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Volºſ

MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN,
AUTHOR OF
“The Science of Railways” and Supplementary Volumes, “Primitive Peoples and
Their Methods of Carriage,” “The Romance of Gilbert Holmes.”

RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
& • ‘j f Å
2-- *
FORMING ONE OF THE TWELVE VOLUMES OF THE REvisBD AND
ENLARGED EDITION OF
THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS.
BY tº
- \\ >
MARSHALL Má'KIRKMAN.
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT
CONTAINSA CONCISE MANUAL OF THE LOCOMOTIVE AND its WORKING,
TREATS OF THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE: OF
THE EQUIPMENT OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES; OF THE MANUFACT-
URE OF ENGINES AND CARS; OF THE ORGANIZATION AND
ARRANGEMENT OF THE SHOPS AND ROUND-HOUSES OF
RAILWAYS; OF THE AIR BRAKE AND ITS WORKING;
OF THE ADAPTABILITY OF ELECTRICITY TO
GENERAL RAILWAY PURPOSES AND OTHER
MATTERS GERMANE THERETO.
THE whole PROFUSELY EMBELLISHED AND IllustrateD BY ENGRAv-
INGS, PREPARED EXPRESSLY FOR THIS WORK, DESCRIPTIVE
OF RAILWAY CARRIAGE AND ITS APPLIANCES.
VOLUME I.
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO :
THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY.
1903,
*
t
Entered according to Act of Congress of the United States
in the years 1898, 1899, 1900, 1902 and 1903, by
THE World RAILw AY PUBLISHING ComPANY
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.
Also entered at Stationer's Hall, London, England.
th E H E N N EB ERRY com PANY
PRINTERs. . . . at N DERs - ... chicago
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION TO THE REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION
\,
OF “THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYs,” 7
CHAPTER I. Evolution of the Locomotive, 15
CHAPTER II. Description of the Locomotive, 59
CHAPTER III. The Locomotives and Cars of the World,
and the manufacturers thereof, . . . . 116
CHAPTER IV. The Machinery Department. Care and main-,
tenance of locomotives and cars. Arrangement of rail-
road shops and roundhouses, . 230
CHAPTER W. Arrangement of Shop Labor. Specialization
of work. Comparison of cost, etc., . 283
CHAPTER VI. Construction and Operation of the Air-Brake.
The brake-shoe. History and evolution of the brake, . 291
CHAPTER VII. Electricity as a motive power for railways,
explaining and illustrating its laws and practical appli-
cation as a motive power for general transportation
purposes, . 387
APPENDIXEs:
Appendix A.—Evolution of the locomotive, . 529
Appendix B.—Parts of the locomotive, . . . . . . 530
Appendix C.—Cost of Electrical conductors, . . . . 533
Appendix D.—Explanation of a popular form of auto-
matic air-brake, . . . . . . . 538
INDEX, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
(iii)
Revised earnd Eralarged Eedition of
“THE SCIENCE OF RAILVVAYS.”
FU ELISHERS' NOT E.
The great and increasing demand for “The Science of Railways” due to
its popularity with all classes of railway men, encouraged the author, after
Seven editions had been exhausted, to revise the work and enrich it by new and
important books and treatises on various subjects connected with Tailways;
among others by—
A detailed and carefully illustrated account of the Origin and Evolution
of the Locomotive;
A portrayal and concise Manual of the Locomotive, for the information
and guidance of beginners and others interested in such matters;
A detailed treatise on the Compound Locomotive, fully illustrated;
An account of the Manufacture of Engines and Cars;
An exposition of the Equipment of Different Countries;
A treatise on the Arrangement of Railroad Shops and Round-Houses, and
the Care and Maintenance of Equipment;
An exhaustive and scientific account of the Workings of the Air Brake;
Treatises on Permanent Track Signals and Interlocking, as practiced on
American railroads;
An exhaustive and scientific exposition, , copiously illustrated, of the
Workings and Appliances of Electricity and their adaptation to General
Railway Purposes.
Organization of Equipment Department.
Engineers’ and Firemen’s Manual,
“The Science of Railways” has been further improved and enlarged by
new chapters on the Civil Service of Railways, Financing, Fiscal Affairs,
Construction, Operating, etc., etc., etc. Many other details of interest and
importance conforming to present practices in connection with the Création
and Administration of Railroads, have also been added to the work.
The illustrations of primitive carriage scattered throughout each book
of the early editions have, in this edition, been confined wholly to one
volume, and while the number has been reduced (to give place to more
practical matter) the volume in question contains over four hundred beautiful
Engravings illustrative of Primitive Means of Transportation in every age and
quarter of the globe. These, with the literary matter that accompanies them,
portray in the most vivid and picturesque manner possible the Primitive
Peoples of the World, and the successive steps by which transportation has
been led up to its present high plane.
The binding, type, paper, and arrangement, it is proper to say, have also
been improved and beautified to conform to the increased interest and per-
manency of the work. It has been further adorned and enhanced in value
by the addition of seven hundred engravings (not embraced in the early editions)
descriptive of Railway Appliances. These engravings have been prepared
expressly for this work by the author, and DO expense has been spared to
beautify and perfect them.
Such are concisely some of the Improvements Which have been made in
“The Science of Railways” since the issuance of the first seven editions.The
original work everywhere met the commendation of railroad officers,
employes and owners. For this reason the publishers feel assured that the
Revised and Enlarged Edition, retaining as it does all that was good in the
first issues, with so much that is new and valuable in the enlarged work, will
be enhanced in value still further in the estimation of those for whom it is
Written.
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
INTRODUCTION.
This volume forms a part of “THE SCIENCE
of RAILWAYs.” I embody it as a part of “THE
SciENCE OF RAILWAYs” because I know of no
good reason why engineers and firemen and
others connected with the machinery depart-
ment of railroads should not desire to know
something about railroads generally, as well
as others in the service. Certainly, no body of
men offers better material to select from in
choosing the officers of railroads, provided they
study the subject of railroading as a whole.
The preparation of this volume occupied many
months, and during that time the author sub-
mitted it for approval and revision to many men
of eminent talent and great experience in connec-
tion with railway equipment and machinery In-
deed, throughout the preparation of the volume,
he actively sought the aid and advice of experts
in such matters, so that he might confidently
offer to the reader something worthy of con-
sideration in that connection. The engravings
the volume contains have been prepared ex-
(W)
Vi RAIL WAY EQUIPMENT.
pressly for it, and so elaborate and costly are
they that it is no exaggeration to say that
nothing so extended has ever before been at-
tempted in connection with any railway pub-
lication of this character, nor can more be
desired by those studying the subject as rail-
road men. In view of these facts, and because
of the valuable aid and assistance the author
has received, he begs to offer the volume to
railway men, and to respectfully dedicate it
to them. *
INTRODUCTION TO THE REWISED AND
ENLARGED EDITION OF “THE
SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS.”
I do not set out to write an exhaustive account
of railway affairs, but rather to discuss those
things which every railroad man may reasonably
desire to form a part of his knowledge, if not of
his experience. In the early history of railroads
ignorance was general. This is no longer the
3ase. Railway men now recognize that they
must not only know thoroughly the particular
work assigned them, but have more than a cur-
sory knowledge of the duties of others. No man’s
experience is, in itself, wide enough to command
this knowledge, and it is the object of this work,
the result of forty years’ practical experience and
extended research, in some measure to supply.
The ancients believed the world ended where
their vision ceased. Beyond was nothing; a void,
simply. And so it is with ignorant men. They
are insensible to the value of knowledge; to the
accumulated experience of mankind. It lies
beyond their vision or comprehension. Its inval-
uable treasures are to them as if they were not.
(7)
8 INTRODUCTION.
Not only this, but they resent knowledge in oth-
ers. In the early history of railroads, books and
treatises on the subject were angrily rejected by
practical men, and the writers thereof held up to
contumely. Fitness was based solely upon indi-
vidual experience; upon the kaleidoscopic views
of the needs of railroads which began and ended
with particular persons. This is no longer the
case. To-day knowledge in regard to railway
operations is sought wherever it can be found.
Men no longer rest content with their own
experience. Books and treatises, which would in
earlier days have been ridiculed or angrily re-
sented as an impertinence, no longer irritate the
egotistical nor excite outward expression of aver-
sion upon the part of the obdurate and narrow-
minded. Because of this spirit the railway world
is ceasing to be a benighted region wherein men
grope about in semi-darkness—the blind leading
the blind. Its votaries are not only enlightened
and tolerant, but anxious to avail themselves of
the knowledge and experience of others. This
spirit grows so rapidly that we may confidently
look forward to the time when it will be every-
where recognized as necessary that railway men
shall not only possess personal experience and
skill, but also familiarity with the skill of others.
Then an officer or employe, instead of being a
INTRODUCTION. 9
mere speck on the railway horizon, will be a
center of light, familiar not only with his own
department of work, but, in a general way, with
the whole railway world. Thus his mind will be
liberalized and his intelligence strengthened and
deepened.
Railways are still in a state of evolution, and
continue to take on each day the complexion of
those who operate them. Every thing in which
man is interested, like himself, advances or re-
cedes. There is no stationary period. This is true
of railroads. At this time they are on the up-
Ward plane. That which seems perfect to-day is
bettered to-morrow. So that since the first edi-
tion of “THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYs” was issued,
in 1894, I have found it necessary to re-write
much of it and otherwise add greatly to the
matter it contains. When the work was first
issued it did not appear especially deficient to
me in any department, but further investigation,
more careful study and greater experience, coup-
led with the progress which railways have made,
made it appear to me very deficient in some
respects. Accordingly, I took up the subject
alleW.
Railroads had their origin in the locomotive
and the cars which it hauls, together with the
machinery department organized for their con-
10 INTRODUCTION
struction and maintenance. These, as a whole,
constitute the primary elements of the railroad
world. A great defect in the early editions of
this work was my failure to give the equipment
and machinery departments the careful and ana-
lytical consideration they merited. This defect I
now seek, and I trust, in a measure successfully,
to correct. In this revised and enlarged edition
several books, wholly new, are devoted entirely
to the discussion and portrayal of this phase of
the subject. They take it up from a standpoint
which has been little discussed, and so conscien-
tiously has the matter been prepared and so crit-
ically scanned by scientific and practical men
that I am assured it will command the attention
of men of the highest attainments in such mat-
ters. The new books will, it is hoped, commend
themselves to the vast army connected with the
machinery and equipment department of rail-
roads. The books are not exhaustive, but prac-
tical and discursive. To those connected with
other branches of the service they will be valu-
able as throwing light on a department about
which it is difficult to gain practical information,
but about which such information is necessary
because of the intimate and vital association of
the machinery department with other depart-
ments of the service, I have striven to treat the
INTRODUCTION. 11
subject in a manner which will commend it to
railroad men as fully as other portions of the
work seem, by their testimony, to have met their
approval.
The new matter may be partially summarized
as follows: Evolution of the locomotive; descrip-
tion of the locomotive; the locomotives and cars
of the world; the manufacture of locomotives
and cars; the machinery department; the care
and maintenance of locomotives and cars; con-
struction and operation of the air-brake; elec-
tricity and its laws and practicable application
as a motive power for railways; organization of
equipment department; manual of engineers and
firemen. In addition to these subjects now for
the first time extensively treated in “THE SCIENCE
of RAILWAYs,” many other important and vital
additions have been made to the work.
Wherever practices as portrayed in the first
edition have been modified by subsequent
changes, or the description has been found defic-
ient, it has been my aim as new editions of the
work have been issued to supply the deficiency.
Among important subjects that have been elab-
orated in the new editions, not enumerated above,
the following may be mentioned: Opportunities
and requirements of the civil service of railroads;
train service; details of track; car wheels; light-
12 INTRODUCTION.
ing cars; heating cars; fiscal affairs, financing,
etc. In every instance where improved practices
or more careful study have suggested changes,
they have been made.
The illustrations and chapters on Primitive
Carriers, which were scattered through the work
in the first six editions, have been concentrated
in one volume. They may thus be quickly and
easily scanned without in any way interrupting
the more serious theme of the work. The pictures
of primitive carriers, while reduced in number,
are still of surpassing beauty and attractiveness,
and sufficient in number and careful selection to
be thoroughly representative of primitive carriage
in every age and part of the world. On the other
hand, the literary account of primitive people, as
associated with primitive carriers, both of our
age and of the ages which have preceded it, has
been greatly added to in interest in the enlarged
edition.
While the engravings representing primitive
forms of carriage have been restricted to such as
are valuable from an artistic and practical point
of view as illustrating the forms of carriage that
lead up to railway transportation, the author has
added seven hundred engravings representing the
highest known forms of transportation. The
value of these to railway men can not be over-
INTRODUCTION. 13
estimated, as with the text accompanying they
form a panorama of the physical machinery of
railroads of the greatest practical value and
interest.
And in this connection it is proper to say that,
while I make much of the new matter in the
revised and enlarged edition, I do not wish to
imply that I consider it more important than
other and older portions of the work. I am led,
however, to refer particularly to the new matter
because it is here that the work has, by some,
been claimed to be deficient. I have never heard
similar criticism of it in regard to other depart-
ments of the service of which it treats. The new
matter simply rounds out what was before lack-
ing, and makes the work, as a whole, more nearly
conform to what I desire it to be; namely, an
exposition of THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS.
C H A P T E R I.
EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
=ºth E genius of the railway system lies
sº in the locomotive; hence I make it
º: the theme of my opening chapter.
The pulsations of its heart carry to
and fro the commerce and travel of
the world, just as the action of the
human heart sends the blood coursing back and
forth through the body. It is for the moment
the consummation of man's highest achievements
and desires in this direction. His labors and
speculations on the subject antedate our time by
many hundreds of years, but not until the nine-
teenth century did his inventive genius sift from
the myths of speculative fancy something he
could control and direct at will; something in-
sensible to labor and pain, and that could be
made to carry the burdens before borne by him
or his willing agents—the animals.
A history of the locomotive, however brief or
imperfect, like all histories, is more valuable for
the suggestion it affords thoughtful men than for
the mere power to satisfy the curiosity of the
multitude.
So many functions have grown up about the
operation of railways, we constantly forget that




(15)
16 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the spark of life lies in the locomotive; that its
fire warms the blood and is the cause of all the
animation we see about us. The theme is one
to excite admiration, and can not be considered
mechanically. The conception, purposes and
achievements of the locomotive must, each in its
turn, be familiar to the engineer in order that
his sympathies may be excited and his genius
inspired. Without such inspiration how can
he fully fathom its mysteries, comprehend its
possibilities or aid in achieving its great future?
To understand its mechanism or fathom its
future he must have traced its growth. In order
to go forward he must first be imbued with
the inspiration of what has already been done.
It is never enough in a world so great as that
of railways, that men should comprehend only
the mechanical thing; they must also under-
stand its philosophy. It is for this reason that
in describing the locomotive I preface what I
have to say by an account of its origin and
growth.
The discovery of the locomotive is, as a whole,
the greatest achievement of man in the art of
carriage. He speculated for many centuries on
the utility of steam, but it remained for Trevi-
thick, of our day, to demonstrate its ability, to
haul a load across the country and perform other
acts of drudgery that before seemed incredible.
With its introduction the horse and the ox
henceforth became local incidents of carriage
merely, and no longer factors.
FVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 17
Who first discovered the possible value of
steam we are not informed, but we know that
as far back as one hundred years before the
Christian era, a more or less ingenious machine,
operated by steam, had been constructed at Alex-
andria, Egypt, by Hero. It is clear that he under-
stood the expansive power of steam and its
possible utility. The advanced position he took,
and the treatise he wrote on the subject, suggest
Newton's Experimental Engine. 1680.
that many experiments and cogitations of others,
before his time, found expression in him. Dis-
coveries of this kind do not spring full-fledged
into existence, but are created little by little, and
thus nurtured and grow.
Nothing of a useful nature grew out of Hero's
speculations, and it was not until the seventeenth
century that the practical value of steam for pur-
poses of carriage assumed tangible form. In 1680
Newton sought to invent a machine by which
2 Vol. 1

18 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the reactionary force of steam upon the air
would propel the vehicle forward. His experi-
ments, however, were not satisfactory. In 1769
Cugnot, an officer of the French army, invented a
steam-propelled vehicle with three wheels. The
front Supported a frame which carried a steam
boiler and other appliances. The machine was
steered by a lever from the platform. The driv-
ing wheel was of wood; it was tired with iron,
and about four feet in diameter. Cugnot is said
to have been the first to apply the high pressure
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Cugnot's Steam Carriage. 1769.
or non-condensing engine with cylinders and pis-
ton to the production of rotary power, as well as
to utilize steam for purposes of land locomotion.
The limited size of the boiler of his engine, coup-
led with other defects, rendered its use imprac-
ticable. The first attempt to utilize steam for
propelling carriages in America was made by
Nathan Read of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1794.
He is credited with having constructed the first
multitubular boiler. The tubes were placed ver-
tically. The forward wheels of the machine were
placed on a swiveling axle, operated by a hand













EvoluTION OF LocoMoti VI. 19
wheel attached to a large sheave over which a
rope was placed, the ends being attached to the
axles. His engine was designed to travel only in
one direction.
With the needs of the commercial world came
the perfected locomotive. Forms of government
had become fixed and, with them, the internal
commerce of the world was rendered measurably
secure. Trevithick's discoveries made the loco-
First Multitubular Boiler, Read's Steam Carriage. 1791.
motive practicable, but it was not until twenty-
seven years afterward that the attention of the
world was attracted to it and its possible future
usefulness. It resulted from this neglect that
when the subject was finally brought forward
the person who happened to be immediately con-
nected with the awakening was singled out as
the central figure and hero of the event. And it
follows from this chance association that George
Stephenson will for all time be generally believed

20 e RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
to have been the inventor of the locomotive and,
therefore, the father of the railway system, in-
stead of Trevithick.
From the accounts which have come down to
us, it appears that in 1803 (twenty-seven years
before Stephenson opened the Liverpool and
Manchester railway with its procession of
engines) Trevithick constructed a steam loco-
motive designed to run on a cast iron tramway.
He was a man of much practical experience and
singularly receptive intelligence. He conceived
First railway train in the world. Trevithick's engine. 1803. The driving
Wheels are operated by cogwheels, directly connected thereto, The rails were
Smooth, as were also the tires of the wheels,
what had before been disputed, namely, that a
Smooth wheel acting on a smooth rail had the
necessary adhesion to draw a load proportionate
to the weight placed on the wheels and the
power of the machine. This weight the attend-
ant boiler with its load was intended to supply.
In constructing his locomotive, the steam from
the cylinder was made to escape through the
chimney. This happy conception, whether its
results were anticipated or not, created a strong
draught, and it followed therefrom that one
great object, namely, a good fire with which to

EvoluTION of LocoMoti VE. 21
create steam, had at last been achieved. This
simple expedient solved, in a measure, the prac-
ticability of the use of steam for purposes of land
carriage.
Trevithick employed high pressure steam.*
His locomotive contained every essential feature
of the present machine, but was, upon trial,
unfortunately, found to be more expensive to
operate than horse power, and thus not a com-
mercial success. This defect, fatal from a prac-
tical point of view, seems to have chilled his
ardor, otherwise we should have expected him to
continue his experiment until this obstacle, a
matter of detail merely, should have been over-
come. Nothing further
appears of a practical
nature in connection
with the locomotive un-
til the advent of John ||
Blenkinsop, in 1811, H: | |#
when he put Matthew ºil |_|_|_
Murray to work to con-Vº
struct a locomotive that
would haul coal over O O O
his railroad, or tram- tº-àrà:#aałºś.
Way, between Middle- Blººr. *. º Hººve.
. and Leeds, three isii- ºn
and a half miles. In consequence of the severe

*In this connection it is proper to say that high pressure .
steam is the only form used in connection with the locomotive,
save in the case of compound engines, in which case the use of
the steam the Second time may be termed low-pressure.
22 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
gradients on the line, a notched or rack rail and
a cog wheel were used. A trial of this machine
was made in August, 1812, and, having been
found to be an economical as well as a mechan-
ical success, it was continued in operation.
During this interesting period many other
experiments were being carried on, but, while
they afforded much valuable information, were
not in the main successful. In 1812 the
locomotive known as the “Puffing Billy” was
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“Puffing Billy.” 1813. The so-called rails on which the engine stands, it
will be noticed, are little more than plates, and it is from this fact that the
trackmen of England are to-day still called plate-layers. This picture is an
original, taken from the locomotive now at the Field Columbian Museum,
Chicago. Many of the other illustrations in this volume are similarly taken
from originals, or models thereof. All are perfect representations of the
things they depict. - *









EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 23
constructed by a Mr. Blackett, proprietor of the
Wylam Colliery. William Hedley, one of his
employes, assisted him. They used a smooth
rail and wheel, demonstrated by Trevithick to
be practicable. Blackett's locomotive, however,
when put in operation in February, 1813, was
found not to be entirely successful because of
the difficulty of making steam. Afterward,
however, in May, 1813, when rebuilt and the
exhaust had been carried into the smoke stack,
as devised by Trevithick, the difficulty was found
to be overcome, and the locomotive proved to be
a perfect success, financially and mechanically,
and was continued in operation for many years.
Blackett's locomotive was called “Puffing Billy,”
because of the noise made by the two pipes
which carried the steam from the cylinders into
the smoke-stack. The noise occasioned by this
łocomotive and the cars it hauled greatly dis-
turbed the quiet folks who dwelt in the neighbor-
hood; indeed, they went so far as to claim that
it vitiated the lease of the land to the railroad
company. However, eventually, “Puffing Billy”
ceased to scare the cattle and distract the minds
of the people on the line and so the railroad was
allowed to stay.
During the same year a second locomotive was
built by Blackett for use on his line. In con-
structing his machines, however, due regard was
not paid to the weight of the rail on which they
were to run, and so it was found necessary to
substitute for the four rigid wheels on which
24 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the machines were operated, two four-wheeled
bogies.* This secured a more equitable division
of the weight, while also permitting the machine
to run around the sharp curves on the line.
Afterward, when the road had been relaid with
heavier rails, the four-wheeled bogies were re-
moved and the engine again placed on four fixed
wheels as in the first instance.
º. º.º.º.º.º.
~ &º
#
sº
º
H
ºsis
ºf Kºſº X\_ºzz
[Tºº Tºsts
Middleton & Leeds Railway. 1812–13. Thirty cars were hauled in a train.
Up to this point in the introduction of the
locomotive, George Stephenson, who afterward
deservedly became so prominent, had not ap-
peared prominently as an inventor or con-
structor. His attention, however, had been
*I use the term “bogie” in reference to the English custom
rather than that of America. In England a four-wheeled truck
with the bogie principle is called a bogie, but in the United
States only two wheels are recognized as coming under this
head. The English were slow to utilize or introduce the two-
wheeled bogie. From time immemorial the rigid wheel-base
was the fashion in that country. This prevented the sharp
curves which are so common in America and which SO greatly
lessen the cost of railways. The railways in Great Britain
have been constructed with a view to the avoidance of Such
curves, while the financial necessities of the American roads
rendered them necessary. Because of this the bogie did not
in England possess the value it did in America. That the
English erred in this we may confidently believe from the fact
that the bogie ultimately found favor on the English roads.
•º-







EVOLUTION OF DOCOMOTIVE. 25
early attracted to the subject in connection with
his patron, Lord Ravensworth. His investiga-
tions and reflections first bore fruit in the locomo-
tive successfully con-
structed under his di-
rection and tried in
July, 1814, called the
“Blucher.”
His engine was thus
fourthin order of suc-
cession, or third in or-
der of those proven to
be commercially and
mechanically a suc-
C0SS. Fobert Stephenson's First Locomotive.
Stephenson, how- Blucher,” 1814.
ever, did more, it is probable, to perfect the
locomotive than anyone of his time. His mind
was peculiarly open to impressions and quick to
assimilate the ideas of others. He, moreover,
possessed those qualities which enabled him to
impress others with the practicability and value
of his conceptions. He was not only a mechan-
ical engineer, but a man of talent and affairs in
other directions. He possessed a mind capable
of considering intelligently and conservatively
any problem brought to his attention, whether
it were a financial project, a business detail or a
mechanical idea. It resulted from this and the
study he had given the subject, and the promi-
mence he had attained meanwhile, that when in
1818 the owners of the Stockton and Darlington

26 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
determined to construct a public railway, they
employed him as their engineer; but, owing to
obstacles in Parliament and elsewhere, the road
was not opened for business until the twenty-
seventh of December, 1825. The locomotive used
on that occasion was designed by Stephenson and
was known as “Locomotion.” From the fact
that this engine continued in successful opera-
tion until 1841, it is apparent that it embodied
within itself substantially all the essential fea-
tures afterward proven to be necessary to safety
and economy of operation.
Cº-sº
T-ST:
º
º
% * - - - º
|
i
*— I
| ===
ã$º-Sºz-
^ Nāşş
§ss
*> - -
º
The first railway locomotive with multitubular boiler. Seguin’s. 1828.
In 1827 Seguin, of France, is said to have con-
verted a Stephenson engine into the first railway
locomotive with a multitubular boiler. Pre-
viously the locomotive boiler had been a cylin-
drical shell with one tube placed lengthwise,
with the exception of the one constructed by
Read in 1791, referred to. Seguin proved that
the evaporating power of an engine was greatly
increased by the multitubular principle, and to














EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 27
him is largely due the rapid development of the
locomotive in this direction.
In 1830 the Stockton and Darlington had eleven
locomotives in successful operation. Of these,
eight were designed by Stephenson and three by
Timothy Hackworth. The latter afterward be-
came engine superintendent of the line. As an
ºyºyº
º
sº
&
“Tom Thumb.” 1829. Built by Peter Cooper. The first engine to draw a car
On the American Continent.
indication of the power of the locomotive at this
period, one owned by the Stockton and Darling-
ton road had six coupled wheels and could draw
thirty-two cars, or one hundred and thirty tons, of
coal on a level at the rate of five miles per hour.
The cylinders were eleven inches in diameter,
and had a stroke of twenty inches. The driving
wheels had a diameter of four feet.

28 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT
The people of the United States having heard
of the successful operation of the locomotive in
England, the Delaware & Hudson Canal Com-
pany, in 1828, sent its agent to England to buy
rails and contract for four locomotives. This
was the inaugural effort of railway operations in
America. Of the four locomotives, the “America”
arrived in New York in January, 1829, and was
the first machine of its kind in the United States.
Among the other engines
covered by the order was
the “Stourbridge Lion,”
which reached America in
May, 1829. This was the
first locomotive put in oper-
º ation in the United States.
ãºi The event occurred on the
9th of August, 1829. Horatio
Allen was the engineer.
The “Stourbridge Lion.” 1829. º
Delaware & Hudson Canal Rail- Other locomotives were
road. constructed and placed in
successful operation in England during the period
I have named; thus, one (in 1829) for the Shutt
End Railway, at Kingswinford.
It was at this time—September 15th, 1830–
that the event which so impressed the world
occurred, namely, the opening of the Liverpool
& Manchester Railway. So late as 1829 the own-
ers of that property were still in doubt as to
whether to use horses, or locomotives, or station-
ary engines with endless chains. To solve their
doubts they determined to have a competitive

EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 29
trial of locomotives. It occurred near Manches-
ter in the latter part of the year 1829. The
reward was twenty-five hundred dollars for the
locomotive which should prove to be the most
successful. Three machines competed, among
them Stephenson’s “Rocket,” which deservedly
received the preference. These experiments con-
vinced those interested of the value of the loco-
Stephenson’s “Rocket.” 1830. This engine hauled the first train at the open-
ing of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway.
motive, and they accordingly gave Stephenson
orders for seven other machines, all of which
took part in the great procession that attended
the opening of the Liverpool & Manchester road,
on the 15th of September, 1830. The “North-
umbrian,” which had a speed of thirty-six miles
an hour, headed the procession as being in all
respects the best of its type.

30 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
George Stephenson and his son Robert attained
great influence in connection with railway sub-
jects because of their ingenuity and talents. They
are said to have improved the steam blast, which
enabled the “Rocket" to make sufficient steam
to haul a passenger train at the rate of thirty-
five miles an hour.” The wheels of this locomo-
tive had little side play and on this account it
was necessary that the track should not vary
greatly from a straight line. This necessity
added greatly to the cost of the road. Other
European countries copied from the English, and
the Stephenson type of locomotive became the
standard for many years. The American form
of locomotive was much superior to those used
abroad, in this that it saved in cost of road.
Indeed, as I have pointed out elsewhere, the peo-
ple of the United States did not have money to
build the expensive roads adopted abroad, and had
they been unable to operate their cheap roads
because of inability to invent anything more
adaptable than the Stephenson locomotive, rail-
way construction in this country would have
been very light.
About the time of which I have been writing
Stephenson constructed the locomotive known as
the “Planet,” which became, in a measure, the
standard for that period. It had inside cylinders,
placed under the smoke-stack in front of the
machine. In 1831 the necessities of the freight
* This speed is stated by Stretton not to have exceeded
twenty-nine miles an hour. Authorities differ.
EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 31
traffic of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway
requiring locomotives with greater power, the
“Samson’’ and “Goliath" were constructed to
meet this requirement. The machines weighed
ten tons and had cylinders fourteen by sixteen
inches. The driving wheels were four feet and six
inches in diameter.” This was justly esteemed a
great advance over anything previously construc-
ted. It is recounted of the “Samson’’ as a re-
markable evidence of its strength, that it was
able to convey a freight train of one hundred and
sixty-four tons between Manchester and Liver-
pool at the rate of twenty miles an hour. And in
this connection it must not be forgotten that
freight trains in Great Britain do not run at the
slow rate of speed they do in America. The
freight or goods car of Great Britain is light and
the load to correspond. They are hauled across
the country at a rate which American managers
have only permitted for passenger trains.
With the opening of the Liverpool & Manches-
ter the railway system of the world was formally
inaugurated. However, George Stephenson con-
tinued to be much sought after in opening new
roads; as, for instance, the Glasgow & Garnkirk
Railway, in 1831. The engines used at that time
* These engines had originally four driving wheels, but the
Oscillation when in motion necessitated the addition of two
Small trailing wheels back of the fire-box. Thus the first inside
Cylinder freight engine upon six wheels was constructed.
Later, in 1834, the “Atlas” was built with six coupled driving
Wheels and cylinders sixteen by twenty inches, and became the
first machine of this description with inside cylinders.
32 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
had cylinders eleven by sixteen inches, with driv-
ing wheels four feet and six inches in diameter.
It was at this period—on the 4th of January,
1831—that the owners of the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad offered a reward of four thousand dollars
to the manufacturer of the best American-built
locomotive of three and one-half tons weight,
capable of drawing fifteen tons at fifteen miles
an hour on a dead level. It was stipulated, more-
over, that it should burn anthracite coal, and
have four wheels coup-
led together. The pre-
mium was finally
awarded to Davis &
Gartner, manufactur-
ers, of Pennsylvania.”
This firm first con-
structed what was
ºfflº known as the “grass-
Gºër hopper” pattern of loco-
motive some of which
The “York.” 1831. The winner of Were in UISG OL1 the Bal-
;... * * * * timore & Ohio Railroad
*The locomotive they constructed was known as the “York.”
, Quite a number of manufacturers were meanwhile actively get-
ting into position to meet the wants of the community in this
new direction. It was with this thought that the Baldwin
works were started, in 1832. Many manufactories in Great
Britain, among others Stephenson & Company; Fenton, Mur-
ray & Company; E. Bury & Company; Galloway & Company;
Sharp, Roberts & Company; Tayleur & Company; and Forrester
& Company, destined to exert a most marked influence on the
construction and value of the locomotive, had already been
started.
º
%
(AE lºsſ
C
ſ º-F














EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 33
as late as 1863. It is noted of the “Comet,” built
at this time, that its smoke-stack was thirteen
feet in height. It was about this time in railway
construction that there sprung up the question of
the relative value of four and six-wheeled drivers.
The advocates of each claimed superior qualities
for their machine. For many years those who
advocated the four-wheeled disputed the useful-
ness of the other, but ultimately the great value
of the six-wheeled locomotive for particular uses
was demonstrated beyond controversy.
Train on Charleston & Hamburgh Railroad, South Carolina. The locomo-
tive was called “Best Friend.” It was built in 1830, and soon after exploded
through neglect of the fireman. When re-built it was called the “Phoenix.”
If the public were slow to appreciate the value
of the locomotive for commercial purposes prior
to the opening of the Liverpool & Manchester
railway, it was fitfully alive after that period.
Indeed, from being coldly indifferent it became
over zealous; from being loth to invest at all, it
became insanely anxious to place its money at
any risk. It thus came about that promoters
had no difficulty in finding means to further their
enterprises, no matter how wild or visionary
they were. Little attention was given to the
S Vol. 1

34 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
probable dividend-paying capacity of the ven-
ture, but everything offered was quickly taken.
The result was as might have been expected, a
great financial crash, which for the moment par-
alyzed ventures of all kinds, good and bad. After-
ward, when confidence was restored, progress was
carried on along more conservative lines. Spec-
ulation during the period referred to was not
confined to railways, but characterized, more or
less, everything that affected these properties, or
that was used in connection with them. Thus
ſº
iſ a sºlº
º--
…”
- i fºr
t
ſ N fºll -e
Fºº-EFFF N'Rºssel Rºss
ii) | º § SSSSSSSSSS
- W. | § i`
tº S º
| - | §s SSSSSS
- E [−-I I-
- àf Fășs Sº SSSSSS （SSSSS
ºmº, ſº º t sº ºx SS º
- =ºlº <\l }; XN d sº § § 8 8 ==
EEsº lººs ...,' º § & Ex. º *
- =#|}<=SINº.2% NY: §§§SSSSSS §SS
lºſińſ:######4.
d º % $si NA. It
tºº-
tº
W3
First Truck Engine, “Brother Jonathan.” Mohawk & Hudson Railroad. 1832,
manufacturers of locomotives sprung up out of
all proportion to the needs of the time. How-
ever, the hardship which befell these ventures
was not so disastrous nor far-reaching as in the
case of railroads, where thousands of people lost
all they had.
At first every question which arose in con-
nection with the operation of railroads was nec-
essarily open to discussion. Nothing had been
demonstrated, and in the haste and confusion of
the moment the most visionary projects found
advocates or acquiescent followers. This was the














f; VOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 35
case with questions regarding the most practicable
gauge for locomotives and, therefore, for railroads.
At first the gauge in England was uniformly four
feet, eight and one-half inches, following that of
the colliery tramways. In Scotland there were
a few with a gauge of four feet six. However,
when the Great Western Railway was built,
Brunel, its eminent engineer, determined to adopt
a gauge of seven feet, and invited the construc-
tion of locomotives on that basis. Parliament
having permitted this gauge, many other vari-
ations occurred in quick succession until every
variety of theory had been exhausted. One broad
gauge locomotive of the Great Western had a
driving wheel ten feet in diameter—the largest
ever known.
At first it was maintained that the broad gauge
locomotive was capable of greater speed and
uniformity of operation than any other. This
view remained uncontroverted until it was dem-
onstrated that the four feet, eight and one-half
inch locomotive was capable of even greater
speed than the broad gauge engine, while in all
other respects it was fully up to the broad gauge
machine in convenience and serviceability. In
1846 a broad gauge engine of the Great Western
Railway attained a speed of seventy-eight miles.
In 1847 a standard engine of the London and
Northwestern Railway made seventy-nine miles
per hour. When we remember that our own
period is thought to be peculiarly noted for the
Speed of its locomotives, the performances made
38 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
in 1846 and 1847 must incline us to be more appre-
ciative of early railway builders.” The driving
wheels of the London and Northwestern engine
were eight feet six—the largest ever put under a
standard machine. Those of its rival, the Great
Western, were eight feet in diameter. The cyl-
inders of the latter were eighteen by twenty-four.
It was said to evaporate three hundred cubic feet
of Water per hour and the minimum fuel it con-
sumed was two and one-half pounds per horse
power per hour.
When it was demonstrated that the loco-
motives of the narrow gauge of the London and
Northwestern Railway could make as good or
even better time than those of the Great West-
ern, both the public and the owners of the rail-
ways were inclined to favor the former and to
insist upon its being made the standard. This,
because the conveniences of traffic required uni-
formity. Moreover, it was much cheaper, even
relatively to construct and afterwards to operate
the narrow gauge road than the broad gauge.
These and other things, all potent in themselves,
caused the broad gauge roads to rapidly fall into
disrepute, but the idea was not completely and
finally abandoned in England until 1892 when
*In this connection it should not be forgotten that the track
in 1846 and 1847 was much inferior to that of to-day. The fish
plate had not then been introduced; moreover, the art of track
laying, which has reached so high a plane, was in its infancy,
Comparatively. The absence of heavy rails and other appli-
ances we consider so necessary to a perfect track rendered heavy
locomotives, and fast running matters of great difficulty in 1846.
F. VOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 37
rt
the Great Western railway changed the last of
its broad gauge engines to conform to the stand-
ard system.
While the broad gauge delusion occasioned
owners the loss of incalculable sums in the con-
struction of broad gauge lines and, subsequently,
in their operation, it is not probable the lesson
could have been learned in any less expensive
way. In all new enterprises, if men cannot dem-
onstrate their ideas on the spot, they will be
disputed, and thus time only can determine their
accuracy. An incidental advantage that accrued
from the battle of the gauges, or grew out of
the sharp rivalry it occasioned, was the great
improvement in the locomotive which the intense
study of the situation and its needs and the effort
to distance competitors suggested. This was
some compensation to the public and to owners
for the vast sums expended on the broad gauge
roads. The struggle between the rival factions
would have terminated much earlier than it did,
it is believed, except for the lack of tact dis-
played by railway managers, notably Bury, of the
London and Birmingham railway, who, running
to the other extreme, insisted upon building and
operating engines with very small driving wheels.
These locomotives showed very poorly in com-
parison with the magnificent engines on the Great
Western, and prejudiced people in favor of the
latter. However, the struggle was unequal and,
although the Great Western continued to operate
Some of its broad gauge locomotives as late as
38 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
1892, the superiority of the standard gauge had
manifested itself many years before.
As another illustration of the difficulties in
* which the early
i ſ projects were beset
by the lack of pre- .
; cedent or experi-
º . . ; ; ; ence, the case of
i li boiler construction
#Ti may be cited.
(º H. : * Thus, the length of
; tº: the boiler of the
locomotive could
§ G) º not at the begin-
ning be determined

The “Traveler.” 1832. The first distinctive by known utility.
freight engine. It was built by Phineas It, Was only when
Davis, and remained in service until 1893.
3. the smoke-stacks
of these machines were found to be quickly
burned out, that it was surmised the escaping
heat must be unduly great. Tests were accord-
ingly made and this was found to be the case.
To stop the waste the boiler was lengthened so
as to secure increased heating surface and more
complete consumption Öf the fuel.
At the close of the ninteenth century we find
that the growth of the locomotive is not yet
ended. It is impracticable to give a minute
account of its evolution with illustrations of the
various locomotives upon which changes or
improvements have been made. As a matter of
fact, probably a locomotive has never been
EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 39
manufactured that was not intended to be in
Some respects an improvement over those pre-
ceding it. The growth of the locomotive is,
however, marked by a few great and important
improvements. These it is not only possible,
but will be interesting and valuable to notice.
The series of pictures embraced in this chapter
the reader will, upon examination, discover to be
progressive in these practical details. I have not
attempted to portray every representative engine
ºº::=E-º-º-º-º:
The “Pioneer.” 1836. One of Baldwin's early engines.
from the beginning, but only such as are neces-
sary to the illustration of the idea I wish to
convey. -
In regard to the details of locomotives, they
represent, in a measure, their evolution. Some
of these details I have incorporated in a table in
the Appendix hereto, where particulars may be
seem at a glance and quickly analyzed.* The
table embraces a statement of the weight of par-
ticular locomotives, number of driving wheels,
diameter and stroke of cylinders, and other
* See Appendix A.

40 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
important particulars relating to representative
machines, commencing with that constructed by
Trevithick in 1803. The table is not exhaustive,
but sufficiently so for practical purposes. With
the aid of this table the reader will be able to
trace from year to year the vigorous growth of
this great engine of civilization. He will, more-
Over, be grateful, I feel assured, for this con-
densation, which will enable him to escape the
laborious delving through many dull pages of
print which would otherwise be necessary.
->
The “Samson.” 1838. Built by Timothy Hackworth of England. In service
in a coal mine in Nova Scotia over forty years.
With this brief explanation, I will take up the
more important characteristics of the locomo-
tives in the general order they have been evolved
from time to time. It will not occupy much
space in telling, while it is necessary to a knowl-
edge of the growth of the machine.
To commence, them, the reader will not have
failed to remark how exceedingly simple the
locomotive was that Trevithick constructed in

EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 41
1803. The wheels of this engine, four in number,
were four feet, six inches in diameter; the boiler
was six feet long and contained a return flue
tube; the engine had one horizontal cylinder
eight inches in diameter, with a stroke of four
feet, six inches. This engine had smooth wheels
which were made to run upon Smooth rails, as
already noticed.
*7. § al
ºft
º |ºš/šić
|j}|||||sſºiſmº
%||º
Zºº; ſº Gºº
º
º
&
k
}:
j
E
§
§ lºſſº
a. -- ->
*ATZNººS
cº-ºcºSS
- --- ------" +*
-* - - --
* —- -- - ---
Matthews' Locomotive. Utica & Schenectady Railroad. 1840.
The locomotive constructed by Blenkinsop had
a rack rail and cog wheel driving gear, and was
supported by four wheels of three feet, six inches
diameter; it had two vertical cylinders eight
inches in diameter with a stroke of twenty
inches. This engine evaporated eight cubic feet
of water per hour, consumed seventy-five pounds
of coal per hour, and could haul ninety-four tons
on a level track at a rate of three and one-half
miles an hour.








42 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Hedley's locomotive, “Puffing Billy,” had a
wrought-iron boiler with a return flue, and two
vertical cylinders; the piston rods were con-
nected to beams and motion was communicated
to the four smooth driving wheels by means of
toothed-gear; the exhaust steam was discharged
into the chimney by two blast-pipes.
The first locomotive built by George Stephen-
son, called the “Blucher,” ran upon four Smooth
wheels three feet in diameter, which were placed

* - see s * * *** * * ** - * * * * * sº e º sº tº $ tº sº, º º a º nº º m º ºr sº º ºr ºm º ºn tº º
The “Camel.” 1848. Built by Ross Winans of Baltimore. A chute was pro-
vided for feeding coal through the top of the fire-box.
five feet apart between centers. Its boiler was
eight feet long, thirty-four inches in diameter,
with a flue-tube passing through it of twenty
inches diameter. It had two vertical cylinders
eight inches in diameter with a twenty-four inch
stroke, the power of which was communicated
by cross beams and connecting rods to cranks on
the spindles of spur wheels, which in turn acted
upon the large cog wheels on the engine axles.
This engine was without springs and the cog
wheel gear soon became worn with use.
EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 43
The pictures of these four engines, just
described, accompany this, and, taking their
machinery as a basis, we may go forward and
note some of the more important changes which
have since occurred in the evolution of the
engine.
In following this description, or evolution, the
reader is asked not to attach too much import-
ance to dates or places. It must be remembered
in this connection that many of the improve-
ments made in the construction of locomotives
T
º
:
Øs.
S S$
The “Dragon.” 1848. The first engine built for burning Cumberland coal,
and the first to have a rocking grate. The grate was operated from the foot-
board, which became the general custom afterward.
occurred almost simultaneously in different
countries. In describing a change, therefore,
that we will say occurred in the United States
in 1846, it may be possible this change was
made in England or Scotland in 1845. Whether
this is so or not is of little account, or whether
the discovery was made by an Englishman, an
American or a Frenchman. It is the fact I
seek. That has an interest and value to all
mankind. The other is merely local and tem-
porary. Let me illustrate this. The American

44 * RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
locomotive has exceeded the English built engine
in its ability to haul a big load at a high
rate of speed. Why is this so? Because of its
gigantic boiler, high steam pressure and enor-
mous heating surface. This great boiler creates
a vast storehouse for the generation of steam,
unknown, until later years, in any other ma-
chines in the world, while the bogies enable
it to wind in and out on a track which the
rigid frames, so long the predominating pattern
in other countries, would not have been able
- d :
º || ||
ºl-f s:#se: ;
º i––––.” #) | ths
\{\º-seºsºlſº Fº
º: º-sºº R.R. §ºllº
º #TE; jºttlºš
ſºlº ºbs ==º
ºf sº • jºseºgſ tº
º ºg E-
tºº?
|||ſi §§ & - : £-E=== º ~ º
º- #ºsºft#ſº |\
º
The “John Stevens.” Camden & Amboy Railway. 1849.
to traverse. The superiority of the American
engine in this particular is generally recognized.
It grew out of the necessities of transportation
in the United States, mainly our great distances,
and heavy loads and sharply curved tracks. The
only material fact in all this to the student of
the world is to know there is such a locomotive
in successful operation, what it is like, and
wherein it is superior to others in the accom-
plishment of certain results. Whether this loco-
motive was constructed in Schenectady or Glas-
gow is of no importance to the world's student,












EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 45
For these reasons, in my description of the
evolution of the locomotive (and, indeed, of the
machinery department generally), I shall strive
to describe as nearly as I can the facts merely,
without occupying too much space over unim-
portant details of place, and without straining
to determine to whom the fact first became
apparent.
In this connection I will mention, what young
men may not know, that the practice of desig-
nating particular engines by Specific names was
First Ten-Wheeled Passenger Engine. “Thatcher Perkins.” 1863.
followed in the early history of railroads. This
has now given place to the use of numbers.
Proceeding to details, let us first take up the
cylinder. Surely there is nothing about the
machine of greater importance than this.
CYLINDERS.—The first locomotive designed by
Trevithick, in 1803, had but one cylinder, placed
horizontally on the inside. Up to 1826 the cylin-
ders were placed vertically, half within the
boiler. In 1826, when the engine “Experiment”
was designed by George Stephenson for use on
the Stockton and Darlington Railway, inclined

46 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
cylinders were placed outside of the boiler. The
first locomotives with horizontal cylinders de-
signed by Stephenson were built in 1830,-the
“Northumbrian" had outside cylinders and the
“Planet” inside cylinders.” In 1836 Tayleur and
Company designed locomotives with cylinders
fourteen inches in diameter with only a twelve-
inch stroke, but the short stroke did not work to
advantage.
ae
ãº,...º.
%
-
gºşNiš s HºN
£Rºſ-i: § Illuſ
g
| . Nº.
E. ºS
s: -
# fºſſº
N
E.---
º
The First Passenger Mogul. 1876. An engine with six drivers and a bogie
truck. Built by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad for exhibition at the Centen-
nial exposition.
In 1878 Mr. F. W. Webb, of the London and
Northwestern Railway, invented and constructed
a compound locomotive having three cylinders.
The introduction of this principle in connection
with locomotives has caused much controversy.
Those who favor the compound engine claim
that by the utilization of the steam first in the
high pressure cylinders and then again in the
low pressure a saving of fuel is effected. On
* “Inside” and “outside’’ cylinders are explained in detail
in connection with the “Description of the Locomotive.”










EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 47
the other hand, those who do not favor the
compound engine claim no saving whatever is
effected, and that what the compound locomotive
can do, the other can do as well, or better. How-
ever, invention did not stop with Mr. Webb, and
compound locomotives with two, three and four
cylinders, variously arranged, have been designed
and built.” Others have taken it up and, believing
in it, have gone on with their experiments; but,
while many locomotives of this description are
manufactured and under successful operation,
controversy as regards the merits of the respect-
ive machines is in no wise lessened. The man-
ufacturers of the compound locomotives are
more explicit, however, than formerly, claiming
that a certain percentage of fuel is saved, even
going so far as to state the percentage. This is
contradicted by those who claim nothing is
saved. Moreover, the latter claim that the com-
pound cylinder increases first cost and otherwise
complicates the machinery of the locomotive.
The advocates of the compound engine assert,
among other things, that it will keep a train
moving on a heavy grade where an ordinary high
pressure engine would slip and be stalled; this,
in the case of the former, because of the more
uniform pressure on the crank pins through-
out the stroke. Another advantage claimed
for it is that, because of the better utilization
of the steam, less demand is made upon the
boiler, and in consequence of the mild exhaust
required to maintain sufficient steam-pressure,
*The subject of Compound Locomotives is treated of in great
detail and with profuse illustrations in Vol. XII.
48 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
no unconsumed fuel is carried through the flues,
the necessary results being obtained with slower
combustion. These claims are backed up by
manufacturers by continued construction and
improvement of locomotives of the compound
type. Out of the controversy between the rival
types much good may possibly accrue to the
world as in the case of the war of the gauges.
LINK MoTION.—The first locomotive in which
the valve gear was fitted with the shifting link
motion was designed by William T. James, of
New York, in 1832. The valve gear of the

e-º-º: —E-Yº Stephenson en-
e” §:/" gines was known
º) sº/ .” as the fork motion.
The eccentric rods
! . of this machine
i...º.º. were provided with
motive, 1835. forks which en-
gaged with the pins fastened to the arms of the
valve rods. In 1842 William Howe, an employe
of R. Stephenson and Company, devised a curved
link to take the place of the forks.” This was
K.7
the first introduction of the link motion in
* “The link motion was a separate invention in England in
1842, and it was introduced by William Howe and fitted to the
North Midland Company’s engine. On the other hand, it is now
equally certain that the “James,’ designed and built by W. T.
James, of New York, was the first locomotive in the world fitted
with the link motion. It had a vertical boiler, four wheels
(not coupled), and inclined cylinders driving a spur wheel
shaft directly above the driving axle, and was constructed in
1832, or ten years before the English invention.”—Mr. Clement
B. Strettom.
EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 49
England. It also provided ^each ºoz-
for cutting off steam at dº /2/w/foo"
various parts of the stroke. (º)
The “George W. John- Howe's Link Motion, or gearing
son” is said to have been º: ºne axle of
the first engine having a double fire-box, built in
1831. The valve gear of this engine was also the
first instance of what was afterward known as
º the “V” hook.
D REVERSING GEAR.—
New features, which
were extensively
copied, were intro-
duced in this connec-
tion by the Baldwin
Locomotive Works.
It is noticeable in
connection with the
“Geo. W. Johnson.” 1830. The first loco- Constru ction Of its
motive having a double fire box. first engine, the “Old
Ironsides,” built in 1832, that Mr. Baldwin did
most of the work himself, capable mechanics and
suitable tools not being available.
WHEELs. – In 1833 Stephenson took out a
patent providing for the construction of six-
wheeled engines, with no flanges on the middle
pair of wheels. This was found to facilitate their
passing around curves, and the practice of omit-
ting the flange from the front or middle drivers
on locomotives with six or more driving wheels
is still in vogue.*
º
E MºD
|
|III
İ
Til
Iſeº |-}=
|
Wºy Wºº)
* For details regarding the manufacture of wheels, see vol-
ume “Train Service.”
4. Vol. 1 -







50
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
BoGIE.—Financial conditions in America being
greatly different from those in Europe, it soon
ºf
º:
[-]
==º
Gº- ºx-
#EE:#ERITE tºº
tiº #
iºn
T
=
|
§
#|llº"ill EE
af +\inftElſe|HTSAH ſºlº
Nººk
º
É
=
#%
1šič
[[IIIHiſ
|
º-º-º:
c
w"
N|
TVºl. SJH
*Old Ironsides.” 1832. The first loco-
motive built by Matthias W. Baldwin,
founder of the Baldwin Locomotive
WorkS.
became evident that
money could not be
obtained with which to
to carry on the work of
constructing railways
and maintaining the
straight tracks and
easy grades of the
English railways. Al-
though the four-wheel
bogie principle was in-
troduced by Hedley &
Blacket, as referred to
elsewhere, it was not used, nor the idea developed
afterward on English railways, until its use in
America emphasized, over and over again, its
enormous value in
railway operations.
In 1832 John B.
Jervis built the
locomotive “Ex-
periment” with a
four-wheel bogie
truck, which en-
abled these ma-
chines to run s-
around curves of
|
Kºś2
very sharp radius,
thus greatly less-
ening the cost of bogie,
The “Experiment,” built by John B. Jervis,
in 1832, and said to have been the first engine
in America constructed with a four-wheeled
























EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 51
construction. Jervis believed engines should be
made especially for light rails and crooked roads,
and the adoption of the swiveling or bogie truck
was the result. It was a great step, of enormous
value to railroads, and its merits are now appre-
ciated all over the world.
EQUALIZING LEVERS.–The first engine with
equalizing levers are said to have been built
by Henry R. Campbell of Philadelphia, in 1837,
called the “Hercules.” The engine was built
The “Hercules.” 1837. Built by Eastwich & Harrison. The first engine
having equalizing levers.
with four drivers and a four-wheel truck in front,
and under the rear end of the main frame a sep-
arate frame was placed for the two axles—one
pair in front and one behind the fire-box. This
frame supported the weight of the engine by
means of strong springs and was held in position
by a pedestal fastened to the main frame. The
Centers of the latter vibrated upon a journal slid-
ing vertically in the pedestal. By means of the
equalizing lever the weight of the engine is

52 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
equally distributed on all the driving wheels,
even during their vertical oscillations when pass-
ing over imperfect track, thus greatly overcom-
ing the tendency of locomotives to leave the
track when the latter is rough.
BoILERS.–The early locomotive boilers were
copied from vertical and horizontal stationary
boilers and were not adapted especially to the
The “Campbell,” 1837. The first standard American eight-wheel
locomotive.
locomotive. Among other improvements came
the locomotive type of boiler, with its special
form of fire box. Undoubtedly the development
of this type has had a very important bearing
upon locomotive construction as a whole.*
FLUES.–In 1842 Robert Stephenson lengthened
the flues of locomotives from nine to fourteen
feet, in order to reduce the amount of heat going
* Mr. Robert Quayle.

EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 53
out of the smokestack. By this means the heat
in the stack was reduced from seven hundred
seventy-three degrees to four hundred forty-two
degrees, which overcame to a great extent the
destruction of the chimneys and smoke boxes.
SAND BLAST.-An improvement in this con-
nection was introduced by Messrs. Holt and
Gresham, by which a jet of steam is admitted
to the sand ejector, thus forcing a small and uni-
form supply of sand from the sand box and pro-
jecting it in a powerful and constant current to
the point of contact between the wheel and rail.
This prevented the great waste which had pre-
viously occurred when the sand was allowed to
simply run through the sand pipe, from box to
rail. The same result is now accomplished by
the use of air instead of steam.
FRAME.-The matter of engine frames is also
an important detail. In the first locomotive
designs there was a disposition manifest to place
the boiler and machinery of the locomotive upon
a platform built over the running gear. Later
in such engines as the “Sampson” we find frames
and platforms dispensed with and the pedestals
for the driving box attached directly to the
boiler. Later the locomotive frame appears, and
in this country has developed into what is known
as the “bar” frame, while in Europe the “plate”
frame is used.*
FUEL. — Early English locomotives were de-
signed to burn coke for fuel. Early American
* Mr. Robert Quayle.
54 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
locomotives burned wood. Warious experiments
were made with a view to the use of coal.
Between the years 1853 and 1860 numerous
engines with complicated boilers and fire boxes
and special forms of grates were constructed to
this end, but experiments at length proved that
all the changes necessary to the advantageous
use of coal were a brick arch placed in the ordi-
nary fire box, below the tubes, a deflector or
baffle-plate within the door, a fire door by which
the supply of cold air could be properly regu-
lated, and a steam jet or blower in the chimney.
In Russia, America and other countries, crude oil
is more or less used. In localities where it can
be obtained cheaply it has taken the place of all
other kinds of fuel, and the fire boxes of the
locomotives have been adapted thereto.
INJECTOR.—This device was first used in Eng-
land, in 1859, on the London & Northwestern
Railway engine “Problem.” It was designed and
patented by H. J. Giffard, a French engineer, who
discovered that steam from the boiler rushing
through an injector, had enough force to force
water from the tender, with the condensed
steam, into the boiler.” This was one of the
greatest discoveries that has been made in per-
fecting the locomotive.
WHISTLE.—The steam whistle was first sug-
gested to George Stephenson by the manager of
the Leicester & Swannington Railway, in 1833,
on account of an accident caused by one of the
* For illustrations of an injector, see pages 77 and 78.
EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 55
company's engines running into a horse and cart
at a crossing. Stephenson, on his attention being
called to the need, had a trumpet, operated by
steam, manufactured and placed on the engine.
The present steam whistle is a development of
the trumpet.
CAB.-The cab of the locomotive, which has
always been considered an essential part of it in
America, was not esteemed necessary in Great
Britain. The reason of this difference, it is prob-
able, was because the distances to be traversed in
ſ
ch
| d d ſ £:
ºft|ji=iºi. Tº
§§ \-sº #1:... ººkſ ºf: § º #2.22
§§ºſºſºly. | § . Jº
tººls==l 3. %
sº g ſº ſ ſº §§ º Žsº £º £ºxº~<S ſº
sº S; YUEº wº tºtſwººj
*Sºy Sº tºſ ºbviº
wºm
2===
The “DeWitt Clinton.” It is said to have hauled the first passenger train
ever run in America. The cab on the engine is the first one ever constructed.
Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, 1831.
America are much greater and the fact that the
thermometer falls much lower than it does in
England. The English, moreover, looked upon
it as an obstruction and an embarrassment to
the engineer in the performance of his duty.
This objection they are now inclined to believe
not to be well founded, and as new locomotives
are constructed the managers of the British lines
will be induced to supply them with a cab some-
thing like that used in the United States and
Canada. The first locomotive built with a cab





56 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
is said to have been the “DeWitt Clinton,” on
the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad in 1831. The
American style of cab was introduced into
England in 1889, when Mr. T. W. Worsdell, loco-
motive superintendent of the Northeastern Rail-
way, designed and built a locomotive fitted with
a comfortable cab. *
CowcATCHER OR PILOT.-This device is consid-
ered a fundamental part of the locomotive on
nearly every road in America. It is, however,
hardly known in Great Britain and many other
countries. When railroads were first operated
in the United States many of them were unfenced.
Indeed, this is the case more or less to-day. Most
of the highway crossings, moreover, were at
grade. Track obstructions were, therefore, fre-
quent and in order to prevent them so far as
possible from derailing the train, the cowcatcher,
or pilot, was introduced to clear the track. It is,
of course, a makeshift and, while it often fails to
accomplish the purpose for which it was designed,
it is in the main beneficial.
SNowPLow.—This, like the pilot, has a specific
object, namely, to clear the track of Snow and
ice. Many forms have been used for this pur-
pose; but where there is great need for a device
of this kind, the cylindrical or rotary form of
snowplow carried on separate running gear ahead
of the locomotive, is very generally favored by
Tailroad managers. It is placed on the front end
of a car containing a boiler and engine for oper-
ating the machine, and is encased in a sheet iron
EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 57
box having an opening at the top. The engine in
the car causes the machine or plow to revolve and
its rotary motion forces the snow from the track
through the opening in the top and thus entirely
away from the track. The car is attached to the
front of the train locomotive and propelled
thereby. In ordinary cases, however, when the
snow is not closely packed or very deep, the
engine pilot or cowcatcher is covered with sheet
iron and used as a Snowplow.
HEADLIGHTS.—Headlights were placed on loco-
motives as early as 1830, being at first crude
affairs in the shape of a fire basket hung on
the front of the engine. They were
not, however, designed to afford the
engineer a view of the track. In-
deed, the general absence of grade 49%
crossings on English roads have
rendered the use of headlights and
cowcatchers less necessary than in
America. In England to-day the
small lights carried on the front of ...º.
the locomotive are merely for the º *
purpose of designating the different . . .”.”
classes of trains. In the early his- signal.
tory of American railways night trips were
avoided as much as possible. When the carrying
of the mails necessitated night service, it was
considered a great hardship. Among the first
provisions for a headlight in this country was a
fire of pine knots surrounded by sand, built on
an open platform car which moved in front of

58 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the locomotive. When it was found that the
transportation of freight by night was a great
gain in time and diminished the chances of col-
lisions, the Boston and Worcester railroad com-
pany prepared, in 1840, a bright headlight with
reflectors for the locomotive which ran during
the night. From this developed the silver-plated
copper reflectors fitted with lamps and carried in
front of the smokestack. Double headlights, so
placed that the rays from the two lamps cross
each other, are found advantageous for affording
a view of the track in passing around curves.
Electricity will doubtless in time take the place
of other devices for lighting the track; but
excessive cost, here as elsewhere, in connection
with the use of electrical appliances by railways,
is an obstacle which must first be overcome.*
BELL. — An improvement on the ordinary
method of ringing the locomotive bell by hand
with a rope, is the automatic bell ringer operated
by air or steam. This ingenious invention, at once
a measure of safety and a labor saving device, is
now so generally used as not to attract notice.
Such are some of the more important improve-
ments made in the locomotive. In another chap-
ter I propose to take up the Modern Locomotive,
and by descriptions and engravings, illustrate its
important parts. This description will also serve
in an important respect to further illustrate the
evolution of the locomotive, as will be seen by
comparing the diagram therein of a modern loco-
motive with that invented by Trevithick.
*Acetylene gas, more modern than the others, is more or less
used for lighting passenger cars and headlights.
DESCRIPTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE, AS PER DLAGRAM HEREWITH
3.
Pilot. 67. Cylinder Casing. 127. Boiler Jacket. 192. Ständ Pipe. . . . . . -
IDTaw Bar Plate. 68. Cylinder Cocks, 128. Jacket Bands. . . ...' ' 193. Dry Pipe Hangers, . . .
Coupler. 69. Cylinder Cocks Rigging. 129. Hand Rail. . . - 194. Thröttle Pipe. . . . . . . .
Air Signal Hose. 70. Engine Truck. 130. Hand Rail Brackets. 195: Throttle Valiye. . . . --
Air Brake Hose. 71. Engine Truck Wheel. 131. Bell Stand. . - - 196. Throttlé Bell Crank. . . ;
Hose Hangers. 72. Engine Truck Tire. 132. Bell. : . . . . 197: Throttle Stem. . . . . . -
Buffer Beam. 73. Engine Truck Axle. 133, Air Bell Ringer, . ... & 198 Dome. . . . . . . . t
Pilot, Bracket. 74. Engine Truck Brass. 134. Sand BOX, ‘. . . . 199. Dome Cap.
Flagstaff. 75. Engine Truck BOX. 135. Sand Box. LeVer. 200. Dome Qasing. * ,
Arch Bra,Ce. 76. Engine Truck Pedestal. 136. Sand Pipe. ... ..., 201. Safety Valyes. . . . . . . . . . . .
Front, Frame. 7”. Engine Truck Frame. 137. Driving Wheel Tire, 202. Chime. Whistles, “. . . . . .
Cinder Chute.,,. 79. Engine Truck Pedestal 138. Driving Wheel Centers. 203. Whistle Rig. . . . . . . . . . . ;
Cinder Chute Slide. Brace. 139. Ash Pan. 204. "Ventilator. . . . . . . . . "
Extension Front. 79. Engine Truck Frame Brace 140. Driver Brakes. 205. Cab. * ...? ..."
Headlight Step. 80. Engine Truck Equalizer. 141. Driver Spring 8. ... • 206. Air Pump Lubricator.
Signal Lamp. 81. Engine Truck Spring 142. Driver Spring Hangers. 207. Air Gauge. . . ." . . .
Number Plate. Hanger. 143. Driver Spring. Equalizers, 2% Steam Gauge. ,
Smoke Arch DOOf. 82. Engine Truck Spring. 144. Driver Spring Hanger Brace 209. Steam Turret; . .
Smoke Arch Front. 2. Engine Truck Spring Band. 145. Lower Rail of Frame, 210. Injector Throttle. ,
S.aoke Arch Ring. 84. Front Signal Line Cock. 146, Pedestal Brace. 211. Blower Cock. . . . . . . .
Headlight Bracket. 85. Safety Hamger. 147. Driving Box Shoe. . 212. Gauge Lamp; ‘. .
Headlight Case. 86. Truck Brake. 148. Driving Box Wedge. 213. Signal Whistle. . . . . .
Headlight Reflector. 87. Wheel Guard. 149. Wedge Bolt. . . . . . 214. Air Pump Throttle. ..." ."
Headlight Burner. 88. Air Signal Pipe. 150. Driving BOX. . . . 215. Throttlé Eiever. . . .
Cleaning Door. 89. Guides. 151. Driving Axle. . . . . . 216. Sarid Lever. -
Netting. 90. Guide Yoke. 152. Side or Parallel Rod. 217. Reverse Leyer. •
Deflector Plate. 91. Guide Plock. 153. Rod Bush. • -- 218. --Engineer's Brake Valve. . . . . . .
Deflector Plate Adjuster. 92 M lin Rod. 154. Main Rod Connection. 219, . Gauge Cocks, … . . . . . . .
Air Pump Exhaust Pipe. 93. Main Rod Front Strap. 155. Main Frame. 220. Quadrant. . . . ... .
B}OWer. 94. Key. 156. Frame Brace. 221. Cut-Out Valve.
Nozzle Stand. 95. Crosshead Pin. 157. Frame Splice. 222. Fire Door: ' , , ... "
Nozzle Tip. 96. Crosshead. 158. Go Ahead Eccentric. 223. Cylinder Cock Lever.- : * ...
Steam. Pipe. (2.) 97. Front Frame. 153. Back Up Eccentrig. 224. Sight-Feed Lubricator: *%
T or Nigger Head. 98. Air Drum Bracket. 160, Go Ahead Eccentric Rod. 225. Oil Can Shelf, .
Dry Pipe Joint. 99. Air Drum. 16i. Go Ahead Eccentric Strap. 226. Hand Hold. -
Petticoat or Draft Pipe. 100. Pump Connection. 162. Back Up Eccentrig. Rod. 227. Shake Lever Stub. . . . . . .
Stack Base. 101. Train Pipe Connection from 163. Back Up ºccentric Strap. 228. Ash Pan Pampº, Handle. *
Smoke Stack. Main Reservoir. - 164. Grate Shaking Rig. 229. Whistle Signal Valve,
Arch Hand Rail. 102. Valve Stem ROd. 165. Rocking Grates. 230. Brake Valve Reservoir. :
Qil Pipe Plug: 103. Train Pipe. 166. Expansion Pad. 231. Train Pipes, •
Cylinder Saddle. . 104. Wash Out Plugs. 167. Expansion Link. 293.; Train Pipe Hose. -
Steam Chest Casing Cover. 105. Link. 168. Running Board, - 233. Signal Pipe, e. “. .
Steam Chest Cover. 106. Suspension Stud. 169, Air Cylinder Brake Pump. 234. Signal Pipe Hose.
Steam Chest. 107. Link Block Pin. 170. Steam Cylinder Brake 235. Feed Pipe Hänger.
Relief Valve. 108. Link Block. Pump. 236. Feed Pipe. . .
Balance Plate. 163. Eccentric Connection, Back 171. Air Strainer: 287. Feed Pipe Hose.
Balanced Slide Valve. Up. 172. Delivery to Drum. 238. Tail Piece of Frame.
"Valve Yoke. 110. Eccentric Connection, Go 173. Drip Coºk; 239. Cab Bracket. … -
Valve Stena. Ahead. 174. Pump Piston Packing. 240. Counter Balance. Weight.
Valve Stem Packing. 111. Link Hanger. 1%. Pum; ºxhaust Connection, 24 ºngº Brake Triple Valve.
valve Stem Connection. 112. Tumbling Shaft Arm. 176. Pump Stearn Connection. 242. Engine Brake Auxiliary, sº
Valve Seat. 113. Tumbling Shaft. 177. Governor. 243. Connection to Truck Brake. * * : - . . . .
Bridges. 114. Tumbling Shaft, Lever. 178. Pump Valve Case. Cylinder; . ......…...a...: ' 'º ---------.
#º §§ Cock. 115. cºer Balance Spring and I79. Injector. # Rº: *§§§: . . . . . . . - . GOPYRIGHT BYs º
Tønt, Train Lille COC ig. 180. Injector Overflow. . Truck Brake Cut Out Cook. . * ... . . . . in Railway Dušishing
Steam Port8. 116. Rocker. 181. #. Pipe. 246 Bell Ringer Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . THEWORLD RAILWAYPUBLISHING Go
Cylinder. 117. Rocker BOX. 182. Steam Pipe. . 24. Air Pipe to Bell Ringer. . . . . . . . . .
Back Cylinder-Head. 118. Reach Bod. 183. Steam Valve. 248. Air Pipe to Governºr.
Piston Packing. 119. Branch Pipe. 184. Primer. * 249. Main Reservoir Connection. **
Piston Rod. 120, Check Valve Case. 185. Water Valve. * * ... . . . to Air Gägge: ...... . . . . * * * . . . . . -* -
Piston Head. º 121. Check Valve. 186. Fire Box, 250. Train Line:Connection to . . . . . . . . . . . s &-
Piston Packing Rings. 122. FlueS. 187. Tube Sheet. ... • - Air Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . * . . * : - - -
Truck Center Casting. 123. Oil Pipe. 188. Radial Stay BoltS. 251. Glass Water Gauge. ....…. ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - * * : * * * * * - - " - - * - . .
Front Cylinder-Head. 124. Horizontal Boiler Seam. 189. Sling Stay. 252. Main Crank Éinº.º.º.º.º.g. : : *** * * 3- . . ... - gº º-, sº º *:::::::::::: *. * ... " -
;: ####" （š i º ºr THE AMERICAN STE :: * . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . -
º - €1 Løggling. ry Pipe. ſº Iot Bra 3, . . . . . . . * * 3: . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \r : :^: '.... . . . . . . ºil it ''' A.W.H.F #|{}: §N....Sººº...H. ... • ~~f~~~~ • - " . 2, ... & 4
- - - - ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *:::::::::::: gº gº +********* ... exclusively for Kirkman’s “SOIENCE OF RAILWAYs.”
*: Particularizing the differen º 'of the löcomotive an givingt *:
*": . º, ...< * , - º º, º 'º' :: * : * ~ *.
; * ~~
Motive power Department. •. It is at once a Chart and an Encyclopædia, each part of the locomotive being given a number so that it
guickly referred to. . . . . . . . . . . -
* * *... * * * * -
• , ; *.
* - " .. 2
--- - - + - -
** ** : – sº, : - • ?
































C H A P T E R II.
DESCRIPTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
The machinery of the locomotive is so vast and
involved that its working and details can not be
clearly explained in print, and to attempt it is to
tire the reader and dull his enthusiasm without
enlightening his understanding. The accompany-
ing illustrations, however, will make plain what
type is not able, unaided, to do. Great care has
been taken to make these cuts so full and clear
that nothing which can be portrayed in this man-
ner may be wanting to afford the reader a clear
understanding of his subject.
Taking the chapter as a whole, the inquirer
may derive from it a very intelligent idea of the
construction of the locomotive and its working;
but to do this, the matter must be closely and
exhaustively studied. It must be studied as schol-
ars study their lessons—consecutively and pains-
takingly—not hurried nor cursorily.
The accompanying cuts portraying the loco-
motive (some fifty in number), taken in connec-
tion with other illustrations embodied herein
(of locomotives), leave nothing to be said on
the subject. In pursuing the theme, it will
help the reader to a more clear conception of
(59)
Side View of Locomotive,
1 Main barrel of boiler. 2 Fire box. 3 Ash pan. 4 Rear section of frame. 5 Front section of frame. 6 Cylinder.
7 Steam chest. 8 Pilot. 9 Driving wheels. 10 Coupling rod. 11 Main rod. 12 Cross head. 13 valve stem. Tº fink. 15 Ec-
gentric rod; , 16 Rogker shaft. 17 Equalizer, 18 Springs. 19 Cab. 20 Steam dome, 21 Sand box. 32 Beii. 23 Smokestack.
24 Head light, 25 Extension end for spark arrester. 36 Truck wheels. 27 Reversing lever. 28 Reversing lever reach-rod.
29 Injector. 30 Injector feed-pipe. 31 Check valve. 32 Hand rail. 33 Cylinder Cock reach-rod. 34 Boiler hanger to frame.
33 Foot, board. .36 Sand pipe. 37 Overflow pipe. 38 Spring hanger. 35 Hand hole. 40 Cinder gondola. 41 Axles.
42 Grank pin. 43 Headlight step, 44 Number plate. 45 Åutomatic Coupler. , 46 Saddle casting. 47 Whistle. 48 Cylinder
cocks. 49 Forward brace. 50 Fulcrum to equalizer. 77 Truck frame. #1 Lubricator pipe.
NoTE.-In further illustration of the standard American locomotive the reader is referred to the graphic picture
in chapter in this volume devoted to the “Locomotives and Cars of the World, and the Manufacturers Thereof.”
It particularizes the different parts of the locomotive and gives the technicai names by which they are known among
those connected Wish the locomotive department of railroads. It is at once a chart and an encyclopædia, each part of the
locomotive being given a number, so that it may be recognized and quickly referred to.
3

1) ESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 61
the locomotive if, before taking up this chapter
Seriatim, he will go through it and examine be-
forehand the cuts illustrating the locomotive
in detail. Afterward he may take up the chap-
ter as a whole in the order in which it is pre-
sented here.
In another place I have briefly traced the evo-
lution of the locomotive, portraying its growth
from the rude device of Hero down to compar-
atively recent times. In this chapter I propose
to describe the locomotive as it is to-day.
Mankind looks upon the locomotive as com-
plete—as a perfect entity. This, however, is a
mistake. Many problems in connection with it
are still unsolved, or, at least, only partially so.
The difficulty has been, and is, to accomplish
within a compass so limited, within confines so
narrow, in connection with so restless and unsta-
ble a body, what the ingenuity of man seeks in
Vain to attain satisfactorily where every condi-
tion is favorable.
I shall not attempt to point out specifically the
defects of the locomotive, but merely to describe
it as it is. In doing this, however, I shall indi-
rectly call attention to the things yet to be
achieved; at least it will have this effect with
experts and others familiar with the machine
and its limitations. And in relation to the parts
Which are apparently perfect, they are but steps
§ C-F F, ſelf-HF: Tºº
7— (-)--
i!! I ill ill- ...' : 42-y ºce
-
|
i|
re. ----
Longitudinal Section of Boiler.
t-
S
f
-
-
*ºr *
.
:
º
*gº º
ſ
.
-
-
:
Showing throttle, dry-pipe and means of fastening boiler to frame. The steam from the dome above the boiler is
let into the dry-pipe by the opening of the throttle. It passes thence into the live-steam channels, through which it is
carried to the cylinders.
§

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 63
on the ladder leading to something better. It
will, for this reason, do good to keep them prom-
inently in mind. Man grows, and, with him, the
appliances he uses. All that is necessary to
ensure his utensils being bettered is that he
should set to work to make them better. The
second object I have in view in describing the
locomotive is to familiarize those who have no
practical knowledge of it (and never will have)
with its construction and working. Every rail-
road man should possess this knowledge. With-
out it his education is incomplete. Its possession
will broaden his intelligence and render him
more valuable to the com-
pany he serves. This truth *2 !.
is so self-evident that it does @
not need argument or illus-
tration. |
The end sought in a loco-
motive is to draw the load ||:
desired with the least ex-
penditure, including in the # J.
latter material and wear and *63
tear. In the case of passen- 6°
ger engines speed is a fac- &P
tor. In Great Britain it is e Esº - }
also a factor in connection F. *
tº © © ront View of Locomotive.
With freight OT goods trains. For names of the parts shown
e tº above see side view of the
Many railroads are neither locomotive preceding this.
straight nor well constructed
and ballasted. In such cases wear and tear are
intensified.

64 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
In constructing the machine the builder calcu-
lates the cylinder power of the locomotive needed
to move the load required,
Over and above the amount
necessary to overcome
weight of locomotive, fric-
tion, air resistance and the
inertia of the machine. The
ability of the locomotive
driving wheel to carry for-
ward a load (without slip-
Rºtº-k
[[
[−.
Fºr TEE -
ºil a ping) is said to be equal
#H#H# to about one-fourth of the
Rear View of LOCOmotive.
The parts shown above, not
included in the side view of
the locomotive preceding this,
are as follows: 66 Throttle lev-
er. 67 Gauge or water cocks.
68 Water gauge. 69 Fire door,
80 Frame tie. 82 Oil-can shelf.
83 Plugs at arch support pipes.
weight on the rail under
each driver.” In order to
secure tractive power, there-
fore, required weight pro-
portionate to the load to be
hauled must be placed on
the driver. It must also be
remembered that tractive
84 Damper. e e
resistance is dependent upon
Speed. In practice the weight placed on the
axles of the driver, and so on the wheel and rail,
must be proportionate to the strength of the rail;
this limitation, therefore, influences and deter-
* The general practice of builders in America is based on the
theory that for passenger engines the weight on the drivers is
equal to four to one pound of tractive power; freight engines
four and one-fourth to One, and for switch engines four and one-
half to one; or, in other words, in the last case, four and one-half
pounds of weight to every pound of tractive power. The Mas-
ter Mechanics’ Association of America endorses this formula.





DESURIPTION OF LOCOMOTI VE. 65
mines the power of the machine. Speed is further
a factor in this, that it increases the destructive
force on the rails.
Locomotives may be
divided into four classes,
each especially adapted to
the service it is designed to
perform; namely, those used
for switching cars at stations
or yards, freight traffic, ordi-
nary passenger traffic, subur-
ban traffic. Switching en-
gines usually have four or
six driving wheels, upon
which, in most instances, the
whole weight of the loco-
motive rests. The drivers
are made to bear the entire
weight in order to afford the
adhesion necessary for start-
ing heavy trains quickly
and at frequent intervals.
These engines also have
short wheel bases to enable
them to go around sharp
curves and over switches
branching from the main
track at sharp angles. The
wheels are placed near together, usually between
the smoke box and fire box.
base of the switching engine renders it unfit
for general traffic, because of the unsteady
Sectional Views of Locomo-
tive, through the exhaust
chamber (at the left) and the
live ste a m chamber (at the
right). The parts shown above
not included in the side view
of the locomotive preceding
this, are as follows: 52 Lag-
ging. 70 Pipes carrying dry
Steam to live steam channel
(76). 71 Slide valve. 72 Valve
Cover. $3 Piston. 74 Exhaust
nozzle. 75 Channel carrying
exhaust steam from cylinder
to Smoke-stack. 76 Live steam
Channel, Carrying steam to cyl-
inder from dry steam pipe. 78
Truck center pin. 79 Truck
axle Collar.
The short ‘wheel
5 Vol. 1

66 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
motion produced when running at a high rate
of speed.
In the case of passenger trains the light load
to be hauled permits placing a part of the weight
of the locomotive on supporting wheels or trucks.
The trucks carry the front part of the engine.
One pair of driving wheels is usually placed behind
the fire box and another pair in front. In many
instances the drivers are increased to six, and, in
Some cases, to eight. This does not increase the
adhesive power of the locomotive, but it does
decrease the weight on each pair of wheels,
thereby distributing the total weight on the rails
over a longer wheel base, aud thus making the
locomotive less hard on the roadway. If the same
weight were put upon one pair of driving wheels
that is placed upon
four or more, the
locomotive would
have the same
tractive power and,
with the same cyl-
inder power, could
pull a greater load
Side View of American Bogie (or Pony) than when more
* supporting forward ena of locomo- drivers are used,
because the extra
friction of the wheels would be avoided. While
one or two pairs of drivers are generally sufficient
for a passenger engine, three or four, perhaps five
pairs will be used in the case of a heavy goods
or freight locomotive. The driving wheels of

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 67
the latter are usually smaller than those of the
former.
It is required of trains employed in suburban
service that they should be able to stop and start
quickly. To do this, the locomotive must have
more than the usual propor-
tion of adhesive weight to
prevent its slipping, and the
main valves must be so con-
structed as to quickly admit
steam to the cylinders and
exhaust it therefrom.

Speed is dependent upon
the velocity of the pistons.
This is achieved through
multiplicity of reciproca-
tions, that is, the reciproca-
tions multiply the rapidity
with which the steam acts
upon the pistons; but, as
this is limited, it becomes
necessary to increase the
size of the drivers in order
to secure the maximum
speed desired. This is why
passenger engines have large
wheels, while engines not re-
Quired to make great speed
have smaller ones.
The velocity required in
262 2O
A*
6&
sº 8 8 <36
o 32
* Z. - *A*
Sectional Views of Loco-
motive, through the forward
driver (at the left) and the
fire box (at the right). The
parts shown above not in-
cluded in the side view of the
locomotive, preceding this,
are as follows: 51 Eccentrics.
53 Reversing gear spring case.
54 Flues. 55 Crown-bar. 56
Crown-sheet. 57 Inside shell
of fire box. 58 Outside shell
of fire box. 59 Dome castings.
60 Grate. 61 Mud ring. 62
Journal box. 63 Spring hang-
er to journal box. 64 Driving
wheel castings. 65 Driving
Wheel tire.
hauling a load is dependent upon the pressure of
steam on the pistons.
For
this reason the
68 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
power, it is apparent, must be proportionate.
This, however, depends upon the steam produc-
ing quality of the
boiler. * The
steam generat-
ing capacity of
a boiler depends,
a, upon the size
Side View of American Locomotive Truck, sup- of the grate and
porting forward end of locomotive,
fire box, b, upon
the amount of heating surface provided, and, c,
the draught produced by the blast or exhaust
Steam. In the case of stationary engines the
great area of the fire box and the facility (or
draught) afforded by a high chimney cheapen
and amplify the production of steam. In the
case of a locomotive the fire box is restricted,
while the height of the smokestack is inade-
Quate. How then is it possible to produce suffi-
cient heat (consume sufficient fuel effectively) to
generate the quantity of steam required; to
maintain the water in the boiler at the desired
temperature; to maintain, in fact, a steam press-
ure of, say, one hundred and sixty pounds to the
square inch? It is through enforced consump-
tion of fuel—by forcing the fire, so to speak.
This is accomplished, in the main, by the draught
occasioned by the escaping steam through the
exhaust pipe into the smokestack. It is further
assisted by dampers at each end of the ash pan
* The formulas or rules governing these relations are found
in the working tables used by constructors of locomotives.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 69
(which latter is placed immediately below the
fire box) to afford the requisite amount of air,
and secure through the intervention of such
dampers a due consumption of the gases and car-
bon. The escaping steam through the Smoke-
stack serves to create a partial vacuum which,
the heat from the fire box hastening to fill,
creates in turn a strong draught and in so doing
hastens the ignition and consumption of the
Evolution of the Coal Burner Smokestack.
fuel. Some engines are provided with an appli-
ance or lever which controls, from the cab, the
intensity of the blast caused by the exhaust
steam. In other ways, also, free steam from the
boiler may, when necessary, be discharged
through an auxiliary blast pipe into the chim-
ney; but, while a strong draught is secured by
exhausting steam into the smokestack, a seri-
ous difficulty is experienced, in the use of soft
coal especially, in supplying the requisite air to

70 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the fire box. This could be drawn wholly from
beneath were it not for the impossibility of thus
Securing due consumption of the carbon gener-
ated by the heat as it escapes through the un-
burned fuel on top of the fire. To obviate this a
second damper is placed higher up in the fire
box, usually in the fire door. The consumption
of fuel is further heightened by careful, I may
Say Scientific, firing. As a rule, we may assume,
when we see great volumes of black smoke issu-
ing from the smokestack of a locomotive, that
care is not being exercised in firing or that the
engine is being overworked. To obviate the
Smoke annoyance (for it is an annoyance to man-
kind under all conditions) many forms of smoke
burners have been introduced, both for locomo-
tives and stationary engines. The need for them,
however, and the added cost they entail, would
not be necessary if proper care were exercised in
firing.
In working, the fire is regulated from the cab
of the locomotive by levers attached to the ash-
pan dampers. Thus the quantity of air pass-
ing through the fuel is controlled. The door
through which the fuel is conveyed to the fire
box is also made use of to regulate the quantity
of air.
The supply of steam required from a locomo-
tive boiler is more irregular than from any other
kind of a boiler. Thus, when a train is ascend-
ing a heavy grade the fire must be urged to its
greatest intensity. When the top is reached
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. - 71
the demand measurably ceases and steam is
generated less rapidly. The irregularity, how-
ever, is not so great in a large boiler as in a
small one. The former may also be more eco-
nomically used.
In order to create the required draught, when
rapid combustion is required, in a small boiler,
the exhaust nozzles must be contracted. By
this means the back pressure on the pistons is
increased and, if the blast becomes very violent,
more or less unconsumed coal is carried through
the flues and escapes through the smoke stack.
In addition to this waste, more or less of the
gases in the fire box escape, there not being
sufficient time for their combustion. Moreover,
a boiler so small that it must be worked to its
maximum at all times cannot afford a reserve
of water at a high temperature which may be
brought into use when necessity requires. On
the other hand, a boiler of greater capacity can
store heat for such use when not working to its
maximum capacity.
The heating surface of a locomotive is made
up of the sides of the fire box, the flue sheet,
crown sheet, and tubes or flues placed within the
boiler. The quantity of water converted into
steam by one pound of coal depends upon the
quality of the coal used and the construction of
the locomotive boiler. The average performance
of an ordinary locomotive varies from five to
seven pounds of water to one pound of coal.
Locomotive boilers consume in the neighborhood
72 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
of twenty-five hundred pounds of coal per hour,
according to the work performed. The maximum
amount of combustion per houris, approximately,
one hundred and twenty-five pounds of coal to
each Square foot of grate surface. This requires
twenty Square feet of grate surface to burn
twenty-five hundred pounds per hour. For each
Square foot of grate surface from fifty to seventy-
five Square feet of heating surface are necessary.
Quality of fuel, however, has much to do in gov-
erning the proportion of the heating surface to
the grate surface. Wood and good bituminous
coal do not require so large a grate as anthracite
coal or poor fuel.
The limited surface of water possible to be
heated directly by the fire box is overcome by
the flues in the boiler of the locomotive. The
draught occasioned by the steam blast through
the smoke-stack draws the flames and generated
heat into the flues and, as these flues are envel-
oped in water, the latter quickly becomes heated.
This is, as is well known, the simple explanation
of the generation of steam in the locomotive
boiler. As it increases in force it finds its way
(when the throttle is opened) into the cylinders
and thus affords the power that, through the
pistons, propels the machine on its way. The
heating surface of the tubes, or flues, varies, of
course, on different engines according to the size
of the boiler and the power required. A large
locomotive may have tubes with a heating sur-
face of eighteen hundred square feet which, with
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 73
the heating surface of the fire box amounting to,
say, two hundred feet, will afford a total heating
surface of two thousand square feet. The
approximate evaporation of such a boiler may
be estimated at thirty-five hundred gallons of
water per hour, or, say, four hundred and ninety
cubic feet.
A small tube of a given length affords a greater
amount of heating surface in proportion to the
space it occupies than a large one, and as the
size and weight of the locomotive boiler are
necessarily limited and the required amount of
heating surface must be obtained within that
space, small tubes are employed. However, be-
cause of their liability to become stopped up with
particles of unconsumed fuel or cinders, a tube of
less than two inches diameter is not thought to
give the best results. Moreover, small tubes may
be made of thinner metal than large ones, and by
their use the heat from inside is thus more rap-
idly conducted to the water in the boiler than
when heavier metal is used. This, when rapid
combustion is taking place, is, as may be sup-
posed, an important advantage.
The number of tubes in a boiler is regulated
with a view to affording the water sufficient space
in which to circulate freely and the steam to
escape. In this last connection it must be borne
in mind that the rising steam produces a certain
disturbance (ebullition) of the water, which, if
adequate space is not provided, will result in parti-
cles of water being raised and carried with the
74. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
steam into the cylinders, producing what is tech-
nically called “priming.” Aside from the loss
of power and inconvenience this engenders, the
pistons, cylinders and cylinder heads are there-
by endangered through the undue strain thus
brought to bear.
The boilers of locomotives were formerly made
of wrought iron, but soft steel has, to a great
extent, taken its place. The latter is of more
uniform quality than iron, and is thought to
be better adapted to resisting the great strain
upon it. Material used for boiler plate must be
tough, ductile and tenacious, and of close and
uniform texture, in order to satisfactorily meet
the requirements of the situation. The plates of
the boiler are fastened together with rivets which
are inserted when red-hot into holes in the plates.
When the rivets cool they contract and, in doing
so, draw the plates more closely together. The
seams are then tightened by calking. As the
seams are manifestly the weakest portion of the
boiler plate, it is necessary that care should be
exercised to make them as strong as possible.
The boiler and other steam chambers of the
locomotive are overlaid with wood or some plas-
tic material which hardens and which is also, so
far as possible, a non-conductor of heat, so as to
prevent its loss by radiation. This covering is
more or less commonly known as boiler lagging.
It is covered with Russia iron or sheet steel in
order to hold it in place and to present a better
appearance as well.
D]ESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 75
The cylindrical part of the boiler containing
the water (through which the flues from the fire-
box pass) is required to be of sufficient strength to
withstand the lateral and end strain. The forma-
tion of the boiler being a complete cylinder ren-
ders the former comparatively easy. The other
is more difficult. The strain at the forward end
of the boiler is overcome, in a measure, by the aid
of the tubes and partly by longitudinal stay-
rods. In connection with the fire box so many
flat surfaces are presented that it is necessary to
increase the bracing to make up for the lack of
strength due thereto. This is done by means
of stay-bolts passing through from the outer to
the inside sheet and riveted over on both ends.
The crown-sheet, of the old crown-bar type, is
secured by crown-bars running across the entire
width of the fire box, and the crown-sheet is sup-
ported by bolts running from the bottom of the
crown-sheet to the top of the crown-bar and
secured by bolts or rivets; the crown-bars are
also re-inforced by braces which are secured
to the dome and wagon-top of the boiler. The
radial stay type of fire box is circular in form
and is secured by stay-bolts. The type of fire-
box boiler known as the “Belpaire’ is similar
to the crown-bar fire box, with the exterior
sheets flattened, the sides conforming to the
shape of the crown-sheet of the fire box and
secured by stay-bolts.
The practices by which the safety of the boiler
is made Secure are not uniform, because of the
76 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
shape of the fire box, and for other reasons.
These practices are not, therefore, susceptible of
complete elucidation here. Moreover, the obscure
nature of the obstacles to be overcome prevents
the matter being clearly understood, except by
the use of models or practical examination of the
machine itself.
In practical working the boiler of a locomotive
must contain sufficient water to cover every part
of the metal exposed to the heat in and from the
fire box, otherwise it will be quickly weakened
and ruined through over-heating. It is practi-
cable to keep the boiler filled with water to a
height of six or eight inches above the top of the
crown-sheet (i. e., the roof of the fire box). A
steam space is provided in some designs above
the water line by elevating the outer shell of the
boiler over the fire box. A cylindrical dome pro-
jects from the top of the boiler, and it is from
this reservoir that the steam is precipitated
through the dry steam pipe into the cylinder.
The reason the steam is first collected in this
reservoir instead of being drawn directly from
the space above the water, before described, is
because dry steam is more effective than wet
steam and, as dry steam rises above wet steam,
the dome permits their separation.
Water is supplied to the boiler, to take the
place of that which has been converted into
steam, by an injector. This is a device or force
pump for supplying the boiler with water
without the intervention of the machinery of
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 77
the locomotive farther than the introduction
of a jet of steam from the boiler into the in-
jector. The jet of steam is brought into contact
with a supply of water from the tender and
the water is by this means forced along with the
condensed steam into the boiler. While simple
in operation, the injector never ceases to excite
the admiration of those who observe its working.
It is to the unscientific mind very much like a
man raising himself from the ground by his boot
straps. Its working is, however, in accordance
Side View of an Injector.
with well known laws. (See “Engineers' and
Firemen’s Manual,” Vol. XII.) The injector
is usually placed inside the cab, where it
will be under the immediate eye of the
engineer. I have described the injector in
connection with the supplying of the boiler with
water before referring to any other method for
accomplishing this end, because it is superior to
all others. It is in very general use. However,
as a precautionary measure, some locomotives
are still supplied with the diminutive apparatus
known as a donkey engine, operated by steam

78 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
from the engine, by which the engineer may at
will (in the event the injector should not work)
force the water from the tank into the boiler.
;
OVERFLOW
Section of an Injector.—Operation: Valve 19 is opened by means of lever 23.
which admits water into chamber 41. Walve 13 is then Opened by means on
lever 17, which admits steam into tube 188, escaping into overdow, thus cre-
ating a partial vacuum in chamber 41 by means of Communication, through
chamber 42, with valve 34 open, drawing water from tank into chamber 41,
nozzle 26, and escaping at overflow. When water thus appears, valve 8 is
opened by means of lever 10, admitting steam into nozzles 25, 26, 27 and 28,
forcing check valve 31 open and forcing the water already in chamber 41 into
delivery pipe, thus supplying the boiler. Water is regulated by valve 19. To
shut the injector off, valve 8 is closed.
1 Body (back part). 2 Body (front part). 3 Body screw. 4 Yoke. 5 Yoke
gland. 6 Yoke packing nut. 7 Yoke lock nut. 8 Steam valve disc and nut.
9 Steam valve spindle. 10 Steam valve handle. 11 Steam Valve rubber handle.
12 Steam valve top nut. 13 Jet valve disc and nut. 14 Jet valve spindle.
15 Jet valve bonnet and nut. 16 Jet valve gland. 17 Jet valve lever handle.
18 Jet valve top nut. 188 Jet tube. 18b Lifting nozzle. 19 Water valve.
19a, Eccentric spindle. 20 Water valve bonnet. 23 Water valve lever handle.
25 Steam nozzle. 26 Intermediate nozzle. 27 Condensing nozzle. 28 Delivery
nozzle, 30 Line check. 31 Line check valve. 32 Stop ring. 33 Overflow
nozzle. 33a. Overflow chamber with nut. 34 Heater cock check. 35 Heater
cock bonnet and nut. 36 Heater cock spindle. 37 Heater cock T handle.
38 Coupling nut—steam end. 39 Coupling nut—water end. 40 Coupling nut
—delivery end. 41 Water chamber. 42 Vacuum chamber. 388. Tail piece—
steam end. 39a Tail piece—water end. 40a Tail piece—delivery end.
NOTE.-The principle of the injector is fully described and
illustrated in Vol. XII.


DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE.
The boiler may
also be supplied
with water by
a force pump
operated by a
plunger con-
nected to the
cross he ad of
the locomotive,
as shown by the
illustration.
Still Other de-
vices are known
ſº-º-º-
-
E-
Z
FE
A/5/7.
Check Valve, for prevent-
ing water from returning.
Force Pump.–Water is drawn from the tank
into the cylinder through a valve which closes
immediately when the motion of the plunger is
reversed; at the same time another Valve is
opened through which the water is forced into
the boiler.
water, but as they
are now rarely, if
ever, used, an ex-
planation of them
|..] here is unneces-
sary. A check
valve is usually
placed at the end
of the pipe where
the water enters
the boiler. Its
object is to prevent a back
flow of water from the boiler,
the valve being closed auto-
matically by the water pres-
sure in the boiler.
The boiler is fed and the sup-
ply regulated according to the
amount of work being done by
4:/epa/o/7.











80 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the engine. If the water in the boiler is too high,
the steam space is thereby diminished and more
or less water is carried into the cylinders with the
steam. The strain thus produced by the move-
ment of the piston is liable to break the cylinder.
If the water is too low, on the other hand, the
the crown-plate, or sheet, is in danger of becom-
ing over-heated and explosion is liable to result.
The height of the water in the boiler is ascer-
tained by the use of gauge cocks and a glass
water gauge. The former, usually three or more
in number, are placed at the rear end of the
boiler three or four inches apart. The lower
one should be placed two and one-half inches
above the crown-sheet. The upper one should
be slightly above the highest point at which
water is to be carried, which, it is proper to say,
is determined by the diameter of the boiler. If
the water is at the proper height, steam will be
discharged from the upper cock when open and
water from the lower one. Should the upper
cock discharge water for any length of time, it
indicates there is too much water in the boiler.
On the other hand, if steam is discharged from
the lower cock, it is at once apparent that
there is not enough water in the boiler. The
water gauge is a steam tight glass tube from
twelve to fifteen inches in length, communi-
cating by means of brass elbows with the steam
in the boiler at the top and the water in the
boiler at the bottom. Each elbow contains a
valve worked by a handle and screw. When
DESCRIPTION OF JAOCOMOTIVE. 81
both valves are opened, steam rushes into the
tube at the top and water at the bottom, and the
height of the water in the tube will be on a level
with the surface of the water in the boiler.
What are very generally known as safety plugs
are used for guarding against
the danger arising from not hav-
ing enough water in the boiler.
These plugs are hollow and made
of brass or cast iron, and filled
with some metal that will melt
section of Boiler at a low degree of heat. They
Fuse Plug. * are placed in the highest part of
the crown sheet. In case the
crown sheet should become over-heated, the
metal in the plugs melts and runs out, thus
creating openings by which the pressure in the
boiler is relieved and warning given by the
escaping steam.
An important appliance of the locomotive is
the Safety-valve, designed to prevent the steam
pressure in the boiler from exceeding a certain
limit. There is a tradition in America that a
captain on a Mississippi river steamer, who was
racing with the boat of a rival line, sat on the
Safety-valve of his engine in order that no particle
of the steam should escape. This is cited as the
acme of daring and foolhardiness. Two valves
with which the device is provided are placed in
the top of the dome, so that in case one should
get out of order the other may operate. They are
So constructed that whenever the pressure of
6 Vol. 1

82 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
steam exceeds the limit which the boiler is sup-
posed to be able to safely bear, the valve opens
automatically and the steam is afforded a means
of escape. The noise of the steam
rushing through the safety-valve is
lessened by dividing or breaking up
the current before it emerges into the
air. With the modern device for using
steam in connection with the inject-
or, already described, surplus steam
which would otherwise escape through
the safety-valve and be wasted is, in
a measure, utilized by the engineer.
sº. There are various forms or patterns
Safety-valve, for the safety-valve. No device has
received greater attention than this;
yet, with all the thought given to the matter, it
is still not satisfactory. A form very common
in America is represented in the accompanying
illustration.
The steam gauge is another important device.
It is an instrument by which the number of
pounds of steam pressure per square inch is indi-
cated by an index or pointer on a dial.”
We often speak of a locomo-
tive as an engine. This is prop-
er in one sense, and improper
in another. The locomotive is
propelled by two engines fed
from a common boiler. The
*-* steam cylinders operating
Interior of steam Gauge, these engines Vary in size. A
*The automatic lubricator has become an essential part of
locomotives, and is fully illustrated and described in Vol. XII.


1) ESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 83
form very common in America
has a bore of eighteen inches
diameter, and a stroke of the
piston of twenty-four inches.
By the stroke of the piston is
meant the distance it moves
in the cylinder. This distance
Exterior of steam Gauge is twice the length of the
crank, measured from the cen-
ters of the shaft and crank-pin. Absolute accu-
racy is required to be observed in boring the
cylinder. Briefly summarized, the operation of
the engine is as
follows: The en-
gineer, by the man-
ipulation of the
throttle lever,
opens or closes the
valve in the dome
of the boiler. Thus
steam is admitted
or shut off from
the cylinders.
On pulling Open
the throt-
tle the steam
finds its way
from the
steam-chest into - e - a - • º
the cylinder º.º.º.º.”
through a passage
(or port) devised for that purpose. The arrange-













84 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
ment of the valve and its movements are such
that the ports through which steam is admit-
ted into the cylinder are, alternately, each open
during only a portion of the stroke of the piston.
The steam enters the cylinder at one end, and in
doing so forces the piston (which moves back
and forth in the cylinder) to its opposite extrem-
ity. After the piston has made a part of its dis-
tance (stroke) the port through which steam is
passing into the cylinder closes without allowing
the steam thus admitted to escape until the pis-
ton has nearly reached the end of its journey. In
operation, the expansive
action of the steam ad-
mitted to the cylinder
exerts a diminishing pres-
sure on the piston until
the exhaust port is
opened. When the stroke
is completed the steam
escapes through the ex-
Ena view of cylindercylinder hºust Port into the air.
ºº: At the instant the steam
of preceding illustration. ceases to act (i. €., at the
completion of the stroke)
a new supply is admitted at the other end of the
cylinder, thus forcing the piston back to the
opposite extremity, when the exhaust steam
escapes, as before. It is this constant action and
re-action of the piston within the cylinder that
transmits power to the piston rod and thence to
the coupling rod, which in turm is attached to the

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 85
crank pin or (if it is an inside-cylinder engine) to
the crank shaft, thus causing the driving wheels
to revolve. *
The action of the steam within the cylinder
is very simple. It is, however, the key to the
whole situation. In regard to the mechanism
of the cylinders, accurate adjustment of the
valves for admitting the steam and allowing it
to escape, and the due proportion of the parts,
are absolutely essential to the smooth and
economical working of the machine. The piston
must be steam tight. It is prevented from leak-
ing at the sides by metal packing. The pressure
of the piston against the sides of the cylinder
is equal to the pressure of the steam within
the cylinder. The orifice through which the
piston rod works in the end of the cylinder is
also made steam tight by the use of packing.
Speaking on this subject, an authority on such
matters says: “The piston is made steam tight
against the side of the cylinder by elastic metal-
lic packing. Many kinds of metallic pistons are
in use, but I know of none so good, for locomotive
purposes, as that simple one invented by Mr.
Ramsbottom, which bears his name, and which
consists merely of a few grooves (three com-
monly) turned in the piston body, into which are
sprung pieces of D-shaped wire (for the rings are
little more) which press outward against the
interior of the cylinder, and bear upon it with
steam-tight contact. It is, of course, desirable
that while the piston should move steam-tight in
86 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the cylinder, it should also move with the least
possible friction. . . . In order that a piston
may be safe against leakage, it is necessary that
the ring should bear upon the cylinder with a
pressure at least equal to that of the maximum
force of steam within the cylinder, because if
this condition be departed from, and if steam
leak in at any part between the surface of the
ring and the interior of the cylinder, it will press
upon the ring, drive it backward, and will pass
on; but this pressure is a pressure per inch of
surface, therefore the less surface there is in con-
tact, the less will be the actual pressure, and the
less, therefore, will be the actual friction; obvi-
ously, for these reasons, it is desirable to dimin-
ish the width of the bearing surface of the rings
as much as possible in practice, and that it is
which is done in the Ramsbottom piston. More-
over, the use of such a piston diminishes the
wear upon the cylinder, while the wear of the
rings is unimportant, as although they may re-
quire frequent renewal, say every six months,
their total cost, even in a large locomotive, is
only a few shillings.”
Continuing our description, the end of the pis-
ton rod farthest from the cylinder is attached to
a square piece of metal or cross head which
works back and forth in a rigid horizontal frame
running parallel with the piston rod. In many
cases the frame is on the side of the piston rod,
but sometimes above it. This frame is called a
Tº Mr. John Wolfe Barry.
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 87
guide bar. Its pur-
pose is to prevent
the connecting rod,
in the rotary mo-
tion given it by the
crank pin, from de-
flecting the piston
rod from the exact
angle at which it
enters and traverses
the cylinder. In T+º-
some instances the
connecting rods of the locomotive are attached to
the crank shaft between the driving wheels. In
such cases the cylinders are also placed within the
frame of the locomotive, i.e., between the wheels.
These are called inside cylinders. When the con-
necting rods are attached outside of the driving
wheels to the crank pin, the cylinders are called
outside cylinders. Both forms have adherents,
but the judgment of constructors and operators
inclines more and more to the outside cylinder.
The inside form has the merit of a shorter steam
passage and greater facility in Securing the cylin-
der and keeping it heated; also in more secure
fastenings for the guide frame, and avoidance of
interference with the bars which couple the driv-
ers together. Other advantages might be named,
but the crowded space within which the cylin-
ders with their appurtenances must be placed,
and the increased cost of constructing axles
with the crank forgings, together with other

88 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
objections, more than offset the advantages of the
inside cylinder. In the case of outside cylinders
the natural difficulties which attend the coupling
of the drivers are increased by the necessity of
attaching the connecting rod to the outside face
of the wheel. On the other hand, the slight re-
sistance (friction) attending its working compared
with the considerable resistance of the connecting
rod when fastened to the axle between the drivers
more than offsets any objections. By placing the
cylinder outside, necessary space is left beneath
the boiler for the gearings. Outside cylinders
must, per contra, be set on brackets where they
can not be kept hot. Moreover, the steam must
travel a long passage, relatively, to reach them.
These are serious objections. However, notwith-
standing these objections and still others which
might be named, the practice of putting the
cylinders outside the wheels and frames is very
general in America. In
some parts of Europe, and
especially in England, the
º inside cylinder is more
§. As favorably regarded.
sºſº. The steam pressure in the
cylinder may be known at
the various points of the
stroke of the piston by the
use of an indicator designed
especially for that purpose.
In its practical working the steam acts upon a
piston, upon which rests a spiral spring, which is
Section of Indicator.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 89
graduated to suit the pressure under which the
engine is working. The piston is coupled to the
pencil arm by means of a parallel motion, and
the pressure in the cylinder is recorded upon a
card which has been placed around the drum of
the indicator referred to above.
As the fixtures of the locomotive have grown
in number and the size of the cylinders has
increased, rearrangements of the cylinders and
valves have from time to time been found
necessary. This has, perhaps, been more true
of inside than outside cylinder engines, there
being in the latter case abundant space. As
regards the construction of the cylinder, there
is practically no difference between the inside
and the outside forms. Reference has already
been made to the packing used in connection
with the cylinder, including that designed to
prevent the escape of steam through the open-
ing through which the piston rod works. The
head of the cylinder (i. e., the forward end), is
fastened on with bolts so it may be easily re-
moved whenever necessary to remove the piston,
or for any other reason.
A locomotive is enabled to run either back-
ward or forward by having two contrary eccen-
trics for each cylinder; one is fastened to the
shaft in such a position as to move the valve so
the engine will run forward; the other is set so
that the engine will move backward. These
eccentrics are attached to the opposite ends of a
link by means of eccentric straps and rods. The
90 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
purpose of this link is to change the direction of
motion of the engine by bringing the eccentric
blade of the desired motion in contact with the
rocker arm and for giving the required cut-off.
*
eºs
******
Side View of Eccentrics, Straps and Reversing Gear.
When a link is placed with the block at one of
its ends, steam will follow the piston nearly to
the end of the stroke and as the link is raised or
lowered, so as to bring the link block toward the
center of the link, the cut-off is
shortened. The rocker arms are
connected by rods, called valve
stems, to the main valves.”
The links are suspended to the
ends of arms by bars, called link
hangers. These arms are at-
End view of Re tached to what is called a lifting
** shaft, which also has another up-
right arm attached to it on the right hand side
*For full description and illustrations see Vol. XII.


DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 91
of the engine. This arm is connected by a re-
versing rod to a reversing lever, worked by the
engineer in the cab of the locomotive. Its move-
ment raises or lowers the link.
The method of governing the action of the
slide valves and the admission of steam to the
cylinders (and consequent smooth operation and
i economical working of the
|- 7 machine, or otherwise) evinces
# 7 the skiii of the engineer.
/ How this skill is exercised in
;
ſºngineer's Lever in Connection with Reversing Gear.
controlling the expansion of the steam in the
cylinder rather than the opening and closing of
the valve which admits steam into the cylinder,
can not be explained with sufficient perspicuity
to be of sensible aid to the student. The sub-
ject is pre-eminently one of practical knowledge,
and what little can be gained from books by the
new beginner is given in Wol. XII. l
I do not esteem it necessary here to fur-
ther describe the apparatus by which the
action of the piston in the cylinder is brought
to bear on the driving wheel, and so on the train.




92 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
All the connecting rods and shafts must, it is
apparent, be relative in length, size and strength
to the other parts of the machine; harmony must
exist throughout. This is true also of the boiler
and cylinders, which must be proportionate to
the load to be hauled and the speed to be 'at-
tained. These details, incomprehensible to the
novice, are achieved by following well-known
practices of construction, aided by demonstrated
formulas for ascertaining the tensile strength of
the various metallic parts of which the machine
is made. These parts, so generally made of iron
at one time,
are now al-
*º-ºº: — - most univer-

+H== Sally made of
///Gay Aresso/Per
\S > steel.
////4/.
\ *ś There are
Hill, Hºnºr § , two forms of
§ * locomotives.
šº's One is known
ſ à as the simple
{ E =#|| or single ex-
---
|=
Arrºr-->
- - - - - - pansion loco-
• IT_ motive; the
4ow /*passwºre Other à, S th €
c O m p ou n d
Section showing action of steam in compound l O C O Úl O t ye.
Cylinder. A m on £ the
thingsclaimed
for the last named is that it saves fuel because
of the greater degree of expansion of the steam.
DESCRIPTION OF LocoMOTIVE. 93
Its advocates claim that after the steam has
acted upon the piston of one cylinder (the high-
pressure) it is conveyed into a larger cylinder
(the low-pressure), where it expands and acts
again upon another piston before being finally
exhausted through the smokestack. The four-
cylinder compound locomotive has a high-pres-
sure and low-pressure cylinder on each side of
the engine. The two cylinders (high and low
pressure) of the type illustrated, are cast in one
piece, with a valve chamber and saddle. The
valve which allows the steam access to the cylin-
ders is of the piston type. It is double and hol-
low and works in a cylindrical steam chest in
the saddle of the cylinder casting, between the
cylinders and the smoke box. This valve con-
trols the steam ad-
mission and ex-
haust of both the
high and low-pres-
sure cylinders.
The steam which
is exhausted from
the high-pressure
cylinder becomes
at once the supply
for the low-pres- -
S Ul I’ 6” C y lin der. Front View of Compound Cylinder (cylinder
When the front heads removed).
bars of the locomotive frames are double, the
low-pressure cylinder is placed on top, and the
double rail prevents the use of the Ordinary

94. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
rocker shaft and box. The valve motion is then
what is called direct acting, changing the loca-
tion of the eccentrics on the axle in relation to
the crank pin.” When the front rails are single
bars, the low-pressure cylinder is under the other
and the eccentrics are placed in the usual posi-
tion. In such case the valve motion is called
indirect acting. The most common method of
transferring the motion from the links to the
valve rod is by means of a rocker arm, the link
block being connected with the lower end of the
rocker arm, and the valve rod to the upper arm.
Before starting the locomotive, steam is admitted
to both the low and high-pressure cylinders.
For this purpose a starting valve is provided,
which is opened to admit steam to pass from one
end of the high-
pressure cylinder
to the other, and
thence through the
exhaust to the low-
pressure cylinder.

i
*~.
2-
à
>
-**
-P
Ž
ar
*
Hº § SS It, º º t d b
& 1S Operated by
&SS-X}%
ºst the same lever
ãň which operates the
ordinary cylinder
%ZT cocks. To secure
harmony, however,
VSFV and to prevent the
Section of Starting Valve and Relief Cock, locomotive becom-
Compound Cylinder. Position “J” for start- Ing logy 3. this valve
ing; position “K” for high-pressure cylinder º
relief Cock. is kept closed as
see vol.xii.
H
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 95
much as possible. Besides the usual air valves
placed in the main passage of the high-pres-
sure cylinder and also in the admission ports of
the low-pressure cylinder, additional air-valves
are placed in the low-pressure cylinders to
prevent the
formation
of a vacu-
um which
would draw
cinders into
the steam-
chest and
cylinders.
To prevent
rupture in
case of ex-
cessivepres-
Sure, Water
relief valves
3,I’6” attached Application of Starting Valve and Relief Cock,
to the front Compound Cylinder.
and back cylinder heads of the low-pressure cyl-
inder. The compound engine is generally similar
to the Ordinary single-expansion locomotive, ex-
cept in the respects pointed out.*
The grate of a locomotive usually consists of
cast iron bars so arranged that they may be
easily moved or shaken. Grates designed for
|- º º
ŞāNäS$
SSESSE ESSES
5. º 2222222E23-2 2.
SN §§§ Eğ$
º
º
- Šf
º
º º º N
\U
* The subject of compound-cylinder engines versus single-
‘ expansion cylinder engines is also referred to in the chapter on
“The Evolution of the Locomotive” in this volume, but more
particularly and in great detail, and with profuse illustrations,
in Vol. XII,




















96 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
burning anthracite coal are sometimes con-
structed of wrought iron tubes, through which
a current of water circulates in order to prevent
the grate from becoming over-heated. Cinders
and burning coals are prevented from falling
through the grate upon the railway track by an
ash pan, made to fit as closely as possible inside.
Dampers are pro-
vided for increas-
ing or shutting off
the draught, as re-
quired. The fire
box, which affords
Section Showing Grate and Damper. I’OOIſl for the burn-
ing fuel, is usually
a rectangular box, about three feet wide, made
of iron or steel plates. These plates are so
arranged as to form an inside and an outside
shell, having a space between them, called a
water space. This space varies on different loco-
motives from two and a half to four and a half
inches. The inner shell in many cases is made
of copper plates, and has a flat top called the
crown-sheet, or crown-plate. In America soft
steel has taken the place of copper. The top of
the outside shell is generally arched. The two
shells are united by what is more or less gener-
ally known as a mud-ring, which closes the water
space between the two shells at the bottom. As
the water in the cylindrical part of the boiler of
the locomotive has free contact with that in the
water space of the fire box, the shells of the

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMO TIVE. 07
latter are exposed to the steam pressure, the
strain upon the outer and inner shells being in
opposite directions. In order to resist the pres-
sure thus brought to bear upon them, they are
strengthened and held together by stay bolts
screwed through the outer and inner plates at
short distances from each other. The ends of
these stay bolts are securely hammered down
after being inserted into the plates. As much
depends upon the strength of these bolts, sub-
jected as they are to the expansion and contrac-
tion of the steam in the boiler, they are made
of the best quality of material. In the case of a
crown-bar fire box, the crown-sheet is strength-
ened by strong iron bars bolted thereto and con-
nected to the outside shell by braces or sling
stays. The tubes or flues of the boiler are
attached to the front plate of the inner shell of
the fire box. This plate is called the flue sheet,
and is rigidly stayed to the cylindrical part of
the boiler by braces at the bottom of the latter.
These tubes carry the Smoke and products of
combustion from the fire box to the smoke box
and so on out at the chimney or smokestack.
There are two main methods of firing a loco-
motive; one is known as the banking system, the
other the spreading system. The former, it is
thought, may be used to advantage when the
coal is comparatively free from clinkers. The
coal is banked or piled in the back part of the
fire box and sloped downward toward the front
of the grate where it is kept at a white heat.
T VOL. 1
o"o"o Yo Yo ſo I o o , o, o, o
e O
o Q o o o o o o o o o
3.
o
o
©
o
o To ©
:
3
es
o
d
O
:
c
o
:
:
:
.
:
:
:
©
e
o
o
o
*
©
©
o
o
*o-
*
.
o
e
©
o
o
o
o
o
:
O
i
i
ſ
i
i
i
:
::
::
i
longitudinal Section of Locomotive Boiler Filled With Water.
a Boiler shell. b Inside shell of fire box. e Mud ring. d Dome shell. e Dome castings. f Dome lugs. g Rear
longitudinal stays. h. Shell lugs. i. Forward longitudinal stays. j Flues, k Barrel plates. m. Manhole Opening. n Dry
pipe ring. o Extension end. p Sling stays. g. Inside shell brace. r Dome Sling stays, s Crown-bars. t Crown-sheet.
w Arch support water pipe. v Brick arch. w Stay bolts (solid), a Frame tie. g Flue sheets. 2 Stay bolts (hollow).
A Cross stays. B Fire door. O. Saddle Opening. D Smokestack opening. E Gondola Opening. FSafety-valve con-
nections.
*C

1) ISCRIPTION () ſº I, () ('OMOTIVE. 99
The coal in the back part of the fire box gradu-
ally cokes and thus the gases are expelled. The
consumption of these gases is aided by the admis-
sion of air at the furnace door, which mixes with
them. When the bank of coal at the back of the
fire box becomes coked, it is pushed forward onto
the glowing fire and more coal put in its place to
go through the same process. The spreading
method of firing, referred to above, is used when
the coal contains clinkers. The coal is evenly
spread in a thin layer over the entire grate. The
success and economy of this method depend upon
the regularity with which the fire is fed and the
layer of coal maintained; also upon the proper
admission of air above the fire. The layer of
coal is thicker when the engine is working hard
than when it is doing light work. To obtain the
best results, intelligence
and observation must be
exercised by those in
charge here as elsewhere. —-
In order to create a
draught when the loco- |
, motive is standing still, /
either before leaving the @ i
round house or at any cºi |
other place, there is a - i.
device for letting steam
into the smokest ack Part Section of Boiler, Show-
directly from the boiler. ing Blower.
This steam represents an expense, as it takes so
much live steam from the boiler, while that
© º e e s
o

100 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
e e º e e
from the cylinders, having already performed its
office, does not. Because of this, or from a desire
to husband the supply of
steam in the boiler, or
because of forgetfulness,
the device in question for
---. *. creating a draught is not

|| || always used.
FR3 Another device of the
|\ºrºo locomotive is the spark
|| || ## arrester, placed below the
smoke-stack above the
flue openings. In some
sectiºnestor, countries the use of this
Front Ends. device is required by law.
Besides abating a nuisance, it is useful as a
precaution against Setting fire to property along
the track.
In districts where it is found desirable to use
oil for fuel, adaptable grates or burners have
been devised for the purpose.” However, it is
believed that they are more or less imperfect,
like all new devices introduced to supply com-
*In some investigations made during the coal strikes, a few
years ago, an engine was fitted up with an oil-burning device.
It was found, however, that it was not economical to use oil at
a price of 1.7c per gallon unless coal cost more than $2.00 a ton.
Dr. Dudley, Chemist of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company,
made some extensive investigations in Russia in regard to oil
for fuel in locomotives, and that company afterward fitted up
an engine, finding that it was perfectly practicable to operate
an engine with oil, but that it was no economy for the Penn-
sylvania road with the prevailing price of fuel and oil on their
line of road.
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 101
paratively recent needs. They are, however,
such as to effect a saving in cost compared with
other kinds of fuel, but the pattern or form
which the oil burner or grate will ultimately
assume after experience has demonstrated what
is needed, it is impossible to tell.
The devices now generally recommended for
using oil contemplate the supply of liquid being
carried in a reservoir. This is placed in the tank
of the locomotive tender. The reservoir con-

2//egg/4/ors /~ – |
2//
222&
; : S/63m ov//e/
—H | H. 7-
-I- –H –H
\s- - % C. |
Section Showing Fire Box and Tank Arrangement for the Use of Oil as Fuel.
taining the oil is thus immersed in water. By
this means danger of the liquid igniting acci-
dentally is reduced to the minimum. The con-
venience of this method and the necessity that
precautions shall be observed are likely to fix
this as the storehouse for the oil for all time to
COIſle.
When oil is used for fuel, the fire is fed by
means of a pipe, a valve preventing the escape of
the oil in case the pipe should by any means be-
come disconnected. The utilization of oil (or
the refuse thereof) for heating purposes usually
102 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
contemplates its dispersion in the fire box in the
form of a spray. To accomplish this, one pipe
carries oil to the fire box while another pipe,
entering directly below, carries steam. The
escape of the latter breaks the stream of oil into
spray. Both pipes have stopcocks. It is said
that in practical
use the flat flame
or spray is supe-
rior to the conical
flare or ring of jets.
Liquid fuel has
many advantages
over coal or other
forms.” One im-
portant advantage
is that it is more
;
- Jec//o/, &zz- easily and cheaply
Fuel Oil Burner. handled. The dan-
ger of setting fires
along the tracks by sparks from the locomotive
is avoided by the use of oil. The absence of cin-
ders and dirt, inseparable from the use of coal or
wood, lessens the wear and tear of the machinery
of the engine. The wastage which the use of
* Superintendents of railroads where it is used in southeast-
ern Russia claim that the evaporation of from twelve to thirteen
and one-half pounds of water is secured per pound of petroleum
for locomotives. American experts claim that twelve hundred
and fifty pounds of oil equal, in work, a ton of coal—two thou-
sand pounds. It is said that the best results are obtained by
adjusting the temperature of the oil before it reaches the fire
|box.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 103
coal and wood entails is avoided in the case of
oil. The comfort of travelers is also greatly
heightened. The thing per se, however, in con-
nection with the use of petroleum, is the saving
it effectS.*
Petroleum has been used for centuries as a sub-
stitute for other forms of fuel in the great basin
of southeastern Russia adjacent to the Caspian
Sea. Petroleum is produced there in abundant
quantities, and is cheaper than all other forms
of fuel. It is used exclusively on locomotives
and for stationary and marine engines. The
crude oil is not burned, however, but the re-
siduum which is left after refining the crude
product.*
It is said that petroleum has always been used
for fuel in this region of the Caspian Sea, but in
earlier times the demand was light and, in the
absence of appliances or grates for burning the
* The following statement of an American railway gives a
comparison between the use of coal and oil for one month, viz.:
Cost per mile, for all engines, for coal, 23.46 cents; cost per
mile, for all engines, for oil, 14.24 cents; Saving per mile, about
39.3 per cent. It should be remembered, however, in compar-
ing the cost, the oil is found on the spot while coal is not pro-
duced in the locality, but has to be carried a great distance.
Its cost to the railroad company is something like eight dollars
per ton. In localities where coal is produced and sold at a low
figure it is as a rule, probably, cheaper for fuel than oil.
# In numerous instances, however, in other countries the
crude oil is used for fuel instead of the dregs. This will be
changed with the introduction of appliances for refining the
oil. A curious device adopted to keep the flues of the locomo-
tive free from soot where oil is used is a sand funnel, the Sand
being carried through the flues by the draught from the fire box.
104 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
oil, the natives mixed it with cinders and other
substances before igniting it. It is possible that
the worship of fire in Persia was first suggested -
by the numerous gas wells which are to be found
in the northern districts of that ancient and still
primitive country.
Petroleum is used as a substitute for other
forms of fuel in some parts of South America,
particularly Peru. Its introduction in California
is more recent. The supply of oil in the latter
section is not yet determinable. In connection
with the experiments of a California railway, the
company reports that “steam at a pressure of
from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and
seventy pounds, applied direct to the atomizer,
gives better results than superheated steam or
superheated air, producing flame which is carried
entirely through the flues. This could not be
accomplished with superheated steam or super-
heated air, the latter acting more in the nature
of a blowpipe, producing intense heat in the fire
box, but not carrying the flame forward.” This
company reports that it is able to change its coal-
burning engines to oil burners for less than one
hundred dollars each. The cost, therefore, of
introducing oil may be quickly repaid by the
saving where circumstances favor its use. The
statement, more or less credited, that oil is more
severe on the fire box and flues than coal or
other forms of fuel, is claimed to be unfounded.
Directly the reverse is said to be the case. This,
however, is a point upon which, it is probable,
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 105
experience has not been sufficient to enable men
to judge finally. We know, however, that the
use of oil for fuel requires skill and care upon
the part of the fireman; but every form of fuel
requires these. The theory of the effective use
of oil for fuel contemplates that the heat shall
be uniform and well distributed in the fire box
and flues, the former according to the service
to be performed. Whether these are most effec-
tively secured by the devices in use, or whether
§
| ;
American Four-wheeled Saddle Tank Engine. Diameter of cylinders, 16
in. ; stroke, 24 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 48 in...; wheel base, 7 ft.; weight
of locomotive, 76,000 lbs.
Something else may be found to be better, time
only can tell. I may say in conclusion, that in
using oil for fuel, it is necessary, in order to
avoid undue expansion and contraction, the heat
should be sufficient in every case to exclude the
cold air.
The method of supplying and carrying the
water required for use in the boiler of the loco-
motive varies. In some instances the supply
is carried above the boiler. In such cases the

106 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
locomotive is called a tank engine. Usually,
however, locomotives have a tender attached. It
answers the double pur-
**** fºr pose of carrying fuel and
y | water. The quantity of
# water and fuel varies ac-
cording to needs. The
Side View of Tender (with Water maximum Of the former
Scoop dropped). may be generally stated
at forty-five hundred gal-
lons, and the latter at eight tons of coal. The
customary way of filling the tank of the engine
with water is by means of a water pipe or crane
attached to the supply house, commonly called
the water tank. In order, however, to secure a
supply of water when the train stops only at long
intervals, or otherwise to economize time, the
well-known device of replenishing the water in
the tender while the engine is in motion, from
a sunken tank in the track, has suggested itself.
The tank or trough is filled with water and
varies in length. As the engine reaches the
tank, the lower end of an inverted or curved
pipe is lowered into the water. This pipe ex-
tends to the
top of the
ten der and
is provided
with a hinge
near the low-
er end so it
Section of Tender Showing Water Scoop in il
Track Tank. may be easily

DESCRIPTION OF JAOCOMOTIVE. 107
raised and lowered. The speed of the locomotive
forces the water through this pipe into the ten-
der, and in this way thirty-five hundred gallons
of water may be taken up in a few seconds,
according to the size of the pipe and the speed
of the engine. The pipe is under the control of
the engineer. However, in order to prevent acci-
dent because of dropping it too soon or raising it
too late, the device is perfected by raising the
rails at either end of the tank so that the end of
the pipe will clear the road and trough if dropped
before the latter is reached or left a second after
the sunken tank is passed.
- m
~. Water Tank. Approach to tank.
* Water from the tender is conveyed to the en-
gine by a piece of rubber hose attached to each
side underneath the front end of the tank, the
other end being connected to the pipe on the
engine, which supplies water to the injector. The
water is turned on and shut off from this hose by
valves. In order that the tank on the tender
shall be able to resist the pressure of the water,
the flat sides of the tank are braced by rods or
bars. To resist the violent motion of the Water
when the tender is started or stopped suddenly,


108 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
transverse plates are placed inside; these are
commonly called diaphragm plates.
Fuel is supplied to the loco-
motive in various ways. It may
be said generally to be depend-
ent upon the quantity and the
ability of the company to afford
the most convenient arrange-
ments. Coal is oftentimes shov-
eled from cars standing on an
Front view of Tender adjacent track. Sometimes iron
.* * * buckets filled with coal, hoisted
by cranes, are swung over and
emptied into the tender. In other cases cars of
coal are placed on platforms located high enough
so the contents may be unloaded by gravity into
the tender. Another method is the coal chute.
The coal in this case is stored in pockets. Each
pocket has a spout which, upon being lowered
over the tender, empties its contents into the
tender. A stationary engine for performing this
work is common where the
Quantity of fuel to be handled
justifies it.
In further reference to the
locomotive, it is supported on
either side by a frame, made of
wrought iron bars or rolled
iron plates. The frame is Rear view of tender.
built in two sections. To the
back section the driving axles are attached, and
to the front section the cylinders are bolted.


1) ESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 109
The frame legs for receiving the axle boxes are
usually connected longitudinally by means of
two bars welded to the same. This forms the
back section. To this section at the front end
is attached a device (usually in the form of
a jaw) provided for the bolting of the front
Section, the latter generally consisting of a
single bar extending to the front end of the
engine, where a heavy timber, called a bumper,
extends from one side to the other. The cow-
catcher or pilot (the device for removing obsta-
cles from the track in front of the locomo-
tive) is attached in front of this bumper timber.
The cowcatcher is commonly made of wood, hav-
ing a triangular frame at the bottom so sup-
ported that it is a few inches above the top of
the rails. It is made of heavy strips of wood
or iron bars attached to the frame, a few inches
apart. Iron plates or Scrapers, forming a snow-
plow, are oftentimes attached to the pilot to
remove snow from the track when necessary or
the snow is light. The locomotive is further
supported by springs to protect it, so far as pos-
sible, from injury resulting from the jar to which
it is subjected when in motion. The springs rest
on saddles bearing on the top of the axle boxes.
The frames are suspended to the ends of these
springs by spring hangers. The boiler and other
parts of the locomotive being also fastened to the
frames, the weight of the locomotive is thereby
suspended on the springs.
The weight of the locomotive is equally dis-
110 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
tributed upon the driving wheels by means of
equalizing levers. These levers support each
side of the engine
so that the action
is the same as if it
were supported on
one point. They
are supported by a
fulcrum in the center, and the fulcrum is at-
tached to the frame of the locomotive.
In reference to the construction of the wheels
of the locomotive, including those known as
drivers, the reader is referred to that portion of
this work in which the subject of car wheels is
especially referred to.”
The air brake in use to-day covers a subject so
important and vast that I have found it neces-
Sary to treat it apart in another place.f
The supply of sand needed for daily use is car-
ried in a cylindrical receptacle placed on top of
the boiler, called a sand box. From here it may
be easily applied to the rails as needed, through a
pipe on each side of the boiler. A valve oper-
ated by a lever in the cab of the locomotive ad- .
mits the sand into the pipes. In order to ensure
a uniform and continuous supply of sand on the
rails, a device is employed for forcing the sand
by a blast of steam or compressed air. This is
accomplished by means of an ejector which
Equalizer—Side View.
* See volume ** Train Service.”
+ See chapter “Construction and Operation of the Air
Brake,” in this volume, also “Engineers' and Firemen's Man-
ual,” Vol. XII. !

DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 111
draws a small amount of
sand from the box and
forces it in a powerful
blast directly upon the
point of contact between
the wheel and rail.
Locomotives in America
are provided with a steam
whistle, a bell, and
a gong, for giving
and receiving sig-
slºſed” kº/ke
Affecſor
mals. The whistle Sand Pipe of Locomotive, Supplemented
consists of an in-
verted cup or bell, made of brass or other metal,
iſºls:
º: ke
º
ºrrºr-º-º:
#EEß
#EEEE: .
|
Section. Side View.
Steam Whistle.
º
by Steam Blast.
placed over a cir-
cular opening. It
is fastened to a
stem which is
screwed into the
top of the dome of
the boiler. Inside
of this stem is a
valve which opens
communication
with the steam.
This valve is open-
ed or closed by a
lever in the cab.
When the valve is
open the escaping
steam produces the
alarm or whistle.











112 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The locomotive bell swings from an iron frame
projecting from the top of the boiler. It is
connected with the cab by a rope with which
it is rung when used for signaling. It is some-
times operated by compressed air or steam. The
weight of the bell varies from fifty to one hun-
dred pounds. On passenger trains, signals are
given the engineer from every part of the train
by means of a gong which is fastened to the upper
part of the locomotive cab on the inside. The
train bell cord is attached to the hammer of this
gong. Automatic whistles operated by com-
pressed air are, in Some instances, substituted
for the gong.
A large lamp or headlight attached to the
smoke box at the front end of the locomotive
is used to illuminate the track at night and give
notice of the approach of the engine. A concave
reflector is placed at the back of the lamp. This
reflector is of such shape that the rays reflected
from it (when the light is placed in its focus) will
be in parallel lines.
On all American roads a covered apartment,
called a cab, is provided at the rear of the boiler
for the protection of the machinery and those in
attendance on the engine. Seats are provided on
either side for the engineer and fireman. Win-
dows at the sides and front afford them a full
view of the roadway and track.
In regard to details of working, before a.fire
is started in the locomotive the grates and ash
DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 113
pan are freed from clinkers, cinders and ashes, and
care taken to see that the boiler contains the
necessary supply of water. The fire is started
slowly, otherwise the undue expansion and con-
traction of the different parts will be likely to
produce an excessive strain on the boiler.
Before leaving the engine house the cylinder
cocks are opened to allow any water or steam
which may have condensed in the cylinders to
escape. The supply of
water in the tender is
also looked after; also
the quanty of sand in
the sand box, the
requisite tools, fuel,
oil, waste, packing,
and other accessories
of the locomotive
necessary to its oper-
t ation. In starting a
train, it is the practice of careful engineers to
open the throttle slowly, so as to start the train
gradually. Full speed is not sought to be attained
until the engineer has ascertained that the train
as a whole moves together, that the switches are
properly placed, the track clear, and every other
detail as it should be.
In practical operation the engine is started by
moving the throttle, opening the valve which
allows the steam to pass from the steam dome
above the boiler into the cylinders. Formerly
the speed of the engine was controlled by the
8 Vºol. 1
iii.
Section. Side View,
Cylinder Relief Cock.

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DESCRIPTION OF LOCOMOTIVE. 115
size of this opening, but as the link motion,
already described, allows the expansion to be
varied at will, the throttle-valve is kept open
and the speed controlled by varying the amount
of the expansion.
Such are the details of the modern locomotive.*
The reader will notice that I have not attempted
to exhaust the subject. To understand the loco-
motive requires intelligence, study and great
practical knowledge. Nothing that can be said
in books about the construction and operations
of the locomotive is of particular value to an
engineer or fireman; but a description of the
locomotive, even so imperfect as that embraced
in the foregoing chapter, is of the greatest pos-
sible interest and value to other railway men,
who have neither the opportunity, time mor
inclination to become practical engineers, but
who have a desire, and it is to the interest of
every railway company that they should have
the power, to acquaint themselves with the vari-
ous parts of the locomotive and the theory of its
operation. It is for such people that I have
written this chapter.
* In further explanation of the locomotive, and as a key to
many things impossible to write specifically of, I have em-
braced in the Appendix (B) to this volume, a list of the articles
or different parts which go to make up a locomotive. The parts
that the manufacturers of locomotives buy in the market from
other manufacturers are indicated by an asterisk (*)
C H A PT E R III.
THE LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS OF THE WORLD AND
THE MANUFACTURERS THEREOF.
Elsewhere I have devoted a chapter to the
growth of the locomotive. In another place I
have described the modern locomotive and its
workings in detail. Both of these chapters are
so fully and carefully illustrated that a novice
may by their aid become generally familiar with
the subject. He may not, indeed, be able to act
as an engineer or fireman, but he will have an
intelligent insight upon which to quickly build
up a practical acquaintance with the subject.
The chapters in question depict so accurately the
parts of the locomotive and their operation and
relation to each other that they will also serve to
refresh the minds of practical men, while those
who hope to become practical men, such as ma-
chinists, engineers and firemen, will find they
open a field of research which will hasten the
schooling process through which every one must
go. To railroad men not connected with the
machinery department they will afford an oppor-
tunity of becoming familiar with the locomotive
and its history without going into the shop to
work, or mounting an engine to learn, little by
little, its operation. Those who wish to become
(116)
AMERICAN PASSENGER, BUFFET-SLEEPING AND OBSERVATION CARS.
LIST of THE WARIOUS PARTs of THESE CARs.
TRUCKS AND THEIR ATTACHMENTS.
1 Axle. 2 Axlo safety bearing. 3 Axlo º strap. 4 Wheel.
5 Wheel center, 6 Outside wheel plate: 7. Retaining ring, 8 Re-
taining-ring rivets. 9 Steel tire. 10 Troad of wheel. 11 Flange
of wheel. 12 Journal box. 18 Journal-box cover. 14 Journal-box
cover-spring. 15 Journal-box cover-bolt. 16 Journal-bearing or
brass. 17 Pedestal. 18 Pedestal bolts, 10 Pedestal tie-bar. 20
Pedestal stay-rod, 21 Pedestal brace. , 22 Wheel-piece. 23 Out-
side wheel-pièce. 24 End-pieco of truck-frame. 25 Tºnd-piece plate,
26 End piece, or end sill corner-plate, 27 Qutside transom. 28 Out-
side transom plate. 29 Transom corner-plate. , 30 Transom truss:
rod. 31 Transom truss-rod sent. 32 Transom truss-rod Washer. 88
Transom chaſing-plate. 34 Middle transom, 85 Middle transom
plate. 86 Safety-beam., 87 Safety-beam iron. 38. Sºfety-beam tic-
fºod, 39 Middle safety-beam, 40 Center-pin. , 41 Center-bearing
arch-bar. 42 Center-bearing stool. 43 Body center-plate. 44
Truck center-plato. 45 Center-plate block. 46 Center-bearing beam.
47 Center-bearing arch-bar. 48 Center-bearing inverted arch-bar,
49 Center-bearing beam-plate. 50 Center-bearing beam-strips. 51
Truck-bolster. 52 Truck-bolstor chafing-plate. 53 Spring-beam.
54 Spring-beam chaſing-plato. 55 Bolster-spring cºp., 5& Bolster-
spring seat. 57 Bolstörspring, 58 Spring-band, 59 Spring-plank,
65 Spring-plank bearing. 61 Swing-hangers, 62 Upper swing-
hangér pivot. 63 Lower swing-hanger pivot, 64 Swing-hanger piyot-
bearing 65 Swing-hanger ståple. 66 Sying-hanger staple Casting.
67 Tručk side-bearing. 68 Side-bearing bridge. 69 Body Side-bear-
ing bridge. 70 Body side-bearing pillar. 71 Body-bolster. 72 Out-
side body-transom pillar. , 73 Intermediato body-transºm pillar.
73 Body-transom Čentér-bearing pillar, 75Equalizingºbar. 76 Equaliz-
ing-bar spring. 77 Equalizing-bar spring-seat,78Bqualizing-bar spring-
cap. 79 Equalizing-bar, . Spring-block. 80 Check-chain. 81 Check-
jºin hook. 82 Check-chain loop. 83 Check-chain eye-bolt, 84 Chock-
chain chaſing-plate.
SEE ILLUSTRATION SEIOWING SAME, PLATE II.
|
AUTOMATIC WATER-RAISING SYSTEM,
175 Water tank. 176 Air tank, 177 Drip cock in air tank. 178
Air proRSure governor, 179 Check-valve in air pipe, 180 Water
tank ſiller, 181 Throo-way cock, 182 Stom of three-way Cook. 183
Main shut-off valvo, 184 Air went from water tanlú. 185 Water
strainer, 185 Blow-off to clean strainer. 187 Cold water pipe.
T.A.VATORY FITTINGS IN SMORING ROOM,
188. Hot water jacket, 189 Hot water plpo to bowl. 100 Cold
water pipe to bowl. 101 Combined hot and cold water cock, 192
Wash-bowl or basin. 193 Basin plug. 194 Basin coupling. 195 Bašin
waste-pipe. 106 Slab. 197 Riser. 198 Towel-holder. 199 Towel-holder
bracket. 200 Water cooler, 201 Water cooler faucet.
glass or tumbler. 203 Water glass bracket.
WATER CLOSEH'.
204 Floor pipe. 205 Iron hopper. 206 Cover for iron hopper. 207
Dump pan. 208 Porcelain bowl. 200 Drip tray. 210 Seat hinge. .211
Operating lever, 212 Sliding rod, 213 Supply pipe, 214 Vont pipe,
215 Wator tank. 216 Toilet paper holder. 217 Coat hoolr. 218
Stained glass art-Window. -
HEATING SYSTEM-COMBINED HOT, WATER AND STEAM.
219 Balker heater. 220 Expanding generator coil, 221 Innor coil.
222 Hot water pipe from heater, 223 Hot water pipe to car, 224 press-
ure gauge. 225 Fire pot. 226 Grate. .227 Grate shalker. 228 Ash-pit.
229 Ash-pit bottom, 230 Ash-pit door. 231 Ash-pit door handle. 232 Coal
box. 233 Feed door. 234 Feed door handle. 235 Safoty plate handle.
236 Outside casing. 237 Inside casing. 238 Smolke flug. 239 Smolko
flue base, 240 Top of heater. 241 Ring for Russia-iron top,
242
203 Water
* * * * *-
* - - - -
PLATE II.
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3.22 263;
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(52 141 J32 4.1 B 5
box. 536 'l'able. 537 Table leg. 588 Table hook-plates. 539 [Iat hooks.
573. Buffet. 574. Overhead water tank. 575 Supports for overhead
AIR BRAKE, AIR SIGNAL AND HAN D BRAKE APPARATUS.
86 Brake-hanger. 87 Brake-hanger carrier. 88 Brake-beam Ad-
justing-hanger, carrier. , 89, Brake-hungº §: 90 Trussed wooden
brakeibeam. 51 Hollow brake-beam. .92 Brºke safety-strap. 98 Re-
jease spring. 94 Upper balance-spring, 95 Lower balangº Spring:
§§ Ealance-spring rod. 97 Brake-head. 98 Brako-shoe. 99 Brake-sh99
i.ey. Too Outside brake-beam fulcrum, 101 Inside brake-beam ful-
ortim." IO2 Center brake-beam fulcrum, 103 Center-brake,transom.
iół Center brake-beam. 105 Center brake-hanger, 106 Qenter-brake
safety-hanger. 107 Center-brake º; 108 Center-brakó
lºniance-spring, 109 Center-brake balance-Spring rod. 110 Center
brake-shoe," ii.1 Crescent link... 112 Crescent link-hanger: 118 Eqliº-
izing brake-lever. 114 Truck, brake-lever, 116 Truck-lever ſul-
cruſh. Tiê Dead truck-lever, 117 Liya truck-lever, 118 Brake-lever
stop, 119 Inside connecting-rod., 120 Outside connecting—rod. 121
ºer brake-connection. 123. Adjusting turn-buckle. 133 Jpper ºralº:
cºnnection. 124 Hand brake-connection: 125 Brake-chain shaft. 133
Brake rachet-wheel. 127 Brake hand-wheel. 128 IRachet-brake. 129
†ioating or Hodge-lever, 180 lodge-lever connecting rod; 131 Hodgo
carrier. 132 §. lever, 133 Öylinder lever guide. 134 Cylinder
iover connecting-rod, 185 Brake cylinder, 136 Cylinder front-head.
iš cylinder back-head, 138 Automatic, slack-adjºe. 139 Auto-
matic pressure-regulator for High Speed Brºkº. 140 Piston-travel
recorder, 14i Piston crosshead., 142 Auxiliary reservoir. 143
Auxiliary reservoir bands. 144 Auxiliary resorvoir blocks, 145
Release-cock or bleeder. 146 Pipe to auxiliary reservoir. 2, 147
firſpie valve. 148 Check-valve gasº. 40 Branch pipe, 150 Cut-
out cock, 'if;1 Strainer tee. 152 Pressure retaining valvo, 153
iPipe to pressure retaining valve, 154, Train brake-pipe. , 155 Pipo
hanger," 156 Tee ſitting to conductor's valve. 157 "Branch pipe to
jiàuctor's valve. 158 Conductor's valve, 159 Anglo Qo0; 160
joso clamp. f61 Air brake hose. 162 Armored brakº hose, 163 Air-
nose coupfing, 164 Signal hose coupling; 165 Signal hoso. 166 Ar-
168 Train signal Stop-
170 Signal
172 Sig-
mored signal hose. 167 Train signal pip?.
codir. 166 Signal branch-pipe to car disgharge valve.
branch-pipe to car discharge Vºlve. 171 (ºur signal-valve,
ºrd” iſ signal cord hanger, 174 Anglo fitting.
Smoke pipe. .243 Damper. 244 Circulating drum. 245 Combination
drip cock, 246 Filling funnel, 247 Safety valve. 248 Floor valve,
direct steam ; 249 Angle valve. .. 250 Steam jacket (no fire in
heater). 251 Steam inlet to jacket. 252 Steam outlet from jacket. 253
Steam circulating pipe. 254 Hot water circulating pipe. 255 Seat Radi.
ators. 256 Foot-guard over heater pipes. 257 Blow-off for water. 8:8
Blow-off for steam. 259 Handle for steam blow-Off. 260 Automatic
water trap. 261 §§ drip valve, 262 Return bend. 263 Steam hose.
264 Hose-band, 265 Steam hose coupling (Gibbs). 266 Steam hose
coupling (Sowall). 267 End steam valve.
LIGHTING APPARATUS AND FIXTURES.–GAS, ELECTRIC
LIGHT, ETC.
268 Tilling valve cover. .260 Filling pipe, 270 Holder valve, 271
Gas holder. 272 Gas holder supports. 273 Car gauge..., 274 Rogu-
lator. 275 Pipo to lamps. 276 Main gas, cock (in closet).
277 Braclºot gas lamp. 278 Globe. 279 Globe holder. 280 Center sus-
pension lamp. 281 Four-arm lamp. 282 Electric bulbs. .288 Vesti-
bule lamp. 284, Glass bowl. 285 Glass dome, 286 Globo hinge. 287
Spring catch. 288 Reflector. 289 Cluster. 200 Plug, for cluster. 291
Check screws. 292 Cluster stem. 293 Cluster stom lock. 294 lºurner
tips. 295 Body casting. 290 Flues. 297 Ventilator. 208 Vontilating
chimney, 299 Burner cock. 300 Roof casting. 301 Gas way. 302
Thimble. 303 Reducing elbow. , 304 Smoke bell. 805 Gas pipe hang-
ors. 300 Ventilator, 307 Electric connector, .308 Electric Wireš. 300
Electric switch-board. 310 l’latform electric lamp. 311 Vestibule
oloctric corner light, 312 Electric berth light. 318 Electric deck faç-
ing light. 314 Combined gas and electric chandelier, 315. Tºléctric
º: Shades. 316 Side famp. 317 Side lamp bracket. 318 Side lamp
chimney.
COUPLING APPARATUS AND DRAFT GEAR.
319 Miller coupler. 320 Automatic vertical-plane coupler 321
Ixnucklo. 322 BCnucklb pin. 823 Drawbar, 324 Shank. 825 Draft-spring
strap. 326 Draft-spring strap-bolts, 327 Draft-spring. 328 Draft-
spring followers, 329 Tail-bolt or stem... 380 Drawbar. garry-lºon.
331 inner drawbar cyrry-iron, 332 Uncoupling lever. 833 Uncoupling
shaft. 334 Uncoupling rod. 835 Draft timbers.
ſ iss'
39
!64 #33 - 4 J 4 º 409 32 JS3' | 6 || 63
dºgº was 9" ! I 9 º,30 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF PASSENGER, BUFFET- * ++. 165 so
! 5
SLEEPING AND OBSERVATION CARS. ! I
Particularizing the diſt tº th f {V} | ſ WITH VISTIBULE AND OBSERVATION PLATFoRMs, GAs AND ELECTRIC I,IGHT, BAKIER HEATER AND STEAM HEATING, &c. f | O
art.1Culturizing the erent parts thereof and giving the technical names by which they are lznown by those connected with the car department of railroads. It is at once a Chart and an IEncyclopedia, each part of the car F.
The right hand portion of tho chiirt, illustrates the construction of a passengor conch having seats with roversible backs and a ſºaker heator room. The left hand portion illustrates the ...r.º. º buffet ić. ing car jś º, o that it may be recognized and quickly referred to, the whole being classified under sub-headings.
The wide vestibuie platform is added to the coach end of the car with a Pintsch gas lamp in the dome, and outside electric corner lights. The four Wheel truck used i hts, the buffet lºitºhon, the smoking and, toilet rooms, and ºn observation room and platform in the reñr.
and Observation ºnd'. iſ the car is such as is used in the construction of these heavy modern cars. J g wheel truck used in the coach end of the car is such as is used very largely in the construction of American passenger coaches, although six wheels are often used. Tho six wheel truck shown under the sleeping
| 7 J 82
* =
VESTIBULE AND PLATFORM.
336 Vestibule end of car. 337 Vestibulo door. .338 Vestibule door
lock, 389 Vestibule door drop-handle, 340 Vestibule door hinges.
341 Vestibule door guard- rod. 342 Glass in vestibule door.
Stop hangor braco. 382 Extension folding step, 383 Extension stop
hingo. 384, Side-stems, 385 Side-stem thimble, 386 Side-stem
spring. 387 Side-stem pin, 388 Center-storm. 380 Inner guide conter-
stom. 390 Center-stem spring. 391 Center-Stom pin, 392 Follower
truss-rod queen-poSt.
washer. 428 Brâce.
432 Shenthing rail.
426 Overhang truss-rod seat. 427 Brace-rod
429 Brace-rod 430 Stud. 431 Window posts.
. 433 Sheathing furring. 435 Plute. 436 Body
end-plate. 437 Raſtor. 488 Roof boards. , 439 Clear-story, 440 Dock
484 Letter board or friezo. 485 Fascia board, 486 Eaves molding.
487 Deck caves molding. 488 Deck outsido window-sash. 489 IDeck
window screens. 490 Deck screen-post. 491 Outside sheathing. 402
Upper wainscot panel. 408 Lower wainscot panel. 494 Cushion. 405
deck ceiling, 529 Bunk panel, 530 Bunk apron. 531 FIammock hook.
532 ſlammock. 533 Mirrors. 534 Electric push-buttons, 535 Annunciator
BUFFET KITCHEN.
** * t * * - T - Tº -: -- - - - - - 540 Smoking room. 541 Smoking room panels, 542 Wai t l ter tank 6 t rºº, i.
343 Ves- center-storm. 393 Pressure bar. 394 Short buſter-plato, 305 Thres- end-šills. 441 Deck sill. 442 Deck Bill facing. , 443 TDCcle post, 444 Back, 496. Head roll. .. 497. Back band. 498 Arm rest. . 499 * Gºokiº Tº - g p Iainscot, bºnels, water tank, ſº Qyerhead water tank filler. 5. Pipe from overhead
*#ie *Yºod, º * ; In- hold plate. 396 Foot plato. 397 Safety coupling chain, 398 Safety Declº panels. 445 Deck plate. 446 Upper deck carline. 447. Com- rest. 500 Seat end rail, 50ſ Base casting, 502 Foot rail. §§. º sº *:::::::::::...º.º. - §: ...'. º lº"; i. pastry closºl. 579, Bracket for bread
t;Om *...*.* guide {l ##e- late §§º. ‘. & º: coupling hook. - pound earline. 448 Deck sash, 449 Deck sash lintel, .450 Deck sash arm. 504 Seat lock, 505 Seat end. rack bracketS. 550 Baskot rack rod. śi Basket raci. netting. "; 582 E.;#. ge £88 S {}{2|{ ; º: , 581 Shelf for canned goods.
#"...º.º. *.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*. CAR. I'RAMING, ETC. }...to º! ºd º: sº Hºld"..."; * - fºrce and improlia. §§bservation end of car, sº §voří šč..t.*.*.*. º tºº. *::::::
##"."º";ºatº"; 300 End-sill. 400 side-sill knee-iron. 401 side-sill. 402 Sill tie- board ºf Deck sash hingo, ºffs inside window sill. 459 Pilaster SECTIONS AND STIETEPING, BTERITIS. ing chair. 555 Chair base casting. º; sº cºpº, ; ºtºl.
*::::::::::";1}.};";a;Y"; ºr:*:::: ..., "ºº"; ;inº"; "isº" ſº ºvº; ; ; ; # Wiś: º ºsºtº". T}OOTR AND TRIMMINGS .."; 1:... c.:";"ºndº...";###.
- ſº - º T. • . Avº º - Gning CC1Ling. TOSSL}{3 till Clºſłl", j Ilúlow CàSing, 46 ndow Stile. 46 ndow Silsh. T1- 509 Bert, Ont; panel, u #11 T. *I'l - * - th tly lººk A m - tº * - ++
carline, 364 Platform roof end carline. 865 Platform floor and mat- 400 Body truss-rod. 410 Body .# 411 BOdy queen-post dow glass. 467 Władó. lift, d68 Wiadº” lock. Síl SH r p pper part. , 510 Berth front, lower part. ionº,
º - 002 Tuinen locker, 603 Locker door. 604 Locker I
* t; - 54 w * º : * - * - pūnd S.
ting. 866 Platform trap-door. 307 Platform sill, 368 Platform short brace. 412 Turn-buckle. 413 Truss-rod anchor-iron, 414 Truss-rod 460 Window stop 511 Borth front panel. 512 berth catch handle, 513 Iłorth 556 Door lintel, 557 Car door, 558 Top door-rail. 550 Middlo
- - 470 Rººftor cornice. 471 Window blind sash. 472 Window blind slats. spring frame. 514 Borth spring chain. 515 Berth chain pul— door-rail. - - - *s. r: .
i. i. º# § Pº rail-post. 871 Base washer stub-ends, .415 Truss-plank. . .416 Truss-plank cap. 417 Belt rail, 473 Window blind mullion. 474 Window blind lift. 475 Window ley. , 516 Berth safety rope. 517 Berth Inattress. 518 Błºn i. º Hºlº # Yº...º.º. sº #. MARIXER.S.
§ ###.";..."; chai.ºint. His Beijilºn iſºmºression behinº Auxiliary compression ºdo."º Boºm º of iage ºf shade thumb lich. Aſ8Shadº sºlspring. 510 Fºw bºx. 525 orijlow ºf arti curtain. ash-fift sº for sºliosi. Bº Dootinº. # Door holder. § 605 Flag and lamp holder. 606 Tail
form tie-rod, nd Hill tie-rod, 876 Platform gate. 377 Platform beam. 421 Compression beam brace. 422 Counter brace. 428 Coun- fringo. 470 Shade stop. 480 Outside window sill. 481 Window sill 522 Curtain rings. 523 Curtain rod. 524 Curtain rod bracket. 525 Door holder Catch, 570 lºscutcheon, 57.1 foot hinges. 572 i.am. g and lººmp holder. ail lamp.
step riser. 378 Tread board, 870 Step iron, 380 Step hanger. 381 ter brace rod. 424 Hog-chain or overhang truss-rod. 425 Overhaug cornice board. 482 Window panel, 483 Outside window molding. º º, º ſº... If * * {{CŞ.
Berth partition, 526 Head board. 527 Lower borth stop. 528 Lower broquin.
































































































LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 117
firemen, engineers, or machinists in a railroad
shop, will in every case do well to first familiar-
ize themselves with the theory of the subject.
This work is intended to aid in this.
It was the practice at one time, and still main-
tains to a greater or less extent, to commence at
the bottom as a boy and, by years of practical
labor without study, evolve the experience nec-
essary to a more extended field of work. This
is still in a measure necessary, because nothing
This machine is of Austrian manufacture, and presents many
unique and interesting features.
can fill the place of practical experience; but
practical experience without research, study and
thought, without delving into the philosophy of
the thing, is not enough to base a career upon,
whether a man be a fireman, engineer, machin-
ist, or statesman. Men whose attainments are
so limited show to great disadvantage compared
with reading men. If they would grow to the
height their Creator intended, they must add to
their practical experience the experience and

118 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
research of others. It is in order to aid in bring-
ing a knowledge of the science of railroads within
the reach of all, that I am led to write these
books. I do not expect to be exhaustive. Books
intended to exhaust a subject fail to do more
than exhaust the reader. There is a natural
growth in every department of the world’s in-
dustry so certain and irresistible that for any
one to say he will exhaust a subject is simply to
al
º
Ż3%
ºf 3,3
*=
sº
Fº º "Tº
\ | Q&
Fººt lºº.
º | º
g
* 5– .
gººse *
Rººs-F Mºssº ** a '. sº ºr
FR: , sº Xº
- ºut ºº
- --- غ-
sºs 㺠& “
* Etºs.. . . . .
sº º-º-º: --
Eºs
Sºvvur --
Engine Tender of Austrian Imperial Train.
become tedious—to belittle his subject, in fact.
The most that men of talent need—and they are
the only people worth instructing—is a hint.
They require to be led along the road a little
way in order that they may obtain better use of
their legs and have opportunity to observe what
there is going on in the world outside of the spot
in which they were born. This is the purpose
of books like these. They are not to fit men

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 119
completely, but to help them; to lead them by
suggestion to do what might not otherwise occur
to them. It is only necessary to stimulate, touch
a match, so to speak, to fire the ambition of real
men. Their ingenuity will do the rest.
Having pointed out the evolution of the loco-
motive and described its parts, I propose in this
chapter to illustrate the higher forms of locomo-
tives and cars in use throughout the world. In
selecting pictures
for incorporation
tº l'ii. here, I have been
led into corre-
spondence with
ſºlitiºnſ ſºlº
E--->
sº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º:
tº Vº
#|ºlºff, ºr
untinuºuſ.
| liºn §§§ Sºº : > Sº, Nºi;
Tºº-jºº **** many of the great
Locomotive on Siberian Railway. Diameter manufacturers of
of cylinders, 16 in...; stroke, 22 in. ; diameter of * º
driving wheels, 46 in. ; weight of locomotive, the W OF ld, and
31% tons from this have
acquired much interesting information of great
value to myself, if not to the reader. The ac-
companying pictures represent standard forms of
locomotives. It will not be long, however, be-
fore they will become obsolete, like the equip-
ment of fifty years ago. When this period arrives
I will, in new editions of the work, transfer them
to the evolutionary period of growth. There they
will be interesting and not misleading.
In looking through the pictures embraced in
this chapter, American readers will not fail to
note the difference between the equipment of
other countries and their own. It extends
through the whole category of countries. There





















120 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
is, in fact, almost as much difference between
the locomotives and cars used by different peo-
ples as there is between the faces of those who
A-S-
mywºrwº-s i d; =::.. ::: - - - - - -
i."|| || Tºsº.
ill illº
º tºsſº
Sºjº †º §§ TVUETE:
- S Lº
Outline of Italian Inside Connected Passenger Locomotive. The tender
truck, it Will be observed, has a rigid frame.
make up the different nations. The rolling stock
mankind constructs is not only different in form,
but in working and carrying capacity. The sub-
ject is more
interesting
| lº. #sºlºiºkéâ th a n one
+ º: tº would Sup-
E.J L = } :ºcłº - º -
pose at first
glance. De-
tails are strikingly different. Thus in the case of
cars, we couple them together automatically; in
other countries they are in the main attached to
each other by chains
and the n drawn
tight ly together
against projecting
bumpers. The wheels
also abroad, as a rule,
are Sp oked, while with Egyptian Locomotive. This passenger
U1S they are, In the engine with a single pair of drivers is
© © suitable only for very light work, but
Iſlal Il, solid. In Iſlally possesses remarkable speed.
ar
Outline of Italian Inside Connected Freight Locomotive.
*Ill.
=-lºssº
w
º: ... ."
tº
}_º||N& -
º
º' TTT tºº, ºxº
gºN -
ſº - wº- º -
º ~.
&
-Yº




























LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 121
cases there are only four wheels under foreign
cars. This seems strange to us, but is not
strange when we remember the number of
wheels is intended to be proportionate to the
load to be carried.”
º
º
#| || i
ºl
tº:
º N
* :=sº %2 ºzº
ºść
Locomotive on China Railway, the locomotive and tender being built in
one piece. Diameter of cylinders, 16 in. ; stroke, 24 in. ; diameter of driving
wheels. 4 ft.; total wheel base, 25 ft., 6 in. ; weight of locomotive in working
order, 117,700 pounds; capacity of tender tank, 1,550 gals. ; fuel capacity, 107
Cu. ft.
The machinery of different countries used
in constructing and repairing railway locomo-
tives and cars also differs. This is also true of
skilled labor, the experience and talent of build-
ers, natural facilities, and other details. The
*Differences in car construction and use are practically
without limit. Four-wheeled freight cars are as common in
Other countries as eight-wheeled are in the United States. We
may note One Or two examples: The coal cars used on the Lan-
cashire & Yorkshire Railway have four wheels and a wheel-
base of nine feet. They weigh eleven thousand two hundred
pounds when empty and thirty-three thousand six hundred
pounds loaded. On the Eastern Railway of France the coal and
coke and box cars have four wheels with a wheel-base of twelve
and three-tenths feet. The flat cars are carried on six wheels
and have a wheel-base of sixteen and four-tenths feet. The
freight cars of the Saxon State railways of Germany have only
two axles, and weigh, when loaded, about thirty-five thousand
pounds. The maximum train load on the East Indian Railway
is one thousand tons. The freight cars have four wheels, with
a. Wheel-base of eleven and One-half feet.























122 RAIL WAY EQUIPMENT.
intrinsic merits of locomotives differ quite as
much as steamships or other manufactured
goods. No manufacturer will, however, admit
that his machines are inferior to the best. They
are, on the contrary, of the highest type and
the best to be had. The greater the talent
and experience of the builder and the more
perfect the appliances he uses, including the
labor he employs, the higher, of course, will be
the results he attains. It is only by enquiry,
observation and careful comparisons that we can
form an intelligent opinion relatively of the
is designed for speed.
merits of different manufactories. It follows
without saying that the machinery of railway
shops must, to secure results at the lowest cost,
be adequate and of the best type, and so grouped
that it may be utilized with the minimum
expense for labor and the handling of material.
Repair shops require to be easily accessible to
the lines they are designed to accommodate, but
construction shops must, to obtain the best re-
sults, be located with reference to supplies and
the obtainment of labor on the most advan-
tageous terms and with the least likelihood of
interruption from economic causes. In many

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 123
instances bounties are offered by cities and towns
to influence the location of manufactories of loco-
motives and cars. Generally, however, it may be
said that the location of these shops is not pre-
Mineral Tank Engine, Scotland. Engines of this character are known in
America as “Saddle Tank” Engines. Diameter of cylinders, 14 in. ; stroke,
20 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 44 in. ; wheel base, 7 ft.; weight of locomo-
motive, 41,800 lbs. : tank capacity, 750 gals.
meditated. Their location, like their growth, has
been natural, and in many cases not thought out
in advance. Manufactories which thus develop
from small begin-
nings are, as a rule,
m Ore prosperous
than those created
in their entirety
d K. º - Tºº-Tº:
Out of hand. Suc- sºlº ---
cess is usually the ºffliº
out growth of *
French Locomotive and Tender, for
slow and natural Switching Purposes. Diameter of cylinders,
e 11.81 in.; stroke, 14.17 in. ; diameter of driv-
growth, and t h 1 S ing Wheels, 35.43 in. : weight of locomotive,
because I11611 who 32,606 lbs. ; capacity of water tank, 463 gals. :
e Capacity of coal box, 1,236 lbs.
grow up with the
affairs of a great business are more competent to
handle it than those hired to meet an emergency.


124 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
It is probable that the conveniences of the
railroad shops of the world and the experience
and talent of those who manage them are not
materially different as regards efficiency from
other manufactories. Local causes intervene, as
in other cases, to heighten or lessen results, to
spur men on or deaden their effort, but in the
long run the fittest survive in every country,
while their unfortunate brethren go to the wall.
In order to construct cheaply, manufacturers
must have continuous work and in sufficient
iſ ſº
Jºiºſlºº It ºr Biºisºtºiºiſºtº º I º Re-rººm.
º
|Tºº
Eºs .# & º l, ſ
º Sº §yle=&
=E -
||f||||||ſ.
º S㺠ºw- tº
º §i)
lſº sº
Fºsiº, ºssº: …, & Sºtº ºr -- # => p; E - C
Russian Freight Locomotive. Designed for heavy work on steep grades,
where conditions of bridges make it necessary to distribute the load on the
drivers to the minimum. Diameter of cylinders, 12.99 and 18.11 in, ; stroke,
21.65 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 43.31 in.; weight of locomotive, 92,075
lbs.; water capacity of tender, 2,360.9 gals.; Wood capacity, 8,969 lbs.; weight
of tender, 23,843 lbs.
º
- -º-º-º:
quantity to keep the maximum amount of ma-
chinery and labor actively employed. If the
work is irregular or insufficient to utilize needed
appliances, there is waste which shows itself in
the increased cost of the product. It is the same
with the builders of cars and locomotives as it is
with the operation of railroads. A company that
has sufficient traffic to keep its property and force
profitably occupied can do business at less cost
and, consequently, with greater profit than a
company not so fully engaged.

































LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 125
As a rule, manufacturers, it is probable, exer-
cise about equal intelligence in the care of their
machinery and property, in the selection and
Jl ſº iſºtº - ºftsº
==AS-ºff | Hºrrº | |
ji=#|*|†Ihº - - -
2 ſº #EEill||litfiftfittiffl|| || #EEE-ſºº's
ſºlºſº ºft#. §§§ Eliº ºff ºf #º
2%. º §ſº º: ** *** º º º
Neilson's Twin Goods Engine, Scotland. The engine is designed to work
equally well in either direction, where high power is necessary with low weight
on the drivers. The use is, of course, special, and the distances to be run by it
not great. Diameter of cylinders, 19 in. ; stroke, 26 in. ; diameter of driving
Wheels, 4 ft., 2 in. ; weight of each locomotive, 87,000 lbs.; capacity of water
tanks, 3,000 gals. ; Coke Space, 384 cu. ft.; weight of tender, 43,800 lbs.
purchase of tools and material, in the handling
of men and in the sale of goods, but there must
be glaring exceptions to the rule. These latter
represent the failures, their wastage constituting
the difference between a
loss and a profit on the
thing manufactured.
In reference to methods
of business pursued by tº
manufacturers, they are tºº
not, of course, uniform. Tº
They adapt themselves Scotch Tank Engine, for light
to the circumstances that ...º.º.º.
surround each enterprise. ameter of driving wheels, 2 ft.,
e c º 6 in ; fixed wheel base, 5 ft. ; tank
Thus, in many, indeed, in capacity, 220 gals.; fuel space, 11
e & © cu. ft.; weight of locomotive,
the majority of instances, ºbs
the work is carried on by
day labor. In some cases, on the other hand, it
is done by the piece. This last named method
is the more desirable for both employer and
... iTººls
|| ||















































126 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
employe, when practicable, because it relieves
the employer of undue anxiety, while it makes
the laborer self-reliant by making him an inde-
pendent manufacturer.
The great builders of the world, the great man-
ufacturers of railway equipment included, possess
the highest administrative talent which can be
found—first, in the builders themselves, and after-
ward in those they employ. In regard to these
| latter, they have.
*::::: as a rule, grown
4|| up with the work
| they look after,
|| ||
and thus under-
#=#jś5 e
§§§ sºº stand its every
& º g need.
Belgian Locomotive and Tender COmbined. sº
If it were prac-
ticable, great benefits to railways and individual
interests would be derived by free consultation
among those who build equipment. We have
such organizations among those who maintain
the rolling stock of railroads. The privilege of
º
ET
§ º
º º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º:
gº-ºººººº sº. 33
N
§
lf
§ | º cº-
& Il ºn-ºº: tº ºilºl ºf Nº. ..}{
ºr lºss-º-º-º: ſº- ||.
- É#= } #1 #|| ºft) s
… ."
º
bºº -
= . º *".
º º lºss
º tº Wº.
tºº.
Rºſſ, ºft. 7,
sº ſº iſ: §º / "NTV.
dº sºlº§ºº) ºsses
IX:
42 gº ... ...
!, 5.
v----- fººd
*... § --
Belgian Locomotive-Tender, for pushing trains. Diameter of cylinders 18.9
inches; Stroke, 21.65 inches; diameter of driving wheels, 51.34 inches; weight
of locomotive, 89,287 pounds; capacity of water tank, 1,533 gallons; capacity
of Coal box, 3,531 pounds.

























LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 127
inspecting the great manufacturing shops of the
world would, of itself, be a source of enlighten-
ment and benefit. We may not hope, however,
for this privilege. Men do not thus divulge the
the secrets of their trade. To possess a method
by which a thing can be lessened in cost is to
possess an advantage over others not so favored.
It is, consequently, jealously guarded.
ſºilſt †iº:
§ [. #|| |
fººt
|
º, tº
ſ & ºf Nº. ~ *-* * ~ -
a; isºlº ſº.
sºlºiſillº; |
E- fºss--------ºs º
ſºlºiſ Wººl |
sº. }º ºº::::::::::º
{\Zaſ: tº wº *::::::: Elk-
šiºSººs T. T. ... L-_º
tº gº"
&r-
- tº
French Locomotive-Tender (known in America, as a tank locomotive).
The great manufacturing plants of the world,
as I have intimated, were started by practical
men and developed under their immediate eye.
With the lapse of time most of these men have
died, or through the development of business
have been compelled to divide their responsibil-
ities with others. Thus a new element has been
brought into the field. This new element is not
only intensely practical, but, in the main, highly
educated and scientific in its methods. In the
Sharp competition of trade personal experience
no longer suffices. All the appliances which























128 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Scientific knowledge, through its more comprehen-
sive grasp of affairs, can add to practice must be
brought into requisition. Where, therefore, for-
merly no scientific man was to be found in con-
Consolidation Freight or Goods Locomotive, New South Wales. Diam-
eter of cylinders, 21 inches; stroke, 26 inches.
nection with a great manufacturing enterprise,
such men are now common, and, in many in-
stances, constitute the governing force.
It is said that the Germans, whose education
is less and less directed to classical things, and
more and more to modern science, have done
much to turn the attention of scholars to the
Express Locomotive of Chemins de fer de l’Etat Belge. It will be observed
that the plate frame, so common to European engines, is shown here; also, a
Square Smokestack, which is not used in America.
practical needs of manufacture and the wide
field therein for scientific analysis and exposi-
tion. It is owing to this added force that the
manufacturers of Germany have been able to


take the great forward step which they have. It
is found in practice that the enlistment of Scien-
tific men in the great manufacturing plants of
the world does not reduce the influence or value
of other kinds of labor, either in management or
minor details. One supports and supplements
the other. The first named is, through its for-
mulas, able to materialize what would otherwise
be lost in idle speculations.
ºd
F=
*::::: Fº -
Eºis
Eº < −-
º
º
< * Ecº
sºsºlº
Wºº.
Italian Express Locomotive.
Education has thus become a part and parcel
of trade and its devotees are now to be found
among machinists and master mechanics, as well
as in the professional walks of life. Its value
will prove incalculable to trade, as its possessor
is, by reason of his extended research, not only
able to grasp the idea itself but the collateral ideas
surrounding it. This is the advantage the edu-
cated man has over the uninformed; the trained
mind over the untrained mind. The latter, be-
cause of lack of extended information, is only par-
tially informed, and when an idea is grasped the
thoughts this idea should suggest are not always
9 Vol. 1
















130 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
awakened, but continue to lie dormant. It is in
this respect that educated men have so great an
advantage in practical business over those less
favored, and it is this that is leading those iden-
tified with the manufacturing interests of the
world to seek to add this new force to their
business affairs. Nothing but good can come of
it, for the further the educational process goes
on without lessening man’s interest in practical
things, or his inclination to work, the better it
|
Rºº.
d
|
|
#
|
§
cº Hº ºir
. . … . - -
| | || _º 7 Jyºzºº. . .ſ/ NN
ºsº º º ſº
sºjº {{WP: 2. º-y- ſº º
º/ENEEE Sºy/Alºysº
Locomotive and Tender Combined, Berlin-Hamburg Railroad. Diameter of
cylinders, 16.53 inches; stroke, 24.02 inches; diameter of driving wheels, 62.68
inches; weight of locomotive, 70,765 pounds; water Capacity, 1,188.78 gallons;
eoal capacity, 2,712 pounds. *
will be for the industries of the world, and the
greater the number of comforts that will be
brought within the reach of mankind.
The manufactories of locomotives and cars in
the great commercial countries of the world are
the outgrowth of natural causes—represent, in
fact, an evolution co-existent with the needs of
railway transportation.
The first manufactories known to mankind in
the early ages of the human race are believed to
have corresponded to our blackSmith shops.























1, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 131
French Locomotive Tender (i. e., locomotive and tender combined). Di-
ameter of cylinder, 10.62 in...; stroke, 18.11 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 35.82
in. ; weight of locomotive, 34,184 lbs. ; water capacity, 463 gals.; coal capacity.
1,766 lbs.
They were isolated and were carried on by indi-
vidual men. There was little demand for their
product. Their work related in the main to the
manufacture of arms and rude appliances of car-
riage. The Smith worked unaided at his primi-
tive forge, but his occupation was surrounded by
superstitions and the wonder and admiration of
the people among whom he lived. His ability to
reduce crude ores and model the melted metal
afterward into necessary and ornamental objects,
seemed to the rude denizens of that remote age
as susceptible of accomplishment only through
the aid of the gods. He was, therefore, if not
| }
[], i.
T sº A. TºT
\.
W
* || ||
• sºil t '# = \ F ~ --
º * ~-14 isſº & º
*
German Rapid Transit Passenger Locomotive, with Belpaire type of fire
box, Warschau-Wien Railroad. Diameter of cylinders, 17 in. ; stroke, 22 in. ;
diameter of driving wheels, 72 in. ; weight of locomotive, 73,719 lbs.; water
capacity of tender, 2,614.7 gals.; coal capacity, 8,828 lbs. ; weight of tender,
loaded, 59,500 lbs.

132. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
worshiped, at least looked upon as in communi-
cation with the Divine Being, and those sick or
distressed eagerly sought his advice, as we do the
physician or philosopher. He was the first car-
riage builder. It was he who constructed the
primitive carts of ancient Mesopotamia, the very
beginnings of vehicles. He first learned the
value of ores and how to melt and mold them
into weapons and articles of daily use. One of
the earliest references we have to this primitive
manufacturer is in the Odyssey, where the oracle
describes the blacksmith shop with its bellows
#ºſſºsºsºzº
Sºº º ºriºsº yº (º).
Coupled Passenger Bogie Engine, Scotland. Diameter of cylinders, 17%
in. ; stroke, 26 in, ; diameter of driving wheels, 6 ft., 6 in. ; diameter of truck
wheels, 3 ft., 6 in. ; weight of locomotive, 88,000 lbs.; water capacity of
tender, 2,550 gals.; weight of tender, loaded, 71,680 lbs.
and quickening fires, near which the body of
Orestes will be found to lie. The Manufacturer,
it will thus be seen, is at once the oldest and
most honorable of industrial men. When letters
Were unknown and the arts and sciences things
yet to be evolved, he was consulted and honored
as a man whose calling was potential and had
the favor of the gods. He still has that favor.
In the evolution of time he has again become a
principal factor in the world's affairs. Ours is
the age of manufactories. In early times the

















I, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 133
. === ; t
: t
3 T L #| 2.É
# * ---
ſº *
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* *... . * Ż- w
# i....: : Hirºji. ºil; - - ---- § e :
############## #: #: ###::::::. # #
- ji
- - º:
EE:::: - º -4::
::"::::::::: j : i:
** **** * . . . . . . ºf Llº- ºllº, ſº- ºr e = . . . . . a ses, sº
Madras Railway Engine.
builder worked alone and shaped, unaided, the
complete article. Now sixty men are necessary
to make a shoe. It takes an army of men to
manufacture a car wheel, an air brake, the up-
holstery of a car, and, similarly, other appurte-
tenances of this vehicle. One manufacturer
gathers from other manufacturers the articles he
needs and, putting them together with a skill
peculiar to himself, makes a new thing which he
offers for sale. Practices, however, differ with
manufacturers in this respect, particularly those
who construct railway equipment: one will him-
Self manufacture many parts of the car or loco-
motive that another will buy in the open market.
Thus one will make his own car wheels and axles
a &
*. Éliº E WP: ºšº - - - -
sº ºilº s: TV Zºza-ss TV as Tºº-ºº:
s ºl
: * D'ºrº a sº º iš. |
ºfºº
º
}(G)
Breda, Milan, Ten-Wheeled Locomotive. The cylinders are placed behind
the engine trucks, thus increasing the length of wheel base,
ãºeiß
º ~. - tº-sº C.
gºšº'ſ
º ºsº Trn pºstº
* * *- &zzº Fººt" [.
PºSSºSsº** =\;





























134 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
while another will buy them. It is a question of
business interest merely. If the manufacturer
can buy a needed article in the market for less
than he can make it himself, he will buy it. If
there is profit in its manufacture, he will manu-
facture it. No set rule,
therefore, is laid down or
observed. It is simply a
question of ways and
* --> Lºrrº means—of money mak-
Quaint Locomotive Without Smoke- ing. The situation is
stack, adapted to tunnel or min- governed by many COn-
Ing purposes. ditions, among them that
of capital, labor facilities, questions of supplies
and the capacity of the manufacturer. This last
is all determining. Thus one man will achieve
success and fortune while another will utterly
fail. One man will be able to manufacture a
great number of articles that enter into the
makeup of the car or locomotive he builds,
while another, because of his limited capacity
for affairs, will find it advisable to buy every-
thing he can in the open market. No set rule
prevails.”
Our age is recognized as one of machinery. It
also represents a more accurate division of labor
than formerly. The claim is often made that
t;
- ºv' a * . . .
- º - as tº :
... la Vºlºzzi sã
E.5× . º
§ſº Rºſſ
sº
º - w -
- V. -
º - - - -
ſº | [. tº ſº;
- VI: *sº
[. º ºš-ºl º %
Fº Nº
º -
* In Appendix B to this volume will be found a list of the
different parts of the locomotive. Those parts that the manu-
facturers of locomotives buy in the market from other manu-
facturers are indicated by an asterisk (*). Of course this rule
does not prevail in every case, but, generally Speaking, it does.
















LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 135
machinery is detrimental to labor. This cannot
be so because the laboring man to-day enjoys
many comforts denied him heretofore. He may
==nºdes.
asſautº:
Zºº & ºw.aº *TRInt Jºcºsºrºr-rrºr-rrº Lº
ſº lºº. is iſ; iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ºffizi. T.T.
geºljºjº jjīlzā. 4|lº. Hºjº.
aftº iſſiºnſ:
Scottish Double Header.
be more dissatisfied than formerly, but that is
because he is more exacting, not that he has less.
The use of machinery assures the laboring man
both comfort and growth. Let him not be impa-
tient. It is an old and true saying that “Every-
thing comes to him who waits.” It should also
have been added that nothing ever comes to
*E
-
wº-
ſ:
|
:
|:
s|
Austrian Locomotive. The square sand box is not found on
American locomotives.
those who will not patiently wait. An eminent
writer,” referring to the social question that sur-
rounds the use of machinery in our day, says
* Dr. N. D. Hillis.



































136 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
very appropriately: “Strangely enough, in this
era when tools have emancipated men, it is as-
Serted that they have created a new form of
Servitude. But analyzed, the statement is found
to be far from the truth and calculated to disturb
the happiness of the workman and embitter his
life. Tools represent the uttermost of kindness
and divine benefaction. It happens that very
few men are possessed of genius and greatness.
There are a few ten-talent men, a few five-talent
--> ſi º F. Hº Lil' ºil R.
HºHHis .
Illi H
--- Tº
Nº
gº
º
jºy
Belgian Passenger Locomotive and Tender. Diameter of cylinders, 17.72
in. ; stroke, 23.62 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 69.93 in. ; diameter of truck
wheels, 41.73 in...; weight of locomotive, 97,003 lbs. ; capacity of water tank,
2,572 gals.; capacity of coal box, 4,061 lbs. *
men, more two-talent men, while most of all rep-
resent one talent. Now, in an age when civiliza-
tion has become complex, and highly organized,
the great multitudes representing one talent are
in danger of falling out of the race. The strong
and wise advanced so swiftly that the one-talent
man could not keep up. Nor was he able to work
with sufficient rapidity to hold his place. Now,
in the interest of this one-talent man, inventors
created tools. To make a modern shoe requires

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 137
sixty different workmen. From these sixty dif-
ferent tasks the one-talent workman selects
Something he can do, and doing that one thing,
he, too, becomes a creator, retains his self-re-
spect by being a producer, and where without
tools he would have been heart-broken, with his
tools he stands upon his own feet and makes his
own contribution to our civilization. Search all
modern life through and there shall not be found
------- -> 3, #: - º . § - |
gº/ mºº
E =º-º-º-º:
Rºss
N 2 #º |
º
w Fºlºnimºsé
º:#ºHººke.
º lºsºlje Tº-ºº: -->.º.º.º. Sºº KSº
º tºº ºy sº **)
El .
º: fººd - º -* - E -----
=– =Slºž-ºf lº & ºyºAff.
Austrian Locomotive. It will be observed that the Austrian engines have
a damper attached to the smokestack, which is used to close the top of the
Stack when the engine is standing in the house, thereby preventing cold air
from passing through the fire box and flues and injuring same.
one single element that represents a form of
ministry to the weak and the poor, that is so
beneficent as the fact that machinery hath so
divided toil as to enable the humblest man to
become a self-supporting worker, and have his
own place in civilized life. And when the tool
has made a place for the one-talent man, it goes
on to multiply the wages his father enjoyed, by
means of which he purchases many things he
Wants that were before denied him.”





















138 EAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The limited demand for 10comotives and cars
and the great cost of the plant required for their
construction has tended to restrict the number
of manufactories of this kind. It would be
profitless to attempt to enumerate those in oper-
ation throughout the world, although the num-
ber is not large. The manufacturers of the
different countries bear substantially the same
relation to those of other countries that manu-
factures generally do. In other words, where
capital seeks employment in the manufacture of
Lºº
sºliº
lºs, i ſº-ºº-ºº!
#| ! lºsſºs.' Fººtnºś
jº- #3; lººk
º
* ...º. sº
* - - E=
Brooks’ Consolidation Freight Locomotive. Diameter of cylinders, 20 in...;
stroke, 26 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 51 in. ; driving wheel base, 22 ft.,
8 in. ; total wheel base, 50 ft., 3 in...; total weight of engine, 158,750 lbs.
miscellaneous goods, it finds a proportionate out-
let in the construction of railway equipment.
Local causes affect such enterprises and where
there is little disposition upon the part of a
people to manufacture goods, we find few or no
manufacturers of locomotives and cars. In the
past Great Britain has had substantially as many
manufacturers of locomotives and cars as all the
other countries of Europe combined. Her great
capital and genius for business has easily enabled
her to surpass her neighbors in this direction,
but, while Great Britain has exceeded all other








LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 139
ºrigin tillº.
º *|ſi e \sº
XC > -ºs." tº: *
- %. ºf >º W
Schenectady (U. S. A.) Locomotive. Diameter of cylinders, 19 in. ; stroke,
24 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 78 in. ; weight on drivers, 77,000 lbs.;
weight of locomotive in working order, 110 tons; driving wheel base, 8 ft., 6
in. ; total wheel base, 23 ft., 11 in...; tank capacity, 4,500 gals.; Weight of Lender
loaded, 98,000 lbs.
nations as manufacturers of steam locomotives
and cars, Americans have been by far the greatest
manufacturers of electrical apparatus relating to
carriage. Their plant has from the first been
extended and complete so far as science has been
able to unravel its needs, while the skill of their
designers and mechanics has been unequalled.
This superiority has been so manifest, indeed,
that those in need of electrical apparatus in every
part of the world have sought, by preference,
American manufacturers to fill their requisitions.
==E *** f \
ls, , , ; sº 2's R. R. W. ||Nº. º
$º gº
†T N R. * Fº 5
§º:
Schenectady (U. S. A.) Locomotive. Diameter of cylinders, 18 in...; stroke,
24 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 51 in. ; driving wheel base, 11 ft.; weight of
locomotive, 99,000 lbs.; water capacity of tender, 3,000 gals.; weight of tender,
loaded, 61,300 lbs.
\
















140 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Every manufacturer of railway equipment
strives for something that will recommend his
wares above those of his competitors. Some of
these devices are patented; others, again, are the
outgrowth of combinations not always subject to
exclusive use. The particular forms or devices
which different manufacturers make use of, add
greatly, of course, to the interest and pictur-
esqueness of the subject. A collection of pictures
portraying every kind of locomotive (i.e., loco-
* , º -** - - • * * *- : *-ī--
-q .* tº - rº. III".…—--~~. Tº I-
º, sº -- - - ºw \, * * * *
tº tº º * , , , , ºft --> :
* † ... ;-º-º: s , , , sº ºf lºº . *.* N
flºº; sºd
Fºl ºft
º * **, *
º *: ºt. S
º
$/ & = @ º
| #ºw illº
Hºli ºg
| Hill|| # =
tºº
26 in. ; diameter of driving wheels, 55 in. ; driving wheel base, 15 ft., 6 in. ; total
Wheel base, 25 ft., 4 in...; weight on drivers, 147,000 lbs.; total weight of locomo-
tive, 175,000 lbs.; water capacity of tender, 4,000 gals.; weight of tender,
loaded, 92,900 lbs.
motives varying in some particular,) would fill a
dozen volumes, and this without adding materi-
ally to the interest or enlightenment of mankind.
If we would know what the natives of Arabia
look like, we take one or two types and study
them; and so it is in regard to locomotives. One
or two forms are generally sufficient to illustrate
the peculiar ideas or idiosyncrasies of a manu-
facturer. This is not always the case, however,
and for that reason, in portrayals of this kind, it
is difficult to know where to draw the lime. I set





















f,OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 141
out to illustrate every form of locomotive and
car, but quickly gave up the task as impossible
and unprofitable. Types, I am assured, are all
the student desires to see, but, while I have been
led to modify my original purpose, I do not aban-
don it wholly; I restrict my portrayal to the loco-
motives- and cars that manufacturers Select as
affording peculiar interest and instruction, or, if
not of great practical value, then of curious
interest, such as might be gratified by travel
abroad.
5-
- +A i. |al º: º
|m|- ... Liº
º i º #ºff
|#t==zºs.…sºjº
R | -- - º - *… i. ºº Sº fºr, --P-Nº C
| º | Fºº
flºw tº (Šºšºſſºſſº
Rogers' Locomotive, U. S. A.
In enumerating the manufacturers of locomo-
tives and cars, the railroad companies engaged
in this business must not be forgotten. In the
early days of railway enterprise, in the United
States particularly, many companies constructed
plants for the building and repairing of equip-
ment. This on the supposition that they would
build their own rolling stock. For a considerable
period they did this, but, in the majority of cases,
the practice was soon partially or wholly discon-
tinued. It was found that locomotives and cars
could, as a rule, be bought of private builders at






























142 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
less than railroad companies could construct
them for. In going outside their legitimate busi-
ness of manufacturers of transportation it was
Schenectady Locomotive. Diameter of cylinders, 20 inches; stroke, 28
inches; diameter of driving wheels, 63 inches; driving wheel base, 15 feet, 2
inches; total wheel base, 23 feet, 3 inches; weight on drivers, 124,400 pounds;
total weight of locomotive, 144,200 pounds; tank Capacity, 4,500 gallons;
Weight of tender (loaded), 98,400 pounds.
the genera, experience that railroad companies
made a mistake. Their limited demand for loco-
motives and cars, and their method of organiza-
tion, was not such as so generally enable them
to carry on the business of manufacturers of
goods efficiently or economically. I do not say
that this was, or is, the experience of every com-
Baldwin Single Driver Passenger Locomotive, capable of great speed.
Diameter of cylinders, high pressure, 13 inches, low pressure, 22 inches;
stroke, 26 inches; diameter of driving wheels, 84% inches; total wheel base,
22 feet, 9 inches; weight on drivers, 48,000 pounds; total Weight of locomo-
tive, 115,000 pounds.
pany; I refer to the majority only. To be suc-
cessful as a manufacturer, it is necessary that the
manager or the person in charge shall possess the


LOCOMOTIVES A ND CARS. 143
interest and the authority of a proprietor. Above
all, he shall have absolute discretion in regard to
the purchase of material, employment of labor,
erection of shops, selection of machinery, and
other particulars. How can he compete with
private manufacturers otherwise? The responsi-
bility is vast and indivisible Such an organiza-
tion is not in unison with the genius of railway
administration, however. In practice, when a
railroad company manufactures locomotives and
: - º
º - º
...sº tº 3. Bºº -
É= R.IW --- =#.#º º
º: E gº. -- - - - --→-- * * * * , * *-* *
#B. §: ºº::... º.º. ſt º RSN ſº
E-__ºr:----- sº-º: º
s -ºº ºr , , -
sº
º tºº,
tºº::ºxyrºix. ſºjš
§ sºftſº
-$ºś
Baldwin Locomotive (“Atlantic Type”). The trailing wheel behind the
drivers reduces the weight on the latter. Diameter of cylinders, high pres-
sure, 13 inches, low pressure, 22 inches; stroke, 26 inches; diameter of driving
wheels, 84 inches; diameter of truck wheels, 36 inches; total wheel base, 25
feet, 6 inches; weight on drivers, 77,600 pounds; total weight of locomotive,
114,290 pounds; water capacity of tender, 4,500 gallons; fuel capacity of ten-
der, 7 tons; weight of tender (loaded), 88,000 pounds.
cars, the work is entrusted to a subordinate, who
has many superiors and coadjutors, who, each in
turn, have much to say about the way business
shall be carried on. The result is the energy and
interest of the superintendent in charge is dulled
and responsibility partially or wholly lost. It
takes too long to act, and too many men have a
voice who have no real responsibility. This the
great majority of the railroad companies quickly
discovered, and, having discovered it, made haste



































144 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
to abandon the field to private enterprise, using
their plants thenceforth merely to repair and
maintain their equipment.
In referring, as I do, to a railway company’s
lack of success as a manufacturer, I do not wish
my assertions to be too sweeping. There are
many things railways are able to manufacture at
their shops successfully. Moreover, the excep-
tional ability of particular men connected with
such organizations is often such that they are able
to carry on the business of manufacturing loco-
º
| º
... # ºw : º § 23; * *: ºš
.. & sº *- º | || ? & -
: #. º º § ºlº ºzºa.
... ºff; [. # = § - | i.
* - Zºº. Tºts tº:*=== . §
ºfº = ſ.ſ.º.º. ls #
ºf-º º §ſº-sº ºf
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zºº ... sº -ºs 3. -ºš; &ºttº) 5 Nº S (3 º 3
% f iſ ; *...*.*. Nº §§ & --
4%iº:A\} \!!24%Nº. sº
*- Lºse-as-
Richmond Locomotive, U. S. A.
motives and cars successfully in spite of all the
obstacles in their way, but such men are excep-
tional, and systems can not safely be founded
upon them. With their loss, the company employ-
ing them lapses into the condition of the unfortu-
nate majority. If a railroad company would enter
the field as a manufacturer of equipment it
should adopt methods of organization, governing
its shops in conformity therewith. Let it sepa-
rate such plant from its plant for manufacturing
transportation.






































LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 145
From the foregoing it will be seen that in
enumerating the successful manufacturers of
equipment throughout the world railroad com-
panies must, generally speaking, be eliminated.
We can not look to them either for superior
excellence of work or great economy of execu-
tion. It is to private manufacturers, compelled
to compete with each other in the open market,
we owe the fact that the magnificent loco-
motives of to-day can be bought for one-half
what the primitive engines of prior days cost.
Baldwin Locomotives—the big and the little—the St. Bernard and the Scottish
Terrier.
And this is also true of cars. While they have
been strengthened and beautified, and their car-
rying capacity greatly increased, the price per
car has been much reduced. These gratifying
results are due to the competitive struggle of
private builders. Their efforts in this direction
have, moreover, had a good effect on such rail-
road companies as manufacture their own roll-
ing stock, by reducing its cost and adding to its
beauty and utility.
In reference to the particular merits of manu-
facturers of locomotives and cars, it is probable
IO Vol. 1

146 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
that the same degree of excellence, or lack of it,
exists in this field of industry that exists in other
things which the community needs and which
men seek to make money out of by supplying.
Certainly the intense rivalry which exists among
manufacturers is highly beneficial to the railroad
companies; it sharpens the wits of the manufac-
turer and makes the buyer more exacting. Its
effect is to lessen cost while adding to the utility
Compound Locomotive-Auxiliary Cylinders.
This is said to be the first engine of its kind constructed. It was built
by Krauss & Co., Munich, for the Bavarian State railroads. Its builders aimed
at combining the chief advantages of uncoupled wheels with the greater trac-
tion force which four-coupled engines afford in starting and in mounting
gradients, while further they desired to secure a more perfect adaptability of
the engine to the Various requirements concerning speed and power that
arise during ordinary working conditions. Very large cylinders, the account
further states, while quite desirable in cases of great power being required at
low speed give unfavorable results at high speed. The above design, it is
claimed, enables its builders to adapt the dimensions of the cylinders to the
conditions obtaining at high speed, while for low speed they bring into use an
auxiliary engine, thus doubling their tractive power when needed, and exert-
ing a great pull with early cut-off. The engine is claimed to perform satisfac-
tory Service.

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 147
of the product. The
manufacturer also
strives to beautify his
goods in order that
they may be more at-
tractive to the buyer
and the customers of
the latter, and he se-
lects those having
natural tastes in such
matters, to plan and
adorn his goods in
order that he may
the more success-
fully a c complish
this. In America
Steam Snow Plow. The boiler operating
the snow plow is in the car attached. The
rotary motion of the wheel precipitates the
Snow through the opening above.
the public owe the superb decorations of pas-
senger cars and most of the superior conven-
iences of travel to the Pullman and Wagner com-
panies. They are specialists and keep in their
employ men who make a study of car construc-
tion and decoration, and so, little by little, have
advanced in their calling, until the work they
produce appears perfect in beauty and adap-
Light Push Car.
When occupying their cars than when at home.
tability. Indeed,
they have made
travel so comfort-
able that a large
part of the com-
m unity enjoys
greater luxuries


148 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Furthermore, they have made travel so much a de-
light that those who possess in any degree the row-
ing instinct, wish to travel
all the time. No such state
of affairs existed in the days
of stages and the eras prior
thereto. Modern travel has
added a new wonder to the
world’s list. Its luxuries
embrace everything the
most fastidious can ask.
These luxuries are, without doubt, destined to
become, more and more, common; the drawing-
room and palace car, with its compartments and
state-rooms, the luxuriant service of the dining-
car, the buffet smoker, and other conveniences
and comforts of
travel, are destined
to soon come with-
in the reach of a
majority of man-
kind instead of a
limited few, as at
present. This is
what the improved
appliances of the
future, brought about by the sharp wits of com-
petitive endeavor among manufacturers and car-
riers, have in store for mankind.
The differences in the customs of different
countries in regard to humdrum things are ob-
servable in their contributions to the development
Hand Car.
Track Inspection Car.


LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 149
of railway carriage. The faces of men do not
differ more than do the details of railway car-
riage, albeit the differences
are not radical. The wealth,
*NA. F. - -º culture and surroundings of
º nations influence their con-
Kºś ºvejºin this field.
*sºle they do in that of buildings
and other concomitants of
life. The illustrations em-
bodied herein show this. Utility is, however, the
predominant idea with all. Ideality does not
enter into the subject or only in a minor sense.
How best to meet the re-
Quirements of the service
is the all-absorbing
thought with every build-
er. The problem he sets
himself to solve is to con-
struct a machine that will
do a given amount of
work at the least cost for
the machine itself; that
will be economical above
all others, according to
Velocipede Hand Car.
Swinging or Dumping Car. Ca-
e pacity, 15 bushels; weight, 7 cwt.
the work it performs, aS It is light enough to be handled by
two persons and short enough SO
regards fuel and other it will turn on a small table Or
short radius. It is used in coal
incidentals which enter and ore mines to haul ore to the
into its operations; that ** * * *
sh all be durable and g
trustworthy; that can be easily operated ; that
will only require the minimum of repairs; that








150 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
will not prove destructive to the track, and,
finally, that will be popular with those who have
to handle it, on the footboard, in the roundhouse
and at headquarters.
In looking over the accompanying illustra-
tions, the reader cannot but be impressed with
the beauty of the locomotive considered purely
as a work of art. Who, moreover, has ever
stood beside a modern locomotive without
emotion; without admiration for its beautiful
lines; its mammoth proportions, and magnificent
possibilities? What, for
instance, can be more
beautiful than the loco-
motive of the Chemins de
fer De L’Etat Belge por-
trayed elsewhere herein?
SS- see It is a poem in iron,
French Dumping Car for earth. Wherein artistic lines and
works and mines. Length, 10 ft., e ©
gins height of sides, ºft. iii.; proportions are faithfully
.*.*.*.*... observed throughout.
ºº: Americans will especially
hinged at the bottom edge and note this engine because
held upright by hooks. of its, to them, novel fea-
tures. The Belgian, on the other hand, will be
similarly impressed, it is probable, with the
American locomotive, because of its, to them,
peculiar features.
The characteristics of a people may in a meas-
ure be traced in their locomotives. Is not the
strong personality of the Englishman and the
Scotchman noticeable in the machines they build?

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 151
The lines are simple yet
graceful, and strength and
efficacy are apparent in
every detail of their work.
Who could doubt the na-
tionality of the builder º &
of the Neilson machine? alº"...º.º.
Nothing could be more 1* ins; load,” tons
symbolical of power than this magnificent piece
of mechanism. The beautiful Breda engine of
Milan, like the French machines, represents very
truthfully the artistic culture and dilettante
taste of an extremely refined and highly bred
people. On the other hand, locomotives con-
structed in different countries look so much alike
sometimes that one is inclined to think at first
glance they were built by the same man. The
similarity is the genius of one builder reflected
in another.
& w
º: ºs-sºº - . . º
ſº § Şāº ?sº 5 * : º
=lſº Zº
*===<º
tº-Fºx.<r-º Sºº.
wº tº:-ºrgº s zºsºs
º sº tºº E:#; sº ñº #15 ºssº. . . . . . . Tºs
º ăſă sº §ºſ º #C޺s ######ssº º --
Nºgºſºsºsºftºffº =155#######sº
=\;ſº § ºSEESE º º ASSº Tº Fºº § º
§§§ §§§ {{ſ}:siºSsºiſº §§§E== lºſsº
*-* . E=== ==E gº º E=- -
\-º-º- Sºsºe's êsºsºkºrºssElai Eſsº $5–º E ele-E
~s -º- ſº :=------> === == --→ ===s==-= <s -
* -ºs-ºs---— -- —->~~~~~ =R-I-I --~~~~ T ~~~~~~~~
*=<<==~~~~<=----- -, *-
Devices, operated from the locomotive, ſor unloading ballast. One of the
above devices is used when it is desired to unload material uniformly on
either side of the car. The other is used where it is desired to unload wholly
On One side.
No engine in the world is superior to the
American machine in its combination of desira-
ble qualities, such as economy of operation,
power, speed, simplicity and effectiveness of
























152 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
working, durability and reasonableness of first
cost. The necessi-
ties of railway op-
erations in Amer-
ica, as I have had
occasion to notice -
elsewhere, have Brazilian Flat Car. Length 13 ft., 6in.; weight,
been such 8,S to 5% tons; load, 6 tons.
compel manufacturers to build locomotives and
cars that would stand rough and crooked roads,
and in the case of engines, that would haul great
loads at a high rate of Speed, and, finally, that
would come within the means of companies with
very little money or credit. This much may be
said without disparaging the locomotives of other
countries. American manufacturers have no rea-
son to fear
|\{ sº | comparison
=#s in any re-
spect with
sº the builders
====– of Great
Wurtemberg Car with movable sides and extremities. tº 8 tº tº
Length, 32 ft., 10 in. ; height of sides, 11 in. ; weight, 7 Britain, Bel
tons; load, 12 tons, gium, Ger-
many, France, Italy, and the great centers of the
world for the construction of railway rolling
stock.
In connection with the accompanying pictures
of locomotives and cars, such statistics are given
as space permits or I have been able to procure.
The dimensions given of locomotives indicate, in
a general way, the capacity of the machine.

LOCOMOTIVES AND OARS. 153
They are such as to enable the reader to form
an approximate estimate of the capability of the
locomotive. I have not attempted to describe
each locomotive in detail, because nothing that
could be said would add materially to the inform-
ation the pictures themselves, with the accom-
panying description, affords.
C- - - - - - sº - º:
ºsº ºfts -, -º-º-º-º- ºr ºº
º, ſº sº. --. º-seº * 3
sºsºsºs
== .” --> =============-
- - -- - --
J --wºº. " “: *** * - ...-- ***
Standard American Flat Cars. Length, 34 ft. each; capacity, 60,000 lbs. The
above cars are loaded with timber. In some instances three cars are neces-
sary to support a load. The method of loading flat cars in America is pre-
scribed by the Master Car Builders' Association.
A locomotive is a living thing, resembling in
its defects the man who builds it. These defects,
like those in man, can only be determined after
trial. Admir-
erS may por-
HTTFăº tray to us the
* §º merits of Some
one they like,
American Steel Flat Car. Weight, 25,900 lbs.; but whom We
Capacity, 40 tons. have not seen,
- but it is only
when we look the person in the face that we
become really interested; and preparatory com-
mendation we observe goes for naught if his
appearance does not please us. On the other
hand, if we like his looks, we still defer coming
to a decision until we see how he will act. This
is as true of a locomotive as it is of a man—with
iii.
!---Ese, H








154 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the odds in favor of the locomotive. The poorest
of these machines always does the best it can.
This, alas! is not true of men in every case. Rail-
g w a y men
cannot lead
themselves
to look up-
on the loco-
motive as a
Ill e I’ 6, Iſl e –
G-ſº
& º
View of the under side of American Steel Flat Car. ſº }
The under framing of other steel cars of the manufac- C h a nic a l
turer is the same as the above.
m a ch in e.
Those in other walks of life in a measure partici-
pate with them in this.
Who, that has ever seen a locomotive under
headway, or as it stopped from its flight, has not
felt that it was a living thing that gloried in its
magnificent performance? It seems at such a
time to stand upon the track under our admiring
eyes with the glad
consciousness which
a gladiator might pos-
sess when his skill
and strength were
admired and com-ſº
mented upon. Noth-Wººs
ing in the world is
more inspiring than
the flight of a railway
train. Stand near to
it and get its full in- American Logging Truck.
spiration, more than half made up of terror, as




LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 155
it rushes onward. Repetition will not dull the
impression nor lessen the admiration. The cold-
est man at such a time has difficulty in restrain-
ing his enthusiasm.
Elsewhere I have explained the locomotive in
detail and have commented on the shop arrange-
ments of railroads. I have designed this chapter
to be a panoramic view, so to speak, of the equip-
ment of railroads, or such varieties thereof as
will enable the reader to form an idea of its
extent and versatility. Men build locomotives
º
ºsº
#wº-Fº
É|
º
ſ:
.
:
sº
i
As
& * * **, *. . . sº
S-
==
Wºº
Austrian Car.
and cars for particular purposes, much as they
breed horses. One locomotive will be built to
haul a maximum load at a minimum rate of
speed; another to draw a similar load at the
highest rate of speed; another to draw a light
load at a high rate of speed; another to carry
bundles, so to speak, that is, to do the switching
(shunting) about passenger yards; another to do
similar work about freight yards where heavy
loads have to be moved quickly. There is equal
or greater adaptability in the construction of
\
































t
5
8
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
cars. Every great manufacturer is prepared to
answer every
demand that
may be made
upon him. He
asks what is re-
Hslf Box CŞr with Tubular Frame, Belgium, quired and II]
Length, S3 ft., 5 in.: height of sides, Sö in, ; weight, re turn makes
10% tons; losél. Sºks tons. º tº
his suggestions.
His adaptability is great in every emergency,
and his expedients as exhaustless as those of an
inn-keeper.
In portraying the vehicles of railroads l do not,
it is proper to say in passing, attempt, except in
a very limited way, to portray those used for
handling freight, baggage, express, mail and
other traffic about stations. These are much the
same in all countries and do not in any sense
belong exclusively to railway carriage, as similar
vehicles are used wherever parcels are handled.
The evolution of vehicles has for the moment
reached its highest development in the cars of
railroads, and =-o–6–o-o-º-o-º-
º #EEE::=#$Wºź
among these I class is-à #º #iº
|
*E==
# & # º J 9%
freight. They are at ºlº
once more capa- -º
cious, more luxuri- ==
* Victorian Railway Gondola Car. Length,
ous and in every 21 ft., 4% in. ; load, 22,400 lbs.
way better adapted to rapid and safe carriage
than anything before conceived by man. They
A.A. -
§§

















1, O(() MOTIVES A NI) ('A JºS. 157
are also more costly: a vehicle freighted with
lives or valuable property which it is designed
to haul across the country at the rate of sixty
miles an hour must, it is apparent, be very
carefully constructed and of the best material.
In view of this
necessity, it would
seem that in this
age of iron and
steel that one or
both of these ma- X_º ... ---Tº-º: ---
terials would be -º-
40//a: Ž:
*//º3%;
Tilſiliſk: 'ſaſ.
Hºllº
millilihººlſ
ºntº
§ g
EZ-5 Ež ### Pºž
I. [. #
: Biºz #: #
used exclusively
in building cars.
Yet such is not
the case, except in
a limited way.
Invent ors have
Varsovie-Vienna Railroad Car. Length,
19 ft., 8 in. ; height of sides, 3 ft., 6 in. :
weight, 7 tons; load, 12% tons. The reader
will not have failed to notice the care taken
to protect the brakemen and attendants by
awnings over the brakes, or shelter, as in the
above instance. The Caboose car which ac-
companies every freight train in the United
States, illustrated elsewhere, is not generally
used abroad.
devised and pat-
ented iron and steel cars and manufacturers have
erected plants to build them, but the demand for
their product is qualified to such an extent as to
throw doubt, if not distrust, for the moment, on
their ventures. This hitch is, however, thought
to be temporary only. It is a common belief
that in the end railway cars will be built of iron
or steel. “Up to the present time there has not
been any iron cars constructed that have met
with very much success. I have made a personal
examination of these cars and there certainly is
much in their construction that is meritorious.
They are as a rule constructed in special shapes,











158 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
however, and protected by letters patent, as is
also the machinery for forming these shapes.
This fact works very
strongly against the
universal use of the
car. Among their
features they have
constructed the bot-
tom framing of a
º
º
ºs sº sº =Eſſº N is
º † §º Nº. §
ES t §§§ # =#= º:
§§ §§§ *--. §: .
§ 2/2; § §Eğ
[.
i;
§
N
§ | tº
§ wº º
ſºs§#2
sº § - N -
:
;
Belgian Railroad Half Box Car. Length,
17 ft., 5 in height of sides, 5 ft, 3 in flat car of standard
weight, 3% tons; load, 10 tons shapes consisting of
channel irons, iron beams, etc. I was very favor-
ably impressed with this. There are a number
of iron cars now being perfected which are being
watched with a great deal of interest. I do not
think that the time will come in the very near
Wurtemberg Railroad Car. Length, 33 ft., 8 in. ; height of Sides, 16 in...;
weight, 9% tons; load, 15 tons,
future when an all iron car will be used, but I
think the coming car will be constructed of iron
in combination with wood. Wood will be used
for floors, side, end, and roof framing; iron will
be used for the sills and underneath framing of
the car.”
* C. A. Schroyer.













LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 159
In the art of carriage and in the uses of com-
mon carriers, the cars of railways especially en-
gage our attention. It is from their contents that
transportation companies derive their revenue.
The various patterns that have been devised to
meet particular needs, while not so great in
number or varied in construction as those we
See on our highways, are yet very numerous.
Should their use continue as long as road car-
riages have existed, they may equal, if not ex-
ceed, the latter in variety and picturesqueness.
* * *
. . . . ;
"a .
#
il.
ºù
O
º
º
Iron Car. Length, 22 ft., 4 in. ; height of sides, 3 ft., 11 in...;
weight, 8 tons; load, 15 tons.
All kinds of vehicles are of comparatively modern
invention. Man existed for many ages, indeed, for
incalculable cycles of time, in a savage and semi-
savage state before there was need of a vehicle or
its use became possible. One of the first refer-
ences we have to it is in connection with the
Aryans, before their final separation, as I have
noticed elsewhere in connection with the evolu-
tion of transportation.* These interesting people
made a double use of their vehicles, namely,
for carriage and a house in which to live. They
* See volume “Origin and Evolution of Transportation.”

160 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
were, it is probable, great carts, such as still may
be found among the Scythians of Asia. Once the
need of a wagon was felt,
a sessºsºsºsº º- its evolution kept pace
§§§ d with man’s progress, but
§§ d º º ©
sº it was not until men had
:S- . . º... advanced far on their
- road that they could have
Italian Half Box Car. Length, 14 e
tº g in height of sides, sº in had uses for such a thing.
weight, 3 tons; load, 8 tons. This It, preSupp OSéS C Ompara-
car, while supplied with a ridge
pole, has no roof. It thus becomes tively high development
what is known in the United States e
as a gondola car, and in other coun- to conceive of the manu-
tries as a half box Car. facture of a vehicle, not-
withstanding its simplicity. The North Ameri-
can savage, while he has for four hundred years
been familiar with the wagon of the white man,
has as yet never attempted its construction.
Standard American Gondola Car. Weight, 31,000 lbs.: load, 30 tons. It is
used for transporting such freight as coal, sand, gravel, crushed rock and
lumber. It is constructed in all respects the same as a flat car. The sides
in many cases can be readily removed, thus enabling the car to be used as a
flat car or gondola, as the exigencies of business require.
If these savages cannot in so long a period of
time adopt an idea that is constantly before
their eyes, how incalculable must have been the
period required for primitive man to have con-
ceived the idea of carriage and to have put it


LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 161
into practical shape. Cultivated men and women
learn quickly but the savage learns not at all, or
So imperceptibly as to escape notice for long
periods of time. A savage will look upon a pic-
ture of a house turned bottom side up without
being conscious that there is anything wrong
about it, although he himself for the moment
may be surrounded by actual houses. His in-
telligence is so slight as not to be able to grasp
an idea even when presented to him in this most
Cat for the Carriage of Sugar Cane. Length, 13 ft., 1 in...; height of sides, 3 ft.,
4 in. ; weight, 1,570 lbs.; load, 4,480 lbs.
primitive of forms. Such vacuity can hardly be
conceived of but it is the natural condition of
the Savage mind, or absence of mind. Man origi-
nally had no greater ability to think consecu-
tively than the dog has, but he had greater
capacity for development. Hence his emergence
from Savagery, and his busying himself in per-
fecting machinery whereby he might transport
himself and his family and his rude effects from
place to place across the vast plains of the then
primitive world. This was the beginning of
11 Vol. 1

162 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
vehicles. Afterward, with slight alterations, he
re-adapted them for purposes of war and the
chase. His device was very simple, a wooden
axle, at either end of
which a rude wheel
revolved. A plat-
form resting on the
axle afforded the oc-
cupant of the vehi-
cle a footing. It was
- afterward enlarged
o; ...","...hº... "... so as to hold two
unloaded into bins underneath the track or persons, besides the
divergent therefrom by traps in bottom of te
car. Length, 22 ft.; height of body, 4 ft., 10 driver. It had no
in. ; weight, 24,000 lbs. ; capacity, 60,000 lbs. º
This car is a favorite means of transporting Seat. The intro-
º::::::::::: *:::: duction of this last
ºº: ºº device indicated
bins attached to the dock, the growing effem-
inacy of men and their downward step in physical
strength. However, at first a luxury, the seat
had no sooner been evolved than it became a
necessity. It was but a step from the cart to
the wagon, from two wheels to four. With the
wagon, good roads
became more than
ever a necessity.
* .
Such a vehicle was gº : º
less able to overcome }. ºftgº
obstacles than the -º *śº
º ºss, ºr -- " – . . . . . -*** -
- *...****** - *::= -- " -
cart. Its friction was
Baume-Marpent's Iron Car. Length,
greater. Moreover, 14 ft., 9 in. ; height of sides, 2 ft., 11 in. ;
with advancing civ- weight, 6% tons; load, 10 tons.













LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 163
ilization, people desired to hasten their move-
ments. To do this they were compelled to build
better roads and to improve the running gear of
their wagons. The Romans practiced the art of
road building to a greater extent than their neigh-
bors or predecessors. They not only perfected
great military and commercial highways, but
made considerable use of a species of rail
upon which the wheel traveled and which, by
natural evolution, has become the rail of our
railroads. It was not then in the shape it is at
present, nor indeed so ef-
fectively upheld, but the easº
idea of a rail resting upon Yºº º zºº.
supports and that should
form a bed for the wheel
(with the minimum of Coal cºvernan Railway.
friction) WaS, SO far as I Length, 21 ft.; weight, 10,975 lbs.;
am aware, first developed “"“”
during the Roman period. The idea, it is prob-
able, did not originate with them. They stole
it, we may confidently believe, as they did every-
thing else they possessed, save the art of war,
from their more versatile neighbors. The
thought originated not with a Roman, we may
believe, but with some cunning Semite or Greek.
But wherever it originated, it was a step in the
direction of the railroad of to-day. For many
hundreds of years it was impossible to make
use of the device except in a limited way in
connection with the hauling of coal and ores
for short distances. With the advent of the

164 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
locomotive, it was found, after making many
changes and improvements, to be what our great
modern thoroughfare needed to support the tre-
mendous loads it was called upon to carry.
We are still in the transition period of railway
construction. But great progress has been made.
ºilº,
s
§
§§
\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\ §§ \\\\\\\\
ſ
º º }:\ \\\\\}},
ºš: º3- YººH ºf
Iss
= . . . ; º
º
º|
French Reservoir Car for Liquids.
tank car used in the United States is generally
similar to this.) Length of tank, 22 ft., 4 in...;
diameter, 5 ft., 4 in...; weight of car, 8% tons;
(The
load, 10 tons. This peculiar form of car was
suggested, in the first instance, by the needs
of the petroleum traffic. A vehicle was needed
that could be easily loaded and unloaded, that
was strong, and the contents of which could
not be easily ignited by flying sparks or other
C8 U1S6.
The vehicles which
in America at first
carried only a
dozen passengers,
or were limited to a
few tons of freight,
now carry sixty
passengers and
forty to n s of
freight, respective-
ly. Not only this,
but they are hauled
across the country
at a rate of speed
believed to be impossible at first; and this, with-
out perceptible risk or deterioration. To this
height has the art of constructing vehicles and
roadways been carried. At one time sixteen
by twenty-four inch cylinder engines handled a
large portion of the traffic in the United States,
while on heavy grades forty-five ton ten-wheel
engines and fifty-ton consolidation engines were
employed. Twenty thousand pounds was the
maximum freight-car load. Cars having a
capacity of eighty thousand pounds have since
been put into effective use, while the modern















LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 1.65
refrigerator car, loaded and iced, carries about
one hundred thousand pounds. A correspond-
ing advance has been made in passenger equip-
ment, track and bridges. The early sleeping-car,
weighing sixty thousand pounds, was, in the
opinion of many railway men, entirely too heavy.
Day coaches weighing eighty thousand pounds,
and sleepers weighing one hundred thousand
pounds, have since been in common use. The
light rail has been succeeded by one weighing
Austrian Car for Liquids.
ninety, and, -in some instances, one hundred
pounds. Engines weighing from sixty to one
hundred tons have taken the place of the forty-
five ton engines. -
An interesting question, and one continually
recurring in railroad practice, is whether loco-
motives are made to earn the maximum amount
of which they are capable. Experiments with
tonnage rating on grades show a general increase
in the average number of cars per train. From
the Service rendered by locomotives the carrier

166 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
derives his revenue. One important way, there-
fore, of increasing revenue, is to compel the
locomotives to do more work. This is all the
more important in view of the fact that re-
duction of rates caused by sharp competition
has decreased the earning capacity of Ameri-
can railroads until the carrier receives less for
hauling a car containing eighty thousand pounds
of freight than was formerly obtained from a
car containing twenty thousand pounds. In this
connection a writer estimates that “an increase
of one car containing twenty tons of freight,
in each train, increases the earnings of a loco-
motive, in one year, Seven thousand two hun-
dred dollars, and the only additional expense
is ninety tons of coal. Taking the average
mileage of the locomotive at three thousand
miles per month, or thirty-six thousand miles per
year, we have the revenue of twenty tons of
freight hauled the same mileage at one cent per
ton per mile, or twenty cents per mile per car.
There will have been no increase in the wages of
the engineer, fireman, or trainman, or for repairs.
The only extra expense has been five pounds of
coal per car mile.”
The evolution of cars, which from the first has
been constant, has not been uniform. There
have at times been what we may call epochs.
Thus, within a short period, the railroads of
America changed their light freight cars for those
of stronger build, rapidly advancing the load
from ten tons to forty tons. The substitution
º
*
g
****
-º-virºwº-wººgººseviewer - - - - - - --~~~ ---- *-*- - - -----e-r-rever re-r-,--~~~ :------- - - - - - - - - - , , – - - - - -
American Standard Box Freight Car.
Sectional View, showing inside lining and side elevation. For explanation of this car see accompanying drawings, and
also the description elsewhere in the printed matter. This car is the most useful of all the forms employed in the United
States for the transportation of freight. Many special forms of box cars are patterned after it, such alterations being made
as the circumstances of the case require; among these may be mentioned the refrigerator car, furniture car, ice car, fruit
car, beer car, boarding car, and so on. Cars of this character are also used for carrying grain, potatoes, and many other
kinds of vegetables in bulk. Indeed, very little of the grain raised in the United States and Canada is handled in sacks,
except on the Pacific slope. Cars loaded in bulk hold a greater quantity than they would otherwise. In the case of grain
they are loaded by gravity from elevated bins in storehouses, and unloaded at their destination directly into warehouses or
vessels by pipes brought into the cars. Thus much expense for labor that occurs under other circumstances is saved. This
car is generally used for merchandise in the United States. The English use a flat car for this purpose, the goods being
covered with a tarpaulin. The reader's attention is particularly directed to this car and the drawings which accompany it.
The drawings not only show the construction of the car, but how it is strengthened so as to stand the trying vicissitudes to
Which it is subjected.

168 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
of iron and steel for wood in many directions
also represented a new departure. The import-
ance of these changes to carriers and their pat-
rons cannot be portrayed in words.
Of the many experimental efforts made during
the early history of railroads, none perhaps were
more ingenious than the attempt to make a rail-
way car the substitute for the old fashioned ped-
iar's wagon. Thus, cars were converted into
stores and moved from town to town according
to pre-arranged programs which were duly ad-
vertised in advance. The experiment did not
prove successful, however, partly owing to lack
of facilities and cost, but more particularly to
| the opposition of
| local dealers who
Hº †—r were regular pat-
FH & rons of the rail-
roads.
The various
classes of traffic
*T* now well recog-
nized on our rail-
roads, it is inter-
esting to notice,
|-d | | | | were not in every
Ell º, º is case premeditated.
ălții Thus, in the early
— history of railways
in Great Britain,
-I strenuous effort S

End Elevation of American Standard il
Box Freight Car. We're made by Tall-
LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 169
way owners and managers to discourage what is
now known there as third-class traffic. They
desired, for business reasons, to confine the traffic
to first and second-class travel. In order the more
effectually to do this, no effort was made to make
the low-classed passenger comfortable or expedite
his passage over the road. Cattle trucks and
other rude conveyances without seats were used
for his accommodation, while he was subjected
to long delays on side tracks in order to allow
other traffic the right of way. No indignity
seemed to be too
great to put upon
him. Nevertheless,
his desires could
not be crushed out,
but continued to
grow, the com-
panies meanwhile
being subjected to
the most biting
comment on ac-
count of their
policy. In the end
the third-class pas-
senger prevailed.
The third-class
Cross Section of A e Standard fare in England at
ºº: the time of which
I write was about
six cents per mile. The cars were conveyed on
the same train with horses, cattle and empty

170 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
freight cars. The sides of the vehicles were two
feet high, without roofs or windows. The fre-
quency with which passengers fell from the cars
while trains were in motion led finally to an
increase in the height of the panels. The car-
riage buffers were simply solid blocks of wood.
There were no springs under the cars. In rare
cases, third-class cars had seats. The speed of
trains corresponded with the meager fare paid.
When greater speed was suggested, carriers
replied that passengers in third-class cars could
not endure the exposure if they traveled too
rapidly. On some lines in manufacturing dis-
tricts, third-class passengers were ticketed by all
trains. It is reported that one line provided
covered cars of this class. It became very popu-
lar because of its foresight. Well-to-do people
sometimes traveled in third-class carriages, to
the great indignation of the people, especially
the railroad people. To deter them from doing
this, the management of one railway, it is re-
counted, adopted the soot-bag expedient. Thus,
sweeps were hired to enter the third-class cars,
which had been kept especially for the benefit of
well-to-do persons and shake out the contents of
their bags. A very offensive makeshift. The
second-class cars were little better than the
third-class. Many of them were not closed at
the sides, and those who patronized them were
not always sure of being in good company. The
first-class English cars were small and cramped.
This, after larger ones had been built in other
STANDARD AMERICAN BOX FREIGHT CAR AND TBUCK.
PLATE III.
The accompanying illustration particularizes every part of
the car. The index thereto, which accompanies it, gives the
technical names by which the different parts are known. The
illustration with the index is at once a chart and an encyclo
pedia. Each part of the car, it will be noticed, is given a
number by which it may be recognized and easily referred to.
The following are the names by which the different parts of
the car are known:
1 Master car builders' Washburn pattern double plate wheel. 2 Wheel flange.
3 Wheel tread. 4 Wheel rim. 5 Wheel brackets. 6 Wheel hub. 7 Axle. 8 Axle
wheel seat. 9 Axle dust guard seat. 10 Axle journal. 11 Axle collar. 12 Axle
journal bearing. 13 Journal bearing key. 14 Truck column. 15 Brake
anger hook. 16 Truck column guide. 17 Brake hanger arm. 18. Brake
hanger pin. 19 Brake head. 20 Brake shoe key. 21 Brake shoe. 22 Brake
lever fulcrum. 23 Brake lever safety loop. 24 Dead brake lever. 25 Live brake
lever. 26 Brake lever connecting rod. 27 Dead brake lever guide. 28 Dead
brake lever guide hook. 29 Brake beam truss rod. 30 Brake beam. 31 Arch
bar. 32 Inverted arch bar. 33 Tie bar. 34 Column bolt. 35 Journal box.
36 Journal box lid. 37 Journal box bolt. 38 Truck bolster. 39 Truck bolsteſ
§: 40 Truck bolster transom bars. 41 Truck bolster strut. 42 Truck
olster spring plate. 43 Springs. 44 Spring seat. 45 Truck boister side
bearing. " 46 Truck bolster center plate. 47 Journal box dust guard. 48
Sills, center. 49 Sills, inside intermediate. 50 Sills, outside intermediate.
51 Sills, outside. 52 End sill. 53 Draft timber. 54 Draft timber filling
block. 55 Door post. 56 Butting timber. 57 Deadwood, 58 Center cross
tie. 59 Cylinder block. 60 Reservoir block. 61 Post, end. 62 Post, corner.
63 Post, transom. 64 Post, intermediate. 65 Post, ladder. 66, Braces, end.
67 Braces, transom and corner. 68 Braces, transom and intermediate.
69 Braces, intermediate and door post. 70 Side girts. 71 End girts. 72 Side
plate. 73 End plate. 74 Carlines. 75 Lower ridge pole. 76 Lower inter-
mediate purline. 77 Parting strip. 78 Center nailing strip. 79 Inside in-
termediate nailing strips. 80 Outside nailing strip. 81 Roof covering. 82 Run-
ning board. 83 Running board saddle. 84 Side fascia. 85 End fascia. 86 Side
door furring. 87 End door hood. , 88 Outside sheathing. 89 Inside lining.
90 Flooring. 91 Side door braces. 92 Side door sheathing. 93 Side door stile.
94 Side door top rail. 95 Side door middle rail. 96 Side door bottom rail.
97 Side door closed stop. 98 End door. 99 End door closed stop. 100 Hand
brake platform. 101 Grain door. 102 Grain door battens. 103 Grain door leaf.
ŞSº 104 Grain door leaf battens. 105 Beveled grain strips. 106 Turnbuckle block.
Šiš sº $ºker º - 107 Pin lifter bracket, end sill. 108 Pin lifter bracket, deadwood. 109 Draw
z70 §§§ Š s ~ ºr LX. 2°2s *Sº *Y* | * § {i}; All ºf bar chafe thimble. 110 King post. 111 Queen post. 112 Draft timber keys.
º S$ºśSºž º <> tº 3% ºf $º sº #||2}#}º - 113 Draw bar check castings. 114 Draw bar spring cage. 115 Body center
G % - late. 116 Body side bearing. 117 Body bolster wedge filling. 118 Body
olster center filling. 119 Post and brace pocket. 120 Hand brake wheel.
121 Hand brake ratchet. 122 Hand brake pawl. 123 Hand brake holder.
124 Hand brake rest. 125 Side door hanger. 126 Side door handle. 127 Side
door bracket. 128 Side door hasp. 129 Side door seal pin. 130 Side door
staple. 131 Side door open clasp. 132 Side door closed clasp. 133 Side door
wedge. 134 Side door open stop. 135 Side door bracket wedge. 136 End door
hangers. 137 End door bracket, 138 End door hasp. 139 End door seal pin.
140 End door staple. 141 End door bracket wedge. , 142 End door open
clasp. 143 End door open stop. 144 Grain door floor block. 145 Grain door
guides. 146 Grain door guide arm. 147 Grain door hold-up hooks. 148 Grain
door leaf hinges, 149 Longitudinal truss rod. 150 Turnbuckle. 151 Draw
bar loop. 152 Draw bar followers. 153 Draw bar springs. 154 Draw bar
carrier and brake step. 155 Draw bar. 156 Draw bar knuckle. 157 Draw
bar knuckle pin. 158 Draw bar coupling pin. 159 Draw bar follower straps.
160 Deadwood angle iron. 161 Pin lifter rod. 162 Pin lifter chain. 163 Pin lifter
clevis. 164 Hand brake staff. 165 End grab iron. 166 Side grab iron. 167 Roof
grab iron. 168 Sill corner iron. 169 Girt corner iron. 170 Plate corner iron
171 Brake platform bracket. 172 End door chafing strips. 173 Body bolster top
plate. 174 Body bolster bottom plate. 175 King bolt 176 Sill step. 177 Side
door track. , 178 Side door chafing strip. 179 Side door threshold plate. 180
End door threshold plate. 181 Carline strap bolt. 182 Counter brace rods.
183 Corner post rods. 184 Intermediate post rods, 185 Door post rods. 186 Cor-
rugated iron roofing. 187 Brake cylinder, 188 Auxiliary reservoir. 189 Aux-
iliary reservoir release valve. 190 Triple valve. 191 Drain cup, 192 Cut out
cock. 193 Train pipe. 194 Release valve rod. , 195 Pressure retaining valve.
196 Pressure retaining valve pipe. 197 Cylinder lever, 198 Floating lever. 199
Floating lever fulcrum. 200 Cylinder lever and floating lever connection. 201
Cylinder lever and live truck lever connection. 202 Cylinder lever and
hand brake connection. 203 Floating lever and live truck lever connection.
204 Hand brake chain. 205 Train pipe angle cock, 206 Train pipe coupling.
207 Train pipe coupling hose. 208 Brake lever guide. 209 # plate tie rod.
210 Carline tie rod.
£7.3 ±%
Ex.
º
=/N
E
of º ** :
THE FIRST Box CAR.
STOCKTON & DARLINGTON RAILWAY, 1825.
STANDARD AMERICAN BOX FREIGHT CAR AND TRUCK.
º
§ 20:6 Copyrighted 1899, by The World Railway Publishing Company.






LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 171
countries. The Belgians had two deck cars, in-
convenient and quaint in appearance. What was
known as bogie cars were in use in Germany.
The long open car was adopted in America almost
from the very beginning.
On the pioneer railroad, the Liverpool & Man-
chester, when first opened, passengers rode in
open, unsheltered cars, or in covered vehicles
which were only a little more comfortable.
Trains were few and far between and started at
irregular intervals. It was some time before a
time table was thought of. This road was
expected to earn fifty thousand dollars from pas-
sengers the first year, but the receipts were ten
times as great.
Trains in Great Britain were protected by dis-
tant signals in the early years of their operation.
It was suggested at one time that there should
be a third man on every engine, supplied with a
small telescope, for keeping a sharp look-out
ahead. The train force was entirely unprotected
from the weather. The rear brakeman rode on
the rear car facing forward, while the forward
brakeman rode on the front car looking back to
see that the train was not broken in two. The
baggage was placed beside the brakemen, and for
sometime “strappers” were employed whose duty
it was to keep the straps which fastened the bag-
gage to the car properly greased, lest they should
break and allow the baggage to fall off en route.
The brakemen carried with them a way-bill
stating the number of passengers of each class,
172 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
their point of departure and destination. Smok-
ing was not allowed on trains. The rules were
prolix and difficult to observe. Luxuries were
highly rated, thus, the minimum charge for a
lap dog was two dollars and fifty cents. People
were strictly forbidden then, as now, to stand on
the platform. Each passenger had a fixed place
assigned him at the ticket-office—the seats being
numbered. The ticket-office was usually closed
some little time before the departure of a
train. In some parts of Germany a ticket could
not be obtained within fifteen minutes before
the train was to leave. If not in the car ten
minutes before starting time, passengers were
locked out.
The capacity of the English freight car varies
from four to eight tons. Only a small percentage
of the freight equipment of English railways is
made up of box cars. In many cases the roofs of
the box cars were cut away opposite the doors
and the open space covered with a tarpaulin, in
order to facilitate work with cranes. Timber
and other freight covering two or more cars, is
transported on cars having a false bolster, the
latter being pivoted in the center. The loads
rest on the bolsters and thus permit the cars to
curve. A three-link coupling is being substituted
more or, less generally for the five-link coupling
formerly in use. What is termed a “shunter's
stick,” is used for coupling and uncoupling the
cars. This stick is about five feet long and has a
hook in the end with which to handle the chain.
LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 173
The buffer acts as a fulcrum, on which the
switchman rests the stick when raising the chain
and throwing it over the hook, or when taking it
off the coupling hook. When a freight train is
stretched, there is a space of from Seven to
twelve inches between the buffers.
Delivery of freight at the place of business of
the consignee is quite common in the large cities
and many of the villages of Great Britain. Rail-
way companies also haul merchandise from the
stores to the stations. When the consignee un-
loads freight from the cars a demurrage charge is
usually made after a limited time. Horses, turn-
tables and capstans are still used for switching
purposes to some extent, although new yards are
arranged for the use of locomotives. -
Foot warmers are a common means of heat-
ing passenger cars in England. They are usually
made of heavy tin and are some two feet long,
twelve inches wide and four inches thick. They
are charged with acetate of soda and put into a
tank of boiling water before being placed in the
car. Within each can is a cast-iron ball. When
the water cools and the soda begins to form into
crystals, the heater is shaken and the crystals
broken by the ball. The effect is to produce
more heat, and the warmer is thus made good
for some two hours longer, after which it must
be re-heated in the tank, as before. Dining and
sleeping cars are sometimes heated with hot
water. In some cases, sleeping cars are heated
with oil gas.
174 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
The passenger cars of France nave a seating
capacity for four persons on each side of the com-
partment. Smoking is generally allowed in every
car, although the law requires that one compart-
ment on each train shall be reserved for this
practice.
In Spain the trains travel at a very moderate
rate of speed. The stations are usually built
of stone—solid-looking, but heavy in appear-
ance. The railways are broken up into many
sections so that passengers must change cars fre-
quently, and oftentimes make long waits for
trains at junctions. This will be remedied in
time. The train force of Spain is kind, patient
and obliging but very deliberate in its move-
ments.
As the enclosed, or what is known as the box
freight car, is the principal freight vehicle in
America, so the common first-class passenger
coach is the principal vehicle in connection
with our passenger service. It carries most of
such traffic; those who use parlor and draw-
ing-room cars being but a small fraction of the
whole. These latter, however, while not great in
number, pay very much more than the others.
The accommodations afforded them conform, in
a general way, to what is known as first-class
travel in other countries. It was at first designed
that passenger cars should be arranged with en-
trances and exits at the sides so as to be quickly
loaded and unloaded. In connection with local
traffic, and more particularly suburban business,
I, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. [75
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176 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
where many passengers
get on or off at every
station, time is an im-
portant element, and
side entrances to cars
facilitate movement.
The cars need not nec-
essarily be compart-
ment cars. The doors
may open into a com-
mon room or saloon.
However, in practice, it
is found that the habit
Making a Coupling. Coupled. people in America have
Automatic Coupler. of leaving their seats
to stand waiting in the aisle near the door, ready
to rush out as soon as the train stops, overcomes,
in a measure, the inconvenience of end doors.
In Europe, on the other hand, where people are
º º
- : - -ºyº’ſ
* ºf - * S-Bºrº U
a .27 tº ºrº
Continuous Draft Rigging.
more deliberate, it has been thought the delay of
loading and unloading a car holding sixty pas-
sengers from doors at either extremity of the
vehicle would prove a serious inconvenience and
greatly delay the train.


LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 177
The compartment car, while it has much to
recommend it, has serious objections; so serious,
indeed, that where used, the public show strong
inclination to abandon it for the American form,
or some kind of vehicle that shall be more pub-
lic. The seclusion of the compartment car affords
opportunity for the perpetration of so many
crimes and impositions that travelers have grown
distrustful of it. Within its secluded precinct
the blackmailer finds a convenient opportunity
ºfflº ‘...";
4–1–º
===r-ºiſe ºr=
r_ vºi th º/, º
[...] #4 fºliº -
| g ſº ſº. & -->
#|s||Niñº, (Gº), A
º ####| ºw. |
AEX3;|Eğ § \
Side elevation and section at Center bearings of Truck
Of American standard freight car.
in which to ply his or her nefarious occupation,
while the Dick Turpin of other days long ago
transferred his field of operations from Hounslow
Heath to the more secure and productive pre-
cinct of this car. Such has been the experience
of England, and it is the experience of every
country where the compartment car is used.
A car that may be loaded and unloaded at the
sides from platforms level with the car floor, is a
desirable form, and especially so, for suburban
traffic. It need not necessarily be cut up into
12 Vol. 1









178 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
compartments; the room may be a general one, so
far as the opportunity for passengers to observe
what is going on is concerned. Thus the danger
and annoyance of the isolated compartment may
be avoided.
While there are many details regarded as im-
portant in the construction and maintenance of
a passenger car, those things upon which the
safety of passengers rests, outweigh, of course,
all others. They are vital. Among these, and
EºsFºº::=#EEE==#.
ºcșS
ſ
§ºf Ese;===#= º-º-º: ; :==#E
#Tº Tº Tº Tº TST(Tº
É \ § § § § §
*ºſºft#ºſlºgº
ſº- sº->
Sº-E-
End Elevation and Section Through Journal Box of Truck of
American Standard Freight Car.
first to be considered, are the wheels of the car
These, it is apparent, must be stable and not
likely to prove defective with wear and tear.
A broken wheel is, of all calamities, one to be
especially dreaded. Next, the body of the car
must be looked after, and here it is apparent
great care must be exercised, first, in construct-
ing and afterward in maintaining. Not only
must a car be strongly built, but constant care
must be exercised afterward to maintain its















f, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 179
strength by needed repairs and renewals. For it
will often fall out that the lives of the occupants
of a car or train will depend upon the parts of
the car, including the woodwork, being strong
and sound, and the whole carefully cemented and
bound together. Only vehicles thus constructed
and maintained are able to withstand the rough
usage to which they are, or may at any moment,
be subjected. In later years the sills of the cars
making up a train have been made to coincide with
*L±sº §§ sº § ==
jiº ñºsº,
§§ſizºſ TWASüß ſº
|º § -------- #
Gillº II: Tāāī
L
Section Showing Body and Truck Bolsters of American Standard
Freight Car Truck.
each other, thus forming practically one car in
the resistance offered in cases of collision. The
telescoping of cars at one time a thing of fre-
Quent occurrence, is thus happily prevented or
minimized.
While every part of a car is important and the
Safety of the train dependent upon the discovery
and correction, in time, of defects in vehicle or
fixtures, the things that go to make up the dif-
ference between efficiency and inefficiency are






















180 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
relative here as in other branches of the service.
When the safety of the car has been assured, the
builder, according to his tastes and the price he
gets for his work, gives his attention to minor
details, among others, those intended simply to
add to the comfort of passengers. These are
|
Plan of Truck of American Standard Freight Car.
never appreciated by travelers at their true
worth, because we are, as a rule, totally uncon-
scious of the efforts put forth in our behalf in
this direction. We can only be able to appre-
ciate these and other details of car construction
by taking up the parts one by one, and by inquiry
and surmise estimate the thought, direct and



LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 181
incidental, that they have received both from
operators and builders all over the world, every
moment of the day since railroads were first
operated. Every detail has been modified or
wholly changed many times to reach its present
degree of perfection.
Among the things those who operate railroads
regard as of especial consequence in a passenger
car are, cleanliness, a good light, proper tempera-
ture, adequate ventilation, comfortable seats,
careful adjustment or balancing of the vehicle,
good springs, well kept toilet rooms and, finally,
an abundant supply of wholesome drinking water.
This last is not thought worthy of attention in
Europe, where
people seldom
drink water.
The Americans
are the water
drinkers of the
civilized world,
and as their Freight Car Door Fastening. Seal is passed
drinking water through opening A. To open, latch B is raised
i S O f t € 1.1 C O Il- and thrown in dotted position C.
taminated, many ills grow out of it, such as
typhoid fever, which their brethren in other
countries do not experience.*
The higher class passenger cars in America
possess, so far as they are available for day use,
few conveniences which are not to be found in
—- S/oe Pºery- —- AE2ca/7- Pºezº-
*=s**E=º-s: *-*.
* On some English railways, drinking water for passengers
is carried in bottles in the lavatory.

182 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the common coaches. Their fixtures are not
better than those of the common car, but more
ornate. It is this feature, with the attendant
Service, that the high-class passenger seeks and
pays for. The palace cars are also quieter than
& common cars. This
º is an attraction.
ºw i. hiſ
gº-º-º-º: Mº However, the com-
ºffs;zºsºs - forts of º cars
jºiºs are variable, as, is
ºs-ºsº §§
AET §§
ãºft#EF=#º e veryt h in g else
r º
A lºt ºl' flºº CEE's sº
ilºt-2: c Ešº º te
fººt=####| about a railroad.
* g º 'º º 'º -z, ºil-ſº º = #º º
fººtºººº. On one line they
H:, ... ſºle--ºr §§sº :----...ſ: - - - , ºf
†y Cº-ºº: " - º º \ º
º will be ample, on
Tºº" another, ineffici-
====-- ciently looked
lºº, after. Their serv-
tonS. ice is, however, in
every case designed
to be such as to conduce to the especial comfort
and repose of mind of the traveler. In further-
ance of this, well trained servants attend upon
him, while the furnishers of woods, metals and
cloths have ransacked the storehouses of the
world in their effort to furnish builders material
with which to make their cars attractive.
Money is not spared in preparing cars for use
where traffic is likely to follow therefrom. It is
noticeable, however, that what constitutes a
high-priced car (a luxury in little demand), at
one period, becomes a thing of common use later
on. The vestibule train and buffet Smoker, at





































I, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 183
one period associated only with long distances,
limited trains, and wealthy passengers, will
sooner or later become common to all. It is so
in every walk of life, the luxuries of to-day are
the necessities of to-morrow. In regard to mail
and baggage cars, Sev-
eral illustrations of
these are embraced
herein so that they
may be viewed in ſ
connection with oth- º
er vehicles making # * 㺠Tººji ſº-
up a passenger train. :=== ==
The baggage car, Victorian Box Car. Length, 21 ft., 4% in.
it will be noticed, load, 17,900 lbs.
still maintains its primitive simplicity, while the
mail car has, under advanced methods of hand-
ling the mail, become a great workhouse fitted
with appliances needed to conform to the many
wants of those engaged in handling this line of
railway traffic. The service is still in its infancy,
like many others.
In studying car construction it is noticeable
that many of the differences existing between
the cars of this or that country are due to acci-
dent, or pre-existing methods, rather than design.
Thus, the English compartment car was not in-
tended originally to cater to any idea of exclu-
siveness peculiar to the English people, because
they are not noticeably exclusive among them-
selves. It was due rather to the accident of
putting a number of old fashioned stage coaches
ſ
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s
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S.
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-º
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º
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184 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
on a platform and then putting the platform on
wheels and the whole on to the track of a rail-
road. Forgetting the origin of their car and its
German Box Car. Length, 22 ft., 9 in. ; height of sides, 8 ft., 1 in. ; weight,
9% tons; load, 12 tons.
disadvantages, the English people have been
inclined to comment unfavorably on the com-
mon coach of America with its single great
saloon in which all the passengers sit. These
saloons, however, have very great compensating
advantages. One of them is they render it prac-
*NN N SESS
=sº
a
F - - - ----------
Austrian Goods Car.
ticable to have toilet rooms easily accessible to
passengers at all times. This is a great accom-
modation. The traveler in Europe who sees
.** ,


LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 185
women speeding away across the station plat-
forms pell-mell to remote toilet rooms, beseech-
ing conductors and guardmen as they fly not to
let the train go off without them, has a lively
sense of personal sympathy awakened within
him, mixed up more or less with indignation
that women are compelled to put up with such
treatment. However, when a people are accus-
tomed to a thing like this they do not notice it.
#=E={= #
ºf
º º • *
Sºlº
w
º
-
-*>
- :
Austrian Box Car for Transportation of Glass.
The inconvenience grows out of the situation.
It is not practicable to have toilet rooms in con-
nection with each compartment, and so, while
high-class passengers may be accorded conven-
iences of this nature, abroad, others are necessa-
rily denied it. Hence the running to and fro of
men and women whenever a train stops at a sta-
tion. It has always been so, and the natives do
not therefore notice it. Habit is everything in
life. Thus, when we travel in remote countries,














186 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
it seems at first glance horrible that men should
buy their wives as they do horses, but where such
customs prevail, a high-spirited woman would
drown or hang herself, if she were given away or
did not bring a good price; and so it is possible
that men and women in England and on the
continent find agreeable and healthful exercise
in the oft repeated excursions they are com-
pelled to make across the station platforms while
the train waits.
Among other interesting things connected with
the passenger Service of railroads, a chapter on
the evolution of the car seat might be written.
It was at first merely a plain wooden board, rude
in design and hard to sit on. Following its use
many experiments were made in different direc-
tions. The situation
was thought to be
very simple. Oil
cloth and leather
were among the first
things tried as a cov-
ering for the seat.
They were found to
be cleanly, but very
cold in winter.
Brazilian Dynamite Car. Length, 14 ft.,
6 in. ; height of sides, 6 ft., 3 in...; weight, More over, passen-
5 tons; load, 6 tons.
gers oftentimes
experienced great difficulty in maintaining an
upright posture when the car was going around
curves or the train stopped suddenly, and in early
days it used always to stop suddenly. Cloth,

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 187
carpet, cane and perforated wood were also tried
but in vain. The problem as successive things
were tried became quite exciting. Seats stuffed
with tow, straw, shavings of wood and excelsior
ſ * * * * * **** * * * * * TNº Tºº" ºr l NT. T. ==Sy:
-º-º-º-Effl
%
%
; ſºft
§ # /
º ſº º § §
§ º º º | | | ; | | j
% #|| º il, , ;
º
5
º %
; ºft
º %
§% % º : ſ
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H
Eº
German Beer Car.
were in turn experimented with, but still without
success. How little we appreciate this struggleto-
day as we sit securely and comfortably back in a
luxurious seat watching the flying fences and
trees! In the end
a satisfactory solu-
tion of the subject
was found. In this
connection it is to
be remarked that
Americans dislike
very much to ride Refrigerator Car, New South Wales. Length
backward. I do not : . * insight of sides, 6 ft., 9% in. :
know why unless
it has the appearance of waiving for the moment
that feeling we have that we are the equals of
the best and the superiors of all others. I do
not believe the claim so often put forth that






















188 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
riding backward causes sick headache, to be tena-
ble. However, the weakness of the American
stomach or whatever it may be, made a reversi-
ble seat a necessity. Thus every one might
face the front. This was not difficult of at-
tainment when once the inventive genius of the
country was directed to the subject. Myriads of
devices successively saw
the light. All of them
were more or less satis-
factory but not quite up
to the exacting require-
ments of railroad mana-
==== gers; and so the struggle
Insulated Car for Dairy Prod- still goes On, and will
ucts, Victorian Railways. Length, continue to gO OFl till
§ º §§W
§§ Y] § *º-
| }
#4 ºn
21 ft., 4% in. ; weight, 17,100 lbs. ;
load, 10 tons. the end.
The sleeping car is one of the most conspicuous
features of the passenger service. It is an Ameri-
can conception. Its accommodations were at first
as rude and cramped as those of a sailing vessel of
two hundred years ago, but, through the energy
and tact mainly of -- E=E=
one man, aided in
later years by
others, its conven-
iences have been
=====E=
day it is a model sºlº (§ #PUN
of elegance and º-sº
Perishable Goods Car, New South Wales.
comfort. It See IſlS Length of body, 15 ft. ; height of sides, 7 ft.;
now to be perfect, weight, 14,570 lbs. ; load, 22,400 lbs.























LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 189
but, as a matter of fact, is, like everything else
connected with railroads, still in a state of evolu-
tion. From a simple shelf or rude couch upon
which the wayfarer rested, amidst noisome smells
and the dust and smoke of travel, the passenger
now enjoys a comfortable bed or, if he desires,
the luxury and seclusion of a private compart-
ment fitted up with every convenience, save, pos-
sibly, a bath, that the best hotel affords. The
only substantial difference between them is that
the traveler's quarters are cramped. If some-
º Lº- - º
& Wºź
* .
&H
r. º
º º
... Prº ſºiºſº
sºpºiſº SL tº
y dº Mº Jºl
ºğ.
American Poultry Car.
thing still more exclusive is desired, the traveler
may hire a private car for his exclusive use. The
price charged is not excessive when it is remem-
bered that this is one of the greatest luxuries
wealth or position can command.
The immense distances traversed in America
Suggested the idea of the sleeping car. It is said
to have been first introduced in a rude way on
the Cumberland Valley road in 1836. The car
was divided into four sections by transverse par-
titions. Each section contained three narrow

190 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
bert his, one above the
other, and it was a matter
of not infrequent occur-
rence for the traveler oc-
cupying the upper berth
to be hurled out of his bed
Peloponnesus Railroad (Greece)
as the train passed around c. . . .”.
Some unusuall y sharp ft., 11 in. ; height of sides, 6 ft.,
5 in. ; Weight, 4% tons: load, 8
curve. Afterward, when tons.
the sleeping car had been
perfected, the upper berth continued to be a
source of anxiety, as it sometimes closed up
unexpectedly on the traveler, thus smothering
him in his bed. This defect has, however, now
been remedied.
Some of the experiments with the sleeping car
took the direction of fitting up berths similar to
those on steamboats, but as no bedding, save a
% ºf
ºº: A
3% % Ø a
." . * * | º
... . -
º
gº
ſ
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*:
|
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G ',
. . . . . "
t; “,
ºr " ," G
a * >
|
ſ L
W
D. :
It lian Cattle Car. Tength, 14
ft., 9 ill. ; helght of sides, 6 ft.,
9% in.; weight, 3% tons, load,
8 tons.
coarse mattress and pil-
low, were supplied, it did
not meet with success.
In 1838, rude sleeping cars
were put on the line be-
tween Philadelphia and
Baltimore. They are thus
referred to by the Balti-
more Chronicle in its issue
of October 31, 1838: “Cars
intended for night travel-
ing between this city and Philadelphia will be
used for the first time to-night. They are of
beautiful construction. Night traveling on a


J.O.('OMOTIVES AND CARS. 191
railroad is, by the introduction of these cars,
relieved of all irk-
someness. A ride to
Philadelphia may
now be made with-
out inconvenience,
discomfort or suf-
= fering from the
* - - - - weather. You can
*...*.*.*.*.* get into the cars at
the depot and, if you
travel in the night, you go to rest in a pleasant
berth, sleep as soundly as in your own bed at
home and, on awakening the next morning, find
yourself at the end of your journey. Nothing
- -----------"
Brazilian Cattle Car. Length, 31 ft. 6 in. : height of sides, 6 ft., 9% in. No
form of car designed for the transportation of cattle equals the standard in
use in the United States, which is at once oomy and well ventilated, besides
being supplied with water and facilities for feeding.
now seems to be wanting to make railroad travel
complete, except the introduction of dining cars,
and these, we are sure, will soon be introduced.”
The advanced methods foreshadowed by the
Chronicle proved delusive, as later accounts
tell us. The cars were not successful. Similar


192 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
attempts were made about this period by other
lines, but with like results.
Reference is made in the early chronicles to
sleeping cars with seats so adjusted as to form
rude beds, the space between the seats being
filled in with a platform of boxes. During the
day these were carried into the baggage car or
were stored in the end of the sleeper. At night
the back of every alternate seat was removed,
& sº -
$º º
5.º.º.º.º.
tººl ºf aſ 'ſº
t ſºlºiºſº
§ /j/i/eſ/
§º sº -
- “... I
ſº-- e.
:-es-es º
sº :--:
Fººd Hº-
Bºſſºw º
ºf sº ºf ºt
gł EAF/+ºğ.
w sºlº AEA º
ºº::::::==== sºlº Aºmº
ºt;
Gº
..
D
º
/3
N};
&= -
American Standard Stock Car, Capacity, 60,000 lbs. ; weight, 30,000 lbs.
This car is used very largely in America to transport cattle. It is provided
with hay bars and racks, water troughs and, in some instances, gates on the
inside to prevent cattle from moving about the car. The Springs for the
trucks are given special attention so as to insure ease in movement of the
car while in rapid transit.
the boxes were brought in and put in place, a
mattress was spread over the whole and curtains
hung around the bunk thus made up. This was
one of the most primitive forms.
In 1859 the needs of railway travel in America
had advanced to a point that warranted invent-
ors and capitalists turning their attention to the
subject of providing suitable sleeping-car accom-
modations for railroads. What was wanted was
a car which should be commodious and pleasant

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 193
during the day and easily arranged with com-
fortable beds for the night. It was at this period
that the attention
of George M. Pull-
m a n w as first
called to the mat-
ter. His biogra-
pher, referring to
the matter, says: —Sº NE\-Zºš.
“It is his special ======
distinction that he Victorian Sheep Car. Length 23 feet,4% inches,
conceive d the COI’- weight 15,400 pounds, load 8 tons.
rect solution of one of the most momentous
problems in the history of modern travel.” The
circumstances of the case required an “ideal car
for long-distance travel which, without loss of
carrying capacity, could be quickly and readily
transformed from a night into a day coach. The
great difficulty in accomplishing this result was
to provide a place for the beds and bedding when
not in use. That was the key to the whole situ-
ation. Pullman’s principle of construction pro-
vided the necessary place for the beds and Section
furniture, when not in use, without taking up an
inch of space necessary for day travel, or in any
way interfering with the comfort of the passen-
gers.” Mr. Pullman’s first venture was to have two
old day coaches remodeled into sleeping cars,
according to his plan, after a patent which he
bought, supplemented by improvements of his
own. These were merely make-shifts, however,
and accordingly he determined to construct such
13 Vol. 1
Uitgiftſgºli
*ºmºsº."
àSºf
ifišljäiffiliſillº
Fº & º Pº Ni | º
- | | || . . b
| | #ºliſh SR tº
ºl | d º
| TTETITIETI º ºf H, H -
º t
*º-º-º-º-º-º-º-ºsmºs-ºs
[-]
º









194 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
a car as he believed the situation required. This
vehicle he aptly named the “Pioneer.” Here
for the first time the space above the windows
or upper berth was utilized, through his device,
for the storage of bedding and furniture. This
car, when completed, in 1865, cost eighteen thou-
sand dollars. The figure, while seemingly exor-
bitant, was greatly exceeded by the vehicles
which were subsequently constructed by him at
the car manufactories which he established. The
“Pioneer” was a foot wider and two and a half
feet higher than the ordinary day car then in
Service. It was the
most stately and
elegant equipage
of its day, and when
President Lincoln
was assassinated it
was used to convey
his remains from
Belgian State Railroad Horse Car. Designed Chicago to Spring-
to accommodate three animals. Length 19 field In ord €r to
feet, 1 inch; height of sides 6 feet, 8 inches.
accommodate the
car, however, because of its increased width and
height, it was found necessary, in some instances,
to reduce the width of station platforms and
increase the width and height of bridges along
the line over which it ran. The car proved to be
popular with the traveling public and became
the standard for all passenger vehicles as regards
width and height.
The parlor and drawing-room car afterward
- ſºft-tº
aſſºſ #Tº
ſºlº #:
- # ºft
ſ/7
ſ
º:
º:
I §§Elſº
ſ
º

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 195
introduced for high-class passengers, was intended
particularly for
day travel. It af-
forded comforts ºss
not provided for by s||||||| N º §
the common day ºfflºº
º
AºSºº-ºº:
F. sº-
ºf ºr * Nº Naº:
#ºssº,
ºSººse
coach. Its popu-
larity in America victorian Railway Horse Car. Designed to
clearly evinced a. accommodate twelve animals. Length 48 feet,
e 2% inches.
desire on the part
of the traveling public for a high-grade passenger
service. It now forms an essential part of the
equipment of every great railway line. Provision
for Serving meals on trains next attracted atten-
* * * *-ºs- - ~--------.
Austrian Horse Car. For fine animals.
tion, but not until forty years after the Baltimore
“Chronicle" called attention to the subject. The
outgrowth of this desire was the hotel or dining
car. The meals were served on tables placed
between two seats facing each other. The car























196 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
is a restaurant in itself—fitted with kitchen,
closets, and ample storage accommodations.
Thirty people can be served simultaneously in
one of these cars. Where traffic does not warrant
a dining car, a buffet car is sometimes used. It
has only a limited cuisine, but ample to meet
restricted needs. Another popular car in Amer-
ica is the buffet smoker. It forms a part of the
service on limited or very high-grade trains. It
accommodates some twenty-five persons comfort-

t | !!!” º t ſ
| º t y s
º złºś.
|s|| || || |I|| || || |}E|{}
| i l RPTTI TT | ! IT ITIT, I t ( , , |\!
fºLºis
*
American Horse Car.
ably. It is provided with luxurious seats, and
an attendant who looks after the wants of pas-
sengers and supplies them with tobacco, cigars,
liquor, and so on, upon their order.
There are two great manufacturers of cars in
the United States that originated with the palace
car companies. The Pullman was the first of
these. Many years afterward the Wagner com-
pany went into the business. These companies
do not confine themselves enclusively to the
construction of palace and sleeping cars, however,
LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 197
}
but build other cars on order. It is, however,
in connection with the passenger car that their
great and peculiar service to railway travel
consists. Their business as carriers has from the
first required careful attention to detail, as the
traffic they cater to is exacting to the last de-
gree. Its comfort not only involves superior
conveniences, but embraces, incidentally, the dec-
oration of the vehicles in which it is moved.
Austrian Car for creosoting or impregnating Wood.
Every part of the car has thus received their
constant and intelligent thought. The cars of
the palace companies are not only more strongly
built and conveniently arranged than others, but
more carefully and elegantly decorated. “Inven-
tion has followed invention, improvement after
improvement has been added, until the ‘Pioneer’
of 1865 has expanded into the traveling hotel
paiaces of to-day.” The vestibule train, continues
the authority I have already quoted, is intended

198 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
to perfect this purpose. “In its latest application
the vestibule is extended to the locomotive ten-
der, thus extending its protection not alone to
the passengers, but to the employes in baggage
and postal cars. In this recent application of
the principle, the car body extends over, and
completely incloses the platforms; this, in com-
bination with the Pullman vestibule and anti-tel-
escoping devices, adds great strength to the ends
of the cars, rendering telescoping impossible,
besides greatly diminishing the atmospheric re-
sistance to trains in motion. The vestibuled
locomotive tender gives the trains steadier mo-
tion and increased cushioned resistance to shocks
from the engine, affording greater protection to
postal and baggage cars, and minimizing the
dangers to engine men by preventing cars from
mounting the engine in case of collision.”*
It is probably not overstating the case to say
that many of the most valued luxuries and con-
veniences connected with the passenger service
of railroads have originated with the Pullman
Company. They have grown out of the thought
given the subject and the exacting needs of the .
service it caters to. The world owes the devel-
opment of the sleeping car interests of rail-
roads, particularly and especially to George M.
* The Pullman Palace Car Company was organized in 1867,
with a capital of one million dollars. In 1897 it had a capital of
thirty-six millions dollars. The number of its sleeping, parlor,
and dining cars operated amount to two thousand, four hundred
and eight, of which nine hundred and sixty-three are buffet and
dining cars.
LOCOMOTIVES AND CA R.S. 199
Pullman. For many years he upheld and fostered
the evolution of this great feature of modern
travel alone. Others have since come into the
field and have become with him great and per-
manent factors; but primarily the development
of the sleeping and palace car interest owed its
growth to his sagacity, executive talent and
genius for affairs.
£7. à #; º
º
É
ſ
#
ºf
So-called Caboose Car, with observation tower. This car in the United
States is generally attached to every freight train. It contains the implements
which convenience and the vicissitudes of operation require, besides accom-
modations for the conductor and his crew. It is SOrnetimes equipped with
several sections, similar to those in sleeping cars, for the use of stockmen
Who accompany shipments.
The capacity of American apartment cars are
not uniform. Some of them have ten state-
rooms; others less. There is an upper and
lower berth in each room. Each berth is capa-
ble of holding two persons, making forty in all.
Every room is fitted
with washstand and
closet facilities.
There are also toil-
ets at each end of the
car. A door in the
bulkhead allows two *~ * *
Or more apartments Frame-Work of Steam ShoWel Car.











200 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
to be thrown together when desired. The com-
mon American sleeping car (the pioneer sleeping
car, in fact), has from twelve to sixteen open
Sections. There is an upper and lower berth in
each section.
There is usu-
ally one state-
room at each
end of the car.
The car is
capable of holding
sº-1 sixty odd persons
㺠by putting two in
====>tº each berth. How-
Steam Shovel Car. ever, in pra cti Ce,
two people seldom occupy one berth either in
this or in the apartment car. There are toilet
rooms at each end of the sleeping car, one
for women and one for men. The American
drawing room or parlor car has seating accom-
modations for thirty-eight to forty-four persons.
There is an enclosed Smoking room at one end of
the car. In some cases these cars have private
rooms, also a buffet, and the accessories that belong
to it. The car also has suitable toilet conven-
iences for men and
women. As already
intimated, the sleep-
ing car is distinctly
an American idea.
There is little or no º
demand for it where Wrecking Car.
º
º, ºr —tº a º
ºrs, ºº::=ºxº~Yº
% ºf ºù l’º ºvº
... Nº %Y}%
* F
S - * Nº a
P ſ º 3. .
. 23 ºw -

















LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. , 201
the distances to be traversed are short. The
palace car proper is, however, everywhere grow-
ing in popularity. In England, where cars are
shorter than in America, one of the sleeping car
patterns is divided into four compartments de-
signed to accommodate eight persons. In each
compartment are two small brass bedsteads. No
upper berths are provided. An aisle extends
down one side of the car into which each com-
partment opens. This form of car enjoys more
or less popularity wherever compartment cars of
the pattern popular abroad are used.
Details of railway transportion are variable in
other countries as they are in America. Facili-
ties conform, as they do here, to public needs.
If there is a wealthy
or luxury-loving
clientage, cars are
run to accommodate
it. If there is not,
the vehicles conform
to public safety and
C O m m O n usage.
Everywhere railway - A *Tºº
companies a djust *** -º- - rºle-
their methods Of Steam Wrecking Car.
transportation’ to
conform to the convenience, comfort and safety
of their patrons. The form of the car through-
out the world denotes the demand. In some cases
public need necessitates palace cars; in others,
vehicles of the plainest possible description,

202 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
It is, however, undoubtedly true that in Europe
and the far East, and in Mexico as well, many
seek cheap rates and plain accommodations
which Americans of corresponding social position
would not put up with. There is a rivalry more
or less ugly in the latter country that leads every
man to desire to travel, irrespective of his means,
on a par with every other man. How could he
be equal with the best if he did not? Because of
this and for other reasons there is little demand
for anything in America, but first-class transpor-
tation. The emigrant, newly arrived, is content to
travel as cheaply as possible, following the cus-
tom of his own country, but when he has become
Americanized, nothing short of a first-class car-
riage, in many instances, is acceptable to him.
The tendency in Europe is, however, steadily
toward higher classes of travel; toward greater
conveniences and added luxuries. What was at
first esteemed impracticable is now, in many
instances, deemed a necessity. Upon many
lines there are four classes of travel. The first
conforms in a general way to our high grade
palace car travel, though perhaps not as lux-
urious. There are instances where it equals
the Pullman and Wagner service, but as a rule
it does not. The second-class coach in Europe
is quite as comfortable as the common day car
in America. In the third class, the seats are
uncushioned and comforts in other directions
are restricted. In the fourth class, the accommo-
dation is yet more meager. Trains are made up
T, OOOMOTIVES AND CARS. 203
of the locomotive, baggage car, mail car, and
respectively, of fourth, third, second and first-
class cars. In the majority of instances there
are only three classes of travel. Sometimes all
the various classes are carried in one car. Thus,
if traffic is small and divided, a car may be appor-
tioned to accommodate first, second, third and
even fourth class, a compartment being set apart
for baggage. The apportionment of cars to the
different classes of travel is made to conform to
actual needs. If there is demand for a first-class
car, it is allotted; if only a portion of a car is
needed, then only a portion is set aside for this
purpose. Thus the cars conform to requirements.
In the higher grade of compartment cars of
recent construction, lavatories are provided, but
these luxuries are not general in compartment
cars of the lower grades. The passenger coaches
used in Europe and, indeed, throughout the
world, are in the main of the compartment form.
American manufacturers have not constructed
any cars of this ſº
pattern either for
use at home or
abroad. In Ger-
many and Austria,
the American form
of coach, with an
entrance at either
end, is taking the
2.
Device for Changing Trucks from Narrow
place of the COIT1- Gauge to Wide Gauge, and Vice-versa.
partment car. The higher grade of trains in

204 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
these countries are vestibuled, as in America.
What we call the vestibule car, they desig-
nate, because of its form, the Harmonica or Ac-
cordion. The air-brake is very generally used
by the railways in Europe. It is destined to
become universal in its application because of its
convenience and value as a safety appliance. In
many instances, especially in central and eastern
Europe, steam from the locomotive is utilized
for heating purposes. Oftentimes, however, the
old-fashioned warming pan and hot water bottle
are made to do service. The method of coupling
cars by chains, so generally practiced abroad, is
much inferior to the automatic coupler generally
in use throughout America. In some cases,
Pintsch lights and electricity are used in other
countries, as they are in America, but in many
instances a candle or oil lamp serves, as in primi-
tive days of railroading, to light the coaches.
The first freight car consisted simply of a bed
or platform on which the goods were piled. They
were covered, and protected in a measure, by a
tarpaulin. In the United States, however, where
cars are moved immense distances, and goods re-
main therein for days, and oftentimes, weeks, it
was found necessary not only to Securely protect
the load from the weather, but also from thieves.
The open car with its tarpaulin cover was found
to answer very well in Great Britain where the
distances are not great and the freight is moved
I, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 205
with much greater celerity than in the United
States.
For sixty years after railroads were opened in
America stringent regulations designed to pre-
vent overloading cars were enforced. The maxi-
mum load was ten tons, and this long after the
roadbed had been strengthened and the weight
of the rails had been increased to the heaviest
pattern known. This persistence illustrates the
force of habit. Because ten tons was a reasona-
ble load for the light rail, and unstable bridges
and track, of the earlier roads, it did not occur to
N See $
\, \ \;=Asſiss
\\\\\siºse
sº. --> * E=
† : . . -
sºlº
: ºssº
º-sº § SE:
º Eºs
sº sº - º
Standard American Postal Car. Length, 60 ft., 9 in ; width, 9 ft., 10 in. :
height from rail, 13 ft., 11 in...; weight, 62,000 lbs.
any one to change or increase it for fully sixty
years. Then it suggested itself to the managers
of American roads that thirty or even forty tons
might be hauled in a car more advantageously
than ten. Accordingly all new cars were built
to conform thereto. The change will be highly
beneficial, as it will effect great saving in the
number of cars and the relative cost of hauling
and handling. The new car, it is to be remarked,
is little, if any, larger than the old one, but it
is stronger and its body is supported by a sub-
stantial truss on either side, as shown in the
illustration,

206 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The freight car load in England and on the
continent is very light compared with ours. The
cars used are much shorter than the American
pattern and correspondingly weaker. Our cars
have uniformly eight wheels; theirs, as a rule,
only four. Moreover, the practice so general in
America (and in a measure the Secret of our suc-
cessful operation) of requiring a relatively full
load for each car in a train, is not so rigidly ob-
§#!
&|
;º
i
ſ
|
;
sº
sº - ſº
*º- º §
ſº # {{
Interior of American Postal Car.
served abroad, but more particularly in Great
Britain, where single light shipments, in many
cases, constitute a load, just as one or two pas-
sengers may, by judicious tips, occupy a compart-
ment in a car to the exclusion of every one else.
The great loads hauled by engines in America at
a low rate of speed is an economic feature that
may well be studied by railroad managers every-
where.


LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 207
The box car in America and the flat car in
Great Britain easily lead all others in number
and importance. They form the key to the sit-
uation. The box car is the only car in use in
America for carrying general merchandise. Soon
after railroads were opened here half box cars
were constructed to carry coal and similar
freight. For a long time only three kinds of
freight cars were in use, namely, the flat, box,
and coal or gondola car. In recent years many
new forms for special purposes have been added,
|
fº |
a- Ҽ -> --- - .. -
fººl - T- -- a-------. &A Eºs > º ==
ºxº~…~s=sº
==== :===-
Austrian Postal Car.
but as the illustrations accompanying this por-
tray them in every substantial respect I will not
tire the reader by attempting their description.
Writers and observers, especially Englishmen,
in speculating on the causes which enable Amer-
ican railroads to carry freight at so low a rate
per ton per mile, concur in ascribing them to the
great carrying capacity of our standard freight
car and the fact that, as a rule, it is loaded to its
full limit. For this reason I have felt it desirable
to illustrate this car somewhat at length, so that





















208 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the reader may study it in detail. It is in a great
measure descriptive of all other freight cars and
meets every requirement of the American Master
Car Builders’ Association, an organization of
prominent and experienced officers in charge of
the cars of railroads. The construction of the
freight car, indeed, may be said, at this time, to be
Interior View of Austrian Postal Car.
dictated wholly by them. For these and other rea-
sons I desire particularly to invite the reader's at-
tention to the illustrations of the car contained
in this chapter. Different manufacturers, it is
proper to say, Vary the patterns they use some-
what, but in every substantial particular the
standard box freight car is uniform throughout

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 209
the country, and as I describe it.” Its dimen-
sions are: Length inside in the clear, 34 feet;
width inside in the clear, 8 feet, 2% inches;
height inside in the clear, 7 feet, 1 inch; width
º º sº, º fººt
A . A --- SSSSS Sº
#| ||} * 23% ºzzº
|*|† 7/ #"ºff |||ſ| ºft
lºt ºs- 22 º'ſſ | | ſ|| % \
Wºlfº S- =3, 22% ºf ill Wºwº
º tº sº. " is * * , º: -º-º: º: ---zº: "T T ºzºzºv F
, ººzºº/º º § --
| "ºftºsº.º. = ~\º
* “SººHºº =TX-T- -
Standard American Suburban Milk Car. Length, 50 ft.: height above the
rail, 14 ft.; weight, 62,200 lbs. Some railroads 11me the floors of these cars
with sheet iron; the milk cans may then be slid over the floor with very
little effort. Side shelves are often provided for additional cans.
of side door opening, 5 feet; width of end door
opening, 2 feet. The sill timbers of the standard
car are as follows: Two center sills, 4}x9 inches;
2 outside sills, 4}x9 inches; 4 intermediate sills,
4x9 inches; end sills, 7x10 inches; draft timbers,
5%x7% inches; center cross timbers, 4}x9 inches.
titt jīº %2.
º
ſºft.”
24/7% %//, /ſ/. ... ." .2.”
E. -a- Fº:
- - -** * *-*.
* - --- 3.--ºr-º-º-º- *-
—-5'- - - "-ºº-->
•- -** - - --->
immºltſlºſiſ.
Standard American Baggage Car. Length, 50 ft.; height above the rail, 14 ft.;
weight, 52,350 lbs. A portion of the car is frequently set aside for the express
or parcel traffic. The mail also is frequently carried in this car on irregular
trains where the business is not sufficient to warrant a messenger. In the
early history of railways the baggagemen haltdled all the mail matter which
railways carried.
* I am indebted for the description which follows to Mr. J.
H. Barker, a prominent car builder.
14 Vol. 1








































210 . RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The body bolsters of the car are open hearth
steel; top bar, 10 x 3 inches; bottom bar, 10 x #
inches; filled in with malleable iron flanged cast-
ings, securely riveted together. The truss rods
are six in number, of 14-inch round iron, with 13-
inch ends and open turnbuckles in the center.
The draft rigging is a double, or tandem, spring
device with malleable iron cheek castings on
either side, thoroughly secured by locking into
the draft timbers 1% inches and each bolted with
eight #-inch bolts. By the use of a malleable iron
cage, encircling the rear Spring, and a malleable
iron plunger which gets its bearing on the front
follower, this spring takes the blow in buffing
and, simultaneously, the front Spring, bearing on
the front follower and front end of the cage,
which gets a bearing on the back follower, causes
the front spring also to take the blow. And by
the use of the
y draw bar pocket,
ºf which bears on
º iſ the rear follower,
Cº-º: gº and the rear fol-
*=== lower on the rear
brought into Service in draught as in buffing. In
E:
&
º
f
s:22. *
Victorian Baggage and Compartment Pas- Spring 9 COITOlſſll II ll-
senger Car. Length, 43 ft., 2% in. ; Weight, cates, through the
40,000 lbs; accommodation for twelve pas- •
SengerS. plunger, a bearing
on the front fol-
lower. And the rear follower, bearing on the
cage communicates to the front spring and front
follower. Thus, the strength of both springs is
iſºgº









LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 211
buffing, the springs are protected by the front
follower having 13-inch travel and then coming
to a stop on the cheek castings, as also on the
deadwood angles. In draught, the rear follower
Lºº. 5:--> --.
lºsis ºl º §§
; tı *
x-º º
sº
ſ §§ # º
Baggage Car and Electric Lighting Plant, Austrian Imperial Train.
has 1}-inch travel and then comes to a stop on
the cheek castings. Each spring is manufactured
with 24-inches motion. There is, therefore, -inch
motion left in each spring when the stops are
reached in buffing, or in draught, and by this
means the breakage of springs is practically
eliminated. The roof is made of sheets of cor-
ºr-
Cº-
º
§§§
ºf º
Standard American Baggage and Buffet Smoking and Library Car. Fre-
quently fitted with barber shop and bath room. Length, 72 ft.; width, 9 ft.,
8 in...; height above the rail, 14 feet; passenger room seating capacity, 23 per-
sons. An attendant is usually found with these cars, who looks after the Com"
fort of the passengers. He has for their use, generally, cigars, tobacco
mineral waters, and kindred articles, which he sells at a small profit. One
end of the car is used for baggage and in some cases for mails.






212 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
rugated galvanized iron, No. 26 gauge, the edges
of which are turned up underneath # inch into
parting strips, as shown in the illustration.
These parting strips come directly over the car-
lines and are secured thereto, without injury to
the galvanized iron sheets. Underneath, the
sheets rest on the side plates, ridge purlin and
v t - --cººl ºr," fº
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Interior of American Buffet Smoking Car.
two intermediate purlins. On the top of parting
strips, as shown in the illustration, there is a
center purlin, an outside purlin and two inter-
mediates, on which a covering of tongued,
grooved and guttered roofing is thoroughly
secured. This construction makes a thoroughly
water-tight roof, even though the upper roof
boards should leak. Each carline is secured to


































1, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 213
the side plate at ends with a 1% x 3-inch strap
bolt with a stem of 3-inch round iron. The axles
are the master car builders’ standard for a car of
60,000 lbs. capacity, as follows: Extreme length,
7 feet, # inch; diameter of center, 4; inches;
wheel seat, finished, 53 inches; journals, finished,
4} x 8 inches; collar, 3 inch. The wheels are the
master car builders' standard, double plate, 33
inches in diameter, weight, 600 lbs. The brasses,
-:
#
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ºft's
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A Smoking Compartment in an American Car.
wedges, oil boxes and oil box covers (the last made
of malleable iron), are all the master car builders'
standard. The cross transoms and spring bear-
ings are channel irons, 13 inches wide, $ inch
web, 4-inch flanges. The truck bolsters are of
open hearth steel. The top bars are 11 x 3-inch,
the lower bars, 11 x 3-inch. The bridging from
end to end of same is of flanged malleable iron
castings, the bars and castings being Securely























214 -- RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
riveted together. The center plates, side bear-
ings and columns are of malleable iron. The
compression mem-
bers of the brake
beam are of 2 x 1-
in ch iron. The
tension rod of 1-
in ch round iron.
- The brake heads
Bosnian Railway Compartment Car. a,I’6” Of malleable
iron made to take
the master car builders’ standard Christie brake
head. The brakes are hung from malleable iron
arms, which are secured to the truck frame by the
column bolts, thus retaining the brakes in the same
position always. The brake levers and connec-
tions are master
car builders’ stan-
- s: -º
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tº 8 * * : tº: Sº its º, ºf 2. º
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..." - iſſi |<i>}^% ºf Sº
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----> E. . . ; -- .
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2 * tº ſº §jºji | |##|# ! {{\|
"ºlº ºl |||}|{ij}'ſ ji "Yi' iſ
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r
dard. Finally, it lºſſº
may be said, the ºº il
end and side doors Fºº ºf
štººls
of the car are ===
locked and sealed German First-Class Passenger Car.
when the car is
loaded. The roof and sides of the car are water
tight. Altogether, the vehicle is as Secure as
good construction and locks can make it.
While the fact is not generally known nor
commented upon it is nevertheless true that
there are specialists among car manufactories
as there are in every business and profession in
the world. Thus there are manufactories devoted



























































LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 215
wholly to the production, in a complete form, of
cheap, light, portable railroads and the equipment
connected there with. I have, by way of illustra-
tion, gone to some trouble to familiarize myself
with the details of one of these companies—
the Decauville, at Petit-Bourg, France.* It is
Quite interesting and instructive. The pro-
prietor of these works (M. Paul Decauville), it
appears, started in life as a farmer, albeit, a
highly educated one, as many of the farmers of
º-º-º-º-º-mº s s
sº-sº-Bres-->S$SSSSSSSSSsssssss
| lº W § rºº N Fºº Fºr N \ººl, ºr Rºštjš-ššišº
| J. W. º. * º \ º º \\ & 3. Lºs $ sº & NišS SS
: , ; = . º-º: RS.E-R-E-º-º: --- º == ==
SS-S §:
sº º-seº
. . ...º
º Lºſ A º º
, ºr Tºº \ ºº::
ºšº
º " ES ºr
- - - :- - - -
s—:=º:E. F.
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L.-J.--> T - * ,
D.sºs.sºs.
§ - - - - Y_-_º
§ - wrºssºs's
§§§ºſº
#' jºš º żºłº
SWS Pºss-ºº!",
> \sº
*- - -
s:=º.
:E-º-º:::::::::=}-------
*** **** * < ...--—-
-...-- º---------ºx.
essºrs.º.º.
***m.
American Standard Railway Passenger Car. In some cases these cars are
provided with safety gates, so that passengers cannot get on or off except at
the instance of the brakemen or on the proper side. Its length is 52 ft.;
height, 14 ft. above the rail; weight, 58,200 lbs.
Europe, and more particularly of France, are. It is
said that he first introduced into France the idea
of plowing by steam. He made it highly success-
ful on his estate. There being occasion for the
transportation of stone from a quarry located on
his farm, to the river Seine, it occurred to him
that a narrow gauge, portable railroad would be
desirable for handling it; but upon inquiry he
* In 1897 this concern was carried on by a company with a
capital of seven million francs, under the style of Societe nou-
velle des Etablissements, Decauville, aine.

























































216 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
found the cost so excessive as to preclude the
idea. Upon examination he discovered the cause
of this excess to be due to the fact that such
roads were constructed the same as other rail-
roads; namely, by purchasing the different parts,
here and there, from manufacturers, and carry-
ing on the work in the same way in which stand-
ard railroads were built. This suggested the
&
*
*>
S$
*:::
*_2:
zºº
: 12/2
//
º j ºA º ~ -". -
;sº #8 5%. , sº
% º º .
gºi;ºs
Sº ãº:3#
3. Alſº |##! §§§§
º § 3||'ſſ |; tº § º
§ #. tº É i ; #. |
* * * * º º; Đ | | ||Pº: à
/ | = f' ºri #º
Žººl/\; ºš
/ º | - 32%8 §
- § º ºś §§ ź -
º Mºſº §
agº - º ºSº §§
Hºnºr: % Fºº Rºss 35&º
Yºgºź. **S***"). Sº:
§§§ - §§§
& §§§ § $ º sº = \ Yº 23: ºs Žº. Rºº.
35 y.º. jº §§ § --- 7. 'i § ©. §§ Jºzº §: O)
* *. - - $ *ſº º 2: W : #9. Jºr". ; : * > *Sº Yº &
ºšščğ: *\ºššš'
* X.º §§§ . . . . tº º: º º: º §
(ºkºśſº § ºš
** * * * * , Øſt • 512-isos z, t > | | &% §§ *Na ***
American Standard Passenger Coach. The furniture of this car consists of
double seats for sixty passengers, toilet rooms at either end, for ladies and
gentlemen, respectively; drinking water, fire extinguishers, tools needed in
Case of disaster, lights and steam-heating apparatus, supplemented by stoves.
thought to him that if a manufacturer devoted
himself wholly to the construction of the pat-
terms used for narrow gauge, portable railroads,
he might be able to greatly lessen the cost of the
items, and, by doing so, create a demand for the
road, that did not then exist. Accordingly, he
started the Petit-Bourg works, which his genius






































LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 217
served to make a success from the first. Curi-
ously enough the location of his manufactory
formed at one time a ==== Sès
part of the grounds sur- . . . . . . \\
rounding the magnifi-
cent chateau of Mme.
de Montespan, the last
of the mistresses of
Louis XIV. Of France
and the mother of his
children. Thus, from
being a place of illicit *Šºš.
love, it be came the American Reversible Seat.
seat of one of the greatest industries of the
world. Decauville's plan was to take the raw
material and, with the aid
, of Suitable machinery and
/labor, make it into the various
things that are essential to a
complete narrow gauge, porta-
ble railroad, including the
equipment. He designed his
railroads to be used for han-
dling stone at quarries, haul-
ing Sugar cane, lime, logs and
º * other forest products, material
T. and dirt about great works,
Hººrnamen public and otherwise, and par-
ticularly for military pur-
poses in the mountain and unimproved districts
and on the frontiers of Asia, India, Africa, and sim-
ilar isolated localities. In those cases where his
º Rºº
tº º ºſº


218 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
roads were to be used in remote or inaccessible
parts of the world, his plan contemplated their
manufacture from metals and other practically
indestructible materials. Thus, the ties of his
railroad were of metal, according to the general
design of stuch devices,
º, only much lighter. It
was necessary, above all
ſº things, that his railroad
should be easily put to-
gether on the ground.
This required that it
should be light and port-
able. To be readily
salable, it must also be
cheap, but at the same
time, capable of haul-
ing very heavy loads. The Marquis d’Andelarre,
in presenting a medal of honor to M. Decauville
for his devices, spoke of him as the manufac-
turer of a lilliputian railroad, able to move
mountains. This is not an exaggeration, for
Decauville's railroad was based upon the prin-
ciple of a division of the burden over a number
of wheels proportionate to the load. Thus, when
the load could be divided, as in the case of earth,
brick, lime, or the products of the farm, the
weight was split up into parts, varying from two
hundred and fifty to five hundred kilograms, each
part being placed on a small car with four wheels.
If, on the contrary, the load was indivisible, like
a cannon, or the trunk of a great tree, the weight

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS.
219
F-ºil ºf -
- Ilſll|||||IIIH)hiſtinº º º
***-ū º * * ~ *
* …
ºm
At *
º
American Dining Car.
WaS distributed over a proportionate number of
trucks.
An important thing in connection with the
narrow gauge portable railroad is that the rails
form but one piece with the ties, which are riv-
eted to them. The rails and the ties resemble a












220 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
:----> *
--- ###E. º
iſſiºn ºil
º: * - -
º
- * - ºt:E:#E: -
º
T
º
."
|
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===st ##########jºſº |
tºº;|
S&
ºft i. jºiº §. Tº
. £º: 8 ºš ºf º. º
- sº sº sº ſº
- sº-º
sº
*
ſ
ºn ſt!
y D
sº-º-º-º-º-º->===- t
ºr. Rººs ºs ----
§§§§§
ºw-wºw º * * º |
Šsº §: W "Wºw! º
===s====
Tourmanian State Car.
ladder. The track is furnished curved or straight
as the needs of railway construction require.
The weight of a section of four metres, (Of 50
gauge) is forty-six kilograms, including the ties,
so that a section of the road may be easily car-
ried by a man of ordinary strength. The road
may be laid anywhere upon level ground with-
out the intervention of experts or the use of tech-
nical appliances of any kind. Indeed, it is so
simple that it is possible in many cases (a ma-
jority of cases, it is said), to lay it as fast as an
Austrian Imperial Saloon Car.





















































LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 221
º
º H # Uill i i |liſſilliºſtºlſ, # M #
#TTTTTTTTTTH
ºl ſºft Iſſſºiſſ # sº# ſº
ºßI**Tºº;
goint Service Compartment and Passenger Car.
ordinary army marches. The practicability of
this appears easier of fulfillment when it is
known that the manufacturers of these ready-
made railroads deliver them complete, ready for
use, boxed, very much as manufacturers do a
sº
SSS
*CŞ N SN N. s
º *Nº.
N AW
sº
§§
§§ Šs
§§
American Westibule Car.





































































222 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
cooking stove. The success of manufactories of
portable narrow guage railroads was assured the
moment it was demonstrated that they could be
built cheaply and were, in all respects, durable
A. *S º - flº /. %
& § 2 ºr % % % % A. §ſ
º ŠN& S. % ſº # is: * % º % - *: º / * *
d Z ſº
f V-
# Đº 3 &
- & § § ſ' %
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* , ſº
# /ſ/.4%, sº .
§ %2% º
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g º tº §§ # A. Y. . W.
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g sº sº § §§
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§§§s...sº
§ § jº º ~ sºsºs
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An Apartment in a Palace Car.
and Serviceable. A demand at once sprang up
for them, not only for handling the industrial
products of the world, but for military purposes
in far-off countries. They were thus used by the
English in Afghanistan and by the Russians in












LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 223
==Trº tº- ---
ś †<=x<=:
º |
º
- Esº-º-º-º: º
#ºgºsº assºsº ºr."
zºzasz-Sºzasºfºº ºº::=ºsº,
rt-s-s ** intº lar. º: . . . . . iſ sº º |.3 "J" ºf ººl. H
. | R$. º &#.
A ſºlºiſillººiſſillºſſ!!!!".
*-*-, --- tº" º | : '...','º'; '': ;: º - º
º C 3.
|-|--||
Standard American Sleeping and High-Class Passenger Car.
Central Asia. In India, the railroads were car-
ried ready for use on the backs of elephants, and
in Turkestan on the backs of camels. These ani-
mals marched along the proposed line distribut-
ing their burden where needed. The animal
carrying the track was followed by one carrying
a locomotive, another with cars and another
with fuel and other appurtenances. The loco-
motives used on these roads are in some cases
propelled by com-
pressed air; on others
again by electricity.
Steam, however, is
generally used as in §§§§
the case of standard ºº
railroads. šºſsº
The manufactur-
ers of portable rail- :
roads not only con-
struct the track,
turnouts, switches,
and everything per-
taining thereto, but
the locomotives and #
cars needed by the
industries they are Apartments in an American Palace Car.


224 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
intended to serve. The locomotives weigh from
three to ten tons, according to the requirements
of the situation. The cars of portable railroads
look more like toys than useful implements com-
pared with standard cars. There are vehicles
especially built for use in handling earth, stores,
stone, brick, wood, sugar cane, grain, garden
truck, fertilizing matter, and for every other
purpose that the requirements of the case de-
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mand. The vehicles intended for military uses
are generally constructed of metal. They are
thus practically indestructible. Military cars
are, moreover, adaptable for the carriage of
either men or munitions of war. The cars are
packed and shipped ready for use, just as croquet
sets are packed by manufacturers. It is this fea-
ture, namely, that the railroad is ready for use





















1, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 225
when delivered and does not require experts to
construct it which makes it so attractive to those
who have use for such a contrivance.
Before concluding this chapter on manufacto-
ries, I am led to say a word in regard to a prac-
tice that has grown up to a certain extent at
railroad shops (manufactories), of officers and
employes associating themselves together for the
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Compartment Car, New South Wales. Accommodation: 24 first-class day
passengers or 14 first-class night passengers; 20 second-class passengers.
Length of car, 46 ft.
purpose of discussing matters connected with
their daily work. I have not myself had suffi-
cient acquaintance with the needs of the situa-
tion to be familiar with all its requirements,
but some of those who have achieved deserved
distinction in connection with the manufacturing
and maintenance of railway equipment are ear-
nest advocates of such associations or groupings
as that referred to. They believe that the dis-
cussions these meetings will call forth will have
15 Vol. 1











226 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the effect to aid in arriving at a better under-
standing of the many questions that arise in
connection with the daily work in shops and
about which men differ and continue to differ
mainly because they do not have the benefit of
each other's experience and wisdom. Those who
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Austrian Compartment Sleeping Car. The apartments off this passage-
Way are distinct and capable of accommodating tWo people and are supplieu
with the accessories common to toilet rooms.
advocate these associations believe in them as an
educational medium highly beneficial to those
immediately concerned, and to the employer as
well. They believe that these meetings will not
only disseminate knowledge but give birth to a
spirit of emulation. Every ambitious, growing

LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 227
man is benefited (I do not say pleased) by having
his ideas reviewed and criticised. He is thus
shown the weak points in his makeup. Opposi-
tion has the effect also to spur him on to renewed
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American Apartment Car. The doors between the compartments, as
shown in the perspective, close, making each a distinct room with a door
opening into a common passage Way. What is known as a compartment car
in other countries has a distinct entrance from the station platform for each
compartment. In many cases each car has compartments for first, second and
third-class traffic.
efforts. Man’s pride as well as his energy and
ambition push him on through life. For these
and other reasons monthly meetings of those en-
gaged in shop work, it is thought, will prove

228 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
highly advantageous both to them and the com-
pany they work for. These weekly or monthly
meetings, made up as they will be of many small
groups of men engaged in analogous work, may
in turn be supplemented by general meetings of
all the groups, or of delegates Selected therefrom.
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American Observation Car.
At some shops there has been introduced in con-
nection with such associations as those referred
to what is known as a question box. Any in-
formation anyone desires he propounds in the
shape of a question and drops it into the box.
When a meeting occurs, the question is read and
discussed and, if necessary, a committee appointed

1, OCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 229
to give it needed consideration. As a rule meet-
ings of employes of shops for discussion, such as
I have referred to, are not common on railroads.
Many companies, however, require such meet-
ings of their managers and superintendents.
Those who advocate the extension of the prac-
tice believe that those who work in shops and
about roundhouses and locomotives will also be
benefited by such meetings. They contend, as
already pointed out, that such associations will
have the effect to stimulate and enlighten men.
We all know that it is only by intercourse with
those about us we can be impressed with the
smallness of our own
knowledge com - eae=
pared with that of tºº
men collectively.
The man who lives
apart from his broth-
ers is always more or less of an egotist. He is
filled with silly notions of the value of his own
ideas, when as a matter of fact they are usually
of little or no account. For these and other rea-
sons it is believed that the
organization of railroads
about their shops may be
heightened by such associ-
ations of employes for pur-
poses of discussion and
Passenger Truck, Austrian mutual enlightenment a.S
Railway. those referred to.
Steel Bogie Truck.


C H A PTE R. I.W.
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT.- CARE AND MAIN-
TENANOE OF LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. ARRANGE-
MENT OF RAILROAD SHOPS AND ROUNDEIOUSES.
Before proceeding to discuss the questions that
properly come under this chapter head, I may say,
in parenthesis, that the varied duties and great
responsibilities inseparably attaching to those
immediately in charge of the machinery depart-
ment of railroads, grow each day in the estima-
tion of railway owners and managers. This is
because the subject is better understood each
day. With the evolution of railroads, it becomes
more and more apparent that the machinery
department, embracing equipment and shops,
must be in charge of those who, by experience,
education and mental faculties, are fitted to un-
derstand and direct the vast interests involved.
In the early history of railroads, men were
thought fit to be master mechanics or superin-
tendents of cars if they had been good black-
smiths or master carpenters, respectively. For
a long while it was very hard to disabuse the
minds of managers of railways of this false im-
pression, but now there is a marked tendency to
rank those in charge of the machinery depart-
ment with the highest operating officers, and to
(230)
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 231
expect of them corresponding talent. This just
distinction is destined to be permanent and to
increase, rather than diminish, with the progress
of railway development. The questions involved
in connection with the equipment and shops of
railways, and the vast number of men of varied
temperament and ability employed, require men
of the highest possible talent and experience to
wisely direct. I have not attempted, either in
this volume or elsewhere, to enter into anything
like a detailed account of the duties and respon-
sibilities of the superior and minor officials of the
machinery department. The subject is too com-
plex to be taken up by itself. To understand it,
one must understand everything connected with
the equipment of railways and, as this is the
subject of the present volume, I leave it to the
reader himself to judge, as here portrayed, how
great and varied must be the responsibilities of
those in charge of the machinery of railroads.
The care of the locomotives and cars of rail-
roads after they have been completed is one of
the greatest industries of the world. The wear
and tear of these vehicles, while largely depend-
ent upon the nature of the roadbed and the speed
of trains, are very great under the most favorable
circumstances. Exposure and hard usage Soon
necessitate repairs which multiply until the loco-
motive or car finally collapses, requiring to be re-
built or replaced. It may have lasted ten years,
232 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
even longer, but its final destruction is only a
question of time.
The repair and renewal of locomotives and
cars require adequate shops, convenient tracks
and much costly and complicated machinery.
Moreover, the improvements which are daily
made in connection with locomotives and cars,
add greatly to the outlay of capital connected
with shop work.
The force engaged about the shops and round-
houses of railroads constitutes a vast and intelli-
gent army. Its technical skill is of the highest
order, and anything that throws light on the
construction, care and maintenance of cars and
locomotives, it carefully studies. No class of
men, it is probable, is more eager to acquire use-
ful knowledge. It was this fact that suggested
the necessity of incorporating in the “SOIENCE OF
RAILWAYs” a volume devoted to “Railway Equip-
ment,” and the organization of shops and the
regulation of the forces connected there with.
There are a great many men of talent and enter-
prise engaged in the machinery department of
railroads, but there are few understanding the
subject in all its bearings, who can be induced to
write down what they know for the benefit of
others less favored. The officials connected with
this branch of the service are not only very busy,
but, like all men of talent and affairs, modest
about exploiting their knowledge. Yet there is
no one whose opinion is of marked value in .
regard to the equipment of railroads and the
THE MACHINER Y DEPARTMENT. 233
shop work connected therewith, except those
who, by their daily occupation, are familiar with
the varied requirements of this branch of the
service. Because of this, information, when
obtainable from such authoritative source, is
invaluable.*
The machinery department of railroads is, as I
have already remarked, growing in the estima-
tion of railway owners and managers. It was
never so highly esteemed as at this moment.
Its great importance impresses itself more and
more upon the railway world. We see clearly,
with the growth of business, that the highest
class of talent is required to manage its great
and diversified interests.
The value of a railroad is dependent, it may be
said, not only upon the stability of its track,
station and train Service, but upon the fitness of
its locomotives and cars and the efficiency dis-
played in their construction and care. This
branch of the Service is one of supreme import-
ance and, as we progress, we see men of higher
and higher education, talent and experience,
selected to fill its offices. These officials, em-
bracing Superintendents of Motive Power, Mas-
ter Mechanics, Superintendents of Cars and their
assistants, are consulted more than formerly and
are better rewarded. Their great usefulness and
discretion can no longer be ignored.
* This is why I have sought in every way throughout this
volume to supplement what I write with the direct advice and
assistance of those who have daily practical knowledge of the
Workings and needs of the machinery departments of railroads.
234 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
It is said that with the introduction of steam
in the navy the engineering department thereof
has become an adjunct of the greatest possible
importance, but because of the oversight of those
who are at the head of some of the navy depart-
ments of the world, and the opposition of those
immediately in charge of the ships (born of prej-
udice and jealousy), no adequate recognition of
the engineering department has occurred, and, in
consequence, the navy is much crippled thereby.
This can not now be justly said of the machinery
department of railroads, or, at least, of all rail-
roads. In early days men skilled in the techni-
calities of machinery, and especially educated to
fill supervisory positions in connection therewith
could not be found, and, consequently, railroad
companies were compelled to put up with such
service as they could secure. This condition of
affairs no longer exists. Men are more and more
qualifying themselves for position by scientific
instruction in polytechnic schools, and elsewhere
by private instruction and practical observation
and experience. There is, therefore, no longer the
clumsiness, ignorance and stupidity displayed as
in the first days of railroad operations, when
shops were built without reference to continuity
of work or the economical handling of machin-
ery, material and men.” To-day, as far as new
enterprises are projected, or it is possible to rem-
* This important phase of railway equipment, namely, care
and housing of material, I discuss in the volume “Disburse-
ments of Railways.”
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 235
edy the faults of earlier times, shop facilities are
such as to secure expedition and economy.
An adequate description of the care and main-
tenance of locomotives and cars, while of the
greatest possible necessity and value to railroads
and to railroad men, is yet a thing unknown, so
far as we have anything emanating from those
directly engaged in this field. We have many
able and valuable books and essays written by
those who have been engineers, or who possess
great capacity of observation and description,
but nothing from the masters themselves—from
those who not only understand the forces and
principles which underlie the organization of the
machinery department, but are actually in direc-
tion thereof, because of their talent, experience
and worldly knowledge. Such an account as this
I have been so fortunate as to obtain through
the co-operation I have received in the prepara-
tion of this chapter. It is from a gentleman who
is everywhere recognized as a potent force in
railway operation; a man at Once practical and
scientific; a philosopher, and yet a daily worker
and manager. Because of these varied accom-
plishments, what he has to say has the force of
reflection as well us of practical knowledge. The
gentleman I refer to is Mr. Robert Quayle.* My
own experience, while considerable and extend-
ing over some forty years of service, is not such
as to enable me to discuss the subject of machin-
ery authoritatively in all its bearings. There are
many things connected with organization and
*President of the American Railway Master Mechanics’
Association. •
236 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
needs, however, which my knowledge makes
familiar to me and with which it is not neces-
sary to couple technical information in regard
to machinery and its ramifications to make use-
ful. This knowledge, while of little technical
value, is yet necessary as a corollary.
The gentleman referred to above who has so
kindly come to my aid is, as I have intimated,
well known throughout the railway world by
superintendents of motive power, master me-
chanics, superintendents of cars, and others
connected with the machinery department of
railroads. He has had many years of practical
experience, first in connection with the technical
details and routine work of the machinery de-
partment and afterward in charge of the organi-
zation and arrangement of the equipment of a
great and well-managed railway. He has not
only experience, but talent of a very high order.
What he advocates is practicable. This chapter
is, moreover, greatly enhanced in value, in my
estimation, by the highly practical suggestions
it contains from Mr. G. W. Rhodes, generally
recognized throughout the World as one of the
foremost men connected with the machinery de-
partment of railroads. He has charge of such a
department for a railroad, comprising some eight
thousand miles of line. This, added to his long
practical knowledge of details, eminently fits
him to judge of the shop needs of railways.
With the foregoing explanations I will pro-
ceed, without further introduction, to take up
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 237
the subject matter of this chapter. In it I de-
sign to point out the methods by which certain
fundamental objects connected with the machin-
ery department of railways may be obtained in
an efficient and economical manner. In connec-
tion with the question of the locomotive, I shall
first take up the location of roundhouses and
shops, and incidentally, the location of the ma-
chinery they contain; afterward, the question of
repairs of locomotives while they are in use.
Then repairs of a more extended nature will be
referred to.
While locomotives may be made to perform
efficient service for a long period of time by care-
fully attending to petty repairs from day to day,
sooner or later they wear out and, when this
becomes the case, it is necessary to withdraw
them from the service for substantial renewals.
Under this latter head this chapter treats of the
location, design and equipment of repair shops
and the organization of labor and the supervisory
force connected there with. Following this it
takes up the care and maintenance of cars in the
same order, describing first their care and after-
ward explaining the methods of keeping them in
repair while §. use. This is followed by an
account of appliances for renewing or rebuilding
cars, including the organization of the shops and
the labor and superintendence connected there-
with And in connection with these subjects it
must not be forgotten that the equipment of a
railroad requires constant and minute inspection
238 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
and daily, even hourly, repair. This watchful-
ness extends over the whole period during which
it is in active use, from the time it is constructed
until it is finally worn out. Incidentally, it may
also be said that the care and maintenance of the
rolling stock of a company require, in order to
carry on the Work effectively and economically,
needed facilities and appliances of the highest
order, embracing adequate grounds, suitable
buildings and machinery, convenient storehouses,
faithful and skilled workmen, and a supervisory
force of the highest order. These things are fun-
damental.
Taking up the subjects which I have briefly
summarized, comes first the
CARE OF LOCOMOTIVES.–In operating the loco-
motives of a company, suitable buildings ar-
ranged for their shelter must be provided at
needed places along the line of road. These
must, moreover, be fitted with such appliances
as may be necessary to enable those in charge to
perform such work on the locomotives housed
therein as the necessities of daily service require.
In the United States the buildings I refer to
are usually of a circular or partially circular
form, and so located as to be readily reached
from the main line. They are provided with a
turn-table connecting with all the tracks in the
house. These buildings because of their shape
are known as “roundhouses.” Such a house is
needed at places where the requirements of the
service render it necessary to station engines or
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 239
to keep them temporarily, say at the junctions of
divisions, at the termini of particular trains and
other places where engines must be housed.
While the locomotives are thus protected they
receive the simple repairs which the exigencies
of the service require. So that while these
buildings may be called roundhouses and are, in
the main, designed simply to house locomotives
overnight or temporarily, they are also, in a
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measure, repair shops, where such appliances are
kept in the way of machinery and skilled work-
men as the needs of the Service require. In
view of this, it is proper to call them machine
shops.
At important centers there are one or more
buildings, apart from the roundhouse, especially
provided with the machinery needed for making
repairs. In any event, however, many repairs


240 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
are made in every roundhouse. There it is in-
tended the engine shall be cleaned, inspected
and fitted for the road. It is, therefore, it will
be seen, a place of the greatest importance in the
machinery department.*
When in the suburban service of a railroad
locomotives run to several adjacent stations on
schedules which necessitate their being held over
at two or more points, it may be economical to
locate the roundhouse at an intermediate station
rather than the terminal, running the engine
back and forth between the roundhouse and the
points from which it starts. By so doing, labor
may be concentrated and, therefore, more profit-
ably employed and at the same time necessary
furnishings and accessories minimized. Gener-
ally speaking, however, it may be said that the
location of roundhouses must be governed by
conditions which can only be determined by
special investigation in each case.
The ground for the roundhouse should be
Selected with a view to drainage and should be
amply protected in this respect. If there are
repair shops apart from it, convenient tracks
connecting the two should be arranged.
* “In order that the work may be done effectively, it is im-
portant that the roundhouse shall be well lighted. This can
be done in the daytime by plenty of windows and at night by
electric lighting when practicable. The light will be much
improved by reflection from whitewashed interiors. As round-
houses contain much valuable property, it will be well to make
provision against fires by building fire walls every ten or twenty
stalls.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 241
The design of the roundhouse and its arrange-
ment give little scope for artistic display. The
important things to be considered are first, cost,
afterward, expense of maintenance and, finally,
convenient and economical arrangement for
use. Roundhouses should be protected as far as
possible from frost, and in cold climates should
be built with that view, either of brick, stone or
other suitable substance. They must be deep
enough to admit the longest locomotive with
tender and allow ample margin at either end.
Each stall or track should be provided with a pit
as long as the engine and tender and deep enough
to enable workmen standing therein to clean or
repair such parts of the machine as are not other-
wise accessible. The pit should be provided with
steam piping around its sides for heating pur-
poses. This piping should be securely fastened or
protected so as to prevent employes, when getting
into or climbing from the pit, from loosening the
joints and thereby rendering the appliance un-
serviceable or in need of repairs. The method
described of heating the roundhouse is superior
to all others, as it is important that the heat
should be concentrated directly under the prin-
cipal machinery of the engine, so that when
frozen or covered with Snow and ice these parts
may be quickly thawed out, cleaned and inspected
and, if necessary, repaired.* The pits should be
* “In cold climates low, flat roofs are very generally used.
Such construction largely reduces the Square feet of area which
it is necessary to heat.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
16 Vol. 1
24%. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
provided with adequate draining facilities and
sewer connections. Especial attention should be
given to sewerage, also the provision for carrying
off the sediment and incrustation from the boilers
without blocking the drains. Hydrants should
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The dimensions will, of course, be increased or
decreased, according to the amount of work to be
done.
be placed between the pits, conveniently
located for attaching hose for washing the
boilers and filling the tanks. The piping in
the roundhouse should, so far as possible, be
placed near the roof and in the center of the
building. The steam pipes, while carefully pro-
tected, should be exposed throughout, so as to
facilitate inspection and repair.






THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 243
The floor of the roundhouse is an important
matter. It should be built of material that will
stand the wear and tear of heavy trucks and the
blows received from falling pieces of machinery.
It should be sufficiently substantial to resist
the pressure of the jacks used in raising the
locomotives.
Light may be provided by windows in the rear
of the building and, if necessary, by inserting
panes of glass in the doors. Skylights, if neces-
sary, may be used. The doors of the roundhouse
should open outward. They should also be strong
and securely hung. They require to be provided
with catches for fastening them when open and
holding them when closed. The building should
have a substantial roof, so constructed as to
evade, as much as possible, the corroding action
of the Smoke and gases from the locomotives.
Funnels for carrying the smoke and gas above
the roof will be found valuable devices in this
connection.
The roundhouse should be equipped with such
aSSOrtment of wrenches, bars, ratchets, jacks, air
motors, tools and work benches as the service re-
quires. Except at very small roundhouses, neces-
Sary tools for drilling, turning and planing should
be provided. At large roundhouses these should be
Supplemented by tools for facing valve seats, bor-
ing cylinders, drilling out and replacing stay-bolts,
and other work of like character incident to daily
Service. When there is not a central power
plant, the roundhouse should be provided with a
244 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
boiler for generating steam for heating purposes
and providing needed power. If very high water
pressure is not available, a steam pump of suffi-
cient capacity to afford ample water at high
pressure should be provided for boiler washing.
The advantages afforded by use of compressed air
in connection with roundhouse work make an air
compressor a valuable part of the equipment
wherever considerable work is done. A sufficient
reservoir for air storage should be provided.
Drop pits with power lifts for removing trucks
and driving wheels are necessary where much
work of this nature is to be performed.* These
may be operated to advantage by compressed air.
* “I)riving box brasses and journals, it is to be remarked,
can only be thoroughly inspected and examined by dropping
out the wheels. When round-houses are not equipped with
these facilities a thorough inspection of the parts named is
neglected, resulting in a continuation of the difficulties with the
engine in place of removing them. An engine was recently cut
off of an important train on the line under my charge with a hot
box. The Cellar was removed and the journal examined as well
as it could be without going to the expense of jacking the engine
up, the roundhouse not being fitted with a drop pit. Nothing
was discovered seriously wrong, the cellar was repacked and
oiled, and the engine again put into service. The engine con-
tinued running hot and it was found its condition was not bet-
tered. The next roundhouse the engine stopped at was fitted
with a drop pit, operated by air. It took but a short time to
drop the wheels out and make a thorough inspection of both
journal and brass. It was then found that the brass had been
so badly cut it would be impossible for the engine to run cool
until it was equipped with a new brass. The result of this ex-
perience was that a drop pit was at once ordered for the round-
house that was without one. I think pneumatic drop pits for
engine drivers and truck wheels should be in every round-
house on the main line of important roads.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT 245
Provision should be made at every roundhouse
for the stores it is necessary to keep on hand. In
small houses space which would otherwise not
be used may be utilized for this purpose, but
at large and important places a storehouse is
needed. This may sometimes be advantageously
attached to the buildings. In other cases it will
be more convenient to have it apart.
The foreman's office should, generally, con-
nect with or be immediately adjacent to the
storeroom. All material requiring protection
3/ar Azzºwyzomy, Azracy//ra J//o/, Zaº)/MZ 425//
from weather or thieves, excepting oils, should
be kept securely locked in the storehouse. At
large roundhouses a separate building, as nearly
fire-proof as possible and arranged with reservoirs
or tanks, should be provided for oils. If located
below the level of the ground, the oil may be
drawn by pumping it directly from the tanks,
Or compressed air may be used. The latter is,
however, considered preferable. The oil house
should be built at a sufficient distance from the
other buildings to prevent the fire spreading in
the event of a conflagration.}
f For further reference to storing material, etc., see volume
“Disbursements of Railways.”

246 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
A pit in which to dispose of ashes and other
refuse of the ash pan should be located near the
turn-table; the closer it is the better, so as to
prevent, as far as possible, the injury which
accrues to the flues by cold air passing over the
grates after the fire has been drawn. The clinker
pit should be large enough to accommodate all
the locomotives using the roundhouse. As the
cinders which thus accumulate must be removed,
a depressed track, whereon the cars intended for
their removal may stand, will be found an eco-
nomical appliance. It should be so located that
by opening the door of the clinker pit the cars
may be loaded by gravity.”
The coal house, with its contrivances for sup-
plying locomotives by gravity, the supply of sand
g and the water tank, while
not necessarily appendages
of the roundhouse, may be
zzº…T. So conveniently situated in
its vicinity as to be highly
desirable. Local conditions will necessarily gov-
ern their location. Care should be taken, however,
to So group these supplies that the labor each
* “At some shops the ashes are handled very economically
by the use of air hoists, which avoids the necessity of a de-
pressed track. Portable pans are placed in the clinker pit into
Which the clinkers and ashes are dumped. These are lifted by
air hoists suspended to an overhead traveler and their contents
dumped into a car. At some locations, on account of poor drain-
age, especially in low countries, depressed pits are not practi-
cable. Where air hoists are used the expense of the depressed
track may be avoided.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.

THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 24?
requires may be concentrated so as to be utilized
to its fullest extent. For instance, the sand and
Water cranes should be in such relation to each
other that the man in charge of the engine may
take on a supply of both water and sand without
moving the engine.
Methods of organization covering the care of
locomotives merge with those connected with
petty repairs. The force engaged consists of
bodies of skilled and unskilled workmen in and
about the roundhouse. The skilled workmen
comprise machinists and boilermakers and their
helpers, respectively. The unskilled workmen
embrace wipers and laborers. At large round-
houses the boilerwashers and helpers may con-
stitute a distinct body. All receive instructions
from, and are responsible to, the foreman in
charge. The latter is subordinate to the master
mechanic, and usually reports to him.
If the number of roundhouses on a division is
large, they may be grouped. In such case the
foreman of each roundhouse will, perhaps, report
to and receive instructions from a general fore-
man for the section, who, in turn, will report to
the master mechanic.
REPAIRs of LoCOMOTIVES.—When locomotives
become much worn with service, or, in other
Words, need many repairs, the limited facilities
of the roundhouse will not suffice. The engine
must then be withdrawn from Service and taken
248 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
to the general repair shops where facilities are
provided for such work. It is oftentimes diffi-
cult to determine just when this transfer should
be made. Much depends
upon the character of the
| Service in which the loco-
:::::::::… motive is engaged; some-
thing upon the character
of the repairs. If life or property is not jeop-
ardized by continued use of the locomotive, it
becomes simply a question of dollars and cents:
if saving may be effected by making the repairs,
they should be made forthwith; otherwise not.
The nature of the water supply determines, very
largely, the length of time an engine can be
kept in service. If the water is unsuitable, its
impurities, precipitated by heat, accumulate in
the flues and upon the sheets of the boiler;
thus it may be necessary to remove the flues as
often as two or three times a year, whereas, if
the water is free from impurities, the flues may
last for ten years. Therefore, in order to pro-
long the usefulness of the flues and boiler sheets,
and thus minimize cost, pure water should be
obtained whenever possible. First cost is unim-
portant compared with expense of maintenance
afterward; yet unfit water is often obtained by
sinking wells, or other device, in order to save
present outlay, when by a little larger expendi-
ture a permanent supply of good water could be
obtained from a running stream, or in Some
other way.

THE MACHINER F DEPARTMENT. 249
Much is to be said in reference to the charac-
ter of the service in which engines are engaged.
In the early experience of railroads in the United
States Small engines were able to haul heavy
trains, because the speed was slow and stops in-
frequent. Now, however, the speed of trains has
been increased, while the growth of the country
and with it the towns along the line of railroads
necessitate more frequent stops. This is true of
all new countries and of many old ones. Heavier
[][]
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Zayao/ZºZ/PA 24/7.
ſºm
Z/YZ2 ZZZTP27/42/Y JAICZ-Zo/y
locomotives have thus become necessary with the
result that the durability of the machinery is
lessened, as it wears out more quickly in heavy
service where a large amount of coal is neces-
sarily consumed than where the contrary is the
Ca,S62.
Judicious location of the repair shops for loco-
motives requires consideration of many varied
interests. Among those to be mentioned are
accessibility to locomotives to be repaired; prox-
imity to skilled and unskilled labor; facilities for




250 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
obtaining material and supplies; and, finally, the
Securing of adequate grounds for buildings, yards
and tracks. In this connection the growth of the
Service, i. e., future needs, must be taken into
account.
There are two kinds of repair shops: those ar-
ranged for heavy work, such as the thorough
Overhauling of a locomotive requires, and those
for lighter repairs. As the arrangement of both
is generally similar, i.e., differs only in degree,
only those designed for extensive repairs are con-
sidered here.
The location of these repair shops must be
easily accessible from the main track. The
shops must also have ample yard room with
switching tracks suitable for convenient and
economical working, including the handling of
material and supplies. The grounds should be
well sewered and drained, and provided with
fences, gates, etc., so they may be completely
enclosed. The terminus of a division or the
common terminus of several divisions of a road
is the natural place for general repair shops such
as those described.
As it sometimes becomes necessary to transfer
to the roundhouse the skilled labor of the repair
shop, it is desirable that the roundhouse should be
located as near to the repair shop as practicable.
Repair shops, such as those referred to, neces-
sarily consist of a number of buildings in which
different parts of the work are done. The ar-
rangement and location of the buildings require
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 251
careful study. The following observations there-
on are offered as tending to reduce cost of repairs
by minimizing labor and loss of time in handling
material and in making repairs.
The largest and most important building of the
group is the machine and erecting shop. In the
case of very large plants the erecting building is
separate from the machine shop. In other cases
the two are placed under one roof. The building,
or buildings, must be located so as to be conven-
iently reached from other shops.
The boiler shop should be located in the imme-
diate vicinity of the erecting shop, so that the
boilers may be moved conveniently from one
building to the other.
The tank shop, i. e., the shop for the repair
of the water tanks of locomotives, should be
a part of, or immediately adjacent to, the boiler
shop, so that work of a
similar nature may be
concentrated as much as rt
possible. -wºr-wº-
The forge and black-
Smith shops are usually
consolidated under one | | [] [] [] |
roof. The location should | | ſiſ | |
be convenient to the **-l-l
machine and ere cting eſ/af 4/6/24/7.2%, V//y Aºz &//Z/254%/?
shop and the boiler and
tank shops.
The paint shop should be conveniently located
for moving locomotives and tenders from the

252 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
erecting shop. It should be provided with tracks
leading to the roundhouse or main line.”
It is, as a rule, advantageous to locate the foun-
dry some distance from the other buildings so as
to have room for supplies stored in its vicinity.
The heavier castings should be stored conven-
iently between the foundry and the machine shop,
where the castings are to be used. In some cases
it may be better to store them near the general
storehouse. This latter should be conveniently
located for the distribution of material to the
shops with as little expenditure of time and labor
as possible. Spacious platforms and other con-
veniences should be provided to facilitate the
transfer of castings from one part of the house
to another.
If the shops are very extensive they should
have a power plant. It should be as centrally
located as possible. How far this will be practi-
cable, like other problems,
=########### can only be determined
on the spot. The boil-
[[IIITIII ers should, however, be
grouped in one building,
and steam for heating purposes distributed di-
rectly to the entire plant, according to the best
modern inventions.

* “Much less time and care are spent on locomotive painting
than formerly, so much so that many important lines do not
consider a locomotive paint shop essential. The cabs are built
and painted in the coach shop, and the tanks and engines in
the machine shops, as they are being completed about in the
same way as is generally followed in contract shops.”—Mr. G.
W. Rhodes.
THE MACHINER Y DEPARTMENT. 253
A suitable engine, able to furnish the amount
of power needed, should form a part of every
power plant for the purpose of driving the dyna-
mos which generate the electrical force used to
operate the machinery of each shop. The cost
of attendance may thus be reduced.*
The design for shop buildings should, in a gen-
eral way, follow the lines accepted as best for
such plants. The foundations and walls should
be strong and of well-laid masonry, with pilasters
and strengthening buttresses wherever necessary
to carry the load attached to the roof, or needed
to support the tracks for traveling cranes. The
walls should be sufficiently high to afford head-
way under the cranes. As abundance of light is
needed in every shop the windows and skylights
should be ample.
When there are no traveling cranes, the roof
trusses should be strong over the entire floor
space, as it is often advantageous to attach to
the roof appliances which will greatly increase
the weight on the trusses. The roof of the build-
ing should be substantial, durable and as nearly
fire-proof as possible. Slate is preferable.
The foregoing applies with more or less force
to every building connected with the repair of
locomotives. Each building, however, possesses
* “Owing to improvements in the working parts of stationary
engines, improvements in continuous sight-feed lubricators,
etc., it has become the practice in shops of even considerable
importance to do away with the stationary engineer and to
make the supervision of the stationary engine part of the duties
of the leading fireman.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
254 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
certain features peculiar to itself. These may
now be taken up.
In planning the erecting and machine shop,
either of two plans may be followed. Each has
certain advantages or disadvantages, depending
largely upon climatic conditions. Both designs,
however, contemplate a building varying in width
from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-
five feet, arranged with a machine shop on one
side of a line drawn lengthwise through the
center, and an erecting shop on the other side.
The length of the building may vary to suit
special requirements, but one end should be so
located that it may be extended when necessary.
In one design tracks run at right angles to the
length of the shop. They are spaced from twenty-
two to twenty-five feet apart from center to cen-
ter of track. Each track is provided with a pit
deep enough to enable workmen to perform the
work required on the machinery and fittings from
beneath the engines. Cranes sufficient to lift the
heaviest locomotives traverse the entire length
of the shop immediately over the pits. This
design requires a transfer table close to and
extending lengthwise of the shop, accessible to
tracks connected with the main line, for moving
engines to and from the erecting shop. In the
other design the erecting tracks run lengthwise
of the shop. One track is usually placed on each
side of the allotted floor space, with another
track extending lengthwise through the center,
upon which locomotives enter and leave the
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 255
shop. The same provision is
made for traveling cranes as in
the first instance, so that loco-
motives may be lifted from the
center track to the erecting rººm
tracks, and vice versa, as well as ||||||ID m
&://a/ aro Zazzzzzzzzar
on and off their wheels. Pits ex- woº?:
tending the entire length of the
erecting tracks are required as in the other case.
When scrap furnaces are used, the shop boilers
may be placed immediately above the same in
order to utilize the heat for the purpose of
generating the steam required in operating the
steam hammers and for other purposes. If
coal is used for fuel, the furnace may be fed
through a chute connecting directly with the
cars on which the supply is loaded. If oil is
used in the furnace, the supply should be in close
proximity to the building, so that the distance
the oil will have to flow may be reduced as much
as possible.
A boiler shop rarely needs to be more than
eighty feet wide. The height of the walls should
be the same as for the erecting shop. The
arrangement of tracks in the boiler shop should
also be the same as
in the erecting shop.
Adequate crane facil-
* |- ities for moving and
“a”, “c”, ”…, x, zaze, turning boilers are
required. The boiler
shop should be equipped with a hydraulic rivet-


256 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
ing machine with accumulator” and tower-lift +
for handling locomotive boilers, with a machine
and tower, or extension, which will permit a lift
under the crane that will support the boiler of
the riveting machine at a height of at least
thirty-five feet in the clear; and an oil furnace
for annealing.
The blacksmith shop may, if thought desirable,
be arranged with a forge shop in an annex, or
“L.” In this way facilities for storing material
without interfering with ready access to the
blacksmith shop may be secured. The walls of
the building should be substantially constructed,
with large openings for ingress and egress. The
light should be abundant. Capacious ventilators
should be inserted in the roof. The trusses
should be strong enough to support such posts,
cranes, overhead runways or tracks for transfer-
ring material as may be necessary.
* An accumulator is a long cylinder in which a piston is set
in vertical position, the cylinder being attached to a large iron
drum filled with scrap iron, sand or other heavy material in
order to obtain the pressure necessary to operate the machinery.
By means of a pump, liquid is forced into the cylinder, which
causes the piston and the drum containing the load to rise,
thereby obtaining the required pressure.
# A tower-lift is a long cylinder with piston coupled to a
crane at the top of a tower, directly over the machine, and is
used for holding boilers in suspension while being riveted and
in handling other work to be performed at the machine.
f The annealing furnace is a large furnace with a door
extending across the entire front, in which boiler plates are
heated to a red heat and allowed to cool before being placed
into the boiler in Order to make the metal more pliable.
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 257
Among the prime requisites for a paint shop
are light, heat and ventilation. “The last two
are best accomplished by what is known as the
overhead hot-air system. The large fan which
forces the hot air through the pipes in winter is
available for inducing a circulation of air in the
shops in summer. The best results in drying in
a paint shop are obtained when the air circulates
freely.” Besides the windows in the walls of
the building, the skylights should be fitted into
the roof as may be consistent with good con-
struction. The ventilators should be provided
with adjustable appliances for preventing waste
of heat. The floor should be smooth and made
of cement or similar substance so that it may be
easily washed and quickly drained.
The foundry building should be substantially
built and arranged for traveling cranes when
necessary. The core rooms and core ovens
should be convenient to each other and the lat-
ter provided with adequate heating facilities.;
Where there is a brass foundry, it should be
adjacent to the main building and should be pro-
vided with a good chimney with which the brass
melting furnaces should be connected. The
cupolas should be located outside of the side
* Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
# The core room is a room in which cores are made, usually
of Sand, for the castings made in the foundry. In order that
the cores may not break easily or run off easily when molten
metal is poured around them, they are baked hard in an iron
Oven, heated by a mild fire. The oven is provided with iron
Shelves upon which the small cores are placed to be baked.
17 Vol. 1
258 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
wall near the center of the length of the build-
ing. Provision should also be made for an ample .
charging floor and elevator.” “In constructing
a brass foundry it should be designed so that the
raw product will come in at one end and the
finished brass, ready to be loaded into a car and
shipped away, come out at the other. This can
be accomplished by having the heating furnaces,
molders' floor, rattler, grinder, boring machines
and lead-lining machines follow each other in
close succession so that the completion of each
operation places the brasses without additional
handling into a position available for the next
operation.”f g
A good form of storehouse is a building two
stories in height. To facilitate loading and un-
loading material and supplies the lower floor
should be elevated to a level with the floor of a
freight car. The building
should be surrounded by a
[...] | | | | I] El- platform of suitable width
2.…. on a level with the floor,
the platform inclining to
the ground at the ends of the structure. Enough

* The cupola referred to is practically a cylindrical furnace
made of sheet-iron and lined with fire brick, which usually ex-
tends up through the roof of the building so as to allow the free
escape of gases and flame. The charging or filling door is near .
the top, through which all the iron and fuel are fed. The
charging floor is a floor built conveniently to the charging
door, on which the fuel, iron and such other material as is used
in the process of melting and making iron or steel are placed.
+ Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
THE MACHINER Y DEPARTMENT. 259
doors should be provided for convenient use. The
second story floor should be well supported in order
to bear its burden of stores. The building should
be fitted with one or more elevators. Good light
is necessary and the building should be provided
with bins, racks, and other necessary appliances
so arranged as to interfere with the light as little
as possible. The first floor and the supports for
the second floor should rest on a good foundation
of masonry.
The power house, containing the boilers and
other accessories, including engines and dyna-
mos, should be designed with reference to the
economical handling of fuel and ashes.* The
building should be ample, but provision should
be made for extending it when necessary. It
should be located with reference to the easy and
economical distribution of steam for heating and
(if required) power purposes. The room in which
the boilers are located should be well ventilated,
and the engine and dynamo rooms provided with
a high roof and good light.
The equipment of a shop requires careful study
in order that it may meet practical and Scientific
needs. The tools should be of improved design
and construction, though first cost may be con-
siderably enhanced thereby. The arrangement
must be such that work passing through the shop
* “Fuel, when unloaded, should pass into a hopper-formed
receptacle, constructed so it will supply itself sufficiently and
may be passed with one additional handling into an automatic
“feed,” or, where automatic feeds are not used, shoveled into
the fire box without additional handling.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes,
260 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
will require to be moved as little as possible and
the least possible distance. If the tools are not
arranged with this view, much unnecessary ex-
pense will be incurred thereby for labor and on
other accounts. -
Traveling and swinging cranes should be pro-
vided in all shops where needed. The efficiency
of traveling cranes may be greatly enhanced by
equipping them with electric motors. Overhead
runways * should also be introduced in shops
when they can be
utilized. Pneu-
matic hoists (lift-
ing machines oper-
ated by compressed
air) suspended from trolleys (trucks), the latter
being mounted on Overhead runways, are also
useful in shops. Careful estimates require to be
made, however, of the expense attending the use
of power cranes, including cost, before introduc-
ing them, lest their practical working value does
not justify the outlay.f

m
3/04 ZAZ/2/9//0/y Az/////Vö 4ZZZ Cºf 4%f/º/”

*Tracks for lifting and moving machinery and other articles
by pulleys.
+** A useful form to measure the value of such improvements
may be mapped out as follows:
HANDLING CINDERS AT ROUNDHOUSE.
Wages | Saving Saving Number | Saving
Value. Per Per | Capitalized at of Men Per
Month.| Month. 6 per cent. Employed. Month.
Ash Pit
(Old Method; ... $475.20 ! ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ! ... . . . . .
Ash Eloist
(New Method)...|$674.78 288.00 |$187.20 $37,440.00 6 40.00%."
—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
THE MACHINER Y DEPARTMENT. 261
The heating appliances of shops should be so
designed and arranged as to accomplish in the
most Satisfactory and economical manner pos-
sible the object intended, namely, the free and
full circulation of the heated air throughout the
space where it is needed. In the case of steam .
heat especial care is required in order to derive
the full benefit from the steam—in other
words, the utility of the steam in the pipes
should be exhausted before introducing a new
Supply.
A drop table—a machine for removing driving .
and truck wheels from locomotives going into
the shop and replacing them on engines going
out—should be located somewhere on the track
by which the engine enters and leaves the erect-
ing room. It should also be easy of access to the
machine shop. At the drop table, a lye tank for
cleaning the material stripped from the locomo-
motives, should be provided, in order that the
material may be cleaned
before being taken to the
m a chine shop. If the
tracks run lengthwise of
the erecting shop, the drop
table is not necessary, as [][]|[][]
the engine may be lifted if
directly from its wheels | inſ
by the traveling cranes. - --
The machinery for
cleaning the boiler tubes of the locomotive should
be located at some place easily accessible by push


JZ cy/ø/y & 47% Aſ ZAP27/2/2/, /ZA/M2 /22/ZZ
262 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
(small platform) cars from the erecting shop
tracks. The arrangement of the cutting off,
Scarfing, welding and tube testing machinery,
should be such as to reduce the labor of handling
to a minimum.*
Economical operation requires that power
facilities shall be provided at every point in a
shop where it is required to drive tools, such
as drills, taps, reamers, calking and chipping
implements, cylinder boring bars, facing and
sand-papering machines, and so on. This work
may be performed by compressed air or elec-
tricity more satisfactorily than in any other
Way.
Portable riveting machinery should be pro- .
vided in the boiler shop and, if new boiler work
is done to any extent, an hydraulic riveting plant
is highly desirable.
An economical air compressor of Sufficient
capacity is necessary to the equipment of the
locomotive repair shop. If a large amount of
compressed air is required, a storage reservoir
therefor should be located near the shop, con-
nected with the compressor by piping of adequate
size. Leaks in the piping and reservoirs occa-
sion waste of energy and are consequently to be
avoided.
The blacksmith shop should be equipped with
* “This is accomplished by concentrating operations so that
the finishing of one operation places the material in a posi-
tion for commencing the next operation without intermediate
handling.”—Mr. G. W. Rhodes.
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 263
a bulldozer,” forging press+ and drop hammer,
if needs demand, or with any one of the three
that may be profitably used. Attention given to
establishing standard details of devices for replac-
ing hand work in forging by machinery fitted
with proper dies, will also prove profitable.
Heating furnaces (both large and small) should
be designed and adjusted so as to give the best
possible results in
the way of abun-
dant, rapid and
uniform heating. II.I.I.I.III |
Thus, much valu-
able time may be lost if the furnace in the
blacksmith shop is not adequate to keep the
hammersmiths going. Especial attention should
be given to the construction and arrangement of
furnaces. The use of oil for fuel may be more
economical than coal, not as regards relative
quantity consumed, but in increased work accom-
plished.
The equipment of the power plant should be
selected and arranged after a careful study of
surrounding conditions. It should be of the
highest type. When impure water must be used,

)
sf/66 &&VA//a47. 44.4% ºf JA/a/* &Af.4%º)"
* A bulldozer consists of a heavy bed with a strong cross
head to which suitable dies and formers are secured, by which
bar iron is pressed into different shapes.
# A forging press is a machine for forging iron, when heated
to a white heat, into any shape which dies can be made to
squeeze it into. The work is usually done by One operation of
the machine.
264 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
- 4ſ/M40 42.6/24/720. 472.4°6′3aºzrºy 3/22/2 cººr Z/ºr
provision should be made for turning the water,
after condensation, into sumps (reservoirs). .
The transfer tables necessary in repair shops
may, like traveling cranes, be profitably operated
by electric motors. They should be strongly
built so as to reduce cost of maintenance.
The labor in the repair shops of railroads, like
that in roundhouses, comprises skilled workmen
as well as a body of unskilled laborers. It, how-
ever, includes a greater variety of tradesmen
and, unlike roundhouse work, affords opportunity
for employing apprentices in various lines of
mechanical work. A practicable plan of organi-
zation of labor in this important division of
mechanical work may be described as follows:
The workmen in each shop should report to a
common foreman from whom they receive in-
structions. If the works are not too extended,
one foreman for each shop will be sufficient. The
foremen of the various shops should report to a
general foreman, who thus becomes responsible
for the practical operation of the entire works.
He is immediately subor-
ſº dinate to the master me-
chanic. Where the works
||| T ||| | m are very extended, the

foreman of each shop has
assistant foremen, who have charge of particular
parts of the work in hand. For example, it may
be desirable to have two foremen in the machine
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 265
and erecting shop—one in charge of machine
work, the other in charge of erecting work. In
subordination to these will be gang foremen on
the erecting floor, each having charge of a body
of workmen and personally looking after a cer-
tain number of erecting tracks. The work in the
machine shop may also, in many cases, be divided
between two or more foremen, each being respon-
sible for the output, tools and men, of a certain
portion of the shop. There should be a foreman
in charge of hand tools, standard gauges, and so
on. He may be responsible to the foreman of the
machine shop, and is held accountable for the
Safe keeping and maintenance of the tools under
his charge. He requires such workmen as may
be necessary, also the machine tools, such as
lathes, milling machines, grinders, and so on,
needed for keeping the tools in repair.
In giving out implements, a simple but effec-
tive plan is to require a numbered ticket to be
deposited by the workman who receives the tool.
When he returns the implement, the ticket he
has deposited is given up to him. This avoids
book-keeping and yet is an effective safeguard.
Arrangements are also
necessary for keeping the _º-
time of men. The system
must be effective, first, |
that every man may re- . . . .
ceive what is due him
and, second, that he shall not be credited with
time he has not worked. The “check” system

266 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
may be used in this connection to advantage.
Under this plan each man is given a number.
He passes through the check room when com-
mencing work in the morning and afternoon, at
which times he is given a metal check corre-
sponding to his number. The checks used in the
forenoon are marked “A.M.”, those in the after-
noon “P.M.” No checks are given out after the .
hour for commencing work has passed. If a man
is late, he receives what may be termed a “late”
slip from his foreman in lieu of a check. It
shows the time he commenced work. Each
workman is visited twice a day by the time-
keeper, who collects the checks and slips, and at
the same time he also obtains the data he will
require to enable him to distribute the labor,
i. e., charge it to the account upon which the
work is performed. Another method of keeping
time may be called the “clock” system. Each
employe has a number, as in the check system.
He is given a key corresponding with his num-
ber, and when commencing work he registers his
number and the time of day by inserting the key
in a clock provided for that purpose; upon quit-
ting work he passes through the check room and
registers in the same manner: the clock thus
tells exactly the time he began and the time he
quit work. These references in regard to keep-
ing the time of men, it will be understood, are
general and wholly superficial. The subject is
one of importance because of the vast number of
men employed, and the necessity that methods
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 267
should be adequate thereto. These methods, it
is unnecessary to say while they may be gen-
eral, yet require modifications to meet particular
circumstances and, in any case, the utmost elab-
oration. The subject does not properly come up
—R ſºlſ||||||||||||I|| |T|||||||IIIT R . "
[I] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I]
|T|T|| || || ||||||
J/04 &zz"Ma'y/o/y Azºº/Maº Zway A/ry Jaſoa
here. It is discussed in the volume “Disburse-
ments of Railways,” in which the whole question,
including such matters as keeping the time of
men, reporting Same, pay-rolls, distribution of
work, and the accounts, statements and statistics
connected there with, is explained.
The plan outlined for organizing the labor of
the locomotive repair shops contemplates care-
ful and constant supervision. If, however, the
work is done by the piece instead of by the
hour, inspection of it when completed becomes
necessary in order to insure satisfactory work
and determine the amount due the laborer. If
their duties permit, the foremen usually do the
inspecting; in other cases inspectors are em-
ployed in the different shops. They are respon-
sible to the foreman for the character of the
Work.



268 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
CARE OF CARs.—Cars, unlike locomotives, are
too often not kept under cover, but placed on
open tracks spaced and conveniently located for
storing and light repairing. They are called re-
pair tracks. These tracks are located at the ter-
minals of the road and near the car repair shops,
as convenience and economy dictate. If for
freight cars, they should be in the immediate
vicinity of the principal switching yard, because
there usually the cars which are in bad order
are to be found. If the repair track is for
passenger cars, it should be near the storage
yard for such cars and arranged conveniently
for switching cars to and from the latter. Re-
pair tracks thus located will minimize the cost
of transferring cars to and from trains and
avoid, as well, unnecessary delay in other direc-
tions. x
Repair tracks are so spaced as to permit ample
room for workmen and afford adequate facilities
for handling the implements and material needed
in making the repairs.
As the fluctuations of traffic will, in a majority
of cases, necessitate frequent rearrangement of
the repair tracks, they should be located with
this thought in view. This is true also of the
buildings necessary in connection with these
tracks. The buildings are rather storehouses
than shops. They are required for storing tools
and such supplies as would be damaged by ex-
posure to the weather or would be likely to be
stolen if left unprotected. The buildings should
THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 269

also afford facili- dº ſiſ][][]|[][]
ºf Iſrººm
and a supply of 4/22 4-44-127/28: Aw.55&acea cºa, Az/r3/2,~
oils. They should
be provided with convenient benches for work-
ing in metals and wood. Compressed air and
convenient connections for testing air brakes are
also required in connection with these tracks.
In caring for passenger cars, ample facilities
for cleaning the cars inside and out are needed.
This necessitates hot and cold water. Com-
pressed air affords a convenient and economical
method of cleaning upholstery, carpets and in-
volved wood work. This and the uses to which
compressed air is put in connection with the air
brakes require that repair tracks should be sup-
plied with it. If possible, the repair yards should
be located near the roundhouse or machine shops
So that steam, compressed air and oil supplies
may be obtained therefrom. Air jacks are
another convenience which may be advanta-
geously used. When steam is used for heating
cars, a supply is re-

quired in the yard
* So that the cars may
be warmed before
fºr---—-
* T - /40/? — — . — – —-
6/7953 Jéº//, /*śćoazº cººr Z/ºr 342, being put into the
- train. If conven-
iently located, this supply may be most economi-
cally obtained from the roundhouse or machine
Shop.
270 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The articles required in making petty repairs
to cars are obtained from the nearest storehouse,
and in order that work may be done effectively
and the cost of labor reduced to the minimum,
standard details of car construction are required
to be established and maintained.
Stations are established at junctions with other
roads and at convenient intervals along a line for
the purpose of making such light repairs as the
needs of the service demand. Inspectors at these
points examine every car in transit with a view
to discovering and correcting defects, those re-
quiring repairs not provided for at the inspecting
station being sent to the general shops or repair
tracks.
The organization that looks after the care of
cars may be separated from that provided for re-
pairs and renewals. The service is divided into
skilled and unskilled labor, like that for locomo-
| º
I C | |r. | | |r [] [] Inſ [.
Z-l - - || || R
J/ZPA: /ſ/ A V/9//ø// , J ZZ2/24" //ø//5A", C/?/? Z24/7/.
tives. It is employed in and about the repair
yards and is made up of car repairers, inspectors
and laborers, including cleaners. These report
to and receive instructions from the foreman.
The latter is directly subordinate to the superin-

THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 271
tendent of cars or the master mechanic; in some
cases to a general foreman who reports to the
general officer in charge.
The supervisory force for the care of cars is
generally similar to that for locomotives; in one
case it is over car repairers, in the other over
roundhouse employes.
REPAIRs of CARS.–The principles governing
the repairs of locomotives as distinguished from
their care also apply, generally, to cars. In the
case of the latter, however, where climatic condi-
tions permit, repair sheds with only a roof cover-
ing are often made to answer the purpose of more
enclosed buildings.
It is desirable, when practicable, that the
repair shops for cars and locomotives should be
contiguous. The advantages of combining the
two plants are too valuable to be overlooked
and far outweigh any disadvantages that such
union engenders. In what follows it is assumed
the buildings comprising the two kinds of work
are located in convenient, neighborly relation.
The car repair shops may be said, briefly, to
comprise a planing mill, erecting shop for passen-
ger cars, erecting shop for freight cars, passenger
car paint shop, freight car paint shop, blacksmith
and forge shop.” The storehouse is general.
*If the road is a small one, these buildings will be consoli-
dated to conform to actual needs. Indeed, this adaptability of
the plant to what is required by local conditions will occur in
every branch of the service. My description in this chapter
may be said to apply to roads of maximum size in 1899.
272 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The planing mill must be easily accessible to
the lumber yard and dry kiln. At the other ex-
tremity of the building the finished material is
distributed to the erecting shops. It should also
be convenient to the power house, as the planing
mill makes large demands
in this respect.
It is thought the passen-
ger car erecting shop, the
freight car erecting shop,
and the paint shops may be
advantageously located parallel to each other,
yet separated sufficiently for a transfer table to
be placed between them. The dimensions of the
transfer tables must be sufficient to hold cars
of the maximum length.
The machine shop, blacksmith shop and forge
shop may be consolidated under one roof, but
should be separated by permanent partitions of
masonry running parallel with the end walls,
This building should be located so that it may be
easily reached with cars loaded with material.
Provision for storing car wheels, mounted on
axles, and unmounted, should be made near the
machine shop.
In that part of the machine shop contiguous to
the blacksmith shop, bins and racks should be
provided for storing damaged articles, such as
bolts and rods, so that they may be repaired and
made serviceable in the blacksmith shop with
the least expense for handling.
Aa2 Zzzzzz/o/v. Jºrama //20/.56, &#4267°/.



THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 273
Fuel supplies should be of suitable nature and
conveniently located for use.
It is thought that the storehouse serving in
common the locomotive and car departments
should be located with reference to the conven-
ient handling of material
_ººsts for the latter rather than
the former. This is true
| also of the location of the
| *— power plant. Owing to the
””””” large amount of power re-
quired in the planing mill, the necessities of this
building require that the power should be loca-
ted as near to it as possible.
The buildings of the car department should be
well lighted and ventilated. This is easier of
accomplishment than in the case of locomotives,
as the machinery is lighter and the dirt and soot
less.
The walls of the car repair shops need not be of
heavy construction, as it is not necessary to pro-
vide for traveling cranes. They should, however,
be substantial and covered with a well-braced,
durable roof.
The floors of the machine shop, erecting shop
and planing mill should be substantial and
adapted to resist the wear and tear inseparable
from the handling of heavy material. The floor
of the paint shop should be of cement, or like sub-
stance, finished with a smooth surface and pro-

Vided with good drainage and sewerage facilities.
18 Vol. 1
274. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The planing mill may be built two stories in
height, the upper floor being fitted with machin-
ery for use by cabinet and patternmakers. . Both
floors should be well lighted and ventilated.
The removal of the sawdust and shavings by
what is known as the exhaust process of convey-
ance makes ventilation and cleanliness easier of
accomplishment. The Sec-
ond story floor should be
E|E|E|E|E|E|E|E|E|E|| well braced and sufficient-
ly strong to carry the
[][ HE HE HE HE shafting for the machin-
Office and Laboratory. ery O]] the lower floor
without serious vibration.
The erecting and paint shops should be pro-
vided with movable platforms and racks for use
as Scaffolding in working on the upper parts of
the cars.
A paint and oil stock room for daily current
supplies should be located conveniently to the
paint shops. It should be fireproof and kept
scrupulously clean.
An upholstery room is necessary in or near the
passenger car shop. It must contain facilities
for upholstering, dyeing, repairing curtains,
hangings, linen, bedding, and so on. Com-
pressed air will be found useful and economical
in renovating curtains, cushions and carpets. It
may also be found desirable to do electroplating
work in this branch of the department.
The equipment of the planing mill and car
shops requires to be handled with a view to

THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 275
securing the greatest results with the least outlay.
This refers both to the nature of the tools used
and their arrangement and care. The subject is
one of Supreme importance and, because of the
improvements occurring each day, requires con-
stant attention.
Pneumatic hoists suspended on trolleys oper-
ated on overhead runways should be provided
when circumstances warrant it.
These hoists may also be used to O
advantage in handling trucks, º
wheels, axles, and so on. º
Portable air-jacks with suffi- HE - T - [][]
cient capacity to raise one-half “*”
the weight of a car—or more if need be—will
also be found to be convenient and labor-saving
devices.
The repair tracks should be provided with
ample yard room, arranged for making repairs
on such cars as may be handled to advantage
out of doors. A good arrangement of tracks is
thought to be in pairs, with wider spacing be-
tween each group of two so as to facilitate the
handling of material, supplies and tools by work-
men. The ground between the repair tracks
should be suitably paved. A narrow gauge track
should be laid between each pair of repair tracks
for handling heavy material, wheels, truck tim-
bers and drawbars on push cars. “With suitable
turntables this narrow gauge track may be con-
nected through the car machine shop, blackSmith
Shop and storehouse, so as to allow the raw

276
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
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THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 277
departmental foremen. These in turn report to
a general foreman who is responsible to the Sup-
erintendent of cars or the master mechanic, as
the case may be.
In general, local master mechanics have charge
of the repair of locomotives and cars on the
various divisions of a road: all these divisional
officers report to the heads of the car and mechani-
cal departments as their work suggests, to the
superintendent of motive power (general master
mechanic) on matters relating to locomotives,
and to the superintendent of cars on matters
relating to his department. The machinery de-
partment should also include a mechanical engi-
neer in charge of designs for locomotives, cars,
machinery, etc. He has charge of the draughts-
men engaged in work connected there with, draw-
ings, etc. He reports to the general master
mechanic or superintendent of cars, according to
the work he is engaged upon, or to either solely,
as may be prescribed.
A well-appointed physical and chemical labora-
tory, equipped with suitable machinery and fit-
tings for making physical and chemical tests of
iron, steel, springs and so on, and chemical tests
of other materials, such as oils, paints, water, etc.,
is a necessary accessory of the machinery depart-
ment of a railroad.
The laboratory should be in charge of an engi-
neer of tests. He will require such assistants as
may be necessary to make tests and analyses
278 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
promptly, and also to inspect such material as
car wheels, tires, axles, round and bar iron, steel,
boiler plate, etc., all of which kinds of supplies
should be bought under specifications.
If a special building is prepared for the labora-
tory, it may be built two stories high, with the
draughting, blue printing and mechanical engi-
neer’s Office on the second floor.
ſº I ºf Y
i \}) ::::: *-º-º:=
sº
Pneumatic Hoist for Emptying Clinker or Ash Pits.
The building used for a laboratory will afford,
in many cases, desirable headquarters. Here may
be grouped the offices of superintendent of motive
power (general master mechanic) and superin-
tendent of cars, with their assistants and clerical
forces. These varied and important uses require
that the building should be centrally located,
ample, well lighted and heated, and carefully
ventilated. This association of different offices


THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 279
in one building near to valuable sources of
information will tend much to simplify business
and expedite work. It renders co-operation
easier and, therefore, more likely to occur.”
Important features which relate to shop and
attendant work are those questions connected
with the handling of material and keeping of the
time of workmen and others. In regard to the
first, it is referred to very fully in one of the
accompanying volumes entitled “Disbursements
of Railways.” I have there discussed the disciplin-
ary and other questions which enter into the care-
ful, prudent and economical purchase of material,
its inspection when bought, its care afterward,
its disbursement in connection with the opera-
tions of a road, and, finally, the accounting
involved, embracing, among other things, the
charging of the material to the thing upon which
it is expended.
* “The concentration of offices, in my judgment, is just as
important as the grouping of various parts of the Work so as to
avoid the labor which will occur if they are separated. The
introduction of telephones has made this grouping of offices
perfectly practicable. With a good shop telephone system
each head of a department can be in close communication with
his various shop foremen, and it is a great advantage in having
the head men in the same building. A central building of this
kind should always have a convenient meeting room. We
believe that the most economical management of railroads is
Where there is the closest co-operation of departments. This
Co-operation is best accomplished by periodical meetings.
The same benefit that the head officials obtain by Such meet-
ings, subordinates obtain.”—Mr. G. W. Ithodes.
280 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
In regard to the principles which govern those
connected generally with the machinery depart-
ment, so far as relates to
questions of labor as be-
tween employer and em-
ployee they are discussed
in the volume “Railway
Organization.” Other and
more practical fea-
tures, such as those
connected with the
keeping of the
time of employees,
payment of wages,
distribution of the
pay-roll to the vari-
Ous accounts upon
which the labor has
been expended, are discussed in the volume on
Disbursements.
Many things of the greatest possible impor-
tance, as everyone recognizes, enter into ques-
tions of labor. In the first place, the principles
which govern it, as between employer and em-
ploye, must be rightly understood by both, in
order that justice may be done and neither party
suffer through ignorance or inadvertence. I have
taken up this phase of the subject at consider-
able length in the book referred to above and,
while I feel that I have not been able to do it
justice, I have endeavored to throw such light on
it as my experience and research enable me to do.
*The best practice, at terminals and water stations, is to erect a tank sim-
ilar to this illustration, only higher, or an iron standplpe, at a distance from
the track and at a considerable elevation. Connection is then made thereto
with wate:-crane 3 or “ enstocks.” located on convenient polnts of the yards
Water Talnk. *







THE MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. 281
ſn regard to the hum-drum of daily life on a
railroad, the appliances must be such that those
who work in the machinery department or else-
where shall surely be allowed the full time they
work. This requires that the accounts shall be
kept accurately and that returns thereof shall
be rendered to headquarters and payment made
accordingly. This in the interests of the em-
ploye. On the part of the employer it is required
that he should know exactly what the labor has
been expended upon and the cost thereof, so that
he may, at his leisure, classify it month by month,
or in detail, as his interests suggest. All these
things are matters of routine, and provision is
made therefor, both as regards wages and the
accounting connected there with, in the volume
referred to on “Disbursements of Railways.”
Questions of accounts relating to material and
labor do not affect directly the care and repair of
locomotives and cars, but, ~ *A fº
incidentally, they do, so that #Hiſ ºf
in studying the theme as a jº iii.fi.
whole they must be consid- ºg
ered. This proves, if proof
were necessary, which it is --- •,•
not, what I have so often A Lubricating Device.
called attention to elsewhere throughout this
work, namely, that in order to understand a par-
ticular department of railroad work, one must be
generally familiar with all departments. It is not
enough to know how a shop should be located,
what machinery it should contain and how such

Thus a large point will have a complete waterworks system supplied from
one reservoir, instead of employing several tanks, like the lllustration, which
render the grounds unsightly, take up valuable trackage space and obscure
the vision, if on curves.
i
|
282 , RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
machinery shall be used. We must have knowl-
edge concerning questions collateral thereto.
Which questions, one by one, will be bound to
reach out and overlap others until, finally, they
cover the whole railway world.
iſ:
ºis;
* sº - *w- -
25s. 5. tº sº º
º
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g Sº jº













C H A P T E R. W.
ARRANGEMENT OF SEIOP LABOR-SPECIALIZATION OF
WORK–COMPARISON OF COST, ETC.
Each year's experience, it is apparent, affords
valuable information in regard to the location,
arrangement, machinery and government of the
shops of railroads. In other words, we are learn-
ing from our experience. One marked tendency
is in the direction of a reduction in the number of
repair shops; in concentration, so to speak, so far
as it is practicable. Too great concentration is
both inconvenient and expensive. Light repair
shops must be located where mishaps are likely
to occur. The daily value of an engine or car is
too great to warrant sending it a long distance
to effect some slight repair that may be made
quickly and at Small cost at a shop conveniently
located.
So that while there is a tendency in the direc-
tion of centralization, it is being carried on intel-
ligently and with a view to the best results.
An examination of the Organization and work-
ings of shops of railroads show an ever-growing
knowledge of the needs of the service and a dis-
position to make use of the best known and most
economical methods.
(283)
284 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Another tendency in connection with the care
and maintenance of the locomotives and cars of
railroads is the disposition to concentrate respon-
sibility in the hands of particular men in charge
of these two great departments. At one time
there was a master mechanic and master car
builder on every division of a railroad, each act-
ing more or less independently of the other.
The result was multiplicity of patterns and de-
vices, costly supervision and more or less clash-
ing. With greater concentration of authority,
or more systematic co-operation between respon-
sible heads in its absence, we find that the devices
used in connection with the equipment and shop
machinery are made to harmonize over the whole
extent of a property, as new equipment or appli-
ances take the place of that which is worn out.
This effects a saving to a railroad not only in the
quantity of material it carries, but also in ma-
chinery and labor. It is also apparent that con-
centration, or, in its absence, perfect co-operation,
is necessary to secure the maximum efficiency
that is possible in connection with the use of
locomotives and cars by having repairing and
storing done at the most available points and in
the best way.
Another tendency of shop organization on rail-
roads is in the direction of piece work, or in the
absence of such method, of having particular
men do particular things. Where piece work is
practicable under competitive influences, great
savings are oftentimes possible compared with
ARRANGEMENT OF SHOP LABOR. 285
the old method of working by the hour. Under
this plan (so long practiced by private manufac-
turers), the man who is skillful and hard working
derives the whole benefit thereof. He is not
handicapped by lazy or inefficient companions.
The manufacturer is also protected and eman-
cipated. If a workman occupies two days in
doing one day's work, the loss is his under the
piecework system. Moreover, when men are
hired by the hour, compensation must be fixed
for the whole force on the basis of the average
amount that is accomplished. This decreases
the wages of the good man and increases those
of the poor man. Nothing could be more unjust.
Piecework being based on individual effort, the
tie that under the old system bound the good
and the bad together is severed.
It is noticeable that the distribution of shop
labor of railroads, as well as the labor of other
manufacturers, is in the direction of particular-
izing or specializing the work. Thus, a machin-
ist instead of occupying himself in common,
according to his impulse or the order of the
foreman, on different parts of a locomotive or
tender, concentrates his efforts on particular
things, such as the valves, guides, driving boxes,
steam pipes, boiler trimmings, wheels, and so on.*
t
* The minuteness of the division will, of course, depend on
the amount of work to be done at the shop. Where this is little,
great diffusion will be necessary. Where there is a great amount
of work, men may be occupied almost exclusively with particu-
lar things. One experienced writer on the subject, Mr. L. L.
Smith, suggests that the valve gang of laborers Shall have charge
286 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The value of specializing the work of shop
laborers and others engaged on locomotives is
measurably the same in regard to repairing and
renewing cars. In fact, a minute subdivision of
labor is being enforced more and more each day
throughout the railway service. Men everywhere
and in every department of life are becoming
specialists. Where Humboldt set out to describe
the universe, men are now content to study and
portray a blade of grass. Particularizing work is
not only true of railroads, but it is true of manu-
facturers and business men generally. At one
time in the experience of railroads a minute
division of work, such as that mentioned, was
not possible; there were not enough locomotives
of the valve motion work and the taking down and putting up
steam chests, rockers, links, eccentrics, tumbling shafts, reverse
levers, and setting the valves; that the guide gang shall have
charge of the guide, crosshead and piston work and taking
down, fitting and putting up cylinders, Saddles and frames;
that the driving box gang shall fit up the driving boxes, shoes,
wedges, and also repair and fit up the engine trucks; that the
steam pipe gang shall fit up, test, and put in the Steam pipe,
dry pipe, dome, and throttle rigging; that the boiler trimming
gang shall have charge of the cab and engine trimmings, in-
jectors and pipes, also the clamping of the frame and finishing
of the engine; that the wheel gang shall strip, take out and put
in driving wheels, and fit up driver brakes, grates and grate rig-
ging; and, finally, the general laborers shall clean the work and
distribute it to and from the machine shop and make themselves
generally useful. Of course, this division that Mr. Smith sug-
gests will depend upon the amount of work. He probably has
in mind some particular shop where such a division of labor as
he suggests will most advantageously occupy the force re-
quired. No two shops, it is probable, will be exactly alike in
this respect.
ARRANGEMENT OF SHOP LABOR. 287
and cars to warrant it, but with the equipment
railroads now generally possess, there is sufficient
shop work to keep men occupied advantageously
on special things.
The tendency to subdivide work will increase
rather than diminish with the passage of time
and, taken in connection with the system of piece
work I have referred to, will effect great reduc-
tions in the shop outlay of railroads, compared
with early and more primitive methods.
However, in order that a railroad company
shall be certain that full advantage is derived by
it from the best known methods, comparisons of
outlay must be made; thus, a company must
keep an account of the cost in hours of different
kinds of work so as to compare results with
other shops on the same system and with similar
work on other railroads. It is only by such
comparisons that it is possible to determine the
measure of efficiency and economy exercised.
Every company possesses or may possess facili-
ties with which to make comparisons of work
carried on at different shops on its own system.
Co-operation among railroads in this direction
will afford them knowledge of what other com-
panies are doing. In this way progressive men
will be encouraged to push forward, while the
sluggards will be spurred on as they could be in
no other way. Much of the efficiency that char-
acterizes the handling of passengers and the
ticketing of the same in America is due to the
periodical meetings of the officials in charge of
288 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
passenger traffic and the comparisons they have
made and the suggestions and betterments that
free discussion among them has brought out.
Great advantages have similarly accrued to the
accounting department of railroads. For many
years those in charge of locomotives and cars
have had similar meetings, and it is not too
much to say of these meetings and others of
a like tenor, that railway progress has been
advanced by them one hundred years or more.
The discussions they evoke are frank and full,
every person in attendance being animated by a
desire to acquire knowledge of what is best in
connection with the construction, maintenance
of equipment, and the arrangement and system-
atization of shops and shop work, and as the
views promulgated are not those of theorists,
but the result of practical experience and ob-
servation, the result is a wide diffusion of useful
knowledge.
A new idea that is promulgated at one of
these meetings, if it is good, is sure to be ac-
cepted in the long run. Opposition only serves
to broaden it, so that finally, when accepted it
is like beaten gold. The truth of this is evinced
so far as uniformity exists in America in con-
nection with shop work and the equipment of
railways. A conception, to be generally adopted,
must be faultless, or, at least, the best that is
practicable. In this manner we are little by
little creeping away from primitive methods to
higher ground.
ARRANGEMENT OF SHOP f/ABOR. 289
It will be seen, therefore, that in suggesting
that railroads generally shall compare the cost
of different outlays in connection with equip-
ment and shop labor and shop implements, I am
not advocating, except, perhaps, in this particular
direction, anything new. It is probable that in
making the comparisons I refer to, the number of
hours occupied in doing a particular thing will
not be the same on different roads, and cannot be
made so because of inherent differences in the
Quality of the labor and more particularly the
relative facilities different companies possess or
can afford in the way of machinery, tools and shop
facilities; but, taking into account the differences
of this kind that will exist, immense good will
result from the comparisons I speak of. The dif-
ferences will serve to excite inquiry and suggest
further comparisons. Ways and means will thus
come to be discussed. This will bring up ques-
tions not only regarding the supervision and
division of labor, but also questions regarding the
implements with which men work, their tools, the
machinery of the shops, its arrangement, utility,
highest adaptability, care and so on. Compari-
Sons of this kind will never grow old and will
never cease to be valuable in business affairs.
The benefits that accrue to railroads through
interchange of views between officials in regard
to matters relating to equipment and shop work,
as I have had occasion to state elsewhere,
may be supplemented to advantage by encour-
aging the various groups that constitute the
19 Vol. 1 wº
290 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
engineering and mechanical forces connected
with the rolling stock and shop work to meet
and interchange views in regard thereto. Such
discussions are constantly going on between indi-
vidual employes. They may, in many instances,
it is probable, be made more effective by enlarg-
ing their scope. It does not matter particularly
how this is brought about. In some cases such
results may be secured by having stated meetings
at which matters relating to equipment, machin-
ery, tools, arrangement of shops and kindred
topics, are criticised and discussed, and questions
asked and answered in relation thereto. The
great object to be attained is to elicit interest
and investigation on the part of the skilled men
connected with equipment and shop work as to
what is practicable and best. To what extent
this can be done and just how it can be most
effectively accomplished will depend upon cir-
cumstances, of which the officials immediately in
charge will be the best judges. There cannot be
any fixed rule. Of one thing there can be no
reasonable doubt, however, namely, that the
employe who is led to seriously consider and
discuss the best way to care for machinery and
tools, or the most effective way to utilize shop
labor, will be more likely to give such things
consideration in his everyday life than those
who do not think of such matters except incon-
sequentially, or in an abstract way only. This is
human nature.
CHA PTE R. W.I.
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF TEIE AIR BRAKE-
THE BRAIKE SEIOE–EIISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF
THE BRAKE.
NOTE.-In Connection with this chapter and as a part thereof, the atten-
tion of the reader is respectfully called to the Supplement issued by the
Publishers hereof, further illustrating and explaining the appliances of the
Westinghouse Quick Action Automatic Brake Apparatus. While the matter
contained herein is as full and comprehensive as a treatise relating to a
subject so great and complex can be made, the Supplement in question will
be found to afford Still further light, and so will be of value to trainmen and
others in studying the Workings of the air-brake in all its complicated parts.
In discussing the practical uses of the brake in
connection with railways, a brief reference to its
origin and evolution is interesting. Like every
other object of utility it was exceedingly simple
in the first instance. Its dis-
covery grew out of the press-
ing need for it. So far as we
know, the lever brake, manip-
ulated by the hand or foot,
was the first
formal device
* of this nature.
===ºss Applied orig-
inally to road
wagons it was
afterward found equally adaptable to the vehi-
cles of railroads.
Another almost equally simple form of brake
was that used at New-Castle-on-Tyne in the Sev-
enteenth century. However, there have been
many forms of primitive brake quite as archaic
(291)
Early Lever Brake. 1630.







292 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
as either of these. Some of them are illustrated
here with.
Among these crude devices may be mentioned
the “Le Caan’’ brake, so-called. This was oper-
ated by dropping the lever. When this was done
the shoe of the brake, falling to the ground,
formed a wedge, thus retarding the revolution
of the wheel.
Among other
primitive make-
shifts there were
various forms of
chain brake, and
later the devices
㺠in which steam
º was used; also,
% = #.
* =Fº —ºf the hydraulic
º, brake, operated
sºm-º: º:--> -º
- *****== * —sºares---
--- by liquids stored
New-Castle-on-Tyne. 1630. under high pres-
SUII’é.
Reaching a higher grade, comes the so-called
plain vacuum brake, operated by an ejector, which
withdraws the air from the pipes, thereby pro-
ducing a vacuum more or less perfect.
Then the automatic vacuum brake, operated
by the application of air at atmospheric pressure
to a vacuum cylinder. -
Also the compressed air brake, worked by an
air pump, forcing air into the pipes, the air being
stored in a reservoir under the vehicle.
Still other forms and modifications might be








THE AIR BRAKE. 293
enumerated, but those given are sufficient to rep-
resent, substantially, the progressive steps in the
evolution of the brake, and direct attention to
the practices observed and the principles in-
volved.
Among the writings of the ancients we find
mention of the use of the brake, coupled with
vague references to the principles governing it.
Nothing, however, definite. Indeed, there was
little use for such a device in connection with
the chariots and
rude carts and
wagons used in
the primitive
ages of the
world. For a
long period the
axle and wheel
were one and
revolved in uni-
son. Such was
the primitive
cart. When this was the case there could have
been little need of the friction afforded by a
brake to stop the vehicle.
Indeed, the difficulty was to make the wheel
revolve at all. Later on, as the class of road ve-
hicles improved and the highways became more
passable, rude brakes, as we have seen, came into
use. They were operated by a lever, applied
with the hand or foot in a general way, as shown
in the accompanying devices,
The “Le Caan º' Brake, 1796.

294 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
With the advent of the smooth and compara-
tively level track of railways, some means of
controlling the movement of vehicles became a
matter of prime importance; hence the universal
adoption and use of a brake. Through the in-
troduction of air brakes trains when moving at
a high rate of
Speed can be
}º stopped quickly
| º without undue
ſº strain on the
*Sº, º machinery or
ſº),”hº wear, and tear
§/ºr on the track.
º ºr Formerly they
ºf were compelled
*=º
** to slow up grad-
A Primitive Device, Known as the “Sprag” Brake. ually, thus los-
ing much time
and, in many instances, occasioning accidents
that railways are now happily free from.
The evolution of the railway brake is both in-
teresting and instructive. It has at last reached
a stage of great complication, as well as of great
efficiency. The sum total of railway machinery at
the time the first railroad was opened, from Liv-
erpool to Manchester, in 1829, was not greater
than the machinery of the brake and its con-
comitants at the present day. The scientific
features of the first locomotive were exceedingly
simple, while the machinery of the air brake is
anything but simple.

THE AIR BRAKE. 295
One of the most important devices in connec-
tion with the operation of railroads, and one that
grows in importance each day with the added
weight and speed of trains, is the brake; the de-
vice by which their movements may be controlled
at will, either by persons on the locomotive or
by those who fill the cars. An acceptable brake
requires that it should control absolutely the
train under every circumstance as regards its
weight and speed; also, as regards weather and
grade, not forgetting, moreover, such mishaps as
the separation of the train while in motion. To ful-
fill these conditions it is apparent that the device
must be automatic and Self-applying in the case
of the breaking in two of the train, or other simi-
lar accident. To be of the highest utility it must
also be uniform in its workings,
quick in its application, and equally
quick in releasing its hold when
the brake is
no longer ºf
needed. It is *=\;=
also highlyde. \\;=\;=|2.
sirable that it \\ = -
should be dur- H *f;
able and rea- *A\ºiſ §:
sonably eco- _:Tº
nomical as -
regards C O Il- Lever Brake. 1825.
struction and
maintenance. These last features, like others
that are necessary and desirable in connection



296 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
with the device, will be more and more fully
attained as the needs of the situation are studied
and railways have had greater experience in the
use of the device.
The brake of the present day is so perfect in its
working and control of the train that it is justly
considered one of the greatest safety devices of
railways. Another feature is the saving it effects
in the wear and tear of machinery and track
through the smoothness and certainty of its oper-
ation. That its development is still incomplete,
however, goes without saying. What man ex-
hausts himself upon to-day, what seems to him
to be the height of perfection, he
discovers upon further experi-
ence and reflection to be far
from perfect.
Man's growth ºffl
is ever shown º
in his devices
—his evolu-
tion in his
successful
striving after
so me thing
better.
One of the first railway brakes of which we
have particulars, consisted of a wooden lever
pivoted to the side of the vehicle at one end and
supported at the other by a short chain or strap.
It is illustrated herewith. This was some time in
the seventeenth century. In applying it the chain
H
w SN,
; :=º-3 º §§
É===# Eº- º * : *WNN,
- ºses: ºf ...: ; AnNY.
#3; ## º Lºs -
ŠE Sºº-º-º-º-º-º #:
/
Early Form of Brake.














THE AIR BRAKE. 297
was slipped off the lever and the latter pressed
downward. This primitive device, manipulated
wholly by the strength of the person in charge,
contained the underlying principle from which
all subsequent improvements have been evolved.
Robert Stephenson is said to have invented a
Steam brake
for the driving
wheel of the |
locomotive
a b out 1833.”
However, it
was a pplied
only to one 2:…sae.ºes."
side of the --ºº ºl: sº
machine. It, Lever Brake, 1832.
is said to have contained primarily the elements
of the brake used since on the driving wheels of
locomotives, viz.: Cylinder, toggle-joint and sus-
pension links. The idea that a similar brake
might be used, with extended appliances, on the
cars attached to locomotives, also occurred to
him, it is said.
Among the devices for checking and moder-
ating vehicles, the hand chain brake so generally
used at one time was a most effective invention.
Everyone is familiar with its operation. It con-
sisted of a chain or rod running under the car at-
tached to a frame swinging beneath and hanging
9–2
S
§
2.
º
*
s
Sº
As.
Nº
sº
ºx-sºº. F
º-r
Sº *.
w
:
ºº. . .
S.sº
.
*
\
#3.
* His steam brake must not be confounded with the air
brake, which latter uses steam to obtain the air pressure
required.







298 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
at right angles to the vehicle. The end of the
rod was attached by a chain to the brake shaft,
Another form of chain brake is that applied to
power is applied, and the other end to the rear of
straight line,
/ N thus Swing-
L{ ing the brake
º % which in
beams, thus applying the brakes. It is, however,
Another early invention was the hydraulic
ried along the train, with cylinders for applying
serious objection to the hydraulic brake is the .
where the power was applied by a wheel worked
by hand.
the train as a whole. The end of the chain is
attached to the brake shaft or lever where the
the last car. When the brake is applied the ten-
dency of the
22 º chain is to
2% .* Jºë * draw into a
frame under
t he car,
Steam Brake for Tender, 1832. turn pu lls
rods attached to it and connecting with the brake
a sectional rather than a continuous. brake, and is
valuable only on short trains.
brake. Water, or other liquid, was stored under
pressure, and operated by a continuous pipe car-
the force beneath the cars. The steam pump on
the engine generally supplied the pressure. A
susceptibility of the liquid to the cold. This is
an objection also to steam. In cold weather the

THE AIR BRAKE. 299
water generated by the
Steam freezes and thus
destroys or les-
Sens the appli-
cation of the
power by clog-
ging the brake
shoe or by ob-
structing the
apparatus itself. *
In addition to
this fatal ob-
struction, steam is also objectionable for use on
engines because of obscuring the view of the
engineer when the exhaust escapes.
The vacuum brake is in some sense a competi-
tor of the compressed air brake referred to else-
Driving Wheels, 1833.
:= [\º *Sºgºzzº
=º
Car Brake Operated by Steam, 1839.
where. It consists of an ejector for producing
the vacuum (i.e., exhausting air from the pipes);
a continuous line of pipe; diaphrams; and, finally,
couplings between the cars. The force is applied
from the engine. In its operation the ejector







500 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
takes air from the entire train pipe and the
various diaphragms, and in doing this sets the
brakes throughout the train.” As air is re-
admitted to the pipes the brakes are released.
Various forms of vacuum brake have been
invented. This
brake enjoy s
considerable
favor because of
its simplicity.
Particularly is
this true on
roads where the trains are light and short and
the stops frequent.
The vacuum brake has some features not pos-
sessed by the automatic air brake, thus it may be
operated so as to only partially release the brake;
moreover, fre-
quent and rapid
application of
the brake does
not reduce its
available brak-
in g power.
When long and
heavy trains are *
used, however,
the vacuum brake does not meet the demands of
the service. This is principally owing to the
necessity of having abnormally large apparatus
Gearing of Brake Operated by Steam, France, 1840,
ºne ºf
sº *::: ARs,
American Moder Hand Brake, 1865
*Only sufficient air is taken out to produce the result
desired.


THE AIR 13R.A.K.E. 301
(pistons, levers, etc.), in order to get sufficient
resisting power upon the wheels; and also be-
cause it is in such cases slow to act. However,
the vacuum brake is constantly undergoing im-
provements and the objections to it will doubt-
less in time be overcome for all classes and kinds
of service.
An important consideration, it may be said, in
connection with the brake is that part of the ap-
paratus commonly called the shoe, or device that
is applied directly to the wheel, and against
which the friction is produced that retards the
latter. It is manifest that the tenacity of the
shoe depends not only on the force with which it
is applied, but also upon the kind and quality of
the material of which it is made. Another thing
of great importance in connection with the shoe
is the durability of the material used. The power
with which this apparatus is applied and the tre-
mendous friction consequent thereon must, it is
apparent, quickly destroy the device unless the
material is of the most durable character.
One of the devices in the early history of the
brake, by which it was made more effective, was
the covering of that portion of it which touched
the wheel—the sole, in fact—with several thick-
nesses of strong leather. This material may be
said to have been used generally before the days
of railroads. With the latter highways came
heavier loads, moving at a higher speed. This
302 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
required quicker and more effective application
of the brakes. The heat resultant from this
necessitated not only that the shoe should be
of metal, but also the parts connected there with.
Many different kinds of material have been
used in connection with the brake shoe, accord-
ing to the needs of the service and the skill of
manufacturers. In the case of railroads a com-
mon device is made of cast or wrought iron;
sometimes of cast steel, or combinations of iron
and steel, wood, leather, cork, even paper. It is
very desirable, in order to secure proper applica-
tion, that the material, whatever it is, should be
uniform.
An expert on the subject of brake shoes for
railroads, a man of intelligence and a suc-
cessful manufacturer,” writing on this subject,
says: “The same air pressure throughout a train
of cars on which shoes of different hardness are
are used, will apply a widely different friction
on the wheels of the different cars. It is then
impossible to obtain the maximum braking
power for hard shoes without sliding those
wheels to which soft shoes are applied. It is
highly desirable to fix upon a standard mixture
for foundrymen making cast iron brake shoes.
Brake shoes are made for three kinds of Service:
on chilled wheels, on steel-tired driver wheels,
and on steel-tired coach wheels. Those designed
for the first mentioned service are made of cast
iron, or cast iron with wrought iron pieces in
*George M. Sargent.
THE AIR BRAKE. 303
the face, or cast iron with chilled Sections.
When cast iron is used a strong, tough metal soft
enough to grip the wheels is economical, although
its first cost is greater than a burnt grate bar
scrap mixture. A mixture of number two foun-
dry car wheels and heavy cast scrap has given
good results. The combination cast and wrought
iron shoe is much more durable than the plain
shoe, and more desirable in respect to uniform-
ity, because the same amount of Wrought iron,
forming one-half the surface of each shoe, will
be nearly of the same hardness. . . . When
two surfaces rub together the harder will abrade
the softer and the latter wear away quicker, but
we are limited in the hardness of the shoes by the
co-efficient of friction necessary. They must be
of a uniform hardness, sufficient to grip the tire
without scoring it, and afford friction necessary
to make the stops. It is evident that for the dif-
ferent classes of engines different kinds of shoes
will be required. The suburban passenger en-
gine, making frequent stops, should be equipped
with shoes less hard than applied on a through
passenger engine. The combination cast iron
and steel shoe has the advantage that the pro-
portion of each metal may be varied to suit the
requirements of the service. Brake shoes for
steel tired coach wheels are applied under en-
tirely different conditions. They are made
either plain or flanged. The plain cast shoe
should be soft and tough. Whatever kind of
metal is used in the flange coach shoe, care
304 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
should be taken that the shoe is a good fit to the
tire, and so hung that
the flange grooves in
the shoes are directly
opposite to the wheel
flange, and above all
that the brake beam
be free to move lat-
erally as the wheel
and axle move. Ex-
Đperiments have
proved that a brake
fºº’ beam hung rigidly
BRAKE SHoE FoR Dºwer.-- from the truck, in
combination with the
flange brake shoes,
Brake Shoe and Its Application to the forms a £ rindi ng
Driver. machine capable of
turning a V-shaped flange, and that even with
the plain shoe, lateral motion is of decided ad-
vantage in protecting the flange.”
In connection with the use of the brake shoe,
it may be said that its application to the flange
of the wheel was not discovered until long after
it had been applied to the tread. This applica-
tion was a new departure and a valuable one in
many directions, as it added, it is manifest,
greatly to the power of the brake. Its impor-
tance will grow with increased use and ability to
handle it. The application of the flanged brake
shoe to the drivers of locomotives is general.
This because the flanged brake shoe tends to

THE AIR B1RA.K.E. 305
keep both tread and flange in the original form
and by reason of the additional grip over the
flange. One objection that has been made to
the use of the flanged brake shoe on cars is that
its use in connection with the tread creates a
pressure so great that the wheel is inclined to
slip. This, it is apparent, is not so much an ob-
jection to the brake as a lack of proper adjust-
ment of the power that manipulates it. It is
claimed by manufacturers of flanged brake shoes
that where the device is not used the tread
wears away, while the flange of the wheel re-
mains the same, thus creating a dangerous dis-
parity.”
The first form of air brake successfully used was
what is technically known as the “straight” air
brake.: The compressed air that was used was
stored in a reservoir under the engine. In order to
set the brake the engineer's valve was turned and
the air forced back through the pipe. It thus
filled the cylinders under the car, and in doing so
forced out the pistons, which brought the brake
shoes against the wheels. To release the brakes,
the air from the engine drum was cut off and the
* Further reference to the brake Shoe Will be found in
the volume “Train Service,” under the head of “Car Wheels.”
# The air brake must not be confounded with the old-fash-
ioned steam brake. In the latter case Steam Was forced through
the pipes and used as the power, while in the case of air brakes
air is used, steam being employed merely to furnish the power
for compressing the air.
2O Vol. 1
306 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
air in the pipe and cylinders allowed to escape
into the atmosphere, through the engineer's valve.
The invention of the air brake occurred about
1869. Although an improvement over the con-
tinuous chain brake and other inventions of early
days, it was still too slow in releasing (letting go
its hold on the wheel), as all the air in the pipe
The Vacuum Brake. The diaphragm (the semi-oval device shown above)
consists of a kettle-shaped iron casting Wlth a loose disc of heavy rubbered
duck fastened over its mouth (where the two half sections come together in
the center) by means of a ring and cap-screws; the center of the disc, or dia.”
phragm, being provided with washers and an eye-bolt for attachment to
the brake lever. When the air is exhausted from diaphragm, the pressure
of the atmosphere from without forces the rubber disc into the iron shell and,
pulling on the brake levers and Connections, sets the brakes.
and cylinders had to escape through the engi-
neer's valve, the longer the train consequently
the slower its operation. Another fault was, if a
hose or pipe burst the brake was rendered use-
less. Moreover, if a train became parted the
brake had no effect whatever upon the rear sec-
tion.



THE AIR BRAKE. 307
These objections rendered it apparent that a
wholly satisfactory brake required that the force
(air) for applying it should be stored on each car,
and so arranged that it could be used (i.e., the
brake set) by those in the car, independent of the
engineer. Also, that it should be automatic in
its action, i. e., that any breakage or defect of
the apparatus would set the brake. The most
primitive conception of this idea was a design in
which the operative force was a spring, so ar-
ranged as to be held under compression by the
air in the pipe, and brought into action when the
air escaped. The next improvement involved the
necessity of a reservoir auxiliary to the engine
for storing the power on each car; the next was
to provide a way by which the stored pressure in
the reservoir might be automatically admitted to
the brake cylinder whenever the pressure in the
train pipe escaped. These improvements were
covered by a patent issued in 1872.
The device employed is known as the “triple
valve.” Like nearly all inventions of a mechan-
ical nature, the first design was incomplete and
passed through several stages before reaching a
point where it was of simple and practical use.
The valve in question, which is of a complicated
nature, is located, in conjunction with the auxil-
iary reservoir and brake cylinder, beneath the
car. Upon the reduction of the pressure in the
train pipe (through which the compressed air is
supplied to the auxiliary reservoirs from the en-
gine) this valve allows the compressed air in each
308 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
auxiliary reservoir to pass into the brake cylinder,
thus applying the brakes. Upon the pressure in
the train pipe being restored the valve allows the
air in the brake cylinder to escape to the atmos-
phere, thus releasing the brake, and opens the
ports for the passage of air from the train pipe
to the auxiliary reservoir, recharging the latter.
The perfection of the hose coupling between
the cars also plays an important part in the
development of the stored-air brake. A satisfac-
tory automatic coupler is a desideratum of the
greatest importance.
Vacuum Brake Coupling.
An air pump was patented in 1870. An objec-
tion to it was its complicated valve motion. One
difficulty was in keeping the Square piston rod
properly packed in order to prevent friction and
wear. Many of the changes in devices had rela-
tion to the reversing valve mechanism, but up to
the year 1875 no satisfactory result had been
accomplished. First, a horizontal rotary valve
was used, then a double poppet valve, then a ver-
tical rotary Valve, and, finally, a simple slide
valve, the latter proving by far the most effective.
Many of the objects sought as necessary were
finally covered by the pump of 1875.
After the introduction of the automatic brake it
was discovered that to secure satisfactory results

THE AIR BRAKE. 309
Some plan for maintaining a uniform pressure
of air without attention from the engineer was.
needed. The outgrowth of this was the pump
governor, which automatically closes the steam
pipe leading to the pump when the desired maxi-
mum air pressure is attained, opening it again
when the pressure has been reduced.
Thus we see, in connection with the brake,
every requirement substantially met as it arises.
The first form of engineer's brake valve used
in connection with an air brake was composed of
ſº ºr . . .
º SS Nº. 5 ºr - ºvº
Air-I}rake IIose Coupling.
three openings controlled by a comical shaped
rotary plug. The general principle by which this
valve worked is retained in the engineer's valve
of later designs. The engineer's valve, manipu-
lated by the engineer, opens communication be-
tween the main reservoir and the train pipe, to
charge cars or release brakes, closing the connec-
tion and opening the train pipe to the atmos-
phere when the brakes are to be applied. The
equalizing discharge feature of this valve is a
device brought out prominently in 1886, being
made necessary by the application of automatic

310 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
brakes to long trains of cars. This device auto-
matically regulates the discharge of the air from
the train pipe in setting the brakes, and also
gradually closes the exhaust opening, thereby
equalizing the pressure remaining in the train
pipe, thus overcoming the difficulty experienced
with the earliest forms of valves arising from the
sudden opening and closing of the exhaust open-
ing, which produced a violent recoil of the air in
the train pipe, thus releasing some of the brakes
on the forward cars.
An important feature in connection with the
subject is what is known as the quick-action
brake. While the plain automatic brake answers,
in a measure, on short trains, it does not answer
the purpose on freight or other long trains. The
head brakes being set some time before those in
the rear are affected, a severe shock occurs to the
rear cars of the train. A remedy for this was a
device with a local vent for quickening the dis-
charge from the long pipe. The “automatic re-
lief valve” and the “cut-off and relief valve” are
also inventions designed to hasten the applica-
tion of the brake.
In the evolution of railway traffic the tendency
to increase the speed of trains developed a de-
mand for a brake of greater efficiency than was
afforded by the common quick-action brake.
This demand was sought to be met by what is
known as the “high-speed” brake. It is practi-
cally the quick-action brake under a very high
pressure. It stops the train in about two-thirds
THE AIR BRAKE. 311
the ordinary distance: thus, a train moving at
the rate of sixty miles an hour that would other-
wise make a stop in sixteen hundred feet, will be
brought to a stand, say, in about eleven hundred
feet.
As the distant signals of any block system
must be placed far enough from the home signals
to permit of the train being stopped, it is appar-
ent that the former would have to be moved
farther away with the increase of speed of trains,
except for the high-speed brake.
Before describing this improvement, it will be
well to state the theory of resistance upon which
it is based. It is known that a brake shoe that
presses against the wheel sufficiently to cause
the wheel to slide at a low rate of speed will not
do so at a high rate of speed. Technically, the
co-efficient of friction increases with the reduc-
tion of the velocity of the surfaces in contact.
The quick-action brake, under the emergency
application, causes the shoe to press against the
wheel with a force equal to ninety per cent. of
the pressure of the wheel upon the rail. This is
as high a percentage of braking power as is
practicable without sliding the wheel at a slow
speed. The “high-speed” brake, however, nearly
doubles this braking power when first applied
and then automatically reduces it as the speed of
the train is reduced. This form of brake origin-
ally contemplated, on each car, an additional
valve and cylinder, which were made operative by
a greater reduction of pressure than the engineer
312 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
should use except in cases of emergency. The
piston of this extra cylinder produced additional
force upon the ordinary levers after the regular
cylinder had acted. As the speed of the train
was reduced, it rested with the engineer to
gradually release the pressure from the addi-
tional cylinder. Two objections to this form or
device were, first, that the engineer might use
the “re-inforce” cylinder when not intending to
do so, by the use, inadvertently, of too much air,
thus sliding the wheels and running by the stop-
ping point as well; and, second, in case of im-
pending danger, say, ahead, if the engineer should
leave his post, the brake would not automatically
regulate itself, but would either lose its “re-
inforce” power immediately or else lock all the
wheels as the speed reduced and, by sliding the
whole train, precipitate it into the danger it was
sought to avoid. The especial advantage it
afforded was that on a loaded freight car the
“re-inforce” valve could be “cut in ’’ and on an
empty car “cut out,” and thus regulate the hold-
ing power of loaded and empty cars respectively,
to a much greater extent than is otherwise done.
The high-speed brake, a modification of the
re-inforce brake, consists of an automatic gradu-
ated relief valve screwed into the brake cylinder,
and also the increasing of the standard train line
air pressure is increased to nearly double the nor-
mal quantity.
The relief valve referred to is set at sixty
pounds pressure, and in the ordinary use of the
THE AIR BRAKE. 3.13
brake allows all air above this amount to escape
to the atmosphere; but when it is applied in an
emergency, the cylinder receives the extra pres-
sure so quickly that the relief valve is forced to
its extreme position, thereby opening a smaller
escape which increases in size as the speed dimin-
inishes and finally closes when but sixty pounds
remains in the cylinder. (See Fig. On page 384.)
This brake has been in use on many fast trains
and has demonstrated its advantages and put to
rest the fear at first expressed that sliding of
wheels would ensue upon its use. It has other
advantages over the Ordinary quick-action brake,
in this, that the cylinder pressure is limited to
sixty pounds without reference to the adjustment
of the brake piston and that several service
applications can be made with equal effect with-
out re-charging. As the use of sand upon the
rails is essential to the attainment of the best
results with this brake, it is desirable that loco-
motives should be equipped with automatic air
sanding appliances which sand the rail when the
handle of the engineer's valve is put in the
emergency position. Some engines that alternate
the handling of this brake with the standard
brake have double governors and feed-valves for
regulating to either the high or standard pres-
sure, according to the equipment of the train.
In concluding the foregoing brief resumé of the
“Evolution of the railway brake,” it may be said
that at first but one wheel of a vehicle had a
brake; later, both pairs of wheels composing the
314 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
truck to one end of a car were braked; still later,
when six-wheel trucks were required for heavy
equipment, only the two outside pairs of wheels
on each truck had brakes; later still, every pair
of wheels under a passenger car was supplied
with a pressure upon their brake shoes equal to
ninety per cent. of the weight of the wheels upon
the rail. A still greater change is noticeable on
locomotives. While it was at one time question-
able as to the advisability of applying a brake to
locomotive driving wheels, afterward it was made
a requirement by law in America to equip engines
and tenders as well as cars with power brakes.
This renders every car and engine so nearly equal
in stopping power that the greatest safety is had,
and the minor jerking occasioned by the un-
equal braking power of the different vehicles is
avoided.
HOW TO USE THE AIR BRAKE.
The complicated machinery the use of air
necessitates requires to be so constructed, main-
tained and handled that when in use it will, in
every case, stop the train within the distance it
is expected to. In furtherance of this, those who
have manufactured the brake and, again, those
who have handled it, have instituted carefully
prepared rules and regulations governing the use
of the brake. They are thus not the product of
any man or time, but cumulative in their growth.
I have carefully consulted these authorities in
THE AIR BRAK.E. 315
preparing the accompanying regulations, not
attempting to do more myself than to make
changes in phraseology and supply omissions.
The rules and regulations thus compiled may be
stated generally and specifically as follows:
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO ENGINEMEN.
The engineer, when assuming charge of his
locomotive, should see that the air brake appa-
ratus, on both the locomotive and tender, is in
good order: thus, that the air pump and lubrica-
tor work properly; that the pump governor stops
the pump when the desired maximum pressure
is reached, and starts it again when pressure
is reduced;” that the engineer's brake valve
works properly in all the different positions of
the handle; that both pointers of the air gauge
indicate the same amount of pressure when the
handle is placed in full release position; that
when the brakes are fully applied, the driver
brake pistons do not travel less than one-fourth
nor more than one-half of their stroke; and,
finally, that the engine truck and tender brake
pistons travel between one-half and three-fourths
of their cylinder length. Moreover, the reservoirs
and drain cups should be drained of all water by
opening their drip cocks. The train pipe should
also be blown out through the rear hose, with the
brake valve handle in full release (position one),
to be sure that there is no obstruction of dirt or
other substance.
*It should be borne in mind that with the different types on
engineers’ valves, the pump governor regulates different press-
l] I’éS,
316 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
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Engineer's Brake and Equalizing Discharge Valve and Duplex Air Gauge,
known as the D 8 or 1889 Walve. -






























THE AIR BRAKE. 31 7
Engineers should also report to the roundhouse
foreman, or other authorized official, at the end
of each run, any defect they may have detected
in the air-brake apparatus.
On Making Up Trains and Testing Brakes.—
There should be seventy pounds train pipe press-
ure on the engine before connecting to the train,
with the handle of the engineer's valve standing
in position two. When the locomotive has been
coupled to the train afd the latter has been
charged with an air pressure of seventy pounds,
the engineer should, on a signal from the proper
person, apply the brakes fully and leave them
thus until the brakes on the entire train have
been inspected, after which, upon signal, the
brakes should be released; but the engineer will
not leave the station until all the brakes are
released and he has been advised by the proper
person that they operate all right. These tests
should be made after each change in the makeup
of a train, also before starting down such grades
as may be particularly designated. In passenger
trains, when the train air signal is used, the sig-
nal to set the brakes in testing should be
given from the rear car of the train, to show
that the signal connections are properly made.
The engineer sets the brake as answer that the
air signal works properly.
Application of the Air Brake in Service.—In
applying the brakes to steady the train upon a
descending grade, or to reduce the Speed for any
purpose, care should be taken not to make too
3.18 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
great a reduction of pressure at first, as the
speed of the train would be too quickly checked
and, also, to a greater degree than desired, thus
necessitating a release of the brakes and their
application again, perhaps even requiring a repe-
tition of the operation. --
The brake should be applied lightly at a suffi-
cient distance from the stopping point, increasing
the force gradually, as it may be found necessary,
so as to make the stop with one application of
the brake, or at most two.
In the case of freight trains which are only
partially equipped with the air brake, after shut-
ting off, the slack of the train should first be
allowed to take up; the brakes should then be
applied with a reduction not to exceed six to
eight pounds, and with such further reductions
thereafter as may be necessary. This will pre-
vent shocks to the train which otherwise might
be serious.
In making a regular stop in the case of a pas-
senger train, the brakes should (except on heavy
grades) be released a short distance before com-
ing to a standstill, so as to prevent a shock at
the instant of stopping. On a moderate grade
it is best to do this and then after releasing
apply the brakes again lightly, in Order to pre-
vent the train starting of its own volition and
that when it is ready to start the release will
take place immediately. In the case of freight
trains the brakes should not be released until
the train has come to a full stop.
THE AIR BRAKE. 319
Application of the Brake in Emergency.—The
emergency application of the brake should never
be used except when an emergency exists, and
then the brake valve should be thrown to the
emergency position, number five, no matter
where it may have been before.
When Brakes are Applied from an Unknown
Cause.—If at any time it is found that the train
is dragging without a rapid fall of the black
pointer indicating the fact, the handle of the
engineer's valve should be moved into the full
release position for an instant and then returned
to the running position.
If, however, the brakes are applied suddenly
with a fall of the black pointer, it is evident
that a conductor's valve has been opened, or
that a hose has burst or a serious leak oc-
curred, or that the train has parted. In such
event the handle of the engineer's valve should
be immediately placed in position three, to pre-
vent escape of air from the main reservoir.
It should be left there until the train has been
stopped and the brake apparatus examined and
a signal to release given. If a hose or pipe
has burst, it may be necessary for the engineer
to place his handle in position two (running
position), that the trainmen may detect the
escape of air from the hose or pipe while search-
ing for it.
Braking by Hand.—The air brake should never
be used by the engineer when it is known
that the trainmen are operating the brakes of
tº e
© & © 5 2
320 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
e Q
& 6 O & ©
air-brake cars by hand, as there is danger of in-
jury to the trainmen by so doing.
Cutting Out Brakes.—The brakes on the driv-
ers and tender should, unless defective, always
be used automatically at every application of the
train brake, except upon grades that may be par-
ticularly designated.
When necessary to cut out either the driver or
the tender brake because of any defect, it should
be done by turning the handle of the four-way
cock, in the triple valve, down to a position mid-
way between horizontal and vertical, leaving the
bleed cock open.
Double Headers.--When two or more engines
are coupled in the same train, the brakes must
be connected to, and operated from, the head
engine. For this pur-
\º sº pose a cock is placed
sº in the train pipe just
below the engineer's
valve. The engineer
of each engine, save
the head one, should
close this cock and
place the handle of
the engineer's valve in posi-
tion two. Then he will start
his air pump and let it run as
though he were intending to
use the brake. This is for the
purpose of maintaining air
pressure on nis engine and enabling him to
Angle Cock, open.


THE AIR BRAKE. 321
assume charge of the train brakes should occa-
Sion require it.
Eactra Hose.—An extra air-brake hose and cou-
pling should be carried on each engine in order to
make repairs in case hose bursts. Upon engines
having the air signal, an extra signal hose and
coupling should also be carried for like purpose.*
Sliding Wheels.--To avoid the sliding of wheels
(and consequent loss of two-thirds of the retard-
ing force, and the damage to the wheels as well),
engineers should use sand freely when the condi-
tion of the rail is doubtful. The sand should be
applied to the rail before the brake is operated,
and should be shut off only after the brake has
been released.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO TRAINMEN.
Making Up Trains and Testing Brakes.—When
an engine has been coupled to a train, or when
two sections have been brought together, the
brake couplings should be united. The cocks in
the train pipes
should then all
= be open, except
º' at the rear end of
the last car. This
should be closed
and the hose
properly hung
up in the dummy coupling.
Č." After the engineer has fully
*accook, closed charged the train with air
21 VOI. 1
*Some railroads carry all extra hose in the baggage or
vaboose cars,
%
%*
Ø a i.






322 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
he will then be signaled to apply the brakes.
When the train air signal is to be used, the signal
to the engineer to apply the brakes should be
given by means of the air signal from the rear
car of the train. When he has done this, the
brakes of each car will be examined to see if they
are properly applied. When this is ascertained
to be so, the engineer will be signaled to release
the brakes. The brakes of each car should then
be examined to see that each is released. The
longer the brakes can be left applied, it should
be remembered, the more thorough will be the
test of their stopping power.
If any defect is discovered, it should be reme-
died and the brakes applied again, the operation
being re-
peated until
everythingis
righted. In
the event
E.
or defects found, the
conductor and engi-
neer should be noti-
fied as to the condi-
tion of the brakes, the
number of cars work-
ing, and those that
are cut out because
of defects. An ex-
| amination should be
The Plain StraightWay (Jock. made every time any
7~
º
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any cars are cut out,








THE AIR BRAKE. 323
*.
º:
:
:
change is made in the makeup of a train, also
before starting down such grades as may be par-
ticularly designated. At points where there are
no inspectors, trainmen will carry out these
instructions.
A passenger train should never start from an
inspection point with the brakes upon any car
cut out or in a defective condition without orders
from the proper official.
Use of Hand Brakes.—The air brakes on a
freight train should not be wholly relied upon
to control the train if there is a smaller
proportion of cars with the air brake in ser-
vice than the regulations of the company
Specify. When hand brakes are also used, they
should be applied upon the cars next behind
the cars with air brakes, except when backing
up, in which case the braking should, in the
main, be done by hand brakes at the rear of the
train.
Detaching Engine or Cars.--When the engine
Or a car is detached, the cocks in the train pipes at
the point of separation should first be closed, the
One nearer the engine last. The couplings should
then be parted by hand. If the brakes have been
applied, the cocks should not be closed until the
engineer has released the brakes upon the whole
train.
Frozen Couplings.-If the couplings should at
any time be found to be frozen together or cov-
ered with ice, the ice should first be removed
and the couplings then thawed out by a torch or
324. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
by-dipping into a pail of hot water, so as to pre-
vent injury to the gaskets.
Brakes Sticking.—If the brakes should be
found sticking, the engineer should be signaled
to release them. If he cannot do so and calls
for release, or if brakes are applied to detached
cars, the release may be effected by opening the
small cock in the auxiliary reservoir until the air
begins to release through the triple valve, when
the reservoir cock should immediately be closed.
Train Breaking Into Two or More Parts.-The
cock in the train pipe at the rear of the first
section should first be closed and the engineer
signaled to release the brakes. After having
coupled to the second section the rule for making
up trains should be observed, first being sure
that the cock in the train pipe at the rear of the
second section has been closed in case the train
has broken into more than two sections. When
the engineer has released the brakes on the Sec-
ond section, the same method should be employed
with reference to the third section, and so on.
When the train has been re-united, the brakes
should be inspected on each car, to see that all
are released before proceeding. t
Cutting Out the Brake on a Car.—If, through
any defect of the brake apparatus while on the
road, it becomes necessary to cut out the brake
upon any car, it may be done by closing the cock
in the cross-over pipe near the center of the car
when the quick-action brake is used, or by turn-
ing the handle of the cock in the triple valve to
THE AIR BRAKE. 3.25
a position midway between horizontal and verti-
cal when the plain automatic brake is used.
When the brake on a car has been thus cut out,
the cock in the auxiliary reservoir should be
opened and left open upon passenger cars, or
held open until all the air has escaped from the
reservoir upon freight cars. The brake upon any
ſº.ſi
Lillº. Tº
– ººº--> - T ~. AUTOMATIC BRAKE
T - ſº,
: * ~%
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º:
#| |
TJ Tºulº;
i # i \ f
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º
The Plain Automatic Triple Valve.
car should never be cut out unless the apparatus
is defective, and when it is necessary to do so,
the conductor should notify the engineer and
also send in a report to the proper official, stating
the reason for so doing. Some form of notice-
able defect tag tied to the defective part is very
effective. This tag should give the car number,



326 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
initials, state the defect, and be signed by the
conductor, giving the date. -
Conductor's Valve.—Should it become neces-
sary to apply the brakes from the train, it may
be done by opening the conductor's valve, which
is placed in each passenger equipment car. The
valve should be held open until the train comes
to a full stop, and then closed. This method of
stopping the train should not be used except in
case of emergency. *=
Burst Hose.—In the event a brake hose should
burst, it should be replaced and the brakes tested
before proceeding, provided the train is in a safe
place. If it is not, the train pipe cock imme-
diately in front of the burst hose should be closed
and the engineer signaled to release the brakes.
All the brakes to the rear of the burst hose
should then be released by hand and the train
moved to a safe place, where the burst hose
should be replaced, the brakes connected and
tested as in making up a train.
Call for Brakes.—When the engineer calls for
brakes, the conductor's valve or rear angle-cock
(if convenient) should be opened first. Each
trainman should then set the brakes nearest to
him, whether the air brake is applied on the car
or not.
Brakes not in Use.—When the air brakes are
not in use, either upon the road or in switch-
ing, the hose should be kept coupled between
the cars or hung up properly in the dummy
couplings.
THE AIR BRAKE. 327
Pressure Retaining Valve.—In descending long
grades, owing to repeated applications of the
brakes, the stored pressure may become so re-
reduced as to make it necessary to re-
charge the auxiliary reservoirs. This
the engineer cannot do without releas-
- ss & -
|###. 4: :
*H, ing the brakes, but the retaining valve
- is designed so that the train-
ſºil-RETANING FREssune men may hold a pressure Of
tº: fifteen pounds in each brake
º cylinder while the engineer is re-charg-
§: ing the reservoirs. This valve is con-
§ veniently located up near the hand
§: brake in a position accessible on a
The Pres- * e e
sure Retain moving train. A pipe from the bot-
"" tom of the retaining valve connects it
with the triple valve exhaust. When it is desired
to retain fifteen pounds pressure in the cylinder,
the handle of the retaining valve is changed from
position one to position two before the brake is
released by the engineer. At the foot of the
grade the handles should all be turned downward
again to position one. Special instructions are
issued as to the grades upon which these valves
are to be used.
Reporting Defects to Inspectors.--Any defect
in the air brake apparatus discovered upon the
road should be tagged and reported to the in-
spector at the end of the run; or, if the defect be
a serious one in passenger Service, it should be
reported to the nearest inspector and remedied
before the car is again placed in Service.







328 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Eactra Hose.—Each conductor should keep two
extra air-brake hose on hand. Passenger crews
should also have extra air-signal hose. To in-
sure this, inspectors are authorized to exchange
new hose for old defective hose whenever pre-
Sented.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO ENGINE-HOUSE FOREMEN
AND INSPECTORS.
It is the duty of engine-house foremen to see
that the air-brake equipment upon each engine
is properly inspected after each run. It should
be ascertained that all pipe joints, connections,
and all other parts of the apparatus are air tight,
and that the apparatus is in good working order.
Air pipes in the engine house which may be
coupled to the rear of the engine are very con-
venient for this inspection, as engines are not
always under their own steam when desired.
Air Pump.–The air pump should be tested
under pressure and, if found to be working im-
perfectly in any respect, should be put into thor-
oughly Serviceable condition.
Pump Governor—The pump governor should
cut off the steam supply to the pump when the
desired maximum pressure has been reached.
In the event it does not, it should be regulated to
do so.
Engineer's Brake Valve.—This valve should be
kept clean and in perfect order. It should be
tested with the handle in positions four and three
to see that the equalizing piston responds
THE AIR BRAKE. 329
promptly and that there are no leaks from port
to port under the rotary disc valve.
Adjustment of Brakes.—The driver brakes
should be adjusted so that the pistons will travel
not less than one-fourth nor more than one-half
of their stroke. When the cam brake” is used,
care should be taken to adjust both cams alike
in order that the point of contact of the cam
should be in line with the piston rod. The ten-
der brake must be adjusted by means of the dead
truck levers, so the piston will travel not less
than five nor more than six inches when the air
brake is applied and the hand brake released.
This adjustment should be made whenever the
piston travel is found to exceed eight inches.
The engine-truck brake should have a piston
travel of not less than one-half nor more than
three-fourths of the length of its cylinder, and
must be adjusted alike on both sides.
Brake Cylinders and Triple Valves.—The brake
cylinders and triple valves should be examined
and cleaned once every six months and the cylin-
ders oiled once in three months. If the driver
brake cylinders are in a position to be affected
by the heat of the boiler, they must be oiled
more frequently and the pistons given a one-
half turn. Record should be kept of the date of
each cleaning and oiling.
Draining.—The main reservoir and also the
drain cup in the train pipe under the tender
should, after each trip, be drained of any ac-
cumulation. The auxiliary reservoirs and triple
*See illustration on page 539.
330 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
valve should also be drained frequently, daily in
cold weather, and the train pipe under the ten-
der blown out.
, GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO CAR INSPECTORS.
It is the duty of all inspectors to see that the
couplings, pipe joints, conductor's valves, and all
other parts of the brake apparatus are in good
order and free from leaks. For this purpose
they should be tested under a full air pressure of
seventy pounds and all defects remedied. No
passenger train should be allowed to leave a ter-
minal station with the brake upon any car cut
out or in a defective condition without special
orders from the proper official.
If a defect is discovered in the brake appa-
ratus of a freight car which cannot be held long
enough to repair such defect, the brake should be
cut out and the car properly carded, so as to call
the attention of the next inspector to the repairs
required. 3. -
Making Up Trains and Testing Brakes.—In
making up a train, the couplings should be united
and the cocks at the ends of the cars opened,
except at the rear of the last car where the cocks
should be closed and the couplings properly hung
up in the dummy couplings. After the train is
charged, the engineer should be signaled to apply
the brakes, using the train air signal from the
rear car for passenger trains. The brakes upon
each car should then be examined to see that
they are properly applied. This having been
THE AIR BRAKE. 331
ascertained, the inspector should signal the engi-
neer to release the brakes. The brakes should
again be examined to note that each is released.
If any defect is discovered, it should be corrected
and the testing of the brakes repeated until they
are found to work properly upon each car. The
inspector should then inform both the engineer
and conductor as to the actual condition of the
brakes. -
Cleaning Cylinders and Triple Valves.—The
brake cylinders and triple valves should be kept
clean and free from gum. For this purpose they
should be examined as often as once in six
months upon passenger cars and once in twelve
months upon freight cars. The cylinders and
triple valves should be thoroughly cleaned after
removing all movable parts and the piston
leathers and cylinders well coated with a heavy
oil or light grease which is but little affected
by changes of temperature and will not gum.
The dates of the last cleaning and oiling should
be marked with paint upon the cylinder in the
places provided opposite the words stenciled
with white paint in one-inch letters upon the
cylinder, as follows:
Cyl. Oiled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Date). . . . . . . . . . .
Cyl.
Triple | Cleaned . . . . . . . . . (Date)...........
...-- (Place) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It is well to give the pistons a one-half turn
when replacing them in their cylinders.
332 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
The triple valves and auxiliary reservoirs
should be frequently drained, especially in cold
weather, by removing the plug in the bottom
of the triple valve and opening the Small cock in
the reservoir.
Adjustment of Brakes.—The slack of the brake
shoes should be taken up by means of the dead
truck levers or the turn buckles. In taking up
such slack, it should be first ascertained that the
hand brakes are off and the slack all taken out of
the upper connections, so the live truck levers do
not go back within one and one-half inches of the
truck timber or other stop, when the piston of the
brake cylinder is fully back at the release posi-
tion. If, when under full application, the brake
piston travel is found to exceed eight inches upon
a passenger car or nine inches upon a freight car,
the slack of the brake shoe should be taken up
and the adjustment so made that the piston shall
travel not less than five inches nor more than six
inches.
Braking Power.—When the cylinder lever has
more than one hole at the outer end, the different
holes are for use upon cars of different weights.
It should, therefore, be carefully ascertained that
the rods are connected to the proper holes, so the
correct braking power shall be exerted upon each
Cà,T.
Repair Parts.-Inspectors should keep con-
stantly on hand, for repairs, a supply of all parts
of the brake equipment that are liable to get out
of order.
THE AIR BRAKE. 333
Hanging up Hose.—Inspectors should see that,
when cars are being switched or are standing in
the yard, the hose is coupled between the cars or
properly Secured in the dummy coupling.
Responsibility of Inspectors. — Inspectors are
held responsible for the good condition of all
brake apparatus upon cars placed in trains at
their stations. They should also make examina-
tions of brake apparatus and repair the same
whenever called upon by the trainmen to do so.
[NotE.—It is proper to say here that after preparing this chapter on the
air brake, greatly aided therin by Mr. E. W. Pratt, an expert in such matters,
Mr. G. W. Rhodes, Superintendent Motive Power, Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy Railroad, and Mr. Robert Quayle, Superintendent Motive Power and
Machinery, Chicago & North-Western Railway, both eminent men in their
profession, were so kind as to examine it with a view to the discovery and
correction of inaccuracies and omissions. It has thus passed under the eye
of men pre-eminently fitted to judge of its merits.]
THE MODERN AIR BRAKE.
For some time after the adoption of the air
brake it was common to attribute to it many of
the train accidents that occurred; the opinion
prevailed that it did not work uniformly—that it
was capricious, that its action could not be accu-
rately foretold. It is now known, however, that
its operations under like conditions are always
the same.
Doubtless many improvements remain yet to
be introduced in connection with the air brake,
but it has become so important a factor in the
operation of trains as to be standard, and every
one concerned with the operation of railroads is
interested in an account of its workings. Such
334 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
an exposition it is designed to give here, omitting
those details which would add prolixity to the
statement without tending to make its workings
more clearly understood. -
Air brakes are of two kinds, viz.: “straight °
and “automatic,” but in both cases the power
used is compressed air. The air is compressed
by a pump on the locomotive, and is stored in a
reservoir on the engine called the main reservoir.
The brake is applied by admitting compressed
air to a brake cylinder, which, through the action
of connecting rods and levers, pushes out a pis-
ton and forces the brake shoes against the wheels.
When the air in the cylinder is allowed to escape,
the piston is showed back by a spring in the cyl-
inder, and the brake is released. On passenger
cars springs on the brake beams generally serve
to release the brake shoes from the wheels, but
on freight cars the inclination of the hangers, by
force of gravity, causes the shoes to drop away
from the wheels.
In the first or simplest form of air brake,
termed “straight air,” now practically obsolete,
the pressure for applying the brakes. was all
stored in the main reservoir. To apply the brake,
the air passed through a valve on the engine,
called the engineer's valve, to the train line which
was connected directly to the brake cylinder of
each car.” This method proved unsatisfactory,
because if a breakage, such as a burst hose or
* The train line consists of all the pipes and their connec-
tions from the engineer’s valve to the rear cock of the last car.
THE AIR BRAKE. 335
pipe, occurred in any portion of the apparatus,
the compressed air escaped, releasing all the
brakes. Moreover, the brake could be applied
only by the engineer, and, as the pressure was
Supplied directly from the main reservoir only,
the more cars there were in the train the less
pressure there would be in each brake cylinder
when the brakes were applied.
The automatic air brake, which has generally
Superseded the straight air brake on railroads of
this country, is so called because it is applied
automatically by any derangement reducing the
air pressure in the train pipe, such as excessive
leakage, a parted train, burst hose, and so on. The
straight air brake requires but two essential parts
on each car, namely, a cylinder and train line,
while the automatic brake requires two additional
parts—a triple valve and an auxiliary reservoir.
The purpose of the triple valve is to divert the
air into its proper channel and prevent its escape
from the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder
when the brake is set. The purpose of the auxil-
iary reservoir is to store a proper volume of air
on the car for supplying the brake cylinder. In
the application of the brake the entire pressure
which the cylinder receives comes from the auxil-
iary reservoir on the same car. Hence, each cylin-
der having its own auxiliary, an increase in the
number of cars in a train does not reduce the brak-
ing power, as we have seen it does in the case of
straight air. The capacity of the auxiliary res-
ervoir on each car should be about three times
336 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
wº
the capacity of its cylinder when the piston has
a travel of two-thirds the length of its cylinder—
or standard travel. Although locomotives and
cars of different weights require different sized
brake cylinders (from eight to fourteen inches in
diameter), the auxiliary should, in each instance,
be proportionately larger.
The essential parts of the automatic brake
system are the air gauge and pump governor;
air pump and main reservoir; train line with its
hose, couplings and branch pipes; triple valve,
auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder.
The operation of the air through the automatic
system is, briefly, as follows: The air pump
takes air from the atmosphere and compresses it
into the main reservoir; it then passes through
the engineer's valve (in release position) to the
train line. From the train line the air passes
through the branch pipe, cut-out cock and triple
valve of each car into its auxiliary reservoir.
When the brakes are to be set, a movement of
the triple valve allows the air to pass from the
auxiliary to the brake cylinder, applying the
brake. When the brake is to be released, the
movement of the triple valve to its original posi-
tion allows the air in the brake cylinder to
escape to the atmosphere. When a retaining
pressure valve is applied to a car, the triple
exhaust is piped to the retainer, which must, of
course, be open to allow the free escape of all air
from the cylinder. The train pipe under each
car is connected by its branch pipe to a triple
THE AIR BRAKE. 337
valve. The latter derives its name from the fact
that it performs the three operations of charging
the auxiliary reservoir, setting the brake and
releasing it; and, as each operation depends
directly upon the triple valve, it becomes the
most important feature of the automatic brake,
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fundamental functions of this complex mechan-
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It will be noticed, by reference to the above
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(at R), brake cylinder (at C), and the atmosphere
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338 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
(at A). Communication between these various
connections is opened or closed as follows:
To release the brake, communication is opened
between the train line and auxiliary reservoir,
closed between the auxiliary reservoir and the
brake cylinder, and opened between the brake
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cylinder and the atmosphere. On the other hand,
to set the brake, communication is closed between
the train line and auxiliary reservoir, opened be-
tween the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder,
and closed between the brake cylinder and the
atmosphere.
The triple valve contains a piston which by
its stem moves with it a slide valve. Fig. A





























THE AIR BRAKE. 339
shows the piston in such a position that the
train line pressure (T) can pass by it through
the feed-port and charge the auxiliary reservoir
(R). Here the brake cylinder (C) has an opening
to the atmosphere (A) on account of the cavity
under the slide valve. It also shows how the
slide valve prevents the auxiliary (R) pressure
from entering the brake cylinder (C).
Fig. B shows the piston of the triple valve
moved away from the feed-port, thereby closing
communication between the train line (T) and
the auxiliary (R), the slide valve has closed the
opening from the brake cylinder (C) to the
atmosphere (A) and has opened a port from the
auxiliary (R) to the brake cylinder (C), admitting
air from R to C.
Figs. A and B show the triple valve in its
two extreme positions. If after the piston and
slide valve are as in Fig. B, they be moved
back about half way until the port s between
the auxiliary (R) and the cylinder (C) is closed,
whatever pressure had already passed into the
cylinder would remain there and no more could
enter; and a slight movement of the triple again
to position shown in Fig. B would admit more
air to the cylinder. This can be repeated until
the two pressures in R and C are equal. The
operation of the triple valve in this manner is
what is termed its graduating feature, whereby a
small amount of the auxiliary reservoir pressure
is admitted to the brake cylinder and communica-
tion closed, repeatedly. For example, suppose in
340 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Fig. A the train line and auxiliary reservoir are
charged to the standard pressure of seventy
pounds. The triple piston having equal pressure
on each side is balanced. If five pounds train
line pressure be drawn off leaving sixty-five, the
auxiliary being left at seventy will force the
triple piston, and with it the slide valve, to posi-
tion shown in Fig. B. It would remain there
until about six pounds had gone to the brake
cylinder from the auxiliary reservoir, leaving it
sixty-four as against the train line's sixty-five,
when the train line pressure would push the pis-
ton and slide valve back just enough to close
port s and prevent further escape of air from
the auxiliary reservoir. Another five pound re-
duction would be followed by a like reduction
from the auxiliary reservoir, which would add
still more to the cylinder pressure. Although
some difference of pressure is required between
the two sides of the triple piston to move it,
this difference is so slight that in graduated ap-
plications it may be said that whatever reduc-
tion is made in the train line is followed by a
like escape from the auxiliary reservoir.
Fig. C shows the plain automatic triple valve.
To comprehend this valve it is but necessary to
see how the graduating feature is performed by
the addition of a graduating valve. The latter
(7) is fastened to the piston stem (5) by a pin (4)
and moves immediately with the slightest move-
ment of the piston (5), while the slide valve (6)
in which it seats has a small free movement
THE AIR BRAKE. *. 341
lengthwise on the piston stem. When a reduc-
tion of five pounds is made in the train pipe
pressure (the under side of piston), the auxiliary
pressure (on top of the piston), being greater by
five pounds, pushes down the piston, pulling with
it the graduating valve (7) and the slide valve (6)
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until the slide valve port (n) is opposite the cyl-
inder port (s). It remains in that position until a
little more air than five pounds of auxiliary pres-
Sure has gone to the brake cylinder, when the
piston is moved up enough to seat the graduating
valve (7), but not enough to move the slide valve.
























342 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Further light reductions from the train pipe will
require but the easy movement of opening and
closing the graduating valve to apply the brake
with more force. When sufficient air is taken
from the train pipe to hold the graduating valve
Open until the auxiliary has supplied a pressure
to the brake cylinder equal to that remaining in
itself, the pressures are said to have equalized
and the brake is fully applied.* -
The graduating stem (8) is held by its spring
in such a position that the triple valve piston
(5) cannot readily move farther than will bring
the slide valve port (n) in line with the cylinder
port (s). However, should the pressure from
the train pipe escape faster than the auxiliary
pressure can get through the small ports n and
s, to the brake cylinder, the pressure on the
top of the triple valve piston would be enough
greater than that beneath it to force the grad-
uating stem (8) down. This further movement
of the piston would carry the slide valve wholly
beyond the cylinder port (s) and air would be
admitted from the auxiliary reservoir to the
brake cylinder past the end of the slide valve
(as shown in Fig. B). This extreme movement
of the triple valve is called its emergency posi-
tion.
* This is but a passing word regarding the equalization of
pressure. The Subject is largely misunderstood, as it seems
to many to be governed by no simple law. It is clearly ex-
plained and illustrated elsewhere in connection with “piston
travel.” -
THE AIR BRAIKE. 343
With the plain triple valve, as with all pre-
vious automatic valves, all the air drawn from
the train line to apply the brakes must escape
from the engineer's valve or the opening where
the reduction is made. When trains of fifty air-
braked cars were used, it was found that if a
hose burst on the first car or emergency was
applied by the engineer's valve, several seconds
elapsed before the rear car brake had begun to set
and during this interval the slack had “run in ’’
and caused damage to the cars and their con-
tents. If the brake were set suddenly from the
rear end of a long train, before the forward
brakes were applied, the train would break in
several parts. To remedy this defect a triple
valve was designed that would, under emergency
application, vent the train pipe pressure to the
atmosphere under each car; thus the escape
from one car would apply the next brake, and
so on to the last, thereby accelerating their
action as the air did not have to travel the
length of the train to escape. This was the
original quick-action triple valve. The use of a
portion of this escaping train pipe pressure in
the brake cylinder, instead of allowing it to
escape to the atmosphere, constitutes the im-
provement in the later form of quick-action
triple valve shown in Fig. D.
The plain triple valve is now applied to loco-
motives only. The quick action triple valve has
the same parts as the former, with more parts
added. In an ordinary application of the brake,
344 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
only the same parts are brought into action and
cars equipped with one kind of valve will work
properly with those equipped with the others.
When a rapid reduction of the train line pressure
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is made, as in the case of the plain triple valve
under like circumstances, the triple valve piston
(5) compresses the graduating spring (9) and pulls
the slide valve (6) into a position farther than
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THE AIR BRAKE. 345
that of ordinary service. Thus the graduating
port(at)in the slide valve is carried past the cyl-
inder port (d) and registers with port e, allowing
auxiliary reservoir pressure to pass to the top of
the emergency valve piston (15), which shoves
down the emergency valve (10) and allows the
train line pressure beneath to flow through to
the brake cylinder.t. At the instant port a comes
opposite port e, the small port b in the slide valve
is in register with the cylinder port d, admitting
auxiliary reservoir pressure to the brake cylinder.
Although the auxiliary reservoir pressure is
thus opened to the brake cylinder simultaneously
with the train pipe, the emergency valve (10) is so
much larger that the greater part of the pressure
at first received by the cylinder comes from the
train line. When the train line and the cylinder
pressures equalize, as they will at about fifty
pounds from an original seventy, the train line
check (13) closes, preventing the return of the air
to the train line, and then the auxiliary reservoir
and the cylinder pressure equalize through the
smaller ports (b and a). With an original pressure
of seventy pounds, the resulting brake cylinder
pressure will be about sixty pounds—or twenty
per cent. more than can be obtained with any
triple valve other than the quick action; a simi-
lar increase in train line pressure is also required
to release the brake.
When the train line and all the auxiliary reser-
voirs of a train have a pressure of seventy pounds
*In reality it is a port just back of port a.
#Check valve 13 is raised by the train line pressure under it
346 . RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
per Square inch, they are said to be fully charged.
The feed port in the triple valve is so small that
about two minutes are required to charge an
auxiliary, if seventy pounds pressure be main-
tained in the train line continually.
The two pressures, train line and auxiliary
reservoir, control the movements of the triple
valve by the preponderence of the one over the
other. The law governing the triple valve is as
follows: The triple valve moves to set position
when the train line pressure is reduced to less
than that pressure in the auxiliary reservoir, and
to release position when the train line pressure
eacceeds that in the auxiliary reservoir.
Venting the auxiliary reservoir pressure to the
atmospheye by the release valve, or “bleeder,” is
termed “bleeding” a car. The brake releases
through the triple valve as soon as the auxiliary
reservoir pressure is less than that of the train
line. The principle is precisely the same as
when the engineer releases by increasing the
train line above the auxiliary reservoir pressure.
The pressure retaining valve is a valve con-
nected by a pipe to and directly controlling the
triple valve exhaust. It can be used with either
kind of triple valve. Its purpose is to slowly re-
lease the brake until it holds about the same as a
lightly applied hand brake, retaining that pres-
sure while the train is being recharged on a
descending grade. It is conveniently placed at
the end of a car near the hand brake and may
be operated from the top of a freight car or the
THE AIR BRAKE. 347
platform of a passenger car of a moving train.
The pressure retaining valve is shown sectioned
in Fig. E. While simple, it is yet the most
- liable of any valve to mis-
A/ZZZ. use by trainmen. A han-
PRESSURE RETAINING VALve die controls the plug (P)
..?…. ?X2: of a three-way cock.
When the h a n dle is
turned to point down-
ward, the plug (P) will be
*…*::... turned one quarter turn,
* * bringing port a opposite b,
thus connecting the triple
valve exhaust with the
atmosphere through the
direct exhaust port. In that position the triple
valve has as free an exhaust as though the
retainer were removed from the pipe. When
the retainer is to be used, the handle is turned
up to a horizontal position, as shown in figure E,
before descending a grade. The plug (P) con-
mects the port b with the under side of a weighted
valve (W) which it must raise to let pressure
escape at c. About fifteen pounds are required
to raise valve W, and when raised, all in excess
of that amount slowly escapes through the small
port c, the fifteen pounds being retained in the
brake cylinder while the engineer releases the
triple valves and recharges the auxiliary reser-
voirs.
The engineer's valve is the valve on the locomo-
tive used to operate the brake. It is, therefore,


3.48 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
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the connecting link between the train line and
the atmosphere for setting the brakes, or be-
tween the main reservoir and the train line
for releasing, but it cannot connect the three
ºr ~ :














THE AIR BRAKE. 349
simultaneously. The first engineer's valve used
was the three-way cock.
Figs. F, G and H clearly illustrate the three
positions of a three-way cock. The outside rep-
resents the body of the valve and the inside circle
the plug that can be turned one-fourth way
around by the handle, bringing the necessary
ports into communication (Figs. F and H) or
closing everything (Fig. G).
F/6/.
:
º 2|| To Equizt Restrºn
W. Position -----
S-
Engineer's Brake and Equalizing Discharge Valve with Feed Valve Attach-
ment and Duplex Air Gauge, known as the F6 or 1892 Valve.
The engineer's brake and equalizing discharge
valve with feed valve attachment and duplex air
gauge is the fifth valve of a series of improve-
ments during fifteen years. The main features
of the “three-way cock” are still retained,
however. This valve (Fig. I) has two other
positions, running and Service application, making
a total of five positions, beginning on the left,
*

350 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
namely, release, running, lap, service application,
and emergency. (See Fig. on page 316.)
(1) Release, or full release as it is frequently
termed in distinction from running position,
brings the main drum pressure, by means of the
rotary valve, in direct communication with the
train line into which it flows. This position is
for quickly charging the train line and auxiliary
reservoirs, also for releasing brakes. se
(2) Running position is but a modification of
'release. Here the passage for the air from the
main drum to the train line is smaller and con-
tains (depending upon the form of valve used)
an excess pressure valve or a feed valve and
spring. The main reservoir pressure is thus held
at fifteen to thirty pounds in excess of that in
the train line according to the adjustment. The
brake valve should always be carried in this
position except when operating the brakes.
(3) Lap position closes all ports in the engi-
neer's valve and is used between brake applica-
tions, when a train has parted or the conductor's
valve opened, and also when coupling to air-
braked cars.
(4) The Service application position is but a mod-
ification of the direct application or emergency
position, having a smaller opening of the train
line to the atmosphere, and therefore being less
Severe. The engineer, by means of the rotary
valve and handle, does not directly vent the train
line pressure, but simply draws pressure from
the top of a piston (17, Fig. J) operated on from
THE AIR BRAKE, 351
below by the train line pressure. The piston (17)
being balanced in positions 1 and 2, if in position
4, five pounds of pressure be withdrawn from the
top of the equalizing piston (17), this piston will
move upward, carrying with it its stem (which
forms the train line exhaust valve) and will re-
main open until five pounds have gone from
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beneath it—the train line. The stem of this pis-
ton does all the braking in service, and the open-
ing it forms to discharge the train line pressure
to the atmosphere is so small as to preclude the
possibility of setting the brakes in quick action.
The position just described should be always
used, except in the case of actual emergencies.


































352 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
(5) Emergency or direct application position
brings the train line wide open to the atmos-
phere directly through the rotary valve.
When, by some defect in the engineer's valve,
Service application position does not apply the
brakes, position 5 may be resorted to; then the
handle should be gradually moved toward the
position SO as not to Set any quick action triple
valves that are in the train in emergency; but
when an actual emergency arises, position 5
should be fully used and the handle left there,
no matter where it had been previously.
The Pump Governor
F/64. F. j."j"...",".
a device by which the
Steam supply to the air
§§ſº
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the governor con-
taining the steam valve (9). This valve is closed
[NOTE.-The Air Pump is fully explained and illustrated in
Vol. XII.]

































THE AIR BRAKE. 353
by a piston (5), operated upon by air pressure
above it. When there is no pressure above
this piston (5) it is held open by a combined
action of the spring (8) below it and boiler
pressure beneath the steam valve (9). As the
spring and boiler pressure act constantly, it is
only necessary to see how the air pressure is
admitted to, and taken from, the top of the
air piston (5) to understand the working of the
governor. (See Figs. L and M.)
The top of the governor contains a very thin
flexible copper diaphragm (19), holding a small pin
valve (17) which regulates the port leading to the
top of the piston (5). This diaphragm (19) has an
adjustable spring (18) above it and air pressure
On the under side of it. With the 1892 form of
engineer's valve, having a feed valve attachment,
the air connection at A is from the main reser-
voir and the spring (18) is adjusted by the nuts
above to withstand about ninety pounds of air
pressure under the diaphragm (19) before it raises
and opens the pin valve (17) letting air pressure
upon the piston (5) and stopping the pump.
When, from use or leakage, the main reservoir
pressure drops below ninety, the diaphragm closes
the pin valve (17) and the air pressure above the
piston (5) escaping, allows it to raise the steam
valve (9) and start the pump.
With all former engineer's valves, the air con-
nection to the governor (at A) is from the train
line, which pressure it regulates, similarly, at
Seventy (70) pounds per square inch.
23 Vol. 1
354 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Figure M shows the improved pump governor,
Working on the same principle, but sufficiently
altered to render it more sensitive to the slightest
variations. 3.
ſº %
sº
º
º Nº Nagº
70 A//?/º/?A53///fe
7968 /ræſøø/AWyºD
62.
—-
f/?O/? 60/4&A'
/MA/Povºa /o/72 Goveavoa.
Fig. N illustrates a governor with a double
top, which is successfully used with engineer's
valves not having the feed valve attachment and
also on locomotives equipped for either the stan-
dard or the “high-speed” brake. When used for








THE AIR BRAKE. 355
the first purpose, one of the tops is connected to
the train line and adjusted at seventy pounds as
usual while the other top is connected to the
main reservoir pressure and set at ninety pounds
A/ZZ. AV.
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or more, the object being to prevent too high a
pressure from accumulating in the main reservoir
when the brakes are held applied on long descend-
ing grades or in making stops requiring the brakes
to remain set a long time.












356 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
When this double governor is used on locomo-
tives hauling both the standard and the high-
Speed brakes alternately, both tops are connected
to and govern the same pressure, but the one is
Set at standard amount and the other at twenty
to thirty pounds higher. If the high-speed brake
is to be used, the top governing the lower pressure
is cut out by a small cock for the purpose and the
governor then regulates to the higher amount.
Piston Travel and Brake-Cylinder Pressure.—
The effect of piston travel upon braking power
requires some explanation to be generally com-
prehended. Except in emergency application,
the auxiliary reservoir supplies the brake cylin-
der with all the pressure the latter receives.
When they are both of the same pressures—i.e.,
have equalized—the limit of cylinder pressure is
reached. The amount at which they will equalize
is based upon the laws of pressure and volume.
The reason that brakes on a train do not all set
the same where the cars have the same sized
auxiliaries and the same diameter of brake cylin-
der, is because the amount of Space in an auxil-
iary reservoir is always the same while that of
the cylinder depends upon how far the piston
travels, as the piston practically forms one end
of the cylinder.
If Fig. O be referred to, it will be seen that
while the auxiliary reservoir (A) has a cubic
capacity always limited by its fixed walls, that
of the brake cylinder (C) has one end fixed but
the piston forms the other end of the cylinder.
THE AIR BRAKE. 357
The piston can only travel as far as the brake
levers will allow according to the amount of
slack in their adjustment; the wear of the brake
shoes continually increases this slack and conse-
quently the travel of the piston.
If the piston could travel far enough to cause
the cylinder to be equal in capacity to the auxil-
iary reservoir, then their equalized pressure
would be just one-half what the pressure was in
the auxiliary reservoir before the triple valve
ÆNG. O.
24. "
/PA.
(/X/Z//7
AI
7/7//2ZAC
6. WAVA. Vº
O'
45/7/7/ra (2x4/azoza
opened communication to the cylinder. As Fig.
O shows, the brake piston can travel but 12
inches, while the auxiliary reservoir has a capac-
ity equivalent to about 24 inches of the length of
the cylinder. Thus with a full piston travel of
12 inches the auxiliary reservoir is twice the size
of the cylinder; with an 8-inch piston travel,
it is three times as large; with a 6-inch travel,
it is four times as large, etc. Hence their
equalizing points are respectively at two-thirds,
three-fourths, and four-fifths the pressure the










858 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
A/G. A.
60 ſw.
30
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auxiliary reservoir has before the brake is ap-
plied, as will be shown.
Figs. P, Q and R show reservoirs in which
water is used to illustrate the effect of the differ-
ent piston travels just given. In Fig. P the
auxiliary reservoir (A) is twice as large as the
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THE AIR BRAKE. 359
cylinder (C); in Fig. Q it is three times as
large, and in Fig. R four times—all the reser-
voirs (A) are of the same size, the difference in
the cuts being in the size of the cylinder (C).
In Fig. P if A be filled with say sixty inches
of water (C being empty) and valve V opened,
twenty inches of water will flow from A to C,
making forty inches in C, as A is twice as large,
F/G, AP.
60 way.
30 /a/.
470 //y.
J0 /a/.
Æ0 //y.
/0 ſay
/ºzo or/2/2//ar Asaºvo/a (A) zo &zzoea (C) as zzoz
/ſ://ia3A////wg c540Ar Aszow 7%rez 6//wcas.
and leaving forty inches in A. Hence their
equalizing point is at forty or two-thirds the
original amount in the auxiliary reservoir (A),
and the necessary reduction from A to cause
this equalization is 20-60, or one-third of its orig-
inal amount.
In Fig. Q, if the experiment be repeated, but
fifteen inches of water will flow from A to C,
making forty-five inches in C, as A is three
times the size of C, and leaving the same in









360 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
A (45). Thus forty-five or three-fourths the orig-
inal is their equalizing point, and one-fourth is
the necessary reduction from A to cause equali-
zation.
In Fig. R only twelve inches of water will
flow from the auxiliary reservoir A, making
forty-eight inches in C, as A is four times the
size of C, and leaving forty-eight remaining in A.
Here 48-60 or four-fifths the original is their
equalizing point, and one-fifth is the necessary
reduction to produce equalization.
Now, if three cars one, two and three were
coupled together with piston travels of 12, 8,
and 6 inches respectively, and the train-line
pressure reduced ten pounds from an original
charged pressure of sixty pounds, a like amount,
or ten pounds, would flow from the auxiliary res-
ervoir of each car to its corresponding brake cyl-
inder, but the resultant pressures in the cylinders
would be twenty pounds in car one, thirty pounds
in car two, and forty in car three. Although these
brakes would hold so much differently, yet they
would all be released with a slight increase of
train pipe pressure.
With auxiliary reservoirs and train line of
these three cars charged to a pressure of say
sixty pounds, a train line reduction of one-fifth
or twelve pounds fully applies the brake on car
three with forty-eight pounds cylinder pressure.
A further reduction of three pounds (making 15
in all) is necessary to fully apply or equalize the
pressure on car two with but forty-five pounds,
THE AIR BRAKE. 36}
not at all affecting the forty-eight pounds of
brake three, while it takes a total reduction of
twenty pounds to fully equalize brake one with
but forty pounds in its cylinder—leaving three
and two at their equalized points as above. The
train line pressure is now at forty, or twenty
below what it was. If this pressure be slowly
increased, they will release in the opposite order
from that in which they equalized, that is, brake
one lets off first when the train-line pressure is
over forty, two releases when it exceeds forty-
five, and three not until above forty-eight pounds
is had in the train pipe.
It will then be plain why uniform braking
cannot be accomplished where the piston travel
of cars in a train differs widely and also why,
in such a case, it is better for an engineer to
make under rather than over-reductions that he
may be able to release all cars together.”
Automatic Slack Adjusters.-Many devices have
recently been invented, several of which have
proven practicable, by means of which the slack
is automatically taken up on the brake rigging
as the shoes wear, thus keeping the piston travel
uniform. Their desirability is apparent and all
the adjustment necessary with them is to let out
*
* A full reduction is the necessary amount that must be
taken from the train line to equalize the auxiliary reservoir
and the brake cylinder pressures on a car; an under-reduction
is a less amount than this; an Over-reduction is more than is
necessary and its effect is to waste air and render it frequently
impossible for an engineer to release all brakes simultaneously.
362 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the slack sufficiently or more than enough when
putting on new brake shoes.
Train Air Signal.—The train air signaling ap-
paratus on a passenger car consists of a pipe
running the length of the car with a stop cock
at each end and a branch pipe leading up to a
discharge valve which is operated by a signal
cord placed similarly to the old-time bell cord.
The signal pipes on the cars are connected to
each other and to the locomotive by hose and
couplings differing sufficiently from those of the
train line to avoid a wrong connection being
made. (See Figs. Z and Aa.)
The apparatus on the locomotive comprises a
reducing valve, which supplies the signal system
with main reservoir air but at a reduced pres-
sure—about forty pounds—and a signal valve
which causes a blast of air to blow a small
whistle in the cab when any sudden
reduction of the signal line pressure
occurs, as when the discharge valve
in some car is opened or a break-in-
two occurs.
The High-Speed Safety Valve here-
with shown (Fig. S) is for the pur-
pose of attachment of cars ordinarily
equipped with the standard brake
to a train wholly equipped with the
“high-speed” brake. This valve is
Áº screwed into the oil hole of the stan-
dard cylinder and its spring is set to
relieve the cylinder slowly of all pressure over

THE AIR BRAKE. 363
the standard maximum pressure, and thus pre-
vent wheel sliding.
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS TO ENGINEERS.
Test of Brakes.—The brake test should never
be omitted under any circumstances, and must
not be considered a waste of time on freight
trains; they have less rights, and consequently
less protection on the road than passenger trains,
and every precaution should be taken to know
that the brakes are working properly. It would
seem almost needless to Say that a long freight
train, having a close meeting point at the next
station, should have brakes tested before start-
ing; and it would appear equally absurd to omit
the brake test before leaving a terminal “be-
cause it was up grade a long ways, and brakes
are not needed to stop the train.” One brake
dragging on a grade may stall a train.
While nothing can be done by the engineer to
take the place of the terminal test of each car
that the trainmen should make while the train
is standing, yet there are several ways in which
an engineer of a moving train can tell, approx-
imately, the number of air-braked cars to which
he has connection. This may frequently be in-
strumental in discovering cases where, through
malicious intent or carelessness, many or all of
the train brakes have been rendered inoperative
from the engine by the turning of a hose cock.
The best method of making a running test of
the brakes is to make a service application of
364 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
from four to five pounds, say, two miles from the
next stopping or meeting point, railroad cross-
ing, draw-bridge, or system of interlocking
switches, and then notice the amount and length
of the blow from the train line exhaust nipple of
the engineer's valve. To an experienced man
the length of this blow will reveal very closely
the number of cars of standard piping he has in
connection with his engine. If an engineer wishes
to note the holding power of the brakes as a run-
ning test, then he should make a much heavier
reduction after the first, for it should be borne in
mind that, on account of the leakage grooves
three inches long in each car cylinder, so light
an application as four or five pounds will be felt
to hold the train better with a very few cars
working than if all were working.
Another but inferior method of making a run-
ning test a safe distance from danger points, is to
throw the handle of the engineer's valve to full
release position (having previously had, say,
twenty pounds of excess pressure) and note the
number of pounds that the main reservoir
hand of the gauge drops back before the two
pointers meet. On short trains, with average-
sized main reservoirs, if free from water, the
drop may be about one pound to the car, but a
little experimenting on an engine will determine.
If the train line exhaust of the engineer's valve
blows when the handle is thrown to full release,
there are probably no cars at all connected to
the engine. As this form of running test tends
THE AIR BRAKE. 365
to overcharge the train, it may cause brakes to
Set and drag therafter when a stop is not made.
Defective Car.—One defect in a single quick
action triple valve will cause the brakes on a
whole train to apply in emergency when a service
stop is desired. On a moving freight train this
may cause considerable damage to cars and their
contents. Such action can be determined and
the car cut out before starting if the engineer
will but watch the train line exhaust from his
engineer's valve. If this exhaust stops suddenly
before he has had time to reduce the full twenty
pounds from the gauge, he will know the brakes
have gone into emergency. They are not apply-
ing in emergency when the train line exhaust
blows properly for the length of train.
Running Position.—Always carry the handle at
this position with any engineer's valve. When
releasing brakes ordinarily if the handle is imme-
diately returned to running position before the
engineer takes his hand from the valve, no trou-
ble will be had from brakes dragging. Excess
pressure, which is obtained in this position, is
very like insurance—handy when adversity arises
and then is too late to obtain it.
Clean Valves.—Frequently clean the governor
pin valve, the excess pressure or the feed valve,
and the rotary—oiling the latter only, when re-
placing. If very little oil be used in the air
cylinder of the pump, these valves will seldom
become gummed and defective. No engineer can
do perfect braking with any of them defective.
366 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Pump Stopped.—Pumps frequently stop from
lack of oil in the steam end and fail to compress
air from heating at the air end due to their
being run unnecessarily fast. It is well to re-
member that a few drops of oil from the lubri-
cator to the steam cylinder when starting the
pump and a few minutes more time taken to
charge a train on a hot day may prevent a pump
failure. If the air cylinder of a pump be ex-
cessively hot, allowing water to be sucked in will
cool it and should be practiced before inserting
oil. Cylinder oil is more annoying in its after
effects, and hence a lighter oil is advisable—ap-
plying it always through the cup provided for
that purpose and not through the air suction.
Details could be given as to the proper procedure
where a pump has stopped on the road, but the
proper tools are generally lacking and, excepting
in a few cases, the repair cannot be made by the
engineer without long delay. It is better for
enginemen to know how to treat a pump so as to
prevent its stopping and to act accordingly than
to be able to repair it on the road.*
Air Signal.—Extra passenger engines equipped
with the air signal when it is not in use should
have their reducing valves cut out by closing the
stop cock for that purpose, so as to prevent the
accumulation of dirt and oil, rendering it de-
fective when next wanted for use.
Handling Trains.—In handling freight trains,
either partially or wholly equipped with air
brakes, allow ample room for making the stop
*The principle and working of the air pump are fully de-
acribed and illustrated in Vol. XII.
THE AIR BRAKE. 367
and wait, after shutting off, for what slack there
is to be taken up. Then a reduction of seven or
eight pounds should be made and another wait
also made for the slack to come up.” After the
Slack is taken up (“bunched”) the engineer may
reduce further as circumstances and his judg-
ment dictate, bearing in mind that the brakes
should not be released until a full stop is reached.
If it is necessary to release the brakes on a freight
train while moving slowly, it should be done
quickly and with as little air as possible and the
valve lapped until ready to re-apply. This is the
most essential point in making more than one
application.*
To release a part air train while moving is a
most skillful operation, and should only be em-
ployed when necessary. To do this without
breaking the train in two or jerking the rear end,
an engineer should place the engineer's valve in
running position for a fraction of a second and
then return it to lap, awaiting the release of any
triple valves this movement may have affected.
He should continually repeat this until probably
* With less than ten cars of air five pounds should be used
for the first reduction; with ten to twenty cars of air, five to six
pounds should be used; with twenty to thirty cars of air, six
to seven pounds; with thirty to fifty cars of air, seven to eight
pounds. This is required to get the pistons of all cars past their
leakage grooves.
+ From the time the brakes are applied until they are re-
leased, no matter how many reductions, is one application;
after they have been released and are re-applied, is the second
application.
368 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
all brakes have released, a few at a time, finally
placing his handle in full release a few seconds
to be sure all are off.
Train Parted, Etc.—When the brakes are ap-
plied suddenly from some unknown cause, such
as hose burst or train parted, the engine should
be shut off immediately and the engineer's valve
lapped. When a train has parted between air-
braked cars, it should never be attempted to pull
away from the rear section. If, after coupling
up, all the brakes do not release at once, lap
the valve and secure excess pressure; never try
to “pump them off.”
Avoiding Over-Reductions.—A reduction of more
than one-third of the auxiliary reservoir pressure
is always an over-reduction; with piston travel
not over eight inches, more than one-fourth is an
over-reduction. Freight trains are handled more
uniformly well if no over-reduction is made on
any cars of the train—even those with the short-
est travel of piston, which require but a one-fifth
reduction.
Passenger Trains.—On account of the slight
amount of slack on a passenger train, an engi-
neer should bear in mind that there is no excuse
for jerking with the air brakes. If the brakes
be released properly before coming to a dead
stop and emergency not used when the train is
moving slowly, the train will not be jerked by
the brakes. Careful handling of the throttle and
keeping the engine brakes in good order will
prevent jerks due to the engine.
THE AIR BRAKE. 369
In making water-tank or other “chalk-line *
stops, it is best not to attempt to make the stop
with one application on a passenger train. Re-
duce to a very slow speed, releasing all brakes
and immediately lapping the engineer's valve
until ready to re-apply lightly for the desired
stopping point. As the brake is so slightly ap-
plied, little or no shock is occasioned now by
holding the brakes on to a full stop.
To Avoid Sliding of Wheels on a slippery rail,
two applications may be employed in making a
stop on passenger trains. A heavy application
should then be made when the train is moving
fast and the wheels are least liable to slide. The
brakes should all be released when the speed has
been reduced to fifteen or twenty miles per hour
and, finally, a light application made—as then
wheels will slide most easily. The rails should
also be continuously Sanded.
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS TO TRAINMEN.
Blow Out Hose.—Dust, dirt and cinders are the
greatest enemy of the air brake. Since the air
brake is the trainman's best friend, trainmen
should do everything possible to keep dirt out of
the air brake apparatus by blowing out or shak-
ing dirt from all couplings before uniting them.
Setting quick action should be avoided by open-
ing cocks slowly, as quick action throws Sand
and dirt into the triple valves and cylinders and
causes many leaks.
24 Vol. 1
370 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Coupling and Uncoupling.—After coupling thu
hose, the hosé cock nearer to the engine should
first be opened and the hose tested; then the
other cock should be opened slowly to prevent
setting the brakes in emergency. -
In uncoupling, the farther hose cock from the
engine should be closed first.
The hose should always be cut by hand before
uncoupling the drawbars.”
Discovering Leaks.-This should always be done
before any test of the brakes is made and while
the train is being charged. When there is a
strong wind and leaks cannot be heard, yet the
pump indicates excessive leakage, all communi-
cation between the engine and train should be
closed and the engine thus tested. The engine
being found tight, the rear half of the train
should then be cut off, thus testing the first half
with the engine connected. Whichever half of
the train now is proven to have the leakage
should be again divided—the one part connected
to the engine and the
Aº/67, 7. other detached. Con-
*... tinuing this division
of the defective part
until the leakage is
located and repaired.
If leaks occur be-
tween hose couplings
axaree zaa.
Kºped 4 sºa5.
Szaaſdaaa //o3& God'Az///6.
* Before coupling an engine to a train or in picking up un-
charged air-braked cars, it should be ascertained that the cocks
on all the cars are right, Otherwise all the air may be thrown
away through Some Open angle cock.




THE AIR BRAKE. 371
On account of worn gaskets, a wooden wedge,
such as a match (preferred) or a nail, placed
between the lugs of the coupling will generally
prove effective (Fig. T). Paper gaskets should
not be used nor the coupling lugs bent down by
pounding. Leaky hose or pipes can often be
temporarily fixed by covering the part with a
piece of old hose split open and then wound
tightly with wire or string.
Emergency When Service is Intended.—When-
ever brakes, being properly tested, set quick-
action, it is due to some triple valve in the train
being defective. The car having the defective
valve can be located by dividing the train into
parts as described for locating leaks, each time
having the engineer charge and apply the brakes
fully in service application the same as testing.
When the car is found it should be cut out and
its air released and the whole train again tested.
Charging.—Trainmen should bear in mind that
two minutes is practically the shortest time in
which an auxiliary reservoir can be charged; that
the brake will not set until this is done; and that
if they attempt to test the brake Sooner than this,
they are simply wasting time, as the car is not
charging as fast with the train line pressure thus
reduced.
In charging long freight trains with small leak-
age, an eight-inch air pump should require about
one-half as many minutes as there are cars; a
nine and one-half inch pump should charge in
about half the time.
372 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Air Cocks,—There are two varieties of air
Cocks in use, as illustrated—the straight-way
AACP. A.
THE ANGLE COCE.
Fig. 1.
Angle Cock Open—Top View.
THE ANGLE COCE.
Fig. 2. Angle Cock Open.
cock and the angle cock.
As a handle changed
from one style of cock
to the other and bent
or straightened to cor-
respond in appearance
would produce an effect
just the opposite of what
its position would indi-
cate, notice should be
taken of the groove in
the top of all air-cock
plugs. This groove
always stands length-
wise with the pipe to be
open and across the pipe
to be closed immaterially
of how the handle points
(see Figs. U and V).
On account of its con-
struction, when an air
cock sticks, the top of
the plug should be tapped
down; if too loose, pull
handle.
Cock OPER.
up On it. by means of the TEIE PLAIN STRAIGHT-WAY
COCK.
Cars Cut Out.—When two or more engines are
coupled to a train it should be seen that the first



THE AIR BRAKE, 373
car is equipped with a quick- A/G. W.
action brake in working Nº. 9 7 º'
order. (Fig. X shows the e
• a ppearance of a freight
brake with a quick-action
triple valve attached.) TéSæ
No more than three piped ...º
cars” or cars equipped with "
the plain triple valve (see Fig. C) should be placed
together in a train, as quick action may not skip
these cars and apply the brakes behind them
properly in emergency.
F/G, X.
º
oar
APEA &/5As
V/7Z waſ
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& /a/. A/azzzz/r 2r Zéza. Öz/roaz.
Disabled Cars.--Whenever it is necessary on a
freight or passenger train to place a disabled air
car behind the air-braked cars in use, the hose
should be coupled to the next car ahead, the
angle cock opened on the car ahead, but the
angle cock on the disabled car closed. This keeps
pressure in the hose coupling, and, if the train
* A car with the brake cut out is the same as Simply as a
piped car.



374 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
should part there, the brakes on the head section
would apply before the parts were far separated.
On passenger trains, when a change in the
order of the cars would materially affect the con-
venience of the train, if the train line on any
car should become disabled, the signal pipe of
the car could be used as the train line by util-
izing a short combination coupling at each end
of the car. Such a coupling is formed by a short
piece of hose with a signal coupling on one end
and a train line coupling on the other.
Hand Brakes on Air-Braked Cars.-In setting
out air-braked cars, where safety requires that
the hand brakes be set, all the air should first be
bled from the cars. A failure to observe this
precaution may be disastrous in its results; for
the air of the car may release the hand brake,
and then leak off, or it may cause the hand brake
chain to break—either of which leaves the car
without a brake to hold it.
Releasing Brakes.—When it is necessary to re-
lease a brake by the release valve or “bleeder,”
it should be held open only until the air com-
mences to escape from the triple valve. If held
open longer, it has a tendency to set brakes on
other cars with which this car is connected.
Triple Valve Blowing.—A constant blow from
the exhaust port of a quick-action triple valve
can generally be stopped by tapping on the
heavy flanges of the triple valve, or by setting
this car in emergency. To do this latter, the car
should be detached from others, else the stopping
THE AIR BRAKE. 37;
of this one blow may cause several other triple
valves to act similarly—as emergency is what
usually gets the dirt into the triple valve in the
first place.
A continuous blow from the retaining pressure
valve is a triple valve blow and should be treated
accordingly; the retaining valve should never be
turned up or its exhaust be plugged to stop such
a blow, as then there is no way for the brake to
release after it is once set.
A Retainer Stopped Up can be overcome by re-
moving from the triple valve the small plug that
is opposite the point where the retainer pipe
enters the triple. The plug should be left out
until the retainer is repaired.
Leaving Train at Terminals. – The engine
should not be uncoupled from the train until
all the air brakes have been released. If a few
seconds be allowed after releasing, they are less
liable to re-apply after the engine is detached.
Test Brakes After Any Change.—Although the
air signal and train line couplings are not inter-
changeable, when the gaskets are worn they can
Sometimes be forced together. Hence, a test of
the air train signal and the brakes on a passenger
train if any coupling has been made or changed
should always be made. In passenger service of
to-day, with its high speeds, the safety of passen-
gers and property depends upon the air brake,
and a test of the brakes once too often is better
than to omit it. Forgetting to open an angle cock
has caused more so-called “air brake failures”
376 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
than anything else. Every one is liable to mis-
takes of this kind on freight as well as passenger
trains, but a failure to test thereafter may be
criminal carelessness.
Operating the Train Air Signal.—In using the
train air signal care should be taken to give Sud-
den, full openings of at least one full second to
the car discharge valve and then allow an inter-
val of at least two seconds between pulls. Signal
apparatus in quite a defective condition can usu-
ally be operated successfully by making even a
longer blast and interval.
A leak in the air signal pipe on a train will
permit more perfect signals to be given forward
of the leak than to the rear of it, thus often
locating it to the car.
(See Fig. Z, showing the arrangement of the
Train Signaling Apparatus, and Fig. Aa, showing
details.)
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS TO SWITCHMEN AND
YARDMEN.
Cause of Leaks.-Pulling hose apart instead of
uncoupling them by hand and knocking cars
together hard in coupling draw bars are the
causes of many broken and leaky pipes on air-
braked cars. If badly leaking, it may necessi-
tate the switching of them out of the air braked
portion of a train—the trouble thus reverting to
those who caused it.
“Bleeding ” a Train. —If yardmen have to
“bleed” a train in order to switch it, there are
THE AIR BRAKE. 377
three ways of doing it, and the amount of time
required is in the order in which they follow:
(1) Couple the train to an air-equipped switch
engine and have the brake set and released re-
peatedly in Service application until the pressure
is exhausted from the auxiliary reservoirs.
(2) Slowly open an angle cock at one end of
the train and leave it— open; then “bleed’ each
car by the “bleeder.” If the angle cock be
opened quickly instead of slowly and the brakes
thus applied in emergency, it will take twenty
per cent. longer to “bleed ” the train, as there
will be about ten pounds more air to release
from each auxiliary.
(3) If the train is not to be switched for half
an hour or so, make a slight leak at one end of
the train line—so slight that the air will escape
through the leakage grooves in each cylinder
without setting the brake. These leakage
grooves are about three inches long, and hence
if the air does not enter the brake cylinder fast
enough to push the piston past these grooves the
brakes will not apply.
CAR, TXESIGN.
Brake Cylinders.-Large brake cylinders are
advisable so that the required leverage of the car
will not exceed ten—that is, the power exerted
by the brake piston would not require to be
increased more than ten times by the levers in
order to give the necessary power at the brake
shoes.
378 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The cylinders should always be placed in as
protected a position as possible without being
inaccessible for cleaning and oiling or other
repairs. On freight cars constructed for special
Service it is often advisable to alter the usual
freight brake arrangement by separating the
auxiliary reservoir from the brake cylinder or
even employing two cylinders—one for each
truck of the car.
Where the auxiliary reservoir is not placed
centrally on a car, the release rods, being of dif-
ferent lengths, should be so supported that their
jarring while the car is in motion will not release
the brake.
Stiff Brake Rigging is essential to good brake
construction, as light levers and brake beams
will cause a not inconsiderable loss in brake
power due to excessive piston travel and cause
the car to pull very much harder on account of
the small brake shoe clearance when the brake
is not applied. -
Hand Brake.—It is desirable to design the hand
brake on freight cars to work with the air brake
piston instead of against it, so that the air brake
would not throw the trainmen from the cars if
they were using the hand brake at the time the
air brake was applied.
Braking Power.—All wheels should have brakes
applied to them. The leverage should be propor-
tioned to the light weight of the car (except cars
be for some service where they will carry always
a constant load, as wrecking cars, pile drivers,
THE AIR BRAKE. 379
tool cars, etc.) and the same class of equipment
should have a like percentage of braking power.
Where these rules are not observed, wheel slid-
ing and rough handling of trains are more than
likely to occur without the engineer being able
to detect it.
Brake Hangers should be so placed on freight
cars that the brake shoes will naturally leave the
wheels when the brake is released. When this
is not done, a large amount of brake shoe friction
will be had on moving trains.
Style of Brake.—The outside hung brake (i.e.,
brake beams hung outside the truck) has been
found more desirable than the inside hung (i.e.,
brake beams hung inside the truck), as the former
is the more accessible for inspection and the
repairs are generally less.
The dead-levers should preferably be fastened to
the car body instead of to the truck, as the latter
causes flange wear due to the slewing of the truck.
Piping.—On passenger cars with air signal hose
the same length as train line hose, the signal pipe
should be inside the train pipe and dropped to a
plane four inches below the latter and secured by
a suitable bracket, to prevent the hose rubbing
together when coupled.
All pipes on both freight and passenger cars
should be rigidly secured to the body of the car
in such a way as to prevent their loosening when
the car timbers become more thoroughly Sea-
Somed. Too little attention is often paid to the
proper Security of piping.
380 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
LOCOMOTIVE DESIGN.
The Main Reservoir should be securely fastened
to the engine frame and be of large capacity,
especially for freight service. If one large res-
ervoir cannot be employed, two or more smaller
ones of such shape as to be hung in convenient
positions may be used.
The Steam Brake is now seldom applied to road
engines and there are many objections to its
use, most of which are equally applicable to the
use of the independent air brake for engines. If
the engine brakes be independent of the train
brakes, accidents may result from any sudden
application of the brakes on the train, burst hose,
parting of train, etc.
Brake Cylinders.-As the air brake is superior
to the steam brake on locomotives for road
service, so is the push-down or push-out form
of air brake cylinder superior to the pull-up,
and requires much less repairs to keep in good
order.
Braking Power.—The braking power of loco-
motives should be as high as for average cars.
To accomplish this the tender should be braked
to its full light weight, with the driver and truck
brake at Seventy-five per cent. their weights.
Piping.—Good work in the piping of a locomo-
tive is essential to light and economical repairs.
Whenever possible, pipes should be bent and few
angle fittings—and those of the best quality—
used. Low bends in piping which will form
traps for condensation or other accumulations
THE AIR BRAKE. 381
should be avoided. Sufficient unions to enable
the parts requiring most frequent repairs to
be readily accessible are necessary, and these
should be placed where oscillation of the pipes.
will be the least liable to loosen them and cause
leaks,
Metallic Gaskets should be used in all the steam
unions of air pumps to lessen the liability of
pump failures caused by pieces of destructible
gaskets obstructing small pump ports.
Location of Air Pumps.--To avoid dust and dirt
in the air pump, it should be so placed that the
air suction is above the running board. If it be not
practicable to place the pump entirely above the
running board, the suction ports should have a
pipe leading to a clean cool place for receiving
the air.
, Pump Packing.—The piston rods of air pumps
should be packed with some of the many suc-
cessful forms of metallic packing. This will
greatly reduce the liability of the packing burn-
ing out and minimize the cost of repairs.
Tender Brake.—Outside hung tender brakes are
much preferable to brake beams hung inside the
truck, although theoretically the latter are supe-
rior. The brake should be equalized by levers
and not “chain equalized.” As a properly de-
signed tender brake will be a powerful one, it is
advisable to employ standard freight car sizes
of rods, pins, and levers; brake beams as stiff as
those for use of passenger cars may be necessary,
however,
382 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
REPAIRS ON LOCOMOTIVES.
In repairs to brake cylinders, only the best oil-
tanned leather should be used; if it is exposed to
the heat of the fire box it should be frequently
oiled.
The driver brake should be kept in excellent
condition as it is probably the most powerful
and most frequently used brake on the train, and
also serves to dress the steel tires, thereby saving
repeated turning of tires and damage to switches,
frogs, and track.
Air Signal.—The reducing valve and the whis-
tle should be frequently cleaned, as with the
former usually lies any defect that may cause
false signaling. The reducing valve should al-
ways be placed in a warm (not hot) position on
a pipe coming from the main reservoir, so that
the air will be free from dirt and moisture—its
two enemies.
REPAIRS ON CARS.
Yard Testing Plants.-Large terminal points
should have their yards equipped with air pipes
between every other track for testing purposes,and
should be supplied with air at a pressure of not
less than seventy nor more than ninety pounds.
Triple valves that have defective slide valves
and seats should be sent to the general repair
shops where a special tool for planing off the
seat and a facing plate for the valve will be pro-
ductive of better work, and at one-third the cost
of hand work.
THE AIR BRAKE. 383
THE SWIEENEY BRAIKE.
The device termed the “Sweeney Brake” is
really but the conversion of one of the cylinders
of a locomotive into an air compressor when the
air pump is insufficient or has stopped entirely.
It has been used mainly on heavy descending
grades, but can also be used for making a stop
on level road when necessary.
Fig. Y shows its application to a locomotive.
Tapped into the steam chest is a pipe leading to
the main drum. On this pipe is a plug cock oper-
ated from the
F/G, Y. cab by a lever, a
7--------, safety-valve and
j----, a check valve
------------------fºss-s-s------------ ; (not shown).
When this de-
vice is to be
used the en-
gine's reverse
lever is placed
in the back mo-
tion and this
stop cock open-
ed. Thus the en-
gine cylinder is
7%a cºwaa/WAY A/A CoaſAAAsso/*. converted into a
powerful com-
pressor, taking air from the engine nozzle and
charging the main reservoir, and from thence the
train.
|
ºr ~~
s:-ºwa 22.
Kºgº.



384 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
COMPRESSED AIR FOR SEIOP PURPOSES.
When the amount of air necessary for shop
purposes is small, and it is found more conven-
ient to use air pumps than a compressor, al-
though more wasteful of steam, air pumps can
be arranged to do work with considerable saving
by compounding them with an inter-cooler. One
six-inch pump, water-jacketed, will form a suffi-
cient high pressure pump for two eight-inch
pumps as low pressure compressors if a water
cooled reservoir be placed intermediately. The
Saving thus, over direct high compression, will
be something considerable, and the pumps keep
eooler and last longer.
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THE AIR BRAKE.
385
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25 Vol. 1

*386 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
F/6. Aa.
Main signal Pipe # g
2:=2% sºmº *>
To Signal g
Žiž x: «, 7 - 2% º ºf ***** #
*}.} x
× - - - - - - - -º- +----------- §
OS: &
i “thºlſº s To Car Discharge Valve
Nº. & > *re-retre+ºğ { SIGNAL Pl PE
N §§ & -SSºlº: STRAINER
s
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SIONAL VALVE
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3.
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-
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Eſ-:
*. - - * Fºsterºtae'
- 'improvepºrtepucino valvº,
TRAIN AIR SIGNALLING APPARATUS.
NoTE.—For further reference to the automatic air brake see Appendix D.





















CHA PTE R W II.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER FOR RAILWAYS,
EXPLAINING AND ILLUSTRATING ITS LAWS AND
PRACTICAL APPLICATION AS A MOTIVE POWER
FOR GENERAL TRANSPORTATION PURPOSEs.
Elsewhere I have described the steam locomo-
tive and its origin and growth, giving with great
minuteness the particulars connected there with.
The cuts and engravings which accompany the
account make the whole plain to the reader and
add much to the practical and romantic interest
of the subject. While exhaustive, apparently, as
regards railway carriage, it is yet incomplete.
A new way has arisen for transmitting power. “
Steam is no longer the only force for propelling
the locomotive. Something still more attractive,
electricity, looms on the horizon to compete with
it. How far this competition will prove success-
ful, we can only surmise. Only the future can
determine the true place which electricity is to
Occupy in the evolution of general railway trans-
portation. The desirability that its extended use
should prevail no one will question, as electricity
is in many particulars much more attractive than
steam. When power can be furnished through
this medium as cheaply as by steam, then indeed,
Will it be recognized and hailed as a distinct step
<\ (387)
388 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
forward in the progress mankind has been mak-
ing for thousands of years toward a perfect
system of carriage.
Of all subjects that relate to transportation
and to the medium of power in connection there-
with, none, it is prob-
able, excites more
general interest than
electricity; but about
Thome is mankind so
ºr generally ignorant.
FFT We see Cars and
Electric Locomotive. Baltimore & Ohio trains flying along
Railroad Tunnel. our streets and on
our elevated railways
through the medium of this agency, but to all
except a few experts the details are a profound
mystery. We know in a general way that power
is transmitted along a wire to be utilized as
the vehicle progresses or, according to another
method, it is husbanded in mysterious packages,
or storage batteries, on the vehicle itself, to be
utilized as needed in the progress of the journey;
but what the storage battery is, and how power
thus confined is utilized, we are only vaguely
informed upon. How is this wonderful agent,
invisible and intangible, yet powerful and com-
pliant, gathered and dispersed? Through what
intricate and subtle medium is its power held in
suspension, to be conveyed, at the will of the
attendant, to the wheels and so to the load they
carry? Only experts can answer, and they not
Hºlill -
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lift |### #
, ºft |###|f ºilfillililill!!
*... Tº left|{º
8 . . * = R. J., I- XI...s.l. Tººl" .
tºº. … sº º' " -















ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 389
always so a layman can understand. I am free
to confess myself lacking in many practical
details, although I have been familiar with elec-
tricity and it uses for forty years. When young,
I was, for those days, an expert in electrical
matters, so much so, indeed, that the government
sought to have me sever my relations with rail-
roads and connect myself permanently with its
signal Service. Acquaintance with electricity at
that period of my life has led me to keep myself
more or less in touch with it since; but it has been
the touch of an amateur, not such as to properly
enable me to teach or to trace Scientifically its
generation or application to transportation. I
understand the subject, but not exhaustively, as
it demands, or as an instructor should under-
stand it. It was because of this that I did not at
first contemplate incorporating in “THE SCIENCE
OF RAILWAYS ’’ an account of the uses of elec-
tricity in connection with the problem of trans-
portation. Its growing importance, however, has
compelled this recognition, albeit, late. I now
find it necessary to take up the subject, and to
take it up in a manner that will not only
prove instructive to students, but also to men of
the highest attainments in this interesting field
of thought and to those who are familiar with
the methods and operations of ordinary steam
railway practice as well.
My first connection with railways was partly
associated with the telegraph department of the
Service, and in this way I became interested and
g-
390 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
familiar with electrical enterprises and ambi-
tions, as intimated above.
Electrical science
was, however, in an embryotic state when I
ceased to concern myself with it in a practical
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Type Railway Generator Field with Brush
Holder. (A kilowatt equals one and one-
third horse-power.)
way; but, while ceasing to
*ś Ys follow it, I continued to
preserve an interest in it
of a theoretical and specu-
lative nature. This inter-
est was, however, indefi-
nite and unsubstantial. So
that to-day after electric-
ity has passed bey on d
primary conditions and
developed wide possibili-
ties and uses, I confess
myself hardly worthy to
be called even a student.
No one who cannot dis-
cuss it at once practically,
scientifically a mid
theoretically, is
worthy to handle
the subject in such
a treatise as I desire
to incorporate as a
part of my work on
railways, which I
have sought from the first to make comprehen-
sive and practicable. For this reason I have
called to my aid in the preparation of this part of
my work a gentleman of world-wide celebrity in

























































ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 391
electrical mechanism, Mr. Charles F. Scott, an
honored member of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, and the electrician in chief
of one of the few great electric manufacturing
industries of the world. It may be said of him
that he holds a high rank as regards the theory and
practical application of electricity, and there are
few who may with any plausibility claim to be his
Superiors in presenting its application to railways.
His long association with the great electrical in-
stitution I have referred to has made him familiar
with the secrets and progress of electricity, while
his scientific education and rare attainments ena-
ble him to understand perfectly its most subtle
phases. As a teacher he is so exhaustive and
clear in his statements that all he says may be
comprehended. However, the subject is a scien-
tific one and, like all scientific subjects, requires
intelligent, careful and discriminating study to
understand. Because of the vast scope of the
theme and its technical nature I have found Mr.
Scott's assistance fundamental rather than acces-
sory. What he has to say is so conclusive that
after he has spoken I have been unable to add
anything that seems to me to be of particular
value. The engravings of electrical apparatus
which accompany the matter, I have prepared
especially for this work. They are practically
exhaustive of the subject at this time, and form,
with the printed description, a complete exposi-
tion of the theme. With this explanation I will,
Without further introduction, proceed to take up
392 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the question of electricity in the order in which
it naturally presents itself for investigation. Be-
fore doing this, however, I may pause long enough
to say that while railway carriage, as it has been
known in the past, pre-supposes steam as a motive
power and the uses of Stephenson locomotives,
the theory of such carriage (its science, I may
say) would not be changed in any important re-
spect by the use of electricity. This the reader
will see upon reflection. It will involve changes
in machinery, but not in organization or methods
of business. All the departments of railway ser- .
vice and the subdivisions thereof, with their
principles of business and methods of applica-
tion, will go on just as they do to-day without
change of any kind—at least from this source.
The men who now operate our steam locomo-
tives would be transferred to those operated by
electricity. That is about the only change in
the personnel of the service there would be.
Therefore, in taking up the subject of electricity
in its application to railways, the reader may
dismiss all side speculations of a less interesting
nature.
THE RELATION OF ELECTRICITY TO TRANSPORTATION.
Power.—The fundamental problem in trans-
portation is the production and application of
power. The cost of transportation depends
largely upon the cost of power, and its limita-
tions in speed and flexibility are determined in
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 393
great degree by the source of power. There are
two ordinary sources of power, fuel and falling
water. The latter has been useless for transpor-
tation purposes as it could not be conveyed and
applied to the mov-
ing of trains. Coal,
on the other hand, is
easily transported and
can be carried upon
the moving train; its
energy of chemical
combustion can be
transformed through
the agency of steam
into mechanical en-
ergy which can be
applied directly to
the moving of the
* train. In the cabie
1500 Kilowatt Generator Armature Core, , tº t
showing longitudinal slots for winding and 1 oad the engine is
i. openings between the thin iron plates stationary and the
Or Ventilation. &
power is conveyed to
the car by a rope. This system finds its limita-
tions in the short distances to which the cable
can extend owing to its low efficiency.
Electricity.—Electricity is not a source of en-
ergy. It does not replace the falling water nor
the burning coal nor the street car horse. It is
the harness for connecting the engine or turbine
to its work, and it replaces the cable as a means
for conveying power from a stationary engine to a
moving car. One can scarcely imagine a simpler

394 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
and more direct method of moving a street car
than by a cable drawn by a stationary engine
unless indeed it be the street car horse harnessed
directly to his car; but the street car horse could
Scarcely have been
swept away more
quickly by an epi-
b—- demic than he has
Kęss #S_lºgº tº
iZ | ë. sº Hºwa been by the electric
ºf i* lº. sºft motor. The costly
ºf: sº ſº ºlº, cable is destined to
*ILºn; ** § § follow the horse
*ś # into obscurity.
The locomotive
replaced animal
power for long dis-
tance transporta-
tion, but there are
many objections to
it for hauling small
1500 Kilowatt Generator, driven by a vertical Ca,N'S at frequent in-
º Metropolitan West Side Railway, Chi- tervals through the
streets of townsand
cities. For this service animal power continued in
use until the cable and the electric current enabled,
us to harness the car to a stationary engine or a
turbine. The electric car has replaced the horse
car and has also revolutionized street railway
service. By it speed and comfort have been
increased and operating expenses reduced.
The Problem Presented.—Whether the electric
motor is to continue its widening range and take































ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE PO WER. 395
the place of the steam locomotive is a very inter-
esting and important question. While the loco-
motive is not adapted to the conditions of street
railway traffic, it is possible that long distance
transportation cannot be met as economically
by the motor as by the locomotive.
It is often asserted, and possibly truly, that
electricity is in its infancy and that it only
awaits further comprehension of its mysteries
to enable it to be applied to the solution of
every kind of problem. A little further develop-
ment, many believe, will relegate the steam, loco-
motive to the past and add unprecedentedly to .
the speed of trains. Some even predict that
the motor will completely supplant all steam
engines.
Intelligent consideration of the subject requires
an examination of the functions of electrical
action, the characteristics of electrical apparatus
and the conditions of electrical transmission, so
that we may from these determine in some
measure the possibilities and the limitations of
electric traction.
The problem will be thus generally treated
in the following pages, namely, the electrical
principles and laws which underlie the subject:
the application of these in electric machines
and in transmission; the systems of transmis-
Sion and the apparatus suitable for railway ser-
Vice; the specific elements which go to make
up an electric railway system, illustrated by
descriptions of electric roads representing the
396 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
varieties of service performed by motors;* and,
finally, an examination of the application of elec-
tric traction to the conditions which prevail in
steam railways, the whole being concluded by a
comparison of the present state of electric trac-
tion with that which has preceded it, followed
by a forecast of the probable development of the
future.
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES AND LAWS.
What Electricity Does.—The function of elec-
tricity in the operation of railways is to receive
energy from an engine (or other prime mover)
and to deliver it upon the moving car in me-
chanical form. The elements in the system are:
(a). A prime mover (an engine or water-wheel)
for the supply of mechanical energy. (b). An
electric generator or dynamo for receiving the
mechanical energy and transforming it into elec-
tric energy. (c). A transmission circuit for con-
veying the electric energy to the point where it
is to be used. (d). An electric motor for receiv-
ing the electric energy and transforming it into
mechanical energy, suitably regulated and con-
trolled.
* In these references the question of the utilization of elec-
tricity for the operation of railroads, other than those for city
and suburban service is referred to. Indeed, the whole ques-
tion of electricity from the standpoint of railroad men is, how
far will electricity be able to supplant steam in the operations
of railroads for handling general traffic? This, in its place
receives the attention which it merits, as it is with relation to
this phase of the Subject that the whole question receives con-
sideration here.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 397
The Sources of Electric Currents.-Electricity
may be produced in a number of ways. Heat
also may be derived from several sources, from
mechanical energy—by friction or percussion; or
from chemical energy—by combustion; or from
electrical energy—by the passing of a current
through a wire. Electricity may result from the
expenditure of mechanical energy—by friction of
certain substances; or through the agency of the
dynamo; or from chemical energy—by the dis-
solving of zinc in a battery; or from heat energy
—in thermal batteries. The two ordinary sources
of electricity are the dynamo and the battery.
The currents from the two sources are of similar
nature. The only reason the battery is not used
for supplying current for lighting and power is
its high cost.
The two conditions necessary for the flow of
current are, first, a force for sending or “pushing”
the current through the circuit called electro-
motive force, and second, a complete circuit
through which the current may flow. The cir-
cuit is usually of copper wire, supported and
protected by wood, glass, rubber or other insul-
ating materials through which current does not
pass. In both the dynamo and the battery there
are two terminals between which there is electro-
motive force which will send a current through
a circuit if its ends are connected to the respec-
tive terminals. The strength of the current is
determined by the intensity of this force and by
the resistance of the circuit. This is analogous
398 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
to the flow of water in a pipe—the flow depends
upon the pressure and the resistance of the pipe.
What electricity is, the cause of electro-motive
force, the nature of the electric current, are topics
which do not directly concern us here; neither
do the causes of chemical affinity and combus-
tion, nor the reason that liquid water is changed
to invisible steam under the influence of heat.
It is enough to know the facts and to apply to a
useful purpose the principles and laws which
have been deduced from scientific investigation
and experience.
The Effects of Electric Current.—When an elec-
tric current flows through a circuit several phe-
nomena may be observed, notably certain heating
and magnetic effects.
The Heating Effect.—Heat is produced in all
parts of the circuit by the passage of the cur-
rent. The quantity of heat depends upon the
strength of the current and upon the resistance
to its flow. The resistance depends upon the
material and size of the conductor. If the same
current pass through a copper wire, an iron
wire and a carbon rod, all of the same diameter,
the copper will remain comparatively cool, the
iron will become warm and the carbon quite hot.
If the same current pass through a heavy wire
and a fine wire of one-third the cross section, the
heat produced in the fine wire will be three times
as great as in an equal length of the heavy wire.
Loss of heat is loss of energy. Conductors are,
therefore, made large and of material of high
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 399
conductivity (copper), except where heat is de-
sired, when the opposite course is followed. In
incandescent lighting, the lamp filament—the
part of the circuit wherein heat is to be gener-
ated for producing incandescence, is made of a
fine carbon thread, while the wires to the lamp
are made of copper wire of sufficient size to pre-
vent the waste heat in the wires from exceed-
ing a small per cent. of the useful heat in the
carbon. If the distance to one lamp be twice
as great as it is to another lamp, the length of
wire must, of course, be twice as great. The
same size of wire would involve twice the loss.
The same loss is secured in the two cases if the
cross section of the wire in the larger circuit be
doubled, making its weight four times that of the
wire required for the lamp at half the distance.
In a system for the electrical transmission of
power the heating effect of the current is not
useful. There is not only the loss of power, both
in circuits and in machines, but the rise of tem-
perature which results may cause damage to
apparatus unless adequate precautions are taken
in its construction and operation to avoid undue
heating.
The Magnetic Effect.—The space surrounding a
Wire carrying current is a magnetic field. Iron
filings tend to take a definite position, and do so
quite strongly if the current is a large one. The
effect is increased if the wire is in the form of a
coil so that the current in each of many succes-
sive turns may act upon the same space. It is still
400
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
further increased if the coil surrounds an iron core,
as iron is much better than air as a conductor for
the lines of magnetic force. The lines of force
may be detected outside of the core by iron filings,
E]ectro Magnet.
A current through
a Wire coil around
an iron core makes
it a magnet. The
m a g n e tic field
causes iron filings
or a COmpass nee-
dle to take a defi-
nite position.
as is shown in the accompanying
illustration. If an ordinary piv-
oted compass needle be placed in
the field it will take a direction
parallel to the lines of force at that
point. If the core be of soft iron,
and the current be interrupted, the
magnetic field vanishes. If the di-
rection of the current through the
wire be reversed the magnetic field
also reverses, the form, as indicated
by the filings, remains the same,
but the end of the compass needle
which was attracted before is now repelled, so
that the needle will find stable equilibrium when
it has turned completely around and its direction
is reversed. In general the strength of the mag-
metic field, or the magnetic in-
duction, is increased by increas-
ing the proportion of iron in
the magnetic circuit and de-
creasing the length of air space.
A double magnet is illustrated
here in which the upper ends
of the iron cores are joined
by an iron yoke. A keeper or
armature of soft iron is placed
near the other ends of the
Double Electro Magnet.
The path or circuit of the
magnetic lines is almost
entirely in the iron cores,
yoke and armature,


FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 401
cores. When current flows through the colls
the iron becomes a magnet and the armature is
strongly attracted toward the cores in the coils.
This form of electro magnet is in common use in
electric bells and telegraphic apparatus. If the
cores in the coil were removed the armature
would still be attracted, but very weakly. The
magnetic effects of currents and the reactions
between currents and magnets are utilized in the
dynamo and the motor.
Electrical Units.—Current is measured in am-
peres. The ampere (corresponding to gallons
per minute in hydraulics) is the current which
flows through one ohm resistance when the
pressure is one volt. The current required by
ordinary incandescent lamps varies from about
one-half to one ampere. The current taken by
an ordinary street car averages twenty to forty
amperes, and is usually much more in starting
and on grades.
Pressure, or electro-motive force, is measured
in volts. The volt (corresponding to pounds per
Square inch in hydraulics) is the electro-motive
force required for sending one ampere through
a resistance of one ohm. The electro-motive
force of an ordinary cell of gravity battery is
about one volt. Incandescent lamps are usually
made for about fifty or one hundred volts. The
ordinary electro-motive force on street-railway
circuits is five or six hundred volts.
Resistance is measured in ohms. The Ohm is
the resistance through which one volt will force
26 Vol. 1
402 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
one ampere. One ohm is approximately the
resistance of one thousand feet of copper wire
one-tenth of an inch in diameter (No. 10 B. & S.
gauge—weight, thirty-one pounds*) or of one mile
of copper wire .23 inches in diameter (No. 3
B. & S. gauge—weight, eight hundred and forty
pounds).
Ohm's Law.—The current in a circuit is found
by dividing the electro - motive force by the
resistance.*
The Energy of Electric Currents.-Energy is
required for the production of an electric cur-
rent. In the battery, chemical energy and in the
dynamo, mechanical energy are converted into
electrical energy. The electrical energy re-
appears in other forms—as heat in wires and
lamps and electric heaters; as mechanical energy
in motors, or as chemical energy in electro-
plating. In an ordinary electrical power system
part of the heat produced by the burning of coal
is wasted and part makes steam; part of the
* B. & S. (Brown & Sharpe) gauge represents the American
standard gauge. t
Electro-motive force E
+ Current = , or C = —, or Amperes =
Eesistance JR
Wolts WolfS
Also, Ohms = —, and Wolts = Amperes X Ohms.
Ohms Amperes
Therefore, if it is required to find what resistance will allow
fifty volts to produce a current of three hundred amperes, divide
the volts by the amperes.
WOlts 50 1
Ohms = — = — = — Ohm.
Amperes 300 (6
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 403
energy of the steam is wasted and part produces
mechanical energy in the cylinder; part is lost
in friction and part reaches the dynamo; part is
lost in heat in the dynamo and part is delivered
as electrical energy to the circuit; part is wasted
in heating the wires and part reaches the motor;
part appears as useless heat in the motor and all
that is left of the energy of the coal after loss at
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Cross Section of a Railway Motor.
every step appears as mechanical energy deliv-
ered by the motor shaft. The energy at any
point in the system is of course exactly equal to
the sum of all the parts into which it is subse-
quently divided. -
Mechanical energy is measured in foot-pounds
and mechanical power in foot-pounds per minute,
or in horse-power. Electrical power is measured
in horse-power, or in watts. Seven hundred and

404 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
forty-six watts equal one horse-power. A kilo-
watt is one thousand watts, or practically one
and one-third horse-power. The electric power
which is being delivered by a dynamo depends
upon two things, the pressure (electro-motive
force) and the current. An exact analogue is
found in a force pump where the power depends
upon the pressure and the quantity of water
pumped, and the horse-power is found by multi-
plying the pounds pressure per square inch by
the gallons per minute and dividing by seventeen
hundred and fourteen. The electric horse-power
delivered by a dynamo is found by multiplying
the pressure in volts by the current in amperes
(giving the watts) and dividing by seven hundred
and forty-six. The output
in kilowatts is found by
dividing the number of
watts by one thousand.
The power delivered to a
motor is similarly found
by multiplying the
electro-motive force by
|- the amperes. In this case,
Winding a Railway Generator however, the current flows
Armature. ©
against the pressure and
the power is delivered to the machine instead of
by it. A small current at high pressure will
deliver the same power as a large current at a
low pressure. Five amperes at one thousand
volts is equivalent in power to ten amperes
at five hundred volts, or fifty amperes at one

FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 405
hundred volts, as the product is in each case five
thousand watts, or six and two-thirds horse-
power. The power which appears as heat in
a wire is similarly found by multiplying the
amperes by the electro-motive force measured
between the ends of the wire. The power is
equal also to the square of the number of
amperes multiplied by the ohms resistance, or,
Watts=amperes × volts=amperes” X ohms =
C E = C* R.”
If twenty amperes flow through two miles of
No. 3 B. & S. copper wire (two ohms) the
Watts == Cº R = 400 × 2 = 800 = 1.07 horse-
power.
FLECTRIC MACHINES.
How Current is Produced in the Dynamo.—There is
a reciprocal relation between electricity and mag-
netism. On the one hand, a current of electricity
passed around an iron core will make a magnet of
the iron; on the other hand, if under proper con-
ditions a wire be moved in a magnetic field or
near a magnet, a current will be produced in it.
In an ordinary dynamo the magnetic field is pro-
duced by a “field” consisting of a number of poles
or magnets of iron, which are surrounded by coils
of wire through which currents are passed. The
magnets are joined at one end by a solid and
heavy iron yoke, and at the other they confront
the armature. The armature contains an iron
core on which wires are placed parallel to the
armature shaft, and shown in the cross Section
* C stands for Current, R for Resistance and E for Electro-
Motive force.
406 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
of the armature as black dots in the accompany-
ing illustration. The move-
ment of a wire in front of a
pole and through the magnetic
field which lies between it and
the armature, induces in the
wire a pressure or electro-mo-
tive force which will produce
a current if the ends of the
wire be joined. The lines of
- magnetic force pass from al-
*:::::... ternate poles to the armature,
...º.º. and pass from the armature
hº º, section) at back to the field in the in-
.*.*.*.*.*... termediate poles. As a wire
lines. passes in front of a pole, the
course of the electro-motive force will be in one
direction if the pole be positive, and in the other
direction if it be negative, and as the poles are of
alternate signs, the electro-motive force will be
first in one direction and then in the other, alter-
nating as each pole is passed. If a wire be laid
on the armature in front of one pole and is car-
ried back on the armature opposite the next pole,
so that the two free ends of the wire are at the
same end of the armature, the electro-motive
forces which are induced by the two adjacent
poles under which the wires simultaneously
move will be added together and the electro-mo-
tive force on the turn of wire will be the sum of
that on each of the two parts. If the wire be
wound in the form of a coil of several turns, it is

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 407
º:|
evident that the electro-motive force upon the
coil will be the sum of the electro-motive forces
in the several turns.
The field is designed to have great magnetic
strength with small magnetizing current by
making the magnetic circuit of iron, which is an
excellent conductor for the magnetic flux, and
by making the air gaps Small. The speed of the
dynamo is usually made as high as the mechan-
ical conditions permit.
The electro-motive force induced in a coil of
wire, as has been explained, reverses in direc-
tion whenever the coil passes in front of a new
pole. the electro-motive force in the wire re-
verses in direction, and the current which may
flow in it is an alternating current, correspond-
ing to a reciprocating motion. The two ends of
the coil may be connected to two separate rings,
on which brushes rest for conducting the cur-
rent to an external circuit.
A direct or continuous current is secured from
the dynamo by placing on it a large number of
coils and connecting them to a commutator. The
coils occupy many successive
positions on the armature so
that at all times there are some
coils in which a high electro-
motive force is being devel-
oped, while other coils are in
a position in which little or no cº.º.º.º.
force is being developed, owing groove at top of neck for
attaching Wires from are
to their intermediate position mature.

408 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
with respect to the field poles. There is a posi-
tion with respect to the fields in which a
coil produces its maximum force, and, as the
armature turns, all the coils successively pass
through this position. The ends of the coils are
connected to bars of the commutator on which
rest brushes for conducting the current to the
external circuit. As the armature turns, the
brushes make successive contact with the vari-
ous commutator bars, and, through them, to the
coils of the armature. The brushes are placed
at the proper angle for connection to the coils
which are giving an electro-mo-
tive force, and as the angular
position of the brushes is not
changed, they are continually
connected with the coils which
º: are in the same position with
commºn... showing reference to the poles, and are,
tºº. therefore, giving the same elec-
tro-motive force. The current
in the individual armature coils is an alternating
current, but current in the external circuit is a
direct current flowing constantly in the same
direction.
Dynamos may be designed to give either an
approximately constant current or an approxi-
mately constant electro-motive force. The lat-
ter, or constant potential dynamo, is ordinarily
run at constant speed, and with a constant field
current. If this field current is derived from the
dynamo itself the dynamo is said to be self-
ſºſſº
\lſº






ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 4.09
excited, and if from a separate source, separately
excited. The electric-motive force of a dynamo
is determined by the strength of field, the speed,
and the number of wires which are in series.
The latter element is fixed when the machine is
designed, the speed is fixed by the driving power,
and the method of adjusting the force on a ma-
chine in operation is by variation of the strength
of the field by changing the current through the
field. When a dynamo is delivering current, the
electro-motive force upon its terminals decreases
as the load increases, owing to the resistance of
the winding of the armature and to certain mag-
netic reactions. The force at full load may be
made equal to, or greater than that at no load by
an increase in the exciting or magnetizing cur-
rent around the fields. This is ordinarily ac-
complished by compounding the machine, i. e.,
placing upon the field a second winding through
which the main current flows for the purpose of
adding the magnetizing
effect of this current to that tº
of the regular shunt winding. /.
This is shown in the diagram §º.
of a compound wound dy- UNC (O)
namo. The current from Sès—º
one brush which rests on the See -
commutator passes around a A Compºuº Wºund Dynº
few turns upon the field poles . . *:::: º
before going out to the cir- nearly constant and is varied

by the rheostat. The heavy
cuit. The fine wire “shunt” winding carries the current
to the load, and therefore vae
winding of many turns is lies as theioma varies.
#-53.#:--
- I*—.
410 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
taken in a “parallel” connection from the cir-
cuit and passes through an adjustable resistance
or “rheostat” by which the field current may be
Varied.
How Motion is Produced in the Motor.—It is well
known that the opposite or unlike poles of two
magnets attract, and that like poles repel. The
production of motion in the electric motor may
be readily understood when it is seen that the
field and armature are in reality two electro-
magnets, which are retained in such a position
and relation that a constant force exists between
them. In the accompanying figure is shown a
two pole motor in which the
field currents magnetize the
field poles, making the upper
pole positive and the lower
pole negative. Currents are
passed through the armature
wires in such a way that the
wires on the upper half of the
armature (shown as circles in
g the figure) carry current in
... "...º.º. one direction, and those on
by ºn... •º the lower half in the opposite
and in armature wires. AT-
rows show attraction and direction. This magnetizes
..º.º.º. the armature, giving a posi-
tive pole at one side and a
negative pole at the other. The attraction be-
tween unlike poles and the repulsion between
like poles will produce a tendency to rotation. As
the armature revolves the connection between

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 411
the circuit and the wires on the armature is
changed (at the commutator), so that the wires
which are on the upper half of the armature still
carry current in the same direction as before, and
the magnetic poles remain fixed in the same posi-
tion with respect to the field, although the arma-
ture itself revolves. In a multi-polar machine
there are a number of magnetic poles formed by
the armature currents midway between the field
poles.
The armature of a direct current motor is
wound similar to that of a direct current dynamo
and the connections to the commutator are made
in the same way. As the arma-
ture revolves in front of the field
poles of the motor, an electro-
motive force is generated in its
coils similar to that which is gen-
erated in the coils of a dynamo.
If two machines be driven at the
same speed and are excited by
equal field currents, so that equal forces are pro-
duced, connections may be made between like
brushes and no current will flow between the
machines. If the field current of one of the
machines be increased, its electro-motive force
will be increased above that of the other ma-
chine, and it will send a current back through
the other machine and drive it as a motor. If
the relative field strengths of the machines be
changed, the second machine will run as a dy.
na:r 9, and the first machine as a motor. The
Armature Coils for
Railway Motor.

412 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
E motor fields may be adapted
for connection across the cir-
cuit, in which case they are
termed “shunt motors” and
are adapted for running at con-
stant speed. The fields may
Sº
Hillſ. ThºuTºil.
i
be connected in series with
A Shunt Machine. the armature so that the field
The field Current is e e
independent of the strength varies with the cur-
main Current. rent flowing, in which case
they are termed “series motors” and are adapted
for variable speed work.
Alternating current motors
are of several types, the most
practical of which are: the
synchronous motor, which
has little or no torque except
at a definite speed (related to
the speed of the generator by
the ratio of the number of
motor poles to the number a series Machine. The
of generator poles) and which main current is the only
te Current around the fields.
runs at that definite speed, this is the ordinary con.
whatever be the load upon nection in railway motors.
the motor within its capacity, and the induction
motor, which may have considerable torque at
all speeds and which decreases in speed as it is
loaded.
TRANSMISSION.
General Characteristics.-Electrical energy is
transmitted by a current under pressure, which






ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 413
has many close analogies to the transmitting of
energy from a pump to a water motor by the
flow of water in a pipe. The quantity of energy
delivered depends upon the intensity of the pres-
sure and the quantity of the flow. The pressure
may vary over a wide
range, and the current
required is inversely pro-
portional to the pressure
for the delivery of given
Shaft with core or body of thin amount Of energy. The
circular iron discs slotted on the electric current, IſlC)]’é-
Circumference. TWO coils are &
partly in place. over, may be continuous,
corresponding to the con-
tinuous flow of water through a pipe, or it may
be alternating, corresponding to reciprocating
motion or the flow of water in a pipe backward
and forward in response to a piston at the end.
This alternation of current may take place slowly
or rapidly.
The different pressures which may be employed
in a continuous current system or in an alter-
nating current system, the
range in frequency which
may be used with alter-
nating current, together
With the different number Armature with Coils in Place.
º Ends of wires are bent back Over
Of phases which may be armature; they will be bent for-
employed, evidently give yº.” connected to the Com-
rise to a wide variety of
possible electrical systems. Practice has adopted
a few combinations, which may be regarded as
Nº-ºw
s
|
... "
§
tº-






414 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
standard systems, which meet most of the ordi-
nary demands.
Electrical energy may be distributed, either by
constant potential or by constant current. In the
constant potential method, the
N pressure is kept constant, and
tº the demands for different
** amounts of power, either by
cº, the variation of the number
* * * * * of lamps or motors, or by the
variation of power demanded
by a motor, are met by a variation of cur-
rent. Lamps or motors are connected in “mul-
tiple” or “parallel” when operated on this sys-
tem. In the other system the
current is kept constant, and
the deman d for additional
power is met by an increase of
pressure. Lamps or motors are
connected in “series” so that |W
the same current passes Armature Disc, showing
through all the devices when .....
operated on this system. The connected to the commu.
constant current series system "
finds its common application in arc lighting,
where the current is maintained constant and
the pressure of the circuit is made proportional
to the number of lamps to be supplied. Power
can be supplied from circuits of this character,
but this system is not in general use for power
Service and finds practically no application in
railway work.





ET, ECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 415
Losses in Circuits.-The passage of an electric
current through a wire is accompanied by a loss
of power and a reduction
in pressure. Loss of power
is objectionable, as it in-
creases the amount, and,
consequently, the cost of
the power which must be
generated; excessive reduc-
tion in pressure is to be
avoided as it may cause -3 *
variations in pressure be- ºft.*.
yond the limits which 8,I’6” field opened downward, show-
tº e ing lower field poles.
admissible for constant
potential motors. If the pressure be too low the
power available may be too small, or the speed
may be too low; if the pressure be too high the
speed may be too great, or there may be flashing
at the commutator.
The loss of power depends upon the strength
of the current and the resistance of the circuit.
The resistance of a cop-
per circuit, in turn, de-
pends upon the size of
the wire and the length
of the circuit. The loss
in power increases, there-
*ś fore, as the strength of
Motor ready for mounting on axle. th € Current in CI’éa,SéS 8,11 d
as the length of the circuit increases, and it is
decreased if the conducting wire be made larger.
The loss does not vary directly as the current,


416 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
but it increases as the square of the current;
thus, the loss of power in a given circuit when the
current is doubled is increased four-fold.
The reduction of loss of pressure in a circuit
depends directly upon the current strength and
upon the resistance of the circuit. The loss in
pressure is illustrated in the accompanying figure
a, in which a dynamo delivers current through a
40}^AAMO 23 M AM070/7
§ ‘s.
ZZ A620AMP ( ) S
§§ ºš
S. &ov’
26 §§
& JoW
23 V
§ tº
Aº § 2 2a-V
S
a Š
*S
‘s.
a Š
*
We
‘s. S.
QS S.
jº §§ g/ 25 AMP §§
& 7062 §
The relative cross section of copper for delivering to motor the same
power under different conditions of distance, loss and electro-motive force,
is indicated by number and thickness of Wires.
circuit consisting of two wires to a motor. The
current delivered is one hundred amperes, and
the resistance of each of the wires is one-fourth
of an ohm. The pressure required for sending
one hundred amperes through one-fourth ohm is
twenty-five volts. The pressure required at the
dynamo is therefore five hundred and fifty volts
for delivering five hundred volts at the motor




ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 417
and overcoming the line resistance. If the
length of the circuit be doubled, as is shown in
figure b, and the motor still receives one hundred
amperes at five hundred volts, it is evident that
the pressure on the dynamo must be increased to
overcome the additional line resistance. The re-
sistance of each wire now becomes one-half an
ohm, for which fifty volts is required. The dyna-
mo pressure must now be increased to six hun-
dred volts, and the loss in the wires is doubled.
If the section of the conductors be doubled by
placing another wire of the same size in multiple
with the first, then the pressure required for
overcoming the line resistance is one-half of that
required in figure b, and is but twenty-five volts in
each side of the circuit. The conditions now, as
shown in figure c, are similar to those in the first
case. It will be noted that the same pressures
prevail in figures a and c, the difference being
that when the distance is doubled, the section of
the conductor must also be doubled, thus increas-
ing the weight of the copper four times. If the
length of the circuit be increased to twice that in
figure c, the section of copper must again be
doubled in order to secure the same drop in
pressure between the dynamo and the motor.
The weight of copper is now (figure d) increased
to sixteen times that in the first case, while the
distance is increased but fourfold.
In each of the above cases the motor receives
Cne hundred amperes at five hundred volts, or
fifty kilowatts. If the pressure at the motor
27 Vol. 1
4.18 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
were one thousand volts, the current required
for the same power is fifty amperes. In figure d
the drop in pressure is a total of fifty volts when
one hundred amperes pass through four wires in
parallel. If one wire only were used, the drop
would be four times as great, or two hundred
volts. The drop for a current half as large, or
twenty-five amperes, will be one hundred volts.
In figure e, where the current delivered to the
motor is fifty amperes at one thousand volts,
the use of a single conducting wire will therefore
involve a loss of one hundreu volts, and will
require a generator pressure of eleven hundred
volts, which is ten per cent. greater than the
pressure at the motor, which is the same per-
centage as in figure d. Doubling the voltage,
therefore, enables the same power to be deliv-
ered with the same per cent. loss in pressure and
consequently with the same loss in power, with
the use of only one-fourth of the weight of cop-
per. If the pressure of the motor be increased to
two thousand volts, the current required for the
same power will be twenty-five amperes. The
same per cent. drop will result, if the drop in
each wire be one hundred volts instead of fifty
volts as in figure e. The section of wire in figure
frmay, therefore, be one-fourth the size of that in
figure e. The weight is also one-fourth and is,
therefore, the same as that in figure a. A com-
parison of the first and last figures shows that
the same power may be delivered at four times
the distance, with the same weight of copper and
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 419
the same loss, if the pressure be made four times
as great. It is evident that an increase in the
amount of copper used under any conditions will
result in a less loss of power in the conductor.
Increased investment in copper, therefore, leads
to a less loss of power in the circuit. The best
economic result is secured by increasing the in-
vestment in copper until a further increase will
not be compensated by a saving in power. This
condition is secured when the interest on the
investment in copper equals the cost of the
power lost in circuit.
General Conclusions.—The following conclu-
sions may be drawn from the illustrations which
have just been given, showing the relations
between pressure and distance, and pressure, dis-
tance, cost and loss in the circuit (it is assumed
in each case that the same power is delivered by
the circuit):
For the same loss and electro-motive force, the
cost of copper increases as the Square of the dis-
tance. Distances should, therefore, be as short
as practicable. A station should be located at
the middle of a territory which it serves.
For the same loss and distance, the cost of
copper varies inversely as the square of the
electro-motive force. Therefore, the electro-
motive force should be as high as practicable.
For the same loss and cost of copper, the
distance varies as the electro-motive force.
The distance to which electrical power can
be transmitted depends, therefore, upon the
420 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
electro-motive force which can be used upon the
circuit.
The energy lost in the line when one hundred
horse-power is transmitted for one hour is twice
as great as it is when fifty horse-power is trans-
mitted for two hours. It follows, therefore, that
a line can transmit a given quantity of energy
most efficiently when it is delivered uniformly.
Also, if a given quantity of energy is to be trans-
mitted with a given line efficiency, the copper
required is less if it is delivered uniformly.”
Continuous or Direct Current.—In a direct cur-
rent the flow is constantly and uniformly in one
direction, corresponding to the ordinary flow of
water. Direct current is used almost entirely in
electric railway work. For constant potential
distribution continuous current is commonly
used at one hundred and ten volts, two hundred
and twenty volts and five hundred volts. The
principal limitation of the one hundred and ten
volt system is distance, as the cost of copper
becomes very great in the large conductors which
are required if the current is to be carried to any
considerable distance. The two hundred and
twenty volt system is commonly used for oper-
ating lamps on the three-wire plan, in which one
hundred and ten volt lamps are placed between
the middle and each outside wire. This system
can be extended in general three or four times as
far as the one hundred and ten volt system with
* For further reference to electrical energy and the cost
thereof, see tables embraced in Appendix C of this volume.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 421
the same cost of conductors. The five hundred
volt continuous current system is that commonly
used for street railway and general power distri-
bution. This pressure, which is often increased
to six hundred or even seven hundred volts, is
sufficiently high to render the conductors of
moderate cost for operating over ordinary dis-
tances. These pressures may be handled with-
out much difficulty in the generators and motors.
The commutator, by means of which the current
is taken from the armature of the dynamo and
introduced into the armature of the motor, is at
best difficult and costly to construct. It is the
part most likely to wear and give trouble, and
the difficulties increase very rapidly if the pres-
sure is much above five hundred volts.
Alternating Current.—An alternating current is
one which reverses in direction with a frequency
equal to the product of the number of poles in
the dynamo multiplied by the speed. A twelve-
pole machine running at two hundred and fifty
revolutions, produces current with a frequency
of twelve times two hundred and fifty, or three
thousand alternations per minute. The frequen-
cies in common use for power work range
from three thousand to seven thousand two hun-
dred alternations, and for lighting work may
be as high as sixteen thousand alternations per
minute.
Alternating current possesses a characteristic
which is of great utility in the transmission of
electrical energy to considerable distances. It
422 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
is impracticable for many uses to utilize high
pressures; for instance, in incandescent lighting
the lamp cannot be readily made for a pressure
higher than about one hundred volts.
sº thrº
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Three H und red and
Seventy-Five Kilow att
(500 horse-power) Raising
Transformer. Wires from
generator are Connected
to large term in a l S on
marble block at rear end;
wires to high tension line
(15,000 volts) are connected
to terminals at front. The
flat coils are placed side
by side and spread apart
at the ends to allow Circu-
lation of oil between the
COilS.
On the
other hand, the cost of conduc-
tors for delivering current at
one or two hundred volts be-
comes very large if the dis-
tance be more than a few thou-
sand feet. The desirable sys-
tem is one in which the energy
can be transmitted at high
pressure and utilized at low
pressure. The direct current
does not admit of any ready
and convenient transforma-
tion. The alternating current,
on the other hand, through the
agency of the transformer or
converter, enables this to be
accomplished.
An alternating current trans-
former in its essential elements
consists of two windings, each
of one or more coils of copper
wire wound around a core of
iron, usually of thin plates. If one of the windings
or sets of coils be connected to a circuit on which
Whe pressure is, say, one thousand volts, an alter-
nating magnetism is produced in the iron, which,
in turn produces an electro-motive force in the
other, or secondary winding. The electro-motive





ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 423
force produced in this
winding is proportional 7 ºf
#Tº
º, ºr
of wire in it. If the "#|| º
turns be one-tenth of |f| iſ iſ
those in the primary ##, ºft|{{
windings, the electro-
motive force is one- || iſ 'i:
tenth of that on the #".
primary, or one hun- || |#.
dred volts. The current
is increased in the same .*… º. -
proportion the pressure Raising Transformer Case.
is decreased. Thus, if
the primary current be five amperes at one thou-
sand volts the secondary current will be fifty
amperes at one hundred volts. The product of
the current and pressure giving the energy in
watts is the same in the primary and secondary.*
The transformer, therefore, supplies a means by
which a small current transmitted at a high pres-
sure may be transformed into a large current at
a low pressure. The transformer has no moving
nor open contacts, there is no mechanical motion,
it requires no attention, and is simple and effi-
cient in operation. The alternating current sys-
tem has given a wide extension to incandescent
* There is a slight reduction, both in pressure and in cur-
rent, which renders the number of watts delivered from the
secondary slightly less than those supplied to the primary.
The ratio at full load is usually from ninety-five to ninety-
eight per cent.











424 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
lighting where the service is extended or scat-
tered, as the direct current low voltage system is
economical only over a short distance. Almost all
of the installations for delivering power in large
quantities from water power employ alternating
current. The alternating current transformer
may be used in connection with the generator
for increasing the pressure. It is often most con-
º[...]
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SºlIII
Fººd Rºſſ
º s : ©
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º
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ºl.
Four Hundred Kilowatt (535 horse-power) Rotary Transformer, showing
small starting motor on end of shaft for bringing armature to normal speed;
collector rings, on right end, for receiving alternating current; commutator,
on left end, for delivering direct current to railway circuits.
venient to wind the generator for an electro-
motive force of a few hundred volts and then
raise the pressure by raising transformers to sev-
eral thousand volts, depending upon the distance
of transmission, then reducing it by other trans-
formers for supplying light or motors.
The alternating current system may involve
one or more currents differing in phase. Two

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 4.25
alternating currents are said to differ in phase
by ninety degrees when the maximum value of
one occurs at the time of the zero value of the
other. This has a mechanical analogy in two
cranks at right angles. This system is also
termed a two-phase system or quarter-phase
system. In a three-phase system there are three
currents differing equally in phase and corre-
sponding to the cranks on the shaft of a three-
cylinder engine. The transmission of power by
direct current may be likened to mechanical
Four Hundred Kilowatt Rotary Transformer Armature, with arma-
ture for starting motor.
transmission by a belt which is in continuous
motion in the same direction. Alternating cur-
rent may be likened to a reciprocating motion
acting upon a crank. A single-phase system cor-
responds to a single crank, while a polyphase
system corresponds to a mechanical system in
which two or more cranks are used. The analogy
may be carried further, as the increased facility
in starting and the uniformity of action which is
found when several cranks are used also char-
acterize the use of polyphase currents. Three

426 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
or more wires are required for carrying poly-
phase currents.
Alternating Current and Direct Current.—The
advantages of alternating current for transmis-
sion can be secured for the operation of direct
current apparatus by the use of a machine for
transforming alternating into direct current.
This transformation could be made by employ-
(Eº
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i ſºil
- * * ~ * 7~~~
Alternating Current System supplying rotary transformers which
deliver direct current to the trolley system.
ing an alternating current motor which drives
a direct current generator. The two machines
may be simplified by placing the two windings
upon one armature running in one field. The
arrangement may be further simplified by having
but one machine with one winding and making
suitable connections to rings for supplying the
alternating current and other connections to a
commutator for delivering direct current. A








ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 427
machine with this double function is termed
a rotary transformer or rotary converter. A
system of this kind is shown in the accompany-
ing illustration in which an alternating current
generator delivering current at a low pressure
supplies raising transformers which deliver a high
electro-motive force to a transmission circuit.
At the distant end of this circuit the pressure is
reduced by lowering transformers and alternating
current is supplied to a rotary transformer. This
in turn delivers direct current, which may be used
for operating railway cars or other service.
TEIE LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
The query often arises, what it is that limits
the capacity of electrical apparatus; why is it
that dynamos and motors built for a given power
cannot yield a greater power; and why cannot
current be carried to any distance desired. There
are characteristics of machines and of circuits,
depending primarily upon the properties and
characteristics of the materials of which they
are composed and the electrical principles upon
which they are based, which place positive limits
upon the performance which can be secured from
them.
The Dynamo.—The dynamo is limited in its out-
put by several conditions. The output is equal to
the electro-motive force multiplied by the num-
ber of amperes. The first depends upon the field
strength and upon the speed. The field strength
is limited by the magnetic Saturation of the iron
428 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
of which it is composed. Iron possesses a fairly
definite limiting capacity for magnetic induction
and, beyond a certain point, the induction in-
creases in strength very slowly as the field cur-
rent is increased. The strength of the field is,
therefore, limited by the magnetic characteristics
of the iron. The speed is fixed by mechanical
limits, such as connection to the driving power
and strength of materials. The limitations of
Three 800 Kilowatt Railway Generators, connected to horizontal engines.
North and West Chicago Railway.
the dynamo in electro-motive force are encoun-
tered in the design of the machine, i. e., by speed
and by the properties of iron. The limitation in
the current, which is the other element which
determines the output of the dynamo, is fixed
not by the design, but the operation of the ma-
chine. As the current in the dynamo increases,
the loss in the armature conductors increases,
thus raising the temperature. An increase of
current beyond a certain amount will affect the

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 429
commutation of direct current machines. It is
essential, therefore, in operation, not to load the
dynamo so that an unsafe temperature is reached,
or bad sparking on the commutator occurs.
The Motor.—The limitations of the motor are
very similar to those of the dynamo. In design,
the permeability of the iron limits its capacity as
a magnet, so that a certain definite cross Section
and weight of iron are required for developing
the required electro-motive force. The speed
must be within limits which are readily utilized.
In operation the electrical limits are commuta-
tion and heating. Excessive current will be
destructive to the machine by overheating the
conductors and burning the insulation, and by
causing sparking and burning at the brushes.
Speed.—The speed of trains is limited by the
power available and by mechanical conditions
which are largely independent of the source of
power used; for example, the strength of mate-
rials and safety. The amount of power which
can be used is dependent upon the co-efficient of
friction and upon the weight upon the drivers.
motors, and the size
of the motors is often
limited by the size of
the trucks on which
they are placed. Speed
also enters into the sº
problem of delivering Sº,
current to the car. At Street Railway Motor.

430 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
very high speeds the mechanical connections for
carrying current to the car are difficult to main-
tain especially with the large currents which are
required for heavy work.
The Line.—On a line the elements which limit
the power that may be transmitted are loss of
power and loss of pressure. The loss in power
depends principally upon the mean load upon
the station, while the loss in pressure is greatest
during the maximum load. It may occur that a
greater loss of power is permissible than is prac-
ticable on account of the drop in pressure which
would occur during the maximum load. Trans-
mission is limited by the cost required for long
distances. Th distance which can be economi-
cally traversed depends upon the pressure which
can be used in the receiving apparatus. This in
turn is limited by the capacity of the receiving
apparatus in point of insulation and safety. An
electric current can certainly be conveyed over
any distance for transmitting any amount of
power, provided no limit be placed upon the cost
of conductors.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS FOR. RAILWAY SERVICE.
The electrical systems which are in use or are
available for railway work are:
The Direct Current Systems, viz.: direct fed
systems; the booster system; the three-wired
system, and storage batteries.
The Alternating Current-Direct Current Sys-
tem.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 431
The Alternating Current System.
The elements and the characteristics of these va-
rious systems will be considered in regular order.
Direct Current Systems.
In direct or continuous current systemsboth gen-
erators and motors are wound for direct current;
the motors on each car receive current in parallel
from the line. Variations may be used in the trans-
mission by adopting one of several arrangements.
Direct Feeding.—The generators supply current
to two conductors or systems of conductors which
lead directly to the motors. This is the ordinary
system in street railway service and on suburban
roads. The generators in the station are usually
connected in multiple to two conductors or bus
bars, one of which is connected directly to the
track and the other supplies the trolley line
through heavy wires called feeders. The genera-
tors are compounded to give an increase in press-
ure or electro-motive force on the bus bars as the
load increases, thus compensating for the drop in
pressure on the lines with heavy load and main-
taining a fairly constant pressure at the motors.
If there were but one car in operation it is quite
possible to adjust the electro-motive force of the
generator so as to maintain a constant force at
the car, although the current varies and the dis-
tance from the station is constantly changing.
It is evidently not possible if there be more than
One car on the line to maintain a constant press-
ure at each, for if the pressure at the station be
432 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
properly adjusted for one car it will not be correct
for the other cars. If the conductors are single
wires, it is evident that the sections near the sta-
tion must carry current for all the cars, and that
each section carries current for the cars which
are beyond it. The pressure becomes less and
less on the successive cars as they are farther
from the station. The pressure may be raised at
the distant cars by running a separate conductor
from the station to the trolley line at the distant
point. If there be two cars at distances of, say
one and two miles respectively, it is evident that
the cross section of the longer wire should be
twice as great as that of the shorter one in order
that a uniform electro-motive force of five hun-
dred volts may result from a station electro-mo-
tive force of five hundred and fifty volts.” This
uniform drop of fifty volts occurs only when the
currents on the two feeders are equal and of a
definite amount. If the currents are less the
drop is less than fifty volts, and a less station
pressure is required. If the motors take a varia-
ble current, then it is impossible to keep the
pressures constant or equal unless the station
pressure is suitably varied for each feeder. The
ends of the feeders may be connected to a com-
mon trolley line or to separate sections of trolley
wire, as shown in the accompanying diagrams.
When a car passes away from the feeding point so
that the current is carried by the trolley line, the
resistance of the circuit increases and a greater
* See a and c in illustration on page 416.
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 433
drop results. It is, therefore, impossible to se-
cure an absolutely uniform pressure at a number
of cars which are continually changing in location
and in demands cºr
for current. The Hiſ
pressure can be Sºº à 7A70/ZF).”
kept, however, *: 755TTF7-57.7F-775 FTTFFFUF7
within practical ſº
limits by com-
pounding the
generators to
give an increased
electro-motive
force as the load
increases and by
running feeders
each of pro per
**.*.*.* tºº
age load it car- tº
ries directly to Silº)
the different sec- 7TA/ APA: As vu / /PAS S YS 7" & /M.
ti OllS Of the lin €. Direct Current Feeder Systems.
Not only does the load change, due to the
wide variations in the current taken by indi-
vidual cars, but the position of the cars is con-
tinually shifting. They may be uniformly dis-
tributed at one time, and then bunched together
at one part of the line, thus greatly overload-
ing the feeders to that point while the other
feeders are comparatively idle. This system
is simple and effective; its limitation is the
Short distance to which it can be economically
28 Vol. 1
*******
* * * *
&
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| 77OLZ &Y
ATFºº/P5
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434 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
extended. It may be observed that the maximum
drop or loss of pressure allowable in the conduc-
tors cannot exceed the limits within which the
motor can be satisfactorily operated; for one
motor may be at a point near the station where
it receives the full pressure, while another car
may be at a distant point where the maximum
reduction of pressure results. A motor there-
fore, is liable to receive any pressure between
the maximum supplied to the system and the
minimum at the end of the circuit.
The Booster System.—In the preceding explan-
ation of the direct feeding system, it is evident
that the pressure on each of the feeders running
from the station to different points in the system
should be increased in proportion to the current
flowing in that feeder, thus compensating for the
loss in each feeder and causing it to deliver a
constant pressure to the trolley line, independent
of the loads and pressures upon other feeders.
This could be ac-
complished by sup-
plying each feeder
from a separate
dy n a m o co m-
pounded to com-
pensate for the
losses in it. This
is, however, objec-
tionable for several
Three Hundred Kilowatt Booster driven by
motor; fields on same bed plate and arma- I’éa,SOIAS. Am O IO g
tures on same shaft. The field of the motor
is removed in Order to show its armature. them may be noted
/

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 435
the division of the station into a number of small
units, instead of a few large ones, and the in-
creased generator capacity demanded, as the
dynamo for each feeder must have a capacity
for the maximum load upon that feeder. The
load is not usually equally distributed through-
out the systems, but the maximum is first on
one section and then on another, so that if
separate dynamos are provided for each section
their aggregate capacity would be much in excess
of the average load upon the station. In the
booster system, a separate machine is placed on
a feeder which increases the pressure in propor-
tion to the current. The field winding and the
armature of this machine are connected in series
with the circuit so that an increased current in-
creases the field strength and consequently also
the electro-motive force upon the armature. The
proportions are made such that the increase in
pressure is just sufficient to overcome the losses in
the circuit, so that a constant pressure is main-
tained at the end of the feeder. Power sufficient
for the motors is generated in the main machines
in the station, which may be similar to those in
a station in which no boosters are used, while
power equivalent to that lost in each feeder is
supplied by the booster in that feeder. The
booster system makes practical the use of much
greater loss in conductors than is otherwise per-
missible. It has been explained that in the direct
fed system the drop in pressure cannot exceed the
allowable variation of pressure upon the motors.
436 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
In the booster system the pressure upon the bus
bars in the station is kept practically constant,
also the pressure upon the trolley line. The
booster machine may introduce an electro-motive
force equal to fifty or one hundred per cent. of
that on the bus bars, and if this pressure is lost
in the conducting system, the pressure at the
motors does not vary beyond narrow limits. If
the range of voltage allowed upon a motor is,
say, between five and six hundred volts, then the
maximum drop allowable is one hundred volts in
the direct fed system. If a booster be used, the
drop on a long circuit may be two or three hun-
dred volts, in which case the pressure at the
station would be raised to, say, seven or eight
hundred volts, in order to give five hundred at
the motor. The size of the feeder could be
reduced to one-half or one-third of that which
would be required for one hundred volts drop.
The best relation is that in which the saving in
the cost of feeders is just balanced by the cost of
installation and operation of the boosters. These
elements involve a number of conditions, such as
distance, quantity of power, cost of copper, cost
of apparatus, fuel and attendance, which vary in
different cases. In general, however, the booster
system is more economical than the direct fed
system when the distance is more than five to
ten miles. The booster may be driven from the
same source of power that operates the main
dynamos, or it may be driven by a motor which
is supplied with current from the main generators.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 437
The load upon the booster varies approximately
as the square of the current strength in a feeder
with usually sudden fluctuations. Its mean load
is generally small, say, twenty to fifty per cent.
of its maximum load. These characteristics make
it usually inefficient to operate a booster from a
separate engine on account of the low efficiency
and the poor speed regulation of the engine under
this service. It is best, therefore, to make the
booster load part of the load upon the main
engines, either by supplying the power directly
from them or by receiving it through the main
generator and a motor. A booster motor and
dynamo may be direct coupled and placed upon
one bed plate, thus making a simple and compact
arrangement.
The Three-Wire System.—The three-wire sys-
tem is in common use in direct current central
station plants. Three conductors are run from
the station. The pressure between two of the
conductors in such plants is usually two hundred
and twenty volts, and between the third conduc-
tor and either of the others, one hundred and ten
volts. In a three-wire railway system there are
really two ordinary systems, involving two sets
of generators and two systems of circuits, each at
about five hundred volts. The pressure between
the two trolley wires is double this amount, or
about one thousand volts. If the two circuits are
equally loaded the current will pass from one
trolley wire to the rail, through the motors which
may be connected to that circuit. It will then be
438 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
returned through the motors connected to the
other system to the second trolley wire. The
current flowing from the station for the two sets
of motors is, therefore, of the same strength that
would be required for operating one set only, and
the pressure is one thousand volts. The theoret-
ical saving in conductors is seventy-five per cent.
as two instead of four conductors are required,
each of half the section. In practice, however,
the advantages are not so much as would appear.
The rail return circuit which exists without addi-
tional cost is but slightly utilized, so that the
actual saving in copper investment is much re-
duced. The complication of having two sets of
generating apparatus and two conducting sys-
tems, and the tendency to unbalance an inequal-
ity on the two circuits in a railway system, in
which the cars on the two systems are constantly
varying in position, introduce practical difficul-
ties which often more than compensate for the
reduced cost. -
Storage Batteries.—The storage battery in an
electrical system is similar to a reservoir in a gas
plant. Each may be used while production and
consumption are both in progress for maintain-
ing a constant supply to the service during vari-
ations in output of generating plant, or it may
supply a varying Service from a generating plant
of constant output. On the other hand, it may
receive its charge at one time and supply the
service when the generator is not in operation.
In an electrical system the storage battery may
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 439
be placed in the central station, or at sub-stations,
or on the cars. Its function in the main station
is to provide for wide fluctuations in load with
a power plant having a capacity equal to the
average instead of the maximum demand of the
system, and also for supplying current in case of
accident to the generating apparatus. In the
sub-station its function is similar to that in the
main station, the transmission line being con-
sidered as a part of the generating apparatus.
It is evident that when a battery is used the cir-
cuits may be installed for conveying the average
load continuously. A line which is to deliver a
certain number of horse-power hours continu-
ously and uniformly is much smaller than one
which delivers the same aggregate energy but in
fluctuating amount. If one hundred horse-power
is delivered continuously for twenty-four hours,
the size of conductor for the same loss is only
about one-fourth as large as would be required
for delivering an average of two hundred horse-
power for twelve hours if the load is varying
during that time between naught and four or
five hundred horse-power. The storage battery
on a car effects similar advantages in generating
station and transmission circuits, and also enables
the car to be self dependent in case of accident
to generating station or transmission lines, also
for short distances where the trolley wire cannot
be run. The theoretical advantages of the stor-
age battery are very considerable as an auxiliary
in a railway system. The cost for installation,
440 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
attendance and repairs, and the weight, are the
main points which have prevented its wide use
in railway plants. t
Alternating Current-Direct Current System.
This system finds its field where distances are
greater than can be economically covered by
simple direct-current systems. An alternating
current generator supplies a current which may
be transmitted at high pressure, reduced to low
pressure and transformed by rotary transformers
in sub-stations into direct current, which is then
supplied to the motors precisely as it would be if
the direct current had been produced by an ordi-
mary direct-current generator. Thus, the energy
for the various sub-stations is supplied from one
central station in preference to generating it in
several stations. This system is, therefore, of ad-
vantage when the cost of producing power at a
main central station and transmitting it through
the alternating current apparatus to the sub-
stations is less than it would be to generate the
power separately in the several stations. There
may be conditions, such as the existence of water
power, which render the cost of the power at the
main station much less than it would be if pro-
duced in the several sub-stations. This system is
in operation in a number of plants, notably at
Niagara Falls, where the five thousand horse-
power generators of the Niagara Falls Power
Company supply rotary transformers for railway
service both at Niagara Falls and Buffalo.
ELECTIRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 441
Alternating Current System.
General Characteristics. –The alternating cur-
rent system is far superior for transmission. Its
extension, however, in practical lines for railway
work has been handicapped by the alternating cur-
rent motor. The problems involved in the alter-
nating current motor may be appreciated by refer-
ring again to the mechanical analogies to which
attention has been called. An alternating cur-
rent system of one or more phases may be likened
- i. Azzºzºr &/ºr crazzº
A/ºy 72.4/3//7A/A/AWA’
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*Hºº H H H
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º º {{ º * f 3& º
fºL ſ ſº ſ
yºA ºr
Alternating Current System supplying polyphase current by two trolleys
and rail return to alternating Current motors on the CarS.
to a uniformly revolving shaft with one or more
cranks which are to impart motion to a Second
shaft. The mechanical difficulties which would
be involved in starting, in running and carrying
load at variable speed upon the second shaft from
the cranks upon the first shaft, can readily be
appreciated, especially when comparison is made
with a belt connection between pulleys on the
two shafts, in which case a tightening of the
belt, although it may be attended by momentary
losses, involves no serious difficulty. It is also

442 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
evident that the operation with two or more
cranks is much more feasible than with a single
crank. The analo-
gies hold with the
*zººlºs- corresponding
§2. electrical appara-
§: £y is tus, although the
Ç Sº alternating cur-
- - - ºf Eł rent is much more
ºfflºš E:\SIL, tractable than the
= \ºsé⺠cranks, as there is
an elasticity in
the electrical ap-
paratus which is
wanting in the
mechanical ana-
Induction Motor; primary, or stationary ele- lo gue.
ment, showing coils for receiving the Current
from the Circuit. Alternating cur-
rent motors are in
general of two types—the synchronous motor
and the induction motor. The synchronous mo-
tor cannot be used for speeds less than its normal
or synchronous speed and has usually not suffi-
cient power to bring itself up to this speed, but
must be provided with some auxiliary arrange-
ment for starting and gaining its proper speed
before it is able to run itself and carry a load. In
operation it runs at a constant speed, and when
overloaded its speed falls and it comes to rest.
The synchronous motor is not directly adapted
to railway work as it runs at a constant speed.
It is theoretically possible to introduce some
Sº

FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE DO WER. 443
method of variable speed transformation by
which the motor running at a constant speed
may operate the car axle at a variable speed.
Another objection to the synchronous motor is
its tendency to fall from synchronism if the
Source of power be removed for a moment,
through a bad contact or break in the circuit.
The Induction Motor.-The induction motor is
extremely simple in its mechanical construction.
It consists of two elements, one of which is con-
nected to the supply cir-
cuit and receives current
in its windings. The cur-
rent in the winding of
the other element is in-
duced from the current
*sº } in the primary, similar
*=} % to the induced currents
=sº in the secondary coil of
Induction Motor secondary, or ſº
revolving element, showing copper a transformer. The coils
bars in which current is induced
by the current in the primary. on the Secondary element
are completely closed or
short-circuited and there is no electrical contact
with the supply circuit. One of the windings,
usually the primary, is placed upon the outside
or stationary part of the motor and in one type
the Secondary or armature requires no commu-
tator or contact of any kind for making electrical
connection. In one method of regulation of this
motor, a resistance is placed in the circuit of the
Secondary which may be varied with correspond-
ing changes in the speed or power of the motor.
* =-
s=\º
Yºº-º-º-º:
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444 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The resistance is usually placed outside of the
motor and connected with it by suitable wires.
In this case, connection is made to the windings
of the armature by brushes resting on rings con-
nected to the winding. The mechanical sim-
plicity of the induction motor in its absence of
* commutator and
usually of all open
or moving contacts
is particularly de-
sirable in railway
work. The induc-
tion motor has,
however, met but
little progress in
the practical rail-
way field. The rea-
son for this is found
in its electrical
Alternating Current Induction Motor characteristics. It
Complete. requires for its suc-
cessful operation
two-phase or three-phase currents. There are
methods of operating an induction motor by
single-phase currents, but in general they add
considerably to the quantity of apparatus, reduce
the output of the motor, lower the efficiency and
greatly impair the performance at low speeds.
The currents of more than one-phase require
more than two conductors, so there must be at
least two conductors besides the rail return for
supplying the required currents to a car. This
jº
§
---
s





ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 445
requirement has been especially disagreeable in
street car work in cities and cannot be conven-
iently met on suburban lines where the cars are
to run through the city streets. In cross-country
and heavy work these objections do not hold. A
double trolley line can be adopted with success,
except, possibly, at very high speed. If the cur-
rent is conducted by additional rails, it is, of
course, necessary to add two rails. This increases
the difficulties at crossings and in repairs to the
track.
The theoretical and practical evolution of the
alternating current motor has been slow and
difficult in comparison with direct current appar-
atus. Much labor has been expended upon a
single-phase motor with no practical outcome as
far as railway service is concerned. The induc-
tion motor is essentially a constant speed motor.
Its tendency is to run at a certain definite speed,
depending upon the ratio of the number of its
poles to those of the generator from which its
current is derived. Without load the speed is
practically the synchronous or theoretical speed.
As the motor is loaded the speed falls, slowly at
first and then more rapidly. The characteristics
at low speed can be varied by design in different
motors. For operation at variable speeds, as is
required in railway work, there are two ordinary
methods of regulation; one is the introduction
of a variable resistance in the secondary element
of the motor, the other is a change in the pressure
or electro-motive force supplied to the motor with
446 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
no change in the Secondary element. In regu-
lation by change of secondary resistance, an
increased starting torque is secured by the intro-
duction of a resistance in the secondary element.
The torque at any speed depends upon the amount
of this resistance, which is, therefore, varied ac-
cording to the requirements. The efficiency of
the motor cannot exceed the percentage which
the actual speed bears to the synchronous speed.
At one-third speed, for instance, the efficiency
cannot exceed thirty-three per cent. Moreover,
as the current and electro-motive force are not.
in phase, that is, their maximum values do not
occur at the same time, but the current lags
behind the electro-motive force, the true energy
delivered to the motor is less than the product
of the current and volts. This renders the
apparent efficiency less than the true efficiency.
It is, therefore, obvious that the motor is not
adapted to running at low speeds, as is required
if the motor must be frequently started.
In the second method of regulation, in which
no resistance is introduced in the secondary, the
electro-motive force supplied to the motor is va-
ried. The motor is so designed that the torque
is greatest at starting and constantly decreases
as the speed is increased, when the voltage is
maintained constant. The starting torque may
be four or five times the full load torque and
the starting current is increased in a greater
ratio. The starting torque and current are,
therefore, much greater than are desired. They
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 447
are reduced by a reduction in the pressure ap-
plied. A variable voltage may be secured from
a transformer arranged to deliver a variable
voltage to the motor. In this manner the motor
may be adjusted to give any desired torque at
any speed over a wide range. The same general
characteristics of apparent efficiency, or the
ratio between the output in horse-power and
the apparent horse-power supplied, and also
the true efficiency of the motor, or the ratio
between the output and the actual horse-power
supplied, are found with this method of regula-
tion that belong to the motor regulated by second-
ary resistance. The efficiency and the apparent
efficiency are, however, in general greater in
the motor constrvºted without an adjustable
Secondary.
What has been said concerning the inefficient
performance of the induction motor applies par-
ticularly to low speeds. When running near its
synchronous speed an induction motor shows a
performance about equal to that of the best
direct current motors. The characteristics of
the induction motor, therefore, adapt it to those
classes of railway work in which starting is not
often required and in which a high and fairly
constant speed is required during a large portion
of the time, so that the motor is operated at
high and constant speed where its efficiency is
high. Special methods have been proposed for
improving the operation at low speeds. Among
these are the operation of two motors, one being
448 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
connected to the line and the second being Sup-
plied from the secondary of the first motor. In
this arrangement both motors tend to run at half
their normal speed. This connection is used until
half speed is reached, when both motors are
directly connected to the circuit. The regulation
is secured by an adjustable resistance in the
secondary of the second motor when they are
connected in tandem and by resistance in the
secondaries of both motors when they are oper-
ating in parallel. Another method of favorable
operation at low speed is an arrangement of the
windings of the motor so as to secure different
numbers of poles. If, for example, a four-pole
motor be changed to an eight-pole motor it will
tend to run at half speed. If changed to a twelve-
pole motor, it will tend to run at one-third speed.
Such a motor would, therefore, be arranged to
operate by many poles for slow speeds and
changed to few poles for high speeds. Other
special methods are theoretically possible, such
as a device for changing the number of alterna-
tions of the current to correspond with the speed
required. No apparatus for accomplishing this
has, however, been presented. These methods of
securing a reduced speed are in a measure effec-
tive. The current and the power required for
producing a torque under given conditions are
materially reduced. There is, however, a sacri-.
fice in the simplicity of the apparatus and in the
controlling devices. The ideal arrangement is a
gearing of variable ratio, by which the axle could
AºA2C 7'A' ZCZ 7"Y A.S. A M/O 7T/PE POWER. 449
be run at any desired speed from a motor run-
ning at a constant speed.
Conclusions.—There appears to be no funda-
mental obstacle to the use of the alternating
current induction motor for railway work. It
Secures the advantages of the lower cost of alter-
nating current generators and transmission cir-
cuits and in general a simpler construction of
motor. The electrical characteristics of the
motor adapt it for operation where a fairly con-
stant speed is required and the proportion of the
time employed in starting is small. This is usu-
ally the condition where distances are great and
the high tension transmission circuits which are
practicable with alternating currents are espe-
cially desired. One of the principal mechanical
disadvantages is that a double system of conduct-
ing circuits must be employed.
There is little doubt but that the alternating
current motor would be largely used in railway
work had not the direct current motor secured the
..field first. At the present time the direct current
motor has the prestige and the advantages of
practical experience and evolution during many
years of wide and varied service. It fills its field
so well that the requirements of the alternating
current motor are not merely that it shall equal
what the direct current motor was in its early
days, but that it shall now perform better than
its rival the most difficult and exacting classes of
Service.
29 Vol. 1
450 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
COMPARISON OF SYSTEMS.
The choice of a system for operating a given
railroad cannot be definitely stated, as there are
so many local conditions which affect in different
degrees the cost of the various systems. For
example, the booster system maintains a proper
pressure at the end of a distant line by raising the
pressure at the station and allowing a very large
loss in the conducting wire. The aggregate
amount of power lost in the wire depends of
course, not upon the maximum, but upon the
average current which is carried. If the service
be intermittent, so that the average load is not
more than half the maximum load, tho loss of
power in the wire is only about one-third or
one-fourth what it would be if the maximum
load were delivered continuously. The cost of
the power lost in the wire depends upon the
cost of producing power. It may be large if
expensive coal is used, or it may be negligible if
water power is available. If the load were con-
stant and the cost of power high, it may be more
economical to put in large conductors, so the
loss would be small, and feed directly from the
main machine without using boosters. The fol-
lowing general rules are laid down as being help-
ful in forming a general idea of the field covered
by the different systems of distribution, with a
full appreciation of the variations which different
local conditions may demand. The direct fed
two-wire system should be used for distances from
the power house not exceeding five to eight miles.
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 451
The booster system should be used for distances
from the power house of five to ten miles, where
the Service is heavy and power cheap; and for
distances of fifteen to twenty miles where the
Service is light and intermittent. The high ten-
Sion alternating current transmission, with rotary
transformer sub-stations and direct current dis-
tribution, should be used for distances greater
than those named above. The high tension alter-
nating current transmission and distribution, finds
its best field in operating roads where trains are
run between distant points, making few stops.
For long distances and heavy service the cost
of the systems using high tension alternating
current, should be compared with the cost of
operating two or more stations by the direct fed
or the booster system. The items of expense
between the dynamo and the car in the several
systems are as follows:
Direct Current-Direct Fed System.—Interest
on investment in copper conductors and cost of
power lost in conductors.
Booster System.—Interest on cost of booster
dynamos and copper conductors, and the cost of
the power lost in conductors.
Alternating Current-Direct Current System.—
Interest on the cost of raising transformers, high
tension line, rotary transformers and sub-station
building and copper conductors for supplying the
direct current to the trolley, together with the
cost of power lost in the copper conductors, the
raising and lowering transformers and the rotary
452 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
transformers, and the cost of attendance at the
rotary sub-station. The cost of an alternating
current generator is slightly less than that of a
direct current generator, which favors this sys-
tem.
Alternating Current System.—Interest on in-
vestment in raising transformers (unless the
dynamo be wound for high tension), high tension
line and lowering transformers, and copper con-
ductors in the trolley system, together with the
cost of power lost in the transmission system.
In this system it is necessary to install lowering
transformers at numerous points along the line
in order to avoid high cost of copper in the low
tension trolley system. Unless the service is fre-
quent this will require a sufficient capacity in
lowering transformers in each of the main sec-
tions of the line for the whole load which may
come on that section, so that the aggregate
capacity of lowering transformers may greatly
exceed the average power which is to be supplied.
High Tension System with High Tension Trol-
ley Line.—Interest on investment in raising trans-
formers (if they be used), high tension conducting
circuit, extra cost of installing double trolley line
for high tension and additional cost of lowering
transformers for car equipment, together with
cost of power lost in transmission. The extra
cost of installation for high tension circuits and
the increased liability to break-downs in carrying
high tension to the car must be charged against
this system,
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 453
For roads of thirty to forty miles in length,
with a fairly heavy service, it will probably be
found that the cost of operation, including inter-
est on investment, will not differ widely whether
the operation be by one station with rotary sub-
station; or one station with high tension trans-
mission and low tension distribution to alternating
current motors; or one station with high tension
distribution to the cars; or two power stations
with boosters. Within certain limits, therefore,
the choice of the system for use depends upon
the exact and definite schedule of Service and the
cost of materials and of power.
THE ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRIC RAILWAY.
A consideration of the elements in an engineer-
ing plant should logically deal primarily with
the established best
practice. But in elec-
tric railway service the
practice of the present
is new, the conditions,
the methods, and much
of the apparatus, have
been evolved within the
past few years. Not . . . " U 9 º'
only have the new elec- ºr
tric elements undergone
rapid development, but
even the steam engine, ==== .
th € O l d est and best- “ISOdak '' Engine direct Connected
established part of the gº” “*
*
Dr.
s
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454. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
system, has been greatly modified in design to
meet the new requirements of higher speed,
closer regulation and increased economy over
wide ranges of load. The application of elec-
tricity to railway work will be set forth by con-
sidering in detail the various elements of the
system in order, depending largely upon the pres-
ent practice in large stations, and in other cases
stating the engineering conditions and require-
ments.
The direct current system will be considered
first, and then the modifications which result if
alternating current is used in part or in whole.
The Power Station.
Location, Etc.—The number and location of
power stations depend upon the source of power
and local conditions. If water power is avail-
able, the position is fixed; if steam is used, the
number of stations which will secure the cheap-
est operation is to be determined from the length
of the line, the amount of traffic, the location of
grades and other conditions which influence the
cost of transmission circuits. The exact location
of a station, which electrical considerations would
place at the middle of the line to be operated,
may be determined by convenience of obtaining
fuel and water for both steam and condensing
purposes.
The Size of Unit to be used in the station is a
mechanical rather than an electrical question.
The cost is in general less per horse-power the
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 455
larger the size of engine and dynamo; the oper-
ating expense is also less, and the efficiengy
greater. It is usual to have at least three or four
units, one of which may be held as a reserve.
The dynamo can be made for any output at any
speed within very wide limits, the cost per horse-
power decreasing as the output is larger or the
Speed is greater. The dynamo is not generally
the element which is first fixed, but its size and
Speed are adapted on one hand to the require-
ments upon the station, and on the other hand to
the speed and capacity of the power by which
it is to be driven. Close speed regulation of a
railway generator is very important for good Ser-
vice. The speed governor should act quickly
during the continual fluctuations of load, and
must protect against excessive speed even when
an overload is thrown off instantly. The wide va-
riations in load make good efficiency over a wide
range of more importance than high efficiency
simply, at full load. The sudden fluctuations in
load necessitate a heavy fly-wheel, which should
preferably be located near the dynamo or be a
part of it. The five thousand horse-power dyna-
mos of the Niagara Falls Power Company have
a revolving element of eighty thousand pounds,
nearly twelve feet in diameter, which makes two
hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. A
Sudden load acts directly upon this great fly-
Wheel. If the fly-wheel were placed elsewhere
enormous strains would be brought upon the
Shaft.
456 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
-
The Generator.
Types.—The dynamo may be connected with
the engine by belt or rope, or it may be direct
coupled, either by a flexible or fixed coupling
between the dynamo shaft and the driving shaft,
each shaft having its own bearings, or the dynamo
armature may be mounted directly upon the
extended end of the driving shaft with or without
additional bearings. Until within a few years
almost all dynamos for railway work were belt-
driven, running at a speed higher than the driving
shaft. Frequently several dynamos were run
from one main or jack shaft. At the present
time it is the almost universal practice to employ
direct connected machines.
Engine Type.—The armature of the modern
engine-type railway generator is mounted
as directly upon the
engine shaft. The
machine has a diam-
eter which is large
in proportion to its
length, so that only
a short extension of
the shaft is neces-
sary. The poles vary
from four or six in
small sizes to twelve
or more in large
- sizes, and are usually
Four Hundred Kilowatt Generator Direct of cast steel, bolted
Connected to Vertical Engine Brooklyn º
Bridge Power Plant. or cast into the yoke,
/
Fºſſi #.
º # -
ºlºr:º.º. - sº
º, a
ºf .
Hæ.

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 457
or of sheet steel plates riveted together into
compact pole pieces and cast into the yoke. The
field is split vertically into halves, which may
be removed from the armature by sliding them
directly back from it. The armature is built on
a substantial open cast hub, which is keyed
Securely to the engine shaft and carries on its
outer circumference laminated iron plates, placed
in planes at right angles to the shaft. These
laminated plates are dove-tailed or otherwise
fastened to the iron hub. They are provided
with longitudinal slots, or deep grooves at the
circumference, in which the copper conductors,
either of wire or copper strap of suitable form,
are placed. The coils are insulated separately
by a covering of insulating material before they
are placed in the slots. The conductors are con-
nected to the commutator, which may be built
on a separate bush and forced on to an extension
of the hub or spider forming the central part
of the armature. Around the commutator are
placed brush-holders equal to the number of field
poles. Each brush-holder carries a number of
brushes, usually of carbon, which rest with a
moderate tension against the commutator. Alter-
nate brush-holders are connected to the positive
lead and the remaining ones to the negative lead.
The brush-holders are supported from a common
ring, which may be rotated slightly, thus adjust-
ing the angular position of all the brushes
simultaneously. The mechanical elements of a
large generator are extremely simple compared
458 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
with the elements
of other apparatus,
Such as an engine.
The construction is
of iron and copper,
with insulating
material which has
been developed to
a degree of perfec-
tion that renders it
ample for standing
Armature of Engine Type Railway Gen- very SeVere condi-
erator, showing winding Connected to com- tions. There is no
mutator. moving part except
the rotating armature and nothing to wear ex-
cept the brushes and commutator. The brushes
are readily adjusted and replaced when worn,
and a commutator which receives proper treat-
ment should run for a long time without becom-
ing worn or uneven. When necessary it may be
turned off and given a new and perfect surface.
Electrical Characteristics. – The requirements
upon an electric generator are severe, as it is
subject to a fluctuating load. The cars operated
by a generator are individually fluctuating in
their requirements for power. When the occa-
Sion comes that many cars require a large
amount of power simultaneously, the load upon
the station will increase greatly above the mean.
The generator must, therefore, be able to stand
for a short time, without overheating of armature
or commutator or brushes, a load much greater

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 459
than the average load, and in case of overload or
short circuit must be able to have the total load,
which may be double the normal load, thrown off
instantly without injury to the machine. This
requires exceptional-
ly good commutation,
as there is a tendency
to Spark at no-load
when the brushes are
adjusted properly for
- -r- carrying an Overload,
Eight hundred Kilowatt Goo horse and it also requires
power) Railway Generator in motion. excellent speed regu-
lation of the power generating apparatus. The
mechanical strains produced by the sudden throw-
ing on of a very heavy load are provided for by
large fly-wheel capacity and the use of heavy
shafts. -
The speeds of engine-type railway generators
are made to cortform to the requirements of the
engine. As a higher speed allows the use of a
smaller generator for a given output, the speed
is usually made as high as that at which the
engine can be safely run. Railway generators are
compound-wound, so that the main current pass-
ing around the field strengthens it, thus increasing
the magnetization and consequently the electro-
motive force as the load increases. This also
compensates for fall in engine speed as the
load increases. The efficiency of engine-type
generators varies from ninety-one or ninety-
two per cent. to ninety-five per cent. at full load,

460 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT,
depending upon the size of the machine. The
efficiency at half load is within a few per cent.
of the efficiency at full load.
The Switchboard.-The switchboard is provided
with apparatus for connecting dynamos to cir-
cuits for adjusting the pressure, for indicating
the pressure and the current, and for automat-
ically opening the circuit in case of heavy over-
load. Usually a separate panel of the switchboard
sº-
Railway Station Switchboard for Three Generators and Eight Feeders.
is provided for each generator, for the total load
and for each feeder circuit. A generator panel is
supplied with a rheostat—an adjustable resist-
ance in series with the field winding by which
the strength of the field current and conse-
quently the electro-motive force of the machine
may be varied; a main switch for connecting the
wires from the dynamo to the bus bars to which
all the dynamos may be connected; a circuit

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 461
breaker for opening the circuit, either automat-
ically in case of too great an overload, or by hand
at other times; an ammeter for indicating the
current, and a voltmeter for indicating the elec-
tro-motive force. One voltmeter is usually sup-
plied for several dynamos, and is provided with a
switch by which it may be connected to any one
of them. When a machine is to be connected to
the bus bars, it must be at the pressure which is
indicated by a second voltmeter. The load panel
|P if Lººl I. - i. - + m H - H */AWewar 4/atº
ſiliº *
'rg&aſ.aſ, 2 crºss.
wº
sº
º:
Jº
º
:
º
wº
a.
Diagram of Connections Between Dynamo and Feeders in Switchboard.
is equipped with an ammeter for measuring the
total output of the station, and often with a
recording wattmeter which registers the total
kilowatt-hours, or the output in energy. Each
feeder panel is supplied with a switch, an auto-
matic circuit break and an ammeter. Such a
Switch-board enables any or all of the dynamos to
Supply any or all of the feeders, and the distribu-
tion of the load may be read instantly on the
ammeters.


462 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The Road Equipment.
The Track.-In an electric railway the road-
bed and track are determined by the weight and
nature of the rolling stock and the location of
the line. In general the requirements are the
same as for steam railways. Inter-urban and
some suburban roads, therefore, employ T-rails
of the standard weight and form, while in city
streets a suitable girder rail is used, such as will
permit of paving between tracks and not inter-
fere with regular street traffic. It may be ob-
served that in street railway construction the
rail has increased steadily year by year from the
old-time strap rail used for horse cars to a weight
and strength rivaling the best steam railway
practice.
The conductors which carry the current from
the power station to the cars form an important
part of the line construction. The essential re-
Quirements of these conductors or feeders are low
electrical resistance to secure ample carrying
capacity, and insulation from other conducting
bodies. It is, therefore, customary to use copper
wires or cables, secured to glass or porcelain insu-
lators mounted on poles. Where over-head wires
are prohibited the feeders are usually of insulated
cables laid in an under-ground conduit beneath
or along the track. The rails of the track are
equivalent to a copper conductor of a section
about one-sixth that of the iron, and are com-
monly used for returning the current to the
power station. The high resistance of the rail
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 463
joints is eliminated by bonding the rails with
heavy copper wire or connectors riveted or oth-
erwise connected to the rails near the joints in
Such a way as to conduct the current from rail
to rail around the high resistance joints. Devices
for transmitting the current from the feeders to
the car are of three general types—overhead, sur-
face and underground.
The Overhead System.—This system, commonly
known as the trolley, is now used more than any
other. A single bare copper wire suspended over
each track is connected at frequent intervals with
the feeder. A grooved wheel on the end of the
trolley pole carried by the car makes contact
with the under side of the wire, conducting the
current to the car. This trolley has been almost
universally adopted by street railways when over-
head wires are not prohibited, and has an advan-
tage over all its competitors in its low cost. It is
limited, however, to moderate speeds and low
current capacity. When the speed exceeds thirty
to forty miles per hour the tendency of the trol-
ley wheel is to leave the wire, thereby damaging
the over-head construction and interrupting the
Service. Heavy trains require more current than
can be collected by a single wheel. This necessi-
tates mounting two or more trolleys on each
motor car, which is objectionable. The necessity
of turning the trolley around whenever the direc-
tion of the car is reversed is a serious inconven-
fence in switching and yard work. Poles placed
between tracks for supporting the wires become
464 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
dangerous to the employes of railroad yards and
sidings. When a suitable over-head structure is
already provided, some form of rail may be sub-
stituted for the wire, whereby amply carrying
capacity may be secured and the objections to
high speed eliminated. The Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad has adopted this plan for operating its
large electric locomotives in the Baltimore tun-
nel. A trough of steel beams is suspended from
the upper wall of the tunnel, through which a
heavy iron shoe is drawn by the locomotive.
The shoe cannot leave the trough, and operates
equally well in either direction.
Surface Conductors for collecting current, of
which the “third rail” is the most common
example, have some very marked advantages.
Substantial construction is secured by placing
the rail on strong insulating blocks Secured
directly to the ties on
which the track rails are
laid. This permits of any
speed for which the track
may be constructed. The
cost of repairs is low.
Accessibility for inspec-
tion, repairs and adjust-
ment is an import a nt
factor in securing reliable
service. Ample and reli-
wººled able contact between the
- • shoe and the rail permits.
an uninterrupted supply of current required to

JET, ECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 465
operate heavy trains. Any number of shoes may
be added and an unlimited capacity secured with-
out complication or inconvenience. The shoes
work equally well running in either direction
and require no special thought or attention.
There are, however, certain objections to this
system which in some cases may be sufficient to
exclude its use. “Live rails” are inadmissible in
city streets, therefore, this system cannot be
used for street railways. They may also become
objectionable in yards where many tracks inter-
Sect in a complicated manner, as they thus
become dangerous to yardmen and trainmen.
The third rail must be omitted at all grade
street crossings. This cuts off the source of
power and the lights
THE from the train whenever
–––. ---------- iº a crossing is passed un-
less the rear car is also
provided with shoes and
connected with the motor
car by a sectional cable
W running through the
shoe for Third Rail Between whole length of the train.
Main Rails. Cast iron, five by e e
twelve inches; weight, twenty The third rail may be
º Nantasket Beach Rail placed between the track
rails or on either side of
the track, as may be desired. It must always be
raised several inches above the track rails so the
shoe will clear at switches and crossings. The
shoe is usually of cast iron, simple in form and
of low cost. It is suspended from the truck in
3O Vol. 1

466 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
such manner as to reduce shocks and be easily
adjusted or renewed.
Underground Systems for collecting current
are of two general types, the open conduit and
the closed conduit. The open conduit system
employs some form of trolley wire or rail laid
in a conduit having a slot or groove in the
upper portion through which a suitable bar is
drawn by each car, making contact with the
wire or rail and conducting the current to the
car. Foreign substances, such as water, Snow,
ice, dirt, etc., getting into these conduits impair
the insulation of the
conductors and clog the
conduit, making its
operation under some
conditions unreliablo
and unsatisfactory. In
the closed conduit sys-
tem the conductors are
completely inclosed in
shoe and Third Rail. Brook. water-tight conduits.
lyn Bridge terminal. Connection is made to
sectional rails or con-
tact blocks laid along the track, through switches
which are closed by electro-magnets operated
from the car. Hence the contact rails or blocks
are charged only while the car is passing over
them. This system possesses many advantages,
especially for street railway work and yards
and sidings where nearly all other systems are
excluded.

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 4.67
The Electric Motor Car or Locomotive.
The development of the electric motor car nas
been a continuous evolution. The first form was
that of the old horse car with motors mounted
on the trucks. This soon proved inadequate and
heavier and stronger cars were constructed,
requiring larger motors. Double truck cars of
still greater weight and power were next adopted
for suburban and inter-urban service. Some of
these cars are now constructed of thirty to forty
tons weight and are equipped with a motor
capacity of from two hundred to four hundred
horse-power.
Truck with Motors and Controller. Brooklyn Bridge Motor Cars.
The Frame. — The chief requirements of the
frame are stiffness and strength for resisting
shocks and drawing trains. The frame of a dou-
ble truck car is relied upon to tie the trucks
together and transmit their combined effort to
the draw bar. It is therefore customary, for
heavy service, to construct the frame of iron or
steel beams, suitably braced and stiffened with

468 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
plates and rods in accordance with good engi-
neering principles. The Superstructure may be
adapted to any service whatever. For passenger
service only the main body of the car is designed
to carry passenger and the controlling devices
are mounted on either end. Combination pas-
Senger and baggage cars have one end partitioned
off for carrying baggage, while for express and
freight work the greater part of the motor car is
reserved for baggage and freight. The latter
class of motor cars, as well as those provided
with a cab for the motorman only, are termed
locomotives, since their chief function is to pull
the train.
The Truck. —The axles of the ordinary car
truck are not driven but are drawn by the loco-
motive. When, however, these axles are driven
by motors the stress on the
transom of the truck becomes
quite different, requiring a
F- stronger and more rigid con-
Truck for motor cars for struction. The boxes and jour-
Suburban railroads.
- mals must also be of proper
form and size to give adequate wearing surface,
and must be so fitted as to resist shocks trans-
mitted to them without being thrown out of line.
The axles and wheels should possess the qualities
of durability, stiffness and strength. When but
two motors are mounted on a double truck, there
may often be an advantage in using maximum
traction trucks. These trucks are constructed
with one pair of heavy driving wheels and one

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 469
pair of small wheels.
The truck frames are
So proportioned that
the greater part of
the weight on each
truck is borne by the
::$ºvº .
he a V y axle and
wheels, to which the
motors are connected, and a high tractive effort
is obtained without slipping the wheels.
The Motor.
Mechanical Requirements.-Since the service re-
quired of railway motors is especially severe,
particular attention must be paid to certain
mechanical points:
(1) Weight.—The motor should be as light as
possible, to lessen wear and tear on track; to avoid
carrying the extra weight; to facilitate handling.
The armature, especially, should be light.
(2) Size.-The external dimensions are fixed
by the truck, the wheel base, the gauge and the
diameter of wheel. Motors of special shapes are
frequently required for certain classes of work.
For example, motors of large powers to be
mounted on trucks with very short wheel base
must be rectangular in form in order to be sus-
pended between the axles and bolster of the
truck. These mechanical limitations often de-
termine the electrical design and type of motor.
(3) Strength.--The entire motor should be able
to stand the tremendous strains and shocks, as
#|##|ºif;
RailWay Motor, Spring mounted.

470 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
&
well as the continued vibration which are un-
avoidable in railway service. Steel motors com-
bine strength and light weight so advantageously
that they are now generally used for heavy rail-
way work.
(4) Suspension.—The motor should be sus-
pended as much as possible by Springs, which
will prevent sudden shocks and shield the car
axles from undue strains. In the case of geared
motors the weight of the motor is divided be-
•. . . . . . . . sº e
• * * * -
• * * -* -
• *.*.*.*.*… -----
is:#;
Thirty-five Horse-Power Railway Motor, with Gear Case and Car Axle.
tween the frame of the truck and the axle. Sin-
gle reduction gearing has superseded the older
double reduction type and admits of a simple
and effective spring suspension for the motor.
Gearless motors, which must be constructed to
run at a low armature speed, are more difficult
to suspend properly because of the greater weight
and size for a given output, and because the en-
tire weight of the motor is centered at the axle.
Shocks on axles and wear and tear on track are,
therefore, greatly increased unless a hollow sleeve
suspension with flexible spring connections is




ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 471
used. The armature must be
mounted on the axle before one
of the wheels is pressed on, and
cannot be removed for repairs
except with considerable diffi-
culty and expense. The gearless
motor, on account of its lower speed and larger
size, has a greater first cost than the single reduc-
tion motor of the same power. Geared motors
should be suspended between the axle and the
bolster. If the motors are mounted on the side
of the axles opposite the bolster, shocks and
vibrations are increased; the inertia effect on
short curves at high speeds is also objectionable
and may often be dangerous.
(5) Protection from Weather.—Motors should
be enclosed so as to be practically water-proof
up to the axle and entirely dust and oil-proof.
(6) Accessibility.—The motor should be so
arranged as to afford easy access to all parts.
The upper and lower halves of the field should
be hinged, to allow them to be swung open for
inspection or removal of damaged armature or
field coils, bearings, etc. A covered opening
should always be made in the upper field for
easy access to brushes and commutator.
(7) Simplicity.—The motor should involve the
Smallest possible number of parts and especially
few wearing surfaces. This is necessary to reduce
liability to get out of order, to permit ease of
replacing and to reduce the number of repair
parts which must be kept in stock. Motors with
Railway Motor.

472 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
very small clearance between
field and armature require
more frequent renewal of
- tº bearings, because of the small
ºffſ |s amount of wear in bearings,
** before causing the armature to
rub against the field poles. The
..ield ºil for Railway electrical parts, such as field
Motor. The coil is thor- º
oughly covered with in- coils and armature, should be
Sulating tape. so simple that any ordinary
mechanic can repair them.
The evolution of the railway motor has reached
the point where nearly all manufacturers have
Settled down to practically one type, a four-pole
or six-pole field and slotted drum armature with
machine-wound coils. The differences appear in .
the number of field coils, the material in the
field and the many necessary details that go to
make up a complete motor. The four-pole motor
for ordinary sizes and the six-pole motor for
large sizes are adopted chiefly because they ful-
fill the conditions of lightness, compactness and
strength. They are easily made “iron-clad,”
water and dust-proof. This type facilitates the
use of machine-wound armature coils and pro-
vides for better ventilation of field winding; it
also possesses electrical advantages. When the
space is limited and circular motors of large size
cannot be used, the form of four-pole motor fields
is changed by being made narrower in One direc-
tion. This is done by making two opposite field
poles short and putting no field coils on them.
r ſº -
§§ºſiº
i; ; ; ; ; *...*




ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 473
Such a motor is called a “consequent pole”
motor.
The toothed armature is better adapted to rail-
way work on account of the danger of injury to
the winding of the surface-wound armature, also
on account of the fact that the excessive torque
on the wires laid on a smooth core has been
found to shift the winding. The coils on a
toothed armature are mechanically protected by
the teeth.
Electrical Characteristics.-The service required
of the railway motor is different from that of
almost any other motor. The average work of
the motor is small, while the maximum may be
several times greater. For this reason the motor
is designed and rated differently from stationary
motors. The motor usually receives a rating
which corresponds closely to the average power
developed by the motor while running. If rated
in horse-power, the drawbar pull is fixed by the
speed for which the motor is geared. If rated in
drawbar pull, it must be at a definite speed in
order to fix the capacity of the motor in horse-
power. With any two of three terms—horse-
power, speed, or drawbar pull—given, the third
is fixed, so it matters little whether the motor is
rated in horse-power or in drawbar pull. The
railway motor must run without sparking, other-
wise it will give trouble at the commutator from
blackening, cutting, burning, or flashing, and the
Commutator will heat and wear rapidly. The
motor must have the field coils and the armature
474 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
so insulated as to protect them not only from the
line voltage and the momentary voltages produced
by opening the circuit, but from lightning dis-
charges. The efficiency will not be as high as in
a stationary motor, owing to the gear and extra
friction losses, but in the best motors all losses
are reduced to a minimum, and the maximum
efficiency is obtained at about the average run-
ning load, which gives the best all-day efficiency.
The same motor may be used for high speed and
light load and for low speed and heavy load by
simply using gears with a different ratio.”
The Series Motor operated on a constant po-
tential circuit is now almost universally used
for traction purposes. In this motor the field
winding is placed in Series with the armature.
A variation in current, therefore, affects both
elements, field and armature. This relation has
its strong practical advantage in Securing a
heavy torque at low speeds and in giving good
running conditions over a wide range of speed.
The torque of a given motor depends upon
the field strength (or field current) and upon
the current in the armature. The torque is
* This is made clear by the following relation: Horse-power
= Drawbar pull × Miles per hour X .00267. By changing the
gear ratio a motor (itself exerting the same torque and revolv-
ing at the same speed) may be used for exerting twice the draw-
par pull at half the speed. If the drawbar pull required be five
thousand pounds and the speed be thirty miles per hour the
horse-power required is 5000 × 30 × .00267 = 400 horse-power, or
100 horse-power each for four motors. The same motor will
give a drawbar pull of ten thousand pounds at fifteen miles per
hour if properly geared.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 475
always the same for a given current, independent
of the speed. The electro-motive force at the
terminals of the
motor depends prin-
cipally up on the
field strength and
the speed. The
Speed depends prin-
cipally up on the
electro-motive force
and is (broadly
speaking) independ-
ent of the current.
The current flowing Motor with Upper Field raised, showing
depends upon the ºn tº wºme
difference between
the electro-motive force on the circuit and in the
motor, and also upon the resistance in the circuit.
More precisely, the motor armature revolving
in a magnetic field has an electro-motive force
induced in it. When a motor is connected be-
tween the trolley and the rail there is a circuit
in which the electro-motive force of the trolley,
Say five hundred volts, is opposed by the counter
electro-motive force of the motor, say four hun-
dred and fifty volts, giving fifty volts difference
as the effective pressure for sending current
through the resistance of the circuit. If the
resistance of the circuit be one-half ohm the
current will be one hundred amperes; if the
resistance be increased to one ohm, the current
will decrease; but a decrease in current means a
27 ºf ... tº ; , , i.
º &
ºliſ.
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-
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476 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
decrease in torque. If the motor is propelling a
car, the speed will necessarily become slower,
The reduced current and the decreased speed
both tend to reduce the electro-motive force pro-
duced in a motor, and the lowering of this
counter electro-motive force, gives a greater
effective force for sending current through the
circuit. When, therefore, the resistance is in-
creased the speed will become less and less, the
counter electro-motive force will become less and
less until the effective electro-motive force is just
sufficient to cause enough current to flow to main-
tain the car at a constant speed.
Motor Curves.—The relations between the speed,
torque, current and
electro-motive
force under various
conditions may be
determined by
braketests upon the
motor before it is
mounted on the
car. When certain
of these elements,
as speed and cur-
rent, are given, the
others may be de-
term in ed from
characteristic
curves plotted
from the prelimi-
Horse-power, torque, Speed and efficiency
aß wº for #. horse-power motör. In a Ty tests. The
100 Horas Power - Soo Wolta,
t CŞr
Stree

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 477
accompanying diagrams show the characteristic
curves for one hundred horse-power motor. These
diagrams show the electrical horse-power (the
horse-power received by the motor), the mechani-
cal horse-power (the power delivered by the motor),
the torque, the efficiency and the speed for differ-
ent currents for pressures of five hundred, and
two hundred and
fifty volts on the
terminals of the
motor. By exam-
ining the diagram
which gives the re-
lations when the
electro - motive
force is five hun-
dred volts, the con-
ditions when one
hundred amperes
are flowing may
be found on the
vertical line corre-
sponding to one
* - h und red. The
Horse-power, torque, speed and efficiency g
diagram, at 250 volts for 100 horse-power motor. speed is ten hun-
dred and seventy-
five, the output is fifty-eight horse-power, and
the torque is three hundred pounds. If increased
torque is required, say, a grade is reached requir-
ing three times the draw-bar pull, then a current
corresponding to nine hundred pounds torque is
required, which is two hundred and ten amperes,

478 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the speed falls to seven hundred and ten, and the
output increases to one hundred and twenty-three
horse-power. The efficiency falls from about
eighty-nine to eighty-six per cent. The curve,
when the electro-motive force is two hundred and
fifty volts, shows the same torque for the same cur-
rent, but at a decreased speed. The speed corre-
sponding to one hundred amperes has decreased
to five hundred and thirty-five, or one-half, and
the output has, of course, fallen in the same
ratio. A further reduction of electro-motive force
would cause a corresponding reduction in speed.
A reduction of the voltage on a motor operated.
on a five hundred volt circuit may be effected in
either of two ways. Motors may be connected
in series (two motors in series would give two
hundred and fifty volts on each motor) or a
resistance may be placed in Series with a motor.
When a motor is to be started a resistance is
placed in series with it and is reduced as the
speed increases. Within wide limits the vari-
ation of resistance enables a motor to be run
with any torque at any speed. The advantage
of connecting motors in Series may be appre-
ciated by noting the current which will be
required for producing a torque of three hundred
pounds on each of two motors at a speed of four
hundred and thirty-five revolutions when the
motors are in separate circuits, each in Series
with a resistance, and when they are in series in
one circuit. In the first case each motor requires
one hundred amperes, and two hundred amperes
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 479
are taken from the trolley line. The two hun-
dred amperes pass through resistances which
reduce the pressure to one-half, thereby wasting
one-half the energy received from the circuit
before the motors are reached. In the second
case, the motors being in series, only one hundred
amperes are taken from the trolley, and no power
is lost outside of the motors. In running below
half speed, motors are commonly connected in
series and the pressure is still further reduced at
starting by a resistance in series with both
motors. If four motors are mounted on a car it
is similarly advantageous to connect all four in
series for starting, then pairs in Series between
Quarter and half speed, and then all in parallel
for full speed running.
The use of the diagram is further illustrated
by determining the requirements if a train
weighing two hundred and fifty tons is to be
hauled up a one per cent. grade at a speed of
twenty miles per hour. If friction be seven
pounds per ton the pull required to haul two
hundred and fifty tons on a level is seventeen
hundred and fifty pounds. The resistance per
ton due to a grade of one per cent. is twenty
pounds; the resistance for two hundred and fifty
tons is five thousand pounds. The total resist-
ance is sixty-seven hundred and fifty pounds.
Now, twenty miles per hour is seventeen hun-
dred and sixty feet per minute; sixty-seven hun-
dred and fifty pounds pull through seventeen
hundred and sixty feet per minute is eleven
480 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
million, eight hundred and eighty thousand foot.
pounds; this when divided by thirty-three thou-
sand, gives three hundred and sixty, the horse-
power. If the efficiency of gears be ninety per
cent. the power required from the motors is four
hundred horse-power, or one hundred horse-power
from each of four motors. The diagram for five
hundred volts shows that the one hundred horse-
power motor, when developing one hundred
horse-power, requires one hundred and sixty-five
amperes and runs at a speed of eight hundred
revolutions. If the diameter of the driving
wheel be a little over thirty-six inches the cir-
cumference is ten feet, and the number of revo-
lutions required to travel seventeen hundred and
sixty feet per minute is one hundred and seventy-
six. The gear ratio required is, therefore, eight
hundred to one hundred and seventy-six, or
about seventy-seven to seventeen. The series
motor possesses a high efficiency over a wide
range of load. In fact, the efficiency is always
high so far as the motor itself is concerned.
The low efficiency at starting is due to resistances
in circuit for supplying the motor with reduced
voltage.
Tests on Motor Cars.-Performance curves of
three motor cars obtained from tests made while
the cars were in regular service are given in the
accompanying figures. Each diagram records
the conditions of grade, current, tractive effort,
voltage and speed during a run. The first diagram
shows the performance of a motor car geared to
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 481
make a maxi-
mum speed of
sixty miles per
hour, pulling one
trailer. The mo-
tors are first con-
nected in series
and a resistance
is placed in the
circuit. The re-
sistance is re-
duced by the
motorman as the
speed increases.
The current and
tractive effort
are high at first,
falling to a mini-
mum as the car
re a ches the
maximum speed
at which it can
run when the
motors are COn-
nected in series.
At this point the
car begins to as-
cend a grade, the speed is consequently reduced
and the current increases to give the required
torque for propelling the train up the grade at
this reduced (but practically constant) speed.
To obtain a higher speed, the motors are now
31 Vol. 1

482 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
connected in
multiple, the
current becomes
twice as much as
before, while the
torque, which is
about the same
as it was when
the car was on
the grade, is now
effectual in ac-
celerating the
train to full
speed, or until it
becomes neces-
sary to shut off
the current and
apply the brakes
in order to make
the next stop.
The drop in volt-
age is greatest
w he n the cur-
rent is greatest,
and is rather ex-
cessive in this
case, due to the
inadequate size
of feeders supplying this portion of the road.
The best action of the motors would be obtained
from constant voltage of five hundred.
In the second and third diagrams similar curves

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER.
483
are given of mo-
tor cars geared
for m ode rate
speed and draw-
ing heavy trains.
The Controller.
—The controller
is to the electric
motor car what
the throttle and
reversing gear
are to the steam
loco motive.
Through it the
motive power of
the car is made
obedient to the
will of the oper-
ator. The cur-
rent is admitted
to the motors at
a low pressure,
reduced through
a resistance. As
the torque de-
veloped by the
motors depends
upon the current
flowing through
them, the torque
in starting may
be increased or
S
N
§
Q

484 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
decreased at will by suitably varying the amount
of resistance in the circuit. This is done in the
controller. The resistance is usually made of
wire or strips of metal wound in coils. This is
divided into a number of sections which are con-
nected to the controller, which is a form of switch
for varying the quantity of the resistance between
the trolley and the motors, and for cutting out
the resistance entirely when the controller han-
dle is moved to the full speed position. The con-
troller is divided into two
parts; the first consists of
the switches for changing
the resistance, and the
second of the switches for
making the changes in
the motor connections.
The latter determines the
direction of motion of the
car—forward or backward
i.J. §: §I # * .
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: Llºrs ſ Dº
2. ſº. º: :
ºº:
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ºn-º-º: º
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#|Sºčº: | tº © &
sººn motors in series or in mul-
tiple as desired, whence
Controller for TWO 50 Horse- & 4 wº e 25
power Motors; open, showing in- the term series-multiple
terior. The small handle on top is Ol' “series-parallel” COIl-
the reversing switch. ſº tº
troller. It is convenient
and more economical in space to place the
switches of the controller on a drum, so that as
the drum revolves different combinations are
made. Each controller is provided with cut-out
switches, by which any or all the motors may be
thrown out of service. It is essential that con-






ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 485
trollers be constructed so as to open the circuit
when heavy currents are flowing
without the serious arcing or flash-
ing which is liable to occur when
a current is broken. If arcing
is permitted the switches and con-
tacts soon become burned and de-
stroyed, so that the controller is
rendered inoperative. Arcing is
reduced either by inserting in the
circuit a high resistance, thereby
reducing the current before finally
breaking it, or by the “magnetic
blow-out.” This is a device by
which the circuit is opened in a
strong magnetic field, the action of
which is to dissipate and blow out
Controller for
two Railway Mo-
tors. Current is
broken on auxil-
i a r y d r u m or
Switch and not On
the Central drum.
the arc which would otherwise
establish itself. -
ADJUNCTS.
Brakes.— Motor cars for heavy service are
equipped with air brakes similar to those used in
ordinary railroad service. The air compressor is
driven by an electric motor. In the usual type
the air pump is direct connected to a series motor.
The motor is provided with an automatic gov-
ernor, which cuts off the current and stops the
motor when the pressure reaches the maximum
limit and starts it again when the pressure falls.
Electric emergency brakes have been devised
whereby a car may be stopped electrically even

486 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT
º when the external
`s source of power is cut
iº † # , off. The current for
ſºft | | operating the electric
fºliº || brake attachment is
ºš. É | obtained from the mo-
§ºs. w tors working as gener-
§ ||Fº ators, deriving their
* {{#if energy from the mov-
ºiſ ing car. The brake is
Sºś a friction brake oper-
cºmer for Electric Motors; open, ated by a. powerful
showing Drum and Fixed Contacts. Mo- electro-magnet,
tion of handle in one way increases © 85 g
Speed, and in the opposite direction Light a n d Heat.—
throws on the Electric Brake. Motor Cà,I’S al’é lighted
by electricity, usually in groups of five, one hun-
dred volt lamps connected in series across the
circuit. Cars may be electrically heated. The
quantity of coal which must be burned in the
power station to produce a given amount of heat
in the car is probably twenty times as great as
would be required in a stove in the car. The
electric heater furnishes the ideal method of
heating in convenience, cleanliness, safety, the
uniform distribution of heat and in its perfect
control.
Alternating Current Modifications.—When alter-
nating current is used, either in part or in whole,
Some of the foregoing elements are modified to
conform to the new conditions. These will be con-
sidered separately under the two general systems
which involve the use of alternating current.
s
º
:
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FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 487
The Alternating Current-Direct Current System.—
In this system the power station may be located at
a considerable distance from the road to be oper-
ated when water power, cheap fuel, or other
advantages make such a location desirable. The
arrangement and selection of units and other
questions of design and operation of the station
do not differ greatly from those in direct current
stations.
Truck with motors geared to axles; electric brakes. An iron plate fastened
On the armature at the end opposite the gear case is drawn against affixed plaie
by an electro-magnet. The pressure produces great friction.
In this system the alternating current is either
generated at a high voltage, or the low tension
current from the generators is raised to a high
pressure by step-up
transformers, and the
current is transmitted
over a line of compara-
tively small wires to
Several sub-stations º
located at convenient
points along the rail-
road. At these sub-sta-
tions step-down trans- Narrow-gauge Motor.


488 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
formers and alternating current-direct current
rotary transformers are installed for the pur-
pose of converting the high tension alternating
current into direct current for the ordinary rail-
way system. From this point the feeders, trolley
line and motor car equipment conform with the
standard direct current practice already described,
the rotary transformer taking the place of the
dynamo for supplying current.”
The Alternating Current System.—The power
station and the high tension transmission line
remain the same in this system as in the alter-
nating current-direct current system. The step-
down transformers, however, are more in number,
are placed closer together and supply polyphase
alternating current to the trolley. Two trolley
wires are required over each track, the rails Serv-
ing as the third wire of a three-phase or three-
wire two-phase circuit. Each car is provided
with two trolley poles, a suitable alternating
current controller and polyphase motors.
In this system advantages may be secured by
operating the trolleys at high tension (using
them for transmission line when the generator
station is near the railroad), and carrying the
reducing transformers on the cars instead of
placing them at intervals along the track.
The use of polyphase motors for operating rail-
road trains is at present an experimental problem.
* This system is shown in diagram on page 426.
# The elements of this system are shown in diagram on
page 441.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 489
What place this system may eventually hold in
long distance high speed service therefore remains
to be determined by a practical demonstration of
its scope and advantages.
ELECTRIC ROADS.
The range of work which is being done by the
electric motor beyond the limits of ordinary street
railway traffic, is very great, as is also the vari-
ety of conditions which present themselves. At
first, two fifteen horse-power motors constituted
the standard equipment of an electric car. The
extent and magnitude of the development which
has taken place are illustrated by the large num-
ber of roads which are now in operation and
under construction, including inter-urban, ele-
wated, suburban, passenger service on general
railways, tunnel lines and long distance trans-
mission and alternating current railways. Brief
reference to some of these roads will be inter-
esting.
The Akron, Bedford & Cleveland Railway.—
This road is some thirty miles long, mostly single
track, extending from Akron, through Bedford,
to Cleveland, Ohio. The cars run to the center of
the city on the street railway lines. The track is
of fifty-six pounds per yard T-rails laid on wooden
ties. The gauge is four feet eight and One-half
inches. The trolley wire of (No. 0000 B. & S.
gauge) hard drawn copper. The power stations
are two in number, each of five hundred kilowatts
capacity, so located that no part of the line is
490 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
more than nine miles from a power station. Two
hundred fifty kilowatt belt-driven generators are
installed at each station. A unique feature of
these generators is that they are constructed to
generate either five hundred volt direct current
or polyphase alternating current at three hundred
and eighty volts. The direct current only is used.
These machines may, when desired, be used as
alternators to operate rotary transformers to
supply the distant parts of the road or for light-
ing purposes. The motor cars resemble in general
appearance those used on steam railways. About
one-half of these cars are built with baggage com-
partments, the passenger compartment seating
about thirty-two persons. The remainder of the
cars are full seated with a capacity of forty-two
passengers each. The cars have cross reversible
seats, upholstered in plush, with center aisle; are
provided with electric heaters and lighted with
twenty electric lights. Cars are equipped with
air-brakes.”
Burlington and Mt. Holly Branch of Pennsylvania
Railroad.—The Pennsylvania Railroad has sub-
stituted electricity for steam on the branch line
*The following gives the general dimensions and perform-
ance Of the Cars:
Length of car, 40 feet; weight, 20 tons; maximum speed, 35
miles per hour; average speed including stops, 20 miles per
hour; number of trucks, 2; number of driving wheels, 4; num-
ber of motors, 2; size of each motor 50 horse-power. Both
motors are mounted on the rear truck, the controller is in the
front vestibule and the cars always run in one direction. The
maximum train consists of motor car and two trailers.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 491
operating between Burlington and Mt. Holly,
New Jersey. The following is a brief statement
of the equipment of the line:
A four hundred horse-power boiler supplies
steam at one hundred and twenty to one hundred
and fifty pounds pressure to a non-condensing
compound engine, which runs at a speed of two
hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. The
generator is a two hundred and twenty-five kilo-
watt, five hundred fifty to six hundred volt, eight
pole machine, direct-connected to the engine. The
track and roadbed con-
struction is the same as ſº
that of the single track ºf §
steam roads of that divi- iſ lift
sion of the Pennsylvania
Railroad. The length of
this branch is about seven
miles. The trolley wire is
of (Number 00 B. & S.
gauge) hard drawn copper w
suspended between wood- Motor Car, Mt. Holly Road.
en poles. There is a continuous trolley wire over
the entire length of the main track. Frogs and
Switches are avoided at turn-outs by changing the
trolley wheel from the main trolley wire to a
Separate trolley wire suspended parallel to the
main wire and about a foot from it. The gener-
ator station is located at the Mt. Holly end of the
line. Double truck combination baggage and
passenger motor cars are in use. The furnishings
are similar to those of most railroad coaches.
i" " . .
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| liftºff
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492 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
The total weight of each of these cars equip-
ped is fifty-two thousand pounds. Trailers are
Standard coaches and weigh forty-two thousand
pounds. One motor car is equipped with four
fifty horse-power railway motors; two series-
parallel controllers (one on each platform of
car); two trolleys operating in tandem on the
Same wire; elec-
tric heaters and
complete air-
brake outfit. This
car is geared to
make a speed of
forty to forty-five
miles per hour.
Other motor cars
are similarly
One Hundred horrºw, Motor With Pin- equipped, except
ion, Mt. Holly Road. that each has two
on e hundred
horse-power motors, which are geared to give speeds
of forty-five to sixty miles per hour respectively.
Electricity has been in use on this road since 1895.
Nantasket Beach Branch of the New York, New
Haven dº Hartford Railroad.—This company be-
gan the operation of its Nantasket Beach Branch
by electricity in 1895. The first installation was
nearly seven miles, which was extended the fol-
lowing year three and one-half miles. The first
year the double track line was equipped with a
special trolley wire which had the shape of the fig-
ure eight. The extension is provided with the third

EI, ECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 493
rail instead of the trolley. The third
rail is laid in the center of the track
and is supported on white ash blocks
four inches square and five and one-half
inches high, doweled into the ties.”
º, These blocks were especially treated by
, Nantasket extracting the moisture in vacuum pans
Road. and thoroughly Saturating them in an
insulating composition. The third rail is rolled
with a special section and weighs ninety-three
pounds per yard. Rails are connected together
by fish plates and by duplicate flexible ribbon
bands of copper.; The third rail is not laid at
stations, but an overhead trolley (connected to
the third rail by cable) is used for a short dis-
tance. At road crossings the rail is simply left
out and an underground cable connects the two
sections of the third rail. The train crosses this
gap by its own momentum. The road is an ex
ceedingly difficult one on which to attain a high
rate of speed as there are a great number of
curves, there being twenty-nine curves in ten
miles of track, and only one piece of tangent
track, about a mile in length, which is level.
The generator station is equipped with two five
hundred kilowatt generators direct connected to
compound, condensing engines, which have been
at times called upon for a load fifty per cent.
greater than normal. The motor cars are equipped
with two motors, gear ratio, three and eighteen-

*See illustration on page 464.
#The contact shoe is shown in illustration on page 465.
494 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
hundredths mounted on trucks having thirty-six
inch wheels. The cars are furnished with circuit
breakers on each end, automatic air brakes, with
air pump, direct connected to an electric motor,
carrying a pressure of ninety pounds; also with
a large whistle operated by air from the brake
reservoir. The motor car complete without
load weighs thirty-four tons. It is an open
car, having sixteen benches, each bench accom-
modating six persons, making a total seating
capacity of ninety-six, although a great many
times there have been as many as one hundred
and fifty persons on a car. Cars are fifty-five
feet over all in length. Trailer cars are of the
same size, weighing approximately twenty-eight
tons. The usual train consists of a motor car
and one trailer, but at times there have been as
high as four trailers in addition to the motor car.
The trains make a schedule speed of twenty miles
per hour, including stops, of which there are
fourteen and two flag stations. There have been
few or practically no delays or stoppages caused
by any electrical defect. A train of two cars can
easily attain a speed of thirty miles per hour
within a minute after starting, and in special
tests a speed of sixty-five miles per hour has been
attained. The station load is naturally a fluctu-
ating one, as at times four or five trains leave
Pemberton at the same time on the arrival of the
Boston boats. Notwithstanding this, it is stated
that the power is produced at the rate of eight-
tenths of a cent per kilowatt hour. The motor-
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 495
men who operate this branch are firemen taken
from the main line during the season when the
electric line is operated.
The New Haven System is exceptional in hav-
ing a very large mileage within a small and
densely populated territory. Its passenger traffic
is the source of a large part of its revenue and
much of this is from local traffic. These are the
conditions most favorable for electrical operation.
The success of the Nantasket Beach Line assures
extensions to other parts of the system. Two
lines, Hartford to New Britain and New Britain
to Berlin, a total of twelve and three-tenths miles
are already equipped with apparatus very similar
to that used on the Nantasket branch.
The Metropolitan Elevated Railway, Chicago.—
This road consists of twenty miles of double track
on elevated steel structure. Standard T-rails
Weighing ninety pounds per yard are used for the
track (gauge four feet, eight and one-half inches)
and a forty-five pounds per yard T-rail for the
contact rail of the third-rail system. This rail is
placed on insulators on the left side of the track,
about twelve inches from the center of the left-
hand track rail and is raised six inches above the
level of the main rails. The track rails are bonded
together and to the main girders of the elevated
structure, the whole being used as a metallic
return. The feeders consist of old track rails
Suitably bonded and placed in a wooden box be-
tween the main tracks. One power station of
four thousand six hundred kilowatts capacity
496 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Supplies the whole road. The engines are direct.
connected to five hundred volt direct-current gen-
erators of eight hundred kilowatts and fifteen
hundred kilowatts capacity. Each motor car pulls
three trailers. The total weight of train is ninety
tons. Air-brakes supplied by an electric air-
pump, electric heaters and electric lights are
used.*
The Baltimore dé Ohio Railroad Tunnel.-The
largest electric locomotives which have been built
are in use on the Belt Line of the Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad in the city of Baltimore. This line
runs through a tunnel one and one-fourth miles
long, and then through cuts and short tunnels to
the outskirts of the city. There is a grade of
eight-tenths per cent. for nearly the whole length
of the tunnel, and beyond it a long grade of one
and one-half per cent. The steam locomotive is
not detached from the train, but the complete
train is hauled through the tunnel by the electric
locomotive, and the two locomotives are avail-
able for the heavy grade outside the tunnel. In
the station there are four seven hundred and fifty
horse-power engines driving generators of the
same capacity, giving a pressure of six hundred
*The dimensions of the motor cars and conditions of service
may be generally stated as follows: Length, 45 feet; weight,
30 tons; maximum speed, 25 miles per hour; average speed, in-
cluding stops, 13 miles per hour; number of stops, 3 per mile;
number of trucks, 2; wheel base of trucks, 54 inches; diameter
of driving wheels, 33 inches; number of motors per truck, 1;
size of motors, 100 horse-power each; number of series-parallel
Controllers, 2.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 497
volts. The ordinary trolley was impracticable, both
on account of the limited space available in the
tunnel and the very heavy currents required. The
tunnel is low in places and the overhead conduc-
tors are placed between the two tracks, seventeen
feet above the rails. Outside the tunnel they are
raised to twenty-two feet. The conductor consists
of a heavy plate below which is riveted two Z-bars,
between which there is a slot of one inch. The
contact is a brass shoe traveling in the trough
and connected to the locomotive by a flexible
Five hundred Kilowott Railway Generator. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
Sawbuck arrangement which has great freedom
of movement. A heavy copper cable carries
current to the motors, which returns by the rails
to the station. The locomotives weigh ninety-
five tons each and rest on eight driving wheels,
which makes the full weight useful for prevent-
ing slipping of the wheels. Each locomotive is
made up of two units, each of which consists of a
forged iron truck frame supported upon four
wheels. There are four motors of about three
hundred horse-power each, one on each axle. The
motors have six poles and are placed on the
32 Vol. 1

498 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
axles which extend through hollow sleeves on
which the armatures are built. The motors are
supported independently of the axle and transmit
their power by projections on the armature
which move between lugs cast on the wheels.
This flexibility prevents the violent jarring which
would otherwise occur on an uneven track.
There is a sheet iron cab on the locomotive with
ample windows and provided with trap doors
through which the motors can easily be reached
whether the locomotive is standing still or run-
ning. The locomotive can run in either direction.
It is equipped with series parallel controller,
electric air pump, air brakes, air whistle, bell,
and safety devices, and has an automatic coupler
of the Master Car Builders’ type at each end.*
Lowell and Suburban Street Railway Company.—
The lines of the Lowell and Suburban Street
Railway Company are so long that the cost of
copper prohibits their operation from one station.
The power, however, is generated at one station
and is transmitted by alternating current at five
thousand volts. It is reduced to a low voltage at
a sub-station and then transformed into direct
*The following are some of the principal characteristics of
the locomotives: Weight, 190,000 lbs.; draw-bar pull, 42,000
lbs.; starting draw-bar pull, 60,000 lbs.; length over draw-bars,
34 feet, 6 inches; height over all, 14 feet, 3 inches; width Over
all, 9 feet, 6% inches; wheel base each truck, 6 feet, 10 inches;
diameter of drivers, 62 inches; number of drivers, 8; maximum
speed, 70 miles per hour; maximum speed full draw-bar pull, 15
miles per hour; maximum speed half draw-bar pull, 30 miles
per hour. Motors are wound for 250 volts and are connected 2
in Series.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 499
current by a rotary transformer or rotary con-
verter. There were at first two sub-stations but
the two have been combined into one. This
involves greater losses in the lines but is more
economical in running expenses. There are two
generators each of two hundred and fifty kilo-
watts capacity, which deliver current at three
hundred and thirty volts to raising transformers
which supply the line with five thousand volts.
There are three (No. 0, Brown & Sharpe gauge)
wires for transmitting the three-phase current.
The sub-station is ten miles distant. In the sub-
station there are lowering transformers, and four
machines which receive the alternating current
and deliver direct current. Some fifteen miles of
this line are operated through the rotaries. The
direct current averages three hundred amperes
and reaches a maximum of eight hundred amperes.
In the city of Lowell the trolley wire from the
rotaries is connected to the trolley wire which is
fed by the Lowell central station, so that both
sources of current supply one system. The load
upon the rotaries varies greatly during different
seasons of the year, being excessively heavy in
summer time. This road attracts attention as
it is one of the first roads in which alternating
current was used for transmission.
The Utah Power Company.—This company util-
izes a water power thirteen miles from Salt Lake
City, Utah, by placing its generating plant at that
place, transmitting the energy at high tension to
Salt Lake City and supplying power to the lines of
500 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
the Salt Lake City Street Railway Company. The
The generating plant consists of one seven hun-
dred and fifty kilowatt, four hundred volt, seven-
ty-two hundred alternation, two-phase alternating
current generator, direct - connected to water
wheel. The power station is built to accommo-
date two more of these units as soon as the
demand for power shall require an extension of
the present plant. Two
three hundred and seven-
ty-five kilowatttwo-phase-
three-phase step-up trans-
formers are used to raise
the pressure to fifteen
thousand volts for three-
phase transmission. The
high tension line consists
£ of three (No. 2, B. & S.
gauge) bare copper wires
Six hundred and fifty Kilowatt ſº
(870 horse-power) Two-Phase Alter- twenty-four inches apart,
nating Current Generator.
and is thirteen miles long.
The step-down transformers at the Salt Lake City
Sub-station are the same as the step-up trans-
formers at the generating station, and deliver
two-phase current at four hundred volts to two
four hundred kilowatt rotary transformers for
transforming the alternating current into direct
current. These rotaries supply the trolley lines
with current at five hundred and fifty volts
pressure. *
Niagara Falls Power Company.—A part of the
power of the Niagara is utilized for electric rail-

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 501
way purposes, both at Niagara Falls and at
Buffalo. The alternating current-direct current
system is employed here to good advantage, since
high tension transmission is essential to the use
of Niagara's power in Buffalo. The hydraulic
fe at u res of the
power station are
generally familiar.
The generators are
each of five thou-
sand horse-power
capacity and deliv-
er two-phase cur-
rent at twenty-two
h Ul Iſl dr € d W O l ts º Five Hundred Horse-power Rotary Trans-
Th * former, Niagara power house. Alternating
€ armatures are current flom the 5,000 horse-power dynamos
stationary while ºrmed into direct current for rail-
the fields revolve
in a horizontal plane, being supported upon
the upper ends of the vertical turbine shafts.
The high tension transmission line to Buffalo
is twenty-six miles long, three miles of which
are in Buffalo. Five miles of the line are
along the Erie Canal and the remaining eighteen
miles occupy a special right of way. The poles
are thirty-five to sixty-five feet high, depending
on the locality, and are set sixty to Seventy-
five feet apart and six to eight feet deep in
good ground, or in concrete where the ground
is soft or unreliable. Each pole carries three
arms, two for transmission lines and one for tele-
phonic purposes. The former are each twelve
*~

502 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
feet long by four and three-quarters inches thick
by five and three-quarters inches high, and are
Constructed to support three wires on each side,
giving the present pole line a capacity of four
three-phase transmission circuits of three wires
each. Iron wires are suspended along the outer
ends of the cross-arms and are grounded at every
fifth pole, forming a lightning arrester for the
entire line. At sharp curves double poles and
double cross-arms
are provided. The
three conductors
are of three hun-
dred and fifty thou-
Sand circular mills
bare copper cables,
supported on large
porcelain insulat-
ss -i. ors, and have a ca-
s pacity of five thou-
-* sº Transform t Buffal sand horse-p OWer
Yher 8.5 BUlita.[O. at eleven thousand
volts, which may be increased to ten thousand
horse-power by doubling the transmission volt-
age. They are completely transposed every five
miles. In Buffalo these conductors are rur
through an underground subway forty-two hun.
dred feet long. At the Buffalo end three-phase.
step-down transformers are used to lower the
voltage for supplying rotary transformers in the
power station of the Buffalo Street Railway Com-
pany. These rotary transformers are two in

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 503
number, each of five hundred horse-power capac-
ity, and deliver five hundred volt direct current
to the feeders of the street railway. In the large
power house at Niagara Falls three five hundred
horse-power rotary transformers have been in-
stalled for supplying direct current to the local
railways and to the Niagara end of the Buffalo
and Niagara Falls Electric Railway. In this case
2^Nºs. 7%/
gaº
Sº
º
ºx
º
\
&T
gR
*
7///7.7//VE"
Diagram showing utilization of Nº. power. R. T. is a Rotary Trans-
former, receiving alternating current and delivering direct current. The
circuit to Buffalo is shown at the right.
step-up transformers and high tension line are
unnecessary, but step-down transformers are re-
Quired to reduce the pressure from twenty-two
hundred volts (the electro-motive force of the
large generators) to that required by the rotary
transformers for delivering direct current to the
railway circuits at about five hundred and fifty
volts. These rotary transformers are six-pole,
two-bearing machines, running at five hundred
revolutions per minute. The generators have a


504 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
capacity exceeding that of any other electrical
machines that have ever been made. -
The Columbia & Maryland Railway.-This road
lies between Baltimore and Washington, a dis-
tance of nearly forty miles, with a branch four
miles long. The booster system for operating
long roads with direct current is employed. Two
power stations are located twenty-three miles
apart, each having four eight hundred kilowatt
generators and two or three three hundred kilo-
Watt boosters. The boosters are double machines,
consisting of a motor which receives its current
from the main generators and a booster dynamo
mounted on the same shaft through which cur-
rent to the distant parts of the road is passed and
receives an increase of pressure which compen-
sates for the loss in the feeder circuit.* The road
bed is of the best double track construction, using
bonded T-rails and wooden ties. The trolley is
operated at a pressure of six hundred to six hun-
dred and fifty volts. The maximum grades are
two and five-tenths per cent. in the country and
five per cent. in the city of Baltimore. Each
motor car+ pulls two trailers, or a train of fifty
tons total weight, equipped with electric lights
and heaters, also complete air-brake outfit, includ-
*One of the machines is shown in illustration on page 434.
}The dimensions and performance of the motor cars are as fol-
lows: Length of car, 35 feet; weight, 25 tons; maximum speed,
60 miles per hour; number of trucks, 2; number of driving
wheels, 8; number of motors, 4; size of each motor, 100 horse-
power; number of series parallel controllers, 2; number of
trolleys (tandem) 2.
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 505
ing electric air-pump, reservoir and engineer's
valves. The schedule includes through express
trains, through local trains and suburban service
at each end of the line. The maximum speed is
sixty miles per hour.
The City & South London Railway.-Although
European countries are backward as compared
with America in the use of electricity as a motive
power for the operation of railroads, and its use
is, in the main, confined to street service, yet this
road has been in operation since 1890. It is an
underground road, the track being laid in an iron
tunnel about eleven feet in diameter and six and
a half miles long. The gauge is four feet, eight
and one-half inches (standard), while the maxi-
mum grade is three and one-third per cent. The
third rail and sliding shoe are used for supplying
direct current to the locomotives at five hundred
volts pressure. The locomotive has a fixed wheel
base. On each axle is mounted a fifty horse-
power motor armature. The motor fields are of
the two-pole type, which is no longer in common
use. The average speed of trains is thirteen and
one-half miles per hour, with a maximum speed
between stations of twenty-five miles per hour.
The power station is equipped with eight boilers,
four vertical compound engines and four four-
hundred horse-power belt driven direct current
generators.
The Lugano, Switzerland, Electric Tramway.—
This road is of interest because of the use of the
polyphase alternating system throughout. A
506 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
water power at Maroggia is utilized. A three
hundred horse-power horizontal shaft turbine
drives a one hundred and fifty horse-power, five
thousand volt three-phase inductor type genera-
tor. The frequency is forty periods per second,
or four thousand eight hundred alternations
per minute. The transmission line is seven miles
long and consists of three copper wires one-fifth
of an inch in diameter. A single transformer sub-
station is located at the middle point of the rail-
way supplying the trolley with four hundred volt
three-phase current.
The road is three miles
long, single track, run-
ning through the
streets of Lugano. Two
trolley wires one-
fourth of an inch in
diameter are suspend-
ed ten inches apart
FOUIT Hundred Kilowatt Railway OVer the track. The
º ſºFº Mantau & rails al’é bonded and
airmount Passenger Railroad.
serve as one of the con-
ductors of the three-phase circuit. Each car car-
ries two trolley poles and is equipped with a twenty
horse-power three-phase motor and a controlling
device operated from either end of the car. The
motor is provided with a transfer gear attach-
ment, whereby the speed may be changed in the
ratio of one to four. The normal speed is nine
miles per hour. This road has been in successful
operation since it was installed in 1895.
º aº
%ºg
ſº
* & W.
f (G) º * >
- M}}\;
NS-4
§º §




FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 507
ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR GENERAL RAILWAY
PURPOSES. ,
The application of electricity to general service
under existing conditions gives rise to a number
of important inquiries. Is it practicable? If it
is practicable, what are the advantages that make
it desirable? What are the requirements and
forms of apparatus and methods of operation?
If it is feasible, is it economical?
There is no question as to the possibility of
generating electric energy in any quantity, of
transmitting it and supplying it to electric motors
in capacities much greater than those for which
steam locomotives have ever been built. There
is no doubt as to the ability of an electric system
to perform the duties of a steam locomotive, and
there are numerous points of advantage possessed
by the electrical system. The steam locomotive
performs several fairly distinct classes of service;
namely, passenger traffic, both suburban and
through, and freight traffic. There are also
special and peculiar conditions to be met, such
as those in tunnels, cities and on heavy grades.
The application of electricity to these different
requirements may be separately considered.
Local Passenger Service.—Local or suburban
passenger trains in general run for comparatively
short distances, the trains are small and the
Schedule provides trains at frequent intervals.
Moreover, the desideratum on local lines is more
frequent service, which will naturally involve a
greater number of trains of smaller sizes. Noise
508 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
and dirt are partic-
ularly to be avoid-
ed in cities and
suburbs where localſ
passenger trains
are run. The con-
ditions of moderate
3 ºr -º distance, of small
s: sº trains and frequent
Eight Hundred Kilowatt Railway Generator. S ervi Cé alºé IſlC) st
favorable for electrical operation. The electric
motor can be built cheaply and economically for
small power (which is not the case with the steam
locomotive), and a schedule in which small units
are operated in frequent succession maintains a
fairly constant load upon generator station and
conducting lines, so that they operate at the best
efficiency and may be installed at much less first
cost than would be required if the same aggre-
gate energy were to be delivered during a part of
the time to a few trains. The conditions best
adapted to electric traction are, therefore, identi-
cal with the requirements of local passenger and
suburban service. The advantages of the use of
electricity are found in the flexibility and econ-
omy of the electric system; the increased com-
fort in transit; the frequent service and conve-
nience in some cases of an increased number of
stations, all of which tend to increase traffic.
The avoidance of noise, smoke and dirt is a
distinct advantage. The wide extension of
Suburban railways connecting large cities with

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 509
Surrounding towns is the best proof of the success
and the economy of the application of electricity
to this class of work. The adoption of electricity
for elevated roads is demonstrating its superiority
Over the steam locomotive in a class of service
closely related to suburban ser-
vice on steam roads. The types
of apparatus in use are referred
to elsewhere. The motor car
will probably retain its suprem-sºº.s.l.,
acy for short roads with trains Railway Service.
of moderate size, to the exclusion of the electric
locomotive, devoted entirely to the production of
power and not admitting passengers or freight.
Through Passenger Service.—If electricity is to
replace the steam locomotive for heavy service, it
is possible that the electric power must be sup-
plied to the train in the same manner and under
the same conditions as steam power is applied. It
would, of course, be possible to mount motors on
each car of a train. This would deliver directly to
each car the power it requires; would remove the
enormous strains on coupling attachments, by
which the power is conveyed from the locomotive
to the train; and would take advantage of the
weight of the train for tractive effort. On the other
hand a large number of small motors are more
costly to install and keep in repair and they oper-
ate at a lower efficiency than a few large motors.
Moreover, the construction of railway cars is the
outcome of a long evolution in which the bear-
ings, trucks, springs, etc., have found their present

510 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
form. If a motor be placed on the car axle, an
entirely different arrangement of trucks would be
required for accommodating the motor and the
power would be applied to the car from its truck,
causing very different forces to act from those
which now exist, and requiring radically different
forms of car construction. Even if it were prac-
ticable to use the ordinary type of construction
used in street car work for operating a train of
self-propelled cars at moderate speeds, other con-
ditions are involved at high speeds. Trucks of
heavy passenger cars are very different from those
of street cars. The mounting of a heavy motor
and its connection to an axle is a difficult and
delicate matter when very high speed is to be
used. In the steam locomotive there are recipro-
cating parts, but they are comparatively light and
are accurately balanced, so that the weight of the
parts which give a pounding action on the rails is
not great. The electric motor is heavy and its
armature must be in close mechanical connection
to the axle which it drives. The steam locomo-
tive is built upon a heavy strong frame, capable
of resisting ordinary obstacles
and affording a fair protection to
the train which follows it. For
equivalent protection, an elec-
--> trically operated train should
Eighty Horse-power have a heavy and substantial
Railway Motor locomotive at its head. In an
electric locomotive a motor may be connected to
the axle which it drives in one of several ways.

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 511
For instance, it may be connected by gearing.
This possesses the advantage of cushioning the
motor by supporting it on springs and also allows
the motor Speed to be greater than the axle speed,
which is desirable except at high train speeds. In
the gearless motor a method of connecting the
armature with the shaft by springs or flexible
coupling is usually necessary in order to prevent
the weight of the armature from resting directly
and solidly upon the wheels. Neither of these
methods of connection between the armature and
the axle relieves the pounding action which occurs
on a rough track, or on a fairly good track at high
speed, due to the vertical motion of the axle,
which necessarily tends to produce a variable
speed in the armature. These effects may not
prove very serious in operation at moderate speeds
and with moderate sizes of apparatus, but they
demand careful consideration when weights and
speeds are increased. It may, however, prove
necessary to mount the motor entirely separate
from the axles and make connection with the
driving wheels through side rods similar to those
now in use on locomotives. This would avoid
the shocks by supporting the motor entirely from
the frame of the locomotive, and would also have
the advantage of preventing slipping of one pair
of wheels. When motors are connected in series
they are free to run at different speeds, and if one
pair of wheels slips they may turn rapidly, while
the others not only do not revolve but have the
torque of their motor reduced, as the higher speed
512 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
of the motor with which it is in series will reduce
the current through the motors. The problems
in the electric locomotive are mechanical rather
than electrical. The final form of apparatus and
the best method of proportioning and arranging:
it must be determined by practical experience.
gºt §t º
ſºft
§§§
- *
#º
Truck, Baltimore & Ohio R. R.
The advantages of electric traction aside from
the question of cost are not radical. There is an
absence of dirt and smoke, which are especially
objectionable in cities and tunnels and are great
annoyances in the summer season. The changes
in the present method of operating steam roads,
which would be most favorable for electrical
operation, are those which tend to preserve a uni-
form load distributed along the line, thus placing
a uniform average load upon the power station.
Another change from present methods of running
steam roads which may give electricity an advan-
tage is in high speed. The absence of reciprocat-
ing parts in the electric motor, the uniformity of
its torque and the large horse-power for which it
is capable of being built may give the electric
locomotive a marked advantage over the steam
locomotive for special high-speed service.



ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 513
It may be noted that in street railways the
adoption of electricity on car lines was begun by
using as much of the old material as could be
utilized without the modifications necessary for
the new conditions which the electric motor
brought with it. The electric car and electric
railway track have been evolved by many succes-
sive steps from the old street railway apparatus.
In the steam railway this experience will not, it
is probable, be lost sight of. The ordinary ten-
dency is to make the fewest changes possible in
methods, material and equipment, which may be
unsuitable under the new conditions.
gº lili
a lºssº ! º
§ §
=lſº
ºfflº,
&tišiikii:iiitiºns lºº |
º zºº. L-, zºº & ~. º
-: * ~ *º- Sºsºft
Truck for Electric LOCOmotive.
Freight Service.—The requirements for freight
service involve most of the elements found in
through passenger service which are unfavorable
for electric traction. The tendency in railway
operation is toward heavier trains, even when
this involves the necessity of heavier track,
stronger bridges and more expensive rolling
stock. The frequent trains which, to a certain
extent, are desirable in passenger service and
more favorable to electric traction and very high
speeds, which may make electric traction advan-
tageous, are not generally required in the freight
service.
33 Vol. 1









514 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Y
Special Conditions.—Electricity offers many ad-
vantages for the operation of railroads under
special conditions, such as in tunnels, in cities
and towns where smoke is to be avoided, on
bridges where the iron work is injured by escap-
ing Smoke and gases, and also in Switching and
handling cars where cables or other forms of
traction are used. The electric locomotive can
be built for great power and may find special
application even on general railways in assisting
at points where such power is demanded. For
examplg, electric locomotives may be used on
very heavy grades for assisting steam locomotives
or for relieving them entirely. The conditions
would be particularly favorable where water
power is available for supplying the electric
energy.
|RELATIVE COST OF OPERATION BY STEAM LOCOMOTIVES
AND BY ELECTRICITY.
The cost of operating a railroad by steam loco-
motives and electricity is practically the same in
almost all items except those belonging distinctly
to the generation and application of power. For
example, the cost of road-bed and track, stations,
terminal facilities and cars is practically the
same, while the charges for maintenance and
operating expenses are practically identical ex-
ept in relation to the power equipment. The
principal elements in which there is a difference
between the cost of electric traction and steam
traction may be stated in brief, as follows:
* - -
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 5 15
ELECTRICITY. STEAMI.
CONSTRUCTION.
Power Houses.—Building, Round Houses.—Water sta-
power apparatus, including tions, coaling stations, etc.
dynamos and switchboards,
car barns.
Lines.—Overhead or third rail,
feeder system, track bond-
ing, etc.
Locomotive.—Motors, control- Locomotive, tender.
lers, etc.
MAINTENANCIE.
Power plant, line, motors, etc. Locomotives, tenders, etc.
Greater wear On track and roll-
ing Stock.
OPERATING EXPENSES.
W age S. — Train attendants, W age S. — Train attendants,
power house attendants, line- round house men, Water.
men, etc.
Coal or water power. Coal.
A comparison between the cost of electric and
steam traction indicates very clearly their respec-
tive variations as the character of the service to be
rendered is changed. With a given total service
to be performed, the adoption of many small
units instead of a few large ones will affect the
costs by both methods; it will decrease the first
cost of the electric power station and electric
lines, as it insures a more constant load; it will
increase the cost of the steam locomotives much
more than that of electric locomotives; it will
increase the cost of maintenance much more
rapidly for steam than for electric locomotives; it
will increase the wages for train attendants more
rapidly for steam than for electricity, as a greater
amount of work is required to be performed upon
the steam locomotive; it will reduce the cost of
516 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
coal in the electrical system, by securing a more
uniform load which can be transmitted at greater
efficiency while it will increase the cost of coal
for steam locomotion.
Switchboard.—Metropolitan Elevated Railway, Chicago.
Electric traction may through its greater con-
venience for passenger traffic lead to an increased
business and an increased income. This is espe-
cially true of local and suburban service, but does
not as yet apply to any great extent to through
traffic. Short distance and frequent service with
light trains favor electric service, while long
distances and heavy trains favor steam traction.
The relative cost of electricity and steam for
each kind of service, depends very largely upon
local conditions, such as the amount of service
and size of trains, cost of apparatus, cost of power
and distance over which the trains are to be
operated.
TEIF. HEILMANN FLECTRIC IOCOMOTIVE.
The Heilmann locomotive merits notice here as
it attacks the problem of locomotion in a new
way, and seems to combine different elements so
as to Secure, apparently, the greatest output and

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 517
highest efficiency from each. It also affords ex-
cellent means of investigating the conditions and
measuring the power required for running at
high speeds. The fate of this locomotive in com-
petition with the best types of steam locomotive
hinges largely upon the question of first cost in
which it is greatly handicapped, and of operating
expense in which it has a decided advantage, and
in its ability to exceed what the steam locomo-
tive is able to attain in hauling power and high
speeds. In comparison with the ordinary electric
locomotive the Heilmann locomotive is superior
in requiring no conducting system and in placing
both the speed and the voltage of the generator
under the control of the motorman; but the cost,
except possibly for long distances and large pow-
ers, will probably be found to be considerably
greater. This electric locomotive is really a com-
plete electric power system on wheels. The
boiler and engine which supply the power are a
part of the locomotive, and the electrical appar-
atus is used as a flexible transmitter between the
engine and car-axles. The advantages which are
aimed at are increased power of engine over that
which is practicable in the locomotive; higher
efficiency in boiler and engine, thus reducing
coal consumption; perfect balance of reciprocat-
ing parts in the engine, Securing great uniformity
in the motion and draw-bar pull; a great number
of driving wheels supporting a heavy weight and
giving uniform tractive effort; in short, mechan-
ical conditions for securing an increase of power
518
RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
Over that obtainable from
the steam locomotive, which
may be utilized for drawing
heavier trains or attaining
higher speeds. A locomo-
tive of six hundred horse-
power was built and tested.
It developed four hundred
and fifty horse-power at the
rims of the drivers when
running at sixty-two miles
an hour. The entire weight
of the locomotive was one
hundred and fifteen tons,
carried upon sixteen driving
wheels. The maximum ob-
served speed was sixty-seven
miles per hour. The loco-
motive was mounted upon
two bogie trucks each hav-
ing four axles, upon each of
which was mounted a motor.
The data furnished by this
locomotive has formed the
basis for the design and con-
struction of two larger loco-
motives of one thousand five
hundred horse-power each.
The new pattern weighs one
hundred and fifteen tons and
is provided with a Willans
engine with six cranks, direct

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 519
connected to two generators. The French type
of locomotive boiler is used. The field circuits
of both generators and the eight motors are
separately excited from an additional dynamo,
thus placing the electrical operation under com-
plete control. The motors are four-pole, and
the axle passes through the center of the sleeve
carrying the armature. The total length is
fifty-two feet, the length of truck fourteen and
one-half feet, the distance from axle to axle
between the trucks thirty-seven feet, and the
height of the stack above the rail nearly four-
teen feet. The indicated power of the engines
is one thousand three hundred and fifty horse-
power, and the efficiency to the car axles is
seventy-five per cent. The engine can run with
a cut-off which will insure high efficiency and
the combustion under the boiler is practically
complete. These characteristics adapt the loco-
motive for use in tunnels and for switching pur-
poses. This locomotive is referred to at length
as it without doubt represents in important par-
ticulars, a permanent step in the progress of elec-
trical transportation.
PRESENT AND FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY.
History.-The history of practical electric trac-
tion is short. The idea of operating moving cars
by electricity dates back a number of years. The
electric motor may probably be dated from the
invention of the Barlow wheel in 1826. Within
the next ten or fifteen years several inventors
520 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
worked on the application of the motor to the
movement of a car, notably among them being
Thomas Davenport, of Brandon, Vermont, who
constructed a small car which carried batteries
for operating the little motor which drove the
car around a circular electric road. Cars which
would carry passengers were constructed later,
driven by batteries. It was soon found that,
however possible it might be to construct motors,
the cost of batteries for operating them pro-
hibited any commercial application. A new
impetus was given to electrical apparatus upon
the invention and development of the dynamo.
Electric lights, both arc and incandescent, were
well known in principle many years ago, but
awaited practical development and useful appli-
cation until the dynamo, a cheap source of elec-
tric energy, became available. The first electric
railway was operated by Siemens and Halske, at
the Industrial Exposition in Berlin, in 1879. A
small electric locomotive pulled a platform car
which would carry eighteen or twenty persons
at a speed of about eight miles an hour. During
the succeeding years experiments were carried on
both in Europe and America. The first electric
system to be actually operated in competition
with horses on street railway lines was by Bentley
& Knight, in July, 1884, in Cleveland, Ohio. The
road was about two miles long.” In 1888, the Union
*In 1887 a catalogue was issued, entitled, “The Van Depoele
System of Electric Railways,” which gave a list of Van Depoele
roads, six in all, operating a total of fourteen and three-quarters
FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 521
Passenger Railway, of Richmond, Virginia, began
operation with electric motors. This was the
first large road to adopt electricity. It served to
overcome much of the ignorance and prejudice
against electric traction, and since that time the
progress of the electric motor has been so great
that it is reasonable to suppose electricity will
soon entirely supersede old forms for street rail-
|||||||
Electric LOCOmotive.
ways. The electric roads already far surpass the
old horse-car roads in cities, and have, moreover,
extended their limits to suburbs and outlying
districts and towns impossible under old con-
ditions.
The electric railway occupies a new field be-
tween that occupied by the horse railway and the
steam railway. It has grown into this field by
development. The steam railways which are
adopting electrical apparatus are doing so in the
miles, and adds, “As the matter now stands we have more miles
of electric railway now in successful Operation than all the other
electric railways in the world combined.”

522 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
parts of their traffic which come nearest the new
field which electric traction has made its own.
The rapid extension of the motor in practical
lines is accompanied or preceded by rapid advance
in other lines. The dynamo and motor of early
days are entirely inadequate to-day. The electric
systems used, the types of apparatus, the devel-
opment and perfection, theoretically and prac-
tically, mechanically and electrically, of the
ſº 3. º lº
Sºft
§ |º - N
º § |
º C
&S
5E
sº
:
s:
.
-\
§t;§
º
ºº
D w
§
Four Hundred Kilowatt and Eight Hundred Kilowatt
RailWay Generators.
dynamo, the motor and the controlling appar-
atus, together with improvements in boilers and
engines and track and line construction, testify
to the amount, variety and excellence of the
engineering work which has been put forth with
such marvelous results.
Electrical Progress.-Electricity does not work
by magic; it is not ready at a motion of a wiz-
ard's hand to appear in new forms, to change
wild fancies and visionary schemes into actual
useful realities. Development has been made

FLECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 523
possible by the fact that electrical action is not
by chance, but that there are definite principles
and laws of electrical action. These are now
known. As long as electrical phenomena were
isolated and disconnected there was little advance
but when scientific investigation had been car-
ried on in the field of electricity and what had
been discovered was generalized and expressed
in the language of mathematics, then this basis
of keen knowledge of electrical phenomena and
accurate statement of electrical laws became a
foundation upon which practical achievements
were possible. The development of the electric
railway is the work practically of the engineer,
and its future development will, in the main, be
his work also.
Electrical apparatus is not based upon vague
and indefinite theory, but upon definite and exact
laws, albeit difficulties and uncertainties arise in
the application of these laws. Many undeter-
mined elements appear in the application of elec-
tricity to the heavy service of general railways.
These arise, however, not from the uncertainties
of electricity in its generation, transmission or
application, but in many of the other elements
which are involved. For instance, the introduc-
tion of higher speeds than those which have
been attained involves no fundamental electrical
question, but it does involve innumerable mechan-
ical problems.
The extension of electricity into new fields of
electric traction is, therefore, dependent more
524 RAILWAY EQUIPMENT.
up on mechanical than
electrical conditions, as-
suming the electrical
engineer has no new ele-
ments with which to work.
If, however, he has new
material or new property
presented to him, such as
a higher magnetic perme-
Railway Motor. ability, or a higher con-
ductivity for current, he
will utilize it in cheaper and more efficient
machines and circuits. If a new source of elec-
tric energy be discovered, some method of trans-
.333333 sº & w ºstrº.
Tºrrrrrºº º * * - I - º:::
rter-w,
Cº.
Sºº-ºº:
E-ºº::::::::::::::::::::::
|tº6:
|T}º#
ſ#
R
|
One Hundred Horse-power Railway Motor. Top Field removed, showing
Armature in position.
forming directly the latent energy of coal into
electrical energy, then the whole problem of
electric traction will be revolutionized, as the
cost of power is one of the prime elements in
the problem of transportation.










ELECTIRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 525
In conclusion it may be said, a few years has
sufficed to develop insignificant and experimental
electric roads into completed railway systems
which fill the streets of cities and towns and
send out radiating lines in every direction into
the surrounding country. A new field of trans.
portation has thus been evolved which rapidly
encroaches upon an important branch of general
railway service. The motor created new con-
ditions, and led to new methods. Its possibilities
# i ". Tº #, º º h
jº º º
º º : | š.
º
º º 's
One Hundred Horse-power Railway Motor complete.
and limitations are now fairly defined. Its pre-
sent field in connection with general railway
business is confined to local traffic over short
distances. It is possible that it may develop
new methods of operating which will be superior
to those now existing. Who can doubt this in
view of what has occurred? Taking all the cir-
cumstances of the past and the present, we may
confidently look forward to the occupancy by
electricity of an ever widening field in the gen-
eral transportation interests of the world.

















APPENDIXES.
(527)
:
g
APPENDIX A.
EVOLUTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
Dr.N&ENsroNs of
Crºctoxºs. ‘Braxtsu Sorracº. Wºrls, Wºrrºrſ. tº , tº
er of Sqīlūºr of Ratne ºf Class of * wº x: s} = 3 is a 3: 5 # = a s § 3 5
Year. *::::: Engine. Ragine. É. a , ## | #4 ā; ; # #### # =#| |# is #5
§ 3 || si j : * | # g; ##############| #####| is:
# ##| # # # #########|#; ; : #
k's £ s º X § 3 ; #####| ## * ##" tº
º # = | 3" | ## #|######|*# # |##| 5
1803:Trevithick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Freight 8 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 54 | . . . . . . . ... 6–0
1812; M. Murray...... M. Murray. . . . . . Blenkinsop. . . . . . {{ S ... . . . . . . . . . . .] 4 42 * * * | * * * * * * @
1814|G. Stephenson...|G. Stephenson, ...Blucher... . . ... “ S . . . . . . . . 4 || 36 . . . . . . . . . . . S- G
1825|G. Stephenson...Stephenson & Co. Locomotion..... *::: 10 | 24 i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4S . . . . . . 35 il()— 4
1826|Stephenson & Co.{Stephenson & Co. Experiment. . . . . tº 9 24 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4S . . . . . 10– 4
#. §§§ºnson & Co.i.aigashirewitch. " 9 6 . . . . . . . 4 4S .. ... 9–0
1829|G.&R.Stephenson;G.&R.Stephenson Rocket........ . . . “ 8 117 ºr | 137 ſº 2 564; 2 50 6–0
łºśtephensºn #98. Stephensºn: Co. Invicta . . . . . . | “. § - e < * * * * * * * * 4 4S .. 40 #10– 0
1830|Stephenson & Co.Stephenson & Co.:Northumbrian...}Pass'ger 411 fºr 2 60 2 * * : * ~ * * * * º
1830|G. Stephenson, ...|R.Stephenson&Co. Planet. * * * * § { 370 fºr; 407 ºr ; 2 60 2 6– 6
1830;Stephenson & Co.jStephenson & Co. Mercury. . . . . . . # e. 370 fºr 407 ºr 2 60 2 6– 6
1832;G. Stephenson. . . R.Stephenson*Co Comet. . . . . . . . . . Freight 2Tº 840 º’s 4 60 . . . . 7–12
1832;T. Hackworth...}R, &W. HawthornjWilberforce ... . . “ Outside 145 | 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 6 || 4S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * *
1833;Carmichael & Co. Carmichael & Co. Earl of Airlie.... “ | * | 11 | 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 54 || 4 ||... . . . . . . . 19000' ... [........
1834|Stephenson & Co.;Stephenson & Co. Patentee. . . . . . . . Pass'ger * * * * 3 60 4 * * * * * * *
1834 Stephenson & Co.Stephenson & Co. Atlas.. , Freight | “ 16 20 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 # 54 || 4 || 54 . . . . . . . $4000 | . . . . . . . . . .
1834G. Forrester. . . . . Waughan F"dy... [Swiftsure . . . . . . . “ Outside l l ; 18 j. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 || 4 | . “...--
1835; Hawthorn & Co.. Hawthorn & Co..}Comet No. 1. . . . . Pass'ger 272 4S . . * * * * * * *
1837|R.Stephenson&Co.R.Stephenson&Co North Star. . . . . . “ “ 16 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S4 4 s a t < * * *
1838|Haigh Found'y Co. Haigh Found y CoGrand Jet, Ry, . $4 53S 2 4 . . . . . . .
1S3S;T. #. ..}Hawthorn & Co.. Hurricane.. § { tº: tº º * * * * gºt &
1839|Haigh Found'yco Haigh Found'ygo. Hector.....; . . § { (SS 4 * * * * * * *
1846 D. Gooch... . . . . . Great Western Colºreat Western... Express 1767, 6 . * * * * **** *,
1847;F. Trevithick . . [London & N.W.Co'Cornwall, . . * " | “ 17 § 24 j. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . • i < * * * * * *
§T. R. Crampton...ſºrºrisºčiverpool ..... de 3290 t; 13– 6
1859. J. Ramsbottom..] London & N.W.Co. Problem. e gº • * * * * * * # 4 | . . . . . . . . . 54000 [ . . . . . . . . . .
1861; J. E. McConnell...jLondon & N.W.Co. Delaware . . . . . . . 4 * 980iº, 1222*, § 4 . . . . 2S000; 69400 150 . . . . . . .
1870M. Kirtley. . . . Neilson & Co....|Midland Ry. SO0. {{ t]96 2 . . . . . . . . . . 71S50 140 l. . . . . . .
1871M. Kirtley... ... Midland Rºy.....Midland Ry. Sºº. . ! 11.2 2 . . . . . . . . . . ; 73400 140} . . . . . . .
1885;S. W. Johnson...|Midland R'y.....|Midland Ry. 173S. “ 1261 4 / . 10–101",
1886; Nielson & Co....}Nielson & Co. . . . Caledonian 123. “ “ lS 26 ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . * * * * * * *
1889.T. W. Worsdell...[North Eastern CoN. E. Co. 1518... {{ . . . . . . . . 1139 6 | . ‘. . . . . .
1891|Wm. Dean. . . . . GreatWestern Ry:G. W. Ry. 3010. . $t 1821 tº 1444 ºr 4 . * * * * * *
1892||P. W. Webb. ... [London & N.W.Co. L. & N. W. Co...] Freight 24 $114 ºr 1130 fºr ; 1245 ºr ; * * | * 15– 6


APPENDIX B.
PARTS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
The parts which manufacturers of locomotives buy in the market from
other manufacturers are indicated by an asterisk (*).
[NotE.—See chapters, ‘‘Description of Locomotive”; “Locomotives and
Cars of the World.”]
Air Pump Exhaust Pipe.
Arch Brace.
*Air Cocks.
*Air Signal Hose.
*Air Brake Hose.
Arch Hand Rail.
*Air Pump Lubricator.
*Air Gau
*.
Ash Pan Damper Handle.
Air Drum Bracket.
*Air Drum.
Ash Pan.
*Air Brake Pump.
*Air Cut Out Valve.
*Air Pump Governor.
*Air Strainer.
*Air Pump Throttle.
Buffer Beam.
Blower.
Balance Plate.
Balanced Valve.
Bridges.
Back Cylinder Head.
*Boiler Lagging.
*Boiler Jacket.
*Boiler Sheets.
Bell.
Bell Stand.
Back Up Eccentric.
Back Up Eccentric Rod.
Back Up Eccentric Strap.
*Blower'Cock,
*Brake Valve Reservoir.
*Branch Pipe,
Cinder Chute.
Cinder Chute Slide.
Cleaning Door.
Cylinder.
Cylinder Saddle.
Cylinder Head Casing.
Cylinder Lagging.
Cylinder Cocks.
Cylinder Cocks Rigging.
Cylinder Casing.
Cross Head Pin.
*Cross Head. (If steel, they
purchase.)
Counter Balance Spring and
19. -
*Check Valve.
*Check Valve Case.
Circumferential Seam.
Crown Bars.
*Chime Whistles.
Cab.
Cylinder Cock Lever.
*Cylinder Lubricator.
Cab Bracket.
Counter Balance Weight.
Dry Pipe Joint.
*Draw Bar.
*Draw Head.
Deflector Plate.
Deflector Plate Adjuster.
Draft or Petticoat Pipe.
*Driving Wheel Tire.
*Driving Wheel Centers. (They
purchase if steel; if cast
iron, they make.)
*Driver Brakes.
Driver Springs.
Driver Spring Hangers.
Driver Spring Equalizers.
Driver Spring Hanger Brace.
Driving Box Shoe.
Driving Box Wedge.
Driving Box,
Driving Axle.
(530)
APPENDIX B. 531
*Delivery to Drum. Go Ahead Eccentric Strap.
*Drip Cock. Grate Shaking Rig.
*Dry Pipe. Gauge Lamp.
Dry Pipe Hangers. Gauge Cocks.
Dome. Hose Hangers.
Dome Cap. Headlight Step.
Dome Casing.
Extension Front.
Exhaust Port.
Engine Truck.
*Engine Truck Wheel. (If cast
iron they make; if wrought
iron or steel they purchase.)
*Engine Truck Tire.
Engine Truck Axle.
Engine Truck Brass.
Engine Truck Box.
Engine Truck Pedestal.
Engine Truck Frame.
Engine Truck Pedestal Brace.
Engine Truck Frame Brace.
Engine Truck Equalizer.
Engine Truck Spring Hanger.
Engine Truck Spring.
Engine Truck Spring Band.
Engine Truck Spring Pocket.
Eccentric Connection. Back
D.
Eccentric Connection. GO
Ahead.
Expansion Pad.
Expansion Link.
*Engineer's Brake Valve.
Flagstaff.
Front Frame.
Front Cylinder Head.
*Flues.
Frame Brace.
Frame Splice.
Fire Door.
Feed Pipe Hanger.
*Feed Pipe.
*Feed Pipe Hose.
*Fire Box Sheets.
Guides.
Guide Yoke.
Guide Block.
Go Ahead Eccentric.
Go Ahead Eccentric Rod.
Headlight Bracket.
*Headlight Case.
*Headlight Reflector.
*Headlight Burner.
Horizontal Boiler Seam.
Hand Rail.
Hand Rail Brackets.
Hand Hold.
*Injector.
*Injector Overflow.
*Injector Throttle.
Jacket Bands.
Key.
Link.
Link Block.
Link Block Pin.
Link Hanger.
Lower Rail of Frame.
Main Rod.
Main Rod Front Strap.
Main Rod Connection.
Main Frame.
Number Plate.
Netting.
Nozzle Stand.
Nozzle Tip.
Nigger or T Head.
Oil Pipe Plug.
Oil Pipe.
Oil Can Shelf.
Pilot. *
Petticoat or Draft Pipe.
Piston Packing.
Piston Rod.
Piston Head.
*Piston Packing Rings.
*Pump Connection.
Pedestal Brace.
*Pump Piston Packing.
*Pump Exhaust Connection.
*Pump Steam Connection.
*Pump Valve Case.
*Primer,
532 APPENDIX B.
Parallel or Side Rod.
Pilot Bracket.
Quadrant.
Relief Valve.
Rocker.
Rocker Box.
Reach Rod.
Rod Bush.
Rocking Grates.
Running Board.
Reverse Lever.
“Signal Lamp.
Smoke Arch Door.
Smoke Arch Front.
Smoke Arch Ring.
Stack Base.
Smoke Stack.
Steam Chest.
Steam Chest Casing Cover.
Steam Chest Cover.
Steam Passages to Chest.
Steam Ports.
Safety Hanger.
*Signal Pipe.
Suspension Stud.
*Steam Bell Ringer.
Sand Box.
Sand Box Lever.
Sand Pipe.
Side or Parallel Rod.
*Steam Cylinder Brake Pump.
*Steam Pipe.
*Steam Valve.
Sling Stays.
*Stay Bolts.
Stand Pipe.
*Safety Valves.
*Steam Gauge.
Steam Turret.
*Signal Whistle.
Sand Lever.
Shake Lever Stub.
*Signal Pipe.
*Signal Pipe Hose.
T or Nigger Head.
Truck Center Casting.
*Truck Brake.
*Train Pipe Connection.
*Train Pipe.
Tumbling Shaft.
Tumbling Shaft Arm.
Tumbling Shaft Lever.
*Tube Sheet.
Throttle Pipe.
Throttle Valve.
Throttle Bell Crank.
Throttle Stem.
Throttle Lever.
*Train Pipe.
*Train Pipe Hose.
Tail Piece of Frame.
Valve Yoke.
Valve Stem.
*Valve Stem Packing.
Valve Seat.
Valve Stem Rod.
Ventilator.
Wheel Guard.
Wash Out Plug.
Wedge Bolt.
*Water Pipe.
*Water Valve.
Whistle Rig.
*Whistle Signal Valve.
APPENDIX C.
COST OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS.
TABLE I.
Cost of copper for outgoing and return circuits (without rail
return) for delivering one horse-power on axle of car; volts
delivered, 500 to 15,000; volts drop in line equal one-tenth of
volts delivered; efficiency of motor and gearing, 80%; cost of
copper, 15 cents per pound.


Miles. | 500 W. 600 V. 700 V. 2000 V. 5000 V. 10000 V. 15000 W.
l $ 20.70 || $14.40 $ 10 60 $ 1.30 $ .21 $ .05 || $ .02
2 83 00 57 60 42 40 5 20 .83 .21 .09
3 186 00 130.00 95.20 11.70 1.86 .47 .2]
4 332 00 231 00 170.00 20.80 3.32 .83 .36
5 518.00 360 00 265 00 32 50 5.18 1.29 .57
6 | . . . . . . 518 00 380 00 46.80 7 45 1.86 .83
* | . . . . . 716.00 520.00 63 80 10 10 2.52 1.12
8 . . . . . . . 922.00 678.00 83 20 13 25 3 30 1 36
9 | . . . . . . 1164.00 860 ()0 105.00 16.70 4.17 1.85
10 ! . . . . . 1440.00 || 1060 00 130 00 20.70 5 15 2.30
12 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 00 29.80 6.80 3.30
14 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.00 40. 50 10 10 4.50
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333.00 53.00 13.25 5.90
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 00 67.20 16.80 7.35
20 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520.00 82.80 20.70 9.20
TABLE II.
Cost of copper in outgoing conductor for delivering one
horse-power on axle of car; volts at car, 600; volts drop in out-
going conductor, 60 to 300 (for total drop add drop in rail return
circuit); efficiency of motor and gearing, 80%; cost of copper,
15 cents per pound.

Miles. 60 V. 90 W. 120 V. 180 W. 240 V. 300 W.
i $ 3.6() | p 2.40 || $ 1 80 $ 1.20 $ .90 || $ .72
2 14 40 9 6() 7.20 4.80 3 60 2.88
3 32, 40 21 60 16. 20 10.80 8.10 6.48
4 57.60 38.40 28.80 19.60 14 40 11.52
5 90 (10 (30.00 45.00 30.00 22 50 18.00
6 129.00 86 ()0 65 00 43. 20 32.50 25.90
7 176,00 117 00 88 00 48.00 44 00 35.10
8 231.00 153.00 115 20 76.50 57.60 46. 10
9 | . . . . . . 194.00 146 00 97.00 73 00 58.20
10 e e ge 240.00 180.00 120.00 90.00 72.00
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259.00 173 00 124.50 || 103.60
14 gº tº e º tº e I e e º ºs e e * & © e 235 , (0 176.00 141.00
16 gº º º º ſº e & e º e º e i < * * * * * s e º s is e 231.00 184.40
18 H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 00 232.80
20 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 00
534 APPENDIX C.
TABLE III.
Approximate volts drop in rail return for delivering 100 to
1,500 horse-power on car axle; weight of rail, 80 pounds per
yard (for other weights the distance for same drop varies as the
weight); single track (for double track the distance for same
drop is doubled); volts at car, 600; efficiency of motor and gear-
ing, 80%.

Miles. 100 H.-P. 200 H.-P. 400 H.-P. 600 H.-P. |800 H.-P. 1000 H.-P.1500 H.-P.
1 3 Volts. 6 volts. 12 Volts. 18 Volts. 24 Volts. 30 Volts. 45 Volts.
2 6 “ 12 “ 24 “ 36 “ 48 “ 60 “ 90 • {
3 9 “ 18 ** | 36 ** | 54 “ | 72 “ 90 6 *
4 12 ‘‘ 24 “ 48 “ | 72 “ 96 {{
5 15 ‘‘ 30 “ 60 ** | 90 4 &
6 18 ‘‘ 36 “ | 72 § {
7 21 “ 42 “ | 84 4 &
8 24 & 4 48 { { 96 tº {
9 7 t 6 54 4 &
10 30 ** | 60 & ſº
12 36 “ | 72 GG
14 42 ** | 84 &
16 48 “ 96 {{
18 54 { {
20 60 & 4
TABLE IV.
Cost of copper for delivering 400 horse-power and 200 horse-
power on car axle; complete copper circuits without rail return,
also copper circuit with rail return (single track); volts at car
600; total drop in pressure, 100 volts; efficiency, cost of copper
per pound, etc., as in preceding tables.

400 H.-P. 200 H - P.
Miles. Without With Without With
Rail Return. Rail Return. Rail Return. Rail Return.
1 $ 34.50 $ 9.84 $ 17.25 $ 4.60
2 138.00 45.60 69.00 19.00
3 3.10.00 121.60 155.00 47.40
4 552 00 266.40 276.00 91.00
5 863.00 504 00 431.00 154.00
6 1240.00 810.00 620.00 244.00
7 1690.00 1180.00 845 00 364.00
APPENDIX C. 535
Table I. gives the cost of a complete copper circuit for trans-
mitting one horse-power under definite conditions. It will be
noted that the cost decreases rapidly as the voltage is increased,
and that with the same cost the distance increases directly
with the voltage. Twenty dollars and seventy cents is the cost
for five hundred volts one mile, for five thousand volts ten
miles and for ten thousand volts twenty miles. If the loss in
the conductors be twice as great—twenty per cent. instead of
ten per cent.—the cost of copper will be reduced one-half. If
three phase alternating current is used, the cost is three-fourths
of that given in the table.
Table II. gives the cost of copper in the outgoing copper
conductors, and does not take into account the return circuit.
Table III, gives the drop in volts in the rail return circuit
This is liable to variations due to bonding of rails. Insufficient
or defective bonds may greatly increase the track resistance.
The total drop in voltage between station and car is the sum
of the drops in the outgoing and return circuits. If a total
loss of, say, one hundred volts is allowed, the drop in the rail
return is to be found first. The difference between this and
one hundred volts is the drop for which the outgoing circuit is
to be calculated. If the distance be three miles and the power
one hundred horse-power, the rail drop is but nine volts, and
minety-one volts is allowed inthe copper outgoing circuit. If,
however, the power is six hundred horse-power the rail drop is
fifty-four volts and sufficient copper must be placed in the
feeders to reduce the drop to forty-six volts. The drop in the
rail should not exceed that in the outgoing circuit. When this
would otherwise occur it is to be prevented and the two drops
kept practically equal by supplementing the rail circuit with
copper feeders. If the current is small the rail greatly reduces
the cost of outgoing copper. For very light loads it is reduced
to nearly one-fourth of what it would be if the rail were not
effective as a conductor
Table IV. shows the effectiveness of the rail return circuit.
The cost of copper for transmitting four hundred horse-power
and also for two hundred horse-power is given both with and
without rail return. In the latter the conditions would be filled
if there were two trolley wires with feeding systems, One for
outgoing and the other for the return circuit. It will be noted
536 APPENDIX C.
that the rail return reduces the cost for short distances to nearly
twenty-five per cent. and that at five miles it is reduced nearly
One-half for four hundred horse-power and to nearly one-third
for two hundred horse-power.
Some of the above values are shown graphically in the fol-
lowing diagram:
A B C D
E. F.
ſ $200
|sis)
āş160
$SO
$4
0
H
$6
0.
$20
Curves of cost of copper for different distances with and without rail
return Circuit:
1 2 3 4 5 6 ºf 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
\– DISTANCE IN MILES Aſ
A— 600 Volts, Copper Return Circuit...................... 10% Loss
B— 600 “ {{ &g “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16%% “
C— 600 “ Rail ge “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16%% “ (400 H.-P.)
ID— 600 “ &&. &&. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16%% “ (200 H.-P.)
E– 600 “ 6& &&. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50% “ (400 H.-P.)
R— 2000 “ Copper “ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10% “
G– 5000 “ fg &g " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10% “
BH-10000 “ tg &g “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10% “
On the vertical line corresponding to three miles it will be
observed that the loss with copper return circuit is reduced
from $130.00 per horse-power when the loss is ten per cent. to
$78.00 when the loss is allowed to reach sixteen and two-thirds
per cent. When the rail is the return circuit the cost reduces
to $30.00 per horse-power, when the power transmitted is four
hundred horse-power, and to $23.00 when the power is two
hundred horse-power. The cost at two thousand volts for com-
plete copper circuit and ten per cent. loss is $11.70 and the cost
at ten thousand volts is but 47 cents. The cost of copper for

APPENDIX C. 537
three phase alternating current is three-fourths of this, or 36
cents at ten thousand volts. The cost of copper when there is
rail return, single track, and when there is a loss of fifty per
cent. of the voltage delivered (i. e. three hundred volts, equal
thirty-three and one-third per cent. of the voltage at the power
house), is given on the basis of four hundred horse-power deliv-
ered. It is comparatively low at first, but increases rapidly
beyond a distance of hine or ten miles.
APPEN DIX D.
EXPTIANATION OF A POPULAR FORM OF AUTOMATIC AIR BIRAKE.
The Westinghouse Air Pump consists of an air compressing
piston in the lower cylinder driven by direct connection with
the piston of a steam engine in the upper cylinder. The air is
delivered to the Main Reservoir.
The Pump Governor closes the steam pipe leading to the
pump when the desired maximum air pressure is attained, and
opens the steam pipe again. When the air pressure has been
slightly reduced, so that no attention is needed from the en-
glneer.
The Engineer's Brake Valve is manipulated by the engineer,
as desired, to open communication between the main reservoir
and the train pipe, Or to close this opening and Open the train
pipe to the atmosphere when the brakes are to be applied.
The Triple Valve contains a piston engaging by a stem with
a slide valve for opening and closing ports. The outer side of
this piston is exposed to the train pipe pressure and the side
toward the slide valve is exposed to auxiliary reservoir pres-
sure; it is moved one way or the other by a slight preponder-
ance of pressure on either side. When train pipe pressure is
the greater the piston and slide valve are moved so as to open
a small port from the train pipe to the auxiliary reservoir for
charging the latter, and a larger port from brake cylinder to
atmosphere to release the brakes. When auxiliary reservoir
pressure is the greater, the piston and slide valve are moved in
the opposite direction so as to close both the openings above
mentioned, and then to Open a passage from the auxiliary reser-
voir to the brake cylinder to apply the brakes.
The normal condition when running, is with the main res-
ervoir, train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs charged with com-
pressed air and the brakes off. A reduction of pressure in the
train pipe by escape to the atmosphere at engineer's Valve, or
at the conductor's valve, or by the bursting of a hose or other
breaking of train pipe, applies the brakes. A restoration of
pressure in the train pipe from the main reservoir by proper
moving of the engineer's Valve, releases the brakes and re-
charges the auxiliary reservoirs for further use.
The Cut-Out Cock in the branch pipe and the release Valve
on auxiliary reservoir are for use only when the brake On any
car is out of order and must be cut out of service. The Release
Valve is for releasing the brake on that car in such case by
bleeding the auxiliary reservoir.
The Pressure Retaining Valve is connected by a pipe to the
exhaust port from the brake cylinder. It is left wide open for
free escape of air ordinarily, but is turned up by hand before
descending long, heavy grades, so as to retain about fifteen
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder, and thus keep the brake
slightly applied while recharging the train.
(538)
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4, Air Pump. B, Steam Valve. C, Oil Cup for Pump. D, Pump Governor. E. Steam Pipe to Pump.
F, Exhaust Steam Pipe.
Reservoir to Engineer's Valve.
ing Reservoir for Engineer's Valve.
AW, Driver Brake Cylinders.
C, Couplings for Train Pipe.
R, Main Reservoir.
G, Air Delivery Pipe from Pump to Main Reservoir.
H, Air Pipe from Main
I, Engineer's Equalizing Brake Valve. J. Air Pressure Gauge. K, Equaliz-
E, Cut-Out Cock in Air Pipe under Engineer's Valve. M. Train Pipe.
O, Auxiliary Reservoir for Driver Brakes.
P. Triple Valve for Driver Brakes.
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Branch Pipe to Triple Valve. A, Branch Pipe, Triple Valve to Auxiliary Reservoir. F. Cut-Out
Cock in Branch Pipe, G, Auxiliary Reservoir. H, Brake Cylinder. Z, Piston (or Push) Rod Cross-
Head. J. Conductor's Valve for applying brakes.

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B, Couplings for Train Pipe.
C, Angle Cocks for closing Train Pipe. D,
A, Train Pipe.
Branch Pipe.
A., Cut-Out Cock in Branch Pipe.
F. Auxiliary Reservoir.
G, Brake Cylinder.
H, Push Rod. I, Release Valve. J, Operating Rod for Release Valve. A., Pressure Retaining
Valve.
A., Pipe to Pressure Retaining Valve.















E.
*
*
A
O |}|O
Theory of the application of the Automatic Brake and Brake Shoe to the driving wheels,
É
i

INDEX.
This volume is carefully Indexed, but for the
convenience of the reader and to render the book
easier to handle, the Index is included (with a
full Index of the whole work) in volume Twelve
under the title “GENERAL INDEX.” This
“GENERAL INDEX” is also, in a measure, an
Encyclopedia of Railway Knowledge.
In all previous editions of the work each vol-
ume contained an Index, but as this was already
embraced in the Twelfth Volume, it has been
determined to change it in this edition (as indi-
cated above) thus reducing the bulk of each vol-
ume, and making it more convenient for the
reader to handle.
THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS
EY MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN.
*THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS ’’ DESCRIBES THE METHODS AND PRINCIPLES CON.
NECTED WITH THE ORGANIZATION, LOCATION, CAPITALIZATION,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE, OPERATION AND
ADMINISTRATION OF RAILROADS.
IN TWELVE VOLUMES, COMPRISING Books ON
Railway Equipment.
Railway Organization.
Financing, Constructing and Main-
taining.
Train Service.
Passenger, Baggage, Express and Mail
Service.
Freight Business and Affairs.
Disbursements of Railways.
Economical Purchase, Care and
Use of Material.
Fiscal Affairs; Collection of Revenue.
Principles Governing Collection
Of Revenue. -
Fiscal Duties of Agents and Con-
ductors.
General Fiscal Affairs.
General Fiscal Affairs and Sta-
tistics.
Payment of Employes of Rail-
TO 8.01 S.
Treasurer’s Office.
The Relief Department of Rail.
- # * r * & roads.
Fiscal Affairs; Expenditures. Origin and Evolution of Transporta-
Economic Theory of Rates; Private tion.
versus Government Control of Rail-
Engineers’ and Firemen's Manual.—
roads.
General Index.
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lucid, instructive and interesting. They assign the railroad interest its proper
place in the economy of commerce, and elucidate the principles that govern
its operations. To those wishing to familiarize themselves with the multitu-
dinous details of railway service, these books will prove of inestimable value.
They are an encyclopedia of authoritative information and embody the wide
expérience and calm observation of a railway official of forty years standing.”
—ALBERT KEEP, Chairman Board of Directors, Chicago and North-Western
Railway.
§s a valuable contribution to our railway literature.”—PION. CHAUNCEY
M. DEPEw, President New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Company.
“There is nothing in railway literature to be compared with these books in
extent or value. I can not think of anything better that I can do for our
employes than to bring such a fund of information within their easy reach.”
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TO8.d.
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and find many readers.”—TIMOTHY Dw1GHT, President Yale University.
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“It is undoubtedly the most thorough and comprehensive work that has
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“I regard it as an exhaustive treatment of the subject and a valuable addi-
tion to my library.”—HoN. Boswell P. FLow ER, Governor of New York, Capi-
talist and Railroad Director. -
“Even the casual reader cannot fail to remark the fertility and capacity
of a mind whose observations have given him a mastery over such a mass of
detail. Every railroad man who believes his calling should have the dignity
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the profession.”—%urnal of the German Railway Administration Society.
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