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J. E.V. BOAS & SIMON PAULLI
THE
ELEPHANT'S HEAD
STUDIES IN THE COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF THE
HEAD OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT
AND OTHER MAMMALS
PUBLISHED AT THE COST OF THE CARLSBERG-FUND, COPENHAGEN
SECOND PART
WITH THIRTY ONE PLATES
COPENHAGEN
1925
SOLD BY MR. GUSTAV FISCHER, JENA

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J. E.V. BOAS & SIMON PAULLI
THE
ELEPHANT'S HEAD
STUDIES IN THE COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF THE
HEAD OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT
AND OTHER MAMMALS
PUBLISHED AT THE COST OF THE CARLSBERG-FUND, COPENHAGEN
SECOND PART
WITH THIRTY ONE PLATES
COPENHAGEN
1925
SOLD BY MR. GUSTAV FISCHER, JENA


THE ELEPHANT’S HEAD


J. moyo
E.V. BOAS & SIMON PAULLI
THE
ELEPHANT’S HEAD
STUDIES IN THE COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF THE
HEAD OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT
AND OTHER MAMMALS
PUBLISHED AT THE COST OF THE CARLSBERG-FUND, COPENHAGEN
SECOND PART
WITH THIRTY ONE PLATES
COPENHAGEN
1925
SOLD BY MR. GUSTAV FISCHER, JENA
DO
> >

IAOMI
CHLOE
CATESSEN
Να σου
PRINTED BY ANDELSBOGTRYKKERIET I ODENSE
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16537
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PREFACE.
S
2
INCE the publication of the First Part of The Elephant's Head the material at our disposal has been largely
increased. First, in 1916, by a young Indian Elephant, a few days old, born in the Copenhagen Zoolo-
gical Gardens; owing to a weakness in the hind limbs the animal was unable to go and therefore was
killed. Later on, in 1918, through the decease of an old Indian Elephant, a male of about 50 years. In
the following the new-born Elephant is designed as No. 1; the Elephant, which we obtained already in
1899, is No. 2; the old Elephant, an animal familiar to the people of Copenhagen as „Chang”, is mentioned
as No. 3 or Chang. Further we have purchased a series of Elephantine skulls of various ages for our
investigations.
On this rather large material we have in the present Second Part been able to give i. a. a represen-
tation of the very remarkable development of the skull from the quite young age to that of the quite
old Elephant (an Elephant of fifty years must already be looked upon as rather aged, the age of the Ele-
phant having often been exaggerated); of the morphology of the Elephantine skull in comparison with that
of other Mammals; of the nasal cavity and the pneumatic sinuses etc. The description of the facial nerve
which was announced in the Preface to the First Part is also included in the following. The treatment
of the ear-cartilage of the Mammals also announced in that Preface has in the meanwhile been treated by
one of us in a separate book.
Our former excellent draughtsman Carl Cordts having departed this life, the figures in the present
Part of our work have, under our direction, with a few exceptions been drawn by Mrs. Bodil Strubberg,
late Miss Rohweder, to whom we render our best thanks for the great care and ability with which she
has accomplished her work.
This part will presumably be the last of our contributions towards the anatomy of the head of the
Elephant.

CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE.
81
81
THE SKULL ....
Remarks on the skull of Mammals in general
The skull of the Indian Elephant..
The skull of the African Elephant
85
98
THE NASAL CAVITY,
101
105
THE ETHMOID AND THE PNEUMATIC SINUSES
The ethmoid
The pneumatic sinuses
105
107
THE MAXILLARY MUSCLES
123
MUSCLES OF THE NECK (FRAGMENTS)
126
NERVUS FACIALIS ......
....
129
INDEX
131



D.
THE SKULL.
REMARKS ON THE SKULL OF MAMMALS
IN GENERAL.
The form of the mammalian skull is to a conspicuous degree
an outcome of the different development of the organs, which are
placed on or in it, and of the very varied claims, which are laid
on it. It is to an extraordinary degree plastic, freely accomodating
itself to the various requirements. It therefore appears in extremely
different shapes.
The organs, which are determinative of the forming of the
skull, are especially the brain, the teeth, the maxillary muscles,
the eyes, the nasal passages; sometimes also the auricular region.
But still other moments may supervene. If for instance the head
is used as a shovel or fork, with which the animal works in the
soil, we shall see that this may be to a large extent determinative
to the forming of the skull. Also the presence of horns or antlers
is of consequence; etc.
In an animal such as the Dog (comp. Pl. 33 fig. 2, Pl. 35 fig. 2)
we have here in the thought dogs of medium size the facial
part and the brain-case are fairly of the same size, lying in con-
tinuation of each other, the cerebral cavity being rather spacious
and to a large extent determining the posterior part of the skull;
the musc. temporalis is moderately developed; the zygomatic arch
and its anterior continuation, the infraorbital arch, from which the
masseteric muscle arises, are also moderately developed. The molar
series extends somewhat under the orbit.
In many other Mammals we find that the brain makes a more
modest part of the whole. The braincase then is relatively minor
and, to make place for the temporal muscle, crests are developed
on the brain-case above and behind. Didelphys marsupialis (Pl. 33
fig. 1, Pl. 35 fig. 1) for instance presents this image when compared
with dogs of medium size; also large dogs in comparison with
smaller. The facial part is then large in comparison with the
brain-case.
Very commonly such a diminution of the brain and brain-
case is connected with our having to do with an animal of large
size, the brain has as is well known on the whole a relatively
small size in large, a relatively large size in small Mammals. This
is for instance the case with the Hippopotamus (Pl. 33 fig. 3, Pl. 34
fig. 4, Pl. 31 fig. 3) which has a very small brain-case, but pro-
vided with crests; the temporal groove has also a large transversal
diameter, the zygomatic arch lying far off from the brain-case, so
that there is room enough for a large temporal muscle, and also
the zygomatic arch is strongly developed, giving rise to a power-
ful masseteric muscle. But in spite of all this the main features
of the cranial form are preserved by Hippopotamus, if we set aside
that the facial part has a dominant development in comparison
with the brain-case.
Also in Mammals with a comparatively large brain the said
type may be preserved, for instance in many bats (Pl. 33 fig. 9),
the brain of which is very large; also in these animals the charac-
ters of the skull are mainly the same as in the dog.
This type we can take as the starting point for the deviating
forms which are found among the Mammals.
One of these is found in a great number of the Rodents:
Myopotamus, Hydrochoerus a. o. (Pl. 33 fig. 12, Pl. 34 fig. 7, 10, 11).
In these the figure of the skull has been essentially modified through
the different condition of the temporal groove. To understand what
is the question here, the following should be premised.
By the name temporal groove we indicate in the Mammals
the whole part filled up with the temporal muscle, the part which
is in the human anatomy (for instance by Gegenbaur) called pla-
num temporale + fossatemporalis. It is laterally arched over by the
zygomatic arch, by which name we design the lateral bony arch
from its posterior origin unto the processus orbitalis, while for the
anterior part of the same arch we use the name infraorbital arch.
Medially the temporal groove is limited by the whole of the large
surface, from which the temporal muscle takes its origin, which
in front extends unto the postorbital or zygomatic process of the
frontal bone. The latter process and the orbital process of the
zygoma laterally mark the limit between the orbit and the tem-
poral groove; medially the limit is sometimes marked by the
crista pterygoidea situated behind the well known series of cranial
openings (foramen opticum etc.), but often it is not indicated on
the skull at all. The cranial wall of the temporal groove is po-
steriorly more or less convex planum temporale but is an-
teriorly concave; this concave surface medially limits what we
design as the fossa temporalis s. str., which is below the postor-
bital process of the frontal smoothly continued in the orbit. In
the starting type the zygomatic arch arises quite posteriorly, close
to or partially above the meatus auditorius.
Now in the above named Rodents the change has taken
place no doubt in connection with the temporal muscle having
become reduced that the planum temporale is of a relatively
small size and not convex, but plane or concave, and that the
fossa temporalis s. str. apparently wholly lacks, having been reduced
to a minimum and only appearing as a shallow posterior bay of the
orbit. At the same time the posterior origin of the zygomatic arch
has moved forwards, so that it is situated almost directly below
the processus postorbitalis of the frontal bone, towards which the
squamosal bone extends, even so that the proc. postorb. is partly
formed by the squamosum; the maxillary joint, which is bound
to the posterior end of the zygoma, thus being placed below the

83
The skull.
Remarks on the skull of Mammals in general.
84
posterior end of the orbit, while in the starting type it is situated
far behind it. Also the anterior root of the infraorbital arch
which is in these Rodents, as is well known, perforated by a mighty
foramen infraorbitale, through which part of masseter extends on
the side of maxillare and intermaxillare and takes its origin from
them has shifted. While in the starting type it has its place
near the hind end of the molar series, it is here connected with
the skull at the fore end of the whole grinder-series. Other Ro-
dents take a place halfway between the starting type and the type
just described. So it is in Arctomys (Pl. 33 fig. 11, Pl. 34 fig. 6
and 9) a. o.: the temporal groove is here rather large, the origins
of the zygoma and of the infraorbital arch are certainly displaced
forward, but by far not so much as in Hydrochoerus etc. (Also
the infraorbital opening is of moderate size).
Another curious type of skulls we find in Sus (Pl. 33 fig. 14)
and some of its kindred. To Sus it is characteristic that the dorsal
portion of the hind part of the skull, from the anterior margin
of the orbit and backwards, has been so to say pulled hindwards,
so that the posterior end of the teeth-series ends at some distance
before the orbit (while in the starting type it extends below the
orbit). The anterior part of the skull, from the fore-end unto
the anterior margin of the orbit, is nearly twice as long as the
rest. A most extreme development of this cranial type we find
.
in Phacochoerus (Pl. 33 fig. 15). Here the hind part of the skull
(orbit, temporal fossa etc.) has been pulled so strongly backwards
that the distance from the anterior margin of the orbit to the hind
end of the molar series is all but the same as that from the same
margin to the hind end of the skull. The crista pterygoidea, running
for instance in the Bear from the processus supraorbitalis obliquely
backwards, has in Phacochoerus a direction from above strongly
forwards; the crista is particularly conspicuous and is in a similar
manner as in the Elephant (see below) continued into the processus
pterygoideus of the basisphenoid. In Sus the crista has a direction
almost directly downwards, representing an intermediate state.
The peculiar form of the skull in Sus and Phacochoerus no
doubt has some relation to the head being used for shovelling in
the soil and also for tearing roots out of the soil by means of
the mighty canines 1. It is a matter of course that a pulling back
of the eyes and a lengthening of the anterior portion of the skull
is under these circumstances particularly necessary.
upwards (Pl. 40 fig. 5) — not so much laterally as in most other
Mammals –, in consequence of which the posterior part of the
nasal cavity lying between the large eyes has been compressed
almost to a thin plate, the upper surface of the skull between
the eyes being reduced to a rounded crest, and the postorbital
process being nearly completely rubbed out (the place of the
process may, however, be determined thereby that it is situated at
the anterior border of the plane of origin of the temporal muscle).
The orbits, the openings of which are in this way directed more
upwards than in other Mammals, have so large a circumference,
that their anterior margin is situated at a small distance from the
hind border of the osseous nasal opening and far in advance of
the infraorbital foramen (while in the starting-skull it is situated
far behind the said foramen). The fossa temporalis s. str. is much
reduced, so that also here (comp. Hydrochoerus etc.) it appears as
a minor appendix to the mighty orbit; the posterior origin of the
zygoma has held its place. Behind the large orbit the brain-case
is suddenly arched outwards: the brain is also large in size and
comparatively broad, the brain-case is so bulky that the origin
of the temporal muscle (in Phoca groenlandica) does not extend
over the whole brain-case, but especially towards the hind end
the upper border of the surface, from which the muscle takes
its origin, is far distant from the corresponding border of the
opposite side.
The skull of the Eared Seals (we have principally examined
Zalophus californianus, Pl. 35 fig. 3) forms a connecting link be-
tween the last described cranial type and the starting-skull. The
eyes are certainly also here large, but still there is an upper frontal
surface and a marked postorbital process, and the anterior margin
of the orbit is not placed so near the narial opening as in Phoca.
The fossa temporalis s. str. is also much larger than in Phoca
groenlandica, it is not very far from the conditions in the dog. The
brain-cavity is also not so broad in relation to the length as in
Phoca, but a rather remarkable development has taken place at
the hind inferior part of the orbit, the presphenoid being here
compressed between the two orbits to a quite thin, partly even
defective, vertical bony plate quite analogous with the inter-
orbital plate in Fishes, Reptilia and Birds.
A similar development of the part of the skull between the
orbits as in the Phocidæ we find in the Primates (Pl. 33 fig. 4,
Pl. 35 fig. 5—11). In these also the cranial surface between the
eyes has been reduced to a rounded rim, which for instance in
the Cynomorphæ is very narrow, and the nasal cavity below it
has become very compressed. The eyes should in the Primates
be turned upwards as in the Seals, if it not were for a modification
of the superior median part of the anterior portion of the skull
which has taken place. The said part (from the posterior margin
of the orbits forwards) has, in stead of forming as usual a hori-
zontal or feebly sloping continuation of the parietal surface, first
assumed, in the American Apes, an oblique direction from above
downwards, and then in the Catarrhinæ the hindmost part of it,
that between the eyes, has taken a direction almost straight down-
wards. In this manner the openings of the orbits are directed
quite forwards, while in the Platyrrhinæ they are still directed
somewhat upwards. The foremost part of the skull, before the
eyes, has, on the contrary, still a direction obliquely forwards,
even in the Anthropomorphous Apes. It is only within the genus
Homo that this part, the dental series being shortened, also acquires
a direction from above-downwards, which is more marked in the
“higher” than in the lower races of mankind (Pl. 35 fig. 10-11);
at the same time the nasals, that form the dorsum of the wall
between the eyes, have become vaulted and again confer to this
part a forward direction; in this way the characteristic human
nose arises (fig. 11). In the Apes the nasal bones are always flat,
only in the Gorilla there is a slight indication of a vaulting of
the nasal bones.
As is well known the basis cranii in the Primates makes an,
angle with the hard palate (Pl. 31 fig. 4), its anterior end being
directed obliquely upwards, its posterior end obliquely down-
wards, which is different from the case in most other Mammals.
This has no connection as might be supposed with the
In Dicotyles and Porcus, Pl. 33 fig. 13, (which latter according
to Brehmº is not a root-eater) the skull is less transformed than
in Sus. The skull is not so much pulled out posteriorly, the
molar series extends underneath the anterior part of the orbit
and the crista has a slight direction backwards. Still more original
features are found in another of the relatives of the pig, in the
Hippopotamus (Pl. 33 fig. 3) already referred to above, in which
the molar series extends underneath the whole of the orbit, where
the crista is directed decidedly backwards and where on the whole
a pulling backwards of the hind part of the skull is out of question.
A diametrically opposed development has taken place with
the skull of the Manatee (Pl. 33 fig. 6, Pl. 34 fig. 3). Here the long
molar series not only extends backwards below the orbit but below
the whole inferior opening of the temporal fossa. And the dis-
placement is so marked that the anterior end of the molar series
is placed at some distance behind the anterior margin of the orbit.
The temporal muscle is most powerfully developed and has as it
were pressed the orbit forwards, so that the eyes are not as usual
situated against the sidewalls of the posterior part of the nasal
cavity and the anterior part of the brain-case, but abreast of the
middle of the nasal cavity (or rather nearer the fore- than the
hind-end of it). The zygomatic arch is immensely heavy and
clumsy, as also the inferior jaw. The mighty development of the
muscles of the jaw must be a peculiar adjustment to the herbi-
vorous habits of the animal; the teeth themselves are not very
large, but, as is well known, the series of teeth in this animal
are continually renewed through a new formation of teeth from
the hind end of the series.
A peculiar forming of the skull we find in the Phocidæ, in
a marked degree for instance in Phoca groenlandica (Pl. 35 fig. 4).
The eyes are very large and directed rather with the cornea
1
1 See the figure p. 28 in BREHM, Tierleben, 4. Aufl., Säugetiere, 4. Bd.
2 lbid. p. 31.
1 Comp. FORSTER, Z. Frage nach d. Bildung d. äuss. Nase b. Menschen. in: Arch. f. Anat,
u. Physiol. Jahrg. 1897. Anat. Abt. p. 163.

85
86
The skull.
Remarks on the skull of Mammals in general.
weak development of the temporal muscle in the Horse which
has caused this moving backwards. In Anchitherium the tem-
poral muscle was, as far as we can judge, relatively much stronger.
The skull of Dipus (Pl. 33 fig. 10, Pl. 34 fig. 5) presents an
instance of the influence of the auditory organ on the forming of
the skull. Here the petrosum + tympanicum on each side is a
mighty bony vesicle, which is rather loosely connected with the
rest of the skull; the two vesicles make together, at a rough es-
timate, between } and į of the whole skull.
1
peculiar shape of the facial part described above, but is a con-
sequence of the foramen magnum being directed downwards, not
hindwards as in other Mammals, which is again in connection
with the fact, that the head in these animals is being carried on
the end of the vertebrate column in a manner different from that
in other Mammals.
A most remarkable cranial type is found in the Toothed Whales
(Pl. 33 fig. 16, Pl. 30 fig. 9—15). By far most characteristic is that
remodelling of the skull which is a consequence of the narial open-
ings having been moved so far backwards, that the whole of the
greater anterior part of the nasal cavity is at the same time oblit-
erated and the nasal tubes in this way reduced to a pair of ver-
tical tubes. The result hereof has been that the processus palatini
of the highly developed intermaxillary bones have applied them-
selves to the sides of the cartilaginous nasal septum, which they
in connection with the vomer tightly surround (except above); on
the sides of the intermaxillaria the maxillaria have their place.
Of other peculiarities we emphasize the suborbital arch being,
for instance in Phocæna, reduced to a bar of extreme thinness
a consequence of the reduction of the masseter; further the large
osseous roof extending over the orbits; etc.
Marvellous is also the development which has taken place in
the skull of the Whalebone Whales 2. Here the following moments
are decisive: 1. The proportionally enormous facial part with its
mighty apparatus of baleens. 2. The relatively extraordinarily small
brain, a consequence of the enormous size of the animal. The
head is, owing to its large bulk, rather difficult to manage and
the occipital plane, to which the occipital muscles are attached,
is therefore inclined strongly forwards, so that its anterior end
lies (in Balænoptera rostrata) over the middle of the eye. The
temporal muscle, which shall lift the long mandible, and the in-
sertion of which to the lever is rather unfavorable, cannot be con-
tent with the ordinary room behind the eye, but its origin extends
forwards above the orbit and has its anterior border at some di-
stance before the eye 3 (in Phocæna the temporal muscle is wholly
situated behind the eye). The cartilaginous nasal septum comports
almost as in the Toothed Whales, but the nasal tubes are more
sloping
Interesting is also the cranial type found in the Horse, which
is determined by the extraordinary development of the cheek teeth
and of the masseter, the origin of which extends far forwards on
the face, far beyond the orbit and has initiated a mighty inflation
of the air-sinuses around the posterior part of the nasal cavity.
On the other side the temporal muscle is relatively modestly deve-
loped, the brain-case small, its crests little prominent, the whole
brain-case proper appears as all but an appendix to the mighty
facial part.
In Equus the orbit is situated behind the teeth-series (in con-
tradistinction for instance to the akin Anchitherium, whose cheek-
teeth extend below the orbita). According to W. KOWALEVSKY 4 the
reason of this should be, that the teeth had in consequence of their
enormous development pushed the orbita backwards. We think
it dubious whether this view hits the right. In the strongly in-
flated part above the teeth the orbit certainly might have found
Other Mammals with large cheek teeth (Elephas, Hydro-
choerus) have the orbit placed over the teeth. It is rather the
An easy survey of some principal points of the architecture
of the mammalian skull would seem to us to be gained through
the following consideration (Pl. 37).
The mammalian skull in the “starting type“ (Dog etc.) has
the shape as an antique Amphora, in the neck of which, somewhat
above its nethermost end, a perforated dissepiment (lamina cri-
brosa) has been put in (comp. fig. 1 and 2). The cavity of the
neck above the dissepiment is the nasal cavity 1, the rest of the
cavity of the amphora is the brain-cavity. The handles of the am-
phora the zygomatic-suborbital arch are at the top attached
farther down on the side, farther from the superior opening, and
at the inferior end nearer to the bottom of the amphora than in
an antique amphora. The inferior part of the neck has a narrow-
ing, an incurving on each side; here the eyes are placed between
the wall of the vessel and the anterior part of the handles: the orbits.
Below (behind) these the temporal muscle is placed between the
wall of the vessel and the inferior part of the handle: the tem-
poral groove.
The manner in which the form of the amphora is varied in
different Mammals appears from the schematical horizontal sections
in Plate 37. In some the amphora has been transformed to a very
big-bellied, long-necked bottle, the neck of which is very much nar-
rowed at the inferior end (Apes, Phoca, fig. 7 and 3). In others
the neck has become very long, the vessel proper not being much
transformed (Hippopotamus). The lower (posterior) insertion of
the handles may be moved forwards and the temporal groove
therewith almost wiped out (some Rodents, fig. 9). Or, the vessel
proper being much shortened and extended to the sides, the tem-
poral groove may be situated not behind but on the side of the
orbit (Apes, fig. 7). Or, the upper attachment of the handles may
advance more towards the opening of the amphora, the eye there-
with being placed far nearer to the opening, far from the usual
place off the lamina cribrosa (Sirenia, Elephant, fig. 5 and 10).
4
For the postfoetal development of the mammalian skull it is
generally decisive that in the young animal the brain is relatively
large, the teeth and masticatory muscles relatively weak, which
facts are together highly determinative of the character of the
skull: the brain-case relatively large, the facial part relatively
small, muscular crests not developed, air-sinuses only present to
a small extent. All these peculiarities of the young animal are
then successively wiped out.
room.
THE SKULL OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT.
5
The material of skulls of the Indian Elephant, which has been
at our disposal, is the following:
a. A defective skull, c. 16 cm long 5, of a fetus. Has been mace-
rated before we have bought it and the ventral side is rather de-
stroyed.
b. Skull, 36 cm long, of a young animal, the dentition of which
is as follows: The milk-incisors still present (the roots much ab-
sorbed on the sides), the first cheek-tooth (second milk molar, dp,)
is still present above as well as below, but is rather much worn,
while on the second cheek-tooth (dp3) only the four-five anterior
plates have begun to be worn, the posterior three-four on the
contrary being quite intact; the third cheek-tooth (dp.) lies in
the jaws and is for the greater part composed of plates which are
not yet united. From the data given in OWEN's Odontography
(p. 632 ff.) we infer that the animal has been a little more than
1 year old.
b, and b2. Two skulls of about the age as b judged from
the grinders and of similar dimensions as the latter.
c and d are nearly of the same age, both 45-46 cm long,
in both skulls the dp, has been shed, so that, according to OWEN,
1
1 Only a small part of it has perhaps been spared in the form of the two flat blind-
sacks, that from the nasal tubes extend forwards, above and closely up to the hind
parts of the intermaxillaries (at least in Phocæna).
2 Comp. BOAS, Lehrb. d. Zool. 9. Aufl. p. 696 fig. 666.
3 The whole surface in the cited figure in which the signatures Pa, Fr, Sq are placed
is occupied by the muscle.
4 Monogr. d. Gatt. Anthracotherium u. Versuch einer natürl. Classif. d. fossilen Huf.
thiere. in: Palæontographica 22. Bd. p. 278.
5 The measures have been taken from the hind end of the condyles to the fore
end of intermaxillary bones.
1 Here is abstracted from the fact that the neck of our amphora, the nasal cavity,
has an opening on one side - the ventral side - from which a tube is directed down-
wards (backwards): the tube which ventrally is limited by the palatine bones, dorsally
by the lamina transversalis (vomer etc).

87
The skull.
The skull of the Indian Elephant.
88
)
3
4
they are more than two years old; in one of them (c) there are
however in the maxillary bones still grooves from the lost dp2,
while such have disappeared from the other skull. In both skulls
the dp, is in full wear, but the dp, is only worn in its most anterior
part (in the upper jaw only the first plate is worn, in the lower jaw
a little more). We think the skulls belonged to animals of an age
of say 3—4 years.
e. About 48 cm long (the tusks, that are rather well devel-
oped, not included); dp, is shed, dp, is in full wear; the anterior
end of m, projects on the skull but has been wholly covered by
the mucous membrane.
f. About 53 cm long; dp, somewhat more worn than in e,
the two anterior plates of m, have begun to be worn.
g. 71 cm long; dp, has been shed, m, is in full wear, m,
still in the alveolus.
h. 68 cm long; dp, is lost; m, has been worn so much that
the anterior end has been worn away; m, has just begun to be
2
worn.
i, k, l, all about 70 cm (69–73), have all shed m, and wear my.
m, the right half of the skull of the large Elephant from the
Zoological Gardens of Copenhagen named “Chang”, about 50 years
old, wears m3, the posterior third of which was however still clothed
with the mucous membrane resp. enclosed in the alveolus.
To this material further come the head of the new-born Ele-
phant mentioned in the preface, that of the young Elephant ment-
ioned in the preface to the First part, and the head of “Chang", the
right half of which has been macerated, while the left half has been
prepared otherwise.
But few mammalian skulls have a more peculiar stamp than
that of the Elephants. This is a natural result of their being the
largest terrestrial Mammals consequently animals with a rela-
tively small brain —, of their possessing a mightily developed, very
peculiar dental system, and their nasal cavity being also developed
in a very peculiar way. To this must still be added as a very
essential point the extraordinary weight of the head, which is as
we shall see, highly determining for its special forming.
The skull of the Elephant is to a prominent degree charac-
terised by the strong shortening and extraordinary increase in
height of all that part of the skull which is situated in the rear
of the infraorbital foramen; in older Elephants it may be rather
much higher than long; in relation to this high part the anterior
part, in which the tusks have their place, appears as little more
than a stately terminal outgrowth. Also the breadth is considerable,
in old Elephants not much less than the length. Surprising is
also the considerable height of that part of the skull which lies
below the zygoma; while in most Mammals the zygoma is not
situated much higher up than the cheek-teeth series, the distance
is in older Elephants considerable. The nasal cavity has in old
Elephants an almost perpendicular position through the skull; the
nasal bones are extraordinarily shortened. The orbita has in old
Elephants been moved so far forwards that the anterior margin
of it is situated before the osseous nasal aperture; in young Ele-
phants the orbita lies laterally to the same aperture. The tem-
poral groove is in old Elephants a mighty lateral concavity extend-
ing far upwards and far inwards, its deepest point being not too
far distant from the median plane, deeply hollowing the side of
the skull. In old Elephants the molar tooth has its place below
the temporal groove, in strong contradistinction to what is found
in most Mammals. Bony crests for origin of muscles are so to
say not developed, but on the middle part of the posterior side
of the skull there is a deep indent, in which the mighty ligamen-
tum nuchæ is inserted; in the middle of this indent there is a
thin leaflike prominent vertical crest.
From these general orientating remarks we proceed to the
more detailed treatment. We do not intend to give a full “de-
scription" of the skull but only an exposition of what appears to
us to be of special interest concerning the skull of the Indian Ele-
phant and its development after the birth.
The intermaxillary bone of the Mammals (Pl. 40 fig. 3) con-
sists of three elements: pars dentalis in which the incisors are
implanted; processus palatinus lying on the medial side of the
fissura palatina; and a pars ascendens bordering the external bony
nasal opening and adjoining the nasal bone, the intermaxillary
bone otherwise only having connection with the maxillary bone.
The pars dentalis is commonly somewhat thickened, compared with
its posterior continuation, the proc. palatinus. We may on the pars
dentalis distinguish (Pl. 40 fig. 3) an oblique anterior surface, and
a posterior surface, proceeding more or less obliquely down-
wards to the proc. palatinus. The anterior end of the septal car-
tilage lies in a furrow, excavated on the posterior surface in the
line where the two intermaxillaria meet.
In the Elephant (Pl. 40 fig. 4, and passim) the oblique anterior
surface has been quite extraordinarily developed, a consequence
of the mighty development of the incisors imbedded in the pars
dentalis. The said surface has been converted to an extended,
excavated plane, the upper (posterior) end of which has been
strongly raised; the posterior surface of the pars dentalis has
taken a perpendicular direction.
The only Mammal, in which a similar development of this
part is found, is the Dugong (Pl. 33 fig. 7), where the said anterior
surface is also very extended and where the posterior surface of
the pars dentalis has a direction, not as usual backwards, but
decidedly forwards. As in the Elephant the root-end of the inci-
sors is found at the superior margin of the anterior surface.
In Phocæna (and other Toothed Whales) the bony exterior
nasal openings are as in the Elephant situated far back on the
upper side of the skull, and the anterior part of the skull, before
the nasal openings, forms in both as it were a “rostrum” of the
skull. But these likenesses are quite superficial:
In the Elephant the real exterior nares are lying far forward,
on the end of the trunk that represents the anterior part of the
nasal tubes, which are extraordinarily elongated; in this elongated
part there is no bony tissue developed on the upper side, the nasal
bones being very shortened. Also the septal cartilage has been
extraordinarily shortened, only the posterior part of the nasal tubes,
which is surrounded by bones, being endowed with it. But withal
the nasal cavity is intact, even peculiarly well developed.
In Phocæna on the contrary the exterior nares have really
retired upon the upper side of the head, have even been pulled
far back, and thus the whole anterior part of the nasal cavity,
that part which otherwise lies above the intermaxillary and maxil-
lary bones and is separated in two tubes by the cartilaginous
septum, has totally disappeared, has been wiped out, and the inter-
maxillaries, maxillaries, palatines and vomer along with the car-
tilaginous nasal septum have been put together into one coherent
mass (Pl. 30 fig. 9—15; comp. fig. 8), in the middle of which the
cartilage has its place: the bony lateral walls of the nasal cavity
have collapsed, embracing the nasal septal cartilage, which has
been preserved in good state and reaches the upper surface of the
rostrum, being jammed in between the right and left lateral wall.
The rostrum, i. e. that part of the skull which lies in front
of the nasal opening, thus is a totally different thing in the Ele-
phant and in the Whales: In the Elephant it is a prolongation of
the most anterior part of the face, of the pars dentalis of the inter-
maxillaries, while the posterior part of the palate has become ex-
tremely shortened in Phocæna that part of the intermaxillaries
has not been lengthened at all, while the posterior part of the
palate has become much lengthened. Correspondingly in the Ele-
phant the cartilaginous septum does by no means extend into the
rostrum, while in Phocæna it forms a characteristic part of it.
In a few other Mammals there may be observed a feeble
indication of such a pushing together of the intermaxillaries on
the sides of the cartilaginous septum, as is so strongly developed
in Phocæna. In the Tapir a not quite insignificant terminal part
of the septum is enclosed between the two intermaxillaries; it is
as if also here a small part of the nasal cavity were obliterated.
Also in the Manatee we have found the anterior part of the car-
tilaginous septum jammed in between the two intermaxillaries,
coincident with the outer nares having moved somewhat upwards
on the upper side of the snout. In the Elephant it is only a quite
narrow anterior margin of the septum which is thus lying be-
tween the two intermaxillaries, which together on the posterior
side of their pars dentalis form a furrow in which the margin
of the septum is let in; and similar conditions may also be traced
in other Mammals.
-
Another point which should in this connexion be emphasized
is the following.
In several Mammals with foreshadowing of a proboscis
Saiga (Pl. 33 fig. 5, Pl. 34 fig. 2), Alces, Tapir etc. the nasal
bones have been much shortened, as in the Elephant, and the
posterior border of the external bony nasal opening correspond-
ingly retired on the upper surface of the skull — the dorsal wall
of the nasal cavities being to a large extent soft—, there being
in this manner a certain resemblance to the case of the Elephant.
1 The only Mammal as far as we know besides the Whales, which presents
similar conditions as those described above for Phocæna, is the extinct Macrauchenia,
which obviously was an amphibious creature, spending as the recent Hippopotamus a
large part of its time in water (comp. IVAR SEFVE, Macrauchenia patagonica. in: Bull.
Geol. Inst. of Upsala Vol. 19 p. 5 ff., who also compares its skull with that of the Dol-
phins), and the outer nares of which are very practically placed in the top of the
skull between the orbits. In this remarkable form the intermaxillary and maxillary
bones and presumably also vomer and septum nasi have united to one continuous
mass, which is apparently quite analogous to the rostrum of Phocæna.

89
90
The skull.
The skull of the Indian Elephant.
But the intermaxillaries are in these forms not at all developed
as in the Elephant: the anterior surface of the dental part of the
bone is always rather or quite feebly developed, and the result
of the shortening of the nasal bones is that the bony nasal open-
ing is extraordinarily large, extending, for instance in the Saiga,
over nearly half the whole extent of the upper surface of the skull
and to a somewhat lesser degree in Alcesand Cystophora, while
in the Elephant the bony nasal opening is quite short.
While thus the pars dentalis has in the Elephant become
extraordinarily developed, elongated and posteriorly heightened,
so that the anterior (inferior) border of the bony nasal -opening
is, as it were, pushed a considerable distance more backwards than
usual, the processus palatinus has totally vanished; this part of the
intermaxillaries lacks and instead of the two fissuræ palatinæ there
is only one unpair. This fissure, which is broadest at the anterior
end, extends far back, laterally bordered almost in its whole extent
by the maxillary bones, but having no such anterior boundary as
is ordinarily found in other Mammals. Posteriorly it gets tubular
and ends in the nasal cavity with a long narrow funnelshaped
opening. A somewhat similar considerable extension backwards
of the fissuræ palatinæ is also found in the Ruminants, where the
organs of Jacobson are lying in the fissures (which are here sepa-
rated by the processus palatini of the intermaxillaries) and only
with their posterior end extend above the palatine roof. In the
Elephant the whole organ of Jacobson lies in the fissure and
does not extend into the nasal cavity proper. The canalis Ste-
nonis opens with a minute aperture into the oral cavity, an open-
ing into the nasal cavity we have not found. The organon Jacob-
soni is very well developed and surrounded by the usual cartilage.
>
Also in the Tapir the fissuræ palatinæ are united and the
processus palatinus is almost totally lacking (only a small anterior
point is left).
early partially coalesces. The ethmoturbinals are rather short;
.
the uppermost, the nasoturbinale, is very shortened and does not
extend below the nasal bonel. Most of the ethmoturbinals are,
as in several other Mammals (Pl. 31 figs. 1—2), placed as it were
in a pocket posteriorly in the nasal cavity. The pocket is above
limited by the lamina cribrosa, below by the lamina transversalis.
The lamina transversalis is the horizontal plate, which repre-
sents the ventral wall of the primary nasal cavity, its anterior mar-
gin being the border of the primary choanæ 2. It generally ap-
pears as a thin plate, which for instance in the Dog, Phoca a. o.
is of considerable length, while for instance in the Sheep it is
shortened and in the Primates scarcely indicated. The lamina is
formed by the vomer, which is here generally laterally spread
out, by the anterior end of the presphenoid, into which the nasal
cavity is extended, by parts of the ethmoid, and by the palatines.
In the Elephant the lamina transversalis is rather well devel-
oped and is formed of the ethmoid, the presphenoid and the vomer,
the two first named bones forming the bulk of the rather massive
“lamina”, which is not as usual a thin plate but of considerable
thickness; to its under side the compressed vomer is appended.
The vomer of the Elephant (Pl. 27 figs. 1—4) we have princi-
pally studied in the head of the new-born specimen no. 1 and in the
skulls b, d and g, in which it is still separate, while in many Mam-
mals (e. g. the Dog, Sheep) it is early coalesced with the ethmoid.
It has the form of a short blade, which has in the new-born Ele-
phant a height of 1–} of the length; in the three said skulls it
has a height of about } of the length; in the oldest of the three
specimens the height is relatively the greatest, and in older Ele-
phants it grows still higher and relatively shorter. The lower
margin of the bone is sharp, the upper somewhat thickened, the
most at its posterior third, where it is applied to the inferior mar-
gin of the presphenoid and of the ethmoid; here also it is rather
deeply longitudinally cleft, while the rest of it has only a shallow
furrow, which is applied to the border of the cartilaginous nasal
septum. The sides of this cleft are somewhat thickened, and in
3
the oldest of the three skulls a small air-sinus extends into this
posterior lateral upper part of the vomer from the air-sinuses of
the presphenoid. In still older specimens of the Elephant the said
sinuses of the vomer are somewhat more developed; but the larger
part of the vomer remains non-pneumatic.
In connection with the ethmoid we also must say some words
on the presphenoid (comp. the sagittal sections and Pl. 30 figs.
3—4) and its relations to the ethmoid. The presphenoid is rather
shortened; where it meets the basisphenoid, the air-sinuses from
the presphenoid extend into the basisphenoid. The presphenoid
is already in the skull b partially united with the ethmoid. On
some points — dorsally, laterally the sutures against the ethmoid
are quite distinct, but on other points ventrally they are
scarcely discernible or quite obliterated. While the upper part of
the lamina cribrosa is not yet ossified in this young skull, the
lamina perpendicularis of the ethmoid is already fused with the
presphenoid, only a feeble indication of its having been separate
from this is to be found on the inner side of the cranial cavity
in the form of an obliterated suture.
The bony outer nasal opening having by the Elephant been drawn
backwards, the nasal bones are extraordinarily shortened, their
length being, apart from the anterior tip, minor than the breadth.
They have as it were also drawn the intermaxillaries backwards
and jointly with the upper hind ends of these they have taken
place in a deep bay in the anterior margin of the frontals; the
bay extends even in young Elephants somewhat behind the proc.
postorbitalis, while the anterior margin of the nasal bones in such
young specimens (d, Pl. 22 fig. 3) is placed off the same process.
On the contrary the maxillary bones have not kept pace but stop
at the anterior margin of the orbita, do not at all reach the nasal
bones and only on a limited point the frontals.
Net
1 As to more details respecting the ethmoturbinals comp. the decription of the nasal
cavity.
2 Comp. Boas, Schläfenüberdachung etc. in: Morph. Jahrb. 49. Bd., p.
3 In the skull b2 the vomer is furnished with the lateral wings which are present
in many Mammals and apply themselves to the palatinum and maxillary. In this spe-
cimen they are very well developed as thin plates extending over parts of the two named
bones. In the other specimens – also in b — they are but slightly indicated in some
(
specimens at our disposal, for instance b1, the vomer has accidentally been lost, so that
it has been impossible to ascertain the shape of the vomer in them).
-
Inferiorly the pars dentalis of the intermaxillary is to a large
extent applied to the maxillary bone, which extends far forwards
below it. To the upper surface of the maxillary, facing the nasal
cavity, is applied a thin flat bone (Pl. 32 figs. 5 and 6), the upper
narrower part of which, not being in contact with the maxillary
bone, adjoins the lateral margin of the intermaxillary and borders
the entrance of the maxillary sinus. Medially the said bone bor-
ders the posterior opening of the fissura palatina, posteriorly it
reaches the ethmoideum.
This bone, which we have not found mentioned in the de-
scriptions of the elephantine skull which we have seen, is evidently
the maxilloturbinal or rather only the basal plate of this bone.
Its place is in reality exactly the same, which the plate-formed
basal part of the maxilloturbinal occupies in other Mammals (Pl.
32 fig. 4, Pl. 36 fig. 4–7): the inner side of the maxillary from
the intermaxillary unto the ethmoid bone, bordering the entrance
to the maxillary sinus. That it really is this bone is evident from
a direct comparison of a young elephantine skull with skulls of
young Mammals of other groups (we have used longitudinally
intersected skulls of Apes, Dogs and Lambs) on which the tur-
binate part of the maxilloturbinal has been cut off so that only
the basal plate is left. If we remember that the foremost part of
the intermaxillary has been extremely raised, the place of the max-
illoturbinal in the Elephant is just that which should be expected.
But the turbinate part has totally disappeared. The maxillotur-
binal is quite separate in the young Elephant b and perhaps also
in c; but in the older skulls it has to a larger or lesser extent coa-
lesced with adjoining bones.
The maxilloturbinal backwards borders on the ethmoidal
bone (Pl. 32 fig. 5, Pl. 31 fig. 5, Pl. 30 figs. 3—4); in b it is only
to a limited extent that the two bones meet; in c, in which the
maxilloturbinal plate has a larger extension backwards, the bones
meet in a long line. Otherwise it as usual adjoins to a large extent
the maxillary bone, the surface of both passing smoothly into each
other. Also on the intermaxillary bone the ethmoid borders. In
the skull c it also reaches the nasal bone, in the younger, b, the
two bones are not yet in contact. As usual the ethmoid is on
the sides embraced by the frontals, with which it apparently very
-
-
304.
-
1 It may here be noted that in the Ruminants on the whole there is a more or less
pronounced tendency to this same extension of the bony nasal aperture (Pl. 34 fig. 1).

91
Wil The skull.
The skull of the Indian Elephant.
92
On the inferior face of the nasal bone and of the adjoining
part of the intermaxillary bone there is a large hole, which is
often divided into two by a vertical rim on the border of the two
bones. This hole is the entrance to an air-sinus filling most of
the interior of the nasal bone, while in young Elephants it only
more superficially excavates the upper part of the intermaxillary.
If the hole and therewith the air-sinus is divided into two, one
of them belongs to the nasal bone, the other to the intermaxillary.
In older Elephants (g) the first extends from the nasal bone into
the anterior part of the frontal, in the quite old (Chang) it fills
even a large part of the dorsal wall of the brain-case; also that
belonging to the intermaxillary bone is considerably deepened in
older individuals.
In one case, the young Elephant b, there is in the right nasal
bone instead of the described air-sinus only a shallow groove,
and the air-sinus in the bone is derived from the air-sinuses of
the frontal bone, emitting a diverticulum into the nasal bone. In
the left nasal bone of the same individual the ordinary air-sinus
is present as usual and fills the whole bone.
-
In the limitation of the nasal cavity also partakes the pala-
tine bone (Pl. 31 fig. 5, Pl. 32 fig. 5), the ascending part of which,
being as usual applied to the inner side of the maxillary bone, is
a very thin and feebly developed plate, which at least in some
elephantine skulls — is cleft in an anterior and a posterior part,
the canalis pterygopalatinus being for its greater extend represented
by a mere fissure, only its inferior extremity being a veritable canal.
A bone which in many Mammals forms a larger or smaller
part of the limitation of the nasal cavity is the lacrymal bone.
In the Elephant that is not the case; the bone (Pl. 25 fig. 1) is
here very feebly developed, in most specimens without any trace
of the lacrymal canal, and does not form any part of the wall
limiting the nasal cavity. As usual it is placed between the max-
illary and the frontal bones. At its posterior end it reaches in the
skull b the maxillary sinus and forms a minimal part of its wall;
at the anterior end, which is endowed with a blunt, rather high,
freely projecting protuberance, the right lacrymal bone in the
skull b is on the side, which is applied to the maxillary bone,
feebly hollowed out through a prolongation from the maxillary
sinus, while the left lacrymal bone of the same skull is deeply
hollowed out through a diverticulum from an air-sinus of the
frontal bone.
skulls c (Pl. 25 fig. 1) and d the anterior margin of the orbit is
in advance of the anterior end of the grinder series, and in the
older Elephants the orbit is wholly or almost wholly in front of
the teeth, decidedly so in „Chang” (Pl. 25 fig. 2). Probably this
is an outcome of the mighty development of the temporal muscle.
Comp. the Manatee (p. 83).
As to the peculiar conditions of the placing of the grinders
of the Elephant it should firstly be emphasized, that the part of
the skull in which these teeth are implanted has a very peculiar
place, being, contrary to the usual condition, pushed backwards
below the brain-case, the grinders entering into an intimate con-
nexion with the basisphenoid. The special circumstances are as
follows.
From the hard palate extends in the Mammals generally back-
wards a pair of large vertical plates of very different length, one
on each side of the nasopharyngeal cavity: the laminæ pterygoideve.
They are composed of the hindmost part of the palatine bone,
of the pterygoid process of the basisphenoid and of the os ptery-
goideum; laterally it is (on the border of the alisphenoid) in many
Mammals perforated by a horizontal canal, canalis alisphenoidalis
(through which passes the arteria maxillaris int., a branch of caro-
tis externa). Posteriorly the lamina is often cleft in two branches
embracing a large pit, in which the m. pterygoideus int. takes its
origin. Frequently the os pteryg., which forms part of the median
side of the pit, is early fusing with the proc. pteryg. of the basisphe-
noid. That is also the case with the Elephant, in which the os
pteryg. is quite early united at the top with the proc. pteryg. (al-
ready in the fetus examined), while farther down both in the fetal
skull and in the skull b it is separate.
On the lateral side of the lamina pterygoidea in many young
Mammals extends a posterior outgrowth of the maxillary bone,
containing the germs of the posterior molars: processus molaris
(Pl. 30 fig. 1). It is, at least partially, through a broader or nar-
rower fissure, separated from the palatine bone. In the fig. 1 Pl. 25
and in fig. 1 Pl. 32 this process is seen in a young Bear, the first
molar of which (m) has cut, but in which the second molar still
lies in the said outgrowth. In the last figure is also seen that from
the feeble postorbital process a rounded rim goes downwards and
hindwards, finally passing into the external margin of the ali-
sphenoid canal; in old Bears (Pl. 32 fig. 2) this rim: the orbital
crest, crista orbitalis, is more sharply marked, directly before it
a series of openings (foramina ethmoidalia, foramen opt., fissura
orbit.) are found.
Now in the Elephant the case is this, that the processus mo-
laris is applied to the lateral surface of the lamina pterygoidea
which is here sagittally very shortened and is covered by
the inferior part of the orbital crest, which in the Elephant is
very prominent; or perhaps it is preferable to say that the proc.
molaris is immersed into the enormously widened alisphenoid
canal, the margin of the anterior opening of which loosely covers
it as a large plate. The lamina pterygoidea in this manner forms
a deep thin-walled bowl round the processus molaris; the bony
wall of the proc. mol. being thus covered is partially very thin or
even membranous. The proc. molaris is still present in the oldest
Elephant at our disposal (Chang); while in most Mammals the
proc. mol. totally disappears, when the last molar has got into
use, for instance in the Bear (Pl. 32 fig. 2), where it is so prom-
inent in the young.
Yet in the Ox (Pl. 30 fig. 2), Camel and
others it persists as a strong outgrowth, separated from the lamina
pterygoidea through a rather broad cleft.
The two processus molares are in the Elephant of so large
extent that they have, as it were, forced themselves into the body
of the basisphenoid, in which are hollowed out two cavities, a right
and a left, that nearly meet in the median line of the bone, being
only separated by a thin vertical dissepiment. In the skull b the
basiphenoid is so largely hollowed out that also ventrally the bone
is in several points reduced to a membrane of connective tissue
or to a quite thin bony plate of silkpaper thickness. In these
cavities the processus molares are lodged. They do not extend
into the basioccipitale, although they reach nearly the posterior
end of the basisphenoid and in the skull g (Pl. 28 fig. 1–2), in
which it has been dissected out, overlies the anterior end of the
petrosal bone. In our oldest Elephant (Chang), in which most
In the skull c the right lacrymal possesses exceptionally a well
developed lacrymal canal with an orbital opening on the lateral
(hind) side of the bone; the canal opens into the nasal cavity
near behind the opening of the maxillary sinus. In the left lacry-
mal there is a trace of the canal, but it is obliterated, being to a
large extent filled with osseous tissue; into this bone extends a
diverticulum from an air-sinus in the frontal bone.
-
Like the nasals also the frontal bones have been extraordi-
narily shortened; and the median parts of them have been pushed
backwards. This becomes more marked as the animal grows older
(Pl. 22—23). In the fetal skull a (Pl. 22 fig. 1) the anterior end
of the suture between the two frontals is situated a little behind
the middle of the orbita; the dorsal parts of the two frontals make
together a bended transverse ribbon, the anterior and posterior
margin of which are almost parallel; the ribbon is about five
times broader than long. In the skull b (fig. 2) the anterior end
of the suture lies already a little behind the postorbital process
of the frontal; in the skull d (fig. 3) the same point lies 3—4 cm
behind the postorbital process and in e c. 10 cm. With the age the
ribbon becomes more and more bent and its median part parti-
cularly increased in length, the breadth of the two frontals being
for instance already in the young skull b only 3—4 times that of
the length in the median line. The concavity of the anterior frontal
margin grows deeper and deeper and correspondingly the nasal
bones lying in it are pushed backwards; while in our fetal skull
the anterior end of the nasal bones extends a little beyond the
anterior margin of the orbit, in the oldest Elephant it does not
reach the posterior margin of it.
As to the position of the orbita in the skull of the Elephant
we may in this place make the following remarks. In the skulls
b, bj, b, the orbita is still situated above the grinders or the first
of these reaches even a little before the orbit. But already in the
а
2

93
94
The skull.
The skull of the Indian Elephant.
further back, being situated at a considerable distance behind a
cross-line through the postorbital processes. Still more this is the
case for instance in the skull k. But in the old Elephant Chang
(Pl. 23 fig. 6) it has been pulled far back above the temporal
groove, far behind the line between the postorbital processes,
which are here situated above the anterior part of the nasal open-
ing; and the orbits, which in the young specimens are placed
lateral to the nasal openings, are in Chang lying almost wholly
before them.
of the length of the last molar is in wear, the tooth has proceeded
so far forwards, that the posterior end of the proc. molaris is not
filled by the tooth. Its place has been occupied by a large air-
sinus (Pl. 41 fig. 8), which opens into the neighbouring sinuses. The
proc. mol. thus persists also in the oldest Elephants, but its po-
sterior part is here not occupied by a tooth.
The pit on the hind end of the lamina pterygoidea mentioned
above, which is present in many Mammals, is also present in the
Elephant, but is certainly not strongly marked; yet there is a
distinct hamulus pterygoideus and a crest ascending from it, while
the exterior limit of the pit is very feebly indicated.
It is not without interest to se how another Mammal with
especially mightily developed grinders has "arranged" itself.
In Hydrochoerus (Pl. 34 fig. 10), where we find perhaps the
most powerful molar system next to that of the Elephant, the
maxillary bone with the enormous posterior alveolus also extends
backwards. But here it takes a more lateral position, does not
approach the middle line of the skull, does not either enter the
small alisphenoid canal and is posteriorly connected with an
anterior outgrowth from the squamosal, which lies on the lateral
side of the alisphenoid canal; the posterior end of the maxillare
in this manner receives a firm support. And as to the pit on the
hind face of the lamina pteryg. it is not at all as in the Elephant
levelled but on the contrary it has been deepened out to a large
and deep excavation inside the bony wall of the last molar and
extending so far mediad, upwards and forwards that the presphe-
noid between the two excavations is reduced to a thin translucent
lamella. In this excavation the musculi pterygoidei, internus and
externus, take their origin.
For the elephantine skull it is particularly characteristic and
peculiar that the growth from the young age to the old quite
essentially takes place in the height of the skull, while the long-
itudinal growth is relatively insignificant.
If for instance we compare the longitudinal sections repre-
sented in the Plates 18—20 of the head respectively of a new-
born Elephant, of an Elephant seven years old, and of one c. fifty
years old, we find that the hard palate of the first is 16 cm long,
of the second 267 cm and of the old 50 cm long; in the course
of 7 years it has become somewhat more than 1} time as long
as in the new-born, in the course of 50 years 3 times as long
as in the new-born. During the same periods the height of the
hard palate reckoned unto the highest point of the intermaxillary
has respectively been doubled and become 5–6 times as great as
in the new-born; and if we take only the height of the palate unto
the hind end of the fissura palatina, the height of the seven years
old specimen is 3—4 times that of the new-born, and in the fifty
years old 12 times. In the old specimen the longitudinal section
of the palate behind and below the fissura palatina is an isosceles
triangle, in which the lower leg is c. 34, the other legs c. 24 cm long.
But still stranger are the conditions of the brain-case proper.
In the new-born the upper cranial wall has unto the end of the
nasal bone a length of 20 cm, in the seven years old a length of
26 cm, it has thus increased 30 %; in the old Elephant it is 42;
cm, has consequently only become a little more than twice as long
as in the new-born. During the same periods this same cranial
wall has in the place where it is lowest from 1 cm in the new-
born become respectively 61 and 227 cm thick: in the old Ele-
phant it is more than twenty times as thick as in the new-born,
while the length is only doubled. Exceedingly strange is also
what we find as to the basis cranii; it grows in length from 17
cm in the new-born to only 20 cm in the seven years old and
Upper cranial wall
unto the tip of nasals
Basis cranii
Hard palate
Length
Height
Length
unto
the nasal
septum
Height
of the
basi-
sphenoid
Length
Height
unto the
fissura
palatina
Height
unto the
highest
point of
inter-
maxillary
New-born, cm ...
20
1
17
31/2
16
11/2
61/2
•
7 years old, cm ..
26
61/2
20
6
261/2
5
13
The bony nasal cavity can in many Mammals be said to
lie horizontally, the ventral wall, the hard palate, parallel to the
basis cranii. Thus in the Dog and many others. Often however
are found deviations, for instance in the Ruminants the anterior
end of the hard palate is directed strongly downwards, if the skull
is held so that the basis cranii is horizontal.
In quite young Elephants (Pl. 18) the deviation from what
we find in the dog a. o. is smaller than later on. Yet in the new-
born Elephant the hard palate, in comparison with the basis cranii,
rises from behind forwards c. 30°; and the nasal cavity is thus
a little oblique. Towards the outer bony nares it is however more
raised, in consequence of the dental part of the intermaxillary be-
ing so much heightened; while the posterior part of the nasal
cavity is almost horizontal, the anterior part is rather oblique. In
this manner we find it in the quite young specimens.
In the course of years this is rather substantially altered. The
hard palate is in the new-born Elephant a rather thin plate as in
most Mammals. But already in the one year old Elephant that
part of it, which is situated immediately behind (below) the hind
end of the fissura palatina, is thickened, and by and by (comp.
Pl. 19, 20, 27 etc.) this thickening, which evenly diminishes back-
wards, becomes so considerable, that the longitudinal section of
the whole hard palate behind the fissura pal. in Chang forms a
triangle, the posterior leg of which is connected with the under
side of the palate at an angle of c. 60°; this line is the section
of the anterior side of the nasal passage, which has been con-
siderably raised also in its posterior part. Correspondingly, also
the opposite side of the nasal passage, that is formed by the
extraordinarily thickened presphenoid and basisphenoid, forms a
wall parallel to the inner side of the hard palate. The superior
part of the nasal cavity lying behind the rising part of the inter-
maxillary, which has reached a mighty development, forms an even
continuation of the inferior part.
In this manner the "vertical” nasal cavity of the Elephant
comes into existence.
Also as to the position of the outer bony nasal aperture a
change takes place from the condition in the young Elephant to
that found in the old a change, which also to a certain degree
contributes to the nasal cavity's getting a vertical position.
In the skull c the posterior border of the exterior nares is
situated nearly on the same cross-line as the end of the post-
orbital processus.
In the skull f it has been drawn obviously
50 years old, cm.
421/2
221/2
241/2
20
50
19
36
to 243 cm in the fifty years old specimen, an increase in 50 years
of only 44 %
while in the same periods the height from 31
in the new-born increases to 6 in the specimen of seven years
and to 20 in that of 50 years, that is 470 %.
This singular check of the longitudinal growth of the ele-
phantine skull is likely an adjustment to the Elephants having
to carry the mighty tusks and the long rather weighty trunk at
the anterior end of the head. If the hind part of the head were
long, the muscular apparatus, which raises the head, should be
even much more enormous than it is.
An adjustment in the same direction is presumably also this,
that the brain of the Elephant is uncommonly short in comparison
with its breadth.
1 Comp. also the whole series of figures on the Plates 22–23. If in any of them
the figure does not agree exactly with the description as to the place of the hind
margin of the nares relatively to the postorbital processes, it is because, by the chosen
position of the skulls, what appears as the posterior margin of the nares is not this,
that margin lying truly somewhat more posteriorly. But nevertheless the series of
figures gives a fair account of the remarkable caudad wandering of the nares accord-
ing as the animal grows older.

95
The skull.
The skull of the Indian Elephant.
96
Besides developing in height, as the years go the skull is also
broadening remarkably at its posterior end. If we compare the
two skulls represented in Plate 24 respectively of the skull b and
k it appears that the hind part of the skull of the older has in
comparison with the anterior parts (for instance the part in which
the molars are implanted) become much broadened; but this
broadening is not the result of an even uniform enlargement of
the elements of which the posterior segment of the skull is com-
posed, but some elements have only been little, others enormously
augmented. This is most apparent in the part of the occiput, the
ventral wall of which is composed of the basioccipitale, the tym-
panicum and the squamosum. As is well-known there is in the
Elephant a peculiar continuation of the bony auditory meatus
formed by a rim-formed postglenoidal outgrowth from the squa-
mosal bone which ventrally meets a posttympanal outgrowth from
the same bone. This additional auditory passage, which partially
surrounds 1 the convolute cartilago annularis, is in the young Ele-
phant still quite short, but increases with the years enormously
in length, and while in the delineated young Elephant (b) it only
makes a small part of the distance from the middle line to the
lateral border, in older Elephants it makes one half or more.
Contemporarily the articular surface (for the mandible) which
lies before it has become a corresponding increase in the trans-
verse direction of the skull. These parts having thus become
extraordinarily increased, the tympanicum (and still more the pe-
trosum inclosed by the tympanicum) and the basioccipitale have
only grown very little in the transverse direction.
Those parts of the skull situated laterally to that part of the
surface, in which the ligamentum nuchæis inserted, are also
gradually mightily developed. While that surface (where the liga-
ment inserts) in the skull b is very feebly hollowed out in the
occipital plane, it is gradually very much deepened, the lateral
parts being strongly arched.
The lateral walls of the brain-case (exoccipitale, squamosum,
parts of parietale and frontale) are also much pneumatized; in
older specimens the pneumatized lateral walls are of an enorm-
ous thickness; the great breadth of the hind parts of the skull
and the enormous length of the bony auditory meatus is asso-
ciated herewith.
An immensely thick layer of pneumatized bony substance
forms the dorsal wall of the brain-case in old Elephants. Already
in the fetal skull (a) the nasal bones (which for descriptive rea-
sons are included here) are pneumatized and on the border of
the horizontal and the vertical part of the frontal (the eyebrow)
there is also a little part which is pneumatized; but otherwise
there is in this phase no pneumatization of the dorsal wall of the
skull, no more than of other parts of the skull. In the new-born
(Pl. 18, Pl. 27 fig. 1) the air-sinuses extend dorsally through the
whole frontal bone and further into the anterior part of the
parietal; but it is still quite a narrow cavity. In c they already
extend into the whole dorsal wall and have increased essentially
in height, so that the air-filled space on the middle is c. 4 cm
high. In Chang the air-space in the dorsal wall is 21–22 high
on its lowest point; in comparison herewith it may be noted, that
the brain-cavity, where it is highest, is in the same Elephant 15
cm high.
Also the facial part of the skull is already very early pneu-
matized. In the fetal skull a the upper part of the intermaxil-
lary and the adjoining part of the maxillary bone are pneuma-
tized. Later on the pneumatisation extends over the whole of
the two bones. In the palatal roof beneath the fissura palatina
there is as in the basis cranii relatively much bony substance,
while the upper parts are more brittle.
The wall of the tympanicum is likewise rather much pneu-
matized; but against what is the case as to the other air-sinuses
those of the tympanicum are evaginations from the tympanic cavity.
From the latter further air-sinuses extend into the exoccipitale.
As we have seen, the incongruity, which in the Elephant arises
with the age, between the size of the brain and that of the rest
of the head, is adjusted through the development of the large
air-sinuses of the cranial wall.
It is of some interest to see how this incongruity is adjusted
in a Fish, in which the brain is also relatively small in older spe-
cimens but where a development of similar air-sinuses could hardly
be imagined, at all events is not effectuated.
In order to illustrate the matter by an example we have made
a comparison between the head of a small and that of a large Cod
(Gadus morrhua). Externally they are very similar, also the skulls
are at all events at a more hasty examination copies of another,
proportionate in size to that of the heads. But the proportion of
the brains is another: while the length of the whole head and also
the length of the skull is 2} times as great in the large specimen
as in the small, the brain of the large Cod is only 11 times as
long as that of the small. Here the matter is adjusted in this
.
way that the jelly-like connective tissue, which is an indifferent
filling-up substance, is considerably more developed in the large
than in the small fish; the connective substance here plays the
same part as the air-sinuses in the Elephant.
Cod
Ratio
The whole peculiar development of the skull described in the
preceding is intimately connected with an overwhelming pneu-
matisation of the cranial wall. All the extraordinarily developed
parts are filled with air. The pneumatized parts are generally
composed of two rather thin surface-plates, an external and an
internal, between which goes a system of thin plates at right
angles to the surface.
At little near the whole brain-cavity is surrounded by bones
filled with air. The inferior part of the wall lining the groove,
in which the ligamentum nuchæ is inserted, is not pneumatic and
this is apparently generally the case with the part of the cranial
wall lying below that groove unto the foramen magnum; in our
oldest Elephant (Chang) the latter (Pl. 26 fig. 1) is quite a thin
bony plate, on the thinnest spot hardly 4 mm thick, in d (Pl. 27
fig. 2) it is thicker, at least 8 mm. Still thinner is the bottom
of the nuchal-ligament-groove (the inferior part of which as said
before is not pneumatized); it is in Chang scarcely 1 mm thick,
while in d, where the whole bottom of the groove belongs to the
not-pneumatized part, it is in the thinnest spot 3–4 mm thick.
Compare also the sagittal sections Pl. 27 fig. 1 (new-born), fig. 3,
Pl. 19 etc.
Non pneumatic is further the hind end of the basioccipital
- in b the whole basioccipital and the lamina cribrosa of the
ethmoid. All the rest of the cranial wall is pneumatized.
Although the basisphenoid is to a large extent filled by the
processus molaris, there still has been room in it for air-sinuses,
which in the skull g and in Chang, but not in the young Ele-
phant d, extend into the anterior part of the basioccipital. Also
the presphenoid is amply pneumatized. In these bones in the
basis cranii there is in older specimens more bony substance in
proportion to the air-sinuses than in the dorsal cranial wall: that
basal cranial part lying centrally in the whole skeleton of the head
(the heavy mandible included) is likely to have a greater strength
than the upper wall. In the young Elephant d this difference is
not apparent; but at this age the air-sinuses of the basis cranii
are not yet much developed.
small
mm
large
mm
The whole head from the hind margin of the
basis cranii unto the anterior end of the
snout (soft parts included)
74
186
2.5
The skull from the hind margin of the basis
cranii unto the anterior end
63
160
2.5
Greatest height of the skull...
18-19
44-45
2.4
The brain from the anterior end of the pros-
encephalon to the hind end of the cere-
bellum ..
18
27
1.5
-
As to the closure of the cranial sutures we make the follow-
ing remarks.
The maxillary bone is only late united with the neighbouring
bones; still in the rather old skull k the sutures are as far as
can be decided without bursting the skull — still open. On the
contrary the sutures between the intermaxillary and the nasal
and between the latter and the frontal have already begun obli-
terating in g, while they are open in f.
The frontal is early united with the parietal. In b and by
the suture between the frontals and the parietals are wholly open,
1
Boas, Ohrknorpel u. äuss. Ohr d. Säugetiere. Kopenhagen 1912, p. 193.

97
98
The skull.
The skull of the Indian Elephant.
from receding from each other and thus be an equally large hind-
rance to the considerable vertical and transverse growth, which
takes place in this region, as a more extended occlusion of the
suture. But perhaps the few small bony bridges, which are pre-
sent for instance in the skull f, are again resorbed, so that the
borders of the two bones may again be separated and an accretion
take place in both.
con
Of peculiarities concerning the skull of the Elephant, besides
those already reported, we still may mention the fact that the tym-
panicum furnishes part of the internal surface of the brain-cavity
(Pl. 32 fig. 5, Pl. 30 fig. 5). The (rather small) planes of the tym-
)
panicum thus appearing on the inside of the braincase are situated
respectively below (behind) and before the plane belonging to the
petrosum, from which they are easily distinguished, the tympani-
cum and petrosum being certainly already united in b, but the
limits of both being very well defined in b and b. It is also
peculiar, that the deep furrow or imperfect bony canal, through
which the carotis interna makes its way into the brain-cavity, is
in the Elephant hollowed out in the tympanicum, not in the
petrosum.
Together with the adjoining parts of the petrosum the tym-
panicum as usual articulates with the exoccipital. In the dis-
connected tympano-petrosum (Pl. 30 fig. 7) the tympanic cavity
is largely open on the plane adjoining the exoccipital, the open-
ing being surrounded with a bony frame formed partially of the
petrosum, partially of the tympanicum; the tympanic cavity here
communicates with the air-cavities in the exoccipital. At this large
opening also some air-cavities extend into the wall of the petro-
sum. The walls of the tympanicum are likewise furnished with
air-sinuses from the tympanic cavity; on the contrary the squa-
mosal receives no air-sinuses from the tympanic cavity.
.
and in d it is also apparently still wholly openl. But in f it has
been wholly obliterated and only faint traces of the suture can be
seen on the upper surface. The suture between the two frontals is
still very distinct in f.
The parietal is very early united with the supraoccipital. In
the fetal skull a the parietals are still separate from the supra-
occipital; but in b the suture on the upper side of the skull is
certainly in most places open, but the obliteration has non the
less begun and on the inner side of the skull the suture is already
rather effaced. In the somewhat older skulls c and d the suture
is also nearly wholly effaced on the upper side of the skull. The
right and the left parietal are separate in the fetal skull and also in
the skull b; but in the older skulls they are united.net
A conspicuous interparietal is not developed in the Elephant;
but in the skull b, there is in the place of the interparietal an
unpaired little bone, 3 cm long and 1–2 broad, lying between
the hind ends of the parietals and posteriorly bordering on the
supraoccipital; this little bone is very distinct on the inside of
the skull, the suture being here open, while on the upper side
it is to a great extent obliterated. In the skulls a and b this same
bone is represented by a pair of minor bones lying between the
parietals and the supraoccipital; in b they are partially united with
the parietals. In older Elephants there are at most faint traces
of the interparietal, which is wholly united with the adjoining
bones.
Quite different from the relations between the parietals and
the supraoccipital are those of the exoccipital and the squamosal
to the adjoining bones. In the skull f the supraoccipital is wholly
separated from the two exoccipitals, which meet above the foramen
magnum, and the supraoccipital and the exoccipital are likewise
separated from the squamosal; and in e the exoccipitals are also
still separated from the basioccipital (in f the sutures between this
bone and the exoccipitals are only partially open). In g the suture
between the exoccipital and the squamosal and partially also that
between the exoccipital and the supraoccipital are still open. The
squamosal is still in d quite separate from the parietal. But in e
the suture between squamosal and parietal is closed on some
limited points above, while otherwise it is open, and in f we still
find the same. Great parts of the suture are still open in g and h.
The suture between the squamosal and the alisphenoid is still open
in the skull g.
The tympanicum and petrosum, which in the fetus a are still
separate, are already united in b (but rests of the suture between
them are still exstant), while both are separate from squamosum.
This is also the case with all the other skulls examined, with the
only exception of Chang, in which all the bones of the skull are
united.
The suture between the basioccipital and the basisphenoid is
still quite open in e, but already wholly obliterated in f.
The jugal is still quite separate in an Elephant as old as k.
But in Chang it is coalesced with the maxillary and the squamosal.
The measure, in which the sutures are obliterated in the Ele-
phantine skull, is obviously correlated with the special develop-
ment of the skull. If the transverse sutures between the frontal,
the parietal and the supraoccipital are so early obliterated, this
is evidently the consequence of the slight longitudinal growth of
the skull. This is also the reason why the suture between the
basioccipital and the basisphenoid is rather early obliterated.
If on the other hand the exoccipital, lying beneath the supraocci-
pital, is rather late fusing with this, it is obviously connected with
the vertical growth of the skull being more extensive than the
horizontal. That the petroso-tympanicum for a very long time
keeps separate from the adjoining bones, presumably is the con-
sequence of the considerable growth in transversal direction of
that region. If the maxillary is only very late united with the
frontal, from which it is separated through a horizontal suture
(a suture parallel with the grinding surface of the molars), we
have no doubt that this is in connection with the mighty vertical
growth.
It is strange that the squamosal in some places rather early
coalesces with the parietal, while extended parts of the suture
remain open for a long time. One should think that even
a quite limited coalescence would be a hindrance to the bones
-
If we should in quite a few words express what is the most
characteristic in the Elephantine skull, we would say, that against
all general rules the skull during the postembryonal development
mainly grows not in length but in height. In this manner it is
attained, that it is easier for the animal to manage the heavy parts
the tusks, the trunk which are placed at the anterior end,
the lever, at whose end they are situated, thereby being extra-
ordinarily shortened. At the same time the mighty molars are
pushed backwards as much as possible, which is also a consider-
able alleviation. Through an enormous development of the air-
sinuses surrounding the small braincase the necessary planes are
produced for the attachment on the skull of the enormous masti-
catory muscles and the muscles of the neck.
The skull appears to all intents as an outcome of the special
circumstances, under which it is placed, and the special claims
which are made to it. These might perhaps have been realised
also in other ways, but hardly more perfectly.
SOME REMARKS ON THE SKULL OF
THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT.
Plate 46.
At our disposal we had 4 skulls:
X, c. 55 cm long, is, judging from the wear of the teeth, the
youngest; it wears a tooth, which presumably is the dp: (that is
to say the second of the six grinders of the Elephants); its anterior
end is already rather much worn, but all 7 plates, the last of which
is but a trace of a plate, can still be distinguished"; the first plate
is worn down to the base, but no part of the tooth has been
dropped. dp has already come into use, but only the four ante-
rior plates have entered into wear.
y, c. 50 cm long. In this skull the dp, has been so much worn
that the two anterior plates and most of the third are broken off.
dp, has to a much larger extent than in x come into use; the six
anterior plates have entered into wear (there are still two unworn?).
4
3
y' is a very defect skull, c. 60 cm long, the teeth of which
exhibit nearly quite the same figure as y.
1 In the much younger skull b2 the same suture is already wholly obliterated, the
occluse suture yet being distinctly seen on the upper surface,
1 Comp. OWEN, Odontography p. 638.
2 According to Owen this tooth has only 7 plates.

99
The skull.
The skull of the African Elephant.
100
z, c. 70 cm long. In this skull there is only one tooth in
wear, which must from the statements of Owen1 be his “fifth mo-
lar”, that is to say mz; as Owen states it is 7 inches long and it
possesses on one side 9, on the other 10 plates (according to Owen
only 8 or 9). Behind this tooth is found mg, which has not yet
gone into wear.
The differences from the Indian Elephant which we have noted
are the following:
The lateral margins of the rostrum diverge more forwards.
The rostrum is lesser excavated on the upper side.
It is shorter in relation to the breadth.
The two low rims on its under side (on the maxillaries) are
posteriorly more approached.
The palate-plane between the grinders is much broader.
The palatine bone is broader and shorter. There is generally
one, large lateral palatine foramen (»laterale Gaumenlücke(2), while
in the Indian Elephant it is generally divided.
The hard palate unto the fissura palatina is not nearly so
high as in the Indian Elephant (longitudinal section).
The posterior nasal aperture is much broader.
The petroso-tympanicum is more voluminous and somewhat
different in shape.
The distance between the upper margins of the temporal
grooves is greater than in Indian Elephants of corresponding age.
The hind front of the skull is much flatter, the pneumatized
parts on the sides of the indent, in which the ligam. nuchæ is in-
serted, are quite low in comparison with indicus.
The whole skull is still shorter and broader but not so high,
the last character especially being the consequence of the maxil-
lary bones, in which the grinders are inclused. being of lesser
height.
The median part of the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid is
pneumatic, which is not the case in indicus. The air-sinuses from
here extend into the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, which is
cleft in two blades with an extended air-sinus between them.
LEBEN
ya
1 OWEN, Odontography p. 638.
2 Boas, Schläfenüberdachung etc. in: Morph. Jahrb. 49. Bd. p. 303.
.

en las
Esses ONE
postele
Hotele bune
Diese
Contest
SESI
E.
THE NASAL CAVITY.
Τ
as
-
-
-
The part of the nasal tubes, which lies before (rostrad of)
the cartilaginous nose, and which is exceedingly short in other
Mammals, has in the Elephant been lengthened to the proboscis,
that is entirely composed of muscles, connective tissue and epi-
dermis; as „proboscis” we designate the entire anterior part of
the nasal tubes unto the anterior end of the nasal cartilaginous
wings.
In the free part of the proboscis, it is to say that part of it,
which is situated rostrad to the intermaxillary bones, the lumen
in each of the nasal tubes is nearly circular. But in that part
of it, which is attached to the upper side of the intermaxillary,
the lumen takes another form. In the section which is repre-
sented in Pl. 41 fig. 1 it is nearly triangular with a dorsal nar-
row apex. Whilst in the free part of the proboscis the ventral
side of the wall is thicker than the dorsal and lateral, the ven-
tral wall becomes rather thin in the part fastened to the inter-
maxillary, while the dorsal and lateral wall is much thickened;
in accordance with this the nasal canals in the longitudinal section
(Pl. 18—20) have in this place — directly before the anterior end
of the nasal cartilage a downward flexion. Behind this segment
of the nasal tube, below the anterior end of the cartilaginous nasal
wings, the alteration of the lumen of the nasal tube is continued
(Pl. 41 fig. 2): the dorsal corner of fig. 1 becomes a fissure, which
finally extends below the cartilaginous nasal wings (figs. 3—4) and
laterally is bordered by a thick muscular cushion, in which is im-
bedded a little separate oblong cartilage (fig. 4), to which we shall
come back later on. The cushion is richly supplied with strong
muscular bundles, which have partly a transverse direction, partly,
in the ventral portion of the organ, are bending downwards; they
arise from the intermaxillary, some of them from the skin; they
terminate in the mucous membrane, which invests the cushion.
Besides the muscular bundles there is also a large contingent of
connective tissue consisting partly of rather strong bundles, form-
ing a tough meshwork; many of the bundles have a transverse
direction. In the middle and in the ventral part of the cushion
the muscular bundles are predominant, while dorsally the cushion
apparently consists of connective tissue alone. The muscular bund-
les in contracting evidently must considerably dilate the nasal canal;
at rest, the muscular bundles being relaxed, this part of the nasal
tube is only open ventrally, otherwise forming a collapsed fissure.
The part of the nasal canal which contains this muscular
cushion, ascends steeply on the anterior side of the intermaxil-
lary, to which it is firmly attached. Above the upper margin of
the intermaxillary the nasal tube is continued as a narrow flat
semilunar fissure below the posterior part of the cartilaginous
nasal wing; then it forms a sharp angle and is continued be-
tween the posterior side of the intermaxillary and the anterior
(inferior) side of the nasal bone down into the bony nasal cavity,
which as a nearly perpendicular tube leads into the pharynx. The
muscular cushion is caudad continued in a prominent roll and
further in the peculiar cartilaginous fold in the perpendicular tube,
which will be described below. As this fold appears to be
we shall see part of the nasoturbinal, the muscular cushion
should be determined as the anterior part of the nasoturbinal,
which has been developed in a special manner.
The part of the nasal tubes, which is surrounded by bone,
is caudad a spacious canal. But rostrad
towards the upper
end of the bony nasal cavity the free room is as usual ob-
structed by the turbinals, but in the Elephant in a special manner.
The maxilloturbinal is practically totally absent, only the ba-
sal plate of the bony maxilloturbinal being left (as already men-
tioned p. 89), forming part of the wall of the nasal tube; but nothing
of it is projecting into the space of the nasal tube.
The ethmoturbinals are as usual lodged above the lamina
transversalis; they are rather short; their free ends have not the
usual rostrad direction but are directed ventrad, at almost right
angles to the grinding surface of the molar; their special descrip-
tion is reserved for the next chapter. Only the nasoturbinal is to
be nearer inspected here.
Before entering upon the description of the nasoturbinal of the
Elephant we shall make some remarks on that of other Mammals.
The nasoturbinal we describe it first as it is when invested
with the mucous membrane is the uppermost of the ethmo-
turbinals. It is continued forwards much further than the others,
the anterior end lying near the anterior nares. The rostral part
of it is a narrow fold, which posteriorly swills to a thick and
prominent fold, from which a downward process may extend
into the opening of the sinus maxillaris (Pl. 36 fig. 8). From
this point hindwards it again becomes lower. The bony naso-
turbinal fills most of the structure described, also the down-
ward process.
But a more or less extended portion of the thin
anterior part contains a cartilaginous crest, which is continuous
with the cartilage investing, more or less coherently, the anterior
part of the nasal cavity; this cartilaginous crest may parti-
ally be disintegrated into small cartilaginous pieces enclosed in
the fold.
In the Elephant (Pl. 38 figs. 1-2, Pl. 31 fig. 5, etc.) the bony
nasoturbinal, placed as usual above the other ethmoturbinals, is
very shortened. From the side of it, adjoining the next ethmo-
turbinal, rises a bony projection (rather prominent in the great
a

103
The nasal cavity.
The nasal cavity.
104
Elephant Chang, blunt in the other specimens examined), which
lies at the base of a thick downward and caudad projection of
the mucous membrane, above which the entrance to the sinus
maxillaris has its place. To a low oblique longitudinal crest on
the bony nasoturbinal is appended a large and thick cartilaginous
plate, which forms a continuation of it and is connected with it
through a narrow stripe of connective tissue. The mucous mem-
brane investing the bony nasoturbinal is directly continued over
the median side of the said cartilage and forms a smooth even
surface. The ventral margin of the caudal half of the cartilage
is free and the mucous membrane here passes beyond the mar-
gin and is continued on the lateral surface of the cartilage and
further curves on to the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. The
mucous membrane then forms a large nasad closed diverticulum
between the cartilage and the nasal wall, the blind end of which
extends nasad considerably beyond the cartilage (Pl. 38 figs. 2—3).
On the lateral nasal wall, nearly on a level with the ventral mar-
gin of the cartilage, a fold of the mucous membrane arises, which
extends rostrad, successively increasing in height, and finally twins
up to the lateral surface of the cartilage. From this point to the
bottom of the diverticulum it has in the old Elephant Chang a
length of c. 12 cm, whilst the height is c. 10 and the breadth
c. 6 cm. The medial wall of the diverticulum invests the carti-
lage, the ventral and lateral walls resp. the pars dentalis and
ascendens of the intermaxillary bone. The dorsal wall is mostly
separated from the nasal bone through a thick layer of connective
tissue containing a venous plexus. At the nasal end of the diver-
ticulum there are one or two openings forming the entrance to
the air-sinus in the nasal bone.
Rostrad the cartilaginous plate in question runs into the car-
tilaginous sheet investing the inner side of the anterior part of the
nasal bones, also the rostral end of the bony nasoturbinal is con-
tinuous with the same cartilaginous sheet, which in the median
line is continuous with the cartilaginous septum nasi.
The latter extends rostrad a little beyond the tip of the nasal
bones; it terminates above the supreme point of the intermaxillary,
where the anterior and posterior side of that bone meet. At this
point the median margin of the two large, vaulted cartilaginous
nasal wings (Pl. 40 fig. 1) is connected with it; only the poste-
rior half of that margin is confluent with the septum; the ante-
rior half of it is quite free, the two nasal wings here being only
through connective tissue connected with one another. The outer
margin is quite free. The medial part of the posterior margin
of the cartilaginous wing is continued into the cartilaginous in-
vestment of the inner side of the nasal bones, while the rest of
the posterior margin is free.
If we compare the above described facts found in the Ele-
phant with the general find in Mammals, we cannot doubt that
the remarkable thick cartilage, appended to the bony nasoturbinal,
is really a specially developed and partially emancipated part of
the cartilaginous nasoturbinal. The projection of the mucous mem-
brane, in the base of which the small projection of the bony naso-
turbinal is situated, is evidently the downward process of the naso-
turbinal extending into the opening of the maxillary sinus, which
opening is also in the Elephant intimately connected with it; only
the bone in it is not so well developed as usual.
The little cartilage in the cushion mentioned above (p. 101)
we cannot imagine to be anything but a separate part of the car-
tilaginous crest which we find in the anterior part of the naso-
turbinal of other Mammals and which may sometimes be partly
disintegrated in small separate cartilaginous bodies.
The septum between the nasal tubes is in different parts of
different thickness. In the free proboscis it is tolerably thick (see
Pl. 14 fig. 2 in the First Part of this work). Where the cushion-
like thickening of the wall is developed, the septum is as thin as
paper (Pl. 41 fig. 4). At the upper end of that part of the nasal
cavity which is surrounded by bone, where the septum incloses
the cartilaginous median plate, the distance between the two tubes
is considerable, the septum cartilagineum is here very thick (Pl.
41 fig. 6); farther caudad the septum is again thinner, and in the
vicinity of the inferior (caudal) margin, where no solid parts are
present any more, it is again rather thin.
-
The significance of the special arrangements in the nasal
cavity of the Elephant are presumably the following.
When the tip of the proboscis is put down into water and
the muscular fascicles of the cushion contract, the water must
ascend in the nasal tubes; at the same time perhaps a feeble
suction takes place by means of the lungs. The water ascends
scarcely farther than to the uppermost point of the intermaxillary,
the nasal tubes here forming a considerable angle and being rather
narrowed.
Of the significance of the marvellous large rigid cartilaginous
plate on the lateral side of the nasal cavity it is more difficult to
form a conception. We venture the supposition that it is the cause
of the flourishes, which the Elephant sets up: the air being vigo-
rously expelled through the nasal cavity it meets the margin of
the plate, which is set vibrating.
POSSONO
LE
bog
Serba ORE
OVOU
Length

ve
F.
THE ETHMOID AND
THE PNEUMATIC SINUSES.
THE ETHMOID.
C
a
The part of the nasal cavity lying rostrad to the ethmoid
is of most peculiar appearance (Pl. 20). In the typically formed
mammalian skull we find, as is well known, the two conchæ,
naso- and maxilloturbinal, dividing the nasal cavity into the three
well-known nasal passages. In the Elephant this structure has
been modified; only two nasal passages are seen, a narrow dor-
sal and a more spacious ventral one; the medial nasal passage
seems to be lacking. In the preceding part of this paper a de-
tailed statement has been made concerning the structure of the
naso- and maxilloturbinal, according to which the ventral nasal
passage in the Elephant corresponds to the ventral + the medial
nasal passage in Mammalia.
The ethmoid in the old Elephant Chang, which shall first
be described, is of imposing size. It is true that it is not clearly
seen in the sagittal section (Pl. 38 fig. 1), this bone having its
greatest dimension in breadth. On the other hand, the preparation
delineated in Pl. 38 fig. 3, in which all the ethmoturbinals have
been removed, most strikingly demonstrates what a large space
is occupied by the ethmoid.
The ethmoturbinals form a compact bulk in a caudally di-
rected, deep concavity, which appears in the Elephant much more
than in other Mammals as a special part of the nasal cavity, on
account of the modified direction of this latter. The concavity
is dorsally bordered by the lamina cribrosa, ventrally by the la-
mina transversalis, and caudally ending in the excavated rostral
plane of the presphenoid.
The concavity for the turbinals in several respects displays
peculiar features: the lamina cribrosa is very large, 11 cm long,
pearshaped in outline, caudally narrow, but rostrad considerably
expanding in the part between the 1. and 2. endoturbinals, mea-
suring 12 cm in transverse section where it is the broadest. Ge-
nerally the lamina cribrosa in Mammals is placed so as to have a
nasal and a caudal plane; in the Elephant this is partly modified:
in the caudal part, ɔ: as far as from the 3. endoturbinal to the pre-
sphenoid, the lamina cribrosa has a frontal position with a dorsal
plane to the brain, whilst the rostral part is raised. This shape and
direction of the lamina cribrosa correspond exactly with the bul-
bus olfactorius which is placed ventrally to the lobus frontalis.
The ethmoid consequently is ventral to the brain, a position which
is most probably connected with the shortening of the basis cranii
and with the shape of the brain, the long and narrow lobus fron-
talis. Also the ventral wall, the lamina transversalis, has peculiar
features, extending obliquely in rostro-ventral, more pronouncedly
ventral direction, which results in the aperture of the concavity,
in which the turbinals are placed, opening much more widely into
the nasal cavity than in other Mammals, in which the lamina
transversalis has a frontal position. This wall is moreover shor-
tened, the 2. and 3. endoturbinals continuing ventrally on the la-
teral wall of the nasal cavity, rostrad to the lamina transversalis
(Pl. 38 fig. 1).
If we look at the ethmoid of the sagittal section of a mam-
malian skull, we get the distinct impression that the elements
of this bone, the olfactory folds and the basal lamellæ, extend
rostrad. In the Elephant we get quite another impression: here
a turning in ventral direction has taken place. The olfactory folds
and the basal lamellæ are ventrally directed, and this conception
is confirmed, when the olfactory folds and all secondary plaits are
removed, so that the lines of origin of the basal lamellä on the
lamina lateralis become visible (Pl. 38 fig. 3). The main direction
of these lines is ventral. Several of them make turns on the way,
but only caudally to the 4. endoturbinal they adopt a ventral and
somewhat rostral direction. This turning with consequent alteration
in the position of the olfactory folds and the basal lamellæ is in-
timately connected with the direction of the lamina cribrosa, as
also in other Mammalia (f. inst. Echidna, Edentates), in which the
caudal part of this plate is more or less frontally situated, the
olfactory folds and the basal lamellæ have here a ventral direction.
In the Elephant the case is, however, somewhat different, as not
only the turbinals issuing from the frontally situated part of the
lamina cribrosa have this direction, but also all the others, that is
the dorsal turbinals, issuing from the rostral, arched part of the
lamina cribrosa. This is a consequence of the altered direction
of the nasal cavity of the Elephant. Generally the ethmoid or the
regio olfactoria is in direct continuation of the regio respiratoria,
whilst, as said above, the regio olfactoria in the Elephant appears
as a caudad bulging-out from the dorsad directed nasal cavity.
Possibly the position of the nasoturbinal is of some importance
in this respect, as it forms a sharp boundary to the regio olfac-
toria. It is evidently a requirement for more room which has
effected this turning of the turbinals. This structure also serves
to explain another and very conspicuous feature in the ethmoid
of the Elephant. As we know, the olfactory fold on the second,
sometimes also on the third endoturbinal in numerous Mammalia
(Echidna, Marsupialia, Insectivora, Carnivora, some Rodents and
Ruminants) extends far forward in the nasal cavity, far off the
regio olfactoria. In this respect the ethmoid in the Elephant is
somewhat more like that of the Perissodactyles and of Sus, in so
far as the olfactory folds in these Mammals are so short that they
hardly rostrad surpass the regio olfactoria. The second endoturbinal
in the Elephant only extends a very short way forward in the
S

107
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The ethmoid.
108
nasal cavity, its olfactory fold being shortened (measured in rostro-
caudal direction) and formed as a simple rolling of the rostral mar-
gin; only in the most rostrally prominent, rounded part there is an
indication of this elongation.
The ethmoid contains 7 endoturbinals and 32 ectoturbinals 1
which are distributed and specifically arranged as seen on Pl. 45
fig. 2. The ectoturbinals are arranged in several rows. For the
purpose of comparison with the two other examined crania, two
ectoturbinals in Chang are marked 27a and 28 a. In the left half
of Chang's head the 15th ectoturbinal sends a short narrow elon-
gation in between the olfactory folds of the first and second endo-
turbinals, where it is distinctly visible, whilst the other part of
the ectoturbinal is concealed by the two olfactory folds. That the
number of olfactory folds in the row of endoturbinals can thus
be increased by an ectoturbinal has also been observed in a few
cases in Bos.
The basal lamellæ of the turbinals are remarkable for their
very considerable breadth, decreasing on the ventral turbinals as
in the ethmoid of other Mammals. Several basal lamellæ are be-
sides also rather thick, although but rarely in the whole of their
length and breadth. Where they take their origin from the lamina
cribrosa and the lamina lateralis they are thin, but increase in
thickness towards the rostral end, though not always smoothly.
At the origin of a secondary leaf a basal lamella may be very
much thickened. The greatest thickness was stated on the basal
lamella of the fourth endoturbina, measuring 3 mm where it is
the thickest, the basal lamella of the 6. endoturbinal measuring
up to 2 mm. The bony tissue of them was compact and un-
commonly firm and hard. Finally the turbinals are characterized
by being supplied with numerous secondary rolled-up lamellæ.
In several turbinals we meet with the feature also known from
other Mammals that a secondary lamella splits from the basal
lamella at a shorter or longer distance from the lamina cribrosa,
and continues ventrally to the lamina lateralis as an apparently
independant turbinal; the 25. lamella (textfigure) issues from the
3. endoturbinal, the 26. from the 27. ectoturbinal, the 29. and the
30. from the 4. endoturbinal; the 14. ectoturbinal and the 2. endo-
turbinal are split close below the lamina cribrosa each into two
lamellæ which again unite ventrally. At the 15. ectoturbinal we
meet with the peculiarity that the 16. and the 18. ectoturbinals,
which issue independently from the lamina cribrosa, unite with
the 15. ectoturbinal while proceeding further ventrally. The 19.
ectoturbinal emits a second lamella to the 15. Finally it ought
to be mentioned that the olfactory folds on the endoturbinals may
be secondarily folded; this is the case with the 2. and the 3., to
a lesser degree with the 7.
In the Elephants c and h (Pl. 45 figs. 1 and 3) the ethmoid
also holds 7 endoturbinals, mainly of the same structure as those
in Chang; the olfactory folds in the young c are, however, not
yet fully developed. There are 30 ectoturbinals, as there are only
2 between the 4. and 5. endoturbinals; in Chang, on the contrary,
there are 4, of which the two marked 27a and 28 a in Pl. 45 fig. 2
are possibly secondary leaves which have been split off, or they may
be due to the fact, well known in other Mammals, f. inst. Canis,
that the number of ectoturbinals is not constant, not even in the
same species. The arrangement of the rows of ectoturbinals is
also differing somewhat from that in Chang, a fact which is well-
known in other Mammals, such as Bos.
1
THE PNEUMATIC SINUSES.
For the purpose of a special investigation of the pneumatic
sinuses we have sacrificed two of the skulls at hand, c and h, of
the latter, however, only the left half. Of the skull e the pneu-
matic sinuses have besides been opened by chisel, the surface of
the skull being removed, and through transverse section etc. of
several of the other skulls we have obtained data contributing to
our knowledge of the pneumatic sinuses.
We begin by describing the sinuses in c and h, and then
proceed to a joint description of the pneumaticity in the Elephant
(cp. also p. 95 of the preceding).
Elephant c.
Left half of the skull (Pl. 28 fig. 1, Pl. 29 figs. 1 and 2, Pl. 43,
Pl. 45 fig. 1).
From the ethmoid issues a system of pneumatic sinuses which
may be described in detail as follows.
The caudal part of the nasoturbinal appears as a vault in
which are found two small sinuses, sinus l' and I”, the apertures
of which are both on the lateral side of the nasoturbinal. The
ventral and largest sinus extends even to the ventral apex of the
nasoturbinal. The rostral part of the nasoturbinal is also pneumatic
and in the object investigated containing no less than 4 small si-
nuses. Most rostrally we see a rather high but narrow sinus 7 b',
elongating laterally and ending as a bulla rising from the bottom
of the sinus 8 a'. The aperture is placed about directly off the
middle and close behind the basal lamella of the 7. ectoturbinal,
c. 1 cm ventrally to the aperture of sinus 7a'. Then follow two
small sinuses, a dorsal one with the aperture exactly laterally to
the nasoturbinal, and a little larger ventral one opening on the
maxillary bone directly ventrally to the nasoturbinal. Finally,
most caudad we find a small sinus ending in a slit-shaped, cre-
scent-shaped aperture; this opening is lying on the lamina late-
ralis of the ethmoid, c. 13 cm ventrally to the nasoturbinal in a
furrow on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity (see below).
Between the basal lamellæ of the 1. and 2. ectoturbinals, close
below the lamina cribrosa, we see a small, round opening leading
into a quite small sinus 1', of the size of a pea, in the frontal
bone, where it is completely covered by the sinus 6'.
Sinus 3', the rounded aperture of which is situated far up-
wards between the 3. and 4. ectoturbinals, is a small sinus in the
deep part of the frontal bone, directly caudad to the sutural plane
between this bone and the nasal. The sinus consists of a medial
part, divided into several small sections which are mutually con-
nected; then it extends laterad as a very narrow compartment along
with and caudad to the above named suture, and from this com-
partment issues a row of three prolongations, of which the lateral
and the middle one are so high that they rise like a pair of “bullæ“
from the bottom of the sinus 6' (the middle, higher one, is 2 cm
in height) whilst the medial is so low as to be completely hidden
by the sinus 6'.
Between the 4. and 5. ectoturbinals there are two apertures,
most dorsally a rounded one leading into a very small sinus 4' in
the frontal bone, where it rises a little from the bottom of sinus 6',
whilst the sinus 4a' is so small that it is completely hidden by
the same sinus.
Close below the lamina cribrosa, between the 6. and 7. ecto-
turbinals, there is a rather long, oval aperture leading into a nar-
row, low and short compartment which then expands in a large
sinus 6' occupying the greater part of the frontale and extending
a little into the parietale. It reaches right unto the septum sinuum
(it is here c. 5} cm deep), breaks through the sutural plane almost
midway between the frontalia and expands a little into the right
frontale. The sinus is divided into a larger medial part, rostrad
bordering on the sinus nasalis, caudo-laterad on the sinus 7', and
between these two sinuses it proceeds tapering into the lateral
part which extends further on in the frontale, where it wedges
in between the sinus 8 a' laterally and the sinus intermaxillaris
superior medially. The sinus 6' is already in this young specimen
1 In Elephas africanus there are also 7 endoturbinals, but only 19 ectoturbinals,
arranged in the following way: 1.–16. between 1. and 2. endoturbinals, 17.–18. be-
tween 2. and 3., and 19. between 6. and 7. endoturbinals.
1 The designations of the different sinuses are the same as in PAULLI: Om Pneu-
maticiteten af Kraniet hos Pattedyrene, Kbhyn. 1899 (German traduction in Morph.
Jahrb. Bd. 28, 1899–1900).

109
110
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The pneumatic sinuses.
divided in several mutually communicating compartments, sepa-
rated from each other by bony lamellæ of different heights, some
of them so high that the respective compartments are only com-
municating through a narrow slit right down at the bottom which
is formed by the arched wall of the brain-cavity. The primary
(): the highest) bony lamellæ reaching down to the bottom are
arranged so that they radiate out into the sinus from the medial
and rostral walls.
From the same interval in which sinus 6'ends there is, a
little more ventrally, a small aperture leading into a quite small
sinus 6 a', completely covered by sinus 6'.
Between the 7. and 8. ectoturbinals and c. 1 cm ventrally to
the lamina cribrosa there is a large oval aperture (5 mm high and
4 mm broad) leading into a very large sinus 7', which through
the caudo-lateral part of the frontale extends into the parietale,
where it expands in an enormous sinus occupying almost the
whole of this bone and already reaching a little down into the
supraoccipitale. Ventrally the suture-plane between the parietale
and the squama temporalis make the boundary between this sinus
and sinus 8'. Medially the sinus extends to the septum sinuum,
caudally to the sinus 6' and expands a little into the right half;
the sinus is here c. 61 cm deep. In spite of the presence of a
system of consolidating bony lamellæ it still makes the impression
of forming a large continuous pneumatic cavity extending over a
considerable part of the wall of the cavum cranii which makes
the arched bottom of the sinus. The aperture leads into a rather
high, but quite narrow compartment, reaching caudad downwards
to the sinuses 8' and 9 a'. After having passed these two sinuses
it extends towards the surface, hereby increasing considerably in
depth, and then divides into two sections. The smaller medial one
reaches to the dorsal plane of the skull, caudo-laterally to the
sinus 6', and extends a little downwards into the supraoccipitale.
Through a narrow, short, canal-shaped communication, lying ro-
strally at the very bottom, the medial section continues into the late-
ral one. This is very large, only with a smaller part reaching to the
dorsal plane of the skull, whilst for the greater part it lies in the
lateral plane of the skull and is from here extending downwards
into the supraoccipitale. The extension into the last-named bone
makes the distinct impression of taking place through a process
of resorption, as it appears as a row of furrow-shaped depressions
of different depth and separated from each other by projecting
bony edges. The grooves look as if they had been excavated in
the enormously thick (2 cm) spongiosa in the supraoccipitale.
In this sinus a system of consolidating bony lamellæ, 9 in all,
has already been developed. They issue from the circumference
of the sinus and from the bottom and reach even to the surface.
They radiate towards the middle of the sinus at a right angle to
the bottom, and this bottom being arched, the caudal bony la-
mellæ must extend obliquely (dorso-laterally) towards the tem-
poral plane of the skull (the plane from which the m. temporalis
takes its origin), at such angles that the direction of the lamellæ
corresponds to the pulling direction of this muscle. A single one
of these lamellæ has a sinuous course. Between some of the la-
mellæ there are transverse connections, most of which lie close
to the surface and are quite low; a single transverse connection
reaches so deep down into the sinus that there is only a narrow slit-
shaped communication between the neighbouring compartments.
Between the 7. and 8. ectoturbinals, a little ventrally to the
opening into the preceding sinus, there is a little round aperture
leading into a quite small sinus 7a'; it vaults forwards as a thin-
walled “bulla" at the bottom of sinus 8 a' and is completely hidden
by this sinus.
Close below the lamina cribrosa, between the 8. and 9. ecto-
turbinals, there is a narrow (c. 2 mm), but high (c. 1 cm) aper-
ture of a very large sinus 8', the bottom of which is formed by
the arched wall of the cavum cranii. The aperture leads into a nar-
row, canal-shaped passage extending caudad into the frontal bone
(pars temporalis), covered by the sinus 9'. Caudo-ventrally to
this latter the sinus expands into the frontal bone, where it is
irregularly multilocular; it then continues caudad through the
suture into the squama temporalis where it expands as an ex-
tremely large compartment, lying ventrally to the sinus 7', and
is in circumference almost equal to this latter. This temporal part
of the sinus 8' is through an almost frontally placed high bony
lamella divided into a dorsal and a ventral section, which are
rostrally communicating through an opening of the breadth of a
finger. The dorsal section which reaches up to the sutura squa-
mosa is a continuation of the frontal part of the sinus and forms
caudally another large continuous compartment which is expan-
ding into the supraoccipitale in the same way as mentioned for
sinus 7'. The ventral greater part reaches caudad to the suture
between squama and exoccipitale, where it borders on the tym-
panal sinus occipitalis. This section which is still a large coherent
compartment, only caudally divided by a few high bony lamellæ,
extends into the processus zygomaticus which it pneumatizes in
about its medial half forming in it a rather large compartment.
Owing to this expansion the outer auditory passage must pass
through the sinus in which it presents itself as a projecting tube,
41 cm in length; only ventrally the sinus does not enclose it, the
bone surrounding the passage having here a narrow slit. The ven-
tral section expands farther medially in the naso-ventral part of
the squama, thereby reaching, ventrally to the cavum cranii, partly
into the ala temporalis of the basisphenoid, partly forwards into
the root of the processus pterygoideus. This part of the sinus is
very irregular, with several small sections in different levels. This
basal part of the sinus besides also extends into the proc. zygo-
maticus ventrally to the already mentioned prolongation.
2 cm ventrally to the aperture of the preceding sinus there
is the narrow (2 mm) but high (8 mm) aperture of the sinus 8 a'.
The greater part of this high but narrow sinus, which is divided
into several smaller compartments, lies in the dorsal part of the
medial orbital wall (the frontale), where it borders caudally on
the sinus 9' and 9 a' and besides on the sinus maxillaris. The
sinus 8 a' also reaches to the dorsal plane of the skull by an
elongated narrow compartment in the rostral part of the frontale,
and into the proc. zygomaticus; medially it borders on the sinus 6'
and the two intermaxillary sinuses.
Between the 9. and 10. ectoturbinals and close below the la-
mina cribrosa there is a high, narrow aperture leading into the
rather extensive sinus 9' in the frontal bone, just caudally to the
orbit where it borders on sinus 8 a'. The sinus 9' reaches even
up into the proc. zygomaticus and forwards into the sharp-edged
crista orbito-temporalis; it is divided into some narrow com-
partments joining in a little larger one in the ventral part of the
sinus.
1 cm ventrally to the aperture of the preceding sinus there
is the small oval opening of sinus 9a'. This small and narrow
sinus lies in the frontal bone where it is for the greater part
covered by the sinus 8 a'; only a single little part of it reaches
to the surface in the medial orbital wall rostrally to the sinus 9'.
Between the 10. and 11. ectoturbinals, close below the lamina
cribrosa, there is a little rounded opening leading into a small bag,
the sinus 10'; it is completely covered by the sinus 9'.
Almost at the base of the ventral part of the basal lamella
of the 10. ectoturbinal there is a rather large, oval opening; the
appertinent rather small sinus 10 a' is irregular and divided into
several smaller sections. It lies in the ventral part of the frontale
(pars orbitalis) and extends down to the alveolus of dpx; here it
borders rostrally on the sinus maxillaris.
The sinus 12', the aperture of which is lying close below the
lamina cribrosa, is a small and narrow sinus in the frontal, off the
middle of the crista orbito-temporalis; it is completely covered by
the sinuses 8' and 9'.
The sinus 19' is a little bag totally covered by the sinus 8'.
The sinus 21'. The rather large, round aperture lies quite
ventrally at the basal lamella of the 21. ectoturbinal. The very
small sinus is found at the bottom of the ventral part of the frontal
bone and extends a little down into the maxillary, to the alveolus.
The aperture of the sinus II' is high (8 mm) and rather broad
(3 mm) and is situated far ventrally to the lamina cribrosa. The
sinus, which lies caudally to the preceding and is still smaller
than it, is partly covered by that sinus and by the sinus 23 a'.
The sinus 23', which is a little larger than a pea, lies in
the rostrodorsal part of the presphenoid, directly under the canal-
shaped foramen opticum.
3 cm ventrally to the aperture of the preceding sinus there
a

111
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
112
face of the intermaxillare between the sinus nasalis and the sinus
intermaxillaris inferior.
Finally there are some pneumatic sinuses issuing from the
cavum tympani. Through chiselling off the petrosum a great num-
ber of relatively large apertures are seen on all the bottom of the
tympanicum, closely side by side, only separated by bony edges.
Each aperture leads to a sinus, a cellula tympanica. Some of
these numerous cellulæ only are low pits, but most of them reach
to the surface of the tympanicum; of these latter the greater part
are quite small and only a few of them (3) have obtained a rela-
tively considerable size. Finally there is caudally in the tympa-
nicum a very large aperture of the breadth of a finger which
leads into a sinus occipitalis in the exoccipitale; this sinus con-
sists of a rather large compartment from which several smaller
compartments radiate towards the surface; together they pneuma-
tize a little more than the lateral half of the exoccipitale.
is a high, narrow aperture leading into the little larger, irregular
sinus 23 a' in the ventro-caudal part of the frontal bone, caudally
to the sinus II. The sinus is elongated naso-dorsally over the
sinus II and 21' and borders on the sinus 10 a'.
The sinus 25' is a very small sinus, not quite the size of a
pea, in the presphenoid, where it lies ventrally to the foramen
opticum, caudally to the sinus 23'.
The sinus 26' is a little larger irregular sinus, lying cau-
dally to the preceding, right under the foramen opticum.
The sinus V' is a quite small sinus in the presphenoid. A
little ventrally to the aperture of the preceding sinus there is a
rather large aperture leading into a rather extensive sinus, the
sinus Va', pneumatizing the very largest part of the presphenoid.
It is divided into many small „cells" through bony lamellæ which
are mostly arranged in frontal and sagittal planes. Through this
sinus the foramen opticum extends as a long and wide canal. Be-
sides the already mentioned pneumatic sinuses in the left half of
the presphenoid the sinus Va' in the right half expands also through
the septum downwards into the vomer and then further on into
the left side, where it is, however, only occupying the smaller part
of the presphenoid.
The sinus VII is a very small sinus in the presphenoid.
Between the projecting rostral rim of the nasoturbinal and the
maxilloturbinal there is a long, furrow-shaped groove, of the breadth
of a finger, on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity, ɔ: on the lateral
wall of the medial nasal passage. The bottom of this groove is
for the greater part formed by the lamina lateralis of the ethmoid;
only rostrad the maxillary and the intermaxillary take part in it.
Caudally in this groove and directly rostrad to the lamina late-
ralis, between this latter and the downwards directed processus
of the nasoturbinal, there is a very large aperture leading into
a pneumatic sinus which is, judging from the situation of the
aperture, the sinus maxillaris. Through the aperture the way leads
into a broad and deep irregular compartment in the corpus of the
maxillary, where it reaches down to the alveolus of dp3, and cau-
dally a little beyond the alveolus of dp4, and here it borders on
the sinus 10 a’. The sinus maxillaris expands in different directions;
dorsally it extends upwards to the facial part of the maxillary,
where it forms several high but narrow compartments and con-
tinues into the proc. zygomaticus, round the short but very wide
canalis infraorbitalis, i. e. this canal as usually runs through the
sinus maxillaris. The sinus extends rostrad, far forwards in the
corpus and the proc. palatinus in the shape of a long and rather
high compartment with a few larger sections. Finally the sinus
maxillaris expands upwards into the pars orbitalis of the frontale,
in the nasal part of which it forms a rather extensive multilocular
compartment, which is caudally bordering on the sinus 8a' and
10 a’, and ends in a dorsal expansion in the lacrymale in the shape
of a high and wide but very narrow compartment.
In the nasal end of the above mentioned furrow-shaped groove
there is a large aperture (13 cm high and 1 cm broad) leading
into a large sinus intermaxillaris inferior which expands in the
largest part of the intermaxillare and reaches caudally upwards
into the pars ascendens where it borders on the sinus inter-
maxillaris superior. The greater part of this sinus lies in the
corpus of the intermaxillare and is divided into several large
sections, but does not by far reach to the anterior end of the
intermaxillary bone.
Rostrally in the large diverticle of the mucous membrane, men-
tioned p. 103, laterally to the cartilaginous part of the nasoturbinal,
there are two enormous apertures close side by side. The medial,
obliquely oval aperture, 5 cm high and 2 cm broad, lies in the
nasal bone close by the suture between this bone and the inter-
maxillare. The appertinent sinus nasalis expands mainly in the
nasal bone, where it obtains a considerable depth (7 cm) and is
divided into a few rather large compartments. Laterally it breaks
through the suture between the nasale and the frontale, but is
only slightly expanded in the last-named bone, where it borders
on the sinus 6'. — The other, lateral, aperture lies in the inter-
maxillary close before the suture between the nasale and the
intermaxillare and is 4 cm high and 21 cm broad. The apper-
taining sinus intermaxillaris superior is of only small circum-
ference; it is deep but very narrow and only rearches to the sur-
The right half of the same skull (Pl. 29 figs. 1-2, Pl. 43 figs.
1, 3, 4, Pl. 45 fig. 1).
The system consists of the following pneumatic sinuses: si-
nus I', I” and l'essentially as in the left side; only with the
exception that the sinus 1' is larger and raising from the bottom
of the sinus nasalis. The rostral part of the nasoturbinal is pneu-
matized and contains 3 sinuses. Most rostrad there is a rela-
tively large sinus, the aperture of which is placed in a depression
on the lateral wall of the nasal cavity, 1 cm ventrally to the naso-
turbinal. The sinus expands laterally and reaches to the surface
of the pars orbitalis of the frontale between the sinuses 4’, 5' and
6 a'. The medial sinus, the aperture of which is placed a little
ventrally to the preceding, is narrow and ends laterally as a rather
large bulla rising from the bottom of the sinuses 4' and 6 a'. The
caudal, rather high but narrow sinus ends in an aperture exactly
ventrally to the nasoturbinal. The sinus 2’ sends besides a pro-
longation into the nasoturbinal (see below) between the rostral
and medial sinuses.
The sinus 2', which is not found in the left side, is a small
sinus in the frontal bone which does not reach to the surface, as
it is covered by the sinus nasalis. It extends besides downwards
into the nasal part of the nasoturbinale.
The sinus 3' is a rather large sinus in the frontale, divided
into several smaller compartments. It occupies a rather con-
siderable part of the room which is in the left side occupied by
the sinus 6'.
The sinus 3a', which is not found in the left side, is an
enormous sinus occupying the area which is in the left half pneu-
matized by the sinus 7', the medio-caudal part of the sinus 6',
the rostral part of the sinus 8', together with by far the greater
part of the sinus 9'. For a short distance in the frontale the
sinus 3' projects right into septum sinuum and here cuts off the
sinus 3 a' from reaching to the surface. As regards the system
of consolidating bony lamellæ the matter is in the main the same
as in the sinus 7' of the left side.
The sinus 3 b' is a little bulla rising from the bottom of the
sinus 3' and 4'.
The sinus 4' has become a relatively large sinus, divided
into several smaller compartments, of which a single one reaches
to the surface of the frontale, rostrad to the sinus 3' and late-
rally to the sinus intermaxillaris sup. et inf. The greater part of
the sinus 4’ lies in the orbital part of the frontale, where it has
completely supplanted the sinus 8a'; it continues caudally into
the pars temporalis of the frontal bone, but is here for the greater
part covered by the sinus 3 a'.
The sinus 5', which is not found in the left side, is a very
small sinus with two compartments in the medial wall of the or-
bit, caudally to the sinus 6 a' and a sinus in the nasoturbinal.
The sinus 6'has, compared to the corresponding one of the
left side, been reduced to a very small sinus raising a little from
the bottom of the sinus 3 a'.
The sinus 6 a', which is considerably larger than that of the
left side, is a sinus of two compartments in the pars orbitalis of
the frontale, ventrally to the sinus 4', rostrad bordering on the
sinus maxillaris.
2
-

To face pag. 107--8.
17
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5 6 7 8
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9
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Textfigure. The Elephant Chang. The figure shows the issuing lines of the basal lamellæ from the lamina
cribosa (141) and from the lamina lateralis, together with the openings into the pneumatic sinuses. In the
elaboration of this figure we have used partly Pl. 38 fig. 3, partly the object itself. The basal lamellæ are
chiselled down towards the lamina lateralis still deeper than in Pl. 38 fig. 3, for which reason more openings
have become visible. At the sinuses 7', 7’a, II and III’a the apertures are situated so closely to and beneath
the issuing margin of the basal lamellæ and in such a position, that they can only be seen through inspection
from the caudad side; nevertheless they have been drawn on the figure, at a little distance from the basal
lamellæ, in order to indicate the place where they are to be looked for. The openings into the sinuses I, I”,
3', 4, 4’a, 5' and to the sinus into which the 8th and 9th ectoturbinals are continued, are not included in
the drawing (see below).
I-VII: 1.—7. endoturbinals. For the purpose of representing the aperture into sinus 36' the basal lamella
of the 7. endoturbinal has not been drawn in all its length, the ventral part is missing.
2 and 5—36: 2. and 5.-36. ectoturbinals. The basal lamellæ indicated by the nos. 25, 26, 29 and 30 belong
to secondary lamellæ (cf. text) but have been numbered successively out of regard to the system of the pneu-
matic sinuses; the number of ectoturbinals therefore are in this figure raised to 36, which would correspond
to a section through the ethmoideum parallel with that figured in Pl. 45 fig. 2, but made at a greater distance
from the lamina cribrosa.
In order to keep this drawing as far as possible in accordance with Pl. 38 fig. 3 the issuing lines of 1.,
3. and 4. ectoturbinals have not been drawn, as they are not visible when the object is seen sharply in profile.
At the 8. and 9. ectoturbinals contours are drawn of their continuation into the pneumatic sinus; the issuing
line of the 10. ectoturbinal could not be extended to the lamina cribrosa as its dorsal part is covered by the lamella
from the 9. ectoturbinal.
Of the grooves, mentioned in the text, only a single one (a) has been drawn between the 27. and 28. ecto-
turbinals.
x foramen ethmoidale.
xx the aperture of a pneumatic sinus.


113
114
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
et The pneumatic sinuses.
The sinus 7 has been reduced to a small bulla, a little larger
than a pea, raising slightly from the bottom of the sinus 6'.
The sinus 8' is very large and mainly behaving as the cor-
responding one in the left half; only in its rostral part it has
been somewhat restricted by the expansion of the sinus 3 a'.
The sinus 8 a' has been reduced to a very small sinus lying
deep down in the frontale, exactly dorsally to the ethmoid and
not reaching to the surface.
The sinus 14' is a small sinus of two compartments in the
ventral part of the pars orbitalis of the frontale, ventrally to the
sinus 6a'.
The sinus 15' likewise is a small sinus of two compartments,
it is a little larger than the preceding and lies in the frontale,
ventrally to this latter.
The sinus 23' is a little narrow sinus ventrally in the pre-
sphenoid, completely covered by the two preceding sinuses.
The sinus 25' and 26' are like those of the left side.
The sinus Vand Va' are mainly as the corresponding sinuses
in the left side but for the sinus Va' being so large that it ex-
tends into the left half (see left sinus Va').
The sinus Va” is a little irregular sinus in the dorsal part of
the presphenoid, where it lies medially and dorsally to the fora-
men opticum.
The sinus Va”” is a bulla a little larger than a pea arching
into the sinus Va'.
In the furrow-shaped depression on the lateral wall of the
nasal cavity (see above) is found the aperture of the sinus max-
illaris, which is in the main like that of the left side, yet it does
not caudally extend as far in the pars orbitalis as the correspon-
ding sinus; here it borders on the sinus 4' and 6 a'.
The sinus intermaxillaris inferior essentially like that of the
left side; only caudally it extends a little farther than the other one.
The sinus nasalis mainly as that of the left side.
The aperture of the sinus intermaxillaris superior is not sharply
outlined in its nasal circumference and the sinus is almost only
half as large as the left one.
The pneumatic sinuses derived from the cavum tympani are
mainly like those of the left side.
a
on the sinus maxillaris, caudad on the sinus 8'; ventrally it extends
to the sinus 15'. The sinus 4' sends a rather broad but flat elon-
gation into the lacrymale.
The sinus 6' is at its origin a narrow canal running in caudad
direction beneath the sinus nasalis, then it inclines medially, ex-
panding like a broad, quite flat compartment constantly below
the sinus nasalis; at last, mediad to the prolongation from this
sinus (see below), it reaches right to the septum sinuum and then
expands as a large sinus, divided into many small compartments
in the frontale and parietale. It extends caudad along the septum
(which is winding irregularly) but at the same time expands late-
rally, especially in its rostral part, which is wedged in between
the sinuses 8' and 4' and the sinus nasalis, covering the caudal
prolongation from the lastnamed sinus, and whilst the sinus 6'
here only obtains a depth of 7 cm it has close by the septum
a depth of 15 cm.
The sinus 7 is a quite small sinus, completely covered by
the sinus nasalis.
The sinus 8' is an enormously large sinus. It extends to the
dorsal plane of the skull laterally and caudally to the sinus 6',
ɔ: it pneumatizes the rest of the frontale and the greater part of
the parietale, where it obtains a depth of 18 cm. It expands
further down into the occipitale, where it occupies by far the
greater part; only ventro-laterally a little section is pneumatized
by the sinus occipitalis. The sinus 8' also extends down into the
lateral plane of the skull, where it expands in the caudal part of
the frontale, in the parietale, and from there down into the squa-
mosum; here it almost encloses the meatus acusticus externus
(except ventrally, where there is still a longitudinal fissure to be
found in the meatus) and is here of a depth of 10 cm; the sinus
at the same time extends into the proc. zygomaticus. From the
naso-ventral part of the squamosum the sinus expands into the
basisphenoid, and from there down into the proc. pterygoideus,
where it does not, however, obtain any very considerable com-
pass, as it is essentially limited to the root of this processus. All
this sinus is divided into a great many small compartments; only
in a few places, in the squamosum, in the proc. zygomaticus and
in the ventral part of the occipitale there are also a few larger
compartments. The sinus is divided into two large sections, a
dorsal one, in expansion almost corresponding to the sinus 7' in
Elephant c, and a ventral one, almost corresponding to the sinus 8';
between these two the sutura squamosa, which has the shape of
a high and thin bony lamella, forms a septum, but rostrad to this
suture and right down at the bottom of the sinus the two sections
are communicating through a narrow opening. In the dorsal section
of the sinus 8' there is a system of consolidating bony lamelle;
9 of them are primary, ɔ: lamellæ reaching from the bottom to
the top and extending radially from the periphery of the sinus
towards its rostral part. 1.–4. lamellæ, which are lying dorsally,
extend farthest into the sinus; the rest of the lamellæ issue from
the ventral part of the sinus and from the sutura squamosa. Al-
though this number of primary lamellæ corresponds to that found
in Elephant c, there is, however, so much difference in their di-
stribution that they cannot at once be looked upon as homologous.
These primary lamellæ are of peculiar appearance: they are folded,
and may be compared with the waves of a piece of corrugated
iron, only with the modification that the folds of the lamellæ are
more irregular and more or less angular; they expand infundi-
buliform towards the surface of the skull, and these funnels are
open at the bottom. On the way towards the surface the borders
of one wave or of two neighbouring waves approach each other
and coalesce; in this way another smaller compartment is formed,
likewise open at the bottom; it expands farther on towards the
surface with a wavy plane; through a continued coalescing of the
wavy borders this smaller compartment is divided into still smal-
ler ones a. s. f. To these are to be added rampant arches all reach-
ing to the surface and extending partly between the waves of one
lamella, partly between two neighbouring lamellæ. These arches
are of different height; in the specimen at hand they were found
in four different heights, the lowest, 2–3 cm high, next to the sur-
face, whilst the highest could be reaching down to a few centi-
meters from the bottom. Through these ramping arches and the
coalescing of the folds of the lamellæ the numerous small com-
a
Elephant h.
Left half of the skull (Pl. 28 fig. 2, Pl. 29 figs. 5 and 6, Pl. 42
figs. 1-3, Pl. 44 figs. 1—3, Pl. 45 fig. 3).
The system of the pneumatic sinuses issuing from the eth-
moid is as follows:
In the caudal arched part of the nasoturbinale there are two
small sinuses, the sinus ſ' and I”, a ventral and a dorsal one,
both rather low, but especially the ventral one somewhat broad.
The apertures are lying on the lateral side of the nasoturbinale.
In the rostral part of the nasoturbinale there is a flat, triangular
sinus with the aperture on the lateral side of the nasoturbinale,
a little rostrad to the aperture of the sinus I. Dorsally to the
triangular sinus there is another, smaller sinus expanding a little
laterally in the frontale and covered by the sinus nasalis; its aper-
ture is situated between the nasoturbinal and the 1. ectoturbinal.
The sinus 1' is a smaller sinus at the bottom of the frontale,
completely covered by the sinus nasalis.
The sinus 1 d', the aperture of which is lying a little ventrally
to that of the preceding sinus, is somewhat larger than and late-
rally placed to the sinus l' in the frontale; it is completely covered
by the sinus nasalis.
The sinus 2 and sinus 3' are two quite small sinuses in
the frontale, completely covered by the sinus 4'.
The sinus 4' is large and has several compartments, it is lying
in the frontale and intermaxillare. It extends in the frontale right
on to the dorsal plane of the skull and here occupies a part which
in the Elephant c is occupied by the lateral part of the sinus 6'
and 8 a'. From the frontale the sinus 4 extends rostrad into the
intermaxillare, where it takes up the place, which in c is occupied
by the sinus intermaxillaris sup. and a lateral part of the sinus
intermaxillaris inf., so that the sinus 4' reaches right on to the
sinus maxillaris. The sinus 4' at the same time expands ventrally
in the frontale in a large multilocular section, whose anterior part
occupies a considerable part of the pars orbitalis and borders rostrad

115
116
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The pneumatic sinuses.
a
partments arise. In the 2. and 3. lamellæ (Pl. 42 fig. 1) the sinus
extends into the radical part of the lamella, which thus becomes
vesicularly expanded, 3—4 cm thick, oli
The sinus g' and the sinus 10 are two quite small sinuses
in the ventral part of the frontale (pars orbitalis); they are not
visible in Pl. 44 fig. 1, as they are hidden by the strongly pro-
jecting crista orbito-temporalis.
The sinus 13' is a little narrow sinus in the frontale, com-
pletely covered by the sinus 4'.
The sinus 14', lying in the frontale (pars orbitalis), is so small
that it is hidden by the crista orbito-temporalis.
The sinus 15' is a rather large, very irregular sinus in the
frontale (pars orbitalis); rostrad it winds in between the sinus 4'
and the sinus maxillaris.
The sinus 16' is a small sinus in the frontale (pars orbitalis),
completely covered by the preceding.
The sinus 19' is a small bulla arching into the sinus 15' with-
out reaching to the surface.
The sinus 20' is small, narrow and irregular, lies in the fron-
tale (pars orbitalis) ventrally to sinus 15'.
Between the basal lamellæ of the 2. endo- and the 23. ecto-
turbinal there are 3 apertures; the dorsal one close below the
lamina cribrosa leading into a small irregular sinus II', which
lies quite ventrally in the frontal bone, projecting downwards
into the maxillary, where it extends even to the alveolus. The
two other apertures lead respectively into sinus II d' and sinus II b',
both of which are quite small; they lie ventrally in the frontale,
caudally to the sinus II' and are hidden by the crista orbito-
temporalis.
The sinus 23', which is quite small, is completely covered by
the ventrorostral part of the sinus 8'. The sinus 23 a' is a little
d
larger and extends downwards into the maxillary to the alveolus,
caudally to the sinus II'.
The sinus III is a very small sinus in the dorso-lateral part
of the presphenoid, completely covered by the sinus 8'.
The sinus 25' is a rather broad, but low sinus in the dorsal
part of the presphenoid.
The sinus 26' is a rather large sinus, divided into several small
compartments, lying in the rostro-dorsal part of the presphenoid,
where it reaches upwards to the foramen opticum.
The sinus 26 d' is a rather large irregular sinus in the basi-
sphenoid extending from here into the basioccipitale, where it
reaches almost to the middle; caudally to this point a sinus from
the right half of the skull expands into the basioccipitale, pneumati-
zing it as far as to 21 cm from the border of foramen magnum.
The sinus V is a bulla, a little larger than a pea, arching into
the sinus 26'.
The sinus Va'. In the rostro-ventral part of the presphenoid
a sinus extends from the right to the left side; caudally to that
the sinus Va' is lying, it is somewhat broad, but low and divided
into several small compartments; it lies in the presphenoid.
The sinus VI is a relatively large sinus in the dorsal part of
the presphenoid, caudally to the preceding sinus; it expands late-
rally beneath the sinus 25'.
Besides the above mentioned sinuses there are on the lamina
lateralis of the ethmoid at the 15., 16., 17. and 20. ectoturbinals
and at the 2. and 3. endoturbinals groove-shaped depressions of
different sizes, and with more or less distinctly outlined apertures,
in likeness with those mentioned in Chang.
On the lateral wall of the nasal cavity a furrow-like depression
like the one mentioned in Elephant c is found, the furrow is only
broader in h. Caudally in this furrow there is a large aperture
leading into the sinus maxillaris. This sinus has obtained a very
considerable extent, relatively far larger than in c. Through the
aperture it is in communication with the part of the sinus lying
in the maxillary bone, in the part above the alveolus, and is divi-
ded into many relatively large compartments. The sinus extends
into the proc. zygomaticus, where it encloses the canalis infra-
orbitalis, at the same time projecting into the hard palate which
it pneumatizes in almost its whole length, also here through the
formation of rather large compartments; in the highest place the
palate is 8 cm thick. Rostrad from this ventral part of the sinus
maxillaris two prolongations are sent out, a lateral and a median
one between which the sinus 4' is wedged in. The lateral pro-
longation extends dorsally upwards into the rest of the maxillare
with few but rather large compartments, whilst the median one
expands into the intermaxillare, pneumatizing the greater part of
this bone by means of large and irregular compartments; into
the lateral part the alveolus of the incisor tooth is strongly arching.
The sinus maxillaris here occupies a space which is in Elephạnt c
pneumatized by the sinus intermaxillaris inferior; this sinus is com-
pletely missing in h.
As already mentioned the sinus intermaxillaris superior as well
as inferior are completely reduced; their places are occupied by
other sinuses (see above).
The sinus nasalis. On the ventral plane of the nasal bone
in close vicinity of the suture between this bone and the inter-
maxillare is found an enormous aperture, obliquely pear-shaped,
7} cm in height and 5 cm in maximum breadth. It is in con-
tinuity with a large sinus in the nasal bone and in the adjacent
median part of the frontale, where it extends even unto the sep-
tum sinuum and is 15 cm in height; caudally it borders on the
sinus 6' and laterally on the sinus 4'. The sinus is divided into
several relatively large compartments. From the caudal end of
the sinus issues a diverticle-shape prolongation, 7 cm high, ex-
tending caudally into the internal part of the frontale but not
reaching the septum; it is covered by the sinus 6', which is the
reason why this sinus has got its above mentioned particular shape.
The pneumatizing process issuing from the cavum tympani
is rather considerable. In the tympanicum proper only two very
small sinuses may be designated as “cellulæ tympanicæ”; the
other sinuses (there are 5 in all) have become relatively exten-
sive with extraordinarily large round apertures (1 cm broad).
From each sinus several evaginations issue with rather high la-
mellæ between them; the lamella and intersinuous septa together
form a consolidating system radiating in rostrad direction from
the ventral plane of the tympanicum. Finally there is caudally
in the cavum tympani a large aperture leading into the sinus occi-
pitalis, a rather considerable sinus in the exoccipital bone. From
this sinus several evaginations radiate in dorsal and lateral direc-
tion.
2
a
The pneumatic sinuses are so enormously developed in the
Elephant that no other Mammal can enter in comparison, and
they play a prominent part in the postembryonal metamorphosis
of the skull. Pneumatic sinuses are found in almost all bones,
with the only exception of the jugal bone, in which they are
missing.
The impression, conveyed by an inspection of the chiselled-up
skull of the Elephant h (Pl. 28 fig. 2 and Pl. 29 figs. 5 and 6), is
imposing, because of the large expansion of the sinuses, their enor-
mous depth, which is in several places so considerable that we
cannot see the bottom, and finally because of the great number
of mostly small compartments into which the sinuses are divided,
preventing us from detecting the boundaries of each separate sinus,
which is possible in other large Mammals (Rhinoceros, Bos). In
the Elephant we are also prevented from getting a survey of the
systems of consolidating lamellæ which are always developed where
a pneumatic sinus obtains a certain depth; only in the occipital
plane (Pl. 29 fig. 6) we get the impression of a radiation towards
the surface and are besides able to detect the wavy shape of the
bony lamellæ. With the exception of the sinuses in the nasal and
intermaxillary bones, where the sutural planes form a septum si-
nuum between the right and the left halves, no corresponding
septum is seen in the cerebral part of the skull, as it is in other
Mammals. Only in the young Elephant c, in which the sinuses
are still relatively low and more easily detected, this septum is
conspicuous (Pl. 29 fig. 1; cp. Pl. 43 fig. 3); it is here rather
considerably deviating, which is a well-known fact also in other
Mammals.
Already in the 3-4 years old Elephant c (Pl. 28 fig. 1, Pl. 29
figs. 1 and 2) the pneumaticity has become relatively extensive.
The dorsal wall is pneumatic, except for the rostral half of the
intermaxillaria. It is of special interest that in the rostral part
of this wall the sinuses are in the pars cerebralis already divided
into several small compartments, whilst in the caudal part and

117
118
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The pneumatic sinuses. if !
-
-
further downwards in the supraoccipitale they are still represented
by large compartments with few bony lamellæ. In the caudal wall
a large part of the supraoccipitale is still free, whereas the ventro-
lateral part of the exoccipitale is already containing a relatively
large sinus occipitalis; the tympanicum is in full activity becom-
ing pneumatized. The lateral wall is completely pneumatic and in
the maxillary the sinuses extend right down to the alveoli; in
the orbita and in the temporal region some parts of the sinuses
are already divided into small compartments, whilst dorsally and
especially caudally they still consist of large ones.
In Elephant e (Pl. 29 fig. 3 and 4) the sinuses has grown
considerably. The skull has begun taking shape, especially in
the cerebral part where it expands strongly arched to each side;
caudally in the midline it is very concave because of its being
developed more in its lateral parts than in the middle. The si-
nuses have become higher; the number of small compartments
has increased; in the dorsal and the lateral walls the sinus has
obtained its greatest depth, 7–8 cm. In the occipital plane the
sinus has reached down on each side of the groove to the lig. nu-
chæ but still appears as a large continuous compartment with few
already wavy bony lamellæ; in a few of these lamellæ the sinus
has commenced extending into their root. In the intermaxillary
the sinus extends right on to the rostral border mediad of the
alveolus.
In Elephant h the sinuses have expanded into so to say all
the bones, jugale only excepted, and have become further deve-
loped, as described above. In the pars cerebralis they have reached
their most imposing circumference, with a maximum depth of 18
cm in the dorsal wall and 10 cm in the lateral. In the occipital
plane the sinuses extend right down to the edge of the foramen
magnum but are indeed very low here. The intermaxillare has
grown considerably in length, but not so the sinuses, wherefore
almost all the rostral half is free.
As we wished to conserve the right half of the skull of the
Elephant Chang, an idea of the pneumaticity could only be ob-
tained by means of the sagittal section (Pl. 20), the shape of the
skull and the transverse sections of the left half (Pl. 41). The si-
nuses have grown immensely in height and breadth, both in the
pars faciei (intermaxillare and the hard palate) and especially
in the pars cerebralis, where the sinuses have in the dorsal
wall obtained a maximum depth of 26 cm; also the ventral wall
has become strongly thickened, especially in the rostral part; in
the basioccipitale the sinuses cease at 4 cm from the border of
the foramen magnum.
In Elephant h the sinuses in the last
named bone extend considerably further in caudal direction; in
Chang the pneumatizing of this bone has not kept up with its
growth in height. Of special interest is the median part of the
occipital plane reaching from the ventral border of the groove for
the lig. nuchæ to the dorsal border of the foramen magnum.
In Elephant h, where the distance from the ligament fossa to the
foramen magnum measures 9 cm, the sinuses extend down to
foramen magnum although not being very deep here. In the only
slightly younger Elephant g, which is of about the same size, the
pneumatic sinuses do not extend below the groove for the nuchal
ligament; the margin above the foramen magnum is rather thick
(closely above the foramen magnum it is 21–3 cm thick), spongy.
In the skull k the same conditions are apparently present. In Chang
the pneumatic cavities are continued ca. 4 cm below the ligament-
fossa, but there is a distance of 14 cm from here to the foramen
magnum which is without pneumatic cavities, and here the cranial
wall is, as said above, very thin. According to this description
there seems to be a certain variation in the distribution of the
pneumatic sinuses in this part of the skull in older Elephants.
It is hardly probable that the pneumatic sinuses should redraw
from the foramen magnum when once they had reached so far.
The pneumatic sinuses are developed from the cavum nasi
and from the cavum tympani.
The tympanal pneumatizing is partly restricted to the tym-
panicum, where it commences by forming cellulæ tympanicæ,
some of which increase so much in growth that they must be
designated as sinuses; they expand in the wall of the tympa-
nicum proper. Already in Elephant c, in which there are still
many cellulae to be found, this formation of sinuses has com-
menced. In Elephant h the formation of sinuses is carried on,
and the sinuses are already so deep, that a system of consolidating
bony lamellæ (1–2 cm high) is shaped and arranged in the form
of a radiation in rostrad direction. Finally a sinus occipitalis is
developed caudally from the cavum tympani, expanding in the
lateral part of the exoccipitale. It is already present in Elephant c
and has obtained a rather considerable size in Elephant h.
The most extensive part of the pneumatizing process origi-
nates from the nasal cavity. A general view of this pneumatizing,
which is acquired by examinating the figs. in Pl. 43, 44 and 45,
yields above all the impression of a very considerable variation;
only very few sinuses may be designated as constant, namely the
sinus maxillaris and the sinus nasalis. As for the other sinuses
there is, even in the two halves of the same skull, a great variation
in the number of sinuses, in the figures of the sinuses appearing
in each system, and — last but not least
last but not least — in the extension of each
sinus. Similar conditions are met with in other Mammals, but
not by far to such a degree as in the Elephant. In this latter animal
a sinus, which is in one half of the skull very large, may in the
other half be reduced to a small bulla completely covered by a
neighbouring sinus, f. inst. sinus 7' in Elephant c; the variation
may even by carried so far that a sinus of very great extension
in one skull may have been completely reduced in another, but
replaced by another sinus, f. inst. sinus intermaxillaris inferior in
Elephant c; it is missing in Elephant h, but replaced by the sinus
maxillaris. Altogether, we get the impression that a strong fluc-
tuation in the details is taking place within the pneumaticity as
a whole. It is as if the sinuses were competing for obtaining a
large volume, the contest however always ending in a definite
result, the final shape of the skull.
As to the details, the pneumatizing developed from the cavum
nasi consists of a system of sinuses developed from the ethmoid,
of a sinus maxillaris, and finally of some sinuses specific to the
Elephant. These sinuses together pneumatize by far the greater
part of the wall surrounding the cavum cranii with the only
exception of the part of the exoccipitale which is occupied by the
sinus occipitalis — and obtain here their most enormous extension;
they further pneumatize the whole of the pars faciei, where they
may reach far forwards in the intermaxillare.
The ethmoidal pneumatizing occupies first of all the pars cere-
bralis but also proceeds to the pars faciei especially in the medial
wall of the orbit, in Elephant h even far forwards into the inter-
maxillare (the whole of the pars ascendens). This pneumatizing
consists of a system of sinuses the apertures of which are found
on the wall of the ethmoid in the intervals between the lines
of origin of the basal lamellæ (textfigure). It is well worth
noticing how small these apertures are even in the old Elephant
Chang; the diameter of the round openings varies from 3 to 6
mm; the oval or longitudinal openings are 2–4 mm in breadth,
and 4–10 mm in height (the last-named measure however only
in a single case). It is only a relatively scanty number of sinuses
which are refound in the systems of the three examined skulls
(Pl. 45 figs. 1–3); a great variation is occurring both in the
number of the sinuses, in their figures and not least in their
extension. The Elephant c (Pl. 43 figs. 1—4) is a typical specimen
in this respect; but no matter how the forming of the details of
the system proceeds the pneumatizing of the pars cerebralis is
executed mainly through the presence of a small number (243)
of enormous sinuses in the dorsal, the caudal and the lateral walls,
whilst in the pars faciei there are many smaller or even quite
small sinuses. Special attention must be called to the large si-
nuses in which a consolidating system of a particular kind has
taken place. Already in Elephant c the indication of this system
is found in the shape of a series of bony lamellæ which radiate
from the periphery of the sinus into this latter and extend from
the floor to the ceiling; these bony lamellæ are designated as the
primary ones. In Elephant h the system is fully developed, con-
sisting of a series of very high lamellæ which radiate into the
sinus at a right angle from the floor; the caudal (2.—7.) lamellæ
in Pl. 42 fig. 1 extend obliquely dorso-laterally towards the tem-
poral plane in a direction corresponding to that of the traction
of m. temporalis. These lamellæ are of a singular shape, they are
folded like a piece of corrugated iron, whereby the consolidating

119
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The pneumatic sinuses.
120
plane is increased both in size and strength and consequently also
in its staying power. At this comparison with corrugated iron we
should, however, notice the modification that the undulations of
the bony lamellæ are more or less angular and expanding in-
fundibuliform towards the surface of the skull. These bony la-
mellæ however play another and very prominent part in the
forming of the sinuses. On their way towards the surface the
borders of an undulation coalesce, whereby a small funnel-shape
compartment arises, open at the bottom. This compartment is
continued farther on towards the surface with undulated walls,
and through another coalescing of the borders of the undulations
it is divided into still smaller compartments a. s. f. It further
should be stated that between the primary lamellæ and also be-
tween the undulations of one primary lamella still more of the
consolidating process is going on in the shape of rampant arches;
this is also a well known fact from the pneumatic sinuses in other
Mammalia, but in the Elephant these rampant arches are found
to be much more numerous and besides most varying in height,
as f. inst. in Elephant h where these arches vary in height from
2–3 cm right under the surface to the very high rampant la-
mellæ reaching from the surface down to 1–3 cm from the bot-
tom of the sinuses. In this way the sinuses are divided into the
numerous diminutive compartments.
Through the part of the large sinus which pneumatizes the
squamosal is running the meatus acusticus externus, which had
in Elephant h the length of 10 cm, in Chang a length of 24 cm.
In the Elephants Chang and h the lamina lateralis of the
ethmoid in several places in Chang even in many places, 15
in all may be described as follows: in the intervals between
the lines of origin of the basal lamellæ there are some pit-shaped
or cup-shaped depressions, in most places only one depression
in one interval, in a few places in Chang several (2—4), the lar-
gest of these depressions is large enough to hold a pea. Some of
these pits are rounded in circumference, others elongated; some
are distinctly outlined through a sharp margin in all their circuit,
others only partially outlined through such a margin, whilst the
remaining part of the circuit is smoothly coalescing with the la-
mina lateralis; finally there are still others with a margin passing
smoothly in the surface of the lamina lateralis in its whole cir-
cumference.
It cannot be denied that especially the openings of the well
defined grooves strikingly recall the openings of the pneumatic
sinuses; and in the cases where we have no clear view of the
bottom of the pit, if f. inst. it is extending rostrad or caudally
in below an adjacent basal lamella, we are surprised to find a
pit only a few mm in depth, where we had expected to find a
pneumatic sinus. It may be difficult in each separate case to
make a sharp distinction between the terms “pit” and “minimal
pneumatic sinus”
it is only a difference in degree. As already
discussed in the above, a sinus can be of considerable circum-
ference in one half of a skull, but in the other half so strongly
diminished in size that it must be designated as a “bulla“, rising
from the bottom of another sinus; if we imagine such a bulla
further diminished it would be indicated as a pit or a cup. That
openings of several pneumatic sinuses may occur in the interval
between two basal lamellæ is known from other Mammalia with
well developed pneumatic systems. There is no doubt that these
pits are rudimentary pneumatic sinuses, checked in their growth
by adjacent sinuses.
To be sure: the ethmoid plays a prominent part in the Ele-
phant as to a luxurious development of pneumatic sinuses.
Finally it ought to be mentioned that the 8. and 9. ectotur-
binals in the Elephant Chang extend upwards into a pneumatic
sinus (see the textfigure), which could not be examined in details,
because the skull should remain preserved. That a turbinal can
extend into such a sinus is besides known from f. inst. in Canis
and Equus.
In the pars faciei the sinuses do not by far obtain as enor-
mous a depth as in the pars cerebralis; they are the deepest in
the caudal part of the intermaxillary, the maxillary and the nasal
bones. The „facial“ sinuses are also divided into smaller com-
partments, still relatively larger than in the „cerebral" sinuses,
and the division is carried out, as in the sinuses of other Mam-
malia, simply through septa extending from floor to ceiling or
through arches reaching from the wall to the ceiling. It was not
possible, not even in the largest of these sinuses, f. inst. the sinus
maxillaris in the Elephant h, to detect any system in this con-
solidating process.
The sinus maxillaris as usual has its opening at the rostral
border of the lamina lateralis of the ethmoid, between this latter
and the downwards pointing process of the nasoturbinal. In Ele-
phant c this sinus is already of rather considerable extension; the
greater part of the sinus lies in the corpus of the maxillary, where it
reaches right down to the alveoli, and from here it extends partly
to the dorsal plane of the pars faciei, in the region before the
orbit, partly caudally into the pars orbitalis of the frontal, where
it borders on the rostral sinuses of the ethmoidal system. It also
projects into the processus zygomaticus, where it completely sur-
rounds the canalis infraorbitalis, ɔ: this canal as usual runs through
the sinus. Finally it also expands into the hard palate, but is
here only of small circumference. In the Elephant h the sinus
maxillaris has become extremely large. In the corpus of the
maxillary it forms a high and long sinus reaching right down to
the alveoli and being divided into many rather large compart-
ments; dorsally in the pars faciei it forms large and deep com-
partments, in the proc. zygomaticus enclosing the canalis infra-
orbitalis; in the hard palate where it is also multicamerate it
extends almost to the end of the palate, measuring 8 cm where
it is the highest. But what is further contributing to the enor-
mous extension of this sinus is the fact that it also expands into
the pars dentalis of the intermaxillary where it has supplanted
the sinus intermaxillaris inferior in Elephant c. This intermaxil-
lary part of the sinus, which is divided into few large compart-
ments, is very large, long and increasing in depth caudally where
it measures 14 cm; it ceases at a considerable distance (8 cm)
from the anterior border of the intermaxillary. In Elephant e
the sinus, on the contrary, extends forwards even to the anterior
border of this bone; consequently the anterior marginal region
in Elephant h has grown much further in length than has the
sinus. In the last named Elephant the alveolus is strongly curv-
ing forwards in the lateral part of the sinus. Finally the frontal
part of the sinus maxillaris in the median wall of the orbit has
become considerably larger than in Elephant c.
There are still some sinuses present which are specific to
the Elephant. Among these the constantly occurring sinus nasalis
ought to be mentioned the first; it is found in all the skulls we
have had at our disposal, also in Elephas africanus. On the ven-
tral plane of the nasal bone, at the bottom of the diverticle, men-
tioned p. 103, and closely adjacent to the suture between this bone
and the pars ascendens of the intermaxillary, there is an enormous
opening (Pl. 26 fig. 2) almost oval in shape, often somewhat slant-
ing; in Elephant Chang it measures 61 cm in height and is 5 cm
where it is the broadest. In Elephas africanus the aperture is also
large although not so enormous as in Elephas indicus. The aper-
ture opens into a rather large and especially high sinus (in Chang
21 cm high), which pneumatizes the whole of the nasal and a
smaller adjacent part of the frontal bone. Besides the particular
and unusual locality from which the sinus has developed we must
call the attention to the aperture being of gigantic size in com-
parison with the openings of the other pneumatic sinuses. It is
difficult to determine the significance hereof, but the great size of
the aperture may at any rate give rise to stronger ventilation. It
may also be imagined, that by means of this large aperture the
skull might better serve as a sound-board to the well-known roar-
ing of the Elephant, mentioned in the preceding section of this work.
The position of the aperture particularly favours this notion, as
the powerful expiratory air current must also be led laterally to
the cartilaginous part of the nasoturbinal and thus right into the
sinus.
Further we find in the Elephant c the two intermaxillary si-
nuses. The sinus intermaxillaris superior is of only small exten-
sion in the pars ascendens of the intermaxillary, but it has an
opening which is almost as large as the opening of the sinus na-
salis. The openings are closely adjacent, only separated by a sharp
projecting margin. In Elephant Chang the two openings are of
.
equal size. From the material at hand of skulls of Elephas indicus
-

121
122
The ethmoid and the pneumatic sinuses.
The pneumatic sinuses.
-
it appears that the sinus intermaxillaris superior is most variable.
Between the condition in Elephant c and the complete reduction
of this sinus in Elephant h there are transitory stages: the limi-
tation of the aperture may be less well-marked, especially in dorso-
lateral direction, and the sinus may be reduced so that at last
only a feeble groove-shape depression is to be found on the
pars
ascendens of the intermaxillary, directly laterally to the aperture
of the sinus nasalis. In Elephas africanus we meet with the fol-
lowing conditions: in x there is in each of the two halves a large
aperture, which it is of the same size as the aperture of the sinus
nasalis and closely adjacent to it. The aperture of the sinus
intermaxillaris sup. is, however, not sharply outlined dorsally.
In y there are 4 apertures in the right side, 3 on the left side
of the pars ascendens of the intermaxillary, on each side arranged
in a row, with the medial aperture close to that of the sinus nasalis.
The apertures are rather large, a couple on each side being so
large that a little finger may be introduced in them, but, for all
that, none of them can in size compete with the apertures in x
and in Elephas indicus. In z there are in the right half 2 elon-
gated, rather broad apertures, just laterally to the aperture of the
sinus nasalis, and a little more dorsally there are 2 small aper-
tures (1 cm broad); in the left half there is only 1 rather large,
irregular aperture.
The sinus intermaxillaris inferior has its relatively large aper-
ture (1) cm high, 1 cm broad in Elephant c) on the lateral wall
of the nasal cavity, nasally in the ridge-shaped depression. This
sinus is in Elephant c of rather considerable circumference in the
intermaxillary, especially in the pars dentalis; in its lateral part
CALL
the alveolus curves forwards. In Elephant h it is completely
reduced and its place has been occupied by the sinus maxil-
laris.
Finally we have to discuss the pneumatizing of the nasal part
of the nasoturbinal (the caudal part is pneumatized by the eth-
moidal system). This pneumatizing process is partly executed by
a sinus from the ethmoidal system (in the Elephant c), but is
besides due to some particular, small sinuses appearing in vary-
ing numbers, and the apertures of which are placed on the lateral
wall of the nasal cavity, partly laterally, partly and especially ven-
trally to the nasoturbinal, i. e. on the wall of the median meatus.
The presence of similar apertures, which have been proved through
probing to lead into the nasoturbinal, has also been stated in other
skulls which have been sawed through, such as Elephant h (see
description), g, in which there are 2 apertures in the right and
3 in the left half, Chang, 1 aperture in the right half (Pl. 27 fig. 3
and Pl. 31 fig. 5), and finally in the skull of x, in which 1 aper-
ture is found in the right half, 2 in the left.
The middle nasal passage in the Elephant has altogether a
pronounced tendency to the formation of sinuses besides the
two constant, the sinus nasalis and the sinus maxillaris what
is not common in Mammalia; it is best known in the Perisso-
dactyla, in which however only one, the sinus malaris, is formed
besides the sinus maxillaris. This „nasal” pneumatizing in the
Elephant is, like the „ethmoidal”, distinguished by a great va-
riation; even sinuses which in one specimen is of considerable
extension may in another, resp. on the other side of the same
individual, become completely reduced.
-
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i THE MAXILLARY MUSCLES
AND FRAGMENTS OF A DESCRIPTION OF THE MUSCLES OF THE CRANIAL PART OF THE NECK.
A. THE MAXILLARY MUSCLES.
Pl. 2 and 3 (First Part), Pl. 39 figs. 1–3.
The maxillary muscles of the Elephant have only been studied
by us in the specimen (no. 2), which we received in 1899, and
partially in a fragment of another head, that we received later
on from a colleague.
The masseter in Mammals generally consists of two portions,
a superficial and a deep one. These two portions, which are other-
wise inferiorly united, in the Elephant are represented by two quite
separated muscles, that have no connection at all with one another.
The masseter superficialis is laterally on its upper anterior
part covered by an aponeurosis, the extent of which is seen
in Plate 2 (of The First Part) and the bundles of which have a
direction from before backwards (and a little downwards). This
tendinous leaf has in reality a larger extent backwards than the
figure shows, a thin layer of muscular fascicles extending over it
and taking their origin from it; if these muscular bundles are
scraped off, the aponeurose becomes a larger extent. The last named
muscular bundles have a nearly vertical direction, while the fas-
cicles of the rest of the masseter superficialis have the same di-
rection as the fibres of the tendinous leaf. The aponeurosis has its
greatest thickness in front and above, and at the anterior margin
of the muscle it is thickened to a short tendinous string. The
greater part of the muscular fascicles of masseter superficialis has
its origin from the inner side of the aponeurosis. On the inner side
of the muscle lies a thin layer of muscular fascicles, which is not
sharply separated from the rest; these fascicles arise partly from
a number of thin tendons (near the anterior margin of the muscle),
partly from two thin weak tendinous leaves; the direction of these
muscular fascicles is essentially from above downwards; partially
they intercross obliquely.
The origin of the masseter superficialis is from the inferior
margin of the zygomatic arch, from the anterior two thirds of it;
the foremost end of the origin is close behind the eye. The origin
is partly and mainly through the exterior aponeurosis, described
above, partly through the interior weak tendons and tendinous
leaves (cf. above), but partly it is directly fleshy.
The insertion is on a large plane behind, below and partly
also in front of the large, rather deep depression on the lateral
side of the ramus of the mandible, down to the inferior and
posterior margin of this bone. The insertion is mostly fleshy;
only on a few points tendinous tracts are seen.
The masseter profundus takes its origin from the medial side
of about the posterior two thirds of the zygoma, at the posterior
end also from the inferior border, while in front the muscle only
arises from the upper part of the medial side of the zygoma. The
muscle is nearly a square plate, being however somewhat narrower
downwards; the distance from the anterior to the posterior margin
is somewhat greater than that from the superior to the inferior end.
The direction of the fascicles is nearly perpendicular. The muscle
is mainly fleshy; inferiorly a number of tendinous tracts have how-
ever developed, and a few also at the top. Through a perpendi-
cular fissure the muscle is split into two portions, an anterior
broader and a posterior narrower (but thicker), which are con-
nected inferiorly. The posterior portion is inserted into the supe-
rior part of the depression on the lateral side of the ramus, the
anterior portion in front of it on the proc. coronoideus.
Between the two masseters there is a considerable layer of
fat, which also fills the inferior part of the depression on the
lateral side of the mandible.
The m. temporalis is a powerful muscular body, filling-up
the deeply excavated fossa temporalis. Evidently it plays the prin-
cipal part among the muscles, that move the mandible; on the
specimen examined the temporalis had a weight of 2008 g, whilst
the masseter externus weighed only 436 g, the masseter internus
141 g. The muscle is certainly broadest at the top, but does not
narrow very much downwards. If we look at the muscle from
the outer side, when the mandible is in situ, we get the impression
that it is distinctly pointed towards the inferior end (First Part,
Plate 3). But in reality a considerable share of the inferior part
of the muscle is covered by the coronoid process, on the medial
side of which it is inserted (Pl. 39 fig. 1).
The lateral limitation of the muscle is above and posteriorly
a thin tendinous sheet; farther down and in the front the mu-
scular fascicles appear; the inferior part has again a tendinous
surface (Pl. 3).
The muscle arises from nearly the whole surface of the fossa
temporalis. The area of origin extends from the upper border of
the fossa until the crista orbitalis (p. 92); the lowest point of
origin is a small rough area on the squamosum, close behind
the exit of the first and second branch of trigeminus. Between this
point and the posterior root of the zygoma there is a smooth sur-
face, where no part of the muscle takes its origin.
The insertion of the muscle covers the whole anterior mar-
gin of the ramus of the mandible, to where it is connected with
the body of the jaw, but further and this is the main point
the medial side of the ramus unto the thickened part of
the mandible enclosing the growing molars. On the other hand
the insertion only extends very little on the lateral surface (an-
teriorly).

125
126
The maxillary muscles
The maxillary muscles
obliquely, from without inwards. The digastricus pulls the man-
dible backwards.
The m. temporalis of the Elephant is of a very complicated
structure. It arises in a great measure fleshy from the bone; but
besides this numerous tendinous leaves, which also arise from
the temporal fossa, extend into the muscle and from these a large
part of the muscular fascicles take their origin; of these tendinous
leaves those which arise the farthest downwards from the fossa
are the stronger. Also from the tendinous sheet investing the
upper and posterior part of the muscle, and from tendinous leaves,
which from it extend into the muscle, numerous muscular bundles
take their origin. — Similar to the origin is also the insertion of
the muscle: a smaller part of the muscular bundles insert
themselves fleshy on the mandible, but most of them on strong
tendinous leaves, which are implanted on the mandible and ex-
tend into the muscle or — anteriorly
anteriorly — spread over it. The fis-
sures, which (in Pl. 3) are seen in the surface of the muscle, are
related to the tendinous leaves in it: from both sides of the fissure
muscular fascicles extend to a tendinous leaf which reaches the
bottom of the fissure.
The musculus digastricus is a long!, slender, rather æqui-
lateral muscle, which arises from the skull close laterally to and
a little in front of the occipital condyle. Some of its fibres are
very short and insert on the posterior processus of the stylohyal,
others take their origin from the same. The muscle inserts into
the rounded angle of the mandible. It is for the greater part
fleshy, but has a rather complicated structure: it is interwoven
with tendinous slips etc. The usual tendinous intersection is
apparently wanting, the muscle being fleshy in its whole length;
but a possible remnant of the tendinous intersection we have found
in the form of an oblique tendinous stripe in the interior of the
muscle, very nearly in the middle of its length, to and from
which a part of the fleshy bundles are extending; this tendinous
stripe is on both sides covered by a fleshy sheat, belonging to
that part of the muscle, which arises from the stylohyoid. We
think that this part of our digastricus is really the m. stylo-
hyoideus, which has fused with the digastricus2; the two fleshy
sheats, between which the tendinous stripe is concealed, are the
two branches between which in man etc. the digastricus passes.
The upper bundles of our digastricus which insert into the stylo-
hyoid may represent the m. jugulohyoideus of the veterinarianss.
The m. pterygoideus internus (Pl. 39 figs. 1—2) has a
shape similar to that of the masseter externus and a position on
the inner side of the mandible somewhat similar to that of the
masseter externus on the outer side. But the pterygoideus is much
smaller, being of hardly half the breadth and length of the mas-
seter externus. The muscle is for the greater part fleshy. It arises
from the pterygoid process of the alisphenoid; on the medial side
there is a little tendinous plate at its origin. Its insertion is on
the inner side of the ramus of the mandible near the posterior
margin of the bone. The insertion is closely adjacent to the
insertion of the hindmost (upper) half of the masseter externus,
so much so that the two muscles apparently fuse at their poste-
rior end. The direction of the fibres is essentially from before
backwards and somewhat from within outwards.
The m. pterygoideus externus is a short, thick, fleshy
muscle, which arises from the upper part of the pterygoid pro-
the alisphenoid and inserts on the medial side of the
ramus of the mandible between the condyle and the large in-
ferior dental foramen. The direction of the fascicles is almost
horizontal, from before backwards and from within outwards.
9
B. FRAGMENTARY DESCRIPTION OF THE MUSCLES
ON THE CRANIAL PART OF THE NECK
The muscles of the neck we have only had an opportunity
to study in the young Elephant which we first received, and the
piece at our disposal for dissection was only the head and the
greater, cranial, part of the neck, whilst the chest and herewith
the origins of several muscles could not be examined any more.
A complete description of the muscles of the neck is therefore
not possible. On the other side we have not been able to look
totally away from them, because some of them are significant as
to the forming of the skull and the shape of the head. In the
following statements we particularly emphasize those points, that
are of interest in this respect.
Musculus splenius. As the posterior part of the muscle is
not present in the specimen we can only describe the cranial part
and the insertion. It is quite an enormous muscle, which is po-
steriorly appended to the skull as a hood. It is composed of two
layers, a superficial and a deeper; the latter is only above covered
by the superficial layer, while laterally it stands freely out. The two
layers are totally separated and are really two independent muscles.
The superficial layer, m. splenius superficialis, has a fleshy
insertion, partly at the top of the occipital plane, partly in a ten-
dinous raphe dorsally in the median line of the neck. A little
behind the insertion the muscle presents a mighty swelling stand-
ing out as a cushion; before and behind this place it is more
flattened. This muscular cushion, which is through a median
furrow separated from the corresponding cushion of the other
side, plays a singular part in the exterior of the Indian Elephant.
The fact is that in the live Elephant this pair of muscular cu-
shions make the impression as if they are a part of the skull,
although they are really situated quite behind the skull, and they
form that part of the „head”, which rises the furthest dorsally;
they appear as a pair of rounded eminences. When the animal
lifts its head, these eminences become distinctly higher, more
pointed: the muscles contract and become thickened.
The an-
terior part of the muscle unto the hind end of the cushion is
entirely fleshy and the muscular fascicles of it have a longitudi-
nal direction. But directly behind the cushion is seen the anterior
end of a strong tendinous band evidently the tendon, through
which the muscle arises from the ligamentum nuchæl —, to the
anterior end, lateral margin and inferior side of which the said
longitudinal fascicles attach themselves. Along the medial margin
of the said tendon numerous fleshy fascicles are attached, which
have posteriorly a transverse direction and gradually towards the
cushion become more and more oblique and at last extend along-
side the longitudinal fascicles of the cushion.
The deeper layer of the splenius, the m. splenius profundus,
is a mighty muscle, which posteriorly is of considerable thick-
ness, while anteriorly it becomes very thin. The fleshy fibres arise
from the median raphe mentioned above from which also fibres
of the ligamentum nuchæ take their origin —,
make their way
obliquely forwards and somewhat outwards and insert themselves,
partly with numerous short tendinous 'slips, partly fleshy, on the
occipital plane below the splenius superficialis and far outwards
nearly unto the auricular orifice. On its inferior side it is partly
covered with a thick elastic blade, which is connected with the nu-
chal ligament
A similar form as the m. splen. profundus has the musc.
complexus, which is covered by it. The complexus is thickest
in its medial part, which is intimately connected with that of the
opposite side and here also is woven together with the dorsal
dispersed fibres of the nuchal ligament. The strong muscle in-
serts fleshy and with thin tendinous leaves on a considerable part
of the occipital plane; the furthest upwards it reaches in its me-
dian part. Laterally it does not reach nearly so far as splenius.
Of the short muscles on the cranial end of the neck the mu-
sculi recti postici major and minor are of particular interest
because of their uncommonly strong development. The m. r. p.
-
cess
m
Of the above mentioned masticatory muscles the temporalis
is evidently the principal bearer and lifter of the huge and heavy
mandible; this work is so to say totally accomplished by that
muscle alone. To a slight extent it receives help in this function
from the masseter profundus and the anterior part of the masseter
superficialis. For the rest the masseter superficialis and the two
pterygoidei move the mandible from behind forwards; if working
only on one side the pterygoidei can also effect a movement
1 In Plate 2 only the upper end of the muscle is visible; the rest, almost two
thirds of the whole length, are concealed on the inner side of the mandible.
2 Cf. MIALL & GREENWOOD, Anat. of the Indian Elephant in: Journ. of Anat, a. Phys.
Vol. 12, p. 391.
,
.
3 See for instance ELLENBERGER & BAUM, Vergl. Anat. d. Haustiere, 14. Aufl., p. 379.
1 MIALL & GREENWOOD, Anat. of the Ind. Eleph. in: Journ. Anat. Phys. Vol. 12,
1878, p. 396.

127
Muscles of the neck
Muscles of the neck
128
-
major arises from the spinous process of the epistropheus, spreads
as a fan in several slips, which insert partly fleshy, partly with
tendons into the occipital plane. The m. r. p. minor is a short,
very strong, entirely fleshy muscle, which arises from the atlas
and inserts into the occiput somewhat above the foramen mag-
num; it is for the greater part covered by the m. r. p. major and
is partially rather intimately connected with it.
The surface into which the m. obliquus superior is inserted,
is also rather large (in the Pl. 3 it appears very shortened). This
muscle is divided in two portions, of which the upper has the
larger surface of insertion. The muscle is nevertheless of mo-
dest size.
A very strong muscle is on the contrary as it might be
expected for the rotator of the colossal head the m. obliquus
inferior, which goes from the epistropheus to the atlas. The
muscle has an almost quite transverse position.
cho
sino todo o por
Compared with the enormous extensor muscles the flexor
muscles (m. longus cap. etc.) are of quite modest strength.
As for the rest of the muscles of the neck we refer to the
paper of MIALL & GREENWOOD. In our Pl. 2 a muscle is repre-
sented which we have designated as the anterior part of the m.
serratus magnus = levator anguli scapulæ. Of this muscle M. & G.
say (1. c. p. 396), that it has an anterior portion, which is inserted
into „the front of the transverse process of the atlas by means of
a thin, flat, tendinous slip”. But the muscular portion, which we
have designated as the anterior part of the serratus, inserts into the
basis cranii in front of the condylus occipitalis, mediad to the ori-
gin of the digastricus and close behind the medial portion of the
masto-humeralis. Nevertheless we think that we are right in desig-
ning it as a portion of the levator anguli scapulæ, which may indeed
in some Mammals insert into
resp. arise from
the skull (in
the Rabbit and others). Otherwise we do not know what it might be.
-
-
-
-
baby
both
bet

H.
NERVUS FACIALIS OF THE ELEPHANT.
Plate 47.
-
The investigation of the ramification of the nervus facialis has
been made on No. 2 (supplemented by an investigation of Elephant
No. 1, as far as the nerves of the ear-muscles are concerned).
The nervus facialis projects from the skull through the fora-
men stylomastoideum, proceeds in naso-lateral direction, covered
by the gl. parotis, and at the nasal border of this gland it appears
on the face, a little ventrally to the joint of the jaw. The nerve
trunk, which is here 1 cm broad and flattened, proceeds, covered
by the fascia parotideo-masseterica, for a short space on to the m.
masseter, parallel with and a few cm ventrally to the arcus zygoma-
ticus, and then divides into two final branches, ramus mandibu-
laris and ramus maxillaris.
While continuing under cover of the gl. parotis, the nervus
facialis sends out the following branches: n. auricularis posterior
(1) issues directly after the nerve having left the skull, and pro-
ceeds in dorsal direction. A little further on, another branch
issues (1 a), joining the m. temporo-auricularis, and a few bran-
ches (1 b), joining the m. postauricularis (deep portion). The nerve
proceeds, a little sinuous, in dorsal direction, along with and a
little anterior to the nasal border of the ear cartilage, covered by
the m. scutularis; at about the middle of the border of the cartilage
it divides into two branches, a nasal and a caudal one, which are
closely connected and continue their course, anastomosing on the
way, and ending in m. auriculo-occipitalis (1 d). From the caudal
branch ramifications issue to the m. postauricularis (1 c; deep por-
tion), the m. transversus (1 e), the m. auriculo-occipitalis (1 d) and
the m. temporo-auricularis (1 a). The n. auricularis internus (2),
much smaller than the preceding one, extends in dorsal direction
to the external ear. The ramus digastricus (3) consists of 2 ner-
ves issuing at a short distance from each other.
The ramus
colli (4), a narrow branch extending to the platysma. Finally,
from the dorsal border of the trunk of the nervus facialis, a little
posterior to the joint of the jaw, the ramus temporalis issues (5;
the n. auriculo-palpebralis of the veterinary anatomy), a rather
considerable branch, extending in dorsal direction, anterior to the
ear, and dividing into 2 branches, a caudal one (5 a), innervating
the m. scutularis and ending in the m. orbicularis oculi in the
dorsal eyelid. The nasal branch (5 b) extends rostrad under the
facial gland and ends in the m. postorbicularis and m. scutularis.
Both branches form plexuses while extending, the nasal one in
connection with a branch of trigeminus; a small branch enters
the gland.
The ramus mandibularis (6) is by far the thinner of the two
final branches, even if it must be designated as a nerve of some
importance. It extends in nasal direction, forming a ventrally
convex curve, ending in the lower lip. In its caudal part it is
covered by the platysma, forming under this cover a large plexus
together with branches from the ramus maxillaris and from a
branch of trigeminus; branches from the plexus ramificate towards
platysma and m. buccinatorius. In its nasal superficial part the
nerve sends out a branch to the platysma (6 a), several branches to
the m. buccinatorius (6 b) and one branch to the m. mentalis (6 c).
The ramus maxillaris (7) is of so considerable dimensions
that it appears as a direct continuation of the trunk of nervus
facialis. It proceeds further on the face, keeping the direction of
the trunk, passes the m. masseter where it is for the greater part
completely superficial, whilst anterior to this muscle it extends
through the large lump of fat filling out the deep, broad space
between m. buccinatorius and maxillare, whereafter the nerve ex-
tends into the upper lip and further on into the proboscis. At
about off the middle of the m. masseter from the dorsal border
of ramus maxillaris a considerable branch issues (7a) which ex-
tends in dorsal direction and forms a plexus, from which branches
issue to the m. postorbicularis, m. orbicularis oculi in the ventral
eyelid, m. præorbïcularis and m. naso-labialis. From the ventral
border of the ramus maxillaris issue besides the branches to the
plexus several small branches to the m. buccinatorius (7 b) and
its pars rimana (7c). The ramus maxillaris then extends into the
upper lip beneath the m. naso-labialis and m. nasalis and conti-
nues further on to the extremity of the trunk; it is here extending
in curves, what is rare in nerves (found also in nerves in other
freely movable organs, such as the tongue). In the trunk the
ramus maxillaris fuses with branches from the 2. branch of tri-
geminus, surrounded in common with these nerves by a thick
fib us sheath, beneath the pars rimana and the pars supralabi-
alis of the m. buccinatorius and the m. maxillolabialis (Pl. 14 fig. 2)
and innervates all the muscles of the upper lip and the trunk; on
its way it forms a few anastomoses with branches of trigeminus.
Already in the upper lip an especially long and thick branch
issues and extends on the medial side of and parallel with the
ramus maxillaris far out in the trunk without, however, reaching
the very tip. At the point where the ramus maxillaris enters the
upper lip a branch (7d) issues from its dorsal border, extends
in dorsal direction, divides into two branches and innervates the
m. maxillolabialis.
RUGE has, as we know, established a schedule of the rami-
fication of the n. facialis of the face, ɔ: the part anterior to the
external ear, founded on investigations of the Prosimiæ. Accord-
ing to this schedule the n. facialis ramificates into 3 main bran-
ches: the ramus temporalis innervating the m. orbicularis oculi
in the dorsal eyelid and the m. orbito-auricularis; the ramus man-
dibularis innervating the platysma, sphincter colli, m. buccinato-
rius, m. orbicularis oris in the lower lip and m. mentalis; the
ramus maxillaris innervating m. orbicularis oculi in the ventral
eyelid, the muscles of the nose and upper lip, m. buccinatorius
and m. maxillolabialis.
As is easily seen from the above, an investigation of the n.
facialis of the Elephant leads to the result that the corresponding
ramification of n. facialis exactly agrees with this schedule, except
for the modification that the ramus maxillaris is so considerably
developed that it apparently appears as a direct continuation of
the trunk of the n. facialis.
-
-

INDEX.
Closure of sutures 96. .
Crista orbitalis 92.
Palatine 91.
Pneumatic sinuses 107.
Pneumatisation 95.
Presphenoid 90.
Processus molaris 92.
Ethmoid 89, 105.
,
Frontal 91.
Grinders 92.
-
-
-
Intermaxillary 87.
-
Lacrymal bone 91.
Lacrymal canal 91.
Lamina transversalis 90.
-
-
Skull 81.
Skull of African Elephant 98.
Alces 88.
Arctomys 83.
Dicotyles 83.
Didelphys 81.
Dipus 86.
Dog 81.
Eared Seals 84.
Elephant, architecture 86.
Elephant, development 86.
Elephant, particular cha-
racteristics 94, 98.
Gadus, development 96.
Hippopotamus 81, 83.
Homo 84.
Horse 85.
Hydrochoerus 82, 93.
Indian Elephant 85.
Manatee 83.
Myopotamus 82.
Phacochoerus 83.
Phocæna 85, 88.
Phocidæ 83.
Porcus 83.
Primates 84.
Rodents 82
Saiga 88.
Sus 83.
Tapir 88, 89.
Toothed Whales 85, 88.
Whalebone Whales 85.
Maxillary 89.
Maxilloturbinal 89.
Musculus complexus 126.
digastricus 125.
longus capitis 128.
masseter 123
obliquus infer. 127.
super. 127.
pterygoideus externus 125.
internus 125.
rectus post. maj. 126.
minor 126.
serratus magnus 128.
splenius 126.
temporalis 124.
-
-
--
-
-
Nasal bone 90.
cavity 101.
bony 93.
Nervus facialis 129.
-
-
9
Orbita 91.
Vomer 90.



EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 18.
basisphenoid hypophysis
parietale
frontale
basioccipitale
ethmoturbinale
supraoccipitale
nasale
exoccipitale
nasoturbinale
ligamentum nuchæ
N
upper end of intermaxillare
Mauris
organon Jacobsoni
anterior end of intermaxillare
ligamentum nuchæ
Wix
Kekuat
transverse ligament
S
Odontoid process
(separate)
inferior arch of atlas
00DD
е
لال سلول با
20
0oCo
> COCO
Donna
oesophagus
body of hyoid bone
gl. thyreoidea
vomer
cartilago cricoidea
opening of tuba Eustachii
pharyngeal coecum
soft palate
m. hyoepiglotticus
Sagittal section of the head of the new-born Elephant no. 1. nat. size. The figure represents the catoptric
image of the right half of the head. The section is not exactly median: In the upper two thirds the cut has
gone somewhat to the right side, it is the right hemisphere which has been cut, and the medial surface of the
right hemisphere adheres to that half of the head, which has not been figured; most of the nasal septum has
also been taken away by the cut, which has further, as may be seen, grazed and sligthly damaged some of
the turbinal folds; it is also the organon Jacobsoni of the right side, which is seen in the figure. In the lower
parts, especially as regards the larynx and trachea, the cut has on the contrary gone to the left, nearly the
whole of the larynx and the trachea were on the half of the head which is figured, but most of their left side
has afterwards been dissected off, so that their interior has been exposed.
As for what is not explained through the explanatory figure on this page we refer to the Explanation of
the Plate 19.
e Epiglottis.
s is the caudal end of the nasal septum, the rest of this having been removed.
UNIL
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Plate 18
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Autt. dir.,B.Strubberg del.
Lith.Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.

UNIL
OF
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EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 19.
basioccipitale
basisphenoid
m. splenius
hypophysis
lamina transversalis
m. complexus
ethmoturbinale
dorsal edge of cartilaginous septum nasi
ligamentum nuchæ
nasoturbinale
anterior (ventral) edge of cartilaginous septum
upper end of intermaxillare
nasal cartilage
organon Jacobsoni
thickened part of dorsal narial wall
anterior end of intermaxillare
KU
usere
dorsal rectus bundles
m. rectus cap. post. minor
m. rectus cap. post. major
atlas
de a
transverse ligament
odontoid process, separate
pe
S
inferior arch of atlas
m. longus capitis
m. longus colli
oesophagus
par's supralabialis m. buccinatorii
mandible
gl. thyreoidea
cartilago cricoidea
oesophagus, opened
m. cricothyreoideus
cartilago arytænioidea
vocal cord
m. genioglossus
m. mylohyoideus
m. vocalis
cartilago thyreoidea
m. geniohyoideus
m. hyoglossus minor
epiglottis
m. sternomaxillaris
body of hyoid bone
m. thyreohyoideus soft palate
Sagittal section of the head of the Elephant no. 2. Nearly | nat. size. The section is not exactly median.
At the top the section goes somewhat to the left; the air-sinuses, which are here opened, belong to the left
nasal, maxillary and palatine bone, and the hemisphere which has been hit by the cut is the left; also at the
curvature of the nasal tubes it is the left tube which has been cut, and the section has here gone rather much
laterad, the nasal septum being here wholly on the other half of the head. But further downwards the section
has gone more to the right: the organon Jacobsoni, the longitudinal section of which is seen in the figure, is
that of the right side, and most of the nasal septum was also present in the figured half, but has afterwards
been dissected away with the exception of its caudal end (s). The cut has gone to the right of the pharyngeal
coecum figured in Plate 18 and 20. The trachea was also for the greater part wholly on the figured half, but
the right side has been dissected off. Only the anterior end of the oesophagus has been opened by the cut,
but this is principally the consequence of the oesophagus lying somewhat to the left of the median line.
The trunk has been cut through the left nasal tube, with the exception of the terminal end where the
section goes on the right side of the nasal septum.
p is the hard palate.
UNIL
OF


Plate 19.
Lith.Anst.y.E.A.Funke, Leipzig
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EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 20.
1
4
Sagittal section of the head of the old Elephant „Chang”, no. 3. 1-} nat. size. The figure represents the
catoptrical image of the right half of the head. The cut has at the superior end of the vertically descending
part of the nasal cavity been fairly near median, so that of the cartilaginous nasal septum nearly one half was
present on the right side; it has for the greater part been taken away afterwards. The cut nevertheless had
gone a little to the right, so that a little more of the cartilage was on the left half, where also most of the
vomer was present. Further down the cut went a little more to the left, so that the inferior (caudal) end of
the nasal septum was lying in the right half and the whole of the pharyngeal coecum was on the same side
(in the figure it is represented after the left side of it having been taken away).
As to the brain the right hemisphere has been partly grazed by the cut (not posteriorly, where it is intact).
The oesophagus has been opened in its whole length by the cut, which has gone rather much to the left,
so that the trachea was not opened at all and the larynx only grazed and lying almost totally in the figured
„half”; afterwards the left wall of the larynx has been taken away.
Also further forwards the cut has gone much to the left: it is the left half of the tongue and the anterior
end of the left ramus of the mandible which have been sectioned and which have been represented in the
figure, nothing having afterwards been taken away here (a median section of the tongue is given in Plate 39
fig. 5). In the section of the mandible is seen a little of the roots of the anterior end of the molar (the
blue spots).
It should still be noted, that, while most of the cartilaginous nasal septum has been taken away and the
right nasal tube opened, at the point where the sharp flexion of the nasal tube has its place, the septum, which
is here very thick, has been left; a probe has here been introduced into the nasal tube. The anterior cartilagi-
nous point which is here seen in the figure is a median continuation of the cartilaginous septum; the carti-
laginous nasal wing, which has been hit by the cut in the specimens figured in Plate 18 and 19, has not been
sectioned in this specimen.
Otherwise comp. the Explanations of the Plates 18 and 19.
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Plate 20.
Lith Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig
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EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 21.
ethmoturbinale
septum between the frontal sinuses
sphenoidal sinus (an open continuation of nas. cav. into presph.)
exostoses or separate ossifications in the dura
nasoturbinale
superior, vesicular part of maxilloturbinale
caudal margin of septum nasi, most of which has been dissected away
fold of the mucons membrane, in which a bent margin of the
nasal cartilage
nasal cartilage
left air-sack
lymphoglan-
dulæ retro-
pharyngea
cart. cricoidea
e
oesophagus
organon Jacobsoni
fat
gl. sublingualis
gl. thyreoidea
cart. cricoidea
anterior end of cartilaginous septum inserted between the right
and left intermaxillaries
depression in the right side of vomer, in which a fold of the right maxilloturbinale
has had its place
gl. sublingualis
m. crico-thyreoideus
hyoid bone (the quadripartite body through which the vertical line passes are the lymphoglandulæ retropharyngea)
vocal cord
entrance to the left blindsack above the thyreoid cartilage
right blindsack lying above the thyreoid cartilage
opening of tuba Eustachii
anterior end of right air-sack
thyreoid cartilage
-
Submedian section through the head of a Tapirus indicus, c. ſ nat. size. The cut has in the anterior third
of the head gone a little to the left, but on the rest it has gone somewhat to the right, so that on the caudal
end of the nasal cavity the whole of the nasal septum was on the figured half the septum has afterwards
been dissected away —, the brain has been cut through the right hemisphere, and the anterior end of the
medulla spinalis has not at all been hit by the cut. Most of the larynx was also present on the figured half,
but the right side of it has afterwards been taken away.
The epiglottis (e) is here against the ordinary arrangement in Mammals situated below the thick
palatum molle.
The two remarkable blindsacks above the thyreoid cartilage are not present in the American species.
The epiglottis has erroneously been painted blue instead of yellowish as in the other figures of sagittal
sections.
--
-
OF
MIC


Plate 21.
Lith.Anst.v. E.A.Funke, Leipzig.
전
​kom
स
d
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OF

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 22.
On this plate and the following are represented a series of skulls of Indian Elephants of various age, fig. 1
being the youngest, the others successively older, in order to show certain differences of the skulls according
to age. The skulls are all seen from above in the same position. While fig. 1 is a little magnified, the others
are all somewhat or much reduced in size (the real sizes are stated p. 85—87).
Fig. 1. Skull of the fetus a.
2.
young specimen b, presumably about 1 year old.
3.
specimen d, presumably about 3—4 years old.
2
-
In figs. 2 and 3 is seen before the tips of the nasal bones the margin of the cartilaginous nasal septum.
باد
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Plate 22.
Lith. Anstv.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.
Fig.1.
Fig. 2.
Fig.3.
Autt. dir., B.Strubberg del.
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EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 23.
k.
Fig. 4. Skull of the specimen f.
5.
6.
m, „Chang”, about 50 years old.
This figure has been drawn from the right half of the skull, which was the only one
at hand, and the left half of the figure has been drawn as a catoptric image from the
right half.
OF
Ho
MIC


Plate 23.
Lith Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig
Fig.4.
Fig. 6.
Fig.5.
025
代
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Autt dir, B.Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
Mic

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 24.
The two figures on this plate represent the skulls of a young and of a rather old specimen of the Indian
Elephant. The skulls were placed thus, that the basioccipitale had a horizontal position in both. The result
hereof is that the anterior tooth in fig. 2 has been extraordinarily shortened, the hard palate of this skull being
very oblique in comparison with the basioccipitale: the length of the grinding surface of that tooth is really
more than double the breadth, while in the figure the breadth appears as if it were greater than the length.
In the young specimen fig. 1 the hard palate and the grinding surface are much less oblique.
The figures well illustrate some of the enormous differences between the young skull and the old one:
notice the place, where the tympanohyal has been inserted in the young and in the older: in the young it is
not far from the lateral side of the skull, while in the older it is situated much nearer to the median plane
than to the lateral side of the skull; notice also the relatively large size of the tympanal bone in the young,
the prominent posterior part of the skull in the old, the large breadth of the posterior part in the same, etc.
Fig. 1. Skull of the specimen b.
2.
k.
OF
MICH


Plate 24.
Fig.1.
Fig. 2.
S
Autt.dir.,B.Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
MICH

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 25.
Fig. 1. Skull of the Elephant c, seen from the left side.
m, „Chang”. It is the right half of the skull of Chang, the catoptric image
2.
of which has been given here.
These two figures of respectively a very young and a quite old Elephant are to illustrate one of the most
prominent features in the development of the Elephantine skull, viz. that the skull is to an extraordinary degree
developed in height in comparison with its development in length. That part of the skull lying above the zy-
goma as well as that lying below it have quite mightily increased in height in the old specimen. Notice also
he great development of the temporal groove of the same.
OF
MICH


Plate 25.
Fig. 1.
Fig.2.
Autt. dir., B. Štrubberg del.

U
OF
MOH

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 26.
principal part of sinus nasalis
opening of the nasal sinus
groove on the border of nasale and intermaxillare
nasoturbinale
entrance to sinus maxillaris
right side of the fissure in which the cartilagi-
nous nasal septum has been inserted
fissure between pre- and basisphenoid
the canal in which the organon of Jacobson has had its place
Fig. 1. Sagittal section of the skull of the old Elephant Chang. At the time when it was drawn the whole
of the ethmoturbinals had been cut away and they have therefore here been taken from another figure of the
same specimen which is drawn at a time when they were still invested with the mucous membrane.
Most of the thin vertical plate dividing the deep groove, into which the nuchal ligament has been inserted,
has been taken away, only an upper and an inferior fragment having been left.
opening of sinus nasalis
principal part of sinus nasalis
remnant of the canal through which the hypophysis has been
connected with the oral cavity (canalis craniopharyngeus)
lamina cribrosa
optic foramen
foramen rotundum 1
1
foramen ovale
tympano-petrosum
bony meatus auditorius
condyle
foramen lacerum post.
opening of
carotic canal
1 The orbital fissure has its opening in the upper wall of the foramen rotundum and is not seen in this position of the skull.
Fig. 2.
Horizontal section of the skull of the Elephant k. As far as the cerebral cavity reaches, the cut
has been laid nearly parallel to the upper surface of the basioccipital, but anteriorly the cut has a somewhat
other direction, forming a very obtuse angle with the posterior part of the section. The cut has gone somewhat
above the bony auditory meatus, on the left side a little deeper than on the right; on the left it has taken away the
upper part of the tympano-petrosum and has opened the cavum tympani and the innermost part of the bony
meatus. On the right side the said bone is intact.
OF


Plate 26.
Fig. 1.
TI
Fiy. 2
Autt. dir.,B.Strubberg del.
Lith.Arist.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.

- и
OF
с

EXPLANATION (1)
OF
PLATE 27.
The four figures on this plate intend principally to show the conditions of the nasal septum in Indian
Elephants of various ages.
right nasal bone
2012
we
exoccipital 1
opening of ductus Stenonianus
organon Jacobsoni
hard palate
soft palate
vomer
basisphenoid
ossified part of nasal septum
1 The exoccipitals meet above the foramen magnum.
Fig. 1. Part of submedian section of the head of the new-born Elephant, no. 1. The figure represents the
medial side of the left half.
C. I US
OO
basioccipital
basisphenoid
ossified part of nasal septum
vomer
Fig. 2. Sagittal section of the skull of the Elephant d near the median plane; the whole of the cartilaginous
nasal septum has been preserved. Nearly į nat. size.
1
2
OF
MI


EXPLANATION (2)
OF
PLATE 27.
bony vertical septum in the nuchal groove
ossified part of nasal septum
entrance to sinuses in the nasoturbinal
basisphenoid
vomer
palatine bone
maxillary
Fig. 3. Sagittal section of the skull of the Elephant g, a little to the right of the median plane; the medial
parts of the right nasale, frontale, intermaxillare are present in the figure. The cartilaginous septum has been
removed. Nearly
Nearly į nat. size.
1
2
bony septum of the groove for the nuchal ligamentum
section of ascending part of right intermaxillare.
cartilaginous nasal septum
mucous membrane of right nasal tube
ossified nasal septum
soft palate
margin of vomer hard palate
organon Jacobsoni
anterior end of left intermaxillary
Fig. 4.
Part of the left half of the head of “Chang” seen from the medial side, c. 1. The section has
fallen to the right of the nasal septum; the mucous membrane of the septum has been removed; only at the
lower end it is preserved. At the anterior end the cut has hit between the right and the left intermaxillary,
the left being touched near the extremity.

UNIL
OF

Plate 27.
Lith Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.
B
Fig. 2.
lu
ку,
Fig. 1.
$
KU
0
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Fig. 3.
Fig. 4
TS
for
میرا
Autt. dir.,B.Strubberg del.

OF
Hei

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE
28.
Fig. 1. Right half of the skull g, on which the palatine bone has been removed and parts of the basi-
sphenoid and of the presphenoid have been cut away, so that the whole of that part of the maxillary bone, in
which the still quite unworn m, is enclosed, is exposed from the medial side. It is a thinwalled bony vesicle,
parts of the bony wall having been replaced by membranes of connective tissue (the holes in the figure, in
one of which a little of the tooth-plates is seen). Remarkable is the very oblique direction of the tooth, that
part of it which should afterwards have been the grinding surface being placed in such a manner that it forms
an angle of about 100° with the grinding surface of the tooth in action (m).
Fig. 2. The same skull seen from behind and somewhat from the under side. Most of the long series of
lamellæ of m, are seen; only a few anterior lamellæ are connected. The tooth m, is seen in excessive shortening.
Fig. 3. The skull of the Elephant c from the left side. The thin bony wall which covers the pneumatic
rooms has been cut away, only a few stripes having been left. Also the lateral wall of the teeth has been cut
away. The os jugale has been removed. About } nat. size.
3
Fig. 4. Skull of the Elephant h treated in the same wise. About } nat. size.
1
3
The extreme multiplying of the compartments of the air-sinuses due to increasing age is well seen in com-
paring these two skulls.
Comp. for the figs. 3—4 the schematic figures Pl. 43 fig. 2 and Pl. 44 fig. 1.
UNIL
OF
MICH


Plate 28.
Fig. 2.
Fig.1.
6
m2
De
m2
w
mı
mi
Fig.3.
Fig.4.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
man

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 29.
Fig. 1-3. The skulls of the Elephants c, e, h respectively, seen from above, the bony wall covering the
air-sinuses on the upper side of the skull having been cut away. The drawings of the skulls figs. 1 and 3 were
made before the air-sinuses on the lateral wall had been exposed, as shown in figs. 3 and 4 on Pl. 28, which
represent a later stage in the preparation.
Fig. 4-6. The same skulls seen from behind. A comparison of the figures shows the increasing extension
of the air-sinuses in the occipital wall of the braincase with increasing age.
Comp. for fig. 1: Pl. 43 fig. 3, for fig. 3: Pl. 44 fig. 3, for fig. 4: Pl. 43 fig. 4, for fig. 6: Pl. 44 fig. 2.
OF
CH


Plate 29.
Fig.3.
&
Fig.2.
Fig. 1.
Fig.4.
Fig.5.
Fig. 6.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
MICH

EXPLANATION (1)
OF
PLATE 30.
Fig. 1. Skull of a young Bear (Ursus sp.) from the underside. Besides the three milk-molars (and in the
left maxillary anteriorly the tip of the Pı), the first permanent molar, mı, is present. Caudad to this is seen an
outgrowth of the maxillary, posteriorly through a cleft separated from the palatine bone; in this protuberance
the germ of the second molar, my, is contained. 1.
Fig. 2.
Skull of a Jersey-Cow seen from the underside. All permanent teeth present. The horns have
been omitted. The two posterior molars, m, and m3, have their place in the here permanent posterior outgrowth
of the maxillary, which outgrowth is separated from the palatine bone through a deep and broad cleft.
pneumatic sinus
margin of frontale, where it has joined the parietale
frontale
lamina cribrosa
foramen ethmoidem
ethmoid
closed suture belween ethmoid and presphenoid
II
presphenoid
orbital fissure (III, IV, V, VI)
V., (foramen rotundum)
margin of frontale, where it has joined the squamosum
alisphenoid
V. (foramen ovale)
basisphenoid
hind end of basisphenoid, where it has joined the basioccipital
orbitosphenoid
posterior end of alisphenoid canal
Fig. 3.
Part of the broken-up skull of the Elephantine skull b, consisting of the frontals, the ethmoid, the
presphenoid and the basisphenoid, seen from behind. The upper part of the ethmoid has not yet been wholly
ossified and therefore a large irregular opening is seen in it. II—VI openings for cranial nerves.
margin where the frontal has joined the intermaxillary
suture between frontale and ethmoid
frontale
nasoturbinal
frontale
ethmoturbinals
margin where the frontal has joined the maxillary
ossified nasal septum
orbitosphenoid
presphenoid
V2
remnant of closed suture between ethmoid
and presphenoid
thin bony lamella round the maxillary, formed by
the alisphenoid
pterygoid coalesced with the alisphenoid
basisphenoid
orifice, which has been closed by a membrane, opening into the excavated basisphenoid
Fig. 4. The same piece seen from below.
mu,


EXPLANATION(2)
OF
PLATE 30.
squamosum
jugale
aquæductus vestibuli
petrosum
Fig. 6.
tympanicum
VII
VIII
aquæd.vestibuli
carotid canal
tympanicum
border of tympanicum and petrosum
VIII
VII
Fig. 5. Left jugale, squamosum, petrosum and tympanicum of the Elephantine skull b seen from the medial side.
Fig. 6. Left petrosum of the fetal Elephantine skull a seen as fig. 5.
opening of the bony meatus auditorius
squamosum
VII
margin of squamosum which has joined the exoccipital
margin of petrosum which has joined the exoccipital
articular surface of squamosum
cartilage between the tympanohyale and the stylohyale
tympanohyale
tuba Eustachii
margin of the tympanicum which has joined the exoccipital
carotid canal
m
Fig. 7. The same piece as that figured in fig. 5 (only the jugal has been omitted) seen from the under side.
Fig. 8. Transverse section of the anterior part of the skull of a Dog. In the middle is seen the cartilaginous
septum nasi, whose inferior thickened margin is imbedded in the vomer. The wall is composed of: the nasal
:
bone with the nasoturbinal projecting into the nasal cavity, the intermaxillary, and the maxillary, to which
is attached the maxilloturbinal. For comparison with the following figures.
Fig. 9-14. Series of transverse sections through the rostrum of Phocæna communis. In all of them, with
the sole exception of fig. 9, is seen in the middle line below the (white) median nasal cartilage (= cartilaginous
septum of other Mammals) the r. On both sides of the cartilage (and the vomer) are situated the inter-
maxillaries; and again on the side of the intermaxillary and the vomer the maxillary. In fig. 14 on the right
side of the figure the section has also hit the anterior end of the jugal.
cartilago paraseptalis
intermaxillary
maxillary
frontale
jugale
maxil'ary
M
palatine
air-sinus
vomer
cartilaginous septum nasi
Fig. 15. A following section of the same series, through the anterior part of the orbit.

UNILE
OF
Wick

Plate 30.
Fig.9.
Fig.1.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig.4.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 15.
DS
Fig.5.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 6.
Autt. dir., H. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
MICH

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 31.
All the figures on this plate represent sagittal submedian sections of various Mammalian skulls, the cut
having been laid directly to the right of the nasal septum.
lamina cribrosa
ethinoturbinal
nasoturbinal
ethmoturbinal
maxilloturbinal
nasoturbinal
maxilloturbinal
lamina transversa
lamina transversa
Fig. 1. Dog. 1.
.
Fig. 2. Phoca vitulina.
c. 1.
posterior part of nasoturbinal not unitedwith nasal bone
inferior part of nasal bony septum
nasoturbinal united with nasal bone
maxilloturbinal
lamina cribrosa
ethmoturbinal
anterior part of nasolurbinal united
with nasal bone
lacrymale
nasoturbinale
cthmoturbinale
00W
om
fissura palatina
maxilloturbinale
palatine
intermaxillary
3 •
Fig. 4. Macacus cynomolgus.
.
Fig. 3. Hippopotamus, c. }. The pterygoid was
broken off in the specimen drawn. The suture between
that part of the nasoturbinal, which is united with the
nasal bone, and the part united with the ethmoid is not
distinct in the figure on the plate, but distinct in the
explanatory figure.
nasoturbinale
entrance to sinus intermaxillaris inf.
entrance to small, inconstant sinuses in
nasoturbinale
TE
suture belween pre- and basisphenoid
amina transversa
fissura palatina
ethmoturbinalia
maxilloturbinale
palatine
UNI
Fig. 5. Elephas indicus, specimen g, c. §. The section has fallen somewhat to the right of the nasal septum,
so that the air-sinuses of the right intermaxillare, maxillare, nasale etc. are opened.
OF
MICH


Fig. 3.
Plate 31.
Fig.4.
Fig. 1.
UKUTA
Fig. 2.
Fig. 5.
you
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 32.
In the three figures 1-3 most of the zygoma has been taken away.
1
Fig. 1. Skull of a young Ursus, from the right, 1. In the orbit are seen an ethmoidal foramen, the optical
foramen and the orbital fissure, lying in a common furrow. Behind the anterior rest of the zygoma is seen
the large processus of the maxillary, containing the germ of m,.
2
Fig. 2. Skull of an old Ursus maritimus, 2. In this the furrow containing the three foramina has become
much more marked, the upper border of it having been developed as a sharp rim. The large processus from
the maxillary figured in fig. 1 has been reduced to a small thin protuberance (is seen below the anterior end
of the zygoma).
Fig. 3. Right half of the skull of the Elephant Chang. Compare it with fig. 2. The furrow containing the
foramina has been so deepened that they cannot be seen without the rim being broken off. Notice also the
very different way in which the great surface behaves, from which the m. temporalis arises in both: in the
Bear it extends from the rim unto the posterior end of the skull, which has a large longitudinal extension
much exceeding the height, the said surface extending far beyond the posterior root of the zygoma while in
the old Elephant it does not go further back than the zygoma, the longitudinal extension being much inferior
to the vertical extension and the surface building a deep groove on the side of the skull. Another remarkable
difference is that the part of the skull lying below the zygoma is quite low in the Bear, while it is high in
the Elephant, etc.
frontale
parietale
nasoturbinal
ethmoid
lacrymale
nasale
supraoccipitale
entrance to maxillary sinus
Fig. 4. Median section
of the skull of a Lamb half
a year old, to show the basal
plate of the maxilloturbinal,
the turbinate part of which
has been taken away. The
anterior part of the naso-
turbinal and of the ethmo-
turbinals have been cut off. 1.
maxilloturbinal basal plate
margin of horizontal plate of maxilloturb.
(the spiral Jaminæ taken away)
maxilloturbinal basal plate
ethmoid
basisphen.
suture between
pre- and basi-
sphenoid
alisphenoid
| pterygoid
1
lamina transversa
palatine
foramen sphenopalatinum
closed suture of parietal and supraoccip.
parietale
supraoccipitale
frontale
nasoturbinal
perpendicular plate in the groove
for the lig nucha
Fig. 5. Median section
of the skull of the Elephant
d. The broken line on the
supraoccipital designs the
contour which this bone
would have had, if the thin
perpendicular bony plate in
the nuchal groove had been
removed.
nasale
LU
2
squamosum
c. 1.
exoccipitale
Fig. 6. Right inter-
maxillary, maxillary and
entrance to sinus intermaxil-
laris inf.
entrance to sinus maxillaris
basioccipitale
tympanicum
petrosum
tympanicum
maxilloturbi-
nal, isolated
from the rest,
of the skull b,
seen from the
medial side.
For better un-
derstanding
the figure an outline of
the maxilloturbinal is placed
here.
basisphenoid
maxillare
intermaxillare
alisphenoid
suture betw. pre- and basisphenoid
rest of vomer (the greater part taken away)
maxilloturbinale
ethmoid
lamina transv.
palatine
UNIL
OF
MICH


Plate 32.
Fig. 2
Fig.4.
896
Fig.1.
Fig. 5.
WS
Fig.3.
per
Fig.6.
|
दे
GO
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

MICH
OF

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 33.
Profile-drawings of the skull of 16 various Mammals, intended to illustrate the general
survey of the Mammalian skull given in the text p 81–86.
3
1
5
് - എ
5
9
1
3
3
Fig. 1. Didelphys marsupialis, not quite adult, c. .
2. Domestic Dog, X.
3. Hippopotamus amphibius, c. .
Macacus sp., c. .
5. Saiga-Antelope, .
6. Manatee, 1.
7. Dugong, .
8. Arvicola agrestis, 1.
9. Phyllostoma hastatum, i.
10. Dipus ægyptiacus, 1. The large swelled segment, constituting the latero-
posterior part of the skull, is the petroso-tympanicum. The narrow
bands extending over it, one from before-backwards (bent), another
transversely on the upper side, are bandlike outgrowths from the squa-
mosal and the supraoccipital respectively (comp. also Pl. 34 fig. 5).
11. Arctomys marmota, a little magnif.
12. Hydrochoerus capybara, . On the zygoma is indicated the tooth-series
i
lying mediad to it, as if the zygoma were translucent.
13. Porcus baby russa, k.
14. Sus scrofa, ferus, 4, 3.
15. Phacochoerus africanus, }.
16. Phocæna communis, 1
-
1
UNIL
OF
MICH


Plate 33.
Fig. 1
Fig.9.
Fig. 2.
.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig.3.
wo
Fig. 12
אאגגגגגגגגגגגג
Fig.4.
Fig.13.
Fig.5.
J
Fig. 14,
Fig. 6.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 16
Fig.8.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

OF
MICH

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 34.
Fig. 1-7. Various Mammalian skulls viewed from above:
Fig. 1. Cervus elaphus, 4, 3.
,
2. Saiga-Antelope, $.
3. Manatee, 1.
4. Hippopotamus amphibius, c. .
5. Dipus ægyptiacus, i.
6. Arctomys marmota, 4.
7. Hydrochoerus capybara, c. 5.
1
5
.
1
i is the large infra-
In all these figures the position of the orbit is indicated by 0.
orbital foramen in figs. 5 and 7.
Fig. 8—11. Various Mammalian skulls viewed from below:
Fig. 8. Didelphys marsupialis, .
9. Arctomys marmota, .
10. Hydrochoerus capybara, c. 5.
11. Myopotamus coypus, }.
5
UNIL
OF
H:


Plate 34.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. .
)
NAM,
Fig.5.
Fig. .
Fig. 7.
i
i i
**
Fig. 8.
i, ୨,
Fig. 10.
medaleko
ଉପBର
Fig. 11.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg, del.

UNIL
OF
MICH
м

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 35.
Various Mammalian skulls viewed from the upper side.
Fig. 1. Didelphys marsupialis, the same specimen as that figured on Plate 33. 4.
2. Canis vulpes.
3. Zalophus californianus. A little more than 1.
4. Phoca groenlandica. A little more than 3.
5. Macacus cynomolgus. The posterior wall of the orbita has been taken away. The skull is not
viewed in the same position as the other specimens on this plate, but so that the anterior end of it has been
turned somewhat upwards (so that the nasals are lying horizontally). Comp. fig. 4 and the text p. 84.
1
2.
Fig. 6—11 represent a series of skulls of a Lemur and various Primatės, to show the successive develop-
ment of the skull from an ordinary Mammalian form to the European man. All are seen in the same position
from above.
Fig. 6.
Lemur. The skull is to some extent formed in a similar manner as in the Fox (fig. 2); the
snout is long and slender, the upper side of it very slightly oblique in relation to the hard palate; the
openings of the orbits are turned obliquely laterally and forwards (more forwards than in the Fox) and
upwards. 4.
Fig. 7. Cebus. The snout has become much shortened, and its upper side very oblique in relation
to the hard palate, the openings of the orbits have become much approached and are turned more for-
wards and only a little laterad and upwards. C. 1.
Fig. 8. Cercopithecus. The snout behaves in a similar manner as in Cebus. But the direction of
the openings of the orbits are decidedly less laterad and less upwards, but more forwards.
Fig. 9. Macacus. The snout is similar, a little more prolongated. The openings of the orbits are
directly forwards, they are not at all seen, when the skull
as here
is seen from above, the hard
palate being placed horizontally. 3.
Fig. 10. Australian. The snout has become excessively shortened and, taken as a whole, is not far
from being right-angled to the hard palate. But the tooth-bearing jaw-margin is still seen in the view
from above, though much shortened. The openings of the orbits are totally concealed in the view from
above.
Fig. 11. European. The tooth-bearing margin of the jaw has been still more shortened and only
very little of it is seen. But opposed to the Australian and the Apes the nasal bones and the adjoining
parts of the maxillary bones have been vaulted from one side to the other, this part therewith having
become so prominent that in the view from above it conceals most of the short jaw-margin, of which
only the lateral parts are seen.
.
4
OF
MICH


Plate 35.
Ew Melinda
Fig. 11.
manier
Fig.1.
Fig. 2.
Fig.3.
Fig.4.
Fig.5.
mg
Fig.6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig.9.
Fig. 10.
00000
Arruabarren
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

ار
C
UNIL

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 36.
Fig. 1-3 are schematical representations of median sections of various Mammalian skulls to illustrate the
various development of the anterior face (marked by a red line) of the intermaxillary bone from the starting
point, as represented by the fig. 1, to the reduction, as in fig. 2, and, on the other side, to an excessive deve-
lopment, as in fig. 3. Further the figures illustrate the development of the cartilaginous (blue) and ossified
(orange) parts of the nasal septum. The vomer has been painted yellow.
Fig. 1. Macropus.
2. Phocæna.
3. Old Elephant.
Fig. 4—7 are schematical representations of the right half of the nasal cavity of the skull to illustrate the
presumably phylogenetic development of some remarkable characters of the skull of the Elephant. The sectioned
bones have been painted yellow, the maxilloturbinal (mt) red, the organon Jacobsoni blue. i intermaxillary
bone, n nasal bone, o opening of maxillary sinus.
Fig. 4. Dog. The turbinate parts of the maxilloturbinal have been cut off.
Fig. 5—6. Presumably intermediate stages between the starting point, as exemplified by the Dog, and
the Elephant
Fig. 7. Elephant.
Fig. 8. Median section of the head of a Lamb, the septum having been removed and most of the ethmo-
turbinals cut off, the nasoturbinal having been left undamaged; of the maxilloturbinal the turbinate part has
been cut off, only the anterior and the posterior end of it have been left. The mucous membrane is present.
A little schematised. nt nasoturbinal; a prolongation from it extends into the opening of the maxillary sinus.
Fig. 9. Part of the same specimen after the mucous membrane having been taken away. The nasoturbinal
(nt) is cartilaginous in front and this cartilaginous part is continuous with the cartilaginous nose. Below the
margin of the cartilaginous nasoturbinal are seen four small detached cartilaginous nodules.
UNIL
OF
MU


Plate 36.
Fig. 2
Fig. 4.
n
o
mt
і
Fig. 5.
n
mt
Fig. 1.
i
Fig. 6.
n
i
mt
Fig. 3.
Fig. 7.
п
mt
Fig. 9.
ES
nt
nt
n
Fig:8.
Autt. dir.,B.Strubberg del.
Lith.Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.

UNIL
OF
MCM

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 37.
The figures on this plate illustrate the comparison made in the text p. 86 between the Mammalian skull
and an antique Amphora.
Fig. 1.
A rather long-necked Amphora. The broken line indicates the place of the lamina cribrosa in the
skull, the two circles the position af the eyes.
of the eyes.
The other figures represent schematic horizontal sections of various skulls. In some cases the anterior
part of the section in reality forms an obtuse angle with the posterior part. The spheres indicate the position
Several of the figures (2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) have been made from real sections, others have been
constructed after an examination of skulls, which could not be sectioned in this manner, but which otherwise
were accessible to examination.
Fig. 2. Dog.
3. Phoca.
4. Hippopotamus.
5. Manatee.
6. Lamb.
7. Catarrhine Ape.
8. Myopotamus.
9. Dasyprocta.
10. Elephant.
\ل
Of
40


Plate 37.
Fig. 7.
تھے .
Fig.3.
Fig.4.
..
(
ا د د
و برای رای داد
Fig.8
Fig.d.
Fg.70.
Autt.dir.,B.Strubberg del.
Lith. Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.

UNIL
OF
MICH

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 38.
ca'
пс
ca
6
let
Fig. 1. Part of the right half of the head
of the old Elephant “Chang”; only the right
nasal cavity has been drawn in detail. The
nasal septum has been cut away, only the cau-
dal (inferior) end of it having been left. The
mucous membrane of the cartilaginous and
bony parts of the nasoturbinal and of the nasal
cartilage has been dissected off; the anterior
end of the nasal cartilage has been cut off.
b bony part of the nasoturbinal; ca moveable
cartilaginous plate of the same; ca' anterior end
of the cartilaginous part of the nasoturbinal,
being continuous with the cartilaginous septum,
which is here cut away; et ethmoturbinals; i in-
ferior part of nasoturbinal consisting only of
soft tissues; nc nasal cartilage; r margin of
vomer; s caudal end of nasal septum consisting
here only of soft tissues; vo vomer.
00
s
-T
Il,
VII
V TV
广​平
​Fig. 2. The same, further dissected. The cartilaginous plate ca has
been cut across and the posterior part of it bent up and fixed by means
of an anatomical hook, so that the room below it and the opening into
the nasal sinus are seen; a sound (the upper sound in the figure) has been
introduced through this opening into the nasal sinus, which has been shaded,
while the other air-sinuses are only indicated in outline. Another sound
has been introduced below the caudal end of the nasoturbinal into the
opening of the maxillary sinus (comp. fig. 8–9. on Plate 36), from which
the inferior end of the sound protrudes. Of the endoturbinalia the margin
has been cut off, so that some of the ectoturbinalia are seen. The specimen
is seen somewhat more from behind than in fig. 1, so that the nasal tube
is shortened, in comparison with fig. 1. II— VII basal laminæ of endotur-
binals.
TI
Fig. 3. The same, still further dissected. The whole of the nasoturbinal, the bony as well as the carti-
laginous parts, have been cut off, so that the large diverticulum is seen; on the lateral wall of this latter are
seen the opening of the nasal sinus and the groove in the intermaxillary bone. The ecto- and endoturbinalia
have been taken away, only the bases of them having been left (comp. the textfigure).
The brownish parts in these figures are those where the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is still present.
UNIL
OF
Mion


Plate 38.
Lith Anstv.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.
300
(
2
e
Fig. 2
Fig. 1.
ce
N
TO
rr
m
100
or
인
​Can
son
Die
Fig. 3.
Cue
2001
oo
Autt.dir.,B.Strubberg del.

OF
*ice

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 39.
Fig 1.
Fig. 1. Posterior part of the right half of the head
of the Elephant no. 2. The facial muscles and the
masseter etc. have been removed. Most of the zygoma
has also been cut away, which is also the case with
the proc. coronoideus and adjoining parts of the mandible,
which are pared out of the m. temporalis, which has
been attached to them; the muscle itself is represented
intact (nothing of it is taken away). The mucous mem-
brane of the cheek going from the upper to the lower
jaw is seen with its natural folds (hardened), the glands
on it having been removed.
mealus auditor, extern.
m. pterygoideus externus
m. pterygoideus internus
part of m. tempor. having been inserted on
inner side of the mandible
mucous membrane of cheek
part of m. tempor. having been inserted on
anterior margin of ramus mandibulæ
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. The same specimen after removal of the
m. temporalis, the ventral extension of whose origin is
indicated by a dotted line.
n. infraorbitalis
m. pterygoideus ext.
n. lingualis
m. pterygoideus int
glands
parotic duct
post. part of m. buccinat.
(the rest cut away)
maxillary
bone
Fig. 3.
eth moturb.
n. mandibularis
tuba Eustachii (opened)
pharynx
m. pterygoideus externus
Fig. 3. The postero-inferior part of the left half of
the head of a middleaged Elephant (c. 12 plates in the
tooth in action), seen obliquely from within and from
behind. The m. pterygoideus internus has been removed.
opening of tuba Eust. in pharynx
part of m. temporalis inserting on
the inner side of ramus mandibulæ
tooth
bony capsule in the mandible
containing a new tooth
Fig. 4.
Part of the same specimen which is figured in Plate 18 after removal of the mucous membrane
investing the cartilaginous nose etc. The small separate cartilage below the large nasal cartilage (comp. p. 101)
is represented in situ.
Fig. 5. Median section of the tongue etc. of the Elephant "Chang“. The small yellow spot in the
thyreoid cartilage is an ossification. 1-1 nat. size.
1
2
UNIL
OF


Plate 39.
0
C
Fig. 1.
Fig.2.
Fig.3.
Fig.4.
الم
. ***** bewydens ******0,3 pts
Sus
Fig.5.
Autt. dir., B.Strubberg del.
Lith. Anst.v.E.A.Funke, Leipzig.

NIE
OF
MIC
H

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 40.
Fig. 1.
Nasal cartilage of the Elephant no. 2 seen from above, all the soft parts removed.
Fig. 2.
A fragment of the specimen figured in Plate 19, including the nasal bone, part of the nasal cavity
etc. The specimen has become further dissected, so that the small cartilage mentioned p. 101 is shown in place
(in the bend of the nasal passage), the mucous membrane to a limited extent having been removed.
Fig. 3. Diagram of the isolated intermaxillary bone of an ordinary Mammal seen from the medial side.
The white flats in this and the following figure are those parts of the bone where it has met the other inter-
maxillary (inferior part) or the nasal bone (the superior white flat). On the upper (posterior) side of the pars
dentalis and of the processus palatinus (comp. the text p. 87—88) is seen the furrow into which the margin
of the cartilaginous septum is let in.
Fig. 4. The same of the Elephant. The processus palatinus has vanished, the pars dentalis has been much
elongated, the anterior surface of it having become much extended and hollowed out; on the hind side of it
is seen the furrow for the margin of the cartilaginous septum.
Fig. 5. Sketch of the anterior part of the head of Phoca vitulina, the skin having been removed (only
left on the snout). Seen from above. To illustrate the upwards turned eyes.
Fig. 6.
Head of Dipus ægyptiacus, seen from above, dissected in the same way. To illustrate the laterad
directed eyes.
UNIL
OF
MOM

62

Plate 40.
Fig. 1.
Fig.3.
Fig. 2.
Fig.4.
Fig.5.
Fig.6.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
1410

EXPLANATION (1)
OF
PLATE 41.
In the figures 1-9 are delineated a series of transverse sections through the left half of the head of the
old Elephant ”Chang“, all seen from the caudal plane. The mandible, the brain, the external ear etc. have been
removed. Most of the nasal septum is present in the sections. The specimen sectioned has been delineated
in the Plate 41 bis from the lateral and from the medial side, to show the position of the cuts; in the last
figure parts of the nasal septum present in the sections have been omitted.
Figg. 1—8 are all in 1 nat, size.
4
Fig. 1, Section a. The cut has gone through the anterior end of the intermaxillary bone, which is here
not apposed to the other intermaxillary. To the right is seen the organon Jacobsoni in a furrow in the bone.
To the left the dens incisivus, which in this specimen is very small and wholly included in the bone; the white
spot in the middle of the tooth is the pulpa-cavity; the dentine presents externally a darker zone, then follows
a lighter zone, most of the tooth has again a darker hue.
Fig. 2, Section b. The intermaxillary has on this point coalesced with the other intermaxillary. To the
right the organon Jacobsoni. The cut has gone obliquely through the proximal end of the incisor, so that
only a narrow crescent-like dentine mantle surrounds the pulpa. The nasal cavity is continued dorsad with a
narrow fissure. Further dorsad the anterior end of the nasal cartilage has been hit. The dark spots are veins.
are
Fig. 3, Section c. The nasal cavity extends here far dorsad with a narrow fissure. The organa Jacobsoni
now enclosed within a bony tube, the intermaxillary as well as the maxillary bones of the right and left
side being united.
nasal cartilage
nasal tube
Fig. 5.
Fig. 4.
nasal cartilage
small cartilage (comp. Pl. 39 fig. 4)
fissure-like part of nasal tube
muscular cushion
orbit
nasal septum
membranous nasal septum
nictitating membrane
nasal tube
orbit
nasal tube
foramen infraorbitale
foramen infraorbitale
organon Jacobsoni
organon Jacobsoni
molar
molar
Fig. 4, Section d, a little before the orbit.
Fig. 5, Section e. The cut passes through the anterior end of the orbit; a small anterior part of the eye
has been removed by the cut and become lost; the white spot indicates its place. Most of the content of the
orbit is lying in the following slice between the cuts e and f. The nasal tube, which has here a flexure, has
been cut in two places.
UNIL
OF
ACH


EXPLANATION(2)
OF
PLATE 41.
nasal wing
nasal tube
nasal bone
cartilaginous nasal septum
diverticulum of nasal tube
diverticulum of nasal tube
cartil. nasal septum
nasal cavity
cartilag. plate appended to nasoturbinal
bony nasal septum
orbit
m. temporalis
tip of bony nasoturbinal
vomer
zygoma
ethmoturbinal
the deep cleft between proc, molaris and
crista pterygoidea
crista pterygoidea
m. temporalis
pulpa dentis
zygoma
caudal end of nasal tube
veins
large air-sinus in posterior part of maxil-
lary bone, where in younger Elephants
the reserve tooth or the posterior end of
the working molar has its place
molar (post, end)
cartilage of tuba Eustachii
tuba Eustachii
Fig. 6, Section f. The cut has partly gone
in front of the nasal tube, which has here a
nearly perpendicular direction, and has hit it
only superiorly and inferiorly. The blind end
of the diverticulum from the nasal tube (p. 103)
is also in the section. The posterior part of
the orbit has been grazed. The posterior end
of the molar tooth, wholly surrounded by bone,
is in the section.
Fig. 7, Section g. The cut has gone through the
large diverticulum of the nasal tube, but has fallen just
in front of the entrance to it, so that the lid in which
the cartilaginous plate is enclosed, appears connected
with the lateral wall (comp. fig. 10).
m. temporalis
end of bony protuberance
ethmoturbinal
cerebral cavity
air-sinus in maxillary
(comp. fig. 7)
inner end of auricular cart.
bony meatus auditor.
posterior root of zygoma
tympanic membrane (fragment)
glenoid surface
artery
bony lamella surrounding the posterior end of maxillare
tuba Eustachii
anterior cornu of hyoid
foramen lacerum post.
basioccipital
Fig. 8, Section h.
Fig. 9, the Section following i; in its lateral
part combined with i. nat. size.
.
entrance from diverticulum to an air-sinus
nasal cavity
cartilaginous plate appended to nasoturbinal
cartilaginous nasal septum
entrance to the diverticulum
anterior end of zygoma
nervus infraorbitalis lying in the entrance
to the canalis infraorbitalis
Fig. 10. Transverse section through the same skull-fragment of which part is figured Plate 39 fig. 3; the
section is laid just before the molar tooth and is somewhat oblique, the upper end being the foremost. Catop-
tric image. Seen from before. Somewhat more than half nat. size.

OF
MCH

Plate 41.
Lith.Anst.v. E.A.Funke, Leipzig.
.
Fig.
Fig.2.
Fig.3.
Fig.4.
Fig..
Fig..
--
Fig. 9.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 10.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.
.

UNIL
OF
MICH

Plate 41, bis
Fig. 1.
d
е
f
9
h
6 C
а
Fig. 2.
f
9
е
d
h
i
с ь
a
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

EU
.

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 42.
s
1
5
2
6
3
مبارک
4.
7
8
Fig. 1. Skull h seen obliquely from behind and from above after removal of the superficial bony wall.
In sinus 6' and in the dorsal division of sinus 8'eight primary supporting bony lamellæ are seen. The ninth
lamella cannot be seen in this position. The first lamella (1) is also septum between the two sinuses. The
first-third lamellæ have been chiselled down to somewhat below the middle of their height. The waved form
and, on the second and third lamella, the thickened pneumatic basal parts may be seen. The fourth lamella is
chiselled off near the vaulted ground of the sinus 8', the wall of the cavum cranii. The fifth-eigth lamella
radiate towards the surface of the skull, and on them are seen the margins of the chiselled off waves and
arches; through the annexed - the territory of each primary lamella is indicated. s septum between sinus
nasalis and sinus 6'.
Fig. 2. The same specimen, further chiselled, seen from behind. In the left half all septa and lamellæ
between and in the sinuses have been chiselled down near to the wall of cavum cranii; their lines of origin
are seen, some of them are much waved. The meatus acusticus ext. has been preserved. A comparison with
the outline of the right half of the skull gives a vivid impression of the migthy depth of the sinuses as well as
of their great significance to the forming of the skull, not the less when it is remembered that the pars cerebralis
in this position presents itself in its largest breadth. The nasal bone has not been chiselled off and in this
bone is seen the large opening (*) into the sinus nasalis.
Fig. 3. The same specimen, seen from the left and a little from the front and from below, so that the
molars of both sides are seen. In the cerebral as well as in the facial part the septa and the bony lamellæ
have been chiselled away down to their origin. Also the lateral wall of the alveolus of the last molar has
been partially removed.
Fig. 4.
3
5.
6.
7.
Left superior molars of the skull b. The posterior end of dp, is hidden in the maxilla.
d.
f. The posterior end of m, is hidden in the maxilla.
k.
-
1
-
OF
ACH


Plate 42.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig.1.
Goso
Fig.5.
Ammo
OO
COND
Funner
mi
m
dp 4
CD
QIDIR
dp 4
dps
Quoc
an
Fig.3.
ما
DOO0000
Fig. 4.
dp 3
dp,
Fig.2.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
Min

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 43.
Left half:
Right half:
sinus maxillaris
sinus maxillaris
sinus intermaxillaris superior
sinus intermaxillaris superior
sinus intermaxillaris inferior
sinus intermaxillaris inferior
VA
sinus nasalis
sinus nasalis
M
sinus occipitalis
sinus occipitalis
0
ХХХХ
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXX
XX XX
X X X X X X X
sinus 6'
a sinus in the nasoturbinale
o
BE
sinus 7
sinus 3'
sinus 8'
1!1!1
sinus 3 a'
3a
ITIIIII
TITIT
sinus Sa'
sinus 4'
sinus 9
sinus 5'
sinus Ia'
sinus 6a'
1.
.
sinus 10 a'
sinus 8
SOUL
sinus 21'
sinus 14'
sinus 23 a'
sinus 15'
sinus II
The figures represent outlines of the skull c after the outer wall of the pneumatic sinuses having been
chiselled off. The signatures indicate the territories of the various sinuses. Comp. Plate 28 fig. 1 and Plate
29 fig. 1—2.
OF


Plate 43.
Fig. 1.
!11
1:1
1:1:1:1:1:4;11;
A
1:01:1
THE
PHE
TITUDE
H:1
DEL PO
.
.
HI
.
.
.
•
.
Fig. 2.
O
EFFER
TE
T
11
AN
CA
MO
xxx
Fig.3.
..
G
:
1:1:1:1
1:1:1:1
•LJAT:1;
AT:1:1:1:1
1:1:1:1:1
:1:1:1:1
:::
Wi!ilib
1:1
Fig.4.
XXXX
XXX
FOD GU
Ano
Hi!
1.1.
Xxx
Xxx
.
.
: 1;1;
1:1:1:1
1:1:1:1
:1:1
1:1:1:1:1:1:)
1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1
:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1.
:1:1:1:1:1;1;1;
1:1:1;1;1
Lii!
11
الم

OF
MCW

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 44.
sinus maxillaris
sinus nasalis
sinus occipitalis
sinus 4'
XX ХХК
XX X X
ХХХХХХХ
xx XXX
sinus 6
sinus 8
sinus 15'
-1-1-1
sinus 20'
--
sinus 23 a'
sinus II'
Outlines of the skull h, after removal of the outer wall of the pneumatic sinuses on the left side of the
skull. The signatures indicate the territories of the various sinuses. Comp. Plate 28 fig. 2 and Plate 29 fig. 5—6.
OF
MICH


Plate 44.
:
V.
Fig. 1.
.
BOVA
ge
IM
SD
ess
e
man
KO
xx
XX
O
Fig. 2.
Fig.3.
XXalx X
XX
XX
XX
xx
bo
ba
2.จ
..
ooo
.
o
More

OF
Mion

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 45.
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic section through the ethmoidal bone, parallel to and directly before the lamina cri-
brosa, of the skull c.
1-VII first-seventh endoturbinal. 1—30 first-thirteeth ectoturbinal. I and I” pneumatic sinuses in the
caudal part of the nasoturbinal. Moreover are seen the openings of the pneumatic sinuses of the ethmoidal system
save those of the nasal sinuses in the nasoturbinal and of the sinus 7 b' of the left side. The sinuses, which
are so small that they do not reach the surface of the skull, are represented closed.
Fig. 2. Diagrammatic section through the right half of the ethmoid, parallel to and directly before the
lamina cribrosa, of the Elephant „Chang“.
- IVII first-seventh endoturbinal. 1—27, 27a, 28, 28a, 29, 30 the ectoturbinals; as to 27 a and 28 a comp.
the text p. 108. l' and I”' pneumatic sinuses in the caudal part of the nasoturbinal. Moreover are seen the openings
of the pneumatic sinuses of the ethmoidal system, save those of the sinuses 25', 20', xx, 29', 29 a' and 30', the
openings of which have their place at the secondary lamellæ, which are not drawn in the diagram. Comp. text-
figure p. 107–8.
Fig. 3. Diagrammatic section through the left half of the ethmoid, parallel to and directly before the lamina
cribrosa of the skull h.
I VII first-seventh endoturbinal. 1—30 first-thirteeth ectoturbinal. I and I” pneumatic sinuses in the
-
.
" '
caudal part of the nasoturbinal. Moreover are seen the openings of the pneumatic sinuses of the ethmoidal system,
save those of the nasal sinuses in the nasoturbinal. The sinuses, which are so small that they do not reach
the surface of the skull, are represented closed.
UNL
OF
Aici


Plate 45
125
13'
13)
ОШ
232
15
DIG
116.
23
II
0
176
20
019'
19)
20
Fig.1.
Fig. 2.
Fig.3.
' '
8a 7,6
7а
5
qa'
7
8
وار
ଅ
4a
42 48 66778829010
'
4
6
4'36'
8' 9 10
>
8' Tá 7'_5'
20a ?
12
12a
J12
Hall
4
og
7
013
13)
14?
13
14
15
i
14'.
6
a
G
10
157
>
To
14
14
G
소
​14
UG
17
176
3
12
18
3
18
(19
18
8
19
D
5/9)
119
I
18
I
I
15
15.
15
(2)
(22
21
19
20
21
22'
20
22
I
20
21
22
20
15
I”
20
>
22
23
233
I
236
(23
I'
523
123 a'
24
I
EC
24
24
39
23
24
24
24 «
|||
TI
25°C
225'
B
25
26.
25
25
20
200
26
5 26
26
26a
26'
IM
ITY
27
28
27a
IV
27 28
27
28
a
280
V
V
Vat
V
Ny
>
Vaq
V
T'
Ta
V
VI
Va
Va"
229
230
296
T
MI
290
300
330
300
VI
MU
VIII

UN
OF
MIC

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 46.
Fig. 1. Submedian section of the skull of Elephas africanus, skull x. Directly seven centimeter above t
the upper end of the bony capsule enclosing the posterior end of the tooth dp, is seen (surrounded by air-
sinuses). The upper end of the palatine bone is separate from the rest as a thin bony plate above pa. Above s
is seen the entrance to an air-sinus; the hole is of an extraordinary size in this specimen.
Fig. 2. Skull of Elephas africanus, skull z.
UNIL
OF
MC


Fig.1.
Plate 46.
t
pa
S
Fig. 2.
Autt. dir., B. Strubberg del.

UNIL
OF
Mch

EXPLANATION
OF
PLATE 47.
The ramification of the facial nerve on the left half of the head of the Elephant no. 2.
Where the nerves are lying free they are painted black; where they are covered by muscles
etc. they are held gray. As for the muscles comp. Plate 1 in Part 1.
1 a.
1 c.
1 e.
ai ni i ri
5 a.
1. Nervus auricularis posterior.
Branch to the m. temporo-auricularis.
1 b. Branches to the m. postauricularis, deep portion.
superficial portion.
1 d.
auriculo-occipitalis.
mm. obliqui.
2. Nervus auricularis internus.
3. Ramus digastricus.
4 Ramus colli.
5. Ramus temporalis.
Ramus caudalis.
5 b. Ramus nasalis.
6. Ramus mandibularis.
Branch to the m. platysma.
6 b.
buccinatorius.
Branches to the m. orbicularis oris in the lower lip and a branch to
the m. mentalis.
7. Ramus maxillaris.
Branch to the m. postorbicularis, to the m. orbicularis oculi in the lower
eyelid, to the m. præorbicularis and the m. nasolabialis.
7 b. Branches to the m. buccinatorius and to the pars rimana.
Branch to the m. maxillo-labialis.
6 d.
-
6 c.
7 a.
7 c.
t branches of n. trigeminus anastomosing with n. facialis.
UNL
OF
MICH

وز

Plate 47.
ld
ld
[c
7d
Id
le
la)
18
lle
15a
56
Tc
16
la
7a
7
5
t
76
3
7
761
3
나​.
66
6
(а.
wy
})

UNIL
OF
CH


1.9.0.2

11.9
11
366

र
LAP
1 O 0.2