
he emigrated to New York, and became a print-
er’s apprentice. He was librarian of the Uni-
versity of New York, instructor in Hebrew in the
Union Theological Seminary, and from 1852
librarian of the United States Patent Office. Be-
sides contributions to learned societies and
periodicals, he published with Isaac Nordheimer
A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language
(1851), and Grammar and Dictionary of the
Yoruba Language (1858); and translated the
greater part of Freund’s Latin-German Lewicon.
TURNER’S FALLS. A village in the town
of Montague (q.v.), Mass.
TURNHOUT-, tnr-nout’. A town in the Prov-
ince of Antwerp, Belgium, 25 miles east by north
of the city of Antwerp (Map: Belgium, C 3).
It has an old castle, now utilized as a court of
justice and a prison, and the Church of Ouel-Turn-
hout with noteworthy paintings. Turnhout
manufactures lace, cloth, leather, and playing
cards. Leech-breeding is also an important in-
dustry. The town was the scene of a victory of
the Dutch, under Maurice of Nassau, over the
Spaniards in 1597, and in 1789 the Austrians
were defeated here by the Belgians under Van der
Mersch. Population, in 1900, 20,945.
TURNING. See METAL-WORKING MACHIN-
ERY; Woon-Wonxrne MAGIIINERY,
TURNIP (from turn + nep, from AS. ncep,
turnip, from Lat. napus, sort of turnip), Brassica
campestris (rapa of some botanists). A biennial
plant of the -natural order Cruciferee, culti-
vated in cool climates for its globose, oblong or
roundish, swollen and fleshy roots, which are
used as a vegetable and for stock-feeding. It is
a native of temperate Europe and Asia, grow-
ing in fields and waste places. The cultivated
varieties are very numerous. Some attain a
weight of 20 or 25 pounds. Garden turnips are
sown in early spring or even as late as mid-
summer; field turnips generally in midsummer,
so as to avoid the possibility of developing a
flower stem in the year they are planted, a de-
velopment which impairs,the quality and im-
pedes the development of the edible part. The
varieties both of garden and field turnips are
very numerous. The garden turnips are gen-
erally of comparatively small size, ra id in
growth, and of delicate flavor. The name wedish
turnip or ruta baga is given to a group of
varieties cultivated in the same manner and used
for the same purpose as the common field and
garden turnip.
The cultivated turnip grows best in a rich
soil. It is not well suited to clay soils, although
it is often grown on them. A complete pulveriza-
tion of the soil is requisite before the sowing of
the seed. On light soils, a crop of turnips gen-
erally succeeds wheat or cats. The seed may
be sown either in drills 2-21/2 feet apart or
broadcast. The young plants are thinned out by
hand to 8 inches or more apart, and the ground
is stirred and carefully kept clean by cultivation
TURNIP.
TUBPE-NTINE.
1027
and hoeing. The turnip crop is thus of great
use in clearing the land of weeds. In many
places part of the crop is eaten on the ground
by sheep, which are corralled upon small areas in
the field, each third row being left for this pur-
pose, the plants in the other two rows being fed
or stored in houses or earth-covered pits or by
being covered in the field with earth plowed over
them. Swedish turnips are the most hardy
varieties.

common TURNIP (Brassica campestris or rapa).
Both the ordinary turnip and the ruta baga
are used for feeding stock, the former less than
the latter. Both are classed as coarse fodder,
since they are bulky in proportion to their
nutritive value. Turnips have the following
average percentage composition: VVater, 90.5;
protein, 1.1; fat, 0.2; nitrogen-free extract, 6.3;
crude fibre, 1.1; and ash, 0.8; Swedish turnip.—-
Water, 88.6; protein, 1.2; fat, 0.2; nitrogen-free
extract, 7.7; crude fibre, 1.3; and ash, 1.1. Ex-
periments show that 90 per cent. of the total
dry matter, nitrogen-free extract, and crude fibre
of turnips is digested. In Great Britain, North-
ern Europe, and Canada large quantities of tur-
nips are fed, with other roots, replacing grain to
a considerable extent. Roots are little fed in
the United States, probably because they are less
easily cultivated than corn. Turnips are used
especially for sheep. Dairy cattle should be
milked before being fed turnips even in- limited
quantities, to avoid the possibility of tainting
the milk. Sheep prefer the Swedish turnip to
all other roots. Slicing and pulping are com-
monly practiced. See Plate of CABBAGE AND
ALLIES.
TURNIP INSECTS. There are practically
no insects specifically attached to the turnip, al-
though this crop frequently suffers from the
attacks of several kinds of insects. The foliage
is eaten by very many of the insects which are
found upon cabbage (see CABBAGE INSECTS), and
the cabbage root-maggot sometimes affects the
Several of the root-feeding beet
See SUGAR-BEET
turnip tuber.
insects also attack turnips.
Insnors.
TURN-SEVEBIN, or TURN U- SEVERIN,
t-1_1rn’sa’va-rén’. A town of Rumania on the Danube
just below the Iron Gate, about 175 miles west
of Bucharest (Map: Balkan Peninsula, D 2).
Near it are the remains of Trajan’s Bridge,
erected A.D. 103. Population, in 1900, 18,626.
TURNSPIT. A dog. See HOUND.
TURN STONE. A shore-bird (Arenaria inter-
pres), related to the plovers and surf-bird (q.v.),
and found in almost every part of the globe. It
breeds in the Arctic regions, but occurs on the
coasts of the Eastern United States during mi-
grations. It frequents the seashore, and derives
its English name from its habit of turning over
small stones with its bill in search of food. The
eggs, which are four in number, are laid on
lonely rocky coasts where there is sparse vegeta-
tion. They vary very much in color and mark-
ings, and are cunningly concealed. The length
of the turnstone is rather more than 9 inches.
The plumage varies with the age of the bird and
the season, but is always pied black and white,
with rufous or brownish ash. ( See Colored Plate
of SHORE-BIRDS.) On the coasts of the North
Pacific is found a turnstone (Arenaria melanoce-
phala) which lacks the rufous or brownish ash.
These two are the only known species.
TURPENTINE (OF. turbentine, terebc/ntine,
ML. terebintina, turpentine, from Lat. terebin-
thinus, relating to the terebinth, from terebin-
thus, from Gk. repijfiwfios, terebinth). The
resinous exudations of various species of co-
niferous trees. When the viscid exudation is dis-
tilled, oil or spirit of turpentine passes over,
leaving behind a residue of common colophony.
The distillation is carried out in copper stills.
The mass is gradually heated to 316° F. (158°
C.), which is approximately the boiling tempera-
ture of oil of turpentine. The resin remain-
ing in the still is drawn off while hot. French
turpentine is distilled by means of a current of
steam. The oil or spirit. of turpentine dissolves
camphor, resins, and other organic substances
and mixes freely with alcohol, ether, and glacial
acetic acid. It does not mix with water. It is
a thin colorless liquid readily recognized by its
characteristic odor. Chemically it‘ is a mixture
of several isomeric hydrocarbons (terpenes) rep-
resented by the formula C,(,H,,, and con-
verted by oxidation into a camphor having the
composition C,,,H,,O. Oil of turpentine is
largely used in medicine as an irritant and coun-
ter-irritant in chronic inflammations. It is an
excellent remedy for ringworm, and is given in-
ternally also to stop hemorrhages, and as a
remedy for gonorrhoea. The administration of
turpentine is attended with some danger, as it
is likely to produce inflammation of the kidneys.
In the arts oil of turpentine is used for the
preparation of varnishes and for similar pur-
poses. American tuipentine is derived from
the Pinus australis and the Pinus taeda; French
turpentine from the Pinus maritima; Russian
and Swedish turpentine from the Pinus syl-
vestris and the Pinus Lederbourii. Canada tur-
pentine, or Canada balsam, is obtained from the
Abies balsamea, growing in Canada and the
Northern United States.
TURPE-NTINE TREE.
TURRETIN.
1028
TURPENTINE TREE. See PISTACIA.
TUR/PIN or TULPINUS (‘?-c.800). A sup-
posed mediaeval chronicler, Archbishop of Reims.
He is described as a friend and companion of
Charles the Great and an eye-witness of the ex-
ploits he relates in a chronicle in Latin prose
narrating the expedition of the Frankish Em-
peror against the Saracens of Spain, and par-
ticularly the events that preceded and followed
the battle of Roncesvalles (q.v.). Turpin’s name
became attached to this chronicle, but though
there was an Archbishop Turpin of Reims (c.754-
c.800), he has no claim to the description given
above, and internal evidence leads to the con-
clusion that the chronicle is a work of the
twelfth century. It seems to have sprung out of
the epic ballads and traditions of the Carolingian
heroes, and was taken from a manuscript com-
posed probably at Compostella. The poems
were changed considerably in order to further
pilgrimages to Compostella. The book soon
acquired a great Popularity, was translated into
French by 1206, and was made use of by divers
chroniclers, as the author or authors of the
Chroniques de Saint-Denis, Vincent of Beauvais,
and others. The chronicle is of great historic
value, in spite of all the embellishments it has
from time to time received. There have been
several editions of the chronicle in Latin ; the
best, by Casteta, was published at Paris and
Montpellier in 1880. It has been translated into
many languages, among others into English by
Rodd (London, 1812), reprinted in Mediawal
Tales, in Morley’s Universal Library (London,
1890). For editions and secondary works, con-
sult Potthast, Bibliotheca Historica M edii .*Eni,
vol. ii. (Berlin, 1896).
TURPIN, EDMUND HART (1835—— ). An Eng-
lish concert organist, lecturer, and composer. He
was born in Nottingham and after studying
under local teachers went to London, where he
became a pupil of Hullah and Pauer. In 1857
he removed to London and made that city his
home. Twelve years later he became organist
of Saint George’s, Bloomsbury, and removed to
Saint Bride’s, Fleet Street, in a like capacity
in 1888. He was the editor of the Musical
Standard for several years and enjoyed a wide
fame as a musical writer and lecturer. In
1875 he became secretary of the College of
Organists and did much to build up the col-
lege. In 1891 he became joint editor of the
Musical News. His works include a mass, a
cappella and a mass for soli, chorus, brass
drums, and organ; the oratorios Saint John the
Baptist and Hezekiah; the cantatas A Song of
Faith and Jerusalem; and a symphony, The
Monastery. Other works are numerous services,
string quartets, chamber music, pianoforte pieces,
and organ concert music.
TURPIN, RICHARD, commonly called ‘Dick
Turpin’ (1706-39). An English highwayman.
He was born at Hempstead, Essex, where his
father was an in'nkeeper. He was apprenticed
to a butcher, and, detected in cattle-stealing,
he fled and joined a gang of thieves. They
committed several brutal robberies, but dis-
banded after two of their members were captured
and hanged. Turpin then became associated with
the highwayman Tom King, whom he fata.lly
shot when trying to prevent King’s arrest. Tur-
pin escaped into Yorkshire, where he passed for
a gentleman, but was soon suspected, and finally
captured with some stolen horses, tried, and
executed. Turpin’s reputation as a hero, and
a man of courage and generosity, together with
his marvelous ride from London to York, are
fabrications which were enhanced by Ainsworth’s
vivid and descriptive characterization in the
novel Rookwood (1834) .
TURQUOISE (OF. turquoise, turques, Fr.
turquoise, fem. of turquois, Turkish, from Turc,
Turk) . A hydrated aluminum and copper phos-
phate that is found massive. It is opaque, has
a waxy lustre, and occurs in various shades of
blue to green. The peculiar bluish-green or
robin’s-egg tint is the preferred color for the
gem varieties. Turquoise is found in narrow
seams and irregular patches in igneous and vol-
canic rocks. The best specimens come from the
vicinity of Nishapur, Persia, but the mineral
is found also at various localities in Asia
Minor, Turkestan, and Siberia. In the United
States, the locality in the Los Cerillos Moun-
tains, near Santa Fe, New Mexico. was worked
by the ancient Mexicans, and still yields fine
gems. Other localities in the United States are
in Colorado. Arizona, Nevada, and California.
Among the early Mexicans turquoise was re-
garded as emblematic of success, and was worn
to preserve health. The peculiar property of the
turquoise. of becoming dirty-green in color as it
gives up its moisture, led to a belief that its
change in color foretold misfortune, and hence
the Oriental proverb that the turquoise pales
when the well-being of the giver is in danger.
It was believed in the Orient to be a remedy
for all diseases of the head and heart, and in
cases of poisoning or snake-bite, it was given
with wine. Bone turquoise or odontolite is fossil
bone colored blue by iron phosphate.
TURRET (OF. tourette, touret, little tower,
diminutive of tar, tour, Fr. tour, tower, from Lat.
turris, Gk. nipmg, tyrsis, nipptg. tyrris, tower;
connected with Lith. tursa, bag). This name is
now applied to revolving towers of circular or
oval section in which naval guns are mounted.
Fixed towers are commonly called barbette tow-
ers or barbettes, as all gun towers of this class
on modern ships are designed to have the guns
fire over the tops of their walls. _
TURRETIN, tur’t:'1N’, or TURRETINI,
rem-a-te'ne, FRANQOIS (1623-87). A Swiss Cal-
vinistic theologian. He was born in Geneva;
studied theology first in his native city and after-
wards in Holland and France; was pastor at
Geneva, 1647 ; removed to Leyden, 1650; and was
recalled to Geneva as professor of theology, 1653.
His principal work, Institutio Thcologia: Elena-
ticce (1679-85, new ed., Leyden, 1696, reprinted
Edinburgh, 1847-48), ranks high among the
strictest expositions of Calvinistic theology. He
was one of the authors of the Helvetic Consensus
(1675) directed against the milder theology of
Saumur. His complete works were published at
Geneva in 1688. His son, JEAN ALPHONSE
(1671-1737), was born at Geneva, and was pro-
fessor there of ecclesiastical history, 1697. He
followed the Saumur theology as taught by
Tronchin, his teacher, and endeavored to unite
the Reformed and Lutheran churches. His chief
work is Oogitationes et Dissertationes Theologicw
TURRETIN.
TURTLE.
1029
(1711-37).
Consult the lives of the elder and the
younger Turretin, as they are commonly called,
by E. de Bude (Lausanne, 1880).
TURTLE (probably a corruption either of
tortoise, or of Sp. tortuga, Port., It. tartaruga,
OF. tort/age, tortue, Fr. toriue, tortoise; in either
case ultimately from’ Lat. tort/us, twisted, so
called on account of tl1e crooked feet; probably
influenced by popular etymology with Eng. turtle,
sort of dove). A shell-incas-ed reptile of the
order Chelonia. The word ‘turtle’ is used mainly
to indicate the large marine forms, although in
the United States it is applied freely to
both fresh-water and land forms. ‘Tortoise’
(q.v.), strictly speaking, refers to land forms.
STRUCTURE. The body of a turtle is invariably
short and broad, and is protected both above and
below by more or less bony shields, with spaces
between them in front and behind into which the
head and legs may be drawn. The conical tail
is usually simply bent around against the side
of the body when the turtle retracts into the
shell, and thus covers the circular vent. The
armature or ‘shell’ is composed of an upper part,
the ‘carapace,’ and a lower, the ‘plastron.’ The
carapace is formed from the ribs, of which there
are eight pairs; and from the annular parts of
the dorsal vertebrae, expanded into plates, which
are joined to each other by dentilated sutures, so
that the whole acquires great firmness, and the
dorsal vertebrae are rendered immovable. The
plastron is formed of pieces which represent the
sternum or breast-bone, and which are ordinarily
nine in number, and have names, as also have the
parts of the carapace. The box-tortoise has cer-
tain plates movable, so as more completely to in-
close its body. The turtles and other aquatic
chelonians cannot thus withdraw their head, tail,
and limbs from danger, but the greater activity
of their movements compensates for this. The
above remarks apply to all turtles (Thecophora)
except the leatherbacks (Athecze) , whose body is
jacketed in a continuous leather-like case com-
posed largely of a mosaic of polygonal bony
plates; and the vertebrae and ribs are not fused
with, but are free from the carapace. See
LEATIIERBAOK.
Externally the entire shell is covered with
horny epidermal plates or shields of various
forms and ornamentations, but arranged in all
families on a regular plan. Each shield grows
individually, the rings visible upon many of them
indicating each a year’s growth——at least in
countries where a winter hibernation and conse-
quent suspension of growth takes place. These
plates may be detached by heat, and in the
hawksbill are of the beautiful material called
‘tortoise-shell’ (q.v.). The neck, legs, and tail
are often provided with a horny scaled arma-
ture. A cuticular layer covers the outside of the
armature and is shed in fragments from time to
time. The skull agrees fundamentally with that
of crocodiles, but has several peculiar features,
and is very solid. The mouth is bounded by a
more or less horny beak like that of birds. The
jaw is toothless, and the food is swallowed
whole. There is, therefore, no need of a delicate
sense of taste, and this sense is degenerate. In
the stomach there are no organs of trituration,
and the process of digestion is necessarily very
slow, and is dependent on the action of the gas-
tric juice. The heart is short, thick, and has but
one ventricle. The lungs are large and are capa-
ble of containing much air. The air is drawn
into the mouth, the passages to the nares are
then stopped by the tongue, and the air is gulped
down. This way of getting air into the lungs is
required by the rigidity of the armature, which
prevents expansion and contraction of the chest.
Turtles can remain under water for an hour or
so without renewing the lung contents. The eye-
sight of turtles is very keen. The eye is pro-
tected by an upper and a lower lid and in ad-
dition by a nictitating membrane, as in birds. The
sense of hearing is very acute.
HABITS AND HABITAT. When startled, some
turtles, such as the wood-turtle, give a loud
snake-like hiss. The males of the large Gala-
pagos tortoises, according to Darwin, bellow or
rear at the breeding season. Our common
painted turtles utter a piping note, particularly
in the spring. Turtles are diurnal except at the
breeding season. VVith the exception of sea-
turtles, the habitat of any individual turtle is
very local. Certain tortoises and terrapins that
have been marked have been observed in the same
pasture year after year. Sea turtles return to
the same locality to breed. Those in the tem-
perate region hibernate throughout cold weather
buried in earth or mud. Marine forms have the
legs modified into huge paddles, while amphibious
forms have leg-like limbs only partially webbed.
The coloration of those that spend considerable
time on land simulates very much that of the
ground. One form (see MATAMATA) has a
fringed or foliaceous neck of much service in hid-
ing it while seeking prey or avoiding foes.
About 250 species of Chelonia are known, the
most numerous species being found in fresh
water, generally in warm climates. The marine
species are the largest. Several kinds occur in
the Alleghany region at considerable altitudes,
but none live in the Rocky Mountains. Chelonia
are not numerous in kinds on the California
coast, or in Europe, while on the Asiatic coast
they are abundant.
F001). Some of the sea-turtles, the land-tor-
toises (q.v.), and a part of the fresh-water terra-
pins (q.v.) are herbivorous, and these are the
ones commonly eaten by man. Other sea and
fresh-water forms feed entirely or in part on
animal food, and are usually ferocious. Fresh-
water forms, such as the snapping turtles (q.v.),
feed on fish, mussels, earthworms, insect larvae,
young ducks, and the like. The box-turtle eats
mushrooms and berries, and not infrequently
make raids on tomato gardens. Certain pond
forms are practically omnivorous.
EGG-LAYING. Aquatic turtles come on land
usually on moonlight nights at the breeding time
to deposit their eggs. A sandy slope is preferred
by most forms. In this soil they dig a hole with
the hind feet, let the eggs fall within it, and re-
place the sand so deftly that the ground seems
scarcely disturbed. The female then retreats
quickly to the water. Almost any soil will suf-
fice for the American painted turtle, and the
same rotten log may be utilized by many musk-
turtles until it holds hundreds of eggs. The eggs,
if not dug up by some animal, are left to hatch
in the warm sand by the aid of the sun’s heat
alone. The snapping turtle deposits from 18 to
30 eggs in the early morning hours. The wood,
painted, and skunk turtles, which lay from three
TURTLE.
TURTLE.
1030
to eight eggs, choose the afternoon for egg-laying.
The eggs of snapping turtles are usually spheri-
cal and about the size of a walnut. The shell is
tough and leathery. Certain other turtles lay
oval eggs, and a few eggs having a shell of a
fine porcelain texture. The eggs hatch slowly,
some kinds only after three or more months. As
soon as the young, water-loving turtles hatch
they begin to creep about and to travel down
inclines until they eventually reach water.
All the species are extremely tenacious of life;
they are capable of extraordinary abstinence, and
of living long after having sustained injuries
which would have been immediately destructive
to almost any other animal. They are also re-
markable for their longevity, examples of which
are mentioned under TORTOISE.
Eoonomc VALUE. The flesh of those which
subsist on animal food is musky and unpleasant;
but that of vegetable feeders is much esteemed.
The eggs of most species are excellent. Vast
quantities of eggs of the large Amazonian ‘arrau’
(Podocnemis empamsa) are also pressed to obtain
oil of large commercial value. The most highly
esteemed for food is the green turtle (q.v.), and
its relative the ‘edible’ turtle of the East Indies.
Many smaller kinds are eaten, including the
favorite American terrapin (q.v.), the snapping
turtle (q.v.), and other fresh-water forms.
CLASSIFICATION. The Chelonia were at first
divided according to modifications of the feet.
Cope, recognizing the separability of Trionychoi-
dea, also, in 1870, emphasized a division based
upon the mode of carrying the neck, one group
(Pleurodira) bending it sidewise in withdrawing
the head, and the other (Cryptodira) , withdraw-
ing it in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane.
A more worthy division is Athecae for the shell-
less Spargidae, or leatherbacks, and Thecophora
for all other kinds. Boulenger’s classification is
as follows: -
Athecze .............................. .. Sphargidze.
Pelomedusidaa.
Chelydidaa.
Carettochelydidae.
[ Pleurodira
4 Chelydridae.
CHE-
noun
Dermatemydidaa.
Cinosternidae.
Platysternidae.
Testudinidze.
Chelonidee.
Theco-
phora’ Cryptodira
l Trionychoidea. Trionychidae.
The Pelomedusidae are a small family of African
and South American turtles including the large
and valuable ‘arrau.’ The family Chelydidae in-
cludes the curious matamata (q.v.), certain long-
necked Australian types (Chelodina), and the
South American Hydromedusa. The Caretto-
chelydidae are a family in which is set a strange
small turtle of New Guinea, whose ‘shell’ is cov-
ered with soft skin instead of horny shields. Of
the cryptodirous families, the Chelydridae are rep-
resented by the various snapping or ‘alligator’
turtles (q.v.), and the Dermatemydidae by a few
species of aquatic tortoises of Central America.
The Cinosternidae are the family of the North
American ‘skunk’ or ‘stinkpot’ turtles. (See
MUSK-TURTLE.) Platysternidae includes only a
single Siamese water-tortoise. The Testudinidae,
on the other hand, are the most populous of
Chelonian families and nearly cosmopolitan. The
shell in this family is always covered with well-
developed horny shields, the plastron has nine
bones, and the neck is completely retractile.
About twenty genera with more than 110 species
are now recognized; but the generic distinctions
are not easily recognized by external appearances.
Here are classified the North American ‘mud-
turtles’ of the genus Chrysemys, which abound
in all still waters, as do the ‘pond-tortoises’
(Emys) of Europe, the terrapins (q.v), and
the box-tortoises (Cistudo). The last get their
name from the fact that the plastron, which
is united with the carapace by ligaments, is di-
vided into two movable lobes, connected by a
hinge permitting them to be lifted up against the
overhanging carapace, and closing both ends of
the shell perfectly after the animal has drawn
within its defenses. The common box-tortoise of
the United States (Oistudo Carolina) is entirely
terrestrial, numerous everywhere and very inter-
csting in its habits. In this family, also, fall the
various land-tortoises (q.v.) of the type-genus
Testudo. Most of the foregoing are terrestrial
or fresh-water forms, while the remainder are
marine and have the limbs modified into swim-
ming paddles or ‘flippers.’ The family Che-
lonidze contains many great extinct forms, from
the Cretaceous to recent times, and a few existing
species, of which the green turtle, hawksbill, and
loggerhead (qq-v.) are representatives. The
order Trionychoidea contains only the family
Triony'chidae, which have no rigid plates on the
flat carapace, but a soft leathery skin, and the
plastron imperfect. See SOFT-SIIELLED TURTLE.
FOSSIL TURTLES. The origin of the Chelonia is
uncertain. Otocoelus, an armored cotylosaur from
the Permian of Texas, has been suggested by Cope
as a possible progenitor, but the relationship is
extremely doubtful. Certain characters of shoul-
der-girdle and ventral abdominal ribs in the
plesiosaurs indicate that this order may have
genetic affinity with the turtles, and the dicy-
nodonts and placodonts of Triassic age resemble
turtles remarkably in many structures of the
skull and limb-bones. (See THEROMORPHA.) All
these groups belong to the synapsid division of
Reptilia. Little evolution is demonstrable within
the chelonian order from its first appearance in
the European Upper Trias to the present, except
in the degeneration of the carapace and elongation
of the digits in the marine forms. The oldest
turtle known is Proganochelys, from the Keuper
(Upper Trias) of Germany. A probably primi-
tive character in this genus is the well-developed
row of supra-marginal plates. The Lower Juras-
sic strata have, as yet, yielded no chelonian re-
mains, but in the Upper Jurassic, Cretaceous,
and the Tertiary they are abundant, chiefly in the
Northern Hemisphere. The existing suborders
Cryptodira and Pleurodira appear to be fully
differentiated in the Upper Jurassic, the Triony-
chia in the Upper Cretaceous of North America.
As a rule the known Jurassic turtles have a
solidly roofed skull like that of the recent green
turtle, and a well-developed carapace. Professor
Baur’s opinion is that the earliest turtles were
swamp-turtles, and that the soft-shelled Triony-
chia and the marine families evolved from these
along one line, and the land tortoises along an-
other.
Cryptodira is the suborder most widely
represented among fossils, as among recent tur-
TURTLE.
TUSCANY.
1031
tles. Several of the existing families, including
the marine Chelonidae and the ‘leather-turtles,’
are already differentiated in the Cretaceous,
and in the Lower Eocene the highly specialized
land-tortoises appear. Of the Cretaceous sea-
turtles some attained enormous size; Protosphar-
gis from Italy had a shell nine feet long, and
in the North American Archelon the skull alone
measures three feet. The suborder Pleurodira
is widely distributed as fossils in various Meso-
zoic systems. Miolania, from the Pleistocene of
Queensland, was a huge creature in which the
head was armed with bony ‘horns.’ The third
suborder, Trionychia, is known from the North
American Cretaceous and the Tertiary of both
hemispheres. The group shows scarcely any
change from its first appearance to the present.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult standard works and au-
thorities cited under REPTILE and Tonrorsn;
Boulenger, Catalogue of Chelonians in British
Museum (London, 1889) ; Gadow, Aniphibia and
Reptiles (London, 1901); L. Agassiz, Contribu-
tions to the Natural History of the United States
(Boston, 1857). Most of the literature on fossil
Chelonia consists of special papers in scientific
periodicals. The most important ones are by G.
Baur and E. Fraas, in Germany, Boulenger and
Gadow in England, and O. P. Hay in America.
TURTLE-DOVE. See Dove; PIGEON.
TUB/TON. A cotton-manufacturing town in
Lancashire, England, 4% miles northeast of B01-
ton (Map: England, D 3). Population, in 1901,
12.353.
TURVEYDBOP, MB. A dancing-master in
Dickens’s Bleak House, said to have been modeled
on George IV. He poses as a ‘model of deport-
ment’ and is supported by his devoted son.
TUS’CALOO’S.A. The county-seat of Tusca-
loosa County, Ala., 56 miles southwest of Bir-
mingham, on the Black Warrior River, and on
the Alabama Great Southern and the Mobile
and Ohio railroads (Map: Alabama, B 2). The
University of Alabama, opened in 1831, is a
mile north of the city. Other educational in-
stitutions are the Tuscaloosa Female College
(Methodist Episcopal South), opened in 1860;
the Alabama Central Female College; the Verner
Military Institute; and Stillman Institute
(Presbyterian), a colored theological school,
opened in 1870. The State Insane Hospital, the
old State Capitol building, and the bridges span-
ning the Black Warrior also are noteworthy
features. The commercial importance of the
city has been increased by extensive improvements
on the river, adding considerably to the distance
open to navigation. Coal is extensively mined
in the vicinity, and at Holton, a suburb, there
are large iron furnaces, coke ovens, and a by-
product plant. Tuscaloosa is the centre of large
cotton interests, and its principal industrial es-
tablishments are connected with cotton. Under
the revised charter of 1878-79, the government is
vested in a mayor, chosen biennially, and a com-
mon council. Tuscaloosa was settled about 1812,
and was first incorporated some four years later.
It was the capital of the State from 1826 to 1846.
Population, in 1890, 4215; in 1900, 5094.
TUS’CANY (It. Toscana). Formerly a sover-
eign grand duchy, now a district (comparti-
mento) on the west coast of Italy (Map: Italy,
F 4). It comprises the maritime provinces
Grosseto, Livorno (Leghorn), Lucca, and Pisa,
the inland provinces Arezzo. Florence, and
Siena, and the Province of Massa e Carrara, ex-
tending from the sea northward between Liguria
and the Apennines. The greater part of Tuscany
is mountainous, the Apuan Alps reaching 6385
feet and Mount Amiata 5655 feet. The principal
rivers are the Arno, Cecina. Ombrone, and Ser-
chio, all flowing into the Mediterranean. Except
in the Maremma, a large marshy region on the
southern coast, the climate is mild and health-
ful. The leading mineral deposits include iron,
mercury, borax, copper, and salt; there are many
mineral and thermal springs. Among the im-
portant agricultural products are wheat, maize,
the vine, the olive, and tobacco. For population,
see section on that topic under ITALY.
Tuscany corresponds nearly to ancient Etruria
(q.v.). The Etrurians or Tuscans were the
earliest inhabitants known to history. They
were conquered by the Romans, by whom in
later times the land was called Tus-cia. During
the period of barbarian migrations Tuscia was
possessed in turn by the Ostrogoths, the em-
perors of Constantinople, and the Lombards. The
last were conquered by Charles the Great and a
Frankish margrave or duke was established with
Lucca as his residence. Tuscia formed a part
of the Kingdom of Italy, or of the Lombards.
In 1030 Boniface II. of the House of Canossa
became Duke of Tuscany. He was also Count
of Modena, Reggio, Mantua, and Ferrara. His
granddaughter, the Countess Matilda (q.v.),
known as ‘the Great Countess,’ was an ardent
friend of Pope Gregory VII., and one of the most
powerful supporters of the Papal party during
the Investiture struggle. At her death, in 1115,
she bequeathed all of her wide dominions to the
Papacy; but the German emperors claimed the
duchy as an Imperial fief, and for more than a
century ‘the property of Matilda’ was the cause
of constant strife between the popes and the
emperors. During this period the principal cities
became independent and prosperous. Pisa had
risen to independence and power long before this,
and was now a great maritime republic. At the
close of the thirteenth century she succumbed to
the power of her rival Genoa. For several cen-
turies the history of Florence is to a great
extent the history of Tuscany. At the close of
the twelfth century she was at the head of the
Tuscan league of cities formed to resist the
Hohenstaufen. This brought her into close al-
liance with the Papacy, and usually Florence
remained a firm adherent of the Guelph Party.
In the fourteenth century Dante, Giotto, Pe-
trarch, and Boccaccio made Tuscany preeminent
in the revival of letters and arts. The Tuscan
dialect became the literary language of Italy. In
1406 Pisa submitted to Florence and soon after
she became mistress of Leghorn. Internal dis-
sensions in Florence led to the establishment of
the predominance of the Medici (q.v.). Cosimo
de’ Medici got control of affairs in 1434 and
made the supreme power in Florence the heredi-
tary possession of his house. In 1532, through
the instrumentality of the Emperor Charles V.,
Alessandro de’ Medici was made Duke of Flor-
ence. He was assassinated in 1537 and Cosimo
the Great became Duke. The latter added to the
TUSCANY.
1032 TUSKEGEE NORMAL INSTITUTE-.
territories of the duchy, especially by receiving
Siena from Charles V. This gift bound him
more closely to Spain and for nearly two hundred
years Tuscany was generally under the influence
of Spain. In 1569 the Florentine dominions
were erected into the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
The House of Medici became extinct in the male
line in 1737. By the terms of the Treaty of
Vienna, which had been concluded in 1735. the
grand duchy was given to Francis of Lorraine,
the husband of Maria Theresa of Austria. Grand
Duke Ferdinand III. was dispossessed by the
French in 1799. By the Treaty of Madrid be-
tween France and Spain, in 1801, Tuscany was
erected into the Kingdom of Etruria and given
to the son of the Duke of Parma. In 1807 Napo-
leon took possession of the country, which was
united with France. Elisa Bocciochi, the sister
of Napoleon, received the title of Grand Duchess
of Tuscany. In 1814 Ferdinand III. was re-
instated and ruled until 1824. His successor,
Leopold 11., did much to promote the prosperity
of Tuscany. In 1847 Lucca was annexed to the
grand duchy. In February, 1848, Leopold
granted a liberal constitution to his subjects, but
the tide of revolution carried everything before
it, and early in 1849 the Grand Duke fled from
his country. A counter-revolution was soon set
on foot by the Moderate Liberal Party and in a
few months Leopold was restored to his throne.
In 1850 he entered into a convention with Austria
by which Austrian troops were to occupy Tus-
cany, and, thus supported, he reinstituted a
regime of absolutism. In 1859, in consequence of
his pro-Austrian policy, he was obliged to leave
his State, which was occupied by the forces of
Victor Emmanuel. On March 15, 1860, the
people by a plebiscite voted the union of Tuscany
with Italy.
For the early history of Tuscany, consult the
histories of Florence, Pisa, and Arezzo. especial-
ly Perrens, Histoire de Florence (Paris, 1877-
90). For the later history, consult Reumont,
Geschichte Toseanas seit dem Ende des {foren-
tinischen Freistaates (Gotha, 1876). For the
nineteenth century, Seignobos, Political History
of Europe Since 1814, translated by Macvane
(New York, 1899), gives a convenient summary
and furnishes an ample bibliography.
TUS’CARO’RA. An important Southern tribe
of Iroquoian stock (q.v.) . When first known about
the year 1670 they resided along the Neuse River
in eastern North Carolina, where in 1700 they
occupied fifteen villages with an estimated popu-
lation of 1200 warriors or about 6000 souls, and
held paramount influence over all the smaller
tribes of that section. They were hostile to most
of the leading Southern tribes, but maintained
a close friendship with the Northern Iroquois
(q.v.), whom they knew as traditional kinsmen.
In consequence of encroachments upon their
lands, they rose against the whites in September,
1711. A war of two years ensued, in which both
Carolina provinces joined forces, together with
a great body of Indian allies, against them.
Finally defeated, the Tuscarora abandoned their
country and fled north to the Iroquois, who re-
ceived them as the sixth tribe of their confeder-
acy, henceforth known as the ‘Six Nations.’ A
part of the tribe which had remained friendly
during the struggle was settled upon a small
reservation on the Lower Roanoke River in North
Carolina. Here they lingered for a time, until,
weary of the attacks of hostile tribes and the
constant encroachments of the whites, they also
gradually withdrew to the north. Like the
other tribes of the Iroquois confederacy, they
were divided in the Revolutionary lVar, a part
joining the English, while the rest adhered to the
American side. with the result that they are now
about equally divided between New York and
Canada. Those in the United States number about
370 on a small. reservation near Niagara Falls, and
are civilized and fairly prosperous farmers, near-
ly all Christianized, although retaining their own
language and chief system. About as many more
are with the other Iroquois on Grand River Reser-
vation, Ontario.
TUSCULAN DISPUTATIONS (Lat. Tus-
culance Disputationes) . A philosophical work in
five books by Cicero (B.C. 44), dedicated to M.
Brutus. The conversations are supposed to be
held at Cicero’s estate at Tusculum. Each book
discusses a different question of philosophy and
treats of the troubles attending human happi-
ness and their cure.
TUS/CULUM. An ancient city of Latium,
about fifteen miles south of Rome, situated on a
ridge of hills known as the Colles Tusculcmi, and
forming part of the Alban range. Mythically,
it derived its origin from Tclegonus and Circe;
but we catch the first certain glimpse of its his-
torical existence toward the close of the regal
period at Rome, when it had attained a high de-
gree of prosperity and power. Octavius Mamilius,
ruler of Tusculum, and the foremost prince in
Latium, married a daughter of Tarquin the
Proud (see TARQUINIUS) . and played a conspicu-
ous part in the last of the great struggles made
by the banished tyrant to regain his kingdom.
As early as B.C. 378 the inhabitants of Tusculum
received the Roman franchise. Toward the close
of the Republic Tusculum became a famous coun-
try residence of the wealthy Romans. Long after
the VVestern Empire had fallen Tusculum con-
tinued to flourish. As late as the twelfth cen-
tury the ancient city continued entire; but in
1191 it was stormed by the Romans and razed to
the ground. Many fine remains of ancient Tuscu-
lum have been dug up in recent times, the most
remarkable, perhaps, being the amphitheatre,
theatre, and city walls.
TUSKEGEE (tfis-ke’ge) NORMAL AND
INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE. An institution
for the training of young colored men and women
at Tuskegee, Ala., established in 1881 by an act
of the Legislature under the name of the Tuske-
gee State Normal School, with an appropriation
of $2000. It was opened July 4, 1881. In 1883
the appropriation was increased to $3000 and in
1893 the institution was incorporated under its
present name. I11 1903 the attendance had grown
to 1497, while nearly the same number of appli-
cants were refused for lack of accommodations.
At the same time 112 instructors were engaged
in the various,departments. The library con-
tained 13,000 volumes. The endowment was
$l,0l0,000, including a gift of $600,000 from
Mr. Andrew Carnegie, and the total value of the
school property, including 62 buildings, land
and plant worth $625,000, was $1,635,000. The
TUSKEGEE NORMAL INSTITUTE.
TUSSOCK-MOTH.
1033
properly immediately belonging to the school
consisted, in addition to the buildings, of 2631
acres of land, 1100 head of live stock, and more
than 60 vehicles of various kinds.
The object of the institute is to furnish its
students, thorough moral, literary, and industrial
training, an education fitting them to become
the real leaders among the people of their race,
and thus to bring about healthier moral and ma-
terial conditions. The r institute also aims,
through the Phelps Hall Bible Training School,
to fit young men and women for the ministry
and other forms of Christian work. Its constant
purpose is so to correlate the literary and indus-
trial training that the students may not get the
one without the other. Students are admitted on
passing an examination in reading, writing, and
the fundamental operations of arithmetic. In-
struction is given in two sessions. The day school
is intended for students able to pay all or the
greater part of their expenses in cash. They at-
tend school in the daytime four days each week,
and are required to work only six days a month.
The night school is designed for students too
poor to pay even the small charge made in the
day school. Tuition is free. The monthly
charge for board and living expenses is $8, of
which»day-school students may work out from
$1.50 to $3 a month, while pupils of the night
school are allowed to work out at least all of
their board for the first six months. In all cases
the labor of the students must be satisfactory
in order to be accepted as part payment, and no
student is paid more than $12 per month in ex-
cess of his board, while no part of the wages is
paid in cash.
The discipline is strict, particularly in ques-
tions of morals. The studies of the academic
department are closely associated with practical
work in the field and shops. The department
of mechanical industries includes mainly indus-
tries for young men. lnstruction and practice
are given in architectural and mechanical draw-
ing, steam and electrical engineering, blacksmith-
ing, brickmaking, carpentry, canning, founding,
harness-1naking, carriage-trimming, machinery,
painting, printing, saw-milling, shoemaking,
tinsmithing, tailoring, and wheelwrighting. The
industries for girls include sewing, dressmaking,
millinery, cooking, laundering, domestic service,
mattress-making, basketry, and nursing. So far
as possible the product of the students’ work is
used in the institute and the surplus is sold.
Each department is provided with a good equip-
ment for practical work. The printing oflice,
supplied with all needful apparatus, furnishes
all the printed matter of the school, and issues
a weekly and a monthly newspaper for the insti-
tution, beside three others for outside. Many
of the school buildings, including the new Car-
negie Library, are the product of student labor.
In the agricultural department young men are
trained to become intelligent and successful farm-
ers by theoretical instruction in scientific prin-
ciples, and their application in the field, orchard,
dairy, and truck garden. To some of the agri-
cultural courses women are admitted. Extension
work is carried on through the Tuskegee Annual
Conference, for the benefit of farmers of the
South, and through the Russell Plantation work,
under the direction of Mr. Booker T. Washington
(q.v.), who has been the principal of the insti-
tute since its foundation.
TUSK-SHELL, or TOOTH-SHELL. A scapho-
pod mollusk of the genus Dentalium, common in
the ocean on muddy bottoms at the depth of from
ten to forty fathoms, as well as in very deep
water. The shell is shaped like a gently curved
elephant’s tusk and is open at each end. The
animal has no head, eyes, or heart, though it
has a small elongated digging foot. Its genus
first appears in the Eocene rocks. These shells
were formerly extensively used by the North-
west Coast Indians as material for making neck-
laces and adorning clothing. and were circulated
as a shell money (q.v.) , called ‘hi-qua.’
TUSSAUD, tu'so’, l\.lADAME MARIE (GRES-
HOLTZ) (1760-1850). Founder of the London
waxworks exhibit on Marylebone Road. She was
born at Bern, and learned at Paris the art of
wax-modeling, in which she subsequently in-
structed Madame Elisabeth, sister of King Louis
XVI. After a three months’ imprisonment dur-
ing the French Revolution, she brought to Lon-
don her collection, afterwards increased to in-
clude about 300 figures. There is connected with
it a “Chamber of Horrors,” with relics of crim-
inals and a collection of instruments of torture.
Consult Hervé, lllemoirs of Madame Tassaad
(London, 1878), which, however, is not alto-
gether reliable.
TUSSEH, or TUSSER. See SILKWORM.
TUS’SER, THOMAS (c.1524-80). An English
rhymer, said by himself to be of gentle birth.
He was born at Rivenhall, near \Vitham. in Essex.
He was educated at Eton and at Cambridge. For
ten years he was a musician in the service of
Lord Paget of Beaudesert, and thus lived at
Court. He then settled for a time as farmer in
Suffolk, and thereafter moved about from place
to place. eventually dying in a debtor’s prison
at London. He is remembered for Five H andreth
Poynfes of Good Husbandry united to as many
of Good H uswriferg/, a homely proverbial poem,
to uhich is prefixed an autobiography in verse
(1573). Based upon earlier issues, beginning
with a Hundreth Good Pointes of Hasbandrie
(1557) and a H zmdreth Poyntcs of Good Has-
serie (licensed 1557), this poem went through
several editions. Consult the reprints, ed. by
W. Payne and S. J. Herrtage for the English
Dialect Society (London, 1878).
TUS’SILA’GO (Lat., coltsfoot). A genus of
plants of the natural order Compositzc. Tus-
silago Farfara, sometimes called coltsfoot, is the
only species. It has solitary flower-heads on
scaly scapes, appearing before the leaves in early
spring. Both disk and ray flowers are yellow,
the leaves heart-shaped, angular, downy beneath,
somewhat glutinous and subacrid. The leaves
of the butter bur (Pctasites officinalis), which
has been naturalized from Europe, resemble
those of Tussilago, but are much larger; the pale
flesh-colored flowers also appear before the leaves,
but are in a dense thyrsus. The flowers of both
are much sought after by bees.
TUSSOCK-MOTH. Any moth of the family
Liparidze, a name suggested by the tufts of hairs,
often bright-colored, upon the caterpillars. The
moths are dull-colored and the females of some
TUSSOCK-MOTH.
TUTUILA.
1034
species are wingless. Twenty species occur in
the United States. The group includes some fa-
mous enemies of fruit, shade, and forest trees.
Two imported species, the gypsy moth (q.v.)
and the browntail moth (Euproctis chrysor-
rhcea), do great damage in New England. The
latter species flies during midsum1ner, when the
female lays from 200 to 300 eggs underneath
leaves near the tips of branches and covers them
with hair. The larvae appear in from two to
three weeks, and skeletonize the leaves. They
also feed on apple and pear fruits. In late Sep-
tember they retire into cases formed of leaves,
attached to the twigs by silken threads, and
remain there until the leaf-buds open in the
spring, feeding upon the young foliage, flowers,
and fruit until June, when they pupate. The
caterpillars when abundant are annoying to hu-
man beings from the mechanical irritation to the
skin caused by their barbed hairs.



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TUSSOCK-MOTH.
a, Adult male of Hemerocampa Ieucostigma; b, cocoon
fastened to the wall, and wingless female carrying egg-sac;
c, caterpillar.
-\
The white-marked tussock-moth (H emerocampa
leacostigma) is a well-known enemy of shade
and fruit trees in the Eastern United States.
The female is Wingless, the male small and in-
conspicuous. The overwintering eggs are laid
in a glistening white frothy mass, attached to
the outside of the female‘s cocoon, which is usual-
ly placed on a tree trunk. The young caterpil-
lars hatch in the spring and feed upon the leaves.
There are two or three generations each year.
Winter pruning and burning of the hibernacula
of the former species, and summer spraying the
larvae of the latter with arsenites, have been rec-
ommended. Consult Holland, The Moth Book
(New York, 1903).
TUTELO, too-W16, or TOTERO. An east-
ern tribe of Siouan stock, calling themselves
Yesaii, formerly living on the Upper Roanoke
and Dan rivers, in Virginia and North Carolina,
in close alliance with the cognate Saponi (q.v.).
They were first visited in 1670 by the German
traveler John Lederer, who calls them Nahyssan.
They were already well acquainted with the Vir-
ginia traders, but had then been for ten years
at war with the whites. They were visited again
the next year by an exploring expedition under
Thomas Batts. We hear little of them after this
until 1701, when Lawson found them in what is
now central North Carolina, preparing to move
to the settlements for protection against the
Iroquois, who had driven them from their former
villages on the Roanoke. They were then so
much reduced in number as to be unable any
longer to make defense against their enemies.
The refugee tribes were soon afterwards settled
by Governor Spotswood of Virginia near Fort
Christanna, in what is now Brunswick County,
Va., where they remained until about 17 40,
when, peace having at last been made with the
Iroquois, they removed to the north, together
with the Saponi, and settled on the Susquehanna
at Shamokin, now Sunbury, Pa. Later they were
adopted by the Cayuga, thus becoming a com-
ponent part of the Iroquois League. Their vil-
lage near Cayuga Lake being destroyed by Sulli-
van in 1779, they fled with the Cayuga to Canada
and found their final home with the Iroquois on
the Grand River Reservation, in Ontario, locat-
ing on Tutelo Heights, near Brantford. Success-
sive visitations of cholera in 1832 and 1848 ex-
terminated the remnant, and in 1870 there sur-
vived but one fullblood.
TUT’ICOR’I1\T. A seaport in the District of
Tinnevelli, Madras, India, 443 miles by rail south
by west of the city of Madras, on the Gulf of
Manar (Map: India, C 7). The manufacturing
establishments are chiefly connected with the cot-
ton industry. Pearl-fishing, formerly the prin-
cipal industry, has greatly declined in impor-
tance. Population, in 1901, 28,048.
TU'I"TIET'I.‘, M. G. An English novelist,
better known under her pen-name, Maxwell
Gray (q.v.). -
TUTTLE, tfit”l, HERBERT (1846-94). An
American historian, born at Bennington, Vt. He
graduated in 1869 at the University of Vermont,
and for some time was a journalist in Boston,
Paris, and Berlin. From 1880 to 1881 he was
a lecturer on international law at the University
of Michigan, and in the latter year was appointed
to the chair of politics and international law in
Cornell University. He was subsequently trans-
ferred to the chair of modern European history,
which he held until his death. He published:
German Political Leaders (1876); History of
Prussia to the Accession of Frederick the Great
(1884) ; and a History of Prussia Under Fred-
erick the Great (1888). There is a bio-
graphical sketch by Prof. H. B. Adams in the
fourth volume of the History of Prussia.
TUTTLIN GEN , t%t'lIng-en. A town of the
Kingdom of Wiirttemberg, Germany, on the right
bank of the Danube, 64 miles southeast of Strass-
burg (Map: Germany, C 4). It has shoe fac-
tories, tanneries, and manufactures of surgical
instruments, cutlery, leather, and woolen goods.
Population, in 1900, 13,465. Tuttlingen is his-
torically notable as the scene of a battle in 1643,
during the Thirty Years’ War, in which an Aus-
tro-Bavarian force, under Hatzfeld and Mercy,
defeated the French.
TUTUILA, too’t6'6-é’la. An island of the
Samoan group belonging to the United States,
and situated 46 miles southeast of Upolu
(Map: Guam, D 3). Area, 54 square miles. Its
surface is mountainous and picturesque with
TUTUILA.
TWEED.
1035
luxuriant forests and there are numerous signs
of volcanic activity. Tutuila contains the best
harbor of the Samoan group, Page Page (q.v.)
or Pango Pango. The exports from the island
in 1901, consisting chiefly of copra, amounted
to $22,308, while the imports were valued at $82,-
165. The population is estimated at 3800, chief-
ly Samoans. Tutuila, together with the Manua
group and a few other islands belonging to the
United States, is administered by a naval Gov-
ernor. The chief town is Leone, on the southern
coast. See SAMOA.
TUXTLA G-UTIERREZ, t'66s’tla g65’té-
ar'ras. The capital of the State of Chiapas,
Mexico, 270 miles southeast of Vera Cruz (Map:
Mexico, M 9). The principal building is the
Government palace. The main industries are
tanning, indigo preparations, and general com-
merce. Population of the municipality, in 1895,
10,982.
THY, t6'6/é. A Spanish frontier town of the
Province of Pontevedra, in Galicia, on the right
bank of the Mifio, 63 miles north of Oporto, Por-
tugal (Map: Spain, A 1). The cathedral is a
fortress-like structure. The international iron
bridge spanning the Mifio is worthy of note. The
town is in the midst of the fertile Vega del Oro,
celebrated for the culture of fruits, vegetables,
and silks. Tanneries and soap factories, with a
brisk trade with Portugal, form the chief indus-
tries of the town. The population of the ayunta-
miento in 1900 was 11,631.
TUY. A town of Luzon, Philippines, in the
-western part of the Province of Batangas.
It lies about 24 miles northwest of Batangas
(Map: Luzon, D 11). Population, 10,150.
TVASHTAR, tviish’t:ir (Skt. t1.va._s,t_r, crea-
tor, from toalss, take, to fashion; connected
with Av. Owamé, to create, Gk. réxrwv, tektrin,
carpenter, 'riK're:.v, tiktein, to beget, Lat. tewere,
to weave, OChurch Slav. tesla, OHG. dehsala,
axe). A divinity of Vedic Hindu mythology.
He is especially the divine artificer, and among
his chief works are the thunderbolt of Indra
(q.v.) and a cup for the beverage of the gods.
Similarly he is the deity who fashions all living
forms, both of men and of animals, so that in
later texts he is said to have produced the whole
world, and he was the ancestor of all mankind.
He is also a creator of gods, particularly of
Brihaspati (q.v.), Agni (q.v.), and, probably,
Indra, although this god caused his sire to
tremble. The mythological basis of Tvashtar is
very doubtful. Of the numerous explanations
proposed, that which makes him the creative
aspect of the sun, with the moon as his cup, is
perhaps the most plausible. (‘onsult Macdonell,
Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
TVER, tver. A government of Central Rus-
sia. Area, about 25,000 square miles (Map:
Russia, E 3). The surface is largely an elevated
plain intersected by deep river valleys. The
northwestern part is hilly. The government is
watered chiefly by the Upper Volga with its
tributaries and the Dvina. The soil is not fertile
and the supply of grain is insufficient to meet the
domestic demand. The household industry is
well developed, entire sections of the government
being engaged in the production of footwear, felt
VOL. XVI.-66.
goods, linen, nails, axes, agricultural implements,
etc. The local manufactures in 1898 yielded an
output of $16,000.000, chiefly cotton goods, flour,
leather, spirits, etc. Population, in 1807, 1,812,-
825.
TVER. The capital of the Government of
Tver, situated on the Volga, 298 miles southeast
of Saint Petersburg (Map: Russia, E. 3). It
has a thirteenth-century monastery and an Im-
perial palace occupied by the Governor. Tver is
one of the chief cotton-manufacturing centres
of Russia. There are also flour mills, wagon
factories, saw mills, etc. Population, in 1897,
53,477. Tver dates from 1180 and was the capi-
tal of an independent principality from the
thirteenth century to the end of the fifteenth,
when it was annexed to Moscow.
TWACHTMAN, JOHN HENRY (1853-1902).
An American landscape painter, born in Cincin-
nati, Ohio. He was a pupil at the Cincinnati
School of Design, and of Frank Duveneck, and
studied in Munich under Ltiffts, and with Bou-
langer and Lefebvre in Paris. He has been con-
sidered one of the most consistent of American
impressionists. Some of his later landscapes
show many subtle effects of light, and sensitive
gradations of tone. In delicate elusive color
schemes he is more successful than in preten-
tious paintings, such as the Niagara and Yel-
lowstone Park series. His sketches in pastel,
such as “Wild Flowers,” “Meadow Flowers,”
and “The Old Gate.” are among the most personal
and delightful of his productions. His other
works include: “Snow Storm;” “Melting Snow;”
“Hemlocks ;” “The Poplars ;” “Willows and Gold-
en Rod ;” “Inner Harbor, Gloucester;” and “Dry-
ing Sails.”
TWAIN, MARK. See CLEMENS, SAMUEL L.
TWAITE. A poor sort of European shad
(Clupea finta). See ALLICE.
TWEED. A river of southern Scotland. It
rises 15 miles southwest of Edinburgh and flows
in a generally eastward direction, emptying into
the North Sea at Berwick (Map: Scotland, F
4). It is 97 miles long, but unnavigable. For
18 miles of its lower course it forms the bound-
ary between England and Scotland, and it flows
through one of the most historic regions of
Great Britain, the celebrated ‘Borders.’
TWEED. A twilled woolen fabric (see
WEAVING), often woven in two colors, the yarn
being dyed before weaving. It is a soft, flexible,
durable material, unmixed with shoddy or cot-
ton. Its name is derived from the locality where
it was first manufactured-—in villages along the
Tweed, in Scotland,
TWEED, WILLIAM Manor (1823-78). A no-
torious American politician, leader of the so-
called ‘Tweed Ring,’ born in New York City. He
was the son of a chair-maker, was prepared for
the same occupation, receiving slight education,
and early entered politics, becoming an alder-
man of New York City, and taking a seat in
Congress in 1853. Subsequently he was a School
Commissioner; became a member of the Board of
Supervisors of New York County, and was presi-
dent of the board for four successive terms.
From 1867 to 1871 he was a State Senator. A
member of the Tammany Society for many years,
TWEED.
TWELVE TABLES.
1036
he was grand sachem in 1869-71. He was ap-
pointed Deputy Street Commissioner in 1861, and
when in 187 0 that department was changed to
the Department of Public Works, he was the Com-
missioner at its head, a position which enabled
him to initiate, as is generally believed, the for-
mation of the combination known as the ‘Tam-
many Ring,’ or the ‘Tweed Ring.’ The ‘ring,’
having placated the Mozart Hall faction of Fer-
nando Wood (q.v.), elected its candidate for
Mayor in 1865, and its candidate for Governor
in 1868, and so controlled the Legislature as to se-
cure such a modification of the city’s charter as
greatly to increase the power of the offices held
by the ‘ring.’ Legislators and judges were
bribed, and bills were passed and decisions ren-
dered in favor of the members of the ‘ring.’
Gigantic schemes of city improvement were
organized and carried out successfully, though
accompanied generally with much peculation.
Fraudulent°bills were audited, and their sum
divided among the thieves. Probably no other such
complete plan of public spoliation was ever
devised and executed in any country. The
exposure of this vast system of peculation was
made largely by the New York Times, through
the intervention of a disappointed enemy of the
‘ring,’ in July, 1871; a vigorous investigation and
prosecution was undertaken by a committee of
seventy citizens, under the lead of Samuel J . Til-
den (q.v.) ; and Tweed was indicted in 1872 for
forgery and grand larceny. Two trials were held,
and in 1873 Tweed was convicted, and sentenced
to twelve years’ confinement in the penitentiary,
and to pay a fine of $12,300.18. He was confined
on Blackwell’s Island from November, 1873, un-
til June, 1875, when he was released by a de-
cision of the Court of Appeals, on a legal techni-
cality. He was immediately rearrested on a war-
rant issued in a civil suit for $6,198,957.85, and
sent to Ludlow Street Jail. Being permitted to
go out to drive with an officer, he made his escape,‘
and fled to Spain. He was returned in Novem-
ber, 187 6, and again incarcerated in Ludlow Street
Jail until April 12, 1878, when he died. Much
material relative to Tweed is to be found in
Myers’s H istory of Tammany H all (New York),
and in Breen’s Thirty Years of New York Poli-
tics (ib., 1899). See also chapter 88 of James
Bryce, The American Commonwealth (ib., 1889),
on “The Tweed Ring,” by F. J . Goodnow.
TWEEUDALE, JOHN HAY, Marquis of
(1626-97) . A Scotch soldier and statesman, sec-
ond Earl of Tweeddale (1654). After serving in
the King’s army (1642) he fought against
Charles, at Marston Moor (1644), and, four
years later, commanded at Preston in the King’s
army again. He was sent to Parliament in 1654;
became Privy Councilor on the Restoration and
president of the Council in 1663; and in the next
year was appointed High Commissioner on Ec-
clesiastical Affairs. In this post he labored for
a more lenient attitude toward Covenanters; and
from it he was removed in 1674, by the influence
of Lauderdale. He was restored to some of his
old posts in 1680 and 1682; held office under
James II., but, disliking his Scotch policy, joined
the Revolution; and, in 1689, became Privy Coun-
cilor under William and Mary. He was a com-
missioner on the Glencoe massacre and was dis-
missed by the King in 1696 for assenting to the
Colonization Act and Paterson’s schemes in
Darien.
TWEEDLEDUM AND TWEEDLEDEE.
An expression denoting an inappreciable differ-
ence between unimportant points. The phrase
was used by Byron in a satire on the feud be-
tween the partisans of Handel and Buononcini.
TWEEDMOUTH, twéd'mfith, EDWARD MAB-
JORIBANKS, second Baron (1849—-). An Eng-
lish statesman, born in London. He was educat-
ed at Harrow and Oxford, became a barrister in
1874, and was a Liberal member of Parliament
for Berwick in 1880-94. In 1886 he was made
Comptroller to the Household, and in 1892-94 he
was Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury
and chief Liberal whip. In 1894-95 he was Lord
Privy Seal and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lan-
caster.
TWELFTH NIGHT, on WHAT You WILL.
A comedy by Shakespeare, played at Middle Tem-
ple Hall, Twelfth Night, 1602, according to J.
Manningham’s diary. The principal plot was
taken from Bandello’s tale, perhaps through
Belleforest’s Histoires Tragiques, or B. Rich’s
Apollonius and Silla, adapted from Ciuttico’s
Hecatommitht. A similar plot is found in two
Italian plays, Gl’Ingan/nati (1537), and Gl’In-
ganni (1592). The comic parts, Malvolio, Sir
Toby, Sir Andrew, and the clown, are all Shake-
speare’s.
TWELVE, GOSPEL on THE. See APOCBYPHA.
TWELVE TABLES, LAW or THE. The ear-
lier systematic written statement, or code, of
Roman law. According to the Roman tradition,
this code was drawn up to appease the plebeians,
who complained that the unwritten customary
law, as interpreted by patrician priests and ap-
plied by patrician judges, gave no adequate pro-
tection to their liberties. In B.C. 452 ten magis-
trates were elected “to write laws” (decemniri
leg/ibus scr/ibendis), and before the end of the
following year ten tables of laws were sub-
mitted to and accepted by the popular assem-
bly. In E0. 450 two supplementary tables were
similarly adopted. The decemvirs claimed that
they had made the law equal for all, high and
low; and there is no doubt that the Roman people
regarded the X11. Tables with great veneration,
as a bulwark of personal liberty.
This code seems to have introduced little if any
new law, being substantially a re-statement of the
older custom. Its rules were simple, and were
tersely and clearly expressed. It contained no
constitutional law, and it dealt mainly with the
law of family, property, crimes, torts, and civil
procedure. It did not state the law fully even
in these matters, for (as in other early codes)
rules that were so well settled as to be indis-
putable were not included.
The XII. Tables have come down to us in frag-
ments only. In Roman legal, historical, and gram-
matical writings, a couple of score of passages
are directly cited, and it is sometimes stated in
which of the tables the rule stood. Other rules
are paraphrased or indicated by allusions. At-
tempts to reconstruct the code have been made
by Gothofredus (1616), Dirksen (1824), Schoell
(1866), and Voigt (1883). The text commonly
given in works on Roman law is that of Schoell,
TWELVE TABLE S.
TWILLIN GATE.
1037
and citations of table and law by number are
regularly based on his reconstruction.
The credibility of the Roman tradition concern-
ing the origin of the X11. Tables has been ener-
getically attacked by recent writers, who assert
that the tradition is of late origin and that the
XII. Tables are a private compilation made,
probably, in the third century B.C.
Consult: Voigt, Gesohichte and System des
Reohts der XII. Tafeln (Leipzig, 1883). Apple-
ton, Le testament Romain et Pauthenticité des
XII. Tables (Paris, 1903); Lambert, L’Histoire
traditionelle des XII. Tables (Lyons, 1903). See
CIVIL LAW.
TWES’TEN, AUGUST DETLEV CHRISTIAN
(1789-1870). A German Protestant theologian.
He was born at Gliickstadt, studied at Kiel and
Berlin, and became professor of theology at Kiel.
1814. In 1835 he succeeded Schleiermacher, whose
views he had adopted at Berlin. He has a
member of the new supreme ecclesiastical council
of the United Evangelical Church until his death.
He published Ibrlesmzgen ilber die Dogmatik der
emmgelisoh-Zatherisohe/n Kirche (1826-37) ;
Grandriss der analytischen Logilc (1834) ; Mat-
thias Flacius I llyricas (1844) : and edited Schlei-
ermacher’s Ethilc (1841). Consult Heinrici,
August Twesten nach Tagebilohern and Briefen
(Berlin, 1889), and Life by G. Heinrici (ib.,
1889).
"1‘WICH’ELL, JOSEPH HOPKINS (1838——).
An American Congregational clergyman, born in
Southington, Conn. He gradated at Yale in 1859,
was chaplain of the 71st Regiment, New York
State Volunteers, during the Civil War, and in
1865 became pastor of the Asylum Hill Congre-
gational Church, at Hartford, Conn. His writ-
ings include John Winthrop (1891) and Some
Old Puritan Love Letters (1893).
TWICK’ENHAM. A town in Middlesex,
England, on the Thames, connected with Rich-
mond. on the opposite bank, by a substantial
bridge, 10 miles southwest of Saint Paul’s, Lon-
don (Map: London, F 4). It has interesting his-
toric dwellings, and is a favorite holiday resort
of Londoners. It contains the great Church of
Saint Stephen’s, completed in 1874; the estate of
Alexander Pope, where the grotto is all that re-
mains (Pope’s monument is in the church);
Walpole’s villa, called Strawberry hill; and the
Orleans villa, temporarily occupied by Louis
Philippe, and still owned by his descendants.
Population, in 1891, 16,000; in 1901, 21,000. Con-
sult Cobbett, Memorials of Twicloenham (London,
1872).
TWIG-GIRDLER. See GIRDLER.
TWIGGS, DAVID EMMANUEL (1790-1862).
An American soldier. He was born in Richmond
County, Ga., and was the son of General John
Twiggs, a soldier in the Revolution. In March,
1812, he was appointed captain in the Eighth In-
fantry. He served in the War of 1812, and was
promoted major in September, 1814. He later
fought against the Seminole Indians, and then in
the Black Hawk War, and was commissioned
colonel of the Second Dragoons in June, 1836. For
services at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma,
where he commanded the right wing of General
Taylor’s army, he was brevetted brigadier-general.
In the attack on Monterey he commanded a di-
vision; was brevetted a ma j or-general ; and after a
short term as Governor of Monterey was sent to
join General Scott at Vera Cruz. In the advance
on the City of Mexico he commanded the Second
Division; led the main attack at Cerro Gordo; and
performed important services at Contreras and
Churubusco, and in the attack on the gates of
Mexico. After the war ended he was for some
years in charge of the Department of the West,
and then of that of Texas. On the outbreak of the
Civil War he surrendered, without resistance,
the United States property under his charge to
the Confederates, and in the North was generally
regarded as a traitor. He was made a major-
general in the Confederate service, and for a time
commanded in Louisiana, but age and infirmities
led him to resign from the service near the close
of 1861.
TWIG—PRUNER. Any of several species of
longicorn beetles of the genus Elaphidion, the
females of which lay their eggs in the twigs of
several kinds of trees. The eggs hatch and the
larva when nearly full-grown severs the twig in
which it is working, transforming to pupa within
the twig after it has fallen to the ground. The
common oak-pruner (Elaphidion oillosum) is a
rather slender long-horned beetle, dark brown in
color, and covered with grayish pubescence. It
feeds in the twigs of oak, hickory, chestnut, ma-
ple, apple, plum, peach, and other trees. The
purpose of the amputation of the twig by the
larva seems not primarily to be for the purpose
of making the twig fall, but to penetrate through
the wood to the bark in order that the beetle
may have an easy exit. Elaphidion sabpabescens
works in the same way in the shoots of white
oak, while Elaphidion mucronatam is found in
the twigs of live oak and other trees. The larva
of Elaphidion unicolor amputates the twigs of
the redbud (Oercis Canadensis). A few other
insects have somewhat similar habits. For ex-
ample, certain horn-tails, notably the willow-
shoot horn-tail (Phylloccas integer), live, in the
larval stage, in twigs of willow, which they
cause to wilt, and easily to break from the
branch.
TWILIGHT (from twi-, combining-form of
two + light). A phenomenon caused by atmos-
pheric refraction. (See REFRACTION.) When the
sun sets below our horizon, we are not immediate-
ly plunged into the darkness of night. There is
an intermediate period of partial and slowly in-
creasing darkness which we call twilight. The
cause is a simple one. Although the sun is be-
low our horizon, rays of solar light are bent or
‘refracted’ by the terrestrial atmosphere, and
continue to furnish some slight illumination. The
process continues, with diminishing intensity,
until the sun is so far below the horizon that the
refracting power of the atmosphere is no longer
able to bend the rays enough to produce a visible
effect. This occurs when the sun is 18° below
the horizon; and the time after sunset when the
sun reaches such a position varies with the lati-
tude of the place, and with the time of year.
TWIL’LIN GATE or TOULINGUET, tm"
laN'ga'. A port of entry on the Twillingate
Islands in Notre Dame Bay, on the northeast
coast of Newfoundland, 232 miles by steamer
from Saint Johns (Map: Newfoundland, F 3). It
TWILLINGATE.
TWISS.
1038
is a prosperous fishing centre.
1891, 3585; in 1901, 3542.
TWIN-FLOWER. A hardy, trailing ever-
green plant of the natural order Caprifoliaceae.
It is a favorite in rockeries on account of its
dainty, bell-shaped, nodding, pink or white, fra-
Population, in
W" 5'.‘ s .,-'
(QIW Q).
w “ Q ‘Q
i“
fl‘
If .
;"(\\\\‘ '0‘ ‘I
/1
_-2.3% __,S,:_(/
TWIN FLOWER (Linnsea borealis).
grant flowers, which appear during midsummer in
pairs upon erect, slender stems. It thrives best
in open, peaty soil and in shade. In the woods it
may be found as far south as Maryland and the
mountains of California, but is more common
northward.
TWI’NING, KINSLEY (1832-—). An Ameri-
can clergyman and editor, born at West Point,
N. Y. He graduated at Yale in 1853, at Yale
Theological Seminary in 1856, was a resident
licentiate at the Andover Theological Seminary
in 1857, and from 1857 to 1876 occupied various
Congregational pulpits. In 1880-98 he was lit-
erary editor of the New York Independent, and in
1898 became literary editor there of the Evan-
gelist. He was a founder of the Reform Club of
New York City.
TWINING PLANTS. Plants whose axes
are coiled about slender supports, e.g. common
morning-glory and hop. In most cases the support
must be slender (less than 15 centimeters in diam-
eter), though some tropical plants coil about
thick tree trunks, and others climb in a some-
what similar fashion by partial twining. (See
LIANAS.) The direction of twining varies with
different plants, being either clockwise or coun-
ter-clockwise. While the direction of twining is
usually constant in the same species, some twin-
ers coil in either direction. The direction is not
constant, however, among members of the same
family, nor even among different species of the
same genus.
The cause of twining has long been a problem
of great difficulty. The most satisfactory expla-
nation seems to be the following: Twining stems
are endowed with a sensitiveness to the action of
gravity, which may be distinguished as lateral
geotropism (q.v.) . The stem at first grows erect
(on account of negative geotropism) , but through
unequal growth, causing nutation (q.v.) , soon in-
clines to one side. At this period of its develop-
ment, the flanks (i.e. the sides of the stem now on
the right and left as distinguished from the upper
and lower) are sensitive to their changed relation
to gravity (on account of the new horizontal posi-
tion), which thus becomes a stimulus. The re-
sponse of the stem to this stimulus is an accel-
erated growth on one flank, the right or left, as
the case may be. The acceleration of growth
there swings the horizontal tip toward a new
point of the compass, and at the same time, from
mechanical necessity, partially rotates the stem
on its longitudinal axis, so that a new side is
brought into the flank position and therefore
under stimulation. It then responds likewise
with accelerated growth; this swings the tip still
farther around, and again brings a new region
under stimulation. By this continued action
each side of the stem is successively stimulated,
and the tip is therefore swung in a circle. At
the same time it is elongating. If, in the course
of its twining, the nearly horizontal tip strikes
a support, only the part beyond the support con-
tinues to swing, and therefore begins to wrap
around the support, forming coils which are at
first low and loose. At a later period negative
geotropism again asserts itself in this part of
the stem, which grows so that it straightens, if
possible, the actual effect being to steepen the
coils and make them hug the support more close-
ly. The slenderer the support, as a rule, the
steeper are the completed coils. This explana-
tion receives its strongest support from the fact
that when the action of gravity is equalized,“as
it can be by rotating a seedling twiner on a clin-
ostat (q.v.), no coiling takes place. There are
various phenomena of twining, experimentally in-
duced, of which no full explanation can yet be
given. There is, however, no mere mechanical
stoppage of the swinging tip which permits coil-
ing, because it has no momentum, and because
many twiners will coil about a loose cord. It is
further probable that twiners are susceptible to
the continued contact and pressure of the sup-
port, and that this plays some part in the method
of climbing which they have adopted.
Twining plants are characterized by unusual-
ly long growing regions, and by the retarded de-
velopment of foliage leaves. Thus. while in erect
stems from 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches)
of the apex are still capable of elongation, in
twining plants the elongating region is 30 to 50
centimeters (12-20 inches) long, or in some cases
as much as 80 centimeters (32 inches). The
slow development of the foliage leaves seems both
to be correlated with this long maintenance of
the power of growth, and to be necessary for twin-
ing, because the presence of fully developed foli-
age would interfere seriously with the free move-
ments of the tip.

TWISS, Sir Tnsvnns (1809-97). An English
jurist and scholar. He was born in Marylebone,
London, graduated from University College, Ox-
ford, with distinction, and published in 1836 his
Epitome of Niebuhr’s History of Rome. In 1840
he was called to the bar. From 1842 to 1847 he
was professor of political economy at Oxford,
from 1852 to 1855 professor of international law
at King’s College, London, and from 1855 to 1870
held the regius professorship of civil law at Ox-
ford. He also held several ecclesiastico-legal po-
sitions, and in 1858 became chancellor of the dio-
cese of London, the same year having been created
TWISS.
TWO SICILIES.
1039
Queen’s counsel. In 1867 he was appointed
Queen’s Advocate-General and was knighted.
Owing to a scandalous libel of which he and his
wife were the victims, in 1872 he retired to
private life and devoted himself to juridical
science and literature. In 1884 he drafted for
the King of Belgium a constitution for the
Congo Free State, and in 1884-85 was coun-
sel extraordinary to the British embassy during
the Congress of Berlin. His chief works
are: View of the Progress of Political Economy in
Europe Since the Sixteenth Century (London,
1847); The Oregon Territory; Its History and
Discovery (New York, 1846) ; but his fame rests
principally on his treatise, The Law of Nations
(1861-63), which, in the French edition, Le droit
des gens ou des nations (Paris, 1887-89), is a
standard work.
TWITOH’ER, JEMMY. A highwayman in
Gay’s Beggar’s Opera, noted for treachery. This
name became the popular nickname for Lord
Sandwich, who turned against his former com-
panion, John Wilkes.
TWITTER. A peculiar deformation of car-
nation plants, produced possibly by several kinds
of insects: a plant-louse or green fly of the
genus Siphonophora, a true thrips, and possibly
the larva of some anthomyiid fly. The chances
are that carnation twitter can be produced by
any cause which checks the growth of the plant;
hence any one of several insects may be in-
volved.
TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERO’NA, THE.
A comedy by Shakespeare, probably produced in
the original form in 1591, and in the present
form in 1595; first printed in the folio of 1623.
It may have been adapted from the lost play
Felix and Philomena, acted in 1584, though the
same story is told of the shepherdess Filismena
in Montemayor’s Spanish romance Diana, trans-
lated by B. Young and known in manuscript in
1583, and is also found in Rich’s version of
Bandello’s Apollonius and Silla.
TWO NOBLE KINSMEN. A play produced
in 1625 and published in 1634 as the work of
Fletcher and Shakespeare. The latter’s part, if
any, was unimportant, and it was probably writ-
ten by Massinger and Fletcher with Rowley.
The story is that of Chaucer’s Knight’s Tale.
taken from Boccaccio’s Teseicle.
TWO-SEED-IN-THE-SPIRIT BAPTISTS.
See BAPTISTS.
TWO SICILIES, KINGDOM or THE. The
name commonly given to a former kingdom em-
bracing Sicily and Southern Italy, and known
often as the Kingdom of Naples. In the Middle
Ages the southern part of the Italian mainland
came to be known as ‘Sicily on this side of the
Faro’ (the Strait of Messina). From the earliest
times both the island and the mainland were
subject to settlement and conquest by peoples of
widely different stock, producing a complicated
admixture of races. At the dawn of history the
Phoenicians had trading settlements there. In
the eighth century 13.0. numerous Greek colonies
were founded in both Sicily and Southern Italy
and became powerful and wealthy States. A new
Phcnnician element was introduced when Car-
thage disputed the supremacy of Sicily with the
Greeks. The Roman conquest followed. In the
middle of the fifth century, at the time of the fall
of the Roman Empire, Sicily was ravaged by the
Vandals. Toward the close of the century the
Ostrogoths made themselves masters of Italy and
Sicily. In the sixth century their realm was con-
quered by the Byzantines. Soon after the Lom-
bards established their sway over part of South-
ern Italy. The Lombard Duchy of Benevento was
founded, out of which in the ninth century arose
the three principalities of Benevento, Salerno, and
Capua. By the side of these was the Duchy of
Naples, a Byzantine creation. Apulia and Cala-
bria were held by the Byzantines until the
eleventh century. In the years from 827 to 878
the island of Sicily was conquered by the Sara-
cens. Owing to dissensions among the Chris-
tians of Southern Italy, the Saracens likewise
obtained a foothold on the mainland.
About 1037 the sons of a Norman knight, Tan-
cred de Hauteville, setting out with a few fol-
lowers to win their fortunes, entered Southern
Italy in the service of the Byzantine Governor,
but soon seized and divided Apulia and were
able to hold the country against every effort of
the Greeks to dislodge them. Robert Guiscard,
one of these brothers, became Count of Apulia in
1057, and in 1059 he was recognized by Pope
Nicholas II. as Duke of Apulia and Calabria.
In 1061 his younger brother, Roger, with a few
hundred Norman knights, began the conquest of
the island of Sicily, which was made a county
and a fief of Robert’s duchy, though the total
subjugation of the island was not accomplished
till 1090,' after Robert’s death. In 1127 Roger
11., son of the first Roger, united Apulia, Calabria,
and Sicily, and in 1130 he assumed the title of
King of Sicily. He extended his sway over the
Abruzzi, made himself master of Capua, and
received the submission of Naples. The marriage
of Frederick Barbarossa’s son, the later Emperor
Henry VI., to Constance, heiress of the Two
Sicilies, in 1186, united the destinies of the Nor-
man kingdom with those of the House of Hohen-
staufen, whose rule began in 1194. The child
of this marriage, the Emperor Frederick II.
(q.v.), was the most remarkable prince in the
Europe of his day. He reorganized the govern-
ment of the Sicilian kingdom on essentially mod-
ern lines, founded the University of Naples, and
made his Court the brilliant centre of the high-
est culture and learning of his time. His death
in 1250 was followed by the speedy downfall of
the House of Hohenstaufen. In 1266 Charles of
Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France, at the in-
stance of the Pope, undertook the conquest of the
Two Sicilies. He vanquished Manfred, son of
Frederick II., at Benevento, and in 1268 be de-
feated, captured, and executed Conradin, the last
of the Hohenstaufen. Charles of Anjou made
Naples his residence.
The year 1282 witnessed the fearful popular
uprising against the French in Sicily known as
the Sicilian Vespers (q.v.). The people shook
ofi' the yoke of Anjou and placed their island un-
der the rule of Pedro III. of Aragon. The House
of Anjou continued to rule in South Italy, which
thus became the Kingdom of Naples. In 1296
Sicily was separated from Aragon, but continued
under the rule of the Aragonese house, and in
1412 was reunited with that kingdom. Robert
I. of Naples (1309-43) made himself the cham-
TWO SICILIES.
TYBURN.
1040
pion of the Guelph Party and extended his in-
fluence throughout Italy. He was succeeded by
his granddaughter Joanna I. (q.v.), and an
anarchic period began and continued for many
years, the heirs of-the elder Neapolitan line,
which had also acquired the throne of Hungary,
contending with new aspirants from Anjou. In
1399 the Neapolitan line triumphed in the person
of the crafty and unprincipled Ladislas (q.v.).
He died in 1414, leaving the kingdom to his
sister, Joanna II. (q.v.). She was given up to
sensuality, and the disorder was renewed. After
her death in 1435 Alfonso V., King of Aragon
and Sicily, undertook the conquest of Naples, of
which he secured possession in 1442, reigning un-
til his death in 1458. He left Aragon and Sicily
to his eldest son, John, and Naples to his illegiti-
mate son, Ferdinand, under whose rapacious and
cruel rule new troubles arose. In 1495 Charles
V 111. of France invaded Naples, and although he
was compelled to withdraw in the same year, his
successor, Louis X1I., jointly with Ferdinand of
Spain, conquered the country in 1501. Two years
afterwards the Spaniards under Gonsalvo de Cor-
dova (q.v.) drove out the French and made
Naples a Spanish province.
The country was now subjected to the oppres-
sive tyranny of Spanish viceroys. A formidable
rebellion at Naples broke out in 1647 under Ma-
saniello (q.v.). In 1707 the Neapolitan domin-
ions were wrested from Spain by Austria during
the War of the Spanish Succession. (See SUC-
CESSION WARS.) Naples was confirmed to Aus-
tria by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and Sicily
was given to Savoy. In 1720 Sicily was trans-
ferred by Savoy to Austria in exchange for Sar-
dinia. In 1734 Don Carlos, second son of Philip V.
of Spain, of the House of Bourbon, and Elizabeth
Farnese invaded the Two Sicilies, and in 17 35 he
was crowned and was recognized by the Treaty
of Vienna as King Charles 111. (See CHARLES
III., King of Spain.) After the Peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle (1748) Italy enjoyed nearly a half cen-
tury of peace, and these years witnessed in the
Two Sicilies progress along many lines, but the
upheaval of the French Revolution brought new
troubles upon the country. The coalition against
the French Republic was joined by Ferdinand,
the second Bourbon King of the Two Sicilies.
(See FERDINAND I.) In December, 1798, the
Neapolitans attempted to drive the French out
of the Papal States. They were thrown back,
Naples was taken (January, 1799), and the
Parthenopean Republic was created. In the
same year Ferdinand was reinstated with the
assistance of the English fleet. In 1896 Na-
poleon conquered the Kingdom of Naples and
placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the
throne, Ferdinand continuing to reign in Sicily.
In 1808 Joseph was succeeded by Joachim
Murat (q.v.). After the fall of Murat in 1815
Ferdinand was restored in Naples. At the close
of 1816 Ferdinand united the kingdoms of
Naples and Sicily into the single kingdom of
the Two Sicilies and changed his title from
Ferdinand IV. to Ferdinand I.
In 1820 there was a military rising in the
Neapolitan dominions. joined by the Carbonari
(q.v.), under the leadership of General Pepe,
to secure a constitutional government. The
King yielded to the demand, notwithstanding his
agreement with Austria to make no constitu-
tional concessions. At the same time a revolu-
tionary movement aiming at autonomy for the
island took place in Sicily. The congress of
the Great Powers at Laibach (1821) charged
Austria with the restoration of Ferdinand’s
absolute power. The patriots made an inef-
fectual resistance and Ferdinand resumed his
tyrannical sway under the protection of Aus-
trian bayonets. Ferdinand died in 1825 and
was succeeded by his son, Francis 1. (q.v.),
who in 1830 was succeeded by his son Ferdinand
II. (q.v.). The change of rulers brought about
no change in the despotic policy of the Govern-
ment. After l843 the republican propaganda of
Mazzini took a strong hold in Southern Italy.
At the beginning of 1848 Sicily rose in insurrec-
tion to secure an autonomous and constitutional
government. Ferdinand II. saw himself forced
to grant a representative constitution to his
subjects. This did not satisfy the Sicilians.
The deposition of King Ferdinand was declared,
a provisional Government was organized, and the
Duke of Genoa, son of the King of Sardinia, was
elected King of the Sicilians (June, 1848). a
dignity which he declined. In his Neapolitan
dominions Ferdinand, with the aid of the
reactionary elements, was enabled success-
fully to combat the revolutionary move-
ment which was now sweeping through Italy. In
September, 1848, his forces entered upon a cam-
paign against the Sicilians. In May, 1849,
Palermo capitulated and the revolution in the
island came to an end. Ferdinand, once more
the despot that he had been, wreaked a fearful
vengeance upon the champions of liberty in his
dominions. His atrocities were finally checked
by the intervention of England. In 1859 Ferdi-
nand II. was succeeded by his son, Francis 11.
The emancipation of Northern Italy (except
Venetia) from the rule of Austria and the
tyrants upheld by her (1859-60) was speedily
followed by the liberation of the Two Sicilies
from the Bourbons, accomplished through the ef-
forts of Garibaldi, and by their incorporation in
the new Kingdom of Italy (1860-61). See GARI-
BALDI; VICTOR EMANUEL II.; ITALY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Freeman, The History of
Sicily from the Earliest Times (Oxford,
1891); id., The Story of Sicily (New York,
1892); Von Schack, Geschichte der Normannen
in Sicilien (Stuttgart, 1889) ; Amari, Storia dei
Musulmani di Sicilia (Florence, 1854-72); Col-
letta, Storia del reame di N apoli del 1734 al 1825
(Capolago, 1854) ; Gemelli, Storia della rioolu-
zione siciliana 1848-!;9 (Bologna, 1868) .
'1‘YA’N A, APOLLONIUS or.
or TYANA. ’
TYBEE, tr-be’. An island at the mouth of
the Savannah River, Georgia. It is historically
noted as the site of the batteries erected by Gen-
eral Gilmore in 1861 for the reduction of Fort
Pulaski, which capitulated April 11, 1862. At
the north end of the island stands a lighthouse
of the first order, 134 feet high, lighting the Ty-
bee Roads, from which a channel protected by
jetties leads up to Savannah.
TY’BURN. The chief place of execution in
London prior to 1783, and frequently mentioned
in English history and literature. It was situ-
ated near the northeast corner of Hyde Park,
See APOLLONIUS
TYBURN.
TYLER.
1041
at the western extremity of Oxford Street, and
at the point where the Edgeware and UK-
bridge roads unite, almost where the Marble
Arch now stands. It took its name from a small
stream which ran from Hampstead to the
Thames through Saint James’s Park, but which
has long since disappeared. The gallows was a per-
manent erection, resting on three posts. Wooden
galleries were erected near it for the accommoda-
tion of spectators. The criminal was conveyed
from Newgate (q.v.) to Tyburn, a distance of
about two miles, by Holborn and the Tyburn
Read, now Oxford Street. As Oxford Street and
London generally spread westward, the long pro-
cession became inconvenient, and the lace of
execution was, in 1783, removed to the 1d Bai-
ley, or Newgate. Under a Parliamentary statute
prosecutors who secured a capital conviction
against a criminal were exempted from all man-
ner of parish and ward “offices within the parish
in which the felony had been committed,” and
obtained what was called a ‘Tyburn ticket,’
which was enrolled with the clerk of the peace,
and sold like any other property. The privileges
the tickets conferred were greatly valued, as they
sold at a high price.
TYCHO BRAHE, te/kt br§i'é or bra.
BBAHE.
TYCHO’NIUS ( ‘Z-c.400) . A Donatist writer.
He was born in Africa, headed a party among the
Donatists, and defended their position. Of
his writings those of most interest are his
biblical Works, a commentary on the Reve-
lation and especially his Liber Regularum. The
latter has been edited by F. C. Burkitt, The Boole
of Rules of Tychonius (Cambridge, 1894), and
has great interest as the first attempt at a sys-
tem of hermeneutics.
TYCHSEN, tiK’sen, OLAUS GEBHARD (1734-
1815). A German Semitic scholar. He was born
at Tondern, Schleswig, studied at Halle, and
taught in the orphan asylum there. In 1759-60 he
traveled through Germany and Denmark as a
missionary to the Jews. In 17 60 he went to the
newly founded University of Biitzow, where he
was professor of Oriental languages from 1763
till the university was closed in 1789. He then
became librarian at Rostock. Tychsen is espe-
cially noted for his knowledge of Rabbinic litera-
ture and Jewish history and for his work in
Arabic paleography; he also attempted to deci-
pher the cuneiform inscriptions. He published
’B'z'itz0wische Nebenstmulen (1766-69); Physio-
logus S3/rus (1795); Historia Monetw Arabia;
(1797); and Tractatus de Legalibas Ambmn
Ponderibus ac Mensuris (1800), the treatise of
Makrizi. For his biography, consult Hartmann
(Bremen, 1818-20).
TYCOON, or TAIKUN, ti'ko“6n’ (Jap. tai-
hun, great prince, from Chin. ta, great + kiun,
prince). A title formerly applied to the Shogun
of Japan by foreigners. It dates from the early
days of Occidental intercourse with the Japanese
people.
TYD’E'US (Lat., from Gk. Tvdstg). In Greek
mythology, son of CEneus and Periboea. As a re-
sult of a murder he was forced to flee from his
father’s kingdom of Calydon and married Deipyle,
daughter of Adrastus, King of Argos. He went
See
with Adrastus against Thebes, where he slew
Melanippus, who had wounded him. When
Athena came to him with a remedy which would
have made him immortal, Amphiarus brought
him the head of Melanippus. Tydeus devoured a
part of it, and the goddess, in disgust, abandoned
him.
TYE, CHRISTOPHER (c.1497-1572). An Eng-
lish organist and composer of considerable note
in the sixteenth century. He became a chorister,
and in 1536 a gentleman of the Chapel Royal,
and attained so high a reputation that he was
chosen as instructor in music to Edward VI.
before his accession, and probably to the other
children of Henry VIII. He received the degree
of Doc. Mus. from Cambridge in 15-15, while
probably organist of Ely Cathedral. Under
Elizabeth he was organist of the Chapel Royal,
and produced many services and anthems,
some of which continue to be sung in England.
Some of them show a marked originality and
variety of treatment, especially the anthem which
is considered his best work, “I Will Exalt Thee.”
The mass, “Euge bone,” is an admirable piece of
contrapuntal writing. He also translated the
first half of the Acts of the Apostles into English
verse, and then set it to music of generally ex-
cellent quality. He seems to have taken orders
and to have held two or three parishes in the
neighborhood of Cambridge.
TY’ERMA1\T, LUKE (1820-S9). An English
Wesleyan minister and author. He was born at
Osmotherly, Yorkshire, England, entered the
ministry in 1842, and continued to preach until
1864, when he retired and devoted himself to
literary work. He published: The Life and Times
of Rev. Samuel Wesley (1866); The Life and
Times of Rev. John Wesley (1870) ; The Oxford
Methodists (1873); The Life of Rev. George
Whitefield (1876) ; Wesley’s Designated Suc-
cessor; the Life, Letters, and Literary Labors of
Rev. John William Fletcher (1883).
TYLDESLEY (tilz’li) WITH SHAKER-
LEY, shak’ér-li. A town in Lancashire, Eng-
land, 10 miles northwest of Manchester. Its
modern growth is due to its cotton manufactures
and neighboring collieries. Population, in 1891,
12,891; in 1901, 14,843.
TY’LER. The county-seat of Smith County,
Tex., 105 miles east by south of Dallas; on the
Saint Louis Southwestern and the International
and Great Northern railroads (Map: Texas,
G 3). It has Tyler College, a commercial and
literary institution, and Texas College (Metho-
dist) for colored youths. Noteworthy are the
city hall, the Federal court and post-office build-
ing. the Court of Criminal Appeals building,
and the Saint Louis Southwestern Railroad
Hospital. There are two parks. Bellevue and
Lakewood. Tyler derives considerable impor-
tance from its situation in a fertile section pro-
ducing large quantities of fruit, vegetables, and
cotton. A box and crate factory, a fruit and
vegetable cannery, a pottery, and railway shops
are the leading industrial establishments. There
are several wholesale houses. Under the charter
of 1876 the government is vested in a mayor,
chosen biennially, and a unicameral council.
Tyler was settled about 1844, and was first in-
TYLER.
TYLER.
1042
corporated about 1850.
6908; in 1900, 8069.
TYLER, BENNET (1783-1858). A Congrega-
tional miriister. He was born at Middlebury,
Conn., graduated at Yale College 1804, and was
ordained pastor of the Congregational Church,
South Britain, Conn., 1808; he was president of
Dartmouth College, 1822-28; and pastor of Second
Church, Portland, Me., 1828-33. In the following
year he became president and professor of the-
ology in a theological seminary at East Windsor
(removed to Hartford, 1865). This position he
held until his death. He published: History of
the New Haven Theology (1837) ; Memoir of Rev.
Asahel Nettleton (1844) ; Treatise on the Suffer-
ings of Christ (1845) ; A Treatise on New Eng-
land Reviuals (1846) ; Letters to Dr. H. Bushnell
on Christian Nurture (1847-48, 2 series); Leo-
tures on Theology (posthumous, with memoirs by
his son-in-law, Rev. Dr. Nahum Eale, Boston,
1859).
TYLER, DANIEL (1799-1882). An American
engineer and soldier, born at Brooklyn, Conn.
He graduated in 1819 at the United States Mili-
tary Academy, and in 1824-26 served at the
Fortress Monroe School of Artillery Practice.
In 1828-29 he was in France, studying artil-
lery methods, in 1830-34 was on ordnance duty,
and in the latter year resigned. He was contract-
ing engineer and president of several railways
until the Civil War, when he became colonel of
the First Connecticut Volunteers, and was soon
afterwards commissioned brigadier-general. Hav-
ing been mustered out, he was in 1862 reappoint-
ed with rank of brigadier-general, and partici-
pat‘ed in the Mississippi campaign and the siege
of Corinth. In 1863 he commanded the Union
forces at Harper’s Ferry and Maryland Heights.
TYLER, JOHN (1790-1862). The tenth
President of the United States. He was born at
Greenway, in Charles City County, Virginia,
March 29, 1790. He was the son of Judge John
Tyler, who was Speaker of the Virginia House of
Delegates, Governor of Virginia, and at different
times a judge of the State and Federal courts.
The son graduated at William and Mary College
in 1807; was admitted to the bar in 1809; and
became a member of the Legislature in 1811,
where he acted with the Republicans and sup-
ported the war with Great Britain. He was con-
tinuously elected to the Legislature five times
in succession until 1816, when he was chosen to
Congress. In the House of Representatives,
during the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Congresses,
he acted with the States-Rights Republicans, con-
demned General Jackson’s course in Florida, and
opposed the United States Bank and the Missouri
Compromise. In 1825 he was elected Governor of
Virginia by the Legislature, and was unanimous-
ly reélected the following year. At the close of
his second term as Governor he was elected over
John Randolph to the United States Senate, in
which he opposed the tarifl measures of 1828 and
1832, opposed nullification, but condemned Jack-
son’s nullification proclamation, although he sup-
ported Jackson for the Presidency in 1832 and
stood alone among the Senators in voting against
the ‘Force Bill’ of 1833. He was reelected to the
Senate for a second term, and in 1834 made a re-
port censuring President Jackson for removing
Population, in 1890,
the deposits from the United States Bank, and
voted for Clay’s resolution of censure against the
President. Having subsequently been instructed
by the Legislature of Virginia to vote for the ex-
punging of the resolution of censure, he refused
to obey the instructions, and in February, 1836,
resigned his seat and retired to private life. Tyler
was one of the leading members of the new Whig
Party, and was one of the unsuccessful candi-
dates for the Vice-Presidency in 1836. In 1840
he was elected Vice-President on the Whig ticket
with General W. H. Harrison (q.v.). President
Harrison died April 4, 1841, one month after his
inauguration, and was succeeded by Tyler, who
completely broke with the party that had elected
him. He vetoed the bill to recharter the Bank of
the United States, and when it was modified
partly in accordance with his suggestions and re-
passed he vetoed it again. The bill to revise the
tariff met a similar fate. Thereupon, on Sep-
tember 11, 1841, all the members of the Cabinet
except Webster, who was then engaged in negoti-
ations with Great Britain concerning the boun-
dary between the United States and Canada, re-
signed, and a year later Webster followed. Short-
ly thereafter some of the leading Whigs issued a
public address declaring that “all political con-
nection with them and John Tyler was at an end
from that day henceforth.” The chief events of
Tyler’s administration were the conclusion of the
Webster-Ashburton Treaty (q.v.) with Great
Britain and the annexation of Texas. At the
close of his term Tyler retired to his estate in
Charles City County, Va., where he remained un-
til 1861, when he was called out to preside over
the Peace Convention at Washington. Failing in
his efforts at compromise, he gave his adhesion
to the Confederate cause, voted for secession in
the Virginia convention, served in the Confed-
erate Provisional Congress, and was elected to the
Confederate House of Representatives, but died
at Richmond, January 18, 1862, before he could
take his seat. For his biography and that of his
father, consult: The Letters and Times of the
Tylers (Richmond, 1884-85), written by his son,
Lyon G. Tyler. For a more detailed account of
the events of his administration, see the section
on History in the article UNITED STATES.
TYLER, Lvon GARDINER (1853——). An
American educator, son of President Tyler, born
at Sherwood Forest, Va. He graduated in 1875 at
the University of Virginia, studied law, and from
187 7 to 1879 was professor of belles-lettres at
William and Mary College. In 1879-82 he was
principal of Memphis Institute, in 1882-88 prac-
ticed law at Richmond, Va., and in 1887 was a
member of the Virginia House of Delegates. In
1888 he became president of William and Mary
College. His publications include The Letters
and Times of the Tylers (1884-85) and Parties
and Patronage in the United States (1890) .
TYLER, MOSES Corr (1835-1900). An
American literary historian and educator, born
at Griswold, Conn. His parents removed to Michi-
gan, where he began his education. He graduated
at Yale in 1857 and, after studying theology
there and at Andover, took charge of Congrega-
tional churches at Owego and then at Po1‘1gh-
keepsie, N. Y. Broken down by over-study, he
resigned the latter charge in 1862 and went to
England, where he spent four years recuperating,
TYLE R.
TYLER’ S REBELLION.
1043
studying, lecturing, and writing letters to the
New York Independent and the New York Nation.
In 1867 he accepted the chair of English at the
University of Michigan, and in 1881 he was called
to the chair of American history at Cornell, a po-
sition- which he held until his death. In 1881 he
was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal
Church, and was advanced to the priesthood in
1883. Meanwhile he had published his History of
American Literature During the Colonial Time (2
vols., 1878) and had won a wide reputation for
scholarship. This history, which was continued
in the two volumes entitled A Literary History of
the American Revolution (1897 ) and in the
essays entitled Three Men of Letters (Bishop
Berkeley, President Dwight, and Joel Barlow,
1895), constitutes Professor Tyler’s chief claim
to remembrance. It hardly carries the story of
our literature beyond the year 1783, but within
its limits is characterized by such accuracy and
breadth of scholarship, such genial sympathy and
attractiveness of style, that it is not likely to be
superseded, and fully entitles its author to rank
with the great literary historians of the world.
Its chief defects are diffuseness and a failure to
apply standards rigorously. Besides this his-
tory, Tyler’s most important work is a biogra-
phy of. Patrick Henry in the American States-
men series (1887 ). He also published The
Brawnville Papers (1869), devoted to the claims
of physical culture; a revision of H. Morley’s
Manual of English Literature (1879) ; Memorial
of E. K. Apgar (privately printed, 1886) ; and
Glimpses of England (1898), a collection of his
letters from England mentioned above. Consult
a paper by W. P. Trent in the Forum for August,
1901, and one by G. L. Burr in Report of the
American Historical Association for 1901 (vol. i.) .
TYLER, RANSOM HEBBARD (1813-81). An
American author, born in Leyden, Mass. He
studied law, and was admitted to the New York
bar. He was elected to numerous local offices,
including those of district attorney and county
judge for Oswego County. An extensive traveler,
he was also editor of the Oswego Gazette, and
contributed widely to periodicals. He published
The Bible and Social Reform (1863) ; American
Ecclesiastical Law (1866); On Usury, Pawns,
and Loans (1873) , and several other works.
TYLER, ROYALL (1757-1826). An American
jurist and author, born in Boston. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1776, studied law under
John Adams, and was for a time aide to General
Benjamin Lincoln, serving in the Revolution and
in Shays’s Rebellion in 1786. In 1790 he re-
moved to Vermont, became a judge of the
Supreme Court in 1794, and was Chief Justice
from 1800 to 1806. His chief legal work was
Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Ver-
mont (1809-10). He wrote several clever and
successful plays, of which one, The Contrast, a
comedy partly in Yankee dialect, presented in
New York in 1787, was the first American
comedy produced by a regular professional
dramatic company. Other plays were May Day,
or New York in an Uproar (1787), and The
Georgia Spea, or Land in the Moon (1797). He
also contributed light, witty verse to periodicals
and wrote a picaresque story, The Algerine
Captive, or the Life and Adventures of Dr. Up-
(‘like Underhill, Sim Years a Prisoner Among the
Algerines (1797); Moral Tales for American
Youths (1800); and The Yanhey in London
(1809). Tyler’s Contrast was published in
1790 ‘and reissued in 1887 by the Dunlap So-
ciety, with an introduction by T. J. McKee.
Some of his work may be found in The Spirit of
the Farmer’s Museum (1801), for he helped
Joseph Dennie (q.v.) to make The Farmer’s
Museum a success, and also in Dennie’s late
newspaper, The Portfolio, of which Tyler’s sane
literary criticism was an important feature.
TYLER, WAT (‘Z-1381). The principal leader
of the English social revolt of 1381. Owing to
the fact that he was captain of the Kentish in-
surgents, he is generally supposed to have been
a Kentishman; but Kentish jury indictments re-
cently published, and the best contemporary evi-
dence, show that he was from Colchester in
Essex. He should not be confounded with his
colleague, Jack Straw, captain of Essex. The
usual supposition drawn from his name, that he
was a tiler by trade, is by no means certain,
since a surname in the fourteenth century does
not necessarily indicate the bearer’s trade. Noth-
ing is known of his life previous to the revolt.
The usual unfavorable estimates of his character
are based upon the hostile and unreliable testi-
mony of Walsingham and Froissart. Even hos-
tile sources are agreed as to his ability. His
part in the organization of the revolt was second
only to that of John Ball, and he was certainly
the chief factor in conducting it. The peasants’
levies were summoned in his name, and impor-
tant questions were submitted to his personal de-
cision. On special occasions he acted as spokes-
man of the insurgents, presenting their demand
to the King. We are told on good authority that
he was very eloquent. The extent of his impor-
tance as a leader is shown by the entire collapse
of the revolt after his murder at Smithfield. For
his part of this movement, resulting in his death,
see TYLER’S REBELLION.
TYLER’S REBELLION. The name usually
applied to the English Social Revolt in 1381,
from VVat Tyler, its chief leader. It had been
prepared for years by the teaching of a priest,
John Ball (q.v.), in Southern and Eastern Eng-
land, and from his home at Colchester it was
silently organized throughout Essex, and thence in
the adjoining counties, especially Middlesex, Sus-
sex, and Kent. The brutal collection of an oppres-
sive poll-tax greatly incensed the people, and
gave occasion for the outbreak in Essex in the
early part of June, 1381. The country was soon
aflame, and a division under Wat Tyler and Jack
Straw crossed the Thames at Erith. After captur-
ing the Castle of Dartford, where Tyler was chosen
leader, and securing the allegiance of the Mayor
and Council of Canterbury, they marched, in
irresistible force, on London. On June 12 they
camped at Blackheath, a southeastern suburb,
while the Essex men, under Jack Straw, gath-
ered at Mile End. From all sides bands of in-
surgents, from the most distant counties,
marched on London, Corpus Christi (June 13)
being the day of reckoning chosen.
Disappointed in a promised conference at
Blackheath with the young Richard 11., whom
the Council would not permit to land from his
barge in the Thames, the insurgents on June 13
marched on London. The London populace and
TYLER’S REBELLION.
TYLOR.
1044
the powerful Fislnnongers’ Company sided with
them, and both the southern and northern armies
were admitted into the city. The former straight-
way invested the Tower of London, in which the
King, his Council, and many of the nobility had
taken refuge. In vain did Richard try to calm
them from a turret; yielding to their threats,
the Council agreed to the King’s meeting them
on the following morning at Mile End.
The traditional account of this conference,
based on Froissart, represents the boy King by
his cool courage calming the raging insurgents
and inducing them to disperse. In reality it was
a conference between the timid lad and the lead-
ers, with Tyler as spokesman, in presence of the
entire rebel army. The King listened to Tyler’s
harangues, graciously granted all their demands,
and then retired to the Tower Royal, another
London fortress. The insurgents’ demands in-
cluded the abolition of serfdom, a maximum rent
of fourpence the acre for lands thus freed, the
right to buy and sell free of toll all over Eng-
land, and the abolition of the Statutes of Labor-
ers, by which wages had been fixed in the inter-
ests of the landlords and master craftsmen. The
King also agreed to the execution of his min-
isters by the insurgents, and promised in future
to choose his councilors from among them.
By virtue of this grant, the commons marched
straightway to the Tower, seized and beheaded
such of the ministers as they could secure—the
Archbishop of Canterbury, who was Chancellor,
and the Treasurer, Sir Robert Hales, besides a
few others, among whom were four collectors of
the poll-tax. Meanwhile a large number of the
insurgents returned home, satisfied with the
abolition of villeinage. But the most formidable
division, under Tyler, Straw, and Ball, remained,
demanding further economic concessions, and
above all the reformation of the Church, in ac-
cordance with Ball’s ideals. The King agreed
to meet them at Smithfield at vespers of June
15. Here, too, the‘ traditional account has
thrown unnecessary glamor about the heroism of
\Valworthe, Mayor of London, and the boy King.
In reality, Tyler was lured out of sight of his
men, and after his demands had been granted,
a pretext was found to arrest him, in resisting
which he was dispatched by VValworthe and
others of the royal retinue. Their demands
having been granted, the rebels were induced to
go to Saint John’s Field, as they supposed, at
Tyler's command. When they learned the truth,
and saw the royal forces approaching, they were
glad to disperse, retaining the charters of free-
dom granted at Mile End.
The demands of the insurgents at Smithfield
include two legal requirements directed especially
against the Statutes of Laborers, one against
serfdom, and a fourth demanding free use of
woods, hunting and fishing to all tenants of
manors. Their demands for the reformation of
the Church differ from others of a later period
in that the confiscation of church property ac-
crues to the benefit of the common people, in-
stead of King or nobility, by enfranchising the
tenants of clerical domains and decreasing cleri-
cal taxes. The reforms were the most democratic
ever demanded.
Though the political and economic aspira-
tions of the peasantry formed the backbone of
the revolt of 1381, there were other important
factors. The lower classes of the towns sym-
pathized with the insurgents. In some cases the
city governments, like Canterbury and Bridge-
water in the south and York, Scarborough, and
Beverley in the north, were implicated. A very
important factor was a general uprising against
the monasteries, both of tenants and especially
of mesne towns. At Saint Albans, both towns-
men and peasants extorted charters of liberties.
There were similar movements at Reading, Dun-
stable, and many other smaller foundations; at
Cambridge the movement took the form of an
uprising against the university. In Sussex it
centred in a fierce revolt against Abbey Saint
Edmunds, the prior of which was beheaded,
John Wrawe, the captain of the county, was a
priest, as were several others of the leaders. In
Norfolk the plundering was especially severe;
under the leadership of Geoffrey Lister and Sir
Roger Bacon, ambassadors with a large sum of
money were sent to the King to obtain the
liberties desired. All of these local outbreaks
were more or less connected with the central
movement. There was rather less plundering
than might have been expected, and violence was
usually directed against persons connected with
the Government or local oppressions, and espe-
cially those known as adherents of John of Gaunt.
After the rebels had retired, the remnants of the
revolt were stamped out with great severity; the
liberties granted were everywhere revoked, and
the reaction was far bloodier than the revolt.
The effect of the movement was to abolish
for the time the poll-taxes, to do away prac-
tically with the Statute of Laborers, and to
hasten the general tendency toward the aboli-
tion of villeinage.
Consult Krielm, in American Historical Re-
view, vol. vii. (New York, 1902) ; also Powell,
The Rising in East Anglia in 1381 (Cambridge,
1896) ; Réville, Sonlévement des traoaillenrs
d’Angleterre en 1381 (Paris, 1898); Trevelyan,
England in the Age of Wychfie (London, 1899) ;
id., The Peasant Rising and the Lollards (ib.,
1899).
TYLOP’0DA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk.
nihog, tylos, knob, knot, callus + wmig, pous,
foot). A section of the Ruminantia, which em-
braces the Camclidae, distinguished by the padded
character of the soles of the feet. See CAMELIDZE.
TY'LOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832—). An
English anthropologist, born in London. He was
educated at the Grove House School, Tottenham.
He entered his father’s brass foundry in 1848,
but his health forced him to abandon the work.
After a year’s travel in the United States,
he went to Mexico in 1856 with Henry Christy
and in 1859 published the results of his
observation in a volume entitled Anahuac, or
Memico and the M eaoicans, which shows great
accuracy of description. In 1865 his Researches
into the Early History of Mankind appeared;
in 1871 he published his Primitive Culture, in
1881 his Anthropology, and in 1900 The Nat-
ural History of Religion. These works im-
mediately became popular and have exerted
a profound influence on the development of
anthropological science. Ty1or’s most important
scientific contribution is his treatment and de-
velopment of the doctrine of animism as the
fundamental and universal factor in primitive
TYLOR.
TYNDALL.
1045
religions. (See RELIGION, COMPARATIVE.) In
1896 he was made first professor of anthro-
pology at Oxford.
TYLOSIS (from Gk. rthoc, tylos, knob, knot,
callus). A protrusion of a living cell through
a pit in a large pitted vessel, due to the pressure
in the cell. Often the nucleus and some of the pro-
toplasm passes through the pit into the tylosis,
and in this case cell division may take place until
the cavity of the vessel is entirely filled with the
growing tissue. Tyloses are found in both mono-
cotyledons and dicotyledons. Sections of the
stem of the Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis quinque-
folia) show tyloses in which cell division has
taken place until the cavities of the vessels are
nearly closed.
TYMPANITES, tim’pa:n-i'tez.
horses. See BLOAT.
TYMPANUM (Lat., from Gk. Tzilurravov,
drum). In anatomy, the middle ear. (See EAR.)
In architecture, the fiat space left within the
sloping and horizontal cornices of the pediment
of classical architecture, usually filled with sculp-
ture; also, the space between the arch and lintel
of doorways in Gothic architecture, which is fre-
quently enriched with sculpture.
TY’NAN, KATHARINE. An English novelist.
See HINKSON, Mrs. KATHARINE.
TYNCDALE, tin’dal, WILLIAM (‘Z-1536). _ An
English translator of the Bible. He was born
on the borders of Wales, between 1490 and 1495,
and was educated at Oxford and Cambridge.
After leaving Cambridge (about 1522) he be-
came tutor and chaplain in the home of Sir John
Walsh, a knight of Gloucestershire. He preached
frequently and, his opinions differing from those
of the clergy of the neighborhood, he became in-
volved in religious dispute, and an accusation
was made against him before William of Mal-
vern, chancellor of the diocese, who censured him
for his boldness and indiscretion. As a result of
his experience, Tyndale became determined to
translate the New Testament into English. He
went to London in 1523, but, failing to obtain
help, he retired to Germany the following year.
The New Testament was printed at Worms in
1525 and carried to England, and, though de-
nounced by the Government, several reprints were
produced within the next few years. rIyndale
remained on the Continent writing tracts in ad-
vocacy of the reformed doctrines. His chief orig-
inal work, The Obedience of a Christian Man and
How Christian Rulers Ought to Govern, appeared
in 1528. In 1530 he published a translation of
the Pentateuch, and in 1531 one of the Prophet
Jonah. He engaged in a controversy with Sir
Thomas More (q.v.) concerning the supreme
authority of the Church on the Scripture. Dur-
ing this period Tyndale associated with Luther.
John Frith, Patrick Hamilton, John Rogers (qq.
V.), and other leading reformers. He adopted the
Zwinglian doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, and
separated himself from the other English reform-
ers by opposing the divorce of Henry VIII. from
Catharine of Aragon. He was the subject of
much annoyance from the authorities and changed
his abode from time to time. In 1535 he was
treacherously arrested at Antwerp, and, after a
confinement of sixteen months in the Castle of
A disease of
Vilvorde, near Brussels, the State prison of the
Low Countries, he was publicly strangled and
burned as a heretic August 6, 1536. Tyndale was
a man of both learning and talent; his transla-
tions were made directly from the Hebrew and
Greek. He had a good style and was devoted
to his work. His New Testament has been fre-
quently reprinted (in facsimile by Francis Fry,
London, 1862); his Pentateuch was edited by
Mombert (New York, 1884); and his miscella-
neous writings were published by the Parker
Society (London, 1848-50). The best biography
is by Demaus (London, 1871; 2d ed. 1886).
TYNDALL, tin’dal, JOHN (1820-93). An
English physicist, born at Leighlin Bridge, Coun-
ty Carlow, Ireland. He found employment at
first in one of the subordinate grades of the Ord-
nance Survey, and later as a railroad engineer.
He was appointed teacher of mathematics and
surveying at Quecnwood College, Stockbridge, in
1847. He then went to Marburg, where he stud-
ied for two years, returning to Queenwood in
1851. In January, 1853, Tyndall communicated
his first paper to the Royal Society, On Molecular
Influences-—Transmission of Heat Through Or-
ganic Structures. In the following month a lec-
ture On the Influence of Material Aggregation
upon the Manifestations of Force, before the
Royal Institution, widely extended his fame, and
inaugurated his reputation as a brilliant lecturer.
A few months later he was appointed professor
of natural philosophy in the Royal Institution,
thus becoming a colleague of Faraday, succeed-
ing as director on the latter’s death in 1867. Tyn-
dall early undertook researches on diamagnetism
at Marburg in conjunction with Knoblauch,
Which resulted in a publication entitled On the
M agneto-optic Properties of Crystals and the Re-
lation of Magnetism and Diamagnetism to Molec-
ular Arrangement. These and later researches
were published under the title of Researches on
Diamagnetism arid M agno-crystallic Action, In-
cluding the Question of Diamagnetio Polarity
(1870). Tyndall spent much time in the Alps,
where he combined mountain-climbing with scien-
tific research, making numerous careful observa-
tions on the great Swiss glaciers. These were
published in popular form and in scientific con-
tributions to the Philosophical Transactions. In
connection with his study of the glaciers, Tyn-
dall became interested in atmospheric phenomena,
particularly the study of vapors. This led to
researches on radiant heat and its transmis-
sion, radiation, and absorption by vapors and
gases. These investigations involved a contro-
versy with Magnus, but Tyndall was able to de-
monstrate the correctness of his views. These
researches were later collected and published un-
der the title (lontributions to Molecular Physics in
the Domain of Radiant Heat (1872) . In his study
of radiant energy Tyndall analyzed various kinds
of light in order to determine the proportion of
luminous and non-luminous rays and their effect
on various substances. He also discovered that
in ‘optically pure air,’ that is, air free from
dust or other particles, a luminous beam is in-
visible. These discoveries led to improved meth-
ods of sterilization, which are described in his
Essays on Floating Matter of the Air in Relation
to Putrefaction and Infection.
The British Government availed itself of Tyn-
TYNDALL.
TYPE.
1046
dall’s scientific ability and he succeeded Faraday
as a scientific adviser to Trinity House (in charge
of the lighthouse service) and the Board of
Trade, in which capacity he carried on a num-
ber of scientific experiments with direct practical
ends. Tyndall also achieved a reputation as a
lecturer and did much valuable work in the pop-
ularizing of science. Few scientific lecturers have
been able to present the principles and facts of
physics to the general public so successfully as
Tyndall. He visited the United States in 1872-
73, on a lecture tour, and a few years after he
gave the proceeds to forward the cause of
original research in the United States. He wrote
inany popular treatises on scientific subjects,
which have been translated into foreign lan-
guages. Among his works are: Heat Considered
as a Mode of Motion (1863 and subsequent edi-
tions); On Sound (1867 and subsequent edi-
tions); Fragments of Science for Unscientific
People (1871 and subsequent editions) ; Sia: Lec-
tures on Light Delivered in America in 1872-3
(1873 and later editions) ; New Fragments (1892
and 1897); Notes on Light (1870); Notes on
Electrical Phenomena and Theories (1870). His
works on the glaciers and the Alps include The
Glaciers of the Alps (1860 and 1896) ; Mountain-
eering in 1861 (1862) ; and Hours of Emercise in
the Alps (1871 and later editions).
TYNDAREUS, tin-da’re-us (Lat., from Gk.
Tvvdapaog). A King of Sparta. Having been
driven out by his half-brother, Hippocoon, he fled
to fEtolia and became an ally of Thestius, whose
daughter Leda he married. Hercules restored
him to Sparta. Leda bore him Castor and
Clytemnestra, and at the same time by Zeus be-
came the mother of Pollux and Helena. After
the death of Castor and Pollux and their re-
ception among the gods, Tyndareus surrendered
the kingship of Sparta to Menelaus.
TYNE, tin. A river of Northern England
(Map: England, E 2). It is formed by the North
and the South Tyne, which rise, respectively,
in the Cheviot and the Pennine Hills. It flows
eastward, partly on the boundary between North-
umberland and Durham, till it empties into the
North Sea at Tynemouth. It passes through one
of the principal coal-mining and manufacturing
regions of England, and the cities of Newcastle,
Gateshead, and South Shields lie on its banks.
Length, 80 miles; navigable to Blaydon, about
18 miles. Consult: Guthrie, The River Tyne
(Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1880) ; Palmer, The Tyne
and Its Tributaries (London, 1881).
TYNEMOUTH, tin’mf1th or tin’-. A market
town and seaport, the chief watering place of
Northumberland, England, at the mouth of the
Tyne, 8 miles east of Newcastle (Map: Eng-
land, E 1). It includes the townships of
North Shields, Chirton, Preston, and Culler-
coats. Shipbuilding is carried on and there
are rope and sail Works, besides important
fisheries. The sands, about a mile in length,
are overlooked by picturesque cliffs. Noteworthy
are the gateway of the old castle, the fine ruins
of a priory and lady chapel, the master
mariners’ asylum, the aquarium, and assembly
rooms. The municipal borough buildings are in
North Shields. Incorporated in 1849, the town
owns and operates the water and electric light-
ing works. Tynemouth was a Saxon fortress.
Population, in 1891, 46,588; in 1901, 51,514. Con-
sult: Gibson, Monastery of Tynemouth (Lon-
don, 1846); Adamson, “Tynemouth Priory and
Castle,” in Archceologia Elina, vol. xxiii. (Lon-
don, 1901).
TYNG, ting, STEPHEN HIGGINSON (1800-85).
A Protestant Episcopal clergyman. He was born
at Newburyport, Mass.; graduated at Harvard
college, 1817; engaged in mercantile pursuits for
two years; studied theology, and was ordained
in 1821; preached at Georgetown, D. C., 1821-23;
at Queen Anne’s Parish, Prince George Co., Md.,
1823-29; was rector of Saint Paul’s Church,
Philadelphia, 1829; of the Church of the
Epiphany, Philadelphia, 1833; and of Saint
George’s Church, New York, 1845, which charge
he resigned in 1879. Dr. Ting was a pro-
nounced evangelical and low churchman and
a leading opponent of ritualism. He was
widely noted for his fervid eloquence as a
preacher, and he zealously advocated total
abstinence and other reforms. He published,
aside from discourses, Memoirs of Rev.
Gregory T. Bedell (1835), and those of Dud-
ley Atkins Tyng (1866); Recollections of
England (1847 ); Forty Years’ Ewperience in
Sunday-Schools (1860) ; The Prayer Book Illus-
trated by Scriptures (8 vols., 1863-67) ; and The
Ofiice and Duty of the Christian Pastor (1874).
He was editor of The Episcopal Recorder,
The Theological Repository, and The Protestant
Ohurchman. Consult his Life by his son, C. R.
Tyng (New York, 1891).
TYPE ( Lat. typus, from Gk. T61:-og, type,
figure, impress, blow, from rzirrrsw, typtein, to
strike; probably connected with or-wré§sw, sty-
pazein, to push, Skt. tup, sthump, to destroy,
Lat. stuprum, violation). In zo6logy: (1) The
name applied by De Blainville to the four
branches of Cuvier. These ‘types’ were founded
on what were then considered as four fundamen-
tal ‘plans’ of organization. (See CLASSIFICA-
TION OF ANIMALS.) Cuvier and his successors,
notably Von Bael and L. Agassiz, taught that
these types existed, as it were, side by side, the
Vertebrata the highest, but with no genetic con-
nection, and that each type was characterized by
a distinct plan of structure——a view now super-
seded by that of the doctrine of descent. See
Evonurron; Pnnocnnx.
(2) The ‘type’ or ‘typical species’ of a genus
is the one first described, or regarded as the most
typical, and about which the other species were
clustered. A ‘type specimen’ is that individual,
or the several individuals, which served as the
basis for the description of a new species. The
careful preservation of an author’s type speci-
men is all-important in systematic zoiilogy and
botany, as it is the ultimate source of appeal
in unraveling complicated cases of synonymy.
TYPE. In theology, an image or representa-
tion of some object which is called the antitype
(q.v.) . It is applied chiefly, although not exclu-
sively, to those prophetic prefigurings of the per-
sons and things of the new dispensation which
are found in the ritual, and even in the history of
the Old Testament. Saint Paul and other sacred
writers speak of the ancient types of things to
come. Of the types of the Old Testament, many
are directly pointed out as such in their very in-
stitution ; many also are distinctly applied in the
TYPE.
TYPE FOUNDING.
1047
New Testament. There is a large class, however,
which more properly fall under the mystical sense
of Scripture, and which are called indirect, that
is to say, ‘adaptive’ or ‘applied’ types.
TYPE FOUN DIN G. The art of founding
or casting printers’ types. (See PRINTING.) In
the early times printers made their own type,
but about the middle of the sixteenth century
the necessity arose for a division of labor and
type founding became a business distinct from
printing. The art was first developed in France
and from that country spread to Italy, Ger-
many, England, and the United States. The first
type cast in America was made by Christopher
Saur, at Germantown, Pa., about 1735. In 1796
the Scotch type founders Binny and Ronaldson
established a type foundry in Philadelphia, Pa.,
which after many struggles succeeded. Between
1735 and 1796 several persons, among whom was
Benjamin Franklin, attempted to found type,
but they all failed to make a business success of
their attempts. In 1810 Elihu White established
a successful type-founding business in New York,
and in 1813 the firm of D. & G. Bruce began busi-
ness as type founders in the same city. These
early type founders all cast their type by hand,
after much the same methods, probably, as had
been practiced since metal types were first used.
Indeed, it was well on toward the middle of the
nineteenth century before type was successfully
founded by machine to any considerable extent.
HAND FOUNDING. The first step in the process
of type founding by hand is the cutting of a
punch or die resembling the required letter. The
punch is of hardened steel, with the figure of the
letter cut, the reverse way, upon its point. On
this die being finished, it is struck into a piece
of copper about an inch and a quarter long, one-
eighth of an inch deep, and of a width proportion-
ate to the size of the type to be cast. This cop-
per, being so impressed with the representation
of the letter, requires to be adjusted to the mold,
so that the ‘face’ or impression of the punch (in
the copper) may be brought into such relation
with the metal which forms the ‘body’ or stalk
of the type, that when the types are ‘set up’ they
may stand at the proper distance from each other,
and be in ‘line’ or range, and also square to the
page; this work is termed ‘justifying,’ and the
copper is now a ‘matrix.’ The matrix is now
fixed into a small instrument or frame called the
mold, which is composed of two Parts. The ex-
ternal surface is of wood, the internal of steel.
At the top is a shelving orifice, into which the
metal is poured. The space within is of the size
of the required body of the letter, and is made
exactly true. The melted metal, being poured
into this space, sinks down to the bottom in the
matrix, and, instantly cooling, the mold is opened,
and the type is cast out by the workman. This
process of casting types is executed with great
celerity. Of course, every separate letter in the
alphabet, every figure, point, or mark, must have
its own punch and matrix. After being cast the
types have to be dressed, and this work is per-
formed by hand. It consists first in removing
the projection or ‘jet’ of superfluous metal that
clings to the end which is toward the top of the
mold while the type is being cast; second, in
rubbing smooth the sides of the types on grit-
stones; and, finally in cuttingagroove in the foot
of each type and examining the type with a mag-
nifying glass to discover imperfections. Consid-
ering the nature of the operation, type casting
by hand is performed, by an expert, with remark-
able rapidity, about 400 types per hour being pro-
duced ready for the finishing process.
l\IACHINE FOUNDING. Various attempts were
made during the early part of the nineteenth
century to cast types by machinery. The first
successful machine for this purpose was devised
by David Bruce, Jr., of New York, and was pat-
ented in 1838. As subsequently improved, this
machine was extensively used in American type
foundries and was introduced into Europe. Brief-
ly described, the Bruce type-casting machine con-
sists, first, of a small melting-pot, which contains
the molten metal, and is placed over a small fur-
nace. In the interior of the pot is arranged a
forcing-pump and valve for admitting the metal
under the piston, and also for preventing the re-
turn of the metal into the mass in the pot when
the piston is depressed, and thus securing the
full force exerted upon the piston being trans-
mitted to the molten metal under the piston,
and forcing it through a narrow channel leading
from the bottom of the chamber in which the pis-
ton works to the outside of the pot, where a nipple
is inserted, with a small hole through it, com-
municating with this narrow channel. Against
this nipple the mold in which the type is formed
is pressed at the moment at which the piston de-
scends,
forms the type.
The second part of the machine is that which
carries the mold, and to which the mold is firm-
ly bolted. The mold is similar to the old hand-
mold, but modified to suit the machine; it is
much stronger; the ‘jets’ are shorter, and the
orifice by which the metal enters is smaller, so
that it may be brought exactly coincident with
the small hole in the nipple in front of the pot.
The mold—as the old hand-mold-—-is made in
halves; one of the halves is firmly bolted to an
arm which, by cams and levers, is made to oscil-
late, and carry the mold to and from the nipple
in front of and above the pot; the other half of
the mold is bolted to another arm, which, by a
peculiarly formed hinge, is attached to the first
arm, so that the two halves of the mold may be
made to open and sl1ut upon each other like the lid
of a snuff-box ; and so both sides of the mold oscil-
late together to and from the nipple in the pot
from which they receive the molten metal. The
operation of the machine is as follows: The pis-
ton being raised in the chamber of the pump, and
the chamber being supplied with metal through
the valve, the mold is brought against the nipple;
the valve closes to prevent the metal being forced
back into the pot; the piston descends, and forces
the metal through the narrow channel into the
mold; the mold then recedes from the nipple, and
in receding the two halves separate from each
other and eject the type ; the mold again ap-
proaches the nipple, and in approaching the two
halves close together, and are ready for another
operation. A blast of cold air is directed upon
each mold to keep it cool.
The types produced by the Bruce machine as
built previous to 1868 had to be dressed by hand,
but in that year Mr. Bruce invented an apparatus
for dressing the type mechanically which could
be applied to his casting machine. Bruce’s im-
and so receives the molten metal +lat.
UV“ U UWL U“
TYPE FOUN DING.
TYPESETTING MACHINES.
1048
proved machine was followed by one designed by
Henry Barth, of Cincinnati, 0., in 1888. This
machine casts the types, finishes them, and pro-
duces them set up in lines ready for inspection.
The output of the most recent type-casting ma-
chines varies from 100 to 140 types per minute,
according to the size of the letter. In conclusion,
mention should be made of the type punch cut-
ting machine, invented by L. B. Benton, which
operates on the principle of the pantograph and
produces from one pattern letters of any size
desired.
For the history of English type founding, con-
sult Reed, History of the Old English Letter
Founders (London, 1887), and De Vinne, His-
toric Printing Types (New York, 1886). See
TYPESETTING MACHINES.
TYPES, Tnnonr or. See Onnrrrsrsr.
TYPESETTING MACHINES. ‘Machines
devised to set or compose printers’ types auto-
matically and mechanically. In hand composi-
tion the types are picked one at a time from a
wooden case and then set one after another in the
proper order to form the words which it is de-
sired to print. After the set types have been
printed from, they are distributed, i.e. re-
turned to their proper compartments in
the case. (See PRINTING.) The processes of com-
position and distribution by hand are tedious
and expensive, and from quite early times efforts
have been made to devise a machine which would
perform these tasks more speedily and economic-
ally. Until within recent years, however, these
attempts were not commercially successful. Per-
haps the first serious attempt to design a machine
to do away with hand composition of types was
made by Dr. William Church, whose device was
patented in England in 1822. His machine was
designed to cast types and leave them in reser-
voirs, and they were set from these reservoirs by
pressing keys arranged much like the keys of a
piano. After use the types were remelted, the
inventor in this way getting around the problem
of distribution. Evidently Church was a man
ahead of his times, for it was not until a score
of years had elapsed that the issuing of patents
for typesetting machines began to be frequent.
In 1840 James H. Young, of England, completed
a machine, which is said to have set types at the
rate of 13,000 per hour, but the types had to be
arranged in lines, distributed, and, presumably,
placed in the magazines by hand, which required
three persons besides the machine operator. The
first distributing machine patented in America
was invented by Frederick Rosenberg, in 1843,
and the first English patent on a distributor was
taken out by Etienne Robert Gaudens, in 1840.
After this among prominent American inventors
follow the names of Mitchell, Alden, Felt, Brown,
Westcott, Kastenbein, Paige, Richards, Burr, and
in recent years Thorne, MacMillan, and Mer-
genthaler. Among the prominent foreign inven-
tors who achieved more or less success were Hat-
tersley, Mackie, and Fraser, in England; S6ren-
sen, of Denmark; Fischer and Von Langen, of
Germany; and Delcambre, of France. At present
only the Thorne, MacMillan, Mergenthaler, and
Lanston machines are much used, but the com-
mercial success reached by some of ‘the earlier
machines was quite remarkable. The Alden ma-
chine was at one time used in the New
York Tribune office. Ten of the Mitchell
machines, invented in 1853, are said to have been
used at one time in a single office. In 1872 the
London Times began to use the Kastenbein ma-
chines, and finally set the whole paper by them.
In 1880 the Burr machine was tried in the New
York Tribune office, and three of these machines
were in use there for some years. i In 1884 the
Fischer and Von Langen machine was used in the
office of the Cologne Gazette. All these successes,
however, have been so far outdone by the Thorne,
MacMillan, Mergenthaler, and Lanston machines
that only these four need be mentioned further.
The Thorne machine, a combined setting and
distributing machine, consists of an upright cyl-
inder with vertical channels around a periphery,
each channel holding a line or column of types,
one channel holding a’s, another h’s, and so on.
The lower half of the cylinder is stationary, and
its channels contain the distributed types. The
upper half of the cylinder turns with a step by
step motion, and its channels contain the lines of
type to be distributed. The motion of the upper
cylinder is such as to bring its channels opposite
those of the lower, when an instant’s pause oc-
curs, permitting any type which is opposite a
channel in the lower cylinder, whose projections
correspond to its own nicks, to drop down. Then
the upper cylinder is rotated one step, bringing
the channels again in coincidence. The type is
set from the channels in the lower cylinder, the
lowest type being pressed out radially when the
operator depresses the key which governs it. A
rapidly revolving plate whirls the type around
and delivers it to an endless belt, which carries
it to a setting-up mechanism. Here the type is
turned upright and added to the continuous line
of types, which is slowly pushed along, as type
after type is added, toward the justifier, which
divides it into lines of column or page length.
The machine described is an excellent example of
combined setting and distributing machine. In the
MacMillan machine the setting and the distrib-
uting are done by separate machines. The maga-
zines of the setting machine are removable, being
exchanged for full ones as fast as they become
empty. The operator ejects the types from the
magazines by pressing suitable keys, and they are
set up in long lines to be justified by hand. The
distributor consists of a horizontal wheel with
radial channels, in which the types to be dis-
tributed are placed. The frame surrounding the
wheel contains other radial channels having pro-
jections corresponding to the nicks in the types.
The movable magazines are placed radially in
connection with these outer channels. When the
wheel slowly revolves, the types pass from the
channels of the wheel into the outer channels
whenever a type comes opposite one whose pro-
j\ections correspond to its nicks. The MacMillan
machine is a fairly typical example of the sep-
arate setting and distributing machine. Both
the Thorne and the MacMillan machines set
types which are previously made by the regular
type-founding process. (See TYPE FoUNDINe.)
This is a distinction which should be noted be-
fore proceeding further, since the Mergenthaler
and Lanston machines, instead of composing pre-
viously cast types, themselves cast the types as
they are desired by the operator.
The Mergenthaler ‘Linotype’ machine was in-
vented by Ottmar Mergenthaler, and the first ma-
TYPE-CASTlNG AND TYPE-SETTING MACHINES


1. AUTOMATIC TYPE-CASTING MACHINE OF AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS COMPANY. 2. MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE MACHINE.
TYPESETTING IVIACHINES.
TYPESETTING MACHINES.
1049
chine was completed in 1884. This machine takes
its name from the fact that it sets up a line of
molds, and casts a line of type, or rather a solid
metal bar with raised letters on one edge, which
.- is known as a ‘slug’ and is the
same as if a line of types were
fused solid. These molds or mat-
rices are small pieces of sheet
metal, each with a letter im-
pressed on its edge, as shown in
Fig. 1. They are placed in maga-
zine tubes, as shown in the
illustration, Fig. 2, all the
a’s in one tube, all the b’s
in another, and so on, the
tubes being arranged ver-
tically in a continuous line. The
_ machine has a keyboard like a
Fro. 1. MATRIX typewriter, and the depression of
F0“ MERGE?“ a key as D, connected by a rod.
THALER MACHIl\E. .
C, with the escapement, B, causes
a matrix to drop into an inclined channel, E, down
which it falls to the inclined traveling belt, F, by
which it is carried to the assembler, or stick, G,
where it takes its place in line. The spaces, I, be-
tween words are simply duplex wedges, dropped
into position from a box, H, in the same way as the
matrices when the finger key, J , is pressed. VVhen
the compositor has set all that will go into a
line, the duplex wedges are slid one upon another,
thus ‘spacing out’ the line, and the line so formed
is carried over in front of a slot on the wheelli,
where automatically the line of type is cast with
metal from the reservoir, M, shown in detail in



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ing released at the proper point. A speed of 4000
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FIG. 2. MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE MACHINE snowma
ESSENTIAL PARTS.
1
Fig. 3, and its sides and base planed, after which
the mold wheel, K, makes a quarter of a revolu-
tion and the slug is deposited on a galley. The
matrices meanwhile are released and passed over-
head to the bar, R, where thin teeth engage on
its horizontal ribs. This bar rises as shown by the
dotted line, and the matrices are carried up to
EJECTOR PUSHING LINOTYPE FROM
-mow TO GALLEY
ARM TO CARRY
SLUGS OVER IN
GALLEY
GALLEY
LINOTYPES
READY FOR USE
FIG. 4. MOLD WHEEL or LINOTYPE MACHINE.
that it gives constantly a new type-face to print
from, and also that there is no distributing to be
done, the slugs being remelted after they have
been used. The ‘spacing out’ device is another and
a very decided advantage. The Linotype ma-
chine has become the most extensively used of
any machine ever devised for the mechanical com-
position of types, and in its latest form performs
successfully the most intricate kinds of compo-
sition, including tabular matter and the use of
several classes of characters.
The Lanston ‘Monotype’ machine, like the
Mergenthaler ‘Linotype,’ is primarily a type-
casting machine, but with the radical distinction
that it casts separately each letter, point, and
sign, including the spaces. The machine is con-
structed in two parts, viz. a keyboard and a
TYPESETTING MACHINES.
TYPESETTING MACHINES.
1050
type-casting machine. The function of the key-
board is to punch a series of holes in a moving
strip or ribbon of paper, which is unwound from
one spool to another, passing under a series of
punches in its journey. These punches are ope-
rated by striking the keys on the keyboard. The
result of the keyboard operation is, therefore, a
roll of perforated ribbon. This ribbon, when fed
to the casting machine, initiates and controls all
the operations which produce the cast type set in
column width ready to take printed proofs from.
See PRINTING. '


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