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CoPYRIGHT 1922 By
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
All Rights Reserved
Published September 1922
Second Edition August 1923
Composed and Printed By
The University of Chicago Press
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
TO
L. N. L.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Business education in America is unique in its vigor and in
its lack of guidance. It has exhibited a remarkable growth and
aroused an unusual interest in the general mind, but it has
received a minimum of thoughtful attention from those institu-
tions which are professionally concerned with education.
Business education has never been subjected to an “over-
view.” As a result no one type of business education institution
has been able clearly to outline its program in relation to the
work of other types. With this disability, institutions have
multiplied, not to supplement one another, but largely to com-
pete in doing similar work.
Without a clear sense of purpose and relationships the organi-
zation of a rational curriculum in any type of school has been
difficult. As a result the many capable persons planning busi-
ness courses and teaching business subjects have planned and
taught often in terms of tradition, custom, or, at best, immediate
goals.
But to any who will pause to take a detached point of view,
it will appear at once that nothing is to be gained when con-
cerned with a problem of curriculum by accepting traditional
studies and attempting to juggle them into some defensible
arrangement. It will be obvious that courses in business educa-
tion should be built up in terms of purposes, and it will be
quite as clear that different forms of institutions may well
serve different ends. To determine the general objectives of
business education, to indicate the important agencies con-
cerned and to suggest the place of each is the purpose of this work.
It is, therefore, not a discussion of the curriculum for a particular
type of School, but an approach and point of departure for a
study of the curriculum of any type of business course.
The book should thus have a use as an introductory text
in that increasing number of institutions which are training
teachers of business subjects and where there is a growing realiza-
ix
X PREFACE
tion that no narrow approach to a study of business education
will prove permanently Satisfactory. For such schools it should
make possible a foundation course upon which more specialized
courses can be built with an understanding of the business
educational structure as a whole. The volume should also
render a service to those general readers who have a serious
interest in the whole field of business education and to those
persons who have already made a professional connection with
any special phase of it. For the former it will be a survey
more or less complete in itself; for the latter it is a method
of approach to their special problems. *
The emphasis given the public secondary school needs a
word of explanation. First of all, the general extent of business
education in such schools is so great as to warrant a more
elaborate discussion of the high school than that given to other
institutions. Moreover, the varied forms in which the secondary
schools' relation to commercial education appears causes a some-
what extended treatment. Related to these considerations is
the fact that normal schools' interest in commercial education
will center in high-school problems. Finally, there is no doubt
that the high School has been farther astray in the work it has
attempted than have most of the other institutions participat-
ing in giving business education. At the same time, its proper
rôle is so important and so certain not to be performed save by
the public high school that almost any extent of emphasis could
be justified.
The book has its origins in specific problems of curriculum-
making. For several years the writer was responsible for
certain phases of the business curriculum in a large high School.
In the effort to deal with the problem presented there, most of
the ideas expressed in this volume had their beginning. The
School of Commerce and Administration of the University of
Chicago later furnished a congenial atmosphere for the develop-
ment of these ideas and an opportunity to discuss them with
mature students engaged in teaching and school administration.
Obligations, especially to authors and publishers for permis-
sion to quote material, are many. A careful effort has been
PREFACE xi
made to give specific acknowledgment for these quotations
where they appear, as well as for the kindness of several indi-
viduals who have prepared statements. From E. W. Barnhart,
chief of the Commercial Division of the Federal Board for Voca-
tional Education, there have come a number of valuable sug-
gestions. Through his kindness, and through the courtesy of
F. G. Nichols, the writer was given early access to the results
of the Federal Board's occupational surveys. William Bach-
rach, supervisor of Commercial education in the Chicago high
schools, has had the temerity to experiment with the material
in the classes of the Chicago Normal School while it was still
in proof, and has made contributions as a result.
Among my colleagues, L. C. Marshall read the entire manu-
script and offered many invaluable suggestions, while Professors
Emery Filbey, Franklin Bobbitt, and C. O. Hardy have given
helpful criticisms on particular chapters. A special obligation is
due Miss May R. Freedman for help in the collection and arrange-
ment of material and the preparation of the Index. In no Small
way has the physical burden been lightened by the Secretarial
and stenographic aid of the Misses Sigrid M. Johnson, A. M.
Tillotson, Nira Cowan, and D. Mulloy. -
LEVERETT S. LYON
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
August 1, 1922
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
This volume was prepared with the hope, expressed in the
preface to the first edition, that it might be of service to general
readers and to students in institutions giving teacher training.
If the general reader had been the only reader contemplated, the
clear expression of a point of view would have been the only
matter of primary importance. But to make the book valuable
to students, the evidence was laid out in some detail, Conflicting
attitudes were expressed, questions interpolated, and material
otherwise introduced for the constant discussion and reaction
of class work.
These introductions into the skeleton of thought make it
possible for the student to develop a view through his own
thinking, but they constitute something of an interference to
the reader who wishes to see quickly approach and conclusions
only. There has therefore been added in this edition a final
chapter which is something of a sketch of the book as a whole.
It is hoped that this chapter may serve the general reader as a
certification of viewpoint and the student as a Summary as well.
As the title of the chapter indicates, there is also the belief that
this summarized viewpoint may aid educators in applying the
ideas of the book to practical situations.
The development of certain material has made possible in
this edition a new proposal on page 6oo, and one rather signifi-
cant point has been emphasized by italics on page 577.
LEVERETT S. LYON
CHICAGO
June 26, 1923
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I. A STATEMENT OF THE CASE
CHAPTER
I. THE GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION
II. AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MAKING
PART II. THE OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION
FOR BUSINESS
III. WHAT IS BUSINESS P
IV. INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND THE SPECIALIZATION OF
BUSINESS UNITS
V. SPECIALIZATION WITHIN BUSINESS UNITS
VI. SCIENCE IN BUSINESS AND LARGE-SCALE PRODUCTION
VII. WHAT BUSINESS SAYS IT WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS
VIII. WHAT BUSINESS SAYS It WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRES-
SIONS
IX. THE FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY .
PART III. MODERN AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
FOR BUSINESS
A. THE OUTSTANDING INSTITUTIONS. CHAPTERS X—XV
B. MODERN EXTENSIONS OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL COMMER-
• CIAL COURSE. CHAPTERS XVI-XX
X. SOME EARLIER FORMS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES .
XI. THE BUSINESS COLLEGE
XII. PRIVATE COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
XIII. THE CORPORATION SCHOOL . . . . .
PAGE wº
3
18 tº
3I
4I /
53
65
8I
II5
208
253
279
3I4.
328
xiv.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
º/ XIX.
XXI.
XXII.
INDEX .
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS
THE TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL Course
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION .
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES
Even ING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES
. POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSEs, SUPERVISION
AND TEACHER TRAINING
PART IV. HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL-
CURRICULUM REFORM
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS .
A PLAN OF ORGANIZED SPECIALIZATION FOR A CITY
SYSTEM .
PAGE
363
393
. 43o
449
478
5O2
527
543
607
617
PART I
A STATEMENT OF THE CASE
f
CHAPTER I
THE GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS
EDUCATION *
The growth of education for business has been a matter of
common observation and interest for some years past. To
such an extent has this been the case that figures are hardly
necessary to demonstrate the fact.
But the growth of business education, though vigorous
almost beyond precedent, has not been a wholly regular nor a
wholly uniform growth. Certain phases of its development
have outstripped others, certain aspects which have at times
expanded rapidly at other times have been retarded. New
types of institutions aiding business education have from time
to time sprung into existence, and almost without exception
have shown remarkable vitality. Figures can therefore clarify
much that is vague in the common knowledge: they can give
tangibility to impressions and establish a sense of relativity.
Because of chronological precedence, if for no other reason,
certain statistics concerning the private commercial school may
well be put first and may furnish a sort of basis by which changes
may be judged.
TABLE I
INCREASE IN NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN PRIVATE COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS
FROM 1893 To IQI8*

Year
Percentage
Increase
1893 1918
Students in private commercial
schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5,748 289,579 I5o. 18
* U.S. Bureau of Education, Education Report, 1893–94, II, 217o; Biennial Survey of
Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1919, p. 5.
The year 1918 is the latest for which figures are shown in
biennial reports of the Bureau of Education. A period of
3
4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
twenty-five years is sufficiently long to do justice to the facts
to be considered. The figures in Table I show the growth in
number of students in private commercial schools for a period
of twenty-five years including and preceding 1918. The figures
show an increase in the number of students in private com-
mercial Schools between 1893 and 1918 of 189, 579, or a percent-
age increase of 150.18. The growth has not been entirely uni-
form, if the statistics of the Bureau of Education may be
trusted. According to the enumeration of the Bureau the
number of students in these schools declined steadily from 1893
to 1898. At the latter date there were approximately 70,000
enrolled. From 1898 there was a sharp increase until 1901,
when there were approximately 135,000 such students. From
that time there were fluctuations both up a la down until 1911,
after which there came a steady rise to the present number.
(The details of this growth may be seen in Fig. 1, p. 6.)
GROWTH OF BUSINESS EDUCATION IN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
If we turn to education for business as represented by the ,
secondary schools we find a very marked growth indicated in a
number of ways.
TABLE II:
INCREASE IN NUMBER OF HIGH SCHOOLS TEACHING
COMMERCIAL WORK*

Year
Percentage
Increase
IQII , I918
Number of high schools... . . . . . 1,752 2,953 68. 55
* U.S. Bureau of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, Bulletin No. 19, 1920, p. 13.
The data for the last year include those for the junior high schools.
Table II shows that the number of high schools teaching
commercial work is rapidly increasing. From 1911 to 1918 the
increase was 68.55 per cent. (Figures are not available prior to
1911.).
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 5
The past twenty-five years have been the period of great
growth of high Schools and of high-school students. Table III
presents certain pertinent data concerning this growth.
TABLE III
INCREASE IN NUMBER OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND PUBLIC
HIGH SCHOOL COMMERCIAL STUDENTS FROM 1893 To 1918*

Year
Number of Students Fº
1893 Igr8
High-school students. . . . . . . . . . 289, 274 I, 925, 473' 565.62
High-school commercial students I5, 22O 278,275 I,728.35
* U.S. Bureau of Education, Education Report, 1893–94, II, 217; 1907, II, Ioa5; and
advance sheets from the Biennial Survey of Education, Bulletin No. 31, 1920, p. 4, and Bulletin
No. 19, 1920, p. 138.
The number Öf students shows an increase from something
over a quarter of a million to well toward two million—a striking
gain. The percentage of increase is 565.62 per cent. But this
growth looks meager when compared to the growth in the
number of commercial students among these high-school stu-
dents. Here the percentage increase is 1,728.35 per cent.
TABLE IV
INCREASE IN NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN COMMERCIAL AND BUSINESS
CoursES IN PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, IN PUBLIC
HIGH SCHOOLS, AND IN COMMERCIAL AND BUSINESS SCHOOLS FROM
1893 To 1918* -


Students Enrolled
Type of School Fº
1893 I918
Private high schools. . . . . . . . . . . 4,466 23,801 432.93
Commercial and business schools II5,748 289,579 I5o. I8
Public high schools. . . . . . . . . . . . I5, 22O 278,275 1,728.35
* U.S. Bureau of Education, Education Report, Igoo-Igor, II, 2268; Biennial Survey
of Education, Bulletin No. 3, 1920, p. 44; Bulletin No. 19, 1920, p. 13; Bulletin No 47.
IQI9, p. 5.
Table IV makes possible some comparisons between the
increase of numbers in several types of institutions giving
business courses of a Somewhat similar kind.
6 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS

3OO,OOO
272, ooo
25O,OOO H !
225,000
2OO,Ooo - y
- .2
* - Z
I75,OOO Hº-
I5O,OOO
Ž
\–
A
9/
./ 'A / 'N. / \!
"V.”
I25,000 /
A ſ /
Ioo,000 A–. A
\ / 2^\ /
75,000 ><!--/*- -
5O,OOO
25,000 _T
Z ... • *
...-------- T - - ------ ...]-----~~~~ *
- - - - - .."-- --- " * <!-----" " -
cr) CO cr) CO cr) CO
CN CN O O Hºl |-
CO CO CN CN CN CN
$*. H H }* Fº |-4
——— Students in private commercial Schools
Students in commercial courses in public high schools
––––– Students in commercial courses in private high Schools
1902, II, 2003; 1906, II, Io95;
Compiled from I907, II, III.7; 1910; II, I.249.
Reports of U.S. Commissioner of Education ( Bulletin No. 47, 1919, p. 5;
and Bienniel Survey of Education & C No. 19, 1920, p. 13;
- No. 3, 1920, p. 5.
{{
Figures for public and private high schools are unavailable for 1893
and 1907 and for all types in 1917. - , "
FIG. I.-Number of students enrolled in private commercial schools,
and in commercial courses in public high schools and private high schools
from 1893–1918.
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 7
The outstanding gain has been in the public high School,
although the more than 400 per cent increase of the private
high school is striking. The private business School shows a
relative lag, in spite of its large actual gains.
Figure I presents the same data in some detail showing
actual and relative positions of these three institutions year by
year since 1893. The diagram shows clearly the period of
growth, of loss, of stagnation, and of keenest rivalry of these
institutions.
PERCENTAGE OF HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS IN
COMMERCIAL COURSES
A consideration of the relatively rapid growth of commercial
students in secondary Schools leads naturally to an inquiry
concerning the proportion of high-school students which is taking
commercial work. There are presented in Table V the general
facts as they are indicated by the data collected by the Bureau
of Education. This table shows that while in 1893 the percent-
age of students in Commercial work was 5.26, the percentage in
1918 was 14.45. In other words, the percentage has somewhat
less than trebled. º: . h
TABLE V
PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS IN COMMERCIAL COURSES IN PUBLIC HIGH
SCHOOLS IN 1893 AND 1918*

Students in
Percentage in
Year Commercial All Students Commercial
Courses Work
1893. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,220 289,274 5.26
1918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278,275 I, 925,473 I4.45
* U.S. Bureau of Education, Education Report, 1893–94, II, 217; 1907, II, IoA5; the
Biennial Survey of Education, Bulletin No. 31, 1920, p. 4, and Bulletin No. 19, 1920, p. 138.
The situation is perhaps better shown by the results secured
from a private Survey made with a questionnaire in 1917–18.
This questionnaire covered each state in the Union and was
addressed to all high schools having over two hundred pupils
in commercial courses, as shown by the latest report of the
Commissioner of Education then available. In addition, the

25
on 2C * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * > * * * * •º º ºs º ºr º ºr is sº º sº º sº ºne sºme sº º ºs ºne tº sº, sº sº º sº sºme sº º ºs emº ºme º sº ºme º ºs gº tº º ºs º ºs º ºs º º sº º * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
wº-d
O
O
-5 º -
§ I5 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *-* tº sº. - - - - - - - ----|-------|---- e e º use º me sº ºne º 'º º ºs º we sº me ºn tº sº º sm as sºme sº se sº ºne sº use sº sº, º me sº sº as º ºs ºs º ºs º ºr sºme s sº dºs ºs º º ºr ºn
**t
O
§ Io ** - se - ~ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * sº º, sº tº º sº * * sº º ºs º º ºs º ºs º º sº ºne ºne sº ºne sº, º º sº º ºs º me sº * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ *
#
>
Z. 5 * * * tº gº tº º sº sº sº sº ºme º 'º dº sº º ºs. Hºe sº º ºs tº º sº. * * * * * *º gº º sº sº ºne sº tº º sº º º ºs. -º, sº gº gº ºne º sº º * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * me º ºne º 'º' es, sº sºme ess sº 4- tº gº tº º * * * *
•l. | | | | | | | | | || l, - * =l ...iſ |-a-h | * T •
* * * * * * S s , 4 & 5 ºf T 4 a s 5 T * * S 3 T 3 s 3 3 r < r S 3 T 3 a 5 & r * * 5 5 t q 3 3 T *
I-IO II-2O 2I-3o 3I-40 4I-5o 51-60 61-70 71–80 8I-90 9I-Ioo
Percentage of pupils
FIG. 2.-Number of schools reporting various percentages of pupils in commercial courses, as reported by 123 high Schools”
*Adapted from L. S. Lyon, A Survey of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of the United States, University of Chicago, 1919.
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 9
questionnaire covered a considerable number of high schools
having a smaller number of students.
A summary of the data dealing with the percentage of
pupils in commercial courses indicates that, of the 136 schools
replying to the questionnaire, 123, or 90.5 per cent, gave the
percentage of students in commercial work. An examination
of Figure 2 will indicate the distribution reported. Vertical bars
in this diagram show the number of schools reporting various
percentages of pupils in commercial work. It will be suspected
after a moment's study of this diagram that the percentages
stated by school officials are not absolutely accurate. Clearly,
these officials sent in their reports in convenient numbers that
only approximated the percentages of their students that are
in commercial work. There is no reason, however, why this
fact should invalidate the use of the figures for forming general
conclusions.
A more accurate picture of the situation is given in Figure 3.
In this diagram the percentages II-20, 2I–30, etc., have been
grouped together, and we thus secure a basis for representation
in groups of percentages. -
Sixteen schools, 13 per cent of those answering this question,
reported 20 per cent of their students in commercial courses.
Twenty-one Schools, I7.9 per cent of those reporting, estimated
one-third of their students to be in commercial work, and fifteen
schools, 12.3 per cent, indicated that 40 per cent of their stu-
dents were in commercial courses. No school reported less
than Io per cent of their pupils in Commercial courses, nine
reported 50 per cent, and four reported 60 per cent. Three
schools reported more than 60 per cent of their students in this
type of work. Plainly the mode is in the neighborhood of
33% per cent. Figure 2 shows that a larger number of schools
reported 20 per cent of their students in commercial courses
than reported 25 per cent, 30 per Cent, or any other per cent
until 33% is reached. The question may fairly be raised whether
there are actually fewer schools that have 25 per cent than
have 20 per cent. One of two answers must be given: Either
there are fewer schools in the 25 per cent class than in the
IO
IEDUCATION FOR BUSINESS

FIG. 3.-Number of Schools reporting indicated percentages of pupils
5O
45 - - - - - - - - • * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
35 º º tº dº º sº gº º sº dº nº ºn e tº º ºs º º Gº gº
... 3"|------ * * * * * * * * * me emº sº eme sm
O
O
...t.
O
Cſ)
$4-
$–
Q)
É
Z.
2O > * * - - - - use eme sº º º smºº sº me sº sº ºne º sº sº em.
I5 tº º — — — — tº gº ------------
5 H- - - - - - sº gº gº ºne º Gº Gº Gº Gº Gº tº º
§ SS SS SS SS SS SS SS
O O O O O O 3 O
o, co <!- lur) \O Iºs ON
| | | | | | | ||
H CN co <!- lf) \O Iº. CO
Percentage of pupils
in commercial courses, as reported by I23 high Schools.
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION II
20 per cent class, or the convenience of the numbers 20 per cent
and 33% per cent has resulted in their use for approximation.
Similar questions arise in regard to the percentages reported
between 33% and 40 per cent, 40 and 50 per cent, and 50
and 60 per cent. The second answer, that convenient num-
bers for approximation were used, is probably the more correct
explanation.
LARGE AND SMALL COMMUNITIES COMPARED
The percentage of students in commercial courses in large
cities seems in general to average somewhat higher than in the
TABLE VI
PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS IN COMMERCIAL COURSES IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS
OF CERTAIN LARGE CITIES IN 1917–18°
City Percentage
Boston, Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-60
Brooklyn, N.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chicago, Ill... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O
Cincinnati, Ohio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cleveland, Ohio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
Columbus, Ohio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Denver, Colo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5O .
Jersey City, N.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.7
Milwaukee, Wis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.
Minneapolis, Minn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Newark, N.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• • - - - - - - - 25
New Orleans La. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
New York, N.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Pittsburgh, Pa.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Portland, Me. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.5
San Francisco, Cal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 6
Seattle, Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7o
Hartford, Conn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
* From answers to a questionnaire.
Smaller communities. Table VI shows the percentage of stu-
dents in commercial courses in the high schools of certain large
cities of the United States.
I 2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
It will be seen that in only one case (that of Cleveland, Ohio)
does the percentage run below 25. It is perhaps interesting
that a community thought to be as academic in its interests as
Boston shows from 50 to 60 per cent of its high-school students
in commercial work, and that this proportion is surpassed only
on the western coast, where Seattle has 70 per cent of its
students in such courses.
In a discussion of commercial work in high schools the
Statement is often made that it is in the cities only that com-
mercial work has taken any hold. An effort has been made to
present the facts of the case in Table VII. In this connection,
it may be well to quote from the Bureau's report the definitions
of these types of Schools and the basis of the classification used:
This classification has been made on the basis of support, it
being generally agreed that rural support will look toward rural
interests, and city support toward city interests. The following
definition of a rural high School has been used in grouping the reports:
A rural high School is one supported by a state, a county, a township,
or a district, or by an independent village which had a population
less than 2,500 in 1910. Union high Schools are considered as rural.
A city high School is one supported by a city having a population of
2,500 and over in 1910. Many of the rural high schools are located
in cities having a population of 2,500 or over, and in many instances
Serve as city high Schools as well, but are supported by a rural taxing
unit, i.e., by a unit larger than that determined by the corporate
limits of the city proper. In case the city had a population of Io,000
or over, such a dual high school has been considered as a city high
School, it being thought that such a large municipality would more
generally determine the curriculum of the high school and would
contribute very largely to its support. These city high schools have
been divided into two groups, the first including all of those high
Schools Supported by cities which had a population of 5,000 or over,
and the Second those supported by cities having a population from
2,500 to 4,999 in 1910. There are about as many cities in the first
group as in the Second, but about twice as many high Schools. . . . .
If Some are inclined to question the practice of considering as cities
* From U.S. Bureau of Education, Biennial Survey of Education,
1916–1918, Bulletin No. 19, 1920, p. 9.
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION
I3
TABLE VII
PERCENTAGE OF HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS IN RURAL, WILLAGE, AND CITY
COMMUNITIES TAKING COMMERCIAL WORK*

CITY VILLAGE RURAL
Com- Com- Com-
STATES Imer- Imer- Iſler-
Stu- cial % | Stu- cial 96 || Stu- cial %
dents | Stu- dents | Stu- . . dents | Stu-
dents dents dents
United States. . . . . . . . . . 848,545|212,853|25.o|12I,887| I4,622|II.9|673, 174| 50,78of 7.5
Alabama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 297 932|I2.8 92I 49| 5.3| IO, 3I4 237| 2.2
Arizona. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 447 44418. I II.8 2| I.6] I, 204 4O7|33.8
Arkansas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,899 665|17.oj I,85o 25| I.3, 5, 977 733|I2.2
California. . . . . . . . . . . . . 54,666| II, 401 |20.8; 3,569 313| 8.7| 25,965| I,971 7.5
Colorado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,879| I, 987|2O. I | 2,575 290|II.2| 6, I2O 55o 8.8
Connecticut. . . . . . . . . . . I6,284. 5,985|36.7|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, of 8| 2,484. 4.9
Delaware. . . . . . . . . . . . . I, 25I 3.45|27.5 2Iol. . . . . . . . . . . I, IO5 76 6.8
District of Columbia. . . . . 6,926. I,892|27.3|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * : * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * r * * * &
Florida. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I,802]. . . . . . . - - - - 47O 85|18.o|' 5,888 I95| 3. O
Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,906 355| 3.9| 2,238 IOI 4.5| I2,595 I49| I. I
Idaho. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,666 81| 4.8| I,816 I2O 6.6| 6, of 7 7O4|II. 5
Illinois. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54,536. I2,742|23.3| 4,515 844|18.6| 45,782| 4,401| 9.5
ndiana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,302, 3,936|I4.9 ,284 374| 5.9, 33,43 352| I.O
Iowa. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3,329| 2,506|I8.8| 7,478 736| 9.8| 34,561| I, of 3| 3.1
Kansas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3,507| I, 700|I2.5| 5,636 649|II.5| 3o,617; 2, or 6 6.5
Kentucky. . . . . . . . . . . . . , 750| I, 724|I9.7| I, 704 4. O. 2 Q, 92 I 44; O .4
Louisiana. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, of 5| I,459|28.7% I,418 231|16.2, 8,788 403. 4.5
Maine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,829 2,315|34.o 588 I52|25.8| Io,481| I,790|I7.o
Maryland. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,949. I, 68ol42 .5% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8,608 8o3| 4.3
Massachusetts. . . . . . . . . 61,896] 25,835|41.7ſ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7,797| 6, 2II 34.8
Michigan. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, of 9| 6, 172|18.6l 5, II 2 653|I2.7l 25,795| I,520, 5.5
Minnesota. . . . . . . . . . . . 22, I24| 5,329|24. O| 4; I44 326|| 7.8. 21,818] I,735| 7.9
Mississippi. . . . . . . . . . . . 3,642 226| 6.2 962 IoI|Io.8| 8,030 II5] I .4
Missouri. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,494| 5,738|21.6| 4, 286 346|| 8.o. 25,897 828; 2. I
Montana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, I 7 607|I9. I 185 45|24.3| 7, of 3| I, o&g|I5.4
Nebraska. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,905] I, I'73|I6.9| 2, ooz 432|2I.6| 20, III] I, or 6 5. I
Nevada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4ool . . . . . . . - - - - I7o 8| 4.7 96o 7I3|74.2"
New Hampshire. . . . . . . 4,918] I, 650|33.5 343 58|16.9| 3, IIo 80625.9
New Jersey. . . . . . . . . . . . 47,382| II,875|25.oſ 3,809 907|23.8l. 9,549| 2,946|30.8.
New Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . 851 32| 3.7 374 45|I2. O| 2, 2I5 23I IO .4
New York. . . . . . . . . . . . . I24,515| 4o, ossia 2. I 8, 12I | I, o&g|I3.4 30, 181| I,473| 4.8
North Carolina. . . . . . . . 4,434 666|I4.9| I, 543 2O6|I3.3| II,875 I49| I. 2
North Dakota . . . . . . . . . I,864 222|II.9 8II II9|I4.6| 8,945 578; 6.4
Ohio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6o,634| I2,917|21.3| 6,894 903||13.oſ 37,673| 2,541; 6.7
Oklahoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,943| 2, O40|25.6; 5,5Io 235| 4.2| I8, 172 604|3.3
Oregon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , I24| I, oroj.I2.4] I,837 I74. 9.4| 7, Q9I QO7|II.3
Pennsylvania. . . . . . . . . . 81,757| 24,381|29.8| I2,860] 2, 128|16.5| 32,996. 2, oo7| 6.o
‘. Rhode Island. . . . . . . . . . 7, oió| 2,496l35.5l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, 28 436||33.8
South Carolina. . . . . . . . 2,867 I74 6.o 929] . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,974 I7] O.3
South Dakota . . . . . . . . . 2,360 396|I6.7| I,436 298|20.7| 8, 182 358; 4.3
Tennessee. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,555 479| 8.6 985 74| 7.5 II, O90 552 4.9
Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,829, 3,746|I3.9| 5,660 373| 6.5| 29, 254 346| I. I
Utah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, OIO 748|18.6| 1,330 I58|II.8] 3,834 208 5.8
Vermont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,487 582|23.4 79 I I74|21.9l 4,647| I, Oool 21.7
Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II, 596] 2, 219|Io. 5| I, 515 58! 3.8| I3,529 257| 1.8
Washington. . . . . . . . . . . I7,896 3, 183|17.7| 2,899 356|I2.2| I3,512| I,354|Io.5
West Virginia. . . . . . . . . . ,487| I, II6|17.2| I,621 I73|Io.6 ,236 614 7.6
Wisconsin. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,484. 5,449|24.2, 5,62ol I, I28|2O.ol 20,844, 2,209|Io.o
Wyoming ... . . . . . . . . . . . 908 208|22.9 2I3 8o37.5| 1,883 I63| 8.4
* Compiled from U.S. Bureau of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, Bulletin
No. 19, 1920, Tables 29, 30, 31, 57.
I4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
municipalities having a population from 2,500 to 4,999, the statistics
of the high Schools located in such places may be combined with
those of rural high schools. To facilitate reference to these two classes
of cities in the following pages the larger municipalities are denomi-
nated “cities” and the smaller ones,“villages.”
A study of Table VII will show that although commercial
work as indicated by the percentage of students in high Schools
in commercial courses has taken a stronger hold in the cities,
the growth of such work has been impressive in village and
rural Communities. Connecticut, Arizona, Massachusetts,
Nevada, and Rhode Island all show that more than one-third
of the high-school students in rural communities are in com-
mercial courses, and there are one or two striking instances,
such as that of Nevada (which, however, is possibly explainable
on grounds of School organization), where the commercial
students are a very large proportion of the high-school students
in rural communities. In villages also the percentage of Com-
mercial students is high in a great many states, the highest
percentage being in Wyoming, where 37.5 of village high-school
students are commercial students.
RECENT GROWTH OF COLLEGE TRAINING FOR BUSINESS
The first school of commerce in the United States which
could be properly spoken of as of collegiate grade was the
Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, founded in
May, 1881. No other one was organized until 1898, when the
University of California and the University of Chicago inaugu-
rated such schools. In 1900 the University of Wisconsin,
Dartmouth College, and New York University opened schools
of business. The University of Michigan followed in 1901.
No other school of commerce was founded until 1908. In the
field of collegiate education for business, the really striking
growth has been very recent. A study based on a survey of
the colleges which are members of the Association of Collegiate
Schools of Business gives the facts presented in Figures 4 and 5."
* The data used in these diagrams includes only collegiate schools of
business which are members of the association.
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 15
Number of
Schools
3
2 —r-
I g
;
O lf) O Lºr) O lf) O lf) O
CO CO ON ON O O H- H (N
CO CO CO OO CN CN CN CN CN
}=1 * H H-4 H H }={ }* }={

FIG. 4.—Number of collegiate schools of business -ounded in each of
indicated years. :

22
2I
2O
I9
I8
17
I6
I5
I4
I3
12
II
I
O
3.
}
:
}={
O
ON
H
3
§
3.
#
3.
j FIG. 5–Number of collegiate schools of business in existence at
beginning of each indicated year. &
I6 |EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that busi-
ness education has been undertaken extensively by a wide
range of institutions outside of the ordinarily recognized schools
of commerce. In fact, educational programs have been exten-
sively developed by institutions which have been chiefly thought
of heretofore as religious or Social, but have been stimulated by
the demand for business education. The Biennial Survey of
the Bureau of Education of the National Government, published
in 1920, states, for example, that there are 19,056 students in
Y.M.C.A. and denominational commercial schools. The work
of correspondence schools in this field is emphatically called to
general attention through advertisements. Accurate statistics
Concerning these schools are unobtainable, and records of growth
Comparable to those given for secondary Schools cannot be
presented. Important, though less well known, is the business
training done by part-time schools, continuation schools, corpo-
ration Schools, high Schools of commerce, and the postgraduate
technical courses in general high Schools. As most of these
are discussed at some length in later chapters, it is necessary
Only to mention them as important institutions in this statement
of the growth and important present position of business
education.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. In the field of business education there has been a lack of those
extended and scientific studies which have been common in other
fields of education. How do you account for this fact?
2. In Chapter I what comparisons are made in tables and charts to
show the relative position of business education ? What com-
parisons are made to show the relative position of various kinds
of business education ? Can you suggest other comparisons
which might be valuable in indicating the importance or the
place of business education P
3. What was the number enrolled in commercial courses in public
high Schools in 1918? the number in private commercial schools P
in private high Schools?
4. Make a rough chart (merely heavy horizontal lines drawn approxi-
mately to scale) showing; (a) the number of high-school students
GROWTH AND POSITION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION 17
7
IO.
in 1918, (b) the number of high-school students in commercial
courses in the same year, (c) the average number of commercial
students per high school, (d) the number of students in private
commercial Schools.
. How do you account for the relative lag in the growth of private
commercial schools between 1908 and 1913 P. How do you
account for the spurt in business-college enrolment between
1916 and 1918?
. Table V shows the percentage of high-school students in com-
mercial courses to be 13.35 per cent. In a study of the high
schools of certain large cities, published in 1915, Superintendent
F. V. Thompson found that “on an average about a third of
all pupils in the cities are in commercial courses.” How do you
account for the differences in these two reckonings?
. Figure 2 shows the number of Schools reporting various percent-
ages of pupils in commercial courses. How do you account for
the irregularity of the ordinates in this diagram P
. What facts are disclosed by examination and comparison of
Tables VI and VII? How do you account for the fact that the
percentages of students in commercial courses in large cities aver-
age higher than in smaller communities?
... What explanation can be given for the fact that no collegiate
school of business appeared in the United States before 1881 P
How do you account for the rapid increase of collegiate Schools
of commerce from 1908 to the present time?
Although private commercial schools, high-school commercial
courses, and collegiate Schools of business have attracted atten-
II.
tion, there is a long list of other institutions participating in
business education. Make as long a list as possible of types of
institutions which are participating.
On the basis of the data presented in Chapter I formulate a state-
ment or series of statements which seem to you adequately to
express (a) the position and (b) the importance of business educa-
tion. Formulate a second series of statements which seem to
you to present adequately the position and importance of
secondary-school commercial courses.
CHAPTER II
AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MAKING
All useful study of content in education must lead toward
curriculum-making. The curriculum is the goal. It is the
outward expression of the educational philosophy. It is the
device by which educational thought is given reality and made
of use in accomplishing purposes. Beyond the curriculum, of
Course, lies educational method, which may find expression in
texts or classroom practice. But the content of classroom
instruction is largely presupposed in the organization of the
curriculum. Therefore in a study concerned with content the
important question is, How shall we approach curriculum-
making?
Several methods have been used in the formulation of the
curriculum. One of the most common has been mere imitation.
A curriculum was needed for a given School; it was obtained
by copying what was done elsewhere with little consideration
of its origin or its applicability. This has been done even by
the best educational minds working under the most auspicious
circumstances.
Soon after the American occupation of the Philippine Islands,
the writer was a member of a committee of Seven appointed to draw
up an elementary-school curriculum for the islands. The members
had all taught or supervised within the islands for two or three years
and were reasonably familiar with their peculiar conditions. It was
a virgin field in which we were free to recommend almost anything
by way of meeting the needs of the population. We had an oppor-
tunity to do a magnificent and original constructive piece of work.
And what did we do? We assembled upon a table in the
committee-room copies of the American textbooks in reading, arith-
metic, geography, United States history, and the other subjects with
which we had been familiar in American schools. We also assembled
such American courses of study as we could find; and without being
conscious of it, we mobilized our American prejudices and precon-
I8
AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MAKING IQ
ceptions as to what an elementary-School course ought to be. On
the basis of these things we made out a course of study for the tradi-
tional eight elementary-school grades. We provided the traditional
amount of each subject for each grade, distributed them as in
American Schools, and recommended American textbooks for the
work.
The thing was not adapted to the conditions within the islands.
As a matter of fact, we did not try to adapt it to those conditions—
though we honestly thought that we were doing the thing needed.
The difficulty was that our minds ran so completely in the grooves
of traditional thought that we did not realize the possibility of any-
thing else. We greatly needed something to shatter our self-
complacency and bring us to see education in terms of the Society
that was to be educated. We needed principles of curriculum-
making."
The business courses in the high schools of the United States
furnish any number of instances of imitation of one another.
Likewise they furnish many examples of pure imitation of the
business College. Colleges and universities, in many cases, are
no exception. They have copied one another; they have copied
the secondary Schools; they have copied the business colleges;
and they have copied the correspondence schools. gº
Where a more thoughtful procedure has been employed in
curriculum-making, it has been common to combine a number
of studies to each of which certain values have been ascribed.
The idea is prevalent that different studies represent separate
kinds of values, and that the curriculum should, therefore, be con-
stituted by gathering together various studies till a sufficient variety
of independent values have been cared for. The following quotation
does not use the value, but it contains the notion of a curriculum
constructed on the idea that there are a number of separate ends to
be reached and that various studies may be evaluated by referring
each study to its respective end. “Memory is trained by most
studies, but best by languages and history, taste is trained by the
more advanced study of languages, and still better by English
literature; imagination by all higher language teaching, but chiefly
* Adapted by permission from Franklin Bobbitt, The Curriculum,
pp. 282–83. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918. w
2O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
by Greek and Latin poetry; observation by science work in the
laboratory, though some training is to be got from the earlier stages
of Latin and Greek; for expression, Greek and Latin composition
come first and English composition next; for abstract reasoning,
mathematics stands almost alone; for concrete reasoning, the Greek
and Roman historians and orators come first, and general history
next. Hence the narrowest education which can claim to be at all
complete includes Latin, one modern language, Some history, Some
English literature and one science.”
There is much in the wording of this passage which is irrelevant
to our point, and which must be discounted to make it clear. The
phraseology betrays the particular provincial tradition within which
the author is writing. There is the unquestioned assumption of
“faculties” to be trained, and a dominant interest in the ancient
languages; there is a comparative disregard of the earth on which
men happen to live and the bodies they happen to carry around with
them. But with allowances made for these matters (even with their
complete abandonment) we find much in contemporary educational
philosophy which parallels the fundamental notion of parceling out
special values to Segregated studies. Even when some one end is
set up as a standard of value, like Social efficiency or culture, it will
often be found to be but a verbal heading under which a variety of
disconnected factors are comprised. And although the general ten-
dency is to allow a greater variety of values to a given study than
does the passage quoted, yet the attempt to inventory a number of
values attaching to each study and to state the amount of each
value which the given study possesses emphasizes an implied educa-
tional disintegration.”
This method of curriculum construction has long been an
underlying assumption in the minds of many educators. Once
we hold it up for inspection its vigor lessens. It is thus criticized
by Dewey:
We cannot establish a hierarchy of values among studies. It is
futile to attempt to arrange them in an order beginning with one
having least worth and going on to that of maximum value. . . . .
It also follows that the attempt to distribute distinct sorts of
value among different studies is a misguided one, in spite of the
* Adapted by permission from John Dewey, Democracy and Education,
pp. 286–87. Macmillan Co., 1916.
AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MAKING 2T
amount of time recently devoted to the undertaking. Science for
example may have any kind of value, depending upon the situation
into which it enters as a means. To some the value of science may
be military; it may be an instrument in strengthening means of
offense or defense; it may be technological, a tool for engineering;
or it may be commercial—and aid in the successful conduct of busi-
ness; under other conditions, its worth may be philanthropic—the
Service it renders in relieving human suffering; or again it may be
quite conventional—of value in establishing one's Social status as an
“educated” person. As a matter of fact, science serves all these
purposes, and it would be an arbitrary task to try to fix upon one
of them as its “real” end. All that we can be sure of educationally
is that science should be taught so as to be an end in itself in the lives
of students—something worth while on account of its own unique
intrinsic contribution to the experience of life. Primarily it must
have “appreciation value.” It we take something which seems to
be at the opposite pole, like poetry, the same sort of statement applies.
It may be that, at the present time, its chief value is the contribution
it makes to the enjoyment of leisure. But that may represent a
degenerate condition rather than anything necessary. Poetry has
historically been allied with religion and morals; it has served the
purpose of penetrating the mysterious depths of things. It has had
an enormous patriotic value. Homer to the Greeks was a Bible, a
textbook of morals, a history, and a national inspiration. In any
case, it may be said that an education which does not succeed in
making poetry a resource in the business of life as well as in its leisure,
has something the matter with it—or else the poetry is artificial
poetry. -
The same considerations apply to the value of a study or a topic
of a study with reference to its motivating force. Those responsible
for planning and teaching the course of study should have grounds
for thinking that the studies and topics included furnish both direct
increments to the enriching of lives of the pupils and also materials
which they can put to use in other concerns of direct interest. Since
the curriculum is always getting loaded down with purely inherited
traditional matter and with subjects which represent mainly the
energy of Some influential person or group of persons in behalf of
Something dear to them, it requires constant inspection, criticism,
and revision to make Sure it is accomplishing its purpose. Then
there is always the probability that it represents the values of
22 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
adults rather than those of children and youth, or those of pupils a
generation ago rather than those of the present day. Hence a further
need for a critical outlook and survey. But these considerations do
not mean that for a Subject to have motivating value to a pupil
(whether intrinsic or instrumental) is the same thing as for him to be
aware of the value, or to be able to tell what the study is good
but unconsciously justifications of the curriculum with which one
is familiar. One accepts, for the most part, the studies of the exist-
ing course and then assigns values to them as a sufficient reason for
their being taught. Mathematics is said to have, for example, dis-
ciplinary value in habituating the pupil to accuracy of statement
and closeness of reasoning, it has utilitarian value, in giving command
of the arts of calculation involved in trade and the arts; culture
value in its enlargement of the imagination in dealing with the most
general relation of things; even religious value in its concept of the
infinite and allied ideas. But clearly mathematics does not accom-
plish such results, because it is endowed with miraculous potencies
called values; it has these values if and when it accomplishes these
results and not otherwise. The statements may help a teacher to
a larger vision of the possible results to be effected by instruction in
mathematical topics. But unfortunately, the tendency is to treat
the statement as indicating powers inherently residing in the Subject,
whether they operate or not, and thus to give it a rigid justification.
If they do not operate, the blame is not put on the Subject as taught,
but on the indifference and recalcitrancy of pupils."
A third method of curriculum-making might be called the
“interests theory.” This method is somewhat similar to the
second. It is a method of which much has been heard in these
days when a great variety of new subjects has arisen for which
their advocates are seeking a philosophical justification. This
scheme, however, appears to be as open to objection as the
preceding one.
Life presents a diversity of interests. Left to themselves, they
tend to encroach on one another. The ideal is to prescribe a special
territory for each till the whole ground of experience is covered, and
* Op. cit., pp. 281–82, 287–88.
AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MARING 23
then see to it each remains within its own boundaries. Politics,
business, recreation, art, Science, the learned professions, polite
intercourse, leisure, represent such interests. Each of these ramifies
into many branches: business into manual occupations, executive
positions, bookkeeping, railroading, banking, agriculture, trade and
commerce, etc., and so with each of the others. An ideal education
would then Supply the means of meeting these separate and pigeon-
holed interests. And when we look at the schools, it is easy to get
the impression that they accept this view of the nature of adult life,
and set for themselves the task of meeting its demands. Each inter-
est is acknowledged as a kind of fixed institution to which something
in the course of study must correspond. The course of study must
then have some civics and history politically and patriotically viewed;
Some utilitarian studies; some Science; some art (mainly literature
of course); some provision for recreation; some moral education, and
so on. And it will be found that a large part of current agitation
about schools is concerned with clamor and controversy about the
due need of recognition to be given to each of these interests, and with
struggles to Secure for each its due share in the course of study; or,
if this does not seem feasible in the existing school system, then to
secure a new and separate kind of Schooling to meet the need. In
the multitude of educations education is forgotten.
The obvious outcome is congestion of the course of study, over-
pressure, and distraction of pupils, and a narrow specialization fatal
to the very idea of education. But these bad results usually lead
to more of the same Sort of thing as a remedy. When it is perceived
that after all the requirements of a full life experience are not met,
the deficiency is not laid to the isolation and narrowness of the teach-
ing of the existing Subjects, and this recognition made the basis of
reorganization and the System. . . . .
The situation has, of course, its historic explanation. Various
epochs of the past have had their own characteristic struggles and
interests. Each of these great epochs has left behind itself a kind
of cultural deposit, like a geologic stratum. These deposits have
found their way into educational institutions in the form of studies,
distinct courses of study, distinct types of schools. With the rapid
change of political, Scientific, and economic interests in the last
century provision had to be made for new values. Though the
older courses resisted, they have had at least in this country to retire
their pretensions to a monopoly. They have not, however, been
J
24 - EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
reorganized in content and aim, they have only been reduced in
amount. The new studies, representing the new interests, have not
been used to transform the method and aim of all instruction, they
have been injected and added on. The result is a conglomerate, the
cement of which consists in the mechanics of the School program or
time table." &
Less definite, but still, to Some persons, important principles
to be followed in organizing the curriculum are the notions of
moral and mental discipline and the matter of the students’
tastes. These must be cared for, it is asserted. And if these
are cared for the curriculum is satisfactory. Caring for taste
and, perhaps even more, Caring for discipline have at times gone
to great lengths. But this basis for curriculum-making, like
those that have preceded, finds its strength questioned and
even ridiculed in this day of more liberal and more careful
thought.
It is, indeed, absurd to invent formal difficulties for the professed
purpose of discipline, when, within the limits of science, industry,
literature, and politics, real problems abound. Method can be best
acquired, and stands the best chance of being acquired, if real issues
are presented. Are problems any the less problems because a boy
attacks them with intelligence and zest? He does not attack them
because they are easy, nor does he shrink from them because
they are hard. He attacks them, if he has been wisely trained,
because they challenge his powers. And in this attack he gets what
the conventional school so generally fails to give—the energizing
of his faculties, and a directive clue as to where he will find a con-
genial and effective object in life.”
Anyone who has taught courses dealing with the curriculum
has found firmly fixed in the minds of his students an adherence
to one or more of the schemes of curriculum-making discussed
above. All of us perhaps have been at one time or another
under the spell of some of them. But in attempting to formu-
late a curriculum for business education the writer has found all
* Op. cit., pp. 288–90.
*Adapted by permission from Abraham Flexner, A Modern School,
p. 21. General Education Board, 1916.
AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MAKING 25
these plans almost futile. They seem to lead nowhere, to make
the student satisfied with the most conventional imitation, to
repress vigorous thinking, as to either the purposes or the results
of an organized course of study.
What follows is, then, an effort to apply a new point of view
to the study of education for business and to the formulation of
Curricula for that purpose. Some special emphasis will be
placed on commercial education in the secondary schools.
An adequate approach to education for business involves a
careful examination of two matters: First, we must determine the
purpose of business education. We must ascertain objectives,
ends. We must ask and answer, What is the task or function
of education for business in Society as it now exists? Later we
may organize appropriate studies as means. But to try to plan a
curriculum before we know its purpose is unavailing. It is as
useless as to set architects to work to design a building without
stating the use to which the structure is to be put.
When we are as clear as possible as to purposes, we may
sensibly go about planning methods. But even then we can-
not immediately plan the curriculum for the high-school com-
mercial course, the collegiate school of business, the business
College, or any other one type of business-training institution.
For no one type of institution does the job alone. As our second
task, we must examine all of those agencies which play a part
in business education and attempt to divide among them the
total task of educating for business. Modern Social Organiza-
tion is an organization of specialists, and to nothing does this
statement apply more than to educational institutions. We can
conclude as to the objectives of any one institution only when
we have examined all of them and estimated their possibilities.
It is only, then, when we assign duty to each, that we can intel-
ligently assign duty to any.
If we are interested, for example, in how to organize the
curriculum of the high-school commercial course we cannot
think of that alone. We must think of it as one of a battery
of institutions. Its proper work is the work which must be
done, but which other pieces of Social machinery cannot do
26 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
better. The same statement holds good for the business
college, the corporation school, or any other device for business
education which we may consider. When we have seen the
purpose of the whole and have defined the part which is to be
played by the institution in which we are interested, then, and
only then, are we ready to consider curriculum.
What has been said above may be presented diagram-
matically:
|OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESSEDUCATION
ACCOMPLISHED BY COMBINED wº SUCH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AS
HIGH-SCHOOL
COMMERCIAL
COURSE
COLLEGIATE
SCHOOL OF
BUSINESS
BUSINESS CONTINUATION CORPORATION
COLLEGE SCHOOLS SCHOOLS
FOR EACH OF =2~
|
A CURRICULUM IS NEEDED ACCORDING TO THE
PART WHICH IT CAN PLAY BEST IN ACCOMPLISH.
ING THE OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION.
The task, thus, for anyone who is interested in business educa-
tion can be divided into three stages.
I. He must determine the purposes, or task, or function of
education for business in modern society.
2. He must examine the several institutions which, in our
specialized Society, can well participate in accomplishing those
purposes and determine the part which can properly be played
by the institution in which he is interested.
3. He must plan the organization of work (the curriculum)
which will best achieve that specialized part which this institu-
tion undertakes.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. “All useful studies of content in education must lead toward
curriculum-making.” Is this statement justified ?
2. “All branches of human activity have risen above the stage of
empiricism and rule of thumb only as they have been able to
build upon the accumulated facts of experience and accurate
conclusions drawn therefrom.” Explain and comment on the
truth or untruth of this statement,











AN APPROACH TO CURRICULUM-MAKING 27
IO.
II.
. The quotation in Question 2 is used to introduce a discussion of
“scientific management or organization in business.” Has it
any pertinence in a study of an educational problem P
. What is your idea of the “rule of thumb” in business? Is there
any of it in School work? If so, make a list of some of the factors
that tend to keep it in control. What factors, if any, tend to
make control more rational—tend toward a more “scientific
management” P
. “It is a splendid exercise for every man, at least once in his life,
to throw himself unreservedly and with enthusiasm into some
study and for a time ‘go the limit’ in thoroughness, accuracy,
caution and open-mindedness. Such an experience will exert a
lasting and beneficial influence upon his thinking.” Can this
be done in a study of curriculum making? Does it necessitate
the “scientific attitude” P
. “The school teacher is “an old fogy’ says the business man; the
business man has little culture and questionable motives says the
pedagogue.” Have these been Somewhat common views? If
so, why? What factors are at work to intensify or modify these
attitudes P
... If examination and imitation of other courses is not to be made the
basis for formulating curricula, what other methods might be used?
. “Different studies represent different kinds of values. The
curriculum should, therefore, be constituted by gathering together
various studies until a sufficient variety of independent values
has been cared for.” Support or criticize this statement. Upon
what concepts is it based ? -
. “We cannot establish a hierarchy of values among studies.”
Explain. If not, how choose at all?
What is your understanding of the “interests theory” of
curriculum-making P
“Since the curriculum is always getting loaded down with purely
inherited traditional matter and with subjects which represent
mainly the energy of Some influential person or group of persons
in behalf of something dear to them, it requires constant inspec-
tion, criticism and revision to make sure it is accomplishing its
purpose.” Is there any such traditional matter in the usual
high-school or college business curriculum ? What subjects
might be open to this charge P. If any, attempt to explain how
they “arrived” and “stayed” in the form in which they exist.
28
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
I 2.
I3.
I4.
I5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
IQ.
2O.
2I.
22.
“One accepts, for the most part, the studies of the existing
courses and assumes from the fact that they are there, that there
is sufficient reason for their being taught.” Is there truth in
this statement? Is there a tendency to blame the pupil rather
than the subjects if curricula So justified fail?
What would you understand to be meant by the expression the
“check and balance theory” of curriculum construction ?
“In the multitude of educations, education is forgotten.”
Explain. &
“The present commercial course in secondary Schools is a hodge-
podge of miscellaneous and ill assorted fragments.” Does this
overstate or understate the situation as you see it?
Students of business Subjects are pointing out that nothing is
more valuable than a Systematic approach to a problem from a
new point of view. Can Such an approach “from the outside.”
be of any use in a study of commercial curricula P
“The commercial curriculum may be a problem, but in the
secondary Schools, at least, it can never be improved by outsiders.
Such persons have nothing to offer but impractical theories.”
Comment on this statement.
“The most practical thing in the world is theory.” Comment.
What reasons can you list for believing that a new point of view
in commercial training might prove fertile; wherein lies the
“fertility of a new point of view” P
What could you list under the caption “Enemies of Originality
and Advance in Commercial Education”?
An attitude of friendly but complete skepticism is needed in
approaching a problem of curriculum. No study in the business
course of high School or college has proved its right to a place.
Can you take this attitude P
Outline the plan for an approach to business education suggested
in Chapter II. How would you suggest determining the pur-
pose or task of education for business? w
PART II
THE OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION FOR
BUSINESS
CHAPTER III
WHAT IS BUSINESSP
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT
In attempting to arrive at the objectives of education for
business, it is proposed that certain evidence be examined. In
part the evidence is the evidence of circumstances; in part it is
personal testimony and opinion.
It seems reasonable to believe that in arriving at the objec-
tives of education for business one should consider very carefully
what this thing “business” is. In our study of “what business
is” we shall be concerned in part with the way in which business
is conducted and in part with the social implications of business.
Both of these viewpoints will have suggestion for our purposes.
A second field of evidence which we shall examine in our
effort to determine the objectives of education for business may
be designated “what business says it wants.” That is, we shall
turn to business itself in our inquiry of what education is needed
for business. In studying what business says it wants, however,
there are two quite different methods of securing information.
One method is to take the direct statements of business men
when they have been thinking definitely about the question.
Such statements appear in their public addresses, printed papers,
and occasional books. A second method is to study the occupa-
tions of persons in business, to analyze these occupations, and to
conclude concerning the education necessary for performance in
them. The amount of such indirect evidence is fortunately
considerable: it appears in replies to questionnaires which have
been circulated a nong business houses, in educational Surveys,
and in the studies and occupational analyses of various govern-
mental agencies.
Finally, in arriving at the objectives of education for busi-
ness, we may find help in a consideration of the purposes of all
education. There is not, and perhaps can never be, any real
3I
32 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
objective proof of what these properly are. All that can be
done is to survey the statements of those persons whose views
have won them attention and respect. We should notice, how-
ever, that the students who have given most thought to such
general purposes have not been concerned primarily with educa-
tion for business. A study of the general purposes of education,
therefore, is not significant in arriving at the objectives of
business education excepting when it is carried on as part of
public-school work. But when such is the case, a departure
from accepted principles of public education would seem to re-
quire an explanation.
A VIEW OF WHAT BUSINESS IS
Many people, when they think of business, bring to mind
a somewhat inchoate lot of images concerned with buying and
selling, price-making, profit-seeking, and overwork, blended with
ideas of efficient Competition and unfair practices. It goes
without Saying that such a collection of notions gives no view
of business in a large sense and gives no notion of the social
importance or significance of business as a whole. It is the
purpose of this section to set forth an idea of what business is,
and of the Social work which business performs. It is purposed
to do this that we may, from an examination of what business
is, see more clearly the form of education which will prepare
people for engaging in commercial and industrial enterprises.
An understanding of what business is, requires an examina-
tion of some facts which are of basic importance. These facts
are elementary enough to the student of economics, though
they are sometimes overlooked even by him in certain aspects
of his work. -
Humankind has found itself in this world confronted by
two matters of elementary significance: One of these is the
fact of wants. We want things, and, as the economist has
pointed out over and over again, these wants seem to be capable
of limitless multiplication. New wants grow apace. “The
more we have the more we want” may not be literally true, but
it is true certainly that we have never yet had a stage of Society
WHAT IS BUSINESSP 33
in which all persons had everything they wanted. We have
then the basic fact of wants.
If we can think of society as a group of persons interested
in gratifying its wants, it is pertinent next to notice the materials
from which want-gratifying goods may be made. Society has
on hand a Supply of such materials—social resources they may
well be called. Although the total amount of these resources
is considerable, they can be put into only a few classes. It is
worth while to put first the natural resources. These are of
varied kinds, such as fertile land, minerals, water-power, timber
Supplies, and the many factors which make up climatic condi-
tions. So important are these resources that persons who are
interested in geographic study are likely to express man’s
dependence upon them in such terms as these:
All these materials for a living come directly or indirectly out
of the soil or crust of the earth. The man in a ship at sea or in a steel
sky-scraper in a modern city gets his sustenance from the Soil just as
surely as does the farmer who takes potatoes from the furrow.
Each particular method by which a man gets Some useful commodity
leads to an industry often of world-wide distribution. To understand
the way the human race turns the earth into its home, we have but
to study the various industries by which groups of men achieve their
living.
While ultimately depending upon the contents of the earth's
crust, most of our living comes indirectly through the intermediate
stages of plant and animal life, the crust itself supplying directly but
a small part of our wants. In and upon the earth is the indispensable
water, without which we would promptly perish. While the more
Solid substances of the earth’s crust are also directly available and
of great value, as Salt, building Stones, and metals, we depend chiefly
upon vegetation for Our Support. The plants grow from the Soil.
We eat them or clothe ourselves with their fibres, cut them into pieces,
shape them into tools, and build our houses and barns, extract their
juices and dig their roots for drugs and medicines. We burn them for
fuel, shape them into articles of luxury, and thus make them help in
the supply of Some of the wants of each of the six classes. The
animals in turn eat the plants and each other, and furnish us their
meat and milk as nourishment; their wool and furs become our
clothing, their tougher hides make our shoe leather, the tents of the
34 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
nomad, and the belts of the engine wheel, while the cultural services
are hinted by the soft leather bindings of our choicest books."
A Second type of raw material or social resource of which
Society has a considerable, but limited supply, is its labor power.
Definitions of labor power are many. One writer defines labor
as “The application of human faculties to the production of
wealth.” Says another writer, “Labor is the voluntary exer-
tion of bodily or mental faculties for the purpose of production.”
But whatever the differences of detail in the definitions of labor,
most of them bring us back to the thought that labor is simply
the physical or mental effort which may be used for the creation
of those goods which gratify human wants. -
Fortunately we are not compelled to turn natural resources
into want-gratifying goods with our bare-handed labor power.
During the past we have accumulated, viewing us as a social
group, a very considerable number of implements, and these
implements may be thought of as a third material, or social
resource. These implements are all about us in innumerable
forms. Not only tools and machinery, but factory buildings,
railroads, sidewalks, office buildings, drainage systems, are all
examples of mechanical devices which we have created for use
in the task of want-gratifying. The economist calls this class
of goods capital, and the economist defines capital as the goods
which we have produced with past effort, which we do not
consume directly in gratifying wants, but which we use to help
to produce other goods. Although when our attention is
centered upon natural resources as a production resource, or
upon labor, it is easy to make us feel its importance almost
to the exclusion of everything else, still it will be seen with a
moment's thought how largely we depend upon our resources
of capital. Almost every task is aided by some mechanical
Contrivance, large or Small. In many cases the machine has
almost, if not entirely, eliminated the necessity of human effort.
A final form of social resource may be designated as acquired
knowledge, or possibly better by some such composite term
* Adapted by permission from J. Russell Smith, Industrial and Com-
"mercial Geography, p. 3. H. Holt & Co., 1913.
WHAT IS BUSINESSP 35
as acquired knowledge and institutions. Perhaps under this
heading should go the acquirements of society in fields of
learning, perhaps our accumulated knowledge of mathematics,
chemistry, physics, and the like. It is only fair to observe,
however, that these can be thought of as characteristics of labor
power, that is, phases of an individual’s knowledge, or else
they are in books and may therefore be considered as capital.
On the other hand there are certain qualities and characteristics
of individuals which apparently are not their possession alone.
Such ethical attributes as honesty, morality, respectability,
Courtesy, and fairness are not, and cannot be, the acquirements
of individuals. By their very nature they imply a social situa-
tion. There cannot be such a thing as honesty excepting in
terms of certain Social standards. Society in its development
has built up a great mass of possessions of this character.
Conceive of carrying on the work of the everyday world as we
know it without our Social standards of honesty, truthfulness,
good faith, reliability, punctuality, or any of a dozen other
such virtues, and One Senses the significance of this form of
resources in the work of Creating want-gratifying goods. Per-
haps in this same class of resources should be thrown language
and writing, as these communicating devices, somewhat like
those traits which have been discussed above, are meaningless
excepting in a Social sense.
Society has then at hand, in its effort to produce whatever
it can produce of want-gratifying goods, a certain stock of
materials. These materials we may speak of as society’s social
resources. This stock includes our supply of natural resources,
of labor power, of capital, and of acquired knowledge and institu-
tions. Diagrammatically, this notion may be presented as follows:


SOCIAL RESOURCES
NATURAL RESOURCES WHICH ARE WANT.
Lºts CONVERTED GRATIFYING
* NTO
ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE N INT coops
AND INSTITUTIONS &
There is at least one rather gratifying fact about this view
of society's activities; it is applicable at any time from the
36 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
beginning until the present. Whether one thinks of society in
the Garden of Eden, at the time of Abraham, in the Middle
Ages, on a colonial farm, or at the present time, the situation is
the same. Society always has been and always will be con-
Cerned with the task which has been suggested. Social resources
exist and wants exist. Social effort is to change the social
resources into the goods which gratify wants.
But the Supply of any one kind of social resource or the
particular character of that kind has by no means been the
same continuously. If we think of the time when American
Indians occupied the North American continent, we might be
justified in saying that their natural resources were more exten-
sive than ours. The supply of labor power was much smaller.
Capital was almost negligible, and acquired knowledge and
institutions were likewise meager. We should observe, too,
that at any given time and for any Social group the supply of
resources has definite limitations. Although, compared with
earlier ages, we have a vast supply of capital, we have not so
much as we might wish. We have unlocked great stores of
natural resources, but no argument is needed to prove that we
should be grateful if more of these were available. So also
our other types of social resources are limited at any one time.
Since any Social group is, then, confronted with the task of
Securing whatever it can secure of want-gratifying goods from
a limited amount of social resources, we may face the task of how
the work shall be done. This is equivalent to saying that
Some form of organization, an economic system, must be devised.
A simple explanation of Some possible types of economic Organ-
ization has been expressed, making use of the notion that a
group of people are supposedly shipwrecked on some fertile
island, with no chance of getting off for twenty years:
No one else is living or has ever lived on this island and we are
dependent on ourselves. The island is fertile, has good climate,
plenty of rainfall, all sorts of natural resources. From the wreck
we have saved some tools and utensils. We have a certain amount
of acquired knowledge. Under such conditions how would we under-
take the task of gratifying wants?
WHAT IS BUSINESSP 37
There are, of course, several ways in which we might do it:
I. Each person might go apart from the others and set about
the task alone. He would attempt to find or produce all of the things
he wanted to eat and wear or use in any other way to gratify his
wants. If it were done in this way, no person would be co-operating
with any of the others. Each would be in somewhat the same situa-
tion as a family on the frontier—self-dependent and self-sufficing.
2. On the other hand, a council might be called and it might be
agreed that all should co-operate in producing economic goods. The
form of co-operation might be such that all would work at every job.
All would work together in hunting, then in fishing, and then in
helping to raise crops.
3. A different form of co-operation might be decided upon. A
central committee might be appointed to determine what specialized
work each one should do. This committee might have power to
require certain ones to fish, others to hunt, others to work in the
fields. All the finished products might be turned into a common
fund or reservoir. A common dining-room might take care of the
wants of all for food. Clothes might be distributed from the central
storehouse. The governing committee would be required to be care-
ful to have enough on hand to supply the necessities before luxuries
were considered. Such a community would be called a communistic
society. It would be very much like the one which was used at one
time by the colonists who settled in Virginia. All of the activities
of the members of the colony were under the control of authorities.
Whatever the settlers produced went to the common stock, while
they were fed and clothed from the company’s store house.
4. A fourth plan might be to allow each person to produce
anything he thought was needed and to trade or barter with the
others for things which they had produced. Under Such an arrange-
ment, the person who fished might barter fish for game, the hunter
might barter game for fish and grain, while the ones who had raised
crops would be anxious to exchange their crops for meat and fish.
Would not such a plan be somewhat like the one we use at present?
These are only a few of the possible forms or methods of economic
organization. No matter what form may be in use, the situation
may be illustrated by the diagram shown at top of next page.
The economic organization or economic system which is used in
our society today might be very sensibly spoken of as our want-
gratifying machine. If we tried to name its parts, we should no
38 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
doubt think of laws, banks, factories, labor unions, contracts, schools,
transportation systems, private property, competition, employers'



SOCIAL RESOURCES
• 'ARE - -
!. Sºurces BROUGHT ECONOMIC 'º'; ECONOMIC GOODS
3. CAPITAL T TOGETHER T1 ORGANIZATION T APPLY TO T } §
4. ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE IN OUR WANTS # |CES
asSociations, chambers of commerce, specialization, insurance com-
panies, inheritance, wages, interest, profits, and many other
institutions.”
We have seen then that the economic organization, the
method of turning Social resources into want-gratifying goods,
may be one of a number of different kinds. For our purposes,
we must see that our existing organization is not the first or
the second or the third suggested in the quotation above. It is
not one which can be called socialistic, nor one of individual self-
sufficiency. It is one which has certain peculiar characteristics.
Some of these are so different from what have preceded that they
have led us to give it a name, and that name is Business. We
might then in the diagram just above substitute for the phrase
“Economic Organization” the word Business or, perhaps better,
label our particular kind of economic organization Business.”
It thus becomes apparent that business is that scheme of eco-
nomic organization which is at present largely responsible for
gratifying human wants. Business is that System of economic
organization to which in great measure we have intrusted the
all-important social task of utilizing our Social resources, to
secure for society whatever society secures. While it is an
exaggeration to state that business occupies all economic
activities (for some portion of it is in the hands of government
and other non-business schemes of organization), it is not too
much to say that so far as most of our wants are concerned,
* Adapted by permission from Marshall and Lyon, Our Economic
Organization, pp. 17-19. Macmillan Co., 1921.
* This statement must be taken in a general sense here. A more
detailed explanation, as well as certain modifications of the statement,
appears in the chapters that follow.
‘WHAT IS BUSINESSP - 39
their gratification depends very largely upon the efficiency of
business. Business, thus, as society is now arranged, is as socially
Significant as want-gratification. And since want-gratification
is concerned, not only with those many wants which enrich the
standard of living, but with those which are concerned with the
existence of life itself, the function of business, in the present
order, is vital. -
Such being the case, it is not too early to observe that in
approaching a study of education for business we are approach-
ing something larger than the routine of the office or the higgling
of the market. We are concerned with an activity than which
there are few more fundamental and far-reaching in our
civilization.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. The introduction to Chapter III proposes the examination of certain
evidences tending to show the proper objectives of education for
business. Just what is this evidence? Do you think the evidence
proposed is pertinent and relevant?
2. Is the evidence proposed adequate P Can you suggest other
evidence which you think would be useful in indicating the proper
objectives of education for business?
3. The fact of wants and the fact of Social resources are basic in a
study of business. Explain this statement.
4. What types of Social resources has Society at its command? Be
prepared to define each type.
5. Have human wants existed as long as human beings? Were social
resources in existence a thousand years ago? ten thousand years
ago? Has the same amount of each type of Social resource always
been in existence as exists now P What forms of social resources
seem to you to have increased most rapidly in the past fifty years?
Have any forms decreased?
6. Society's supply of Social resources is like the family cupboard.
It is the source from which all want-gratifying goods must be
drawn. Unfortunately, the Supply of Social resources at any given
time is limited. Is this statement true? Can the supply be
increased ? If so, how P
7. Ever since people have lived upon the earth it has been necessary
to have some form of economic organization. Explain. What is
4O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the general task of our economic organization? In what ways was
the economic organization of the American Indians different from
ours? In what ways was the economic organization of the Virginia
colonists different from ours?
8. When a man or boy hunts for a job, is he trying to find his place
in the economic organization ?
9. All persons who are engaged in economic activity are trying to
make a living. Are all these persons playing a part in our
economic organization ? Are they all in business? Is the farmer
in business? the teacher? the actor P the doctor? the banker? the
author? the preacher?
CHAPTER IV
INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND THE SPECIALIZA-
TION OF BUSINESS UNITS
The conclusion that business is the great Social project of
utilizing Social resources to gratify human wants, though perhaps
Suggestive and stimulating, is not a sufficiently detailed notion
to give the most aid in determining how to educate for business.
We must examine in more detail some of the characteristics of
business.
It has been suggested in the preceding chapter that our
modern economic organization is one in which the responsibility
of organization is thrown upon the individual. The social
resources upon which our Social group is dependent are not
used for the most part by social action. Individuals are per-
mitted to take these Social resources and to attempt to convert
them into want-gratifying goods. In large part they attempt
to use Social resources in the way that they believe will prove
most profitable. It is this characteristic of freedom of indi-
vidual enterprise, of individuals attempting to gratify human
wants at a profit to themselves, that is ordinarily called business.
It is thus seen that going into business simply means that an
individual sets himself up to take part in the Social enterprise
of want-gratification. In our modern system, then, there rests
upon the shoulders of business men a great responsibility—a
responsibility to get as much for all of us as it is possible to get
from our existing supply of Social resources. But each indi-
vidual business man is interested not so much in doing the most
for society as in doing the best he can for himself. Therefore
we may think of the situation as though Society had found it
necessary to make use of some device which would compel the
individual enterpriser to consider society’s needs. The device
which is in use is competition. No One business man is per-
mitted to have control of all Social resources. Anyone has some
4T
42 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
opportunity to compete in gratifying wants. What society
Secures from its Supply of Social materials depends upon the
intelligence and efficiency of business management and the
reality of the competition among individual business enterprises.
Competition, to give us the best, must be both real and
intelligent. Five men may run a hundred-yard dash. Some-
one is sure to win, even though the fastest of the lot may run
with the assistance of crutches. This will be competition, but
there will be little quality in it. So it is with the competition
of business. Someone, under our system of permitting anyone
to try, is Sure to succeed, and the fact that we see him succeed
may easily lead us to think of him as efficient. Success and effi-
ciency, if one is thinking of efficiency in some absolute sense,
are not at all identical. Success merely means that one has
proved himself Superior to his competitors, but if his competitors
are more or less lame, halt, and blind in a business way, the
winner himself may be much less efficient in his use of social
resources than Society might wish. It is the need of society,
then, not only to permit competition to be as unrestricted as
possible, but to give it as much quality as possible. Both of
these considerations make demands upon business education.
They demand that there shall be many competitors in the
business race and that each of these shall be as well trained as
possible.
But in considering these demands it is well to have in mind
the extent to which business education gives opportunity to
compete. Some persons who are born the Sons of men connected
with large business houses can obtain much of a managerial
viewpoint and a managerial education merely from association.
Others must rely entirely upon what the schools (meaning no
particular type of school) may offer. And what the schools
must offer if they are to give Society the desirable supply of
high-quality competitors is education for management. It must
be education which fits individuals to go into business; it must
be education which enables young persons to assume, with real
hope of success, control of Social resources with the purpose
of converting them into want-gratifying goods.
|
INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND SPECIALIZATION 43
Closely related to individual enterprise as a characteristic
of modern business is a second characteristic which we may
call the specialization of business units. There is also a special-
ization within business units to which we must later give atten-
tion, but this must not be confused with the specialization of
business units and what it suggests in education for business.
This we shall now consider. -
To understand the significance of specialization and appre-
ciate the probable permanence of its character, it is necessary
to see that it is a method of production. Desirous of producing
goods which gratify wants, Society, quite without realizing it,
has hit upon the device of specialization. As Clay, the English
economist, says, “Specialization is fundamental in economic
organization because it is the means by which man increases the
return to a given amount of work. It brings about this result
in two ways: by Subdivision of tasks and by repetition of tasks.
Subdivision results in operations easier in themselves, repetition
enables operations to be performed with greater ease.”
The specialization of business units, which is our considera-
tion here, has been, perhaps, less emphasized than the specializa-
tion within business units. Such specialization arises rather
from the subdivision of processes than from the subdivision of
tasks. There are special business units that carry on specialized
parts in the creation of every kind of goods or services of which
one can think. Farms and ranches do not supply us with food,
but are merely specialized parts of a long process of food-
supplying. Automobile factories do not furnish us with auto-
mobiles, but are one specialized unit in a long series of units,
which together furnish us with those vehicles. Mines, railroads,
sawmills, churches, offices, Schools, and theaters are all separate
units specializing in special tasks and each contributing to the
production of many types of want-gratifying goods.
The specialization of business units which furnihes us with
such a commodity as the breakfast egg has been thus described:
A useful way of seeing the advantage of specialization of economic
units is to follow through the work that must be done in bringing
us some such product of daily consumption as eggs. We shall See
44 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
that the egg on our breakfast table is the result of the specialized.
services of a great many economic units. The farmer whose poultry
yard has furnished him with eggs could sell these in a number of ways.
He might send them directly to consumers in the cities, but ordinarily
he does not know just who wants eggs at any particular time or
does he know how many could be used by any household and what
price it would be willing to pay. Before he could sell eggs in this
direct “producer to consumer” fashion, it would also be necessary
for him to grade the eggs very carefully so that there could be no
dissatisfaction on the part of the purchasers, to pack them for ship-
ment, and to arrange for the collection of money due him. Instead.
of Selling his eggs this way, a more common method is to take them to
a neighboring Country town and dispose of them to the storekeeper.
A village storekeeper thus acts as a first centralizing depot where
the eggs from the entire neighborhood are collected. In some cases
the storekeeper runs the eggs over his “candling machine” and
discards those that are spoiled. If he does this, he is performing a
second task, that of grading, which must be done before people in
the cities care to purchase eggs.
The storekeeper in the country town is in hardly a better position
to sell eggs directly to the consumers in the cities than was the farmer.
No more than the farmer does he know how many eggs are desired
by any particular family nor just what families wish Such goods. In
other words, he has no “market connections” with consumers in the
city. He might, of course, make such market connections, but experi-
ence has shown him that it is simpler to pass the eggs on, a large
quantity at a time, to someone in the city, and let him perform this
function of finding consumers.
In the height of the egg-laying season, the storekeeper of a fairly
large town may collect a half Carload or even a Carload of eggs in the
period of a week. He now ships these to a buyer of eggs in quantity
in the city. Such a quantity buyer is sometimes called a “wholesale
receiver” or “large dealer” or “centralizer.” The wholesaler usually
grades the eggs carefully into “selects,” “seconds,” “spots,” and
other classes according to their quality. This wholesaler, like those
who have handled the eggs ahead of him, might possibly sell them
directly to consumers. But he is hardly in a position to know the
wishes of all the people in every locality of a city (and he is very busy
with these other tasks). As we might expect, therefore, still other
specialized middlemen come in to take care of this function. The
INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND SPECIALIZATION 45
centralizer or large dealer could sell to the grocery stores, the hotels
and restaurants, and the bakers which are the principal channels
through which eggs pass to consumers. But even of these there are
so many in a city of any size that it is difficult for him to keep in touch
with all of them and know the market needs and desires of each. In
some cases he does sell directly to these buyers. In other cases, he
relies on men called “jobbers” to keep in constant touch with the
CO-OPERATING SPECIALIZED BUSINESS UNITS IN
EGG PRODUCTION

FARMER
VILLAGE
STOREKEEPER
|
WHOLESALER
OR
CENTRALIZER
COLD-STORAGE
WAREHOUSE
JOBBER
A-sº
- tº HOTELS,
|BAKERIES RESTAURANTS, ETC. GROCER
needs of all the bakers, grocers, hotels, restaurants, and other retail
outlets and to sell them the number and quality of eggs demanded.
The jobbers who find a market for the eggs received by the
wholesaler are not the only persons to whom the stock might be
disposed of. Eggs are laid in largest numbers during the months of
March, April, May, and June. The Supply which pours into the
cities during the “laying months” must, if we are to be provided
during the winter, be so conserved as to last throughout the year.
Therefore, certain individuals who believe it will be profitable to
store and preserve eggs purchase them from the wholesale receiver
46 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
and place them in cold storage warehouses. Here they are kept until
winter, when, during the Scarce season, they are sold, usually through
the jobbers, to the bakers, grocers, hotels, and restaurants.
- We must not imagine that there are never any variations in this
line of specialists. Sometimes eggs are shipped directly from farms
to city residences; sometimes other middlemen than those we have
mentioned take part in the work of marketing eggs."
Such series of specialists are not, of course, confined to
production of farm products. Cloth which has been produced
by a textile mill is of no more importance to most of us than
if it had not been made at all. A hat, a fountain pen, a watch,
CO-OPERATIVE SPECIALIZED PRODUCERS IN SOME
COMMON COMMODITIES
NAILS, KNIVES, CANNED CORN, PEAS,
KEYS, DISHES, TOMATOES, AND sº
TOOLS SALMON OES, SUIT
MANUFACTURER
MANUFACTURER CANNER
WHOLESALER
-
CONSUMER
or a book must have much of production added to it by a series
of specialized business units after it leaves the factory which
has given it a desired form. The series of specialized business
units which co-operate in the production of Some common types
of goods may be shown diagrammatically.
Diagrams will show that it is not only in the creation of
tangible, material goods that specialization of business units
is used. Specialized business units are quite as useful in making
available services which gratify human wants.
These diagrams tell at best only part of the story of special-
ization of business units. There is not only a line of consecutive
* Adapted by permission from Marshall and Lyon, Our Economic
Organization, pp. 129–31. Macmillan Co., 1921,


















INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND SPECIALIZATION 47
specialized business units in each of the operations indicated,
but each one of these specialized units is related to a number of
other specialized agencies. Thus, for example, we have the
SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN SERVICES!
SERVICES OF A SHORT. SERVICES OF A
STORY WRITER MECHANIC
LITERARY AGENCY EMPLOYMENT
AGENCY
MAGAZINE PUBLISHER | MANUFACTURER OF
HARDWARE
JOBBER OF
HARDWARE
RETAILER
CONSUMER OF
HARDWARE
CO-OPERATING SPECIALIZED BUSINESS UNITS IN
WHEAT-FLOUR PRODUCTION2
SERVICES OF A MoVINC.
PICTURE ACTOR
FILM-MANUFACTURING
COMPANY
FILM-EXCHANGE
COMPANY
LOCAL THEATER
NEWS AGENCY
MAGAZINE DEALER
MAGAZINE READER
PATRON OF THEATER
|WHEAT GROWER
|LOCAL ELEVATOR
|
|TERMINAL WAREHOUSEs
MILLER (WHO TURNS THE
WHEAT INTO FLOUR)
GRAIN EXCHANGE |
º EXPORTER
|FOREIGN MARKET
|GROCERS AND BAKERIES
CONSUMERS
local elevators and the terminal warehouses, both of which are
specialists in the production of bread. Each of these makes
use of Specialized transportation agencies; each relies on banks
to furnish it with funds, thus calling in the aid of other special-
* Op. cit., p. 134. *Ibid., pp. 132–33.




















48 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ists; each calls upon insurance companies and the hedging
markets of the organized grain exchanges to aid it in carrying
the risks which are incident to ownership; each of these con-
cerns also, when it wishes to dispose of the grain, will in all
probability call upon a commission merchant—a specialized
selling agent—to help in making the best possible sale.
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OR
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ORGANIZED EXCHANCES
JOBBERS
DEALERS
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ADVERTISING MEDIUMS
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CROWERS, STORERS, OR < TO
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Not only are these specialized business units of constant
Service, but the government and perhaps private agencies as
well are specializing in giving protection from theft or violence,
while a score of agencies are gathering information about
crops, demand, and prices, all of which are of the greatest use
in the production of bread.
















INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND SPECIALIZATION 49
If we should give our attention to almost any of the other
specialized units in the production of any type of goods, we
should find the case much the same. Whether it is the manu-
facturer of groceries, the wholesaler of hardware, or the retailer
of shoes, we should find him dependent upon a great variety of
other specialists—specialists from whom he bought, specialists
to whom he sells, specialists who aid him in one phase or another
of his activities.
The significance to education for business of this specializa-
tion of business units is not far to see. Operating a business
appears from this view not to be operating a series of activities
confined by the four walls of a unit. Operating a business is
rather making an adjustment—an adjustment of one specialized
unit to the activities of a great number of other specialized
units. The degree of success which accompanies a business
enterprise depends upon the skill with which Such an adjust-
ment is made. -
A study of business, therefore, at least a study of business
which is to give any consideration to the managerial aspects of
business, must include a study of relationships. Since the
relationships of which any individual business unit is one part
are almost without number, and extend in bewildering fashion
in each direction, an overextensive knowledge of relationships is
impossible. Anything approaching an adequate knowledge of
relationships is difficult and demands, of those who are
interested in understanding business, a study of the make-up
and structure of Society much more far-reaching than any-
thing which has been customary in most so-called business
COUITS6S.
At first blush it will seem to many of those who are most
interested in business education, and especially to those who
from long acquaintance with business education have come to
think of the task as a training in technique alone, that it is
beside the point to suggest a broad training in relationships.
The fact of specialization of business units, however, carries
with it one great implication: there is no training for a managerial
point of view excepting a training in relationships.
5O FDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
But why train for a managerial point of view P If there
are Some whose long familiarity with the customary commercial
courses makes them feel such a purpose to be undesirable, let
them consider that even the commercial student is entitled to
an opportunity to seek success in business. And although
there are many who may not wish to direct businesses of their
own, or who may never have the financial opportunity to do so,
it is worth while to remember that promotion within a business
depends largely upon one’s ability to aid the management.
Any notion of how to aid the management, and any success in
So doing, depends entirely upon an appreciation of managerial
problems. It should also be realized that it is only with a
knowledge of the specialized character of business units that
a student who is preparing to enter business has any real
basis for a vocational choice. It is from Such a knowledge that
he sees what businesses really do, and from such a knowledge
he may be able to direct himself to that type of specialization
for which he is best fitted.
Finally, we must recall the thought expressed in the open-
ing half of the chapter, that Society needs, if it is to get the most
from its resources, well-trained competitors. A large number
of such competitors is possible only if students are trained for
the management of business. In any Society, therefore, in
which individual enterprise and specialization of business units
are underlying facts, education for business which neglects a
broad instruction in the relationships to which every business
must adjust itself belies its name, and is, at best, education for
business in an incomplete, narrow, and partial Sense.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. Specialization is said to be a method of production; a method
of converting Social resources into want-gratifying goods. Can
you think of it in this way? Can you think of any methods, other
than specialization, which we use 2
2. It has been said that a Society, no matter how it is organized,
must necessarily carry on production; it must convert its social
resources into want-gratifying goods. It is only the methods of
INDIVIDUAL ENTERPRISE AND SPECIALIZATION 5 ;
IO.
II.
I 2.
production which differ. If this statement seems to you true,
give illustrations of methods of production formerly used by
society which are in contrast to the methods we use.
. In modern Society who decides what specialized part each person
shall play P Can you imagine a Society in which Some authorita-
tive head assigned each worker to his specialized task?
. Is there specialization in an army unit? Is the specialization a
matter of free choice, of individual enterprise, or is it a specializa-
tion by authority ?
. When boys or girls decide upon an occupation, are they deter-
mining a specialized task which they shall perform in society's
work of production ? If an adult shifts from one type of work
to another, is he redirecting his specialized effort?
. Make a list of the forces which you think influence a person in
deciding what specialized work he shall undertake. How strong
do you think is the motive of pay or pecuniary reward P
. Society makes use of Specialization and relies upon the hope of
gain to guide the specialists into those tasks where they will be
most useful. Does this seem to you a statement which is in
general true? What are some of the factors which might make
a person take a job in which he could earn more, but in which
you think he would be less useful to society than in some other
occupation ?
. When a man goes into business, is it desirable from society’s
point of view that he shall be efficient in the work which he
undertakes?
. “If business men are efficient, it may result in more gain for those
individuals, but there is no assurance that there will be any gain
for society through their increased skill.” Does this seem to
you true? Why, or why not?
What devices does society use to attempt to secure for every-
one the increased production resulting from increased efficiency P
“Competition to give the best results must be both real and
intelligent.” Illustrate the meaning of this with specific examples
drawn from business.
Why is it that sons of men connected with large business houses
are more likely to become managers of large businesses than the
sons of men who work at trades? Do you think it desirable
that it should be so? Do you think the school has any respon-
sibility in the situation ? -
52
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
I3.
I4.
I5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
IQ.
2O.
What studies in the commercial courses with which you are
most familiar tend to train students to understand the manage.
ment of businesses? What proportion of the total of these
courses do such studies constitute P -
Explain with illustrations what is meant by the “specialization
of business units.”
Are middlemen producers? Are producers middlemen?
The bank is sometimes called a financial middleman. Explain
what this statement might mean.
“If the ‘middleman' secures too much profit it is because he has
not enough competition.” Is this true P Is it socially desirable
that there should be competition among middlemen? Have
business courses any responsibility in this connection ?
Operating a business consists largely of making adjustments.
Adjustments of what? Are the factors to which adjustment
must be made largely “within’ the business or “without” P
If success in business depends largely upon the skill with which
adjustments are made, what general type of instruction should
be given to students who are preparing for business? .
Give an example of the way in which a wholesale grocer makes
use of financial institutions, risk-Carrying agencies, marketing
institutions, government, transporting agencies, information
agencies, sources of raw materials. Do the same for a manu-
facturer of automobiles.
2I.
22.
23.
24.
Suggest a course which might give a student who was preparing
for business some knowledge of each of the phases of relationship
in which he will operate.
“But after all, not everyone can be thought of as needing educa-
tion in the problems of business management. Most of the
students in the commercial department are predestined to routine
clerical tasks. For them several years of Stenography, type-
writing, and bookkeeping are sufficient. To talk of anything
else is nonsense.” Comment.
“To talk of any training in the problems of business management
for high school commercial pupils is undemocratic. It is an effort
to give an education adapted to the few rather than the needs
of the many.” Comment.
Try to formulate a general statement or statements which sum-
marize the ideas and suggestions for business education which
come to you from a study of Chapter IV.
CHAPTER V
SPECIALIZATION WITHIN BUSINESS UNITS
The second form of specialization is specialization within
business units. This is a no less important method in the
business of producing want-gratifying goods than the special-
ization of business units. A realization of the nature and extent
of this form of specialization is quite as pregnant with Sugges-
tions for business education as the form previously studied,
but the suggestions are of a very different character. Before
drawing conclusions, however, it is well to be sure that we
understand specialization within business units with some
clearness.
The classic expression of specialization within an industry
is the oft-quoted statement of Adam Smith:
To take an example, therefore, from a very trifling manufacture,
but one in which the division of labor has been very often taken notice
of, the trade of the pin-maker; a workman not educated to this
business (which the division of labor has rendered a distinct trade),
nor acquainted with the use of the machinery employed in it (to the
invention of which the same division of labor has probably given
occasion), could scarce, perhaps, with his utmost industry, make one
pin in a day and certainly could not make twenty. But in the way
in which this business is now carried on, not only the whole work is
a peculiar trade, but it is divided into a number of branches of which
the greater part are likewise peculiar trades. One man draws out
the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a
fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head
requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar
business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to
put them into the paper; and the important business of making a
pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations,
which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands,
though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three
of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind where ten
men only were employed, and where some of them consequently
53
54 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
performed two or three distinct operations. But though they were
very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the
necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves,
make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There are
in a pound upward of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those
ten persons, therefore, could make among them upward of forty-
eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a
tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as
making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they
had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of
them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly
could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a
day; that is, certainly, not the two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not
the four thousand eight hundredth part of what they are at present
capable of performing, in consequence of a proper division and com-
bination of their different operations."
But what seemed to Adam Smith as the marvelous special-
ization of his day appears elementary in our time. More and
more have jobs been divided. This division in manufacturing
is thus illustrated in shoemaking:
In the cutting-room the parts which form the upper are cut out.
For the best goods this is done with a hand knife. For the less
expensive classes of leather, and for linings and gussets—which are
usually cut from cloth—a die is used. The die-cutters are also block-
hands, dinkers, and clickers. A skiver works in the fitting- or
stitching-room, and Skives or cuts to a bevel in a skiving machine the
edges of the pieces for the uppers. Cementers or pasters put cement
on the skived surfaces which folders fold over and stick together by
pressure either in a machine or by hand, thus producing a finished
instead of a raw edge. Upper-Stitchers include all workers on sewing-
machines in the fitting-room, whether on leather or linings. An
eyelet-row Stitcher puts Stitching on the quarter, just outside the
place where the row of hooks and eyelets will be. A closer stitches
or closes the quarters together at the back, and a seam-rubber or
seam-pounder Smooths this Seam by rubbing or pressing it out as
flat as possible on a machine. A gore- or gusset-Stitcher stitches in
gores or gussets such as appear in Congress boots. A lining-stitcher,
lining-maker, or liner Sews together the different pieces of the lining,
* From Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chap. i.
SPECIALIZATION WITHIN BUSINESS UNITS 55
and a closer-on or in-seamer stitches the lining into the quarters.
When the vamps are lined separately a vamp-liner does the work.
On fine work a lacing-stitcher binds the lining with a facing of leather.
A beader operates a machine of the same name which presses together
the seam made around the top of the quarters by closing on. A
top-stitcher or corder runs stitching around the quarters just below
this seam, through the quarter and lining. A buttonhole-machine
operator puts the quarters for button shoes through her machine,
which makes a cut, lays a heavy cord around the edge, and stitches
over the cord and through the edge, making a buttonhole. The
buttonhole-finisher's machine sews down that part of the heavy
cord which passes from buttonhole to buttonhole. The buttons are
sewed on by hand or by machine, or are fastened on with wire staples.
A gang-punch operator punches the holes for eyelets in laced shoes.
An eyeléter or fastener-setter sets in the eyelets with an eyeleting
machine. A hooker puts in the hooks with a hooking machine.
A marker or tip-marker marks on the vamp the place where the tip
is to go, and a tipper or tip-stitcher Stitches it on; sometimes a tip-
paster pastes or gums the tips onto the vamps before they are stitched.
A perforator perforates the edges, and a tip-fixer glues down or other-
wise adjusts them. A vamp-closer stitches the two ends of the vamp
together behind. A vamper sews together the quarters and vamps,
A barrer or stayer Stitches back and forth through the edges of the
two quarters. A heel-stay stitcher and an eyelet-stay stitcher put
on heel stays and eyelet stays, respectively, after the lining has been
closed on. A fancy Stitcher is employed on Some work to do stitching,
which serves merely as decoration. A foxing stitcher sews to the
back of the vamp of some shoes a piece of leather called a foxing.
On fine work, a tongue-binder binds the edges of the tongues with
cloth or leather; the tongues are Stitched into place by tongue-
stitchers. A strap-maker makes leather straps for ladies’ slippers,
or straps by which shoes are pulled onto the foot. Table workers
are unskilled operatives who do Such work as gumming or pasting,
tip marking, and Sewing on buttons, by hand, at tables in the
stitching-room."
The specialization in the large meat-packing plants was
once vividly impressed upon the writer by a young Russian
* Adapted from the U.S. Census Special Report on Employees and
Wages, Igo3, pp. II99–I2OI.
56 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
student who described his first job in America. “I was taken,”
said he, “into a room where, on a table, were a pile of paper
sheets and innumerable cattle livers. My guide seized a liver
in one hand and a sheet of paper in the other and wrapped the
first in the second. He told me to do the same. I did. ‘Keep
on doing it,” said my instructor. I did. I was now educated
for industry. For over a year I stood at that table and wrapped
livers with no notion of the whence, the why, or the wherefore.
But I became an expert liver wrapper.”
Although specialization in manufacturing has often been
pointed out, the prevalence of specializing in office work has
been much less realized. The specialization in some of these
units is of the greatest importance to persons engaged in educa-
ting for business. Office work for example has become highly
specialized. The possibilities of such specialization may be
realized from the following description of differentiations in
occupations in a prominent metropolitan bank:
The same division of labor exists in a bank, to be reckoned,
however, by departments rather than individual “jobs.”
For instance, John Smith & Co., a prosperous concern, is
approached by the New Business Department, and its account
Solicited. The company agrees to open an account, and makes an
initial deposit of cash and checks. Taken in by the Receiving Teller,
the credit is charged through to the City Books Department, where
it is entered on the books by one of a large force of bookkeepers. The
checks are separated by the teller, and those on local banks are
charged to, and handled by, the Clearings Department; those on
other cities by the Transit Department, which sends these items to
the bank’s country correspondents. The letters enclosing these
items are handled by the Mail Department, which finally sends them
on their way. Under special arrangements, the items are often
charged on the Country Books on the day of their receipt at
destination. -
Meanwhile the Signature Department has filed specimen signa-
tures of the officers authorized to sign for the account, and the name
of the company has been given to the Addressograph Department,
where a plate is made in anticipation of the many times the name
must be used.
SPECIALIZATION WITHIN BUSINESS UNITS 57
The officers of the company now find that its business necessitates
a loan, and come with a request for $100,000. The Bank Officers
discuss the matter, have the . Credit Department investigate the
company’s reputation for prompt payment (the letters of inquiry
being actually run off in the Stenographic Department), and at the
close of the investigation, the Executive Committee agrees to a loan
of $50,000 unsecured, and a further loan of $50,000 Secured by
acceptable collateral. For this, there are brought to the bank some
good bonds which have been in the assets of the company, and after
the Collateral Department has checked them over and O.K.'d them, the
loan is put through at the Discount Department, which makes out a
credit to the company’s account of the amount of the loan less discount.
After the account has been on the books for awhile, the Analysis
Department analyzes its value to the bank by crediting it with the
proper profit, and charging it with its fair share of “overhead,” etc.
The Average Cards Department records on a large card the average
balances month by month, together with the maximum and minimum
loans. At the end of each month, the Cancelled Vouchers Depart-
ment returns to the company all the checks drawn that month.
John Smith & Co. has a branch in San Francisco handling a petty
cash account with a San Francisco bank. This account being drawn
low, the Wire Transfer Department is called upon to telegraph
funds to the San Francisco bank.
Drafts drawn against the customer are handled by the City
Collection Department, and presently some notes receivable are
brought in for the bank to collect. Those payable out of town are
handled by the Country Collection Department, those within the
city by the Note Teller. The Paying Tellers of course cash the
customer's checks. When the company wishes to invest part of its
surplus funds, it buys some stocks through the Special Securities
Department. Any difference in figures which arises in handling the
account is adjusted by the Audit Department.
Having received such good service at the bank, Mr. Smith, the
president of the Company, now Suggests that his wife open an account
in the affiliated Savings Department. As she accumulates a little
ready money, she wishes to invest it in some trustworthy bond, and
the Bond Department takes care of this for her. Having a friend in
Japan to whom she wishes to send a Christmas gift of money, she
turns again to the bank, and the Foreign Department sells her a
foreign draft, with due allowance for exchange.
58 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Mr. Smith now being called upon to undertake a journey which
he feels may possibly be somewhat hazardous, he decides to let the
Trust Department create a living trust, whereby his family will be
safely provided for in any eventuality.
Mrs. Smith's sister, who has managed a small business since her
husband's death, is now induced to transfer her account to this
“family” bank, and is satisfactorily taken care of by the Women's
Department; wishing to buy a small home, the Real Estate Depart-
ment sends a man out to make an appraisal of the desired property.
She decides to take a box in the Safety Deposit Vaults for her securi-
ties, and as the coupons on her bonds fall due, takes them to the
Coupon Department to be cashed or deposited.
In addition to these departments, there are others not dealing
directly with the individual customer; for instance, all general infor-
mation goes to the General Files, and the accounts of the bank with
other banks are kept in the General Books. Shipments of currency to
the bank’s correspondents are handled by the Currency Department.
There are also a group of departments related only indirectly
to the customer, known as “internal service” departments, including
the Chief Clerk's Department, the Guards, the Interest, Telegraph,
Telephone, Printing, and Supply Departments."
The following analysis of 2,306 positions held by 1,000 men
and boys brings out the characteristic of specialization in office
work by showing the wide range of positions held.
TABLE VIII
2,306 Positions HELD BY 1,000 MEN AND BOYS"
Officials, Managers, Supervisors:
Executives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O
Department managers, agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O
Credit men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• * * * * * * * I6
Secretaries, treasurers, assistant Secretaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
Advertising men. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Supervisors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Efficiency engineers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO9
*Adapted by permission from Bertha M. Stevens, Boys and Girls in Commercial Work.
p. 24. The Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, 1916.
* A statement prepared by Miss A. L. Batchelder, Continental and
Commercial Bank, Chicago, March, 1922,
59
TABLE VIII—Continued
Special: -
Salesmen, Solicitors
Distributors, demonstrators, canvassers, collectors
Inspectors
Storekeepers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Buyers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * >
Estimator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total
& e g º ºs e º 'º º 4 & 5 & © e º & tº $ tº e º e º e s ∈ e º 'º e º e º ºs e º 'º e º e º 'º e
Bookkeepers, etc.:
Bookkeepers, assistants
Cashiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paymasters, assistants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Accountants, assistants
Statistical workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Auditors, assistants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tellers
e e º e e s tº º e º ºs e º e º 'º º is ſº tº º ſº e s tº e º a gº & © tº e
• * * * * * * * * * e e º e º e º e s e º so e e º a c e º is s e is
e e a e s e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e º – e g o nº e º e º 'º e º e g º & © e º &
Stenographers:
Stenographers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Private Secretaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• a s a e º e s a s e s e º g º e º e s sº e º 'º e º ºs e º 'º e º ºs e s º º e º 'º e º ſº e e
Clerks:
Shipping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• • - - - - - - - -
Receiving, stock
Sales order
• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
• * e s e e s e º 'º e s ∈ ºr e º a s e º e e s e º e s is a s e º e º e º 'º e º e º a º &
a g º ºs e º & e º 'º tº º us tº $ tº e º is e tº e º e º e º 'º e s tº t e º ºs é o q, tº tº $ iº
M il
all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
e s e e º e e º s º a s ∈ sº e º e º e º ºs e º 'º e º 'º e. e. e. e. e. e. e s tº e º e s e º e º e is
File, index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Invoice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pricing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voucher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I5I
6o EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
TABLE VIII—Conlinued
Machine Workers:
Billers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3
Multigraph operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Typists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IQ
General Clerical Workers:
Office boys, messengers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66
Checkers and general office workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 to
Grand Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,306
TABLE IX
2,816 POSITIONS HELD BY WOMEN AND GlRLS*
Officials, Managers, Supervisors:
Supervisors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Executives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . I4
Department managers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3
Secretaries and treasurers, assistant treasurers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Special:
Copywriters, proofreaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4
Research worker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5
Bookkeepers, etc.:
Bookkeeping and Cashier assistants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Auditing assistants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I96
Statistical workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Bookkeepers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Auditors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cashiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —:
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Stenographers:
Stenographers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
Stenographers and billers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O
Private Secretaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I9
Stenographers and dictating-machine operators. . . . . . . . . . . . 4.
Managers, Stenography bureau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Stenography and translator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Stenography and bookkeeper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
* Bertha M. Stevens, op. cit., p. 25.
SPECIALIZATION WITHIN BUSINESS UNITS
6I
TABLE IX—Conlinued
Clerks:
* * * * e º e º e º ºs e = e s e s e º ºr º e e s e s is º a c e s a tº e º ºs e º e s tº tº e º ſº tº e
& s e º s a e o a tº tº s tº tº $ tº gº tº tº e º ºs e tº t t e º 'º & e º & ºr e º e º tº ſº ſº tº º
e is e º a s e s tº e e s e s e º is ºs e º e º ºs e e º 'º e o e 4 e e s sº e º is nº e º 'º ºn tº e º ºs &
s is e e s is a e e º ºs e s s a s e º e º ºs e º e s a s = e º is e º a tº e º 'º º & E * : * > * >
s & sº º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º e º e º 'º tº s e º º is a tº e º $ tº e º s tº ſº e º ſº tº g º a tº ſº tº
s & e º gº tº e s is & e º e º e º is a º is a y º e º e º ºs e e s is e º ºs e e º ſº e º &
* a tº e s º e º e º e º & in s e s s is a 4 tº º is e s m e º 'º e º & e º 'º e s tº º ºs e º sº a g º º gº e
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g is e º e º 'º e º e º is º e º 'º e g g g g g º ºs e º sº e º e º a º
e tº º te s tº e s e º e s is º is e º 'º e º e is e º 'º e e º e e º e s ∈ e º e g º e º is º a º º
* is º is e º 'º e º 'º e º s sº a º ºs e e s tº e º e º º is e < e º e g º º º tº a º ºs e º e g e º ºs e
a s e º is e a º e g º gº • * * * * * * * * * * * * is e º e º ſº e s is t tº dº ſº e º & tº º us tº e º &
Tabulating-machine operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comptometer operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multigraph operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Billing and comptometer operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machine operators, not requiring training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Clerical Workers:
Filing and general clerical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recording, entering, cataloguing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Checking, counting, sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Long-hand writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - * g º C G & º te
Information desk, telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The committee making the survey just quoted indicated
that the following were “typical work and positions in
office organizations”:
*Ibid., p. 35.
large
62 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ADMINISTRATIVE CLERICAL
Types of work Types of work
Financiering ACCounting and bookkeeping
Organization and administration Credit work
Merchandising and advertising Handling of funds
Development and experimentation Correspondence
Efficiency engineering Filing and records
Workers Workers
Officials Auditors
Managers Accountants
Salesmen and advertising men Bookkeepers
Other specialists Credit men
Assistants to above Cashiers
Clerks
Stenographers
Machine operators
Telephone operators
Messengers
Office boys
What conclusions regarding education for business are to
be drawn from the fact of specialization within business units 2
Two, at least, impress themselves. First, if people' are to do
Specialized work they must be trained for specialized performance.
Specialized techniques must be taught. This is only saying
that people must be taught to do what they are to do. The
tendency in business education has been to appreciate this
fact readily enough, though, as will appear, there has been on
the part of educators a strange lack of awareness of the changes
in the performance requirements of industry.
A second conclusion, arising from a realization of the
specialized tasks of business, is that performance in a business
will go but little toward teaching the business as a whole. Time
was, of Course, when experience in a business was the recognized
method of learning the business. To many it is still the recog-
nized way. But such recognition is largely a mistaken recogni-
tion. The reason is the specialization within business units.
The lining Stitcher and the eyeleter are not learning even shoe
manufacturing, to Say nothing of how to direct such a business,
nor is the successful liver wrapper on the logical route to the
directorate of a packing-plant. Though it has been true for
SPECIALIZATION WITHIN BUSINESS UNITS 63
a shorter period, the same conclusions hold good in office work.
Specialized technique is required in office work, specialized
technique can be sold to employers, and specialized technique
must be taught. But specialized work in the office does not,
with very few exceptions, give a knowledge of the business as
a whole. The opportunity of the billing clerk, the file clerk,
the ledger poster, the invoice clerk, the storekeeper, the teller,
the machine operator, to learn of those relationship adjustments
which constitute the real conduct of the business is negligible.
Unless the business is Small, bookkeepers, cashiers, time-
keepers, and so-called accountants have little more chance.
As business tends to become larger, specialization deprives the
specialists of the chance to learn from their daily work even the
relationships within the unit itself. Examples are everywhere.
Ask the typical salesperson, even one of several years' ex-
perience, what his daily work has taught him of the organiza-
tion and administration of the department store. Ask him
what his work has shown him of the considerations which under-
lie the policies of the house. Ask the clerk (in any one of a
dozen capacities) in a large bank or general office what he has
learned in one or two years about the relationships of his depart-
ment to other departments and the integration of all. Or ask
what has been made clear to him Concerning the policies of the
institution. Ask any of these questions and it will be seen
quickly enough that specialization within a business unit has
made experience of very doubtful service as a teacher of business.
It has made it of almost no value if we consider its utility in
teaching the general relationships in the organization and
administration of which business consists.
Sensing, then, the intense specialization of all large-scale
modern business, we may conclude, first, that Specialized
techniques must be taught. We need not yet conclude where
they should be taught. That question must wait until we con-
sider the various institutions which offer their Services for the
task. Second, we may decide that specialization has made
“learning by experience” of doubtful value so far as the broader
phases of business are concerned. The task of teaching these
64 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
relationships, then, must be taught Somewhere outside business
itself. The assignment of that duty, too, may well wait for
later discussion.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. Is specialization within business units also a “method of produc-
tion”? Does it result in more rapid production than non-
specialization P. Make out as long a list as possible of the ways
in which specialization within business units increases production
as compared with non-specialization.
2. Is there specialization of the teaching staff within the school unit
with which you are most familiar P What seems to you the
advantages and disadvantages of such specialization ?
3. Think of any business (several if possible) with which you are
familiar. Is specialization used? Does the amount of special-
ization seem to vary to any degree with the size of the business?
4. Does it seem to you that specialization is increasingly common in
teaching commercial courses? What evidence have you noticed P
5. Suppose that a boy graduating from the commercial course of a
high School takes a job in a large bank, or in the general office of a
railroad Company, large wholesale house, or manufacturing plant,
what are his chances of “learning the business”?
6. “The specialists in a modern office or factory are separate, indi-
vidual, unrelated units. They know little of the work of one
another. They care less. There is no co-operation.” How
much truth is there in these statements?
7. “Specialization within business units leads to a feeling of futility
in the minds of the specialists. One cannot be interested where
he has no sense of his contribution to the whole.” Do you think
this statement is sound? Why is there so little sense of contribu-
tion to the whole result when one is specializing P What might
be done to make a realization of the specialist’s contribution more
clear to the specialist?
8. A study of modern business units makes it clear that specializa-
tion within those units prevails. Thus it follows: (1) specialized
training must be given; (2) the public schools must teach it; (3)
commercial courses must be devoted to it. With what ones of
these statements, if any, do you agree?
9. Formulate a Series of statements that seem to you to summarize
the Suggestions for business education that come from a study of
this chapter.
CHAPTER VI
SCIENCE IN BUSINESS AND LARGE-SCALE
PRODUCTION
There are at least two other characteristics of the modern
method of want-gratification to which we must give some
attention if we would have an adequate notion of what business
is. These are the scientific or technological character of
business and the large scale of operations. As with specializa-
tion, So with the application of science to industry and the
large Scale of modern operations. Both can be thought of as
methods of producing goods. Large-scale operations and the
use of natural forces, machine industry, as it is often called,
have proved themselves such powerful instruments of increasing
production that there is every reason to believe that they will
become more and more typical of business. The fact that
these methods are prevalent, like the fact of specialization of
and within business units, has much to suggest to anyone who
is interested in education for business. Let us consider them
in turn.
Early industry was hand, tool, human-power industry.
Everyone is familiar with the methods of household manufacture
in colonial days in America. Manufacture was thought of in
terms of Craftsmanship rather than factory production.
Natural forces were not extensively employed. Human energy
was the Source of power, and the contributions of physics and
chemistry to production had not yet been made. But the
application of these and other sciences to industry came, and
Came with great Suddenness.
The change from hand industry to power industry in Eng-
land, Sudden, decisive and bringing with it innumerable results
in almost every phase of life, is called the Industrial Revolution.
One may think of the Industrial Revolution as beginning in
1750, or he may think of it as beginning some centuries before
65
66 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
that time. One may think of its continuing for fifty years or
sixty years, or he may quite sensibly think of it as still going
On, as we are steadily making more and more use of science in
our work of gratifying wants. Certain it is that some of the
most striking and most sudden applications of science to business
were made in the years immediately following 1750. The
textile industry was of great importance in England at that
time, and to aid manufacture one invention pressed upon
another. In 1738 the flying shuttle gave a new speed to weav-
ing, which had been the “neck of the bottle” in the process of
making cloth. In 1764 a new spinning device, the spinning
jenny, and in 1779 the spinning mule were devised. The year
1789 saw a machine constructed which could be operated by
water or steam power; in 1792 Eli Whitney introduced the
Cotton gin. The importance of these machines becomes appar-
ent when we realize that in this same period the use of steam
in manufacture was begun, the manufacture of steam engines
being started in 1781. Consonant with these great changes
came new uses of Science in coal mining and in smelting ore.
More gradually, but as certainly, science pervaded other indus-
tries. All of us are familiar with some of its achievements in
transportation and communication which we witness in the
railroad, the airplane, the steamship, the telephone, the tele-
graph, and the wireless.
These changes, for many reasons into which we cannot go
here, were much retarded in America. In some ways and in
some sections the United States was little more advanced in
its use of science in industry in 1850 than England was in 1750.
But when the change came, it came rapidly. During the past
fifty years America has led in the extent and daring with which
science has been applied to many phases of business. At
present there is probably no country in which science plays a
larger part in everyday affairs.
The result of the application of Science to industry is a
changed world—a world which has changed so markedly and
so suddenly that even our fathers often think of it in old-
fashioned terms. Science is now everywhere.
SCIENCE IN BUSINESS 67
The knowledge and control of chemical facts and processes are
involved in the manufacture of most common necessities of modern
life, such as Steel, glass, Copper, lead, aluminum, illuminating gas,
hydrocarbons, Cotton, wool and silk textiles, paper, soap, and glycerin,
in preparing Sugar, starch, etc., and also in many operations concerned
with building and construction. It is important in the industry of
the household as well as in the industries of the world. Chemistry has
contributed greatly to human comfort and welfare in the past; but
this is only an earnest of what it will contribute in the future. One
can hardly overestimate the importance of the study of chemistry
in any field in which one is likely to labor."
The contributions of physics are innumerable. Whether
we think of transportation by rail, on water, or in the air,
whether we think of manufacturing in almost any of its varied
forms, lighting, heating, or refrigeration, we find that physics
underlies the industry concerned. What the scientist, the ex-
plorer for the industrial world, discovers is almost invariably
put to practical use.
Other sciences pervade industry in general perhaps less
insistently, but in particular industries they are of basic impor-
tance and in many significant. Metallurgy, geology, biology,
and botany need only to be mentioned to call to our minds
their importance in everyday affairs. There is hardly a moment
of our lives unaffected by “engineers” of electricity, architec-
ture, Sanitation, heating, ventilation, hydraulics, gas, transporta-
tion, or mechanics. Each of these makes, application of one
or a dozen Sciences.
But what has this invasion of industry by science meant
for business education? In its simplest terms, it has meant
that business education, if it is to embody the characteristics of
modern business, must provide some training in the sciences as
well as in social relations. This does not mean that to be
equipped for engaging in any general business activity one
must become a master of all the Sciences, or an expert in any
one branch. But there are many types of business where
* Adapted by permission from Smith and Jewett, Introduction to the
Study of Science, pp. 418–19. Macmillan Co., Igr8. t -
68 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
executive control demands at least intelligence Concerning .
technological considerations. In the direction of industrial
processes, for example, which call for the application of various
phases of Science, those in charge should be sufficiently informed
about their technological aspects to be able to engage the right
engineers, to understand their work, and to make decisions
regarding the results.
An understanding of Science at first glance may appear
necessary only in the case of engineering projects or of industries
engaged in changing the physical composition or appearance
of Certain materials, as in the manufacture of steel or the dyeing
of fabrics. The extent of the use of scientific knowledge, how-
ever, goes far beyond such direct applications into the field of
Commercial activity. Cost accounting, which is not generally
regarded as a branch of the exact sciences, must consider, for
example, power requirements, the relative efficiency of various
processes, and the relation of any one of these processes to the
costs of the business. Even when the advice of engineering
Specialists is employed, the accountant must be able to under-
Stand their terminology and viewpoint. Banking, to use a case
in another field, is essentially concerned with the intelligent
placing of loans. The intelligent placing of loans depends for
its success not upon a knowledge of the matters of routine detail
within the bank, but upon a knowledge of the probable achieve-
ments of those firms to whom accommodation is extended.
It then becomes evident that accuracy by the banker in estimat-
ing such achievements calls at least for a sensitiveness to the
Conditions of plant, equipment, methods, and processes as they
affect production. As in the case of the accountant, the
assistance of a scientific expert does not relieve the banker from
the necessity of being able to appreciate various technological
considerations. Finally, in merchandising, which may not
appear to be anything more than a means of exchanging goods,
a knowledge of the physical make-up of the goods to be bought
and the adaptability to various uses of the goods to be sold
is required. The most direct example of this particular use
occurs in the sale of goods for the technical processes of public
3.



TABLE X
RELATIVE INCREASE OF CAPITAL AND EMPLOYEES IN MANUFACTURING” &
*:::::::::::
nCrea.Se ºn
I85o I86o 1870 I88o 1890 Igoo IQIO 191o over
| 185o
J
All Manufacturers in the United States
Average per establishment:
Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8,28o $13,420; $13,420 $21, Ioo $28,070 $25,418 $76,993 83o
Capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 33O| 7, IQo 6, 72O| Io, 960 IQ, ozo I9, 269 68,638 I,485
Number of employees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 9. 3 8. I Io. 6 I3.8 IO .. 4 25. O 225
Iron and Steel
Number of establishments. . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 542 726 699 699 668 654 4O
Average product. . . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - $43,600|$97, Oool;275, Oool;419, ooo;683, Oool&I, 203, 5ool;2, II9, ooo 4,760
Average capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 7ool 82, Ooo IOI, Ooo 295, Oool 591, Ooo 858, Oool 2, 282, Ooo 4,787
Average number of employees. . . . . . . . . . 53 65 IO3 Io 7 25o 333 426 7O4.
*From Marshall, Wright, and Field, Materials for the Study of Elementary Economics, p. I'70. University of Chicago Press, Igrg.
70 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
utilities, factories, railroads, and the like, where a knowledge of
the scientific principles which underlie the technique is a pre-
requisite to effective merchandising. These immediate values
of some study of science are quickly reflected from a study of
the technological aspects of modern business. Its deeper use to
the business administrator, as to others, lies in its fundamentally
educative character.
The second characteristic of modern business which has
been indicated for discussion in this chapter is its tendency to
large size. Certain phases of this tendency toward large-scale
operations are brought outin a mere enumeration of factual data.
It will be worth while to notice in examining Table X the
fact that corporations rather than the individuals or other forms
of business enterprise manufactured more than 83 per cent of
the total value of products; that the average per establishment
for corporations for 1914 was more than $258,000, as contrasted
with something over $13,000, the average per establishment of .
individual concerns.
The tendency toward large-scale production appears to be
on the increase. This tendency lies, of course, in the fact that
there are a number of underlying advantages in this form of
production as applied to many types of goods. These advan-
tages are stated by one writer as follows:
What are the economic advantages of manufacturing in a large
plant and doing business on a large Scale, and how important are
they P. Different industries differ among themselves very greatly in
these respects, and any general statement will need modification
when applied to a particular case. What is said will be more appli-
cable to those groups of inductries which are better adapted for
concentration.
I. The handling of material.—The handling of material on a
large scale in itself gives great economy.
2. The use of machinery and departments.-In the large manu-
factory it is possible to use machinery to an extent not possible in
the small establishment. The introduction of labor-saving machines
is well known to be one of the greatest causes of economic efficiency.
3. Subdivision of labor.—In most manufactories an article must
go through many processes before it is completed. Specialization of
SCIENCE IN BUSINESS 7I
labor is only possible in the large manufactory, and it is generally
agreed that such specialization gives increased efficiency.
4. Iniegration.—A further step in the development of concentra-
tion of industry is its integration; that is, a corporation handles, not
one stage of manufacture only, but a number or even all of the stages
from the raw material to the finished product. This again gives
increased economy and efficiency, because all the different units of the
integrated industry are in harmony, one with reference to the other.
5. Parallel consolidation and specialization.—Under these condi-
tions it is possible to make the same product at the different plants,
or to specialize the different manufactories under the same organiza-
tion so that one shall handle one line of work, and another another.
Further, the work of any one branch may become standardized and
require comparatively little shifting or changing of machines.
Cross freights are avoided to a large extent when the manufactor-
ies of one district supply the markets of that district. For articles
which are heavy as compared with their cost, for instance, salt and
steel rails, this factor may be one of controlling importance.
6. Saving by-products.-A further advantage of magnitude is the
use of by-products. The Small manufactory cannot spend much
money in such utilization, although the coarser of them may be saved.
7. Consolidation of allied industries.—The final stage in consolida-
tion is the union of allied and Connected industries. This frequently
goes beyond integration, in that the lines of manufacture are absorbed
which use as raw material the by-product of the central organization.
8. Keeping establishments up to date.—The large company uses
only the most modern manufactories which have complete and highly
efficient machinery and practices, including the latest labor-Saving
devices and the best technical improvements.
9. Investigating departments.-The large organization is able to
have an investigating department in order that discoveries may be
made for still further improvements. -
Io. Business advantages of Concentration.—Thus far the industrial
advantages of concentration only have been given. Upon the busi-
ness side there are also great economies. Some of the most important
of these are as follows: - -
a) Big organizations are able to buy in large quantities and thus
gain the advantages of the lowest rates of purchase.
b) Big organizations are able to Sell in large quantities and most
advantageously. A large part of the cost of business under new
72 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
conditions is the marketing of products. In the marketing there
are great costs in commercial travelers, in advertisements, etc.
With the large concentration the advertising cost per unit of sale is
much lower than with the small industry.
c) When there is a single great federated establishment, orders
can be received at a central office and from that office distributed
to the different plants as best required by efficiency in manufacture,
taking into account the expense of transportation.
d) Also the mere size of an establishment, so that it may be able
to take a large order at a time and fill it promptly, gives a great
advantage over Smaller concerns.
e) For entering foreign trade the business economies of concentra-
tion are undoubtedly very great. Sending to foreign countries to
build up a trade for an industry is an expensive undertaking.
f) The losses through poor debts are less with large organizations
than with Small ones. Frequently where there are many organiza-
tions having keen competition with a large number of traveling sales-
men, Sales are made without careful reference to the ability of the
purchaser to pay.
g). One of the greatest advantages of concentration with co-
operation of the independent units is the regulation of production.
The great losses are avoided which result from investments of capital
in manufactories which run only a portion of the time and before
they shut down produce more goods than can be sold at a profit.
h) A less amount of capital is necessary in order to handle a
combined business than would be necessary if a great organization
were subdivided. If a concern be fairly independent of the banks
and the necessity to pay excessive rates of interest, it must keep a
considerable amount of ready cash on hand to handle its business.
A very large concern, in which the variations in the demands for the
different products compensate for one another to some extent at
least, is able to handle its business with a relatively small cash
reserve. tº
II. Opportunity for high order of ability.—It may be that a final
advantage of concentration will be the opportunity for the display
of ability of the highest order.
12. Other advantages of concentration.—Other advantages of
concentration are frequently claimed. Among these are: steady
employment of labor, better wages, better protection against
industrial accidents, the maintenance of Superior quality, etc. These
SCIENCE IN BUSINESS 73
points are not here introduced as advantages of concentration, since
in reference to them there is a marked difference of opinion."
But the Social and managerial advantages of large-scale
production we cannot stop here to discuss at length. Its
importance for Our purposes lies in certain ways in which it
affects the knowledge needed by one who takes part in
industry.
In the first place the increasing scale of business (coupled
with science in industry and with specialization) has brought
new methods of management into business. .
It was found that the very structure of a large business, the
relation of one part to another, and the assignment of duties and
responsibilities could be kept clear only with such mechanical
aids as charts and diagrams. The organization plan and,
devolution of duties even in departments have often become
so large that detailed chartings are useful.
Ideas of the most efficient relations between executives,
subexecutives, advisers, and subordinates often find expression
in Such terms as line Organization, staff organization, and func-
tional organization These relations may be expressed in
“Control Manuals” or illustrated by the use of charts.”
LINE AND STAFF ORGANIZATION
(THE GENERAL MANAGER IS ADVISED AND
GUIDED BY A STAFF OF EXPERTS)
SUPERVISOR OF k FINANCIAL ADVISER
MATERIALS
GENERAL MANAGER
|STATESTICALEXPERTH Efficiency ADVISER)
| |
SALES SHOP PURCHASING | | | STORES
|Resºrts lº SUPERINTENDENT AGENT KEEPER
CHIEF CHIEF SHIPPING OFFICE
ACCOUNTANT ENGINEER CLERK MANAGER
Adapted by permission from C. R. Van Hise, Concentration and Con-
trol, pp. 8–19. Macmillan Co., 1914.
* Taken by permission from Alexander Hamilton Institute, Report
No. 102, Organization Charts, p. 9.





sº
CHART I
OFFICERS OF THE
CORPORATION
T
I
ADVISORY COUNCIL
ON MERCHANDISE
MERCHANDISING
DIVISION
MDSE MEMBERS OF COUNCIL
. .
OFFICERS
AND CERTAIN
MANAGERS l
MANAGEMENT ADVISORY BOARD FINANCE
DIVISION ON MANAGEMENT DIVISION
GENERAL MANAGER WICE-PRESIDENT * CONTROLLER
GENERAL MANAGER
CONTROLLER AND
PUBLICITY
DIVISION
|
ADVERTISING MANAGER
AUDITING DEPARTMENT
CERTAIN OTHER
MDSE DEPT. MANAGERS MANAGERS ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT D MENT
STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT ADWERTISING DEPART
COMPARISON OFFICE ORDER CHECKING DEPARTMENT
INVOICE CONTROL DEPARTMENT SIGN OFFICE
FOREIGN OFFICE (MDSE, DIV) SALARY OFFICE
- CHIEF CASHIER'S OFFIUE
M.O.M. DEPARTMENT ..] FOREIGN OFFICE (FINANCE DIV.) WINDOW DISPLAY
D.A. DEPARTMENT
* | I I | | H.
ist ASSISTANT 2nd ASSISTANT 3rd ASSISTANT EMPLOYMENT SUPERINTENDENT OF DIRECTOR OF SUPERINTENDENT OF CHEF OF
GENERAL MANAGER GENERAL MANAGER GENERAL MANAGER MANAGER TRAINING PLANNING BUILDINGS DETECTIVE BUREAU
| T | | |
Af BUREAU OF
FLOOR SUPTS MDSE. CHECKERS M.O. & AD]. INTERVIEWING INITIAL JOB TRAINING JOB ANALYSES
- CASHERS RECEIVING DEPT. TESTING FOLLOW-UP JOB HEAT, LIGHT, POWER -
DELIVERY DEPT. TRAINING
SECTION MANAGERS COLLECTORS SUPPLY DEPT. HiRING ROMOTIONAL IOB JOB SPECIFICATIONS INVESTIGATIONS
MESSENGERS TELEPHONE SERVICE FOLLOW-UP PRoº; I METHOD HOUSE REPAIRS
HEADS OF STOCK PUBLIC SERV. BUREAU PL
STOCK CLERKS MFG. DEPTS. (NEW EMPLOYEES) SPECIAL SOUAD STANDARDIZATION
SALES CLERKS | | INT. POST OFFICE MANAGER'S OFFICE TRANSFERS MDSE. & INSTRUC- HOUSEKEEPING
LOST & FOUND DESK Pinsºhol SEPARATIONS TIONAL MANUALS BONUS PLANS LOCKER CONTROL
SUPERWISOR OF SHOPPING GUIDE SOCIAL SERVICE AUTO STATIONS
* PERSONNEL OF f
EMPLOYES’ DRESS DOORMEN & BOYS fºrtſ. latºjºin RECREATION RESEARCH STUDIES
CHART OF A DEPARTMENT STORE
N
\.
*


SCIENCE IN BUSINESS - 75
CHART II
PRESIDENT
HOWARD COONLEY
ſºvgory ASSISTANT TO HEAD OF PLANNING HEAD OF ORGANIZATION
| PRESIDENT AND STATISTICS SEC. AND METHODS SEC.
COMMITTEE C. t. DRAKE W. LINDBLOM G, B, JONES
Y
vice-PRESIDENT TREASURER
IN CHARGE OF: SECRETARY G. A. RICKER
J. S. COONLEY
J. C. BANNISTER,
WESTERN
DIVISION
GENERAL OFFICE
|ZATION ORGANIZATION
ORGAN
A-
EASTERN
. . DIVISION
VICE-PRESIDENT
- IN CHARGE OF
ADMINISTRATION
HowARD COONLEY (acting)
GENERAL PURCHASNG) | |GENERAL PERSONNEL
AGENT MANAGER
W. A. JACKSON F. M. MARSH
N-
ºf EASTERN DIVISION
GENERAL OFFICE ENERALTRAFFIC SALES
MANAGER MANAGER ORGANIZATION
W. C. MATTOX
W. C. HARRIS
VICE-PRESIDENT
iN CHARGE OF
PRODUCTION
VICE-PRESIDENT
IN CHARGE OF
SALES
W. P. F. AYER
BRANCH HOUSE
ORGANIZATION
WESTERN DIVISION
SALES
- ORGANIZATION
WALWORTH
BOSTON WORKS KEWANEEWORKS
ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION -
INTERNATIONAL
GENERAL AUDITOR COMPANY
J. L. CRAWSHAW
[T] LINE EXECUTIVE
£ASTERN DIVISION GENERA office ESTERN DIVISION
CT)staff officials ACCOUNTING ACCOUNTING ACCOUNTING
QRGANIZATIQ ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION
CoRGANIZATIONS
CHART OF A MANUFACTURING PLANTI
The new spirit and method in the organization and control
of industry had its origin in manufacturing. More than any
one other person Frederick Taylor stirred thinking in this field.
One student of Mr. Taylor's methods thus points out some of
the requirements in the Scientific control of modern large-scale
business:
As I analyze it, there are three principal aims in it: (1) seek-
ing of more precise information through investigation, experiment,
etc.; (2) as great an amount of prediction of what is going to happen
in business operation as is possible on the basis of the unusual amount
of exact information acquired; (3) precise control of the processes
of conducting the business by various functionalized people in such
* Chart II taken by permission from J. O. McKinsey, “The Walworth
Manufacturing Company,” Pamphlet No. 3, Cases and Problems, Materials
for the Study of Business. University of Chicago Press, 1922,
































76 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
wise as to bring about as precisely as possible the predictions
which have been made on the basis of the exact information
required.
I. Seeking of more precise information. It is in the scientific-
management plant that investigation and experiment—the establish-
ing of an experiment room with adequate equipment under the
direction of capable investigators—have been worked out. It is in
Connection with this investigation and experimentation that time
study has come in. I cite it as a method of acquiring precise informa-
tion. Time study simply means a method of acquiring exact informa-
tion with respect to the time which it takes a person to do a certain
thing, with certain definite equipment, under certain definite
Conditions. ~.
2. Precise prediction. If one by time study and other investiga-
tion has secured and filed information telling the time of performing
a unit operation with certain tools and materials under certain condi-
tions, then if an order comes in to do or make something which
represents a combination of these unit operations, by a simple
mathematical calculation it is possible to determine how long it will
take to fill the order, what materials and tools must be provided,
what conditions established, when work on each part should begin,
when and how they should be assembled, etc. In other words, an
accurate layout of work on the job becomes possible. In most
plants layout is by guess. Guess involves waste. An accurate lay-
out of separate jobs means accurate layout and dovetailing of all
jobs, and economical and efficient operation of materials, equipment
and labor; in other words, more precise control.
3. Precise control. This means that to each of a number of
persons shall be assigned, with authority, the responsibility of
maintaining one or more of the standard conditions on the basis of
which the prediction or layout of a job is made. The principal
standard conditions to be maintained are:
a) Standard materials.
b) Standard storing and issuing of materials.
c) Standard conditions under which work is performed.
d) Standard methods of performing operations.
Through what machinery are the three primary aims of scientific
management (investigation, prediction, precise control) accom-
plished P. This machinery is described in the words functional
organization.
SCIENCE IN BUSINESS 77
Functional organization is carried out to an unusual degree in
manufacturing plants by Scientific management. First, there is
functional organization in large; planning is separated entirely from
doing. Now, in an ordinary manufacturing plant an order is received
to make something. That is sent down to the foreman with an order
to “make twenty-five of these by the 25th of June.” The foreman
turns to the workman and says, “start on these day after tomorrow.”
There your foreman has planned who is to do it; how long it will take;
how it is to be done; and so on. Under scientific management, on
the other hand, in a room called the planning room, where is kept on
file all the information which has been gathered regarding all phases
of operation, the planning is done. First, a list is made of the
operations involved in filling this order, and of the materials and
equipment required; Second, an estimate is made of the time it takes
to do each one of the operations with due allowance for uncertainties;
third, a day is determined when work on the order is to start in order
to meet the date of promised delivery. All planning of that sort is
done, and proper orders are made out. On the proper date these
orders are issued to the man who has charge of the material, telling
him to send it to such and Such a machine; and to the workman at
that machine telling him to start the work. Accompanying the
order issued him is the analysis of the job and definite instructions
for its performance."
It is with the implications of large-scale industry for educa-
tion that we are most concerned. We may set down three as
important:
I. It is the large-scale character of business quite as much
as it is specialization and the pervasiveness of Science that
makes it impossible to learn business rapidly by being in it.
It is the overwhelming size of the factory, the volume of the
large bank and the great store, that staggers the attempt of
the novice to comprehend.
2. Comprehension becomes possible only in terms of the
techniques which have been devised for depicting large and
impersonal relations. This means not only familiarity with
* Adapted by permission from H. S. Person, “Scientific Management,”
Proceedings of Tuck School Conference (1912), pp. 4-5; and “Scientific
Management,” Bulletin of the Taylor Society, II (1916), pp. 17–19.
78 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
organization Schemes and charting methods, but a knowledge
of the “laws” and principles of management, of “measuring
and Communicating aids of control,” of budgets, records, time
study, quotas, business indices, and barometers. Thus the
student of business needs a knowledge of these matters. If
his position is Small and insignificant, he needs it to relate him-
Self to his surroundings. If he attains a position of authority,
such knowledge is a necessary part of his executive equipment.
Therefore the devices of large-scale organization must be taught.
3. Finally, the large-scale character of business (again
coupled with Specialization and Science in industry) has made
business so impersonal in nature that it is imperative that an
understanding of this quality be gained by all who are entering
business life. Strong is the man who, tutored to the notion that
our co-operative life is personal, that service is rewarded in the
observation of its own results, can come to realize the realities
of the situation without rancor and resentment. One who has
early sensed clearly the scale of modern production, the con-
cealment of human effort in the “transfer of thought to the
machine,” and the ramifying nature of Specialization, has a
strong support. He has the basis for realizing that his con-
tribution is certain, though unseen, and important, though
unknown.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. Can you think of machine industry, like Specialization, as a
method of production? Just how is machine industry more
productive than industry without machines?
2. “Machines may be used instead of physical labor, but they can
never take the place of mental labor except of the most routine
kinds.” Is this true? Have commercial courses ever trained
students in such a way that they found themselves engaged in a
competition with a machine?
3. What does the term “Industrial Revolution” bring to your
mind? What is the point of saying that the Industrial Revolu-
tion is still going on P Can you see any point to the statement
“the Industrial Revolution had its beginnings in the explorations
of the fifteenth century” P
SCIENCE IN BUSINESS 79
IO.
II.
. Machine industry, Science applied to production, will become
more extensive as goods are sold over wider markets. What
factors are at work to make markets increasingly wide P
. The Suddenness with which the . Industrial Revolution came
makes it difficult for us to realize the significance and the per-
vasiveness of Science in industry. Comment.
. Think of the first five articles upon which your eye rests. Has
chemistry played an important part in their construction ? Has
physics? Have any other of the natural sciences P
. Is it not really nonsense to say that an accountant needs any
knowledge of Science and its applications to industry P
. How do you explain the fact that the term “efficiency” in busi-
ness is associated in the minds of many people with the engineer?
What kind of training has the engineer had 2 What is your
notion of the work done by an efficiency expert in a manufactur-
ing plant? Is such an expert likely to be an accountant? With
what fields of knowledge should he be familiar P
. “I have known good bankers who not only did not know anything
of technology, but did not know much of anything excepting
the characters of the men with whom they dealt. It is all fool-
ishness to talk of the need of such outside matters for a banker.”
Is honesty a sufficient guaranty of payment by a business
borrower P Is a knowledge of the honesty of the borrower a
Sufficient quality in the man who lends other people's money?
The buyer for an investment bank is considering the purchase of
a million-dollar issue of bonds of a manufacturing concern.
These bonds are to run for forty years. If they are purchased,
they will be sold to a large number of investors, large and small.
As one of the investors, you are told that the bond house has
investigated the good intentions of the company and believes
that they are entirely satisfactory. Are you willing to invest
your money on this investigation ? List the other facts which
you would like to have looked into. List the fields of knowledge
in which the investigator would need training.
Make a rough diagram (heavy horizontal lines drawn approxi-
mately to scale are enough) showing the average number of
employees in manufacturing plants in the United States in 1850
and in 1910. Do the same for the average capital invested;
for the average product per plant. What does this indicate as
to the scale of business operations?
8O
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
I 2.
I 3.
I4.
I 5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
IQ.
What are the alleged advantages of large-scale operations?
Has large-scale production had any effect on overhead costs
in business? Have overhead costs affected the work of the
accountant P
Why has the increasing scale of business made necessary new
methods of management? In what way has the application of
Science to industry increased the need for better management?
In that way has specialization increased the need for more careful
management?
How could an organization chart be of aid in the control of a
business? Why was it that business organization charts were
heard of little, if at all, fifty years ago?
Draw up a chart which indicates the lines of authority and
responsibility for the educational institution with which you are
most familiar.
Look through the statements on page 77 concerning Some of the
requirements of scientific control of a large business. What
courses, if any, now given in the high-school commercial course
would be of great value in such control of a business? What
courses in collegiate schools of business? What types of courses
would you suggest might be introduced to give some understand-
ing of such control?
Set down a list of statements which seem to you to present (a)
the suggestions which you find for business education in a realiza-
tion of the large-scale character of business; (b) the types of
study which a student would need to make to understand large-
scale business and its management; (c) the effects on the indi-
vidual worker of specialization, machine industry, and large-scale
production; (d) the value to specialized workers of a knowledge
of the nature of modern business.
As a result of our study of what business is, Set down a tentative
list of the objectives of business education.
CHAPTER VII
WHAT BUSINESS SAYS IT WANTS: DIRECT
EXPRESSIONS
No evidence Concerning what should be the make-up of the
Commercial curriculum appears to carry more weight than what
business Says it wants. But, as has been indicated in the
introductory statement to Chaper III, it is easy to misinterpret
and misjudge what business says it wants. What business
wants from education is expressed to some degree directly in
statements, books, and answers to questionnaires. The exam-
ination of such evidence will occupy us in the present chapter.
In the following chapter we shall examine the indirect state-
ments of business.
In attempting to State what business says it wants it appears
altogether desirable to let business make the statement. In
this chapter and the next, therefore, the “evidence” is given
without more interpretation than is involved in the process of
selection. As a result, the form used is a series of selections
or readings rather than a continued statement.
The direct statements of what business wants are of a
rather miscellaneous sort. There are first presented here some
of the types of general statements which are very common, and
which unfortunately often pass as being more valuable than
they are. Statements 3 and 4 consist of evidence of rather
thoughtful types, of more interest to those, concerned with
collegiate business education than for persons training younger
pupils. Statement 5 is particularly pertinent to special types of
students. The two final statements are expressions of labor
leaders. It has seemed proper to include such views in a
section on what business says it wants. For the most part,
however, the readings are selected because they are expressions
of general views of what formal education as a whole should do
in training for business.
8I
82 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
STATEMENT 1
AN ARGUMENT AGAINST EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS"
I do not employ college men in my banking office, none need
apply. I don’t want them, for I think they have been spoiled
for a business life. The college man is not willing to begin at
the bottom. He looks down on the humble places, which he
is fitted to fill. And, indeed, he looks down on all business as
dull and unattractive. . . . . His thoughts are not with his
business, but with his books, literature, philosophy, Latin.
Now no man can approach the exacting business life in that
half-hearted way. Business requires the undivided mind.
I think that a man has just So many niches in his brain.
In each niche So many facts . . . . as it were, fit, and then the
niche is full. Now, at College a man is busy filling up the niches,
and if he goes through College in the right way, his niches are
all full. No, . . . . the College man is not the successful man
in money affairs. It is the man who has started in as an office
boy and who gets the education of keenness and practical
knowledge that comes from early contact with business men.
He has his natural sharpness and originality, and the
edge of it is not dulled by ideas and theories of life entirely out
of harmony with his occupation.
STATEMENT 2
THE FEW AND SIMPLE DEMANDS OF THE BUSINESS WORLD2
Every commercial student wants a position as soon as he
finishes his course. He is in training for business. When his
course is finished and he starts out to look for a position, what
is it that is going to enable him to get one? Upon what quali-
ties will business men judge him or her ? Two very important
qualities are personal appearance and personality.
The careful employer watches the applicant’s movements.
He gets the tone of voice. He notes the choice of words. He
* Adapted from Great Britain Special Report on Educational Subjects,
Vol. II, Part 2, pp. 287–88. Board of Education, 1902.
* Adapted from the Business Journal (June, 1916), pp. 451-52.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 83
notices the affected or unaffected manner and he observes the
applicant's Self-confidence. The qualities that good employers
desire and appreciate are clean habits, willingness, untiring
energy, loyalty, alertness, initiative, and originality, the ability
to use good judgment, painstaking thoroughness and enthu-
S18,SIſl.
STATEMENT 3
THE QUESTIONNAIRE OF THE ILLINOIS MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIA-
TION ON COLLEGE COURSES IN BUSINESS EDUCATION:
The questionnaire which the Committee on Education of
the Illinois Manufacturers’ Association circulated among the
members of the Association was designed to determine the
attitude of the membership toward university courses in busi-
ness administration and to secure suggestions concerning the
nature of the courses to be offered.
Of the eighty-two firms making reply the addresses of but
seventy-two can now be determined. Three answers were
received from outside the state. Of the remaining sixty-nine
houses, sixty are located in Chicago and three in Peoria, while
replies were received from one firm in each of the following
cities: Aurora, Clyde, Decatur, East St. Louis, Harvey, and
Quincy.
The types of business engaged in by those making reply are
diverse, including automobile, milling, electric, packing, Soap,
and tack companies. The sizes range from Small to large, the
latter having the larger proportionate representation.
Five questions were proposed in the questionnaire. The
number of definite answers to the first and second questions is
seventy, to the third, sixty, to the fourth, forty-three, to the
fifth, forty-five.
The first question is as follows: What education do we want
young men to have to whom we may look in time to improve
the organization of our office staff, increase the efficiency, and
reduce its cost? The replies to this question show the follow-
* Adapted by permission from The Committee on Education, Report
of the Illinois University Conference (1913), pp. 92-98.
84. EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ing distribution of views as to the educational needs of the office
force:
No educational requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grammar or common School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IS
Continuation School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
High School, without mention of business courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3
High School, with emphasis on business courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
High School, Supplemented by business College. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Business college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
General university course, without mention of courses in business
administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Special university courses along business lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24V
A number of those favoring scanty education show a more
or less rabid prejudice against higher education, while those
favoring secondary education frequently refer to the desirability
of still higher training. It will be seen that the number favor-
ing Special university training along the lines of business admin-
istration out-number any other single class and constitute 34
per cent of the number giving specific answers as compared
with 24 per cent who favor nothing above the common schools,
28 per cent who emphasize general high-school training, scarcely
6 per cent requiring business-college training, and 7 per cent
who insist on a broad, cultural college course.
The returns seem to indicate the comparative failure of the
business College to equip men for the larger needs of business
offices. They show, further, the employers' insistence on the
ability to write legibly and to use good English. The evidence
implies a strong expectation that the university business-admin-
istration courses will produce more expert office help.
Question number two is as follows: What kind of training
should young men have whom we may expect to improve our
accounting systems, perhaps introduce systems of cost account-
ing that will make it easier to apportion costs and profits, and to
determine what parts of our organization pay and what do not?
So far as could be determined the distribution of views as to
the training needed for this work is as follows:
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 85
Business College. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a tº e º ſº tº E tº º e º ſº tº & © p & º is tº t e º e e e s s 5
High School or business college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
High School, without mention of Specific courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
High School, with emphasis on manual and mechanical training. .. 2
General university course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Engineering, without mention of business Courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Engineering, with mention of business courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Special university training, without mention of business courses. . I 5
Special university training, with mention of business courses. . . . I2
University or apprenticeship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Practical experience, without mention of any educational require-
ment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4
Practical experience, with apprenticeship or Special investigations 3
Practical experience, with mention of education but no specifica-
tion as to kind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Practical experience, with common-School education. . . . . . . . . . . . '3
Practical experience, with high-school course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
There is considerable scattering of opinion due to the diver-
sity of industries and the small extent to which cost accounting
systems have as yet been applied to the problems of administra-
tion in most lines of business.
The feeling seems to prevail that much depends on common
sense, thinking power and experience. Seven per cent of the
houses demand business-college training, 7 per cent high-school
training, and 49 per cent make Some kind of university study
a minimum requirement. Although 36 per cent emphasize
practical experience, one-third of these expressly favor educa-
tion of Some kind, and no one of the others expresses opposition
to education, although making no specific requirements.
Thus, in the case of expert accountants as in the case of
men in other lines, the business College appears to be discounted
in its ability to give adequate training. Doubtless the greater
degree of expertness felt to be necessary in the case of account-
ants is the chief explanation for the emphasis laid upon technical
university training. The fact that an accounting system must
be adjusted to the needs of the individual concern as well as to
the special type of business probably makes the Call for practical
experience more insistent.
86 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The replies, then, show the majority to be strongly in favor
of specialized university accounting Course, while the emphasis
upon experience Surely demands the most perfect laboratory
development and a large amount of “field work.”
Question number three relates to advertising and was stated
as follows: What kind of education will give us young men who
can make our advertising more efficient? The returns from the
sixty houses making specific replies give the following as the
proper method of training for advertising work:
No educational requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
High School and practical experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Business college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T
Practical experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2
General college training, Supplemented by business experience. .. 3
General college training, supplemented by special business training 5
General college training, without further specifications. . . . . . . . . . 14
Engineering, without mention of business courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Special university Courses bearing on advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I
The table of replies shows that 20 per cent insist on practical
experience, while 37 per cent favor general cultural education,
nearly a fourth adding, however, that it be supplemented by
specialized business knowledge. Thirty-five per cent maintain
that special university courses should be followed by the pros-
pective advertising expert, one-third of these specify one or
more lines of study which they think deserve special attention.
Of the latter, three name Salesmanship courses, two psychology,
one expression, and one statistics.
In the replies considerable mention is made of advertising
“genius,” “publicity sense,” and intuition. There is an evident
feeling that there is a large element in the advertiser’s business
that cannot be supplied by mere scientific training. However,
in so far as educational training enables the advertiser to know
more completely the needs of the purchasers, and to give better
expression to his printed statements or appeals of other kinds,
the consensus of opinion among those making reply favors
education for prospective advertising specialists.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT ExPRESSIONS 87
Question number four relates to Salesmanship and is as
follows: What training will give us better salesmen?
The amount of indefiniteness to the replies to this question
is especially great. Of the sixty-six who ventured answers at
all, twenty-three were not specific enough to be classified.
That is, they did not give expression to any opinion as to the
particular kind of preparation to which the prospective sales-
man should subject himself. Most of them left off with giving
a nebulous statement relating to the genius, integrity, the reli-
gious or Social qualities of the salesman. It appears in the case
of salesmen even more prominently than in the case of advertis-
ing specialists that personal qualities appeal to many business
houses as the prime requisite to successful salesmanship rather
than a particular course of Scientific training through which the
candidate may have passed.
Of the forty-three replies subject to classification the follow-
ing distribution of methods of preparation for salesmanship
was made:
Practical experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8
General cultural training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2
Special Salesmanship Courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3
Nearly 42 per cent laid the emphasis on practical experience,
28 per cent on general cultural training, and 30 per cent on
special training for which the university is fitted.
It appears that the business houses are not yet convinced
of the efficacy of scientific salesmanship, and that the burden
of proof rests with the universities. Some of those answering
seem to be extremely skeptical of the value of a scientific study
of salesmanship, and few, if any, consider it more than an
adjunct whose promise of usefulness is moderate.
Question number five is stated as follows: Can we get
young men who can aid our business by thorough knowledge
and study of transportation routes and rates, the development
of new markets and new uses for our products?
Among the forty-five definite replies received, the diversity
of opinion is shown in the table on following page:
88 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
No, without further comment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO
No, with a slight concession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Yes, without further comment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Yes, specifying “in practical field”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Yes, specifying technical university study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Twenty-seven per cent of those making definite replies gave
negative answers. Some of them may have misunderstood the
question, thinking that it related to a present Supply rather
than a possible future supply of men having the knowledge
indicated. At any rate, fully 73 per cent believe in the possi-
bility of securing men whose studies in transportation and
market conditions will enable them to render important com-
mercial service. Six of those answering in the affirmative stated
that the knowledge should be gained “in practical field” or
“with some commercial house.” While only two specified that
they thought that this knowledge should be derived from tech-
nical university study, yet the statement in the questionnaire,
that its object was “to enable the University of Illinois to shape
and organize its Course,” justifies us in regarding an affirmative
answer as favorable to university Courses along the designated
lines. Practically all who insist that the university cannot do
this work successfully have doubtless seen the necessity of
specifying that the training should be received “in the practical
field.” If this be granted, we may gather from the replies that
approximately 60 per cent of the houses answering are in favor
of special university study as a preparation for expert Com-
mercial work in transportation, the opening of new markets,
and the discovery of new uses for products.
The percentage of those giving definite answers in favor of
special university courses as shown by the returns on the five
questions is as follows:
Percentage Favoring
Question Subject University Training
I Office assistants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2 Cost accountants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3 Advertising Specialists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Salesmen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O
5 Experts on transportation, new markets, and
products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6o
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 89
It is difficult to determine beyond doubt to what degree the
above figures represent the views of all the members of the
Illinois Manufacturers’ Association. The fact that fewer than
one out of ten of those receiving the questionnaires took the
trouble to mail their replies should not be overlooked. It may
easily be true that a larger proportion of those holding views
extremely favorable or extremely unfavorable sent their replies
than those holding less decided views. This being the case the
replies may be taken to be fairly representative of the opinions
prevailing among the mem)ers of the Association generally,
although no more than a fair degree of representativeness should
be claimed for them. ra
Taking the returns as they stand, the demand for
university-trained office assistants is voiced by one-third of
the houses answering the questionnaire. Special university
training for accountants is requested by practically one-half the
concerns. Although personality and talent figure greatly in
the success of advertising experts and Salesmen, about one-third
of those making reply favor university courses to qualify men
more completely for this work. The conduct of transportation,
the opening of new markets, and the better disposal of products,
60 per cent of the answering houses are in favor of placing in the
hands of men trained in special university Courses.
STATEMENT 4
WHAT THE EXPORTER NEEDS THAT THE EDUCATOR
CAN SUPPLY!
In order to reach the highest degree of business efficiency
there must be a groundwork of theory supplemented by expe-
rience and practice. We recognize this truth by insisting that
one of the schemes of our national life shall be Compulsory
school education. As to the point to which School education
should be carried in order to fit one properly to take up the duties
of commercial life, there is some controversy, but there is no
* Adapted by permission from a pamphlet by E. H. Huxley, president
of the United States Rubber Export Company.
90 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
question as to the necessity of at least some theoretical educa-
tion and probably no serious dispute that this should be carried
at least through the grades of the Ordinary high School. . . . .
The highest degree of efficiency cannot be obtained wholly by
practical experience nor wholly by theoretical education. If
entire reliance is placed on practical experience the result will
be the same as with a man who commits to memory certain
problems so that he can solve them, but does not understand
the underlying theories which enable him to Solve other prob-
lems similar in principle but different as to detail. From
practical experience a man may be able to conduct certain
branches of an export business, such for example as the account-
ing or traffic, and become reasonably proficient up to the point
where some new phase presents itself or some new condition
arises hitherto not present; at that point the man with a clear
understanding of the underlying theories will be able to apply
them practically to the changed conditions, while he who has
only carried out and been concerned in the ordinary routine
will probably be at sea and wholly unable to cope with the
situation. We start therefore with the admission that the Com-
bination of a theoretical education in the principles and underly-
ing bases of certain subjects, with a later practical experience
in their application, is essential to produce the best results.
The question then is, Exactly what is wanted from the educa-
tor? Evidently we do not want an attempt to produce a
finished product, because we have admitted that practical expe-
rience is a necessary Supplement; therefore, what we do want is
the theory. The subjects which might be covered are many,
but of relative importance, and the necessary subjects would be
determined by the completeness desired and the point to which
it is desired to carry the education. There are Some subjects
which are essential and others which are desirable to a greater
or less degree, but not essential. A table might be prepared
indicating the subjects to be considered, somewhat as follows:
1. Ocean Transportation and Rates, including the various docu-
ments, invoices and papers
2. Insurance, war and marine
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 9T
. Foreign Exchange and international banking
. Foreign Credits
Tariff Laws and Regulations
. Packing, Shipping and Marking with especial reference to the
needs of individual countries
Foreign Correspondence
. Commercial Geography
. Languages
. Advertising
II. Commercial and Political History
I2. Social and Political Economy
13. Racial Characteristics and Conditions
I4. Statistics and Reports
15. Political Science and Psychology
i
:
I
This list is not intended to be considered as necessarily
Complete but at least covers the main essentials and Some of,
what might be termed, the luxuries of education. Some of the
subjects present singly in themselves the possibilities of a life
study and it is of course presupposed that their study is not to
be carried beyond reason. The general subject of insurance, for
example, may in itself become a profession and it is obviously
not intended that a requisite for the proper handling of insurance
matters in an export business should undertake a professional
knowledge such as might be acquired by an expert in devoting
his life to that particular subject. The insurance department
of the average exporter need not necessarily be handled by
a professional expert, neither would the general accounting
department require the services of one whose knowledge ex-
tended to the point required or desirable in an international
banker. In order, however, to take advantage of every possi-
bility to make money and in order to conduct the various
departments with the greatest economy and the highest effi-
ciency, a theoretical knowledge of the underlying principles of
these various subjects seems to me to be essential; this knowl-
edge to be supplemented by practical experience.
The first eight subjects appear to be the most important
and to be really essential; the others to be undertaken only by
Q2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
him who desires to become unusually proficient, more so perhaps
than might be considered absolutely necessary. The courses
should, I think, consist mainly of lectures; laboratory work or
practical examples might be included to a very Small extent but
practical application should come in the practical experience in
business. It is not intended to fix any particular limit to the
extent to which the subjects should be studied, other than possi-
bly the fixing of a reasonable amount of time which it should
be necessary to expend on the part of the student. . . . . It is
a Common practice to enlist the services of business men as
instructors; this is all right, provided those men have grounded:
themselves thoroughly in the theory of the subject, but the
object would be defeated if the lectures by such men should be
Only a history of their own practical experience, and personally
I should favor the choice of educators who have made the
theory of the various subjects a study, rather than business
men who had been concerned only, or largely, in their own
Occupation.
STATEMENT 5
A STATEMENT OF DEPARTMENT STORE NEEDS'
Phase I—Appearance
Cleanliness of hands, hair, face, nails, shoes, dress, etc.
Manners—courtesy. -
Approach–Now and later, self-reliance, decision.
Speech—“I ain’t done it”—“it don't.”
Phase 2–Application
Writing
Spelling
Truthfulness, age, salary, experience.
Complete in detail—give test blanks of questions often.
Cigarettes—slang, gum.
Accuracy
* By Charles P. Avery, of Marshall Field & Co. Notes sent the
author as the “skeleton of an address” given on December 27, 1917, before
the National Commercial Teachers Federation.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT ExPRESSIONS 93
Phase 3–Employee
Loyalty .
Personality—develop pleasing smile that wins friends.
Fractions—percentage, mechanical speed, fundamental only.
Dependable—listens—“Message to Garcia.” No hesita-
tion nor miscarrying. Discipline.
Patience—realization business is a continuation of school.
STATEMENT 6
WHAT INDUSTRY WANTS FROM THE SCHOOLS:
The question was asked three times this morning and this
afternoon as to what industry wanted from the schools, and I
am going to try to answer that question. I think you will
anticipate what my answers are to be from what I have already
said. Our industries—our company, at any rate—wants from
the public Schools, from the colleges, and from the high schools
just one thing, and that is native or trained ability to solve new
problems right the first time they are presented. Ability to
think. If I might split that up a little bit, we will call it origi-
nality, initiative and judgment. When I say that, I am presum-
ing that you all know full well that we want good character.
I do not believe we need to discuss that point. By character,
we mean it in its very broadest Sense, a fellow who is courteous,
who is considerate, who is tolerant, who will work five minutes
overtime in order to save an hour the next day, or will work for
the love of his work, and does not quit exactly when the whistle
blows. I have called that co-operation. I do not think there
is anything more important than that, and I am sure that we
all recognize it so clearly it is hardly worth while to discuss it.
Then we want just a very little bit of fundamental informa-
tion. We would not put a boy who had been taught machine
* Adapted by permission from C. R. Dooley in Fifth Annual Pro-
ceedings of the National Association of Corporation Schools (1917), pp.
192–93. The National Association of Corporation Schools was succeeded
by the National Association of Corporation Training which has since been
succeeded by the National Personnel Association. Reference to the litera-
ture will be according to the name of the association at the time of
publication.
94 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
tool operation and nothing else into a portrait painter's shop; he
would not know the difference between a screwdriver and a
paint palette, So he does need a little bit of fundamental informa-
tion, but that is on the end of the list, and so I will repeat that
we want initiative, originality and judgment along with the
highest type of character in its fullest sense. I would even go
so far as to say if he has these three things, which may be
grouped under one heading, namely, the capacity to go ahead
and solve new problems, I do not care very much whether he
has a large amount of Specific information. If a girl comes into
the office as a stenographer, it is of little importance to us
whether she can write sixty words a minute on the typewriter,
and take down her notes at one hundred words per minute and
transcribe everything you dictate, and transcribe it exactly
as you dictate it. It is far more important if she has a capacity
for quick Comprehension about our business, gathering the
essential elements of our business, and whether she has good
judgment of the construction of a letter, so that by and by, as
she gets worked into the organization and Some man dictates a
letter hurriedly, she can at the right time suggest that the letter
is not clear and should be rephrased in certain particulars. The
other day I turned a letter over to a new girl in our office, who
had not been there very long, and asked her what she thought
of the letter, a letter Some other firm had turned out, and she
said that the letter looked neat, and was a very nice letter. I
said: “I don’t care how it looks, is it clear, do you understand
it, is it a good forcible letter?” That is the idea which is typical
of the capacity which we want in all kinds of people.
STATEMENT 7
WHAT PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS SHOULD NOT ATTEMPT:
Personally, I believe that the matter of vocational educa-
tion is in danger of being carried too far, and that we may lose
sight of the broad general purpose and aims of education.
* Adapted by permission from L. E. Barringer, General Electric Co., in
Sixth Annual Proceedings of the National Association of Corporalion Schools
(1918), pp. 261-62.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 95
Applying vocational education to young men and women to
rendër them efficient and competentworkmen does not necessarily
educate them for all the needs of life, nor will the best voca-
tional training make the most efficient and competent workmen.
Vocational education may become too subdivided, special
and narrow. In this city I have personally opposed the exten-
sion of the manual training course to the fifth and sixth grades
as a step too far.
It is not enough that a young man should be taught to
manipulate his hands skilfully in order to become a good me-
chanic or carpenter, nor is this necessarily sufficient for the
employer of such a man. He should be alert and possess a full
realization of the meaning of his work and of the broader oppor-
tunities for himself in the entire field of which his job is a part.
We need more inspirational teaching, more education of
the young for the broad essential needs of life. They should be
impressed with the value of health, vigor, co-operation, energy,
and with the need of continued acquisition of knowledge and
skill after school days have been finished. For herein lie the
foundations of “efficient, capable workmen,” just as much, if
not more so, than in the highly specialized knowledge imparted
in the training for the mechanical arts.
STATEMENT 8
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS FROM THE SCHOOLS:
The work of the committee on public education has been
based more on agreed facts than on newly gathered data. We
have found sufficient agreement as to lack of effective work on
the part of the public schools and enough misunderstanding on
the part of employers so that we have deemed it wise to begin
work on the following basis:
a) The public schools are burdened with subjects for instruc-
tion which have accumulated from year to year and which, no
* Adapted by permission from “Report of Committee on Public Edu-
cation,” Fourth Annual Proceedings of the National Association of Corporation
Schools (1916), pp. 233–34, and the Ninth Annual Proceedings (1921),
pp. I34–36.
96 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
matter how desirable singly, have demanded so much time and
attention that they have diminished the time and drill formerly
given to more fundamental subjects.
b) The demands of the world on educational systems have
steadily grown. A higher type of intelligence is needed each
Successive year in all vocations, and yet industrial growth has
made necessary the employment of men farther and farther
down the Social scale.
c) The demands of industry and commerce for trained
employees have never been logically classified.
d) The duty of the public School is to train young people
in whatever Subjects are of general importance to large groups
of people.
e) The duty of the so-called corporation school is to train
Specific workers for the diversified tasks which they must meet.
f) Temporarily it appears necessary in many instances for
the corporation Schools to parallel the work of the public Schools
and to repeat work which has not been done effectively by them.
A discussion of the subject has brought out the following
classifications of the activities of the public schools:
a) Those subjects which will probably be useful to help the
graduate earn a living. * &
b) Those which teach the appreciation of things which are
not necessities.
c) Recreation, preferably spelled “re-creation.”
Many Subjects overlap two or all of these classifications, as,
for example, music, which may be taught as a probable future
means of livelihood through execution, as a means of apprecia-
tion of the masters, or as a purely re-creative respite from the
daily round of work.
The first step in considering possible changes in public
education is to determine the relative value of the various sub-
jects of public school instruction with the pupils' future as a
citizen, a member of Society, and a producer in mind.
His value as a member of society depends, of course, in a
large measure on his ability to produce enough to make him
independent of his fellow-men, to house and clothe him in Com-
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 97
fort, and to feed him well enough so that he can take real
Satisfaction in the appreciation of the artistic things with which
our modern life surrounds him.
The pressure of the forward march of inventive science has
made necessary for producers a training which could not have
been predicted a few years ago. It is entirely possible that
much of the discontent which has been expressed both by lay-
men and professional instructors with regard to the present
state of public Schools is due to the fact that the strides which
business has made have not been matched by those of the schools
which, in many instances, have not found themselves with
money enough to take care of the increased number of pupils,
to say nothing of making progress in the science of education.
As a basis for discussion before the Association, the follow-
ing rough classification of the studies which are most commonly
included in the grammar School curriculum has been prepared.
No amount of preparation of data or other statistical study can
possibly accomplish so much in determining the value of this
division as an open discussion, so this matter is presented with
the distinct desire to provoke discussion and not as a finding of
this committee.
a) The following are of value to the very great majority of
all pupils for their practical use in everyday and business life:
Reading *
Mathematics (especially arithmetic)
Penmanship -
English, spoken and written
This list is practically the three R's, if writing is held to include
correct writing of the language as well as penmanship. It is a
very brief list, but it is presented as covering the subjects which
employers of our boys and girls agree on as necessities. *
b) The following subjects are of large value because they
tend to enlarge the appreciative powers of the pupils and because
they have a re-creative effect:
History
Music
Freehand Drawing
98 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Physiology
Nature Study
Science (bearing in mind this is for grammar Schools
only)
Chemistry (bearing in mind this is for grammar Schools
only)
c) Certain other subjects including:
Civics
Geography
Physical Culture
Mechanical Drawing
Manual Training
appear to offer possibilities in the way of training that combines
something of the function of both of the above.
The teaching of a certain portion of civics which is usually
given rather little consideration, that of the future relation of
the pupil himself to Society, is or should be of intense value
to the nation and especially to its industries and commerce.
Instead of that, our children are taught much about the higher
functions of government, and the machinery of courts and legis-
latures with which most of them have little later opportunity
to come in contact.
Geography, especially that of the immediate locality, city
and county, has a great value. It is desirable that he should
be initiated into the use of maps, so that he can trace means of
travel and freight routes from one point, to another.
Physical culture, in the sense of bringing up a rugged lot of
children in place of Spindly, flat-chested youths, lacking in
endurance, is something much to be desired. It is hardly a
part of the classroom instruction, however, but rather a part
of the recreation, which now too often consists in hanging over
a schoolyard fence, Surreptitiously Smoking cigarettes. Its value
is incalculable, but it is best taught by recreation, as witness
the work of the Boy Scouts and other outdoor organizations.
The above statements appear to be borne out by the results
of a questionnaire, which was sent to the members of the Associa-
tion, a copy of which is annexed to this report. This brought
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS 99
out between 5,000 and 6,000 individual replies to specific
questions, so that it may be presumed to represent as a whole
the well-thought-out opinion of large employers of labor.
It appears that we are unanimous in thinking that the
following subjects are of prime necessity:
Addition. Whole numbers
Subtraction. Common fractions
Multiplication of decimal fractions
Division
Percentage
Simple interest
Reading
Penmanship
English composition
Business English
Spelling usual words
These in themselves form a pretty well-rounded education, but
to this 60 per cent of our answers would add for certain parts of
their organization:
Proportion
Compound interest
Spelling of technical words
Geography (Physical and Commercial)
U.S. History (Political)
Physiology
Civics (intimate relations of people with their government)
The following subjects are apparently considered of little
or no value by 70 per cent of the members who answered these
questions:
Cube root
Music (vocal and reading)
Science
Chemistry
Principles of Government
Foreign languages
When the above statements are discussed, we expect to hear
decided exceptions taken to the apparent relegation of subjects
like history, music, and freehand drawing to the position of
IOO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
re-creative or appreciative subjects. On the other hand, it
seems as if the present taste of the American people for ragtime
music might be a protest against the school methods of teaching
music and the abominable taste that is shown in what might
equally well be artistic millinery, a protest against the method
of teaching drawing. In other words, has the teaching of these
Subjects for many years past had an uplifting effect on the
American people? History, too, if studied merely as a chronicle
of the dead past, possibly has not had the effect for which we
have been seeking. Should not history be studied in search
for the inspiration and encouragement which it may give us,
rather than for the memorizing of facts, many of them most
lamentable P *
The classification which we have offered of the different
forms of drawing may also arouse discussion, as may also our
entire omission of manual training from among the subjects of
earning value. It may, however, be argued that every form
of drawing and every principle taught in manual training is an
underlying principle of some trade or profession, which is of
vital Commercial importance to those who make their living
by its practice, and as such they become subjects of special
training which may very well be the work of a corporation
School.
If, however, these matters are made a part of the curriculum
of the public schools, the time which can be allotted to them
is so small and the number of pupils who can see a future value
in them is so limited, that little of value can be expected, except
as they may create ability to appreciate the work of others, or
may be a means of re-creation.
The boy who makes a piece of furniture by old and laborious
methods which would not be tolerated in modern manufacture,
has not taken any appreciable steps toward becoming an expert
workman, but he may have discovered that the expert workman
is a man possessed of skill which he should and can appreciate.
He has also, in the course of his work, had a combination of
mental and manual exercise, which is valuable from the
re-creative standpoint, if no other.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS IOI.
STATEMENT 9
SOME EVIDENCE FROM NEW YORK AND PITTSBURGH:
The evidence of the business world is against the assumption
that clerical training is the main objective of commercial educa-
tion. Business men in particular do not assert that this con-
ception is sound. Through the courtesy of the New York
Chamber of Commerce Some evidence bearing upon this point
was secured during February and March of the current year
(1912). A circular letter was sent to about a hundred of the
largest commercial houses of New York City.
A few quotations from typical replies from New York busi-
ness men may be given here: “We employ no male stenog-
raphers. Occasionally we can use a business School graduate
in our bookkeeping department. The study of business prin-
ciples ought to be of value.” “For the majority of positions
in our employ we should prefer that he had a knowledge of the
other subjects named by you.” “A knowledge of stenography
and typewriting would be necessary in filling certain positions
where a male stenographer was desired. In our particular
business a knowledge of bookkeeping as it is generally taught
in high schools might in Some cases be helpful, but hardly ever
absolutely necessary. A study of the fundamental principles
of business, such as merchandising, advertising, Salesmanship,
and business organization would in general seem to be more
valuable to young men than Specialization upon clerical sub-
jects.”
This same study was made in Pittsburgh with somewhat
similar results respecting the relative importance of fundamental
and clerical subjects. Of those replying, 32 per cent think that
bookkeeping alone is essential; 28 per cent state that all three
are necessary; 19 per cent think that none of the three subjects
is essential; I5 per cent think that penmanship is essential;
II per cent think that mathematics is necessary; II per cent
consider a knowledge of good English indispensable; 8 per cent
* Adapted by permission from F. V. Thompson, Commercial Education
in Public Secondary Schools, pp. Ioë-8. World Book Co. Igi 5.
IO2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
think that arithmetic is valuable; 4 per cent state that type-
writing and bookkeeping are necessary; 3 per cent think that
designing and advertising are valuable. -
STATEMENT 10
WHAT IS COMMERCIAL EDUCATION PI
Not long ago, in an educational paper of some standing,
I noticed that the business college was merely a clerk factory to
turn out business assistants, but that the aim of the high school
was to turn out business men. I Suppose the writer should
have said, to carry out his thought, Successful business men.
This statement, with Some variation, has been repeated fre-
quently and has been made a great deal of. But to me it is an
expression without definite meaning. What is a business man?
Is he a wholesale or retail merchant? A banker? An
exporter P A railroad manager ? A manufacturer?. A clerk P
A bookkeeper ? A commercial traveller P It seems to me that
anyone who is engaged in any occupation arising from the
exchange of commodities is essentially a business man, and if
he succeeds he is a successful business man. The successful
business man owes his success Sometimes to his education, but
more often to his tact and special knowledge of the business in
which he is engaged. All that the commercial high School can
do for its pupils is to teach them to use the tools of business, in
order that the natural gifts in a business way which they all
possess in some measure may be developed and their value
increased. A competent business man, as such, cannot be made
in a school. Many men who have the best instruction possible
do not succeed in business because So many things besides
education are necessary to insure Success. Business ability
is inherited. Some families—nay, Some races—seem to be
endowed with the commercial instinct.
What is a commercial education P I well know a successful
bank president and financier who cannot keep a simple set of
books; a prominent business man of my acquaintance received
* Adapted from Great Britain Special Reports on Education, Vol. II,
Part 2, pp. 327–28. Board of Education, 1902.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS Iog
all the business training he ever had as a journalist; another, in
the classical course of a university; another received a liberal
high-school course; another, an elementary-School education;
and another—a most successful business man—had no school
education at all. There were successful business men in former
generations; there are splendid business men today who never
had the Special training the commercial high-school course
proposes to give, though Some of them have had the advantages
of a business-college course. It seems to me, therefore, that
any education which a business man has, and which makes him
a better business man, is for him a business education, no matter
whether it was obtained in the walls of a school or not.
Now, it seems to me there is nothing mysterious in this ques-
tion, and there has been no great discovery lately as to what
Constitutes a business education. We are merely beginning to
realize its value and necessity today, and the great danger of
failure in our commercial courses lies in our desire to do So
much for our pupils that we over-estimate the value of Some
parts of the courses we would offer, and by endeavoring to
accomplish too much fail to provide a sensible, practical and
workable curriculum. Our laudable desire to have a great
school should not obscure the need of having a good school.
STATEMENT 11
THE DEMANDS OF MODERN BUSINESS"
The mental equipment of a business man needs to be greater
to-day than was ever before necessary. Just as the sphere of a
business man’s actions has broadened with the advent of rapid
transportation, telegraphs, cables, and telephones, so has the
need for broad understanding of Sound principles increased.
It was steam processes of transportation and production that
really made technical education necessary. The electric
dynamo created the demand for technically educated electrical
engineers. So the railroad, the fast steamship, the electric
* Adapted by permission from F. A. Vanderlip, Business and Educa-
tion, pp. 15-19. Duffield Co., Igo7.
IO4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
current in the telephone and cable, and the great economic fact
of gigantic and far-reaching business combinations, are making
the Science of business a different thing for any conception of
Commerce which could have been had when Girard was the most
Successful of American business men. The enlarged scope of
business is demanding better trained men—men who under-
stand principles. New forces have made possible large scale
production, and we need men who can comprehend the relation
of that production to the world’s markets. There has been
introduced such complexity into modern business, and such a
high degree of specialization, that the young man who begins
without the foundation of an exceptional training is in danger
of remaining a mere clerk or bookkeeper. Commercial and
industrial affairs are conducted on so large a scale that the
neophyte has little chance to learn broadly either by observa-
tion or experience. He is put at a single task. The more
expert he becomes at it, the more likely it is that he will be kept
at it unless he has had a training in his youth which has fitted
him to comprehend in some measure the relation of his task to
those which others are doing.
Conditions have vastly changed. A new order of equipment
is demanded. The staunchness of character, the same intrepid
will, today will play their part as they played it then, but in
addition there is now demanded a breadth of technical knowl-
edge, a fund of specialized information, a Comprehension of
intricate relations, and an understanding of broad principles
which the conditions of a century or even a generation ago did
not make imperative.
STATEMENT 12
A PLEA FOR A LARGER VISION OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION:
In the last analysis commerce and industry are vast Social
forces originating and being maintained and made possible in
and by collective human activity gathered together in communi-
* Adapted by permission from Dr. Paul Kreuzpointner, Pennsylvania
Railroad Company, in the Sixth Annual Proceedings of the National Asso-
ciation of Corporation Schools (1918), pp. 293-95.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT ExPRESSIONS 105
ties and united into the nation. The reaction of these vast
Collective enterprises upon communities changes the habits,
Customs, and usages of the people. It raises or lowers the moral,
political, intellectual, educational, aesthetic and physical stand-
ard of populations according to the greater or less skill and
knowledge required to carry on these enterprises or the intellec-
tual standard favored and maintained among the millions of
industrial workers in shop, factory, store and office. . . . .
High-grade as the New York commercial course of study
is, it nowhere articulates or co-ordinates business interests and
their human agents with the silent, slow-working but all-
powerful social, economical, cultural and ethical forces outside
of the store, and which forces are the basis of the prosperity or
adversity of all business transactions in the struggle for exist-
ence. Thus, by the irony of fate and a short-sighted concep-
tion of the relation of commercial and industrial enterprises to .
society, community and national welfare, these enterprises
contribute to keep our Schools upon a lower standard than they
would be if business and industry were not satisfied with a purely
utilitarian educational product. Thus, we have the anomalous
condition that individually and as citizens the managers of
business enterprises clamor for educational progress but in their
official capacity they retard and hinder that progress by reject-
ing anything in the line of educational product as useless and
impractical that does not contribute in the shortest way to
utilitarian ends. In this attempt to separate the educational
business interests from the educational, social and civic inter-
ests we may find the source of much of the prevailing misunder-
standing, suspicion, lack of confidence, and retardation, between
school and industrial and commercial enterprises.
Moreover, the tradicional American high school was destined
and organized as a preparatory School for College and is still
considered in that light. Hence, commercial education, voca-
tional education, and domestic Science are simply annexes and
are treated as such and therefore not accorded the time, the
teachers, the laboratories and financial Support needed to give
them the constructive value which they ought to have.
IO6 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
|
Are there no culturizing, civilizing elements in our vast
commercial and industrial enterprises worth cultivating in
addition to methods for training clerks and mechanics and semi-
skilled workers?
Society, which is represented by national organization and
institutions, Cannot maintain its orderly government and stand-
ard of civilization for any length of time with only vocationally
trained workers, clerks, Salesmen and women, etc., without any,
or at best only a narrow conception of the workings of the larger,
broader Social and civic forces with rights, attendant duties and
responsibilities. And contrariwise an ever so highly cultured
and socially trained society cannot exist without a thorough
vocational and commercial training for occupational efficiency.
The late Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of
Education, once defined civilization as follows: “A people is
civilized when it has formed institutions for itself, which enable
each individual to profit by the industry of all his fellow-
citizens; when it enables each individual to profit by the experi-
ence and wisdom, the observations and the thoughts of his
fellow-citizens; when it encourages each individual into a rational
self-activity by which he contributes, either through his industry
or through his observations and thoughts, to the benefit of the
people with whom he lives.” Is an education, vocational or
commercial, which serves utilitarian ends exclusively, able to
maintain such a standard of civilization ?
STATEMENT 13
THE ATTITUDE OF THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR TOWARD
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION:
Do I know what industrial education is, and what are its
purposes and ideals P But since my personal knowledge is of
very little consequence to anyone, except as a sort of reflex of
the knowledge of the millions of workers, the question is, in
fact, Does organized labor understand what industrial education
* Adapted by permission from Samuel Gompers, president of the
American Federation of Labor, in Bulletin of the National Society for Promo-
tion of Industrial Education, 1914, No. 20, pp. Iof-13.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT ExPRESSIONS 107
is, and what are its purposes and ideals P Finally, if it does
understand these purposes and ideals, Does it approve of them
and will it co-operate sincerely in the development of tried and
proven)rational schemes of industrial education?
You should know that organized labor does not oppose the
development of industrial education in the public schools. Indeed
that would not at all fairly indicate the attitude of organized
labor. I say to you that the organization constituting the
American Federation of Labor have been for years engaged in
the work of systematically providing industrial education to
their members. This instruction has been given through the
medium of the trade union journals and schools established and
maintained by them. Organized labor, I repeat, is not opposed
to industrial education. It is eager to co-operate actively in
instituting industrial education in our public schools. The
working man has too little time, and can therefore take but
little interest in any other sort of education.
Organized labor cannot favor any scheme of industrial
education which is lop-sided—any scheme, that is to say, which
will bring trained men into any given trade without regard to
the demands for labor in that trade. Industrial education must
maintain a fair and proper apportionment of the supply of labor
power to the demand for labor power in every line of work. Other-
wise its advantages will be entirely neutralized. If, for example,
the result of industrial education is to produce in any community
a greater number of trained machinists than are needed in the
community, those machinists which have been trained cannot
derive any benefit from their training, since they will not be
able to find employment except at economic disadvantages.
Under these conditions industrial education is of no advantage
to those who have received it, and it is a distinct injury to the
journeymen working at the trade who are subjected to a keen
competition artificially produced. Industrial education must
meet the needs of the worker as well as the requirements of
the employer.
Organized labor has always opposed and will continue to
oppose sham industrial education, whether at public or private
Io8 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
expense. It has opposed and will continue to oppose that
Superficial training which confers no substantial benefit upon
the worker, which does not make him a craftsman, but only
an interloper, which may be available in times of crisis, perhaps,
as a strike breaker, but not as a trained artisan for industrial
Service at other times. Industrial education must train men
for work, not for private and Sinister Corporation purposes.
STATEMENT 14
WHAT LABOR WANTS FROM EDUCATION:
Hitherto the working class has never been seriously con-
sulted as to what it wants from education or what it believes
ought to be the true aims of education. Governments, Con-
tending parties, education institutions, and influential sections
of the community having definite views as to the place of the
working class in their scheme of life have conceded to it a mini-
mum of what they conceived to be for its good.
As a natural result, the education provided for working
people has been very limited in quantity, while the system has
been so permeated by an atmosphere of Commercialism as
seriously to vitiate the quality.
The same spirit can be discerned in many of the utterances
of those who are now demanding educational reform. Their
dominating idea is still that of increasing our industrial effi-
ciency. The working class is still to fit in with preconceived
notions as to its proper place in a generally accepted Scheme
of things, and educational reform is only to concern itself with
equipping the workers to become more efficient bees in the
industrial hive. This is a positive danger which the W.E.A.
must be prepared to encounter.
For thirteen years our Association has been steadily pre-
paring the ground for the time when working people themselves
should say, and with no uncertain voice, what they want from
education and what they conceive ought to be its true aim and
* Adapted by permission from J. M. Mactavish, Whal Labor Wants
from Education, pp. I-8. The Workers Educational Association, I4, Red
Lion Square, Holborn, W.C., Igló. f
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS Io9
purpose. Only by having clear ideas on these matters can we
hope to counter the aims of the commercialists.
Within the limits of inherent capacity, education can give
us what we want. Viewed broadly, all that man is, apart from
heredity, is due to education. It is therefore necessary that
labour should have an educational ideal. That ideal must take
into consideration the needs of the individual, the needs of the
class, the needs of the nation, and the needs of the race. In a
perfect society it would be possible for education to harmonise
fully all these conflicting needs. But in the world as it is to-day,
it is necessary, in order to arrive at an ideal, that is a reasonable
induction from established facts, to consider the special needs of
each. A Tutorial Class syllabus would be an absurdity in
Crusoe’s curriculum when teaching his man Friday. The free
development of the individual is as inconsistent with the East-
ern ideal of fitting a man to occupy his predestined place in a
caste bound society as a purely vocational education is in a
democratic state.
Let us now examine these needs more closely.
The need of the individual.—The need of the individual is
the development of those inherent qualities with which heredity
endowed him and which, when fully developed, make per-
sonality. -
The needs of the class.-The working class has its own
peculiar educational needs. The material prizes of life are
limited, and only a few can win them. After all the prizes have
been won there still remains the great mass for whom under
existing conditions there are not material prizes other than work
and wages. These form the working class, and as such have
educational needs peculiarly their own.
Since, under the existing state of Society, the vast majority
are wage-earners, education must give them a knowledge and a
clearer understanding of the social and economic forces that
mould and mar their lives. Only through a fuller knowledge
and a clearer understanding of these can the workers attain to
economic and social freedom. Further, since the experiences
of the past ages are embodied in history, Science, art and litera-
IIO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ture, education must equip the working class to share in its
racial heritage.
The needs of the nation.—Our educational ideal must fit in
with our national ideal. Our national ideal is that of a demo-
cratic self-governing community which aims at giving the fullest
possible scope to the expression of individuality. But the
world is divided into nations whose interests are to some extent
conflicting, and most of whom are not living under democratic
institutions. Hence our Educational Ideal must provide for
a people who are efficient in national Competition, strong in
national defense, yet free in thought, speech, action, and govern-
ment, having initiative, intelligence, self-reliance, self-discipline,
respecting others as they respect themselves.
The need of the race.—Just as the great need in the national
development of the individual is freedom to become one's self,
so the great need in the development of the human race is the
freedom of each people to work out its own destiny without .
undue interference from others. For this reason, our educa-
tional ideal must include the making of good-will.
Having summarised the educational needs of the working
class, we can, with more or less accuracy, state our educational
ideal.
Labour wants from Education health and full development
for the body, knowledge and truth for the mind, fineness for
the feelings, good-will towards its kind, and, coupled with this
liberal education, such a training as will make its members
efficient, self-supporting citizens of a free Self-governing com-
munity. Such an education, and only such an education, will
meet the needs of the individual, the class, the nation and the
Iſa,CC. *
When should vocational training begin 2–It is here we must
consider at what age a vocational education can begin with-
out injury to the free full development of the individual.
There is a general agreement amongst educationalists that
specialisation under the age of sixteen checks all-round growth
and tends to stereotype the mind. From this there follow two
conclusions: (1) Since the all-round development of the child
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT EXPRESSIONS III
ought not to suffer check under sixteen, children ought not to
leave school under that age. (2) Any technical education
given under that age should avoid anything in the nature of .
mechanical specialisation, and for that reason should only be
given by a fully qualified teacher.
If it were possible, it might be desirable that vocational
instruction should be confined to the workshop. By this means
the danger of confusing it with education would be avoided.
But this is no longer possible. Changed industrial conditions
will impose on the community the task of providing, in its own
interest, facilities for vocational and professional training for
all. Both individual and national interests demand that every
member of the community, irrespective of class or sex, should
be efficient workers. If this is done, no doubt new problems
will arise. The community must devise ways and means of
utilising the skill it has trained. To train skill without using it
is waste. Fresh safeguards must be devised for the maintenance
and improvement of Labour's Standard of Life. These are
matters of vital importance. But, difficult as they may be to
attain, they ought not to be used as a denial of the individual’s
right and duty to become an efficient Self-supporting member
of the community, or the community’s right and duty to get
the best out of its citizens. -
But the instruction that fits men and women to play their
part in industry ought to be secondary to the liberal education
that gives health and vigour to the body, knowledge and wisdom
to the mind, enabling men and women “to see life steadily and to
see it whole.” Is this what Labour wants, or will it still remain
content with an education that does little more for hundreds
of thousands of children than fit them to earn wages? Let
Iabour give its answer clear and emphatic. Butlet it remember
that the future of its children will be helped or hindered by its
decision.
II 2
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Have you ever heard an argument comparable to that expressed
2.
3.
4.
in Statement I ? º
Note the qualities desired for business as expressed in Statement 2.
These few and simple demands ought easily to be met, ought
they not P How should the proper training be given P
The Illinois Manufacturers’ Association reached what conclusion
Concerning the type of men desired to improve their office organ-
ization ? Why should so large a number believe that university
business training was necessary for the organization of office
work P
In indicating the training which should count in “improving”
accounting systems, introducing cost accounting, fifteen
employers of the Illinois Manufacturers’ Association indicated
that special university training without mention of business
courses was desirable; twelve, the same training with mention
of business; fourteen, practical experience without mention of
any educational requirement. How would you account for the
fact that these three qualifications were considered as of about
equal importance? This questionnaire was answered in 1913.
Would it be your guess that a questionnaire taken today would
&
show the same proportion of approval for these types of training?
. How do you account for the fact that in no case was the high.
School commercial course mentioned as the proper training for
men who could improve accounting systems? How do you
account for the fact that in no case was the high-school com-
mercial course mentioned as the proper training for young men
to make advertising more effective P How do you account for
the fact that special university courses on advertising were
favorably viewed by so large a percentage of the Illinois manu-
facturers and that general college training and practical experi-
ence rank second and third, respectively 2
7.
. The compilers of the Illinois Manufacturers' Association question-
naire state that “the amount of indefiniteness to the replies of
this question [the question asked what training will give better
salesmen] is especially great.” How do you account for the fact
that there was more indefiniteness in replying to this question
than to the others?
Taking the “exporters’ needs” as outlined in Statement 4 as
Satisfactory objectives, how would you organize a four-year
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: DIRECT ExPRESSIONS 113
I O.
II.
I 2.
I3.
I4.
I 5.
I6.
Curriculum for a high-school commercial course to give the train-
ing which is asked for P how a collegiate course?
Reorganize the statement of qualifications desired by the depart-
ment store as indicated in Statement 5. For how many of these
qualifications should a Secondary-School commercial course be
responsible? How many of them are taught in the educational
institution with which you are most familiar P. How many of
them appear to you to be any more applicable to department-
store work than they would be in practicing medicine? School
teaching? working as paying teller P
. “I will repeat that we want initiative and originality. I would
go so far as to say that if he [the boy] has the capacity to go ahead
and solve new problems I do not care whether he has any specific
information or not.” Can initiative and originality and character
be taught? If so, by what courses? Can the capacity to solve
new business problems be taught? Are they taught by the
bookkeeping courses, the typewriting courses? What is a busi-
ness problem?,
“If a girl comes into our office . . . . it is of little importance to
us whether she can write sixty words a minute on the type-
writer . . . . it is far more important if she has a quick capacity
for comprehension about our business.” What training can be
given which will give pupils a capacity for quick comprehension ?
“Nor will the best vocational training make the most efficient
and competent workman. He should possess a sure realization
of the meaning of his work.” What does this statement mean P
Do you think there is any truth in it P What is the meaning
of the work of a bookkeeper ?
Be prepared to summarize the general conclusions reached by
the National Association of Corporation Schools as they are
presented in Statement 8.
What conclusions regarding the high-school Commercial course
would you draw from the evidence gathered by Superintendent
Thompson in Pittsburgh and New York?
The writer of Statement Io asks, What is a business man?
Does he answer the question ? Can you answer it?
What is Vanderlip’s view of the demands of modern business?
What observations do you think have led him to this view P
“In this attempt to separate the educational business interests
from the educational social and civic interests, we may find the
II4
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
17.
I8.
I9.
source of much of the prevailing misunderstanding and Suspicion
between school and industrial and commercial enterprise.” Can
you give meaning to this statement?
What is Mr. Gompers' view of the proper objective for vocational
education as viewed by labor? r
If the needs of the individual, the needs of the class, the needs
of the nation, and the needs of the race are the proper aims for
education, what are each of these needs?
Formulate in a Series of Statements the Suggestions for business
education that you Secure from Chapter VII.
CHAPTER VIII
WHAT BUSINESS SAYS IT WANTS: INDIRECT .
EXPRESSIONS
In this chapter we shall be studying some of the indirect
statements of business. These indirect expressions are those
which are found upon analyzing employments. It is quite likely
that the indirect expressions of business are more accurate than
the direct expressions. This is one of the cases in which action
speaks more dependably than words. When the business man
is called upon to analyze the educational needs of workers and
to express these for public consumption, he, like any of us, when
we find ourselves thinking in an unaccustomed field, is likely
to be influenced by what he thinks will appear well. When
occupations or jobs are analyzed, we get a definite picture of
the work at which the business man puts his employees. By
analyzing these occupations, therefore, one may find what is
desired. In studying occupations for the purpose of learning
how to educate for them, one matter, however, must be kept
in mind. It is possible that, if employees had a different educa-
tional equipment, the tasks at which they are placed would be
different. That is, actual vocations do reflect what business
wants, but they also reflect what business is able to do with
such material as it is receiving. To the extent that this latter
consideration is important, a study of vocations reveals the
educational acquirements of those employed as well as the
wishes of employers. t
EVIDENCE OF TYPE 1. THE BUSINESS DEMANDS OF
CERTAIN CITIES
A. OPINION IN MINNEAPOLIS"
In all conferences held by the survey with employers and
employees from the business world, there was, of course, a
* Adapted from Minneapolis Vocational Education Survey. Bulletin of
United States Bureau of Labor, No. 199, IQI6, p. 81.
II.5
II6 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
recognition of the very great need for the proper technical train-
ing of the commercial worker. In practically every instance,
however, there was an agreement upon the statement that there
was at least equal need, if not even greater need, in business
today of certain habits of work and mental attitudes toward
work which are as necessary as technical training, if not even
more So, for the success and advancement of office employees.
Many persons possessing admirable technical knowledge
fail to apply this knowledge in their daily work to the greatest
advantage to themselves and to their employers, because they
have not acquired habits of expressing themselves in terms of
painstaking attention, System, order, neatness, punctuality,
and accuracy. It is perhaps even more true that many fail
to make anticipated progress because they do not bring to their
tasks certain mental attitudes which express themselves in
terms of ambition, loyalty, initiative, self-confidence, and
willingness to assume responsibility.
Much as the business world realizes the need of these habits
and mental attitudes, the large majority of business concerns
have few, if any, suggestions to make as to the way in which
these habits and attitudes are to be developed. Most of them
have failed to inaugurate in their own establishments any plan
for insuring them, although a few have been conspicuously
Successful in so doing.
B. THE DEMANDS OF EMPLOYERS IN DES MOINES
Clay D. Slinker, Director Business Education, Des Moines,
Iowa, makes the following statements:
A remarkable thing brought out by the survey is the number
of young workers who feel the need of a better general business
education. About 45 per cent of the whole number listed this
as their principal training need.
One of our largest employers said the other day that no
one should undertake office work who does not have a high
* Adapted by permission from Survey of Junior Commercial Occu-
pations in Sixteen States. The Federal Board for Vocational Education,
June, 1920, p. 38. This survey was prepared under the direction of F. G.
Nichols.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 117
School education. This opinion seems to be held by many who
Call upon us for assistance in securing office help. The invari-
able call is for thoroughly efficient help for which the employer
is willing to pay a wage corresponding to ability shown. In the
larger offices the work is narrowly specialized, but even these
offices demand mature workers. Our leading stores do not
care to employ salespeople under eighteen years of age.
C. THE SURVEY OF ROCHESTER, NEW YORK,
Purposes of the survey.—
I. That the requirements of business with reference to
commercial employees may be better understood by the local
educational authorities.
2. That the commercial courses now being offered by the
schools of Rochester may be more thoroughly understood by
the business men who are in a position to pass intelligent
judgment of their merit.
3. That such changes in the present course of study as may
seem necessary after careful consideration, may be made upon
the recommendation of this committee.
4. That in business training as in industrial training, the
educational authorities and business men may continue to co-
operate with each other to the end that more efficiently trained
young people may be available when clerical help is required.
Kinds of positions included.—The survey includes 1303
commercial workers divided among twenty-one positions as
shown in table on page II8.
Typewriting.—Quite a large proportion of the employers
stated that any office worker would be much more valuable
with a knowledge of typewriting even though he was not able
to write shorthand.
Bookkeeping.—About 60 per cent of the employers can-
vassed stated that an assistant bookkeeper does not need to
be familiar with the principles of double-entry bookkeeping,
as the modern set of books is highly sectionalized and much of
* Adapted by permission from Survey of Needs in Commercial Edu-
cation, pp. 3–12. Rochester Chamber of Commerce, IQI 5.
II.8 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the bookkeeping work is mere routine; 40 per cent of those
Canvassed seem to feel, however, that any office worker is much
more valuable and also much more certain of promotion if he is
well grounded in the fundamental principles of double-entry
bookkeeping.
TABLE XI
SURVEY OF I,303 COMMERCIAL WoRKERS
Find of Work Female Male
I. Advertising Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
2. Auditors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4 O
3. Bookkeepers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s: # * 3O 58
4. Clerical-factory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO 3
5. Clerical-general office. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 I95
6. Cost clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 O
7. Cashiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2
8. Collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O I
9. Credit Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 O
Io. Mail Order Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I O
II. Messengers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2O
I2. Order and Billing Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 28
I3. Pay Roll Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2]
14. Sales and Record Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2
I5. Salespeople. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 IO 4O
I6. Stenographers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 8
17. Shipping and Receiving Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O Q2
18. Stock Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
I9. Timekeepers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 3
20. Typists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2
2I. Tag Writers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 O
Totals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 460
Grand Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3O3
Advertising and salesmanship.–All the employers agreed
that fundamental principles of advertising and salesmanship
should be taught in connection with commercial courses.
Adding machines.—Ninety per cent of the employers
canvassed used adding machines and 60 per cent stated that
it would be very desirable to have instruction given on the
adding machine in Connection with Commercial courses.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 119
Dictating machines.—Dictating machines are used by 33%
per cent of the employers included in our canvass and it was
Suggested that graduates of commercial courses should have
some facility in the art of transcribing from the dictating
machine.
Male stenographers.-Ninety per cent of the employers do
not use male Stenographers and yet the Io per cent who do use
such stenographers have Some exceptionally good positions
open to young men.
Cuttings from recommendations of the committee to the school
authorities.—From the survey it would appear that general
business training should receive more attention in addition to
the technical instruction in bookkeeping. Every commercial
course graduate should be familiar with the principles of double-
entry bookkeeping, but he does not need to be an expert book-
keeper. Only 6% per cent of the 1303 commercial workers are
bookkeepers and the majority of these are routine clerks on a
highly specialized and sectionalized set of books.
One hundred per cent of the firms replied that advertising
should be taught in the schools. It is therefore recommended
that this matter be presented to the schools with the request
that such courses be given to all day commercial students as
well as to evening classes.
In view of the fact that adding machines are used by 90
per cent of the firms canvassed, it is recommended that operators
be trained in the commercial courses.
It is strongly recommended that such business habits as
obedience, Courtesy, industry, thoughtfulness, promptness,
loyalty, etc., be made the subjects of definite and conscious
instruction in all commercial courses. Frequent talks by those
who know their value should be given to commercial students.
No teacher can handle these subjects as effectively as the man
in business can.
It is also recommended that pupils be taught the very great
advantage of sticking to one job long enough to thoroughly
test its advantages before seeking another position and that
future prospects are better than immediate gain,
I2O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
General education, maturity, thorough knowledge of English,
good vocabulary, clean personal habits, etc., are necessary to
success in stenographic work. Only those who have reasonable
assurance of success should be encouraged to enter this field.
Since 78 per cent of the firms canvassed have no definite
plan of promotion, and the remaining 22 per cent have a plan
only with reference to their selling force, it is recommended
that all firms be urged to devise some plan whereby every worthy
employee will be made to understand that promotion will
automatically and surely follow success on his part. It is
believed that this is the best way to make the floater a per-
manent link in any business organization. The number of
employees under twenty-six years of age in this survey who have
been promoted to their present positions is only 33% per cent of
the total. The statistics bear out the complaint that employees
of this type do not remain in one place long enough. A promo-
tion plan might remedy this situation to some extent.
D. A SURVEY IN MILWAUKEE"
An experimental survey was made in Milwaukee in June,
1919. The report on this survey was not made in exactly the
same form as were those received 1rom other cities, therefore,
it was not possible to tabulate the results with the others in
this final report. However, the figures given in the summary
on page 12I indicate that the situation in Milwaukee is exactly
the same as it is elsewhere.
The following important statements are quoted from the
Milwaukee report and bear out the general conclusion reached
as a result of this survey:
General, as well as technical educational requirements for
entrance into Commercial positions, are reaching higher stand-
ards. Applicants for such positions are confronted by the
question: “What can you do? What education and prepara-
* Adapted by permission from Survey of Junior Commercial Occupa-
tions in Sixteen States, pp. 35–36. The Federal Board for Vocational
Education, June, 1920. This survey was prepared under the direction of
F. G. Nichols, *
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS I 2 I
tion have you had?” In Milwaukee, employers of office help
favor young people who are seventeen or more years of age,
and who have had a full, or at least part, high school education.
Unfortunately there are not enough secondary school graduates
to supply the demands of business. Economic reasons compel
thousands of worthy and ambitious boys and girls to leave the
elementary Schools to find employment. -
TABLE XII
COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS OF I,067 Boys AND GIRLS UNDER
SEVENTEEN YEARS OF AGE IN THE CITY OF
MILWAUKEE, WIs.
Rind of Work Done Number Per Cent
1. Bookkeeping exclusively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 I
2. Bookkeeping in part only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4%
3. Shorthand exclusively. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 42 4.
4. Shorthand in part only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7
5. Billing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I 3
6. Calculating machine Operating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3%
7. Dictaphone operating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 #
8. Bookkeeping machine operating. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 * *
9. Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Q
Io. Messengers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6;
II. Retail selling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4%
I2. Shipping clerk work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24. 2}
13. Time keeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 I#
I4. Cost clerk work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5 I#
I5. Multigraph operating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II I
I6. Addressograph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2}
17. Filing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO2 9%
18. Telephone operating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IóI I5
I9. Miscellaneous clerical work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244. 23
Ioë7 IOO
In Milwaukee there are approximately Ioë7 boys and girls
between the ages of fourteen and seventeen who are doing office
work (mostly in small offices). Only a very small number have
had some high school training. About 200 have taken business
courses, either in high Schools, continuation or private business
Schools. All of these boys and girls are attending the part-time
I 2.2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
continuation school. Fully 90 per cent of them are following
courses of study intended to advance them in their commercial
work.
It will be noticed that only about 5% per cent are doing actual
bookkeeping work, and only II per cent are doing stenographic
work, proving that, as a rule, young boys and girls are not
employed for such work.
In reply to the question, “What must you know, learn or
do to advance yourself in your position?” 951 boys and girls
under seventeen, who are now commercially employed,
responded. The replies are grouped as follows:
Bookkeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . I58 Calculating Machine. . . . . . 44
Billing Machine Operating. I2 Addressograph Operating.. I
Multigraph Operating. . . . . I Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Dictaphone Operating. . . . . 2 Bookkeeping Machine Op-
Filing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 erating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Telephone Operating. . . . . . 6 Selling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O
Shipping Clerk Work. . . . . . 3 Time Keeping. . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Cost Clerk Work. . . . . . . . . I5 Mail Clerk Work. . . . . . . . . 4
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Buying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Business Law. . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Banking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Cashier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Checker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
General Clerical. . . . . . . . . . 25 English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Penmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Spelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . § 44 Correspondence. . . . . . . . . . I5
Stenography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O2
The fact that about 50 per cent call for bookkeeping and
stenography may be due to a lack of opportunity to pursue
other courses; to a lack of knowledge that other kinds of office
work offer as much pay and advancement as bookkeeping and
shorthand, or because the false notion prevails among many
young folks (old folks too) that bookkeeping and stenography
lend more dignity, refinement and respect to a position. They
look with disdain upon general clerical work, machine operating,
retail selling, etc.
English in some form is called for by about 30 per cent.
This is significant. In a general way it may be stated that more
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 123
time can profitably be given to the teaching of the essentials
of English, arithmetic, penmanship, general clerical work,
filing and machine operating, rather than to technical bookkeep-
ing and stenography, especially when the educational back-
ground does not equal at least a high School education.
E. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE CLEVELAND SURVEY'
The range of a boy's possible future in commercial occupa-
tions is as wide as the field of business. He cannot at first be
trained specifically as a girl can be because he does not know
FIG. 6.-Boys and girls under 18 years of age in office work in Cleve-
land. Data from report of Ohio Industrial Commission, 1915.
what business will do with him or what he wants to do with
business. The girl's choice is limited by custom. She can
prepare herself definitely for stenography, bookkeeping, or
machine operating and be sure that she is preparing for just
the opportunity—and the whole opportunity—that business
offers to her. Her very limitation of opportunity makes pre-
liminary choice and training definitely possible things.
The difference between boys’ work and girls’ begins at the
beginning. Boys are given the larger share of the positions
which the youngest workers can fill. Figure 6 illustrates this
and the figures of the United States Census for 1910 clearly cor-
# Adapted by permission from Bertha M. Stevens, Boys and Girls in
Commercial Work, pp. 15–27. Survey Committee of the Cleveland Founda-
tion, 1916.

I24 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
roborate it. Boys are taken for such work and taken younger
than girls, not merely because the law permits them to go to
work at an earlier age, but also because business itself intends to
round out their training. Girls, on the Contrary, are expected
to enter completely trained for definite positions, and this fact
alone would in most cases require that they be older than boys
when they begin work. Furthermore, because boys in first
positions are looked upon as potential clerks, miscellaneous jobs
about the office have, for them, a two-fold value. They give
the employer a chance to weed out unpromising material; and
they give boys an opportunity to find themselves and to gather
ideas about the business and its methods which they may be
able to make use of in later adjustments.
Clerical Administrative
FIG. 7.—Men and women 18 years of age and over in clerical and
administrative work in offices in Cleveland. U.S. Census, IQIo.
A comparison of the opportunities held out to each sex is
shown in several ways in diagrams and tables. Figure 7 shows
that girls’ training, if it is to meet the present situation, must
prepare for a future in specialized clerical work; boys' futures
must apparently be thought of as in both the clerical and
administrative fields. The term “clerical” as here used covers
bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants, Stenographers, typists,
and unspecialized clerks, and a miscellaneous group of younger
workers, such as messengers, office boys, etc. “Adminis-
trative” covers proprietors, officials, managers, Supervisors and
agents, but it does not include Salespeople.

WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 125
It is far from the intention of this report to overlook or to
discredit the advances which women in this day are making
toward a responsible part in business. And, while the present
practical training of the mass of girls for commercial work must
be based upon the kind of positions the mass of women now hold,
there is no ground for interpreting such a program of training
as an attempt to limit the opportunities of women. The
limitation is, by custom, already set. It is, largely, the part

1919.
1900.
3.8% (6.0%
FIG. 8.-Increase in the percentage of women in administrative posi-
tions in office work in Cleveland from 1900 to 1910. U.S. Census.
of women themselves to surpass it, if the wider field is the thing
they really desire. It is known that women are demonstrating,
in many individual instances, their capacity to step beyond the
bounds of clerical occupations; and there is evidence, in the
trend of the figures of the United States Census, that women in
the future will have an increasing share in creative and adminis-
trative work. Figure 8 shows that in the Io year period between
I900 and 1910 the proportion of Cleveland women in adminis-
trative positions in office work increased more than one-half.
The total number of persons in clerical work in Cleveland—
men and women, boys and girls—is, according to the United
I26 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
States Census, approximately 22,000. Figure 9 shows the
distribution of these workers on the basis of Occupation. Clerks
make up by far the largest number.
Stenographers and the bookkeeping groups are about equal,
but the sum of these is not much greater than the number of
the clerks alone. The junior workers, including messengers,
office boys, etc., are, as may be expected, a tiny minority.
Clerks 12.8%
Bookkeepers
27.1%
Stenographers
22.7%
FIG. 9.-Distribution of clerical workers in Cleveland according to
positions. U.S. Census, IQIo.
The distribution of the various kinds of clerical workers, on
the basis of sex, is illustrated by Figure Io. It will be noted
that, of the men, it is the clerks that make up by far the largest
portion. Among the women, it is the stenographers. The num-
bers of men stenographers and women clerks are correspond-
ingly few. In the bookkeeping groups the proportions of men
and women are most nearly alike, and, for both men and women,
these groups are the second largest. Later in this chapter
reference is made to a difference in the kinds of bookkeeping
work which men and women commonly do. The larger propor-
tion of boys among the youngest workers has already been
explained.







WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 127
Two tables have been prepared showing again, for both
sexes, the contrast in the number and kinds of positions they
hold. The table for men and boys is a classification of 2,306
clerical and administrative positions; for women and girls,
2,816. The information had to be obtained from differing
Sources. The positions for men and boys are those held by
5.8
7.3
—5.8
l, 2
Book.-- L' . . Stenog- - Clerks Juniors:
keepera, raphers messenger 8,
cashier8, and office boys
account- typists etc.
antg
FIG. Io.—Percentage distribution of men and women in office work in
Cleveland. Columns in outline represent men and boys; those in black,
women and girls. U.S. Census, IQIo.
1,000 applicants for office work at the Employment Bureau of
the Cleveland Young Men's Christian Association, 1912–1915.
The records of this Bureau are kept with great care and
completeness and they have proved a valuable source of informa-
tion about work, wages, and training.
Figure II shows in graphic form the distribution of the
non-administrative positions. This diagram presents in more


I 28 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
detail the same kinds of facts that have already been brought
out in Figure 5. Excluding for both men and women the
workers in administrative positions, we have left those doing
general office work of a clerical nature. Among the men and
boys these positions number 1,955 as Compared with 2,747
MOMEN
Machine 1.0 r-ºl-
Steno-
grapherg 9.1 § Machine
Cl workers 25.4
General
Clerical 10.7
Book-
keepers, ll.l.,
S
| Sténo- i
aphers 36.2
gr
General
Clerks 67.8
- clerical 18.l.
Book-
keepers 20.6
| Clerks l l;
FIG. II.-Percentage distribution of non-administrative positions in
office work held by men and women in Cleveland 1912–15; 1,955 posi-
tions for men and 2,747 for women.
positions for the women and girls. Clerks make up the largest
groups of men, and machine workers the Smallest; stenographers
make up the largest group of women, and clerks the smallest.
The diagram shows that among each Ioo men 68 are clerks,
while among each Ioo women, only one is a clerk. On the

WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 129
other hand, among each IOo men, only one is a machine operator,
while of each Ioo women, 23 are machine operators.
F. WHAT BUSINESS DOES WITH BOYS AND GIRLS IN NEW YORK"
&A TABLE XIII
OCCUPATIONS OF BOYS
KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS Wage Age
- Bookkeepers 4 Range | Range
$5–$9 I6
Furniture and fixture. . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper, typewrites all bills
| and takes care of ledger $9.oo I6
Embroidery and lace. . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper, enters orders re-
ceived and checks deliveries 8.oo I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Bookkeeper 7. oo I6
Furniture and fixture. . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper 5. OO I6
Wage Age
Clerks 95 - Range | Range
- $3–$16 || I4–18
Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Billing clerk $16.oo 17
Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Receives all freight shipped to New York
and collected by wagon I2 . OO I7
Banking and brokerage..... Weighing and in charge of testing coffee II . OO I8
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Helper, shipping department II . OO 17
Civil service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lerk IO. OO I8
Stationery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General office-worker IO . OO I8
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Junior clerk, statistical work IO. OO I8
Toilet articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . Shipper, makes out bills and directs drivers Io.oo I8
Shirtwaists—ladies'. . . . . . . . Assistant buyer and receiving clerk IO . OO I7
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Junior clerk. Secretary to member of firm| 9.25 I7
Real estate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office assistant. File clerk and general
office-worker 9. OO I8
Department store... . . . . . . . Newspaper clipping. General office work 9. OO I8
Dry goods and notions. . . . . Assistant receiving clerk 9. OO I7
Groceries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enters bills and checks orders Q. OO I7
Wall paper... . . . . . . . . . . . . . Order clerk 9. OO I7
Butcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shipping clerk 9. OO I7
Dry goods and notions. . . . . Bill clerk 8.5o I7
Dry goods and notions. . . . . Clerical worker and salesman 8.oo I8
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Replaces orders for shipment 8.oo I8
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Makes out tickets. Charges goods 8. oo I7
Department store... . . . . . . . Assistant advertising manager. Attends
to transferring and correcting 8. oo I7
Printing and publishing.....] Fills orders. Order clerk 8. oo I7
Printing and publishing. . . .] Keeps account of manuscripts 8.oo I7
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Clerical worker 8.oo I7
Banking and brokerage. . . . . General office worker. Does filing and
errands 8.oo I7
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office worker 8. oo I7
Motor supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . Shipping clerk 8. oo I6
Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant shipping clerk. Ships goods 8. oo I6
Feathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helper on shipping 8.oo I6
Newspaper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attendant, in charge of four boys 7.5o I6
Cement and stone. . . . . . . . . Salesman's clerk 7.5o I6
Novelties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prepares orders for shipment 7.5o I6
Confectionery. . . . . . . . . . . . . Ships orders 7.oo I8
Rubber products. . . . . . . . . . . Mail clerk and office assistant # 7. OO I8
Jewelry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant shipping clerk. Prepares orders
for shipment 7.oo I7
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Stock boy. Fills stock cards 7.oo I'7
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant shipping clerk 7. oo I7
* Adapted by permission from Bertha M. Stevens, Private Commercial
Schools, Manhattan and the Bronx, pp. 135–43. Public Education Associa-
tion of the City of New York, IoI8,
~~~
I3O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
TABLE XIII—Continued
KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS Wage Age
Clerks—Continued Range | Range
$3–16 14–18
Insurance... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes names of beneficiaries in policies $ 7.oo I7
Groceries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant to secretary. General office work 7 . oo I7
Jewelry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ffice and clerical work 7. Oo I7
Furniture and fixture..., ... File clerk 7.OO I7
Insurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Policy checker 7.oo I7
Dental supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . Shipping clerk. Ships goods 7.oo I7
Automobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Junior clerk. General office worker 7.oo I6
Drugs and medicines. . . . . . . Records charges or overcharges and errors 7.oo I6
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shipping clerk, packer, etc. 7. OO I6
Mail order house . . . . . . . . . . File clerk, Delivers packages to chutes 7.oo I6
Bottle cap making. . . . . . . . . Does clerical work for superintendent 7. Oo IS
Glassware and china. . . . . . . Receives goods and checks them 7.oo I4
Insurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mail clerk. Stamps and seals envelopes 7. oo I4
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Clerical and general office worker 6.25 17
Civil service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . First grade clerk. Does filing and indexing 6.25 I7
Steamship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does bookkeeping and filing. Keeps
records 6.25 I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Sends out letters and catalogs 6. oo I8
Department store... . . . . . . . Sample clerk 6.oo 18
Art work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clerical worker 6.oo I 7
Photography.............. Information boy. Gives information,
takes orders 6.oc 17
Woolens. . . . . . º e g º O - w tº e º 'º a Files correspondence, etc. 6.oo I7
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packs orders for shipment 6.oo I7
Tobacco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prepares orders for shipment 6.oo 17
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Ships goods, makes out labor tickets, gives
out goods to cut 6.oo I7
Dry goods and notions. . . . . . Receipt clerk i 6. oo I7
Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does all office work and filing 6 oo I7
Printing and publishing..... Keeps time. Typist 6.oo I6
Automobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ships goods 6.oo I6
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Stock boy-clerical work and errands 6.oo I6
Printing and publishing..... Filing clerk 6.oo I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Assistant shipping clerk 6, oo I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Files letters and bills. Opens mail 6.oo I5
Printing and publishing..... Files letters - 5.5o I6
Stationery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample clerk. Shows stock 5.5O I6
Hat, cap, bonnet. . . . . . . . . . Assistant shipping clerk 5. OO I8
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Law clerk. Answers cases on calendar.
Does office work 5. OO 17
Stationery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shipping clerk | | 5. OO I7
Butcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Files receipts and claims 5. OO I7
Novelties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packs, ships, and delivers goods 5. OO I 7
Packs, ships, and does general work 5. OO I?
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Board boy. Puts up quotations on stock
board 5. OO 17
Dry goods and notions. . . . . . Shipping clerk 5. OO 17
Button making. . . . . . . . . . . . Ships goods. Attends to stock 5. OO 17
Real estate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General office worker. Care of receipts,
collecting rents, etc. 5. OO I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Helper, General office worker 5. OO I6
#: aCCO . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * Packs, stamps, and does errands 5. OO I6
rinting and publishing..... Stamps mails. Deposits same in post-|
- O111Ce 5. OO I6
Printing and publishing..... Filing clerk 5. OO I5
othing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Helper in shipping department 5. OO i5
ewelry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General utility worker: Office work and
errands 5. OO I'5
Department store... . . . . . . . Collects goods from different departments 4.oo I6
§: ... • * * * * * * * * * Helper in shipping department 4. OO I6
§ gthing—outer..... * G is tº e a Assistant shipping clerk 4. OO I6
Painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant clerk. Answers bell 4. OO I5
Glassware and china. . . . . . . . Billing clerk 3.00 | 16
Not reported. , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Receiving clerk . . . . . . . . 16

*** *-* *** *** *** * * *
* -
.* * : ***** *
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 131
TABLE XIII—Continued

Woolens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Office boy
• 6 g e º 'º e &
KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS Wage Age
Errand-Messengers 3 Range | Range
$4–$5 I4–16
Hotel and restaurant. . . . . . . Office work and messenger $5.00 I6
Silk making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stock book and errands 4.50 I6
Dressing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helps bookkeeper. Does errands 4. OO I4
Wage Age
Office Boys 47 Range Range
$2–$8 I4–18
Building and contracting....| Office boy. Switchboard operator $8.oo I6
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Clerical worker 8.oo ! I6
Expressing and trucking. . . . . Helper in office 8.oo I6
Produce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy 7.5o I6
Printing and publishing. . . . . Sub-clerical worker 7.oo I7
Leather and skin. . . . . . . . . . Typist 7.oo I6
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy. Does errands 7.oo I5
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy. Mail clerk 6.oo I7
Building and contracting....| Office boy. Answers telephone 6.oo I7
Furniture and fixture.... . . . Office boy. Telephone work and mailing 6.oo I6
Buttons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy. Runs errands 6.oo I6
Metal, steel, iron. . . . . . . . . . Office clerk 6.oo I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Office boy. Does filing and general office
work 6.oo I6
Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy 6.oo I6
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Clerical worker and errand boy 6.oo I6
Steamship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy. Telephone work and mailing 6.oo I6
Dry goods and notions. . . . . Does errands and filing 6.oo IS
Building and contracting.... Sub-clerical worker 5. So I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Office boy 5. OO I8
Neckwear.................| Office and errand boy 5. OO I7
Feathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office and errand boy 5. Oo I7
Painting. . . . . . • - - - - - - - - - - - Office and telephone boy. Receives and
- announceS Visitors 5. OO I7
Musical instruments. . . . . . . Office boy. Marks price of goods on sales
slips 5. OO 17
Metal, steel, iron. . . . . . . . . . Does telephone work and mailing. Er-
rand boy 5. OO 17
Lighting fixtures... . . . . . . . . Office, errand, and telephone boy. Ad-
dresses letters 5. OO I6
Liquors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office, switchboard, and errand boy 5.oo I6
Butcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office, mail, and errand boy 5. OO I6
Express and trucking... . . . . Office and errand boy 5. OO I6
Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Messenger and office boy. Files papers 5. OO I5
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Takes care of mail books 5. Oo I5
Lithographing... . . . . . . . . . . Directs callers. Does errands 5. Oo I5
Furniture and fixtures. . . . . . Office, errand, and telephone boy 5. OO I5
Electrical appliances. . . . . . . Office, errand, and telephone boy. Re-
ceives goods 5. OO IS
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Office boy. Answers bells and telephone
calls 5. OO I4
Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy - 4.50 I6
Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy. Cleans office, does errands 4. So I4
Groceries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office, telephone, and errand boy 4. OO I6
Glassware and china. . . . . . . Office, telephone, and mail boy - 4. OO I6
Painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Errand and telephone boy. Does typing
- and takes care of samples 4. OO I6
Oil products.... . . . . . . . . . . . Watch-office boy 4. OO I5
Novelties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy 4. OO I5
Real estate..... . . . . . . . . . . . Office, mail, and telephone boy 4. OO I5
Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does light bookkeeping and switchboard
work 4. OO I5
Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . Addresses envelopes. Does errands 4. OO I4
Drugs and medicines....... Office boy. Answers bells 4, CO I4
Doctor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy, during summer and after School. 2.00 I5
*~~...~...~...º.º.º.º.º.º.º-
**---~~...~...--- 2: . . . . ººººº...","... ." iſ ... ºu. - rº" tº - ~~~
I32
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
TABLE XIV
OFFICE POSITIONS HELD BY UNTRAINED GIRLs FourTEEN TO
EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE, INCLUSIVE*
KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS Wage Age
Addressers 3 Range | Range
$6 I6–17
Mail order house . . . . . . . . . . Addresses mail $6.oo 17
Mail order house. . . . . . . . . . Addresses envelopes 6.oo I6
Printing and publishing..... Addresses envelopes 6.oo I6
Wage Age
Bookkeepers 7 Range | Range
$5–$o || 14-17
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers letters and keeps books $9. oo I7
Hat, cap, bonnet. . . . . . . . . . Does all bookkeeping for firm 7.oo I6
Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Makes entries. Takes dictation, copies
- letters S.OO I5
Express and trucking. . . . . . . Takes charge of books for father 5. OO I5
Furniture and fixtures. . . . . . Answers telephone; correspondence work.
Keeps the books 5. OO I5
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enters orders 5. OO I4
Steamship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Balances accounts for father | . . . . . . . . 17
Wage Age
Cashiers 8 Range | Range
$2.50–$9| 14-17
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Cashier. Does some bookkeeping $9.oo I5
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Takes cash, checks parcels 8. oo 17
Butcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cashier 8.co I7
Department store... . . . . . . . Tallies time of employees. Receives money
for sales 7. OO I6
Groceries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sits at register and makes change 6.oo I4
Hotel and restaurant. . . . . . . Takes charge of cash 5. OO I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Cashier and packer 5. OO I7
Butcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cashier and bookkeeper 5. OO I6
Wage A
ge
Clerks 45 * Range
3.5° | IA-3
$1o 4
Tobacco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factory pay-roll clerk $1o.oo I8
Department store... . . . . . . . Keeps records of correspondence IO. OO I8
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keeps track of material given out IO. OO I7
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graphotype operator IO, OO I5
Department store... . . . . . . . Files orders . . . . . . . . I4
Printing and publishing. . . . . Does posting and billing. Assistant book-
keeper Q. OO I8
Printing and publishing..... Files letters. Assistant bookkeeper 8.oo 18
Department store. . . . . . . . . . daressograph machine operator 8. oo 17
Dry goods and notions. . . . . Shipping clerk 8. oo I7
Printing and publishing. . . . . Makes out bills . 8.oo I7
Banking and brokerage. . . . . Keeps track of money received and files
ills 8.oo I6
Embroidery and lace. . . . . . . Marks goods 7.50 I8
Printing and publishing. . . . . Files bills 7. Oo I8
Department store... . . . . . . . Writes call checks 7. OO I7
Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does typing 7. Oo 17
Department Store. . . . . . . . . . Files and addresses letters 7. Oo I6
Photographing. . . . . . . . . . . . Does general office work 7. Oo I6
Shirtwaists—ladies’. . . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper 7.oo 17
Tobacco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tabulates sheets. Does filing 6.50 I6
* Bureau of Attendance Records, IQI5.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS, INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 133
TABLE XIV—Continued
KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
‘BUSINESS A.age Age
Clerks—Continued * | Range
$3.50- I4–18
$Io 4.
Stationery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Files letters. Assistant bookkeeper $6.oo I7
Mail order house. . . . . . . . . . Fills out blanks for customers 6.oo 17
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Keeps account of received goods 6.oo I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Cuts tickets 6.oo I6
Agricultural............... Printer. Works at stenciling and esti-
mates 6.oo I6
Mail order house . . . . . . . . . . Writes letters - 6.oo I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Attends to mail, makes out bills and keeps
OOKS 6.oo I5
Department store... . . . . . . . Attends to mail orders 5. OO IS
Feathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charges accounts 6.oo I5
Medical instruments. . . . . . . Does general office work S. 50 I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Audits due bills 5. OO I8
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Enters sales. Turns in amounts to cashier
at end of month 5. OO I8
Department store... . . . . . . . Sorts bills. Looks up orders 5. OO I7
Department store... . . . . . . . Answers telephone. Looks up orders 5. OO 17
Printing and publishing..... Files bills 5. OO I6
Pattern making. . . . . . . . . . . . Files order cards S.OO I6
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Does clerical work 5. OO I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Entry clerk. Puts checks on boxes 5. OO I6
Printing and publishing..... Addresses envelopes. Files cards 5. OO IS
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Clerk in mail order department 4.50 I7
Department store... . . . . . . . Checks up commission of clerks 4.50 I6
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Keeps track of appointments in alteration
department 4. OO I6
Department store.... . . . . . . Enters bills in books 4. OO I7
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Files letters. Answers telephone 4. OO I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Does general office work 4. OO I7
Wage Age
News Clipper I Range | Range
$5 I7
Newspaper...... s = e o e s - e. e. e. Cuts clippings from papers and pastes
them $5.oo I7
,”
Wage Age
Telephone Operator I Range | Range
$5 I7
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Calls up self charges $5.oo I7

EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
TABLE XV
OFFICE POSITIONS HELD BY BOYS FOURTEEN TO EIGHTEEN YEARS
OF AGE WHO HAVE HAD COMMERCIAL TRAINING”

KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS Wage Age
Bookkeepers 2 Range | Range
& $8–$10 I7
Roofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keeps accounts $1o.oo 17
Leather and skins. . . . . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper 8.oo 17
& Wage A
ge
Clerks 12 sº Range
4.50- 15–18
$Io
Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shipping clerk $Io.oo I7
Electrical appliances. . . . . . . . Shipping clerk. Gets orders ready and
ships them. Also receives goods 8.5o I7
Embroidery and lace. . . . . . . Does filing, indexing, and typing 8. oo I6
Railroads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Filing clerk 6.25 I7
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Does typing and filing 6.oo 18
achinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General office worker 6,oo I7
Plumbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keeps charges and letter books 6.oo I6
Stationery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packs orders for delivery 6.oo I6
Tobacco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sends out letters. Does stamping 5.5O I6
Engineering and motor sup-
plies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does filing and order work 5. OO I6
Steamship lines. . . . . . . . . . . . Mail clerk. Folds and inserts circulars 5. OO I6
Mail order house . . . . . . . . . . Checks invoices. Does billing and mailing; 4.5o I5
Wage Age
Copy Holder I Range | Range
$5 I7
Printing and publishing. . . . . Copy holder for proof reader $5.oo I7
Wage Age
Office Boys 7 Range Range
$4–$6 || 14-17
Furniture and fixtures. . . . . . Office and mail boy. Does errands $6.oo I6
Amusement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy 5.oO I 7
Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office boy. Files Drawings 5. OO I6
Department store... . . . . . . . Office boy. Does clerical and telephone
work 5.oO | 15
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Does minor clerical work and errands 5.oO I5
Real estate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does general office work and errands 4.50 I7
Drugs and medicines. . . . . . . Office boy 4. OO I4
Wage Age
Stenographers and Typists 4 Range | Range
$9–$12 || 15-18
Electricity and gas. . . . . . . . . Stenographer and typist $12.oo I8
Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correspondence. Enters freight cards IO. OO I8
Automobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stenographer and typist A. IO. OO I7
Printing and publishing. . . . . . Typist Q. OO I5
* Bureau of Allendance Records, 1915.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 135
TABLE XVI
OFFICE POSITIONS HELD BY GIRLS FOURTEEN TO EIGHTEEN YEARS
of AGE WHO HAVE HAD CoMMERCIAL TRAINING”
KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS Wage Age
Bookkeepers 6 Range | Range
$6–$8 I5-17
Automobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper. Does general office
work. Enters charges in books $8.oo 17
Department store... . . . . . . . Does billing. Answers telephone. Looks
up charges 7. Oo I7
Dental supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . Enters charges. Assists in bookkeeping 6.oo 17
Printing and publishing. . . . . Keeps book and accounts 6.oo I5
Plumbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Makes out bills . . . . . . . . 17
Funeral—Undertaking. . . . . . Bookkeeper and stenographer for father | . . . . . . . . 17
Wage Age
Cashier I Range | Range
$6 I7
Groceries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does bookkeeping and makes change $6.oo I7
Wage Age
Clerks I5 Range | Range
$3.50–$9| 14-18
Glove making. . . . . . . . . . . . . Does general office work $9. oo I8
Furniture and fixture. . . . . . . Comptometer operator 8. oo 17
Printing and publishing. . . . . Files letters. Assistant bookkeeper 8. oo I8
Printing and publishing. . . . . Files bills g 7. Oo I8
Drugs and medicines. . . . . . . Operates adding machine 7. oo 17
Printing and publishing.... . ddresses envelopes 7. Oo I7
Tobacco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant bookkeeper 6.5o I6
Instruction.... . . . . . . . . . . . . Does typing 6.oo I8
Stationery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Files letters. Assistant bookkeeper 6.oo 17
Mail order house. . . . . . . . . . Enters orders in books. Keeps monthly
totals 5.5O I7
Mail order house...... . . . . . Writes and keeps account of mail 5. OO I7
Medical instruments. . . . . . . Answers telephone and takes orders 5. OO 17
Mail order house . . . . . . . . . . Sends out requisitions S.OO I6
Glassware and china. . . . . . . Does clerical work, filing, etc. 5. OO I5
Box making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers telephone and enters bills S. OO I5
Drugs and medicines. . . . . . . Makes out bills and transfers 5. OQ I4
Feathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Addresses mail 3. SO I4
Wage Age
Telephone Operators 2 Range | Range
$6–$8 I6–18
Clothing—outer. . . . . . . . . . . Correspondence and billing. Does typing $8.oo I8
Furniture and fixtures. . . . . . Does filing and writing 6. oo I6
Wage
•gº e Range Age
Stenographers and Typists 27 $ Range
$5° | 16-y
$12 Q
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Law clerk $12.oo I9
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does secretarial work I 2 . OO I9
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does bookkeeping and stenography I 2 . OO I8
Automobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Works on pay-roll, books, letters, etc. I 2 . OO 17
Liquors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keeps track of orders and letters I2 . OO I7
Tobacco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Takes dictation IO. OO I8
Civil service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keeps records IO. OO I6
* Bureau of Attendance Records, 1915.
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
TABLE XVI—Continued

KIND OF WORK WAGE AGE
BUSINESS º: Age
Stenographers and Typists—Continued $ 5.5o- Range
$: 2 I6–Ig
Box making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stenography and bookkeeping $9.oo I6
Printing and publishing. . . . . Dictation of letters ! 8.75 I6
Mining and mining products. | Takes dictation. Does copying 8.oo I8
Real estate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Has entire charge of office dictation 7. Oo IQ
Embroidery and lace. . . . . . . Does office work 7.oo 17
Department store... . . . . . . . Files bills. Does typing 7. Oo I7
Express and trucking. . . . . . . Does bookkeeping. Receives and answers
- mail 7. OO 17
Printing and publishing.....| Takes dictation. Does office work 7. oo I6
Dressmaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Switchboard work and correspondence 7.oo I6
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Copies and addresses envelopes 6.25 17
Law and collections. . . . . . . . Types all legal work 6.oo I9
Hotel and restaurants. . . . . . Does typing and stenography 6.oo I7
Law—collections. . . . . . . . . . . Types letters 6.oo I7
Funeral—undertaking. . . . . . Keeps accounts of books. Types charges 6.oo I7
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Fills in circular letters 6. oo 17
Mail order house. . . . . . . . . . Does typing 6.oo I7
Real estate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types and files letters 6.oo I6
Printing and publishing. . . . . Types letters to subscribers 6.oo I6
Department store. . . . . . . . . . Makes out bills 5. So 17
Drugs and medicines. . . . . . . Does typing |... . . . . . I8
TABLE XVII
A COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF OPPORTUNITIES AND WAGES FOR
BOYS AND GARLS TRAINED IN COMMERCIAL WORK IN
NEW YORK CITY-1915 RECORD

BOYS GIRLS
Nº. of Wages Nº. of Wages
Bookkeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 $8–$10 6 $6–$8
Clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2. 4.50–$1o. oo I5 $3.50–$9.oo
Cashier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I $6
Copy holder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I $3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Office boys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 $4–$6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Telephone operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 $6–$8
Stenographers and typists. . . . . . . . 4 $9–$12 27 $5.50-$12. oo

EVIDENCE OF TYPE 2. THE EMPLOYMENT DEMANDS
OF CERTAIN TYPES OF BUSINESS
A.
AN INSURANCE COMPANY"
Our study of all the office positions of the Metropolitan
Life Insurance Company held by young people under twenty-
* Adapted by permission from Bertha M. Stevens, Private Commercial
Schools, pp. III–13. Public Education Association of the City of New
York, 1918.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 137
One years of age cannot, we know, be accepted as a study of
the Conditions in business as a whole. It can represent only
the Conditions likely to be met in a large, standardized business.
But standardization exists on so extensive a scale in New York
City, and its tendency to spread is so great, that the number of
workers involved and likely to be involved is sufficient to make
Standardization a matter to be reckoned with in questions of
training. Everyone who has contact with the business world
must be aware of the hordes of office employees to be found in
railroad and other transportation offices, in public utilities
offices such as the telegraph and telephone, in wholesale houses
of the sort which maintain establishments in several cities, in
the Offices of large insurance corporations and many other kinds
of already standardized business. Our information concerning
the positions at the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 733
in number, includes, for each position, the workers’ definite
Statement regarding the use of stenography and bookkeeping;
and, in the case of those workers who have had commercial
training, an additional statement regarding the general value of
their training to the position in question. As Figure I2 shows,
more than three-fourths of the boys’ positions and nearly all
the girls' find neither stenography nor bookkeeping useful, as
Such; not one position finds specific use for Stenography and
bookkeeping combined; less than one-fifth of the boys’ positions,
and a negligible portion of the girls’, use bookkeeping alone;
and the use of stenography alone is for both sexes negligible.
We should emphasize the point that the information here sub-
mitted came as direct answers to definite questions, and there
is no room for conjecture, in so far as the workers’ opinion is
Concerned. The representative of the company points out, in
this connection, that the trained boys and girls are likely to
prove more desirable than the untrained ones. Yet, he was
willing to concede that, for those not specifically employed at
Stenographic or bookkeeping work, something might be taught
which would be more applicable to their work than the ordi-
nary stenography and bookkeeping training which commercial
Schools generally give.
3.
Boys in 218 positions
Use neither bookkeeping nor stenography 78.8%
Use bookkeeping 19.6%
Use Stenography I.6%
Girls in 515 positions
Use neither bookkeeping nor stenography 92.0%
Use bookkeeping 1.8%
Use stenography 6.2%
l | ! | | l I I 1–1
o Io 20 30 4o 5o 6o 7o 8o 9o Ioo
Per cent of positions
FIG. I.2.-Use of stenography and typewriting in all office positions held by employees of the Metro-
politan Life Insurance Company, under 21 years of age. September, 1916.



WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 139
B. AN ANALYSIS OF CLERICAL EMPLOYEES IN ONE LARGE
FINANCIAL CORPORATION
TABLE XVIII

NUMBER POSITION AGE EDUCATION EXPERIENCE SALARY
Male Employees
5O . . . . . . . . . Office boys 15–16 || P. S. graduate 3 mos.-2 yrs. $ 8–12
4O . . . . . . . . . Messengers I6–18 I yr. H. S. 6 mos.-2 yrs. Io-15
5o. . . . . . . . . . Junior clerks I7—18 2–3 yrs. H. S. 3 mos.-I yr. 15–18
75 . . . . . . . . . Senior clerks I8–22 H. S. graduates | 3 mos.-2 yrs. 18–25
Female Employees
50 . . . . . . . . . | Clerical 17–19 | P. S. graduates | 6 mos.-I yr. $10–13
50 . . . . . . . . . #. I9-24 Hº: i 6 mos.-2 yrs. I3-I5
85. . . . . . . . . ictaphone - . S. graduates - -
5 º: } 22–28 (śī graduates } 2 yrs.-5 yrs. 18–25
O . . . . . . . . . ſSecretaries - H. S. graduates -- ---
3 º 25-35 (śī. 5 yrs.-IO yrs. 25-50
C. THE DEMANDS OF A MAIL ORDER HOUSE”
Among the employees of Montgomery Ward & Co., Chicago,
there is a definite distinction between the work of boys and girls.
Boys of sixteen are used in merchandising and clerical work.
Under clerical work are classified all kinds of messenger Service
between departments, which is considered an important branch
of the work. Boys are assistants in the stock rooms. They are
not employed in any division of bookkeeping, but several of
the head accountants are men. As the business is conducted
entirely by mail, the correspondents are important factors.
The majority of them are men and they are called “high-
priced,” being paid from $25 per week upwards. Ninety per
cent of the clerical force are women and girls.
File clerks are required to have finished the eighth grade,
but they are not expected to have any preparation for business.
The first step in teaching them filing is practice in Sorting.
* Adapted by permission from Gertrude B. Thayer, Educational
Director, Jones and Baker, in the Sixth Annual Proceedings of the National
Association of Corporation Schools (1918), p. IoA.
*Astatement prepared by Mary B. Shelley, 1918.
I4O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Stenographers who have finished the four-year high-school
course are preferred and Such stenographers are paid $12 a
week to start, but stenographers who have had only one year
in high School and who have learned shorthand at a business
college are employed at $9. The two-year high-school course
has sent almost no candidates here.
Typists must be sixteen years of age and are required to
have completed the eighth grade. Typists who show unusual
ability and who are especially good in English are given an
opportunity to become dictaphone operators. Dictaphone
operators are graded about the same as stenographers. About
twenty stenotypists and one shortwriter are employed on the
same basis as Stenographers.
The accounting work is done entirely by girls and women,
with the exception of a few head accountants who are men.
The comptometer is used in large numbers in the accounting
department.
A minimum wage of $8 per week is paid in all departments
and advancement is regular, but not automatic. If employees
do not merit advancement, they are discharged. This policy
is of recent development. Formerly mediocre people were
retained and advanced slowly, with the result that many are
still employed who are below average ability and who are
retained solely because of long Service. Stenographers are
advanced as rapidly as possible and may become private Secre-
taries. They are chosen for these positions because of executive
ability as well as proficiency as stenographers. The salary is
“large.” Because of the tendency of women to get married,
comparatively few of them are made correspondents. Some of
the best correspondents they had were lost in this manner and
the management became discouraged, but they may be obliged
to employ more women correspondents because of war
conditions.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 141
EVIDENCE OF TYPE 3, NATIONAL SURVEYS OF COM.
MERCIAL EMPLOYMENTS
A. THE CENSUS ENUMERATION:
TABLE XIX
Occupation Total Male Female
Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 242,979 3,575, 187 667,792
Bankers, brokers, and money lenders..... . . . . . . . . 161,613 I56,309 5,304
Bankers and bank officials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82,375 78, 149 4,226
Commercial brokers and commission men...... 27, 552 27,358 I94
Loan brokers and loan company officials. . . . . . . 4,385 4, 255 I3o
Pawnbrokers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, o&8 I, off6 22
Stockbrokers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,609 29, 233 376
Brokers not specified, and promotors.......... I6,604 I6,248 356
Clerks in stores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413,918 243; 52 I I70,397
Commercial travelers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I79, 32O I76,514 2,806
Decorators, drapers, and window dressers........ 8,853 7,69 I, I55
Deliverymen. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7O, 235 I7O, O39 Ig6
Bakeries and laundries. . . . . . & a tº $ 6 s is e º e º nº e º is a 20,888 20,858 3O
Stores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I49,347 I49, 181 I66
Floorwalkers, foremen, overseers......... tº º e º e º m 26,437 22,367 4, O70
Floorwalkers and foremen in stores............ 20,604 I6,565 4, O39
Foremen (warehouses, stockyards, etc.)........ 5,833 5,802 3I
Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers............... I3, 7I4. I2,683 I, O3.I
Insurance agents and officials................... I34,978 I29,589 5,389
Insurance agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II9, QI II4,835 5, o&
Officials of insurance companies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5, offo I4, 754 306
Laborers in coal and lumber yards, warehouses, etc. I25,609 I24, 7I3 896
Coal yards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, IQ2 25, I57 35
levators......... & & © tº gº & & & © tº dº e º & ſº is g g ºf * * * * * * II, 3I2 II, 244 68
Lumberyards..... & e º e g º e s tº gº tº & © tº tº 3 tº e º e a s e e a e 43, 35I 43, 279 54
Stockyards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e º º ºs e º e º e º e e º e s 22,888 22,859 29
Warehouses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,866 22, 156 7Io
Laborers, porters, and helpers in stores.......... I25, OO7 II6,602 8,405
Newsboys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,961 27,635 326
Proprietors, officials, and managers....... tº g g e º e a 34,776 33, 7I5 I, of I
Employment office keepers. . . . . . . . . . . . tº e g & e º e 3, o26 2, 357 669
Proprietors, etc., elevators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,858 8,836 22
Proprietors, etc., warehouses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,353 , 3IO 43
Other proprietors, officials, and managers. . . . . . I6,539 I6, 212 327
Real estate agents and officials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I49, I35 I39,927 9,208
Retail dealers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I,328, 275 | I, 249,295 78,98o
Salesmen and saleswomen............. • * * * g e º 'º e I, I?7, 494 I6,352 361,142
Auctioneers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & ſº g º ºs e º e º e s e 5, O4. 5, O45 3
Demonstrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & E → E & Gº e ſº e & & 4,823 I,639 3, 184
Sales agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * g º e º e 4I,84I 4O, 207 1,634
Salesmen and saleswomen (stores). . . . . . . . . . . . I, I25,782 769,461 356,321
Undertakers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,469 23, 342 I, I27
Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters. . . . . . 73, 574. 72,78o 794
Other pursuits (semi-skilled). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67,611 52, Ioë I5,505
Fruit graders and packers.................... , O74 4,988 3, O
Meat cutters. . . . . . . © tº e º 'º e º e º is tº gº º is g g tº e e g g º ºs 22,884 22,804 8o
Other occupations. . . . . . . . . . e G & º e º 'º e º e º e s e e is I0, 952 IO, 7II 6, 241
Clerical Occupations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 3, 126,541 | I,7oo,425 | I,426, II6
Agents, canvassers, and collectors............... I75, 772 I59, 94 I I5,831
Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & º ſº e º e º e º 'º e I3o,338 I21,428 8,910
Canvassers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º ſº tº ſº tº & I4, 705 IO, SI4 4, IQI
Collectors.... . . . . . . . dº º ſº gº tº $ g g g º º e tº dº e º ºs e º º e º ºs 3O, 729 27, 999 2,730
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants.......... 734,688 375,564 35Q, I24
Clerks (except clerks in stores)................. I,487,905 || I, or 5,742 472, I63
Shipping clerks. . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g g º & I23,684 II8,944 4, 74O
Other clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, 347, 992 882, oë8 465,924
Messenger, bundle, and office boys and girls...... II.3, O22 98,768 I4, 254
Bundle and cash boys and girls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 6,973 2,506 4,467
Messenger, errand, and office boys and girls. . . . Ioff, O49 96, 262 9,787
Stenographers and typewriters..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 154 5O, 4:IO 564,744

* Adapted from the Fourteenth Census of the
Population—Occupation Statistics, pp. 9-II.
United States, 1920.
I42 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
B. A PRIVATE SURVEY IN 1917–18
The questionnaire asked school officers to report on the
percentage of their students that found work as stenographers,
bookkeepers, and clerks, respectively. The following table
Summarizes the reports on this question:”
TABLE XX
DISTRIBUTION OF COMMERCIAL STUDENTS INTO THE WARIOUS TYPES OF
OFFICE WORK IN WHICH THEY FIND INITIAL EMPLOYMENT

e e º 'º a tº Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of
C cºnt. Schools Reporting Schools Reporting Schools Reporting
into Various Stenography Bookkeeping Clerical Work
Percentage Groups (94 Schools (87 Schools (62 Schools
ge p Reporting) Reporting) Reporting)
Per Cent
IT25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 8I. 6 - | 82.3
26-50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.8 I6. I II, 3
Over 50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36. I 2. 3 6.4
According to this table stenography is very commonly the
first occupation of commercial students. Thirty-six per cent
of the schools reporting on the number of their students who
take positions in stenography declared that they place over
50 per cent of their students in such work. Only 2.3 per cent
of the schools reporting on bookkeeping asserted that over 50
per cent of their students find work as bookkeepers, while 6.4
per cent of those reporting on clerical employment stated that
over 50 per cent of their students enter business life as clerks.
These figures are in rather sharp contrast to those shown for
the city of Cleveland. General census figures, furthermore,
show a large proportion of office employees to be in clerical
positions. Undoubtedly the terms of this question of the
questionnaire were given different interpretations by different
persons making reports. In general, it would appear, however,
that Stenography is a very Substantial stepping-stone to other
* This material is reprinted from a monograph by the author. A Sur-
vey of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of the United States,
pp. 47–49. University of Chicago, I919. t
* Where the word “few” was used on a report it was taken to mean
less than 25 per cent. -
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 143
office work, and is with great frequency the type of employment
first secured.
A further study of the preceding table shows that of the
Schools reporting on the percentage of their students beginning
work as stenographers 46.8 per cent state that from 26 to 50
per cent find Such work; 17 per cent report 25 per cent or less
of their students beginning in the stenographic field. It also
appears from an examination of the table that of the schools
reporting on the percentage of their pupils who take positions
as bookkeepers, 16.1 per cent state that from 26 to 50 per cent
of their pupils begin work as bookkeepers; 81.6 per cent of these
Schools reported 25 per cent or less of their students taking
employment as bookkeepers. Of the 62 schools that reported
Concerning their pupils becoming clerks, II.3 per cent stated
that 26 to 50 per cent take such positions and 82.3 per cent
reported 25 per cent or less of their students taking places as
clerks. *
C. A NATIONAL SURVEY OF JUNIOR COMMERCIAL
OCCUPATIONS:
It is important to remember that this survey includes only
Commercial workers, i.e., boys and girls holding office and store
positions. Furthermore, only workers under eighteen years of
age are included, i.e., from fourteen to scventeen years inclusive.
It was the intention to limit the scope of the study to young
employees, who are eligible to receive continuation School
instruction.
It is perhaps rather significant that 67 per cent of those
included in this study have had a full grammar School education
or better, while 84 per cent have completed the seventh grade
or more. This would seem to indicate that those who get less
than a grammar school training do not find their way into the
business office. Since only 33 per cent of the younger office
* Adapted by permission from A Survey of Junior Commercial Occu-
pations in Sixteen States, pp. 15, 17, 19–22, 24. The Federal Board for
Vocational Education, June, 1920. This survey was prepared under the
direction of F. G. Nichols.
I44 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
workers left School before they completed the eighth grade, it
is Safe to conclude that specialized vocational commercial train-
ing cannot be justified below the eighth grade. A larger number
had received one or more years of high School training than had
received less than a full grammar School course. Of those who
entered high School 53 per cent finished only one year; 28 per
cent left at the end of the Second year; I2 per cent remained
through the third year; and 7 per cent finished the high school
COUITS6.
It is evident that the 7 per cent who finished the high school
course at seventeen years of age were above the average.
These figures represent fairly normal conditions. About 40
per cent of those who enter high School leave at the end of the
first year in most cities. An additional 25 per cent are gone at
the end of the Second year. The mortality at the end of the
third year is always Small, representing those who withdraw
because of sickness, unexpected economic pressure in the home,
removal to another city, etc. The failures are, for the most part,
weeded out by the beginning of the third year.
Of the number of junior workers who had received some
business training, 36 per cent were trained in high Schools;
13 per cent in private business Schools; 20 per cent in continua-
tion schools; and the remainder in the junior high school,
evening School, and Corporation School. These facts are of
no special significance when taken alone. They may become
highly important, however, when considered in connection with
the positions held by these workers, and the kind of training
they had received. Of those who had received business training,
37 per cent had studied bookkeeping three months or more;
37 per cent had studied business arithmetic for that period of
time or longer; 46 per cent were enrolled in the business writing
class three or more months; 29 per cent of this group studied
business English at least three months; 27% per cent were
enrolled in the shorthand classes for a like period; and 41 per cent
had received at least three months’ instruction on the type-
writer. A negligible number had been instructed for this
length of time in office practice, office machine work, salesman-
Cit - Percer, lage
y 2V Mºſº. Sonae Susines as Trainiºn diving no Buxsiness raining city *3
tºo *O Kº cº $ó zo I55 LZ5 ºr gaſ -Hå-gº-gº-las -
Elizabeth. N J 55 T
Los Angeles, Calif.; 48 - 45 i Elizabeth, N. J.
Salern, Oregon | O - 52 || Los Angeles, Calif
Missoula, Mont 5 90 | Salem, Oregon
Sioux City, Iowa 56 85 Missoula, Mon?
Des Moines, Iowa 46 44 5ioux city, Iºwa
Galesburg, Ill 38 - 54 Dee Moiree. Iowa
| Rockford, Ill 29 - - 62 : Galesburg, Ill
Springfield, Mass. 46 - 3. ºw.
Seattle, Wash 4 - - p &ld, -
Tulsa. Okla. § - * 58 || 5eattle, Wash
5t. Louis. Mo * : 3. º:
Altoona, Pa. t - outs, Mio
Kansas Cuty. Mo || 35 .” 99. Altoona, Pa.
Portland, Oregon 23 65 Kansas City, Mo.
Chester. Pa 47 3. . º
er. Fa
Pata not available -
FIG. I.3.−Special business training of young workers
Number Receiving Instruction
Subject
Coaxrse.
Business writing
Arithrnetic
Bookkeeping
Typewriting
Business English
5hort hand
"Office Mach ure Work
Office Practice
Commercual Law
Salesmanship
Cornmercial
FIG. I.4.-Business training young workers have received

I46 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ship, commercial law, business organization, commercial geog-
raphy, and junior clerical work.
It is apparent that elementary business courses are organ-
ized like the more advanced high School commercial courses
with two positions in mind–bookkeeper and stenographer.
Business writing, business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and business
English make up the usual group of studies that are offered as
an adequate training for the younger pupil who would become
a bookkeeper or clerical assistant. Business English, shorthand,
and typewriting represent the usual preparation for stenographic
work. It is, perhaps, significant that office practice, office
machine, and Commercial geography Courses reach less than
5 per cent of our younger group of business students who seek
employment at an early age.
A careful study of the list of jobs which these boys and
girls now have reveals the fact that business training that centers
around bookkeeping and stenography is not functioning in the
cases of young office workers. Again it is apparent that a number
of common office employments afford opportunities for training
comparable with bookkeeping and Stenographic employments.
Only a very small number of those who have had the usual
type of business training are holding positions, or have ever
held positions, for which such training is the best preparation.
The real full-fledged bookkeeper is but one of many office workers
and his work has become really more important and correspond-
ingly difficult and exacting. At the same time much of the
detail or routine part of his work has been given over to what
may be called general or special clerical help. Thus it will be
seen that a relatively smaller number of expert bookkeepers
are required and that only a fraction of the boys and girls in
our commercial classes have the necessary aptitude for, inter-
est in, or desire to train for this vocation. This being true,
bookkeeping will henceforth be regarded as only one of many
very much worth while types of training that vocational coun-
selors must have in mind in dealing with boys and girls. Many
other types of commercial training will be regarded quite as
important in meeting the requirements of modern business.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS I47
Again, the stenographer, too, must be regarded as but one
type of office employee. The prevalent idea that to be trained
for office work one must have the ability to write shorthand
TABLE XXI
DISTRIBUTION OF JUNIOR WORKERS BY PosſTIONS AND BUSINESSES
3.
# É § rt: E $ ^
º C |'E 8) † ſº q) ". cº cº
9 || 3 || 5 |##| || || 3 |* 3 || 3 || 7 | p * !-4
e tº r: | "º G | Hº .32 Tº $| 3 || 3 |.E.5 H
Positions } | .ā § 25+ E ă .# 3 || 3 || 3 |:= 5 ſº
# | # | # | #|āg|##| 5 |##| # | 3 ||3:#| + | #| #
# | 3 || 5 || 3 |##|35 | # |##| # # 3;| # | # | #
3 || > || 3 || > |#| || || 5 || | | | H | | | | 3 | tº
Messenger . . . . . 236|| 51 9 |I|34 |II5 |IAS 3O |IOO || 34 O | I4 O 2 87o
General clerk... 163| 36 | 9 || 82 47 || 27 || 5 || 58 I2 || O || 6 || o || 2 || 447
Cashier. . . . . . . . 5ol 6 o | I o | I | 9 || 1 || 1 2 || O ! O || O 7I
Timekeeper. . . . I| 3 | o 16 || 2 2. O || O | O || O | I | . O || O 25
Shipping clerk. . 27|18 || 0 || 9 || 1 || o o o o o || 1 | o o 56
Receiving clerk. 4 || O 3 O || I O || O || O || O O || O O I5
Stock clerk. . . . . Ioé| 3I o 27 | II | 6 || o | I o o o o o 182
Switchboard op-
erator. . . . . . . 9| o o | Io || 4 |218 o 2 I o || 2 | o o 246
File clerk. . . . . . 53| 43 || 3 || 3o 63 || 17 | 3 | 16 || 2 | O || 4 || O o || 234
Mail clerk...... 32| 29 || 2 || 13 | 12 || Io 5o | If || 2 | o || 5 || o o | I'7I
Bundle wrapper. I52| 23 o | I6 o 2 O O || O || O I O || O I94
Delivery - wagon
river. . . . . . . 85| II o 6 o || 3 || 5 || o o o I o o III
Typist. . . . . . . . . 9| 8 || 2 || 13 || 3 || 17 || 3 || 1 || II o || 6 || o o 73
Stenographer... 22| I6 I IQ || 4 || 3 I 3 || 16 || O || 3 | o o 88
Dictaphone op- -
erator. . . . . . . I | I O I O O O O O O O O O 3
Bookkeeper. . . . Io 2 o || 6 || o 7 O || 5 || 3 || O O O || O 33
Entry clerk. . . . 6| I I O || 2 || O O || 2 || O || O || 4 || O | O I6
Ledger clerk.... 3| 2 O | Q 2 O O O I O || O || O || O 17
Cost clerk... . . . O! I O I O || O || O || O || O || O || O O || O 2
Billing clerk. . . . II | 5 || O || 4 I 7 O | I | O || O || O || O || O 29
Salesman (retail
Store). . . . . . . . 342| I | O | I O || O O O O | O || O | O | O || 344
Bookkeeping- l
machine oper-
ator. . . . . . . . . O| O O I O O O I O O O O O 2.
Calculating-
machine oper-
ator. . . . . . . . . IO | I O 6 3 O I 7 O || O || O || O O 28
Duplicating-
machine oper-|
ator. . . . . . . . . I 2 O 2 6 O O 2 O O || O O 22
Addressograph
Operator . . . . . 2 3 I 3 I O O I I O O O O I 2
Miscellaneous
machine oper- -
a LOIſ. . . . . . . . . I5 O || O || 4 || O O || 4 - || O || O O || O | O || O 23
Statement clerk. O! O | O || O || O || O || O I O || O || O || O || O I
Collector. . . . . . . 4| O O O O 3 O O O O O O O 7
Miscellaneous... 87| 26 || 31 || 42 I 25 I 3 6 o | I3 || Io o 245
Totals. . . . . I,444|324 .59 |466 |274 |5oo |II2 |2I9 || 92 2 | 61 | Io || 4 |3,567

must be put aside.
That business schools receive calls for
Stenographers or bookkeepers only does not alter the situation.
The training of these two types of office workers is their specialty
148 IEDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
and business men think of them only in this connection. Fre-
quently they camouflage their calls because a call for a clerical
worker, a file clerk, a cashier, a cost clerk, etc., would get but
little consideration. How often the statement is made, “Tech-
nical skill in bookkeeping doesn't count; what I want is a girl
or boy with a head.” It would pay any private or public
business School to ascertain just what the members of its 1915
class are doing now and compare their present occupations with
the office records of their placement to see what has happened.
This refers especially to the younger students whose place-
ments are within the restricted range of this survey.
It may be significant that of the number of boys and girls
included in this part of the inquiry, only 13.6 per cent of those
who had received instruction in bookkeeping had ever been
employed in bookkeeping work. Only 12 per cent of those
who were trained in shorthand had enjoyed the distinction of
being employed as a stenographer. These facts may prove
nothing, but they surely furnish food for thought and challenge
business educators to dig a little deeper into their problem in
the hope of discovering even greater opportunities of Service
than have hitherto manifested themselves.
D. SOME CHALLENGING STATEMENTS
I. Not more than 2 per cent of commercial workers under
eighteen years of age are stenographers and yet the majority
of such young people who take business Courses study shorthand.
2. Only about I per cent of such workers are properly
classified as bookkeepers, while practically all business course
students devote much of their time to bookkeeping. We are
not getting all we should out of this subject and the time devoted
to it should be shortened, or the teaching method should be
revised.
3. There are at least three dozen commercial occupations
that are worthy of serious consideration in any comprehensive
* Adapted from a pamphlet by F. G. Nichols, based on findings of the
Special. Committee on Commercial Education, 1920. Later published as
part of Survey of Junior Commercial Occupalions in Sixteen States.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 149
plan for giving business training. Commercial teachers are not
for the most part concerned about more than a bare half dozen
Subjects in their thinking. Three of these dominate all elemen-
tary commercial education plans to the positive detriment of
many boys and girls.
4. General clerical positions bring young office employees
into Contact with more people, reveal a wider range of aptitudes,
offer better opportunities for advancement, and furnish employ-
ment to a larger proportion of our commercially trained young
men and women than do Stenographic and bookkeeping posi-
tions. Special office practice, however, is usually reserved for
the few who survive to the end of the long four year course.
5. In Some cities at least a third of the commercial occupa-
tions listed offer salary returns quite equal to those made in
shorthand and bookkeeping positions. Such jobs are not to
be sneered at by those who would offer commercial training
programs that will meet the vocational needs of all who are
entitled to consideration.
6. Timekeepers, receiving clerks, and entry clerks frequently
earn more money than assistant bookkeepers among such
younger office workers.
7. Office machine operating requires brains and training,
public opinion to the contrary notwithstanding. To be a good
calculating machine operator one should be fairly well trained
in the accurate manipulation of figures. So far we have been
quite content to “demonstrate the machine,” rather than to
teach picked boys and girls to operate it.
8. “Telephone girls” require training, get good wages, have
good conditions under which to work, and are not without
promotional possibilities. In numbers employed this occupa-
tion is not far behind the other better known business employ-
ments. Some girls are especially qualified for this type of service.
9. The retail store not only claims a very large proportion
of our very young people, but offers exceptional opportunities
for future advancement. However only a small fraction of
young store workers actually sell goods. Furthermore only a
small fraction stay long enough to become salespeople.
150 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
\
Io. The file clerk has an opportunity to render exceptional
service for which a high salary may be expected. Contrary to
popular belief it is not a “blind alley” job. In our commercial
courses we fail to do more than expose our boys and girls to this
important subject which is especially well adapted to certain
types of young people. -
II. In at least one city twelve of the occupations listed offer
“Special opportunities for advancement.” All vocational train-
ing should have this feature definitely in mind.
I2. Most young people sense the need for more of what
may be called a “general business training,” as distinguished
from “special training.”
13. By enabling those who have dropped out of school to
make up what they have lost, the continuation school is send-
ing many back to the all-day school. What does this suggest
in the way of training?
I4. A modified type of business education must be provided
for boys and girls between fourteen and seventeen years of age
if their vocational needs are to be met.
I5. General training, motivated by commercial applications,
must be furnished along with any specialized business training.
I6. The demand for traditional types of business training
by young people who can not profit by receiving such training
must be converted into a demand for more suitable types of
business training by educating both the boys and girls and their
parents in the real vocational needs that have been established
by ample evidence.
E. A SENIOR COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS SURVEY'
The data summarized in the report were collected by survey
committees in the following cities: Baltimore, Md.; Battle
* Adapted from a Preliminary Report on the Senior Occupations Survey.
The Federal Board for Vocational Education, April, 1922. These advance
sheets were made available through the courtesy of E. W. Barnhart, chief
of the Commercial Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education.
The tables referred to in this statement appear in the original, but are
so extended as to make their inclusion here inadvisable.—AUTHOR.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 151
Creek, Mich.; Boston, Mass.; Dallas, Texas.; Los Angeles,
Cal.; Meriden, Conn.; Springfield, Mass.; Tacoma, Wash.
These cities include three of our very largest, three of inter-
mediate size and two of the small (35,000).
So the figures are
truly representative of commercial occupations throughout a
wide range of city conditions.
A CLASSIFICATION OF GENERAL OFFICE POSITIONS*
EXECUTIVE
General
General Manager
Office Manager
Department Execu-
tives and Assist-
ants
Accountant ,
Auditor
Comptroller
Cost Accountant,
Advertising
Manager
Credit Manager
Employment
Manager
Personnel Director
Sales Manager
Traffic Manager
Purchasing Agent
Minor Executives and
Executive Assist-
ants
Chief Clerk
Head Bookkeeper
Head Stenographer
Head, Mail Room
Division Head
Chief File Clerk
Supervisor, etc.
CLERICALí
Stenographic
Stenographer
Dictaphone
Operator
Ediphone
Operator
Stenotypist
Secretary
Bookkeeping
Accountant
Bookkeeper
Bookkeeping-
Cashier
Entry Clerk
Ledger Clerk
Journal Clerk
Recording Clerks
Bill Clerk
Collector
Cost Clerk
Invoice Clerk
Order Clerk
Price Clerk
Payroll Clerk
Statistical
Stores
Time Clerk
Voucher
General Clerk
MACHINE OPERATORS
Addressing Machine
Addressograph
Bellknap
Elliott 2-
Billing Machine
Elliott-Fisher .
Remington-Wahl.
Underwood
Bookkeeping Machine
Burroughs . .
Elliott-Fisher
Ellis
Remington-Wahl
Underwood
Calculating Machine
Burroughs L^
Calculator /
Comptometer
Marchant
Monroe
Card Punching
Machine
Duplicators
Graphotype
Multigraph
Mimeograph
Photostat
Telephone
Switchboard
l
L-7
* Special types of business not included in this list.
i Special clerical positions in particular businesses not included.
I52 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
EXECUTIVE CLERICALí MACHINE OPERATORS
PROFESSIONAL AND Non-recording Clerks Tabulating Machine
SEMI-PROFESSIONAL; Cashier (Coin) Typewriter
Certified Public Ac- Errand boy
Countant File
Senior Accountant Mail
Junior Accountant Messenger
Business Service Ex- Office boy
perts Page
Advertising Receiving
Systematizing Shipping
Traffic Stock
Employment
Correspondence
Translating
Commercial
Engineer
f Special clerical positions in particular businesses not included.
£ Called upon to render special services occasionally in the general office.
LESSONS FROM THE SURVEY FOR COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
The most striking characteristic of the facts thus far col-
lected is the overwhelming predominance of the general record-
ing group of office workers: at all ages for men, from eighteen
to thirty, this group contains more than half, at times five-
eighths, of the men office workers; at all ages for the senior
women this group leads, though never in so great a preponder-
ance as with the men.
The general clerk is the foundation of this group. What he
does is a composite of all the occupations listed in the recording
and non-recording groups with perhaps an occasional bit of the
bookkeeping group also. On the whole schooling for the general
clerk is schooling for this group. The general clerk must have
a knowledge of all kinds of office work and the best methods for
doing the great range of tasks which falls to the all-round office
worker. The general clerk is not buried in a highly specialized
field; he helps everywhere in the office so if his preparation is
broad enough, he has the greatest opportunity to rise, to become
a Supervisor, an office manager, or, in time perhaps, an even
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 153
higher executive. Obviously then the commercial course should
definitely include and train for the range of work and pro-
motion which the general clerk has before him.
The training of a general clerk should be that which gives
the widest possible knowledge of business and the highest
attainable degree of skill in certain kinds of office work. The
general clerk should know what services are available from every
business organization-telephone, telegraph, express, post office,
railroad, bank, insurance, Credit bureau and similar business
service companies—and more important still, know exactly how
to use each Service with all the common precautions observed
by careful business men. Such a clerk must know how to use
office reference books, guides, directories, rating books and
should know how to read the daily financial and market reports.
For his work as a mail clerk, a cashier, a file clerk, the general
office worker must be skilled in folding and handling large
volumes of mail; know how to count, stack, and handle coin
and currency; as well as know how to file and find the papers
entrusted to him. His training must give him familiarity with
all the usual or unusual business papers, orders, invoices, state-
ments, bills of lading, domestic and foreign, and prepare him
for all the everyday problems associated with making out and
handling these papers. A properly prepared clerk will have a
penmanship flexible enough to permit him to write a heavy
hand on checks, a minute hand on 3X5 record cards, a legible
hand in pencil on duplicating forms whether he is sitting down
or standing up; he must have also a knowledge of arithmetic
extending from the work of a billing clerk to that of a payroll or
statistical clerk. In order to do all this work such a clerk must
be familiar with the tools of the office, the typewriter, adding
machines, numbering machines, stamp affixer; kinds of papers,
of pens, or ink, and the whole world of common office appliances.
For his success as a worker as well as for possible promotion,
he should be acquainted with some of the problems in managing
and conducting an office—especially those centering about di-
recting workers and fixing wages and developing incentives for
increased efficiency, A limited knowledge of elementary book- .
I54 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
keeping, enough to have him understand the use of the cash
book, the ledgers and how to post could be included.
An analysis of the bookkeeping texts now in general use
and a study of the usual methods of teaching bookkeeping show
that the bookkeeping courses commonly given do not prepare
for the work of the general clerk. The bookkeeping as custom-
arily presented is too narrow; it has too strictly in mind the actual
keeper of the ledger. The texts make no provision for teaching
the extent or use of Common general business services—the
telephone, the railroad, or even the bank—nor are the transac-
tions of any one kind sufficient to afford the variety of problems
necessary. For example: to teach all that a general clerk should
know about filling out railroad bills of lading, negotiable and
non-negotiable bills, covering shipments of all kinds to all
points, is not the purpose of the bookkeeping text; hence the
three or four now required to be filled out by the average text
do not give sufficient, nor varied enough training in using so
common a form. The bookkeeping Course as now organized
requires too much time for financial statements and the theory
of debit and credit and does not devote enough time or atten-
tion to giving accurate, general business information or to
developing definite office skill. Counting college currency does
not develop a knowledge of how to handle money, taking
inventory of cans of Corn in the shape of tiny pieces of paper
does not prepare a pupil for a real inventory.
The bookkeeping may have a place in our Commercial educa-
tion but its place is after the general office training; not in
place of it. The bookkeeping should be viewed as a specialized
kind of office work which to be intelligently done should be
based upon a wide knowledge of business services and subsidiary
office work. It may be a proper field for specialization in
the high schools. It is not now, and the present teaching
materials—texts, incoming and outgoing papers, etc.—do not
permit it to be an introductory business course fitting for general
office work which the sixteen to twenty year boy and girl are
called upon to do when employed as messengers, file, Stock, or
other clerical workers such as those listed under the recording
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 155
and non-recording groups, though Summed up in the work of
the general clerk.
The changes in the high school commercial course needed
to give the general office training outlined are not extensive.
In place of the present bookkeeping course in the first two years
of the high school there might be:
FIRST YEAR
1. An elementary course in Business Procedure and
Practices. -
2. An Elementary Office Practice and Information course
one-half year on a double period basis. *
SECOND YEAR
3. An Advanced Office Practice and Information course
one-half year on a double period basis.
4. An Elementary Office and Commercial Organization
course one-half year on a double period basis.
Along with these unit courses should go the penmanship,
arithmetic, English and economic geography usually taught but
each should be modified in order to contribute to the utmost to
the preparation for general office work which business demands.
Typewriting would be a desirable elective here.
General clerical training will be far more valuable for the
large number of pupils who drop out of the eighth, ninth, and
tenth grades than the Smattering of unassimilated bookkeeping
which now furnishes their equipment for earning a living. The
Introduction to Business Procedure and the Elementary Office
Practices and Information are far more suitable to the junior
high school pupils than the bookkeeping or shorthand now being
introduced. For either the junior or senior high schools the
courses as outlined are constructed on a unit basis each unit of
which is valuable for the boy or girl who must drop out when it
is completed and each advanced unit of which tends to attract
the children in the lower classes and so to hold them in school.
STENOGRAPHY FOR GIRLS
A study of the percentage of each age-group in the steno-
graphic group shows rather conclusively that there is little place
I56 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
in business for the stenographer who is less than eighteen, and
that the greatest number employed are between twenty and
twenty-four. As eighteen is approximately the average age
of graduation from the high School, it is evident that there is
little vocational value in giving shorthand instruction below
the third year of the high school course. The first two years
can be used to far better advantage in giving a broad knowl-
edge of business practices and office work which will give the
immature and unexperienced high School girls Some background
of general business information on which to place the shorthand
with its constant assumption of an accurate knowledge of the
business situations presented in the dictation given. The
occupational figures afford Small consolation for those who want
to have stenography taught in the first two years of the high
school course or in the junior high School so as to turn out Stenog-
raphers at sixteen or less for whom the business man has little
use, and then only because they are cheap workers.
STENOGRAPHY FOR BOYS
The percentage of the total number of men between eighteen
and thirty employed as Stenographers would seem to indicate
that there was some justification for teaching shorthand to
boys. However, the comparatively small number of men
included in the table raises a doubt about the relative position
of Stenography as a man's job especially when occupational
figures from other sources indicate that men constitute less than
5 per cent of all the stenographers and that only a very small
percentage of men commercial workers are found in stenographic
positions. In general it, seems safe to say that Stenography is
of real vocational value to a boy in two cases only: First, to
follow as a profession—as a public or court reporter; second,
to use in obtaining a position close to an important executive
who will recognize the superior abilities of his stenographer by
a rapid promotion to a Supervisory or executive position. This
last justification is based upon two rather slender assumptions:
first, that the boy is of such extraordinarily superior ability that
he will be reasonably certain of promotion once he finds the
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 157
right office; second, that this marvel will find a position near
an executive ready and willing to promote him to the awaiting
vacancy. In either case only the unusual boy should be
admitted to the shorthand class.
THE COMBINATION COURSE
Curiously enough among the returns from 2600 commercial
workers all of whom were canvassed by Commercial teachers,
there has been found but one stenographer-bookkeeper. Evi-
dently the commercial teachers who had advised or required
boys and girls to take bookkeeping and shorthand found but
little to justify their recommendations. Combination courses
for boys are, with the exception of the boy who takes shorthand
as an extra Subject, entirely unjustified as preparation for
modern business positions. A few girls may find employment
in Small offices where a combination training is needed, but a
good general office training will suffice for all the bookkeeping
work to be done in so small an office. Stenography in the
cities included in this survey is one field; bookkeeping is
another; and there is Small justification for requiring either
boys or girls to prepare for two distinct fields.
BOOKKEEPTNG
The ages at which the bookkeeping group employs a con-
siderable percentage of workers—-20–27 for men, 22–27 for
women—seems to indicate that bookkeeping is viewed by
business men as a very responsible task to be given only to
experienced workers, preferably to those who have had expe-
rience in their own office and who have had an opportunity of
learning the system and routine developed in that office.
The absence of any large number, or percentage, of book-
keepers below the age of twenty would seem to point still further
to the fact that technical vocational bookkeeping should be
given in the last years of the high school course only. The
schoolmen who teach all the boys and girls of fourteen book-
keeping, that only a small number will use vocationally, and
then only after six to eight years, certainly are optimists in
the value of cold storage education.
158 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
RETAIL STORE SELLING
Retail store Selling and related positions hold third place for
the Senior group of Commercial workers, second place for the
juniors and second place for both groups combined. If the
financial returns in store work are equal to those from shorthand,
bookkeeping or general office work for women, this field is
evidently worth entering.
Training Courses for retail store service as generally organ-
ized in the high Schools have been confined to the last two
years.
The largest field for commercial workers in this country is
found in the retail trade. Store work for men holds in this
Survey a comparatively Small place, but this is largely because
few stores employing men were included in the survey.
MACHINE OPERATING
Machine operating seems to be pre-eminently a woman's
field. The modern office uses typewriters, calculating, dupli-
cating and bookkeeping machines to a very large extent.
Queerly enough in the development of commercial educa-
tion in this country, the demand for short course instruction in
the public schools has never been met by the development of
machine operating courses. The operation of Some of the more
complex office machines, such as the typewriter-bookkeeping
machines, should be considered as distinct vocations and, if
training is given in the public Schools for these fields, they
should be treated as Separate Occupations.
TRAINING FOR SUPERVISORY AND EXECUTIVE POSITIONS
There is an interesting difference in the field of execu-
tive positions So far as relative number of men and women
employed are concerned. Only a very small percentage of the
women seem to rise to executive positions and then rather late.
Men are found in executive positions in larger numbers and at
much earlier ages. The reasons for this are not worth while
discussing, but the Schools should recognize this fact in the type
of training given the boy.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 159
A large number of high school students—many not in the
commercial department—expect to enter business upon gradua-
tion and then, through family connections, in a short time to
rise to supervisory or executive positions and eventually become
independent business managers. The number of students who
have this program in mind can be readily ascertained in any
school by checking the number of academic graduates who enter
business without having had more than a course or So in the
commercial department. For many of these students the com-
mercial department with its routine clerical bookkeeping work,
is unattractive and often belittled by family and business
associates. These boys will not go to college and they will
enter business with no understanding of the fundamental prin-
ciples which underlie our present business structure. Their
equipment in this respect is but little inferior to that of the
graduates from the commercial department, for no place in our
secondary schools has been found where the Social-economic
subjects which give an insight into the organization and struc-
ture of our social and economic life are taught. -
The need for subjects from this field becomes all the more
striking when one seeks to find out what becomes of our high
school graduates after a business apprenticeship of from five
to ten years. Those who are still found in the field of com-
merce after this time are scattered throughout the whole field,
but only those whose training and aptitudes have fitted them
for promotion have risen to the higher positions. Only those
who have gained, either through schooling or experience, an
insight into the principles which underlie the structure and
functioning of our modern business organization will be able to
take an intelligent part in business, civic and Social life and
become intelligent and constructive critics of the faults they
find. -
Considering the need for a broader preparation in this field
of economics, of business and social life, there is undoubtedly
urgent need for the development of a general business course
in the commercial department of the high school which will
offer as electives, during the third and fourth years, half-year
160 * EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
\
Courses suited to high school students in the following fields:
finance and financial organization of modern Society, market-
ing and market organization, labor and personnel problems
and relations, elementary business management problems,
elementary economics, elementary psychology stressing indi-
vidual relationships. e
Of course these new subjects will accompany, not supersede,
any specialized vocational courses in bookkeeping, stenography
or retail selling which may be offered in the third and fourth,
years of the high school. These are to be the related commercial
Subjects which will furnish the background for the technical
Commercial courses. They may crowd out some of the college
preparatory courses for the pupils in the commercial department,
but if they do it will be because their intrinsic worth for those
who will not go to college justifies the change. Certainly their
holding power for commercial department students will exceed
that of the college preparatory subjects which they replace.
In the program of the general high school student who does not
take the commercial course these subjects will function as Social
science subjects and should replace some of the non-usable
college preparatory subjects ordinarily taken. The teaching
of these subjects in the secondary schools has been demonstrated
to be entirely within the range of high school pupils by Schools
which have been experimenting with some of these subjects and
a program for the development of these social Science subjects
in the secondary schools, including the teaching of these sub-
jects, has been recommended by several committees of promi-
nent educators who are studying the expansion of the Social
science subjects in the high School.
The purpose of these subjects is not found in their deferred
values but in their possibilities for immediate realization.
These subjects will function at once in giving the students an
understanding of the business world in which they work.
Beginners who have a knowledge of these fields will be better
employees, more sympathetic and willing Co-Operators, more
discriminating in absorbing and interpreting their daily expe-
riences, more intelligent citizens when passing upon the Social
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS, INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 161
and economic issues, and finally somewhat prepared for the
problems to be solved by the independent business manager.
EVIDENCE OF TYPE 4. DIFFERENT DEMANDS FOR THE
SEXES IN COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS
A. THE EVIDENCE OF A PRIVATE SURVEY IN 1917–18 ON DIFFERENT
DEMANDS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS"
The following table shows that high-school principals have
observed business men's requirements to be quite different for
boys and girls. As this table indicates, nearly two-thirds of
the schools reporting on this question indicated that a differ-
ence has been noted between the requirements in business for
the sexes. In spite of this fact, the commercial course has
persisted in giving the same work for both boys and girls.
TABLE XXII
OBSERVATIONS OF PRINCIPALS CONCERNING BUSINESS MEN'S REQUIRE-
MENTS OF BOYS AND GIRLS (66 SCHOOLS REPORTING)
NOTING DIFFERENT REQUIREMENTS OF ' || NOTING No DIFFERENT REQUIREMENTS OF
BOYS AND GIRLS BOYS AND GIRLS
Number Percentage Number Percentage
42. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.4 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.6
Some of the replies indicating the differences which have
been noticed in business requirements are interesting and in-
structive and are quoted below: “Girls are wanted mostly as
stenographers, and bookkeepers and are expected to merely
follow directions. Boys are expected to learn to exercise judg-
ment and initiative and advance in the business.” “Boys are
expected to grow up with the business; girls are expected to
remain in same position until they drop off into the troubled
sea of matrimony; otherwise requirements alike.”
This material is reprinted from a monograph by the author. A S ur-.
vey of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of the United States,
pp. 46–47. University of Chicago, 1919.
I62 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
It is interesting to notice how definitely these comments
fit into the conclusions made in the Cleveland survey, where
one of the summaries on business education for boys reads as
follows: “Boys’ training looks forward to both clerical work
and business administration; but as clerical work is a prepara-
tion for business and is likely to occupy the first few years of
wage-earning, training should aim especially to meet the needs
of clerical positions.”
This same view of the need of training for administration
for boys is expressed in other phrasing in replies received:
“Boys, initiative; girls, routine.” “Business men do not
require stenography of boys so generally as of girls.” “Find
little difference; but Miss C— says they will take a worse
boy than girl for the same job.” “Most business men want
boys who can eventually become salesmen.” “Girls for steno-
graphic positions. Boys for other positions.” “Greater initia-
tive demanded of boys.” “Looking for possible salesmen or
executives in hiring boys.” “Business men would make the
central aim of commercial training of boys the fitting of them
for managerial and executive positions, while they think of
girls as only worthy of high-grade office positions as stenog-
raphers and bookkeepers.”
Such a statement as that employers are “more lenient with
girls” and the impression that “business men seem to be more
severe regarding punctuality and accuracy with boys than with
girls” remind one of Miss Stevens' quotation from Potash and
Perlmutter: “Some lady bookkeepers come to the store so late
and goes home so early that they hardly allow themselves enough
time downtown to go out and eat lunch at all.” “If most lady
bookkeepers would spend half so much time over their books
as they do over their hair we would get a trial balance once in
a while without calling in one of them satisfied public
accountants.”
One school principal seems to summarize the case very well
with the statement: “Generally if you can say a boy has pep
and a girl is quiet, you have satisfied the business man.”
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 163
B. THE EVIDENCE OF THE FEDERAL BOARD’s SURVEY'
About 56 per cent of the total number of workers canvassed
are boys, and 44 per cent are girls.
It is interesting to note that only 8.9 per cent of the total
number of boys and girls included are fourteen years of age.
Of the boys only II.8 per cent are in the fourteen year old group,
while but 5 per cent of the girls are in this group.
Of the total number only 22 per cent are in the fifteen year
group; 26.6 per cent of the boys and 16.3 per cent of the girls
are but fifteen years of age.
Of the entire number 33 per cent are sixteen years of age;
32.7 per cent of the boys and 32.9 per cent of the girls are in
this age group.
The remainder of the entire group, or 36.1 per cent are in
the Seventeen year age group; 28.7 per cent of the boys and
45.7 per cent of the girls are seventeen years of age.
From the analysis of the figures given on page 164 it is
evident that fewer girls than boys enter commercial employ-
ments at fourteen years of age. The same is true of the
fifteen year age. There are more sixteen year old boys than
there are sixteen year old girls in business positions. This is
reversed, however, in the seventeen year age group.
In the future it is quite likely that differentiated business
training will be given to boys and girls. While boys and girls
are employed for similar work at the outset, later promotions
tend to draw them apart. Their ultimate job objectives may
suggest specially adapted courses for either group. At any
rate, special vocational training for boys is needed earlier in
the curriculum than it is for girls. In states where the continua-
tion school law takes effect gradually, those who are making
plans for the fourteen year old group next year, the fifteen
year old group the following year, and so on, will find in these
figures some evidence as to the probable size of their classes and
* Adapted from Survey of Junior Commercial Occupations in Sixteen
States, pp. 35–37. The Federal Board for Vocational Education, June,
1920. This survey was prepared under the direction of F. G. Nichols.
§
Bundle Wrapper
Calculating Machine Op't'r
£ashier
File Clerk
General Clerk
Mail Clerk
Messenger
5alesman
Shipping Clerk
Stenographer
5tock Clerk
Switchboard Operator
Typist
Percentage.
city Male I Fernale City
&º zº so o º zo Jö 49 º Yg
Elizabeth, N.J. 42 . . . . Elizabeth. N. J.
Los Angeles. Cotif || 65 95 : Los Angeles. Calif.
Salem. Oregon 70 30 Salem. Oregon
Missoula, Mont 6& S2 || Mussoula, Monſ.
5uoux City. Iowa 49 51 Sioux City. Iowa
Des Motries. Iowa 59 4 Des Mounes, Iowa
- Gatesburg, Ill 7 | 29 || Golesburg. Itſ.
* Rockford, Ill 7 j 29 Rockford. It
# Springfield, Mass 55 42 || Springfield, Mass.
5eottie. Wash 45 55 Seattle, Wash
Tulso. Cºla 39 6 Tulsa, Okla
'l St. Louis. Mo 73 27 || 5t Louis, Mo.
Altoona. Pa 55 4S | Altoona, Pa.
Kansas City. Mo ; 55 45 || Kornsas city. Ma
Port lond, oreson. d 32 | Portland. Oregon.
Chester. Po, 67 DD Chester. Pa
FIG. I.5.-Percentage distribution according to sex of junior workers in indicated cities
Boys
Occa Ipation? O JOO 2OO . ... ºOO &OO 6CO 7oo
Bookkeeper
FIG. I6.—Relative importance of fourteen positions


WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 165
the division of the enrollment by sexes. Wherever the num-
bers enrolled and the work they perform seems to justify it,
boys and girls should be enrolled in separate classes. For
example, girls will not beinterested in the Shipping Clerk Course
and boys can scarcely be expected to require the Dictaphone
Course. Every attempt should be made to meet the individual
as well as the group needs of all continuation school boys and
girls.
TABLE XXIII
DISTRIBUTION OF JUNIOR WORKERS BY AGE AND SEx

Boys Girls 3. º, ell Positions
Positions Held by Boys ...'. § r Offering Special
and G. º: to 18 and St : º for
earS Of Age Vancement
14 | 15 | 16 || 17 | 14 | 15 | 16 || 17 raphºred Marked A*
Messenger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . IIol 229|228|I24. IG| 32| 69| 45| XXXX AAAAAA
General clerk. . . . . . . . . . . 21| 56| 74|85| 8| 34 50, 77| XXXXXXX | AAAAAAAA
Cashier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o! I o|| 7 || 3| I4] 18, 17| XXX AAA
Timekeeper. . . . . . . . . . . . . of 2] 5| 6] of 2 2ſ 2| XX AA
Shipping clerk. . . . . . . . . . 4|| 7 18| 13 of ol of 13| XXXX AAA
Receiving clerk . . . . . . . . . I} of 2 7) of ol I.] 4| XX . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stock clerk. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2| 37| 42|| 47| 3 | 16. Io 21 | XXX AAAAAA
Switchboard operator. ... o! I | 2, 2 o' Ir 67|Iro, XXX AA
File clerk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2| 18| 391 35 4 18| 4o 57| XXXXX AAAAA
Mail clerk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4| 18; 30, 29| 2 8; 13 15| XX AA
Bundle wrapper. . . . . . . . . 7| I5] I7] I4| 3 || 31|| 55 51 | X A
Delivery wagon driver. . . 14; 26|| 36|| 22 of oi o o XX A.
Typist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Il of 3 of 4. I5| 33| X AA
Stenographer. . . . . . . . . . . o] I | I] 6 ol 8, 24' 48l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAA
Dictaphone operator. . . . . Il 2 ol ol ol of Il ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.
Bookkeeper. . . . . . . . . . . . . o| I] Il ol of o' 8| Ig|... . . . . . . . . . . . AAA
Entry clerk. . . . . . . . . . . . . Ii I | 2 || 6 | I]. I I 6| XX A.
Ledger clerk. . . . . . . . . . . . o| ol 2; 2 ol 2, 3} of X A
Cost clerk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ol ol ol ol ol ol Il ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Billing clerk. . . . . . . . . . . . o o 4| 7 o' 3| 8 || 7 | XX AAAA
Salesman (retail store). . . 14|| 25| 51 49. I4] 28 61j Q3| XXXX AAAAA
J3ookkeeping machine op- * p
erator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o o oſ I o oſ I of X | . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculating machine op- j
erator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I| 4 || 2 || 2 || 1 || 1 || 3| I3| X i A
Duplicating machine op-
erator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I| 3 4 5 di ol 4| 5 | XX i: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addressograph operator. . ol Il 4| I] of 2 2| 2 | X . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous machine op-
erator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ol Of Ol 2 Oi 3| 5 | Iol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statement clerk. . . . . . . . . Ol Cºl Ol II Ol Cºl Ol Ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Collector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O| 2 | Ol 5 of Ol Ol O} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous........... 36|| 4ol 44, 38| 18! 22: 2O/ 22|, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Totals. . . . . . . . . . . . . 219|491|608||528| 73|240|482|67o 3 - 3II . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Each X indicates that a city reported the indicated position as paying quite as well
as bookkeeper or stenographer. Thus, four cities checked “messenger.” Each A indi-
cates that one city specified the indicated job as having exceptional promotional possibilities.
Thus six cities so marked “messenger.” º -
I66 |EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
EVIDENCE OF TYPE 5. ANALYSIS OF JOBS IN
COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS
A. THE PURPOSE OF JOB ANALYSIS AND AN EXAMPLE,
The first element in the selection of applicants for given
jobs is the determination of the human qualifications necessary
for their successful performance. This is predicated upon thor-
ough study of a job content. . . . . Often job analysis reveals
that certain qualifications which have long been regarded as
necessary in applicants for given jobs are not essential; and
vice versa, it is often discovered that qualifications necessary
to the successful performance of certain work have been entirely
overlooked. In making job specifications care should be taken
to distinguish between the essential and the desirable qualifica-
tions for jobs.
It is interesting to compare the human qualifications looked
for in applicants for the same job by different employment
managers, and then to check these against the qualifications
determined upon by job analysis. The following list shows
the variety of qualifications desired and indicates which of
them seems, as a result of job analysis, really essential for the
jobs in question:
Qualifications Desired by Qualifications Determined
Position Fwºn by Careful Job Analysis
File Clerk - Accuracy 4 Alertness
Neatness 2 Accuracy
Industry I Love of Monotony
Intelligence I Loyalty to Work
Concentration I Good Memory
Carefulness I
Judgment I
Speed I
Orderliness I
Appearance I
Character I
Experience I
Training I
* Adapted by permission from the Ninth Annual Proceedings of the
National Association of Corporation Schools (1921), pp. 216-18.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 167
Qualifications Desired by Qualifications Determined
Position Fiºn by Careful Job Analysis
Hand Bookkeeper Speed 4. Accuracy
(Bank) Experience 4 Penmanship
Accuracy 3 Neatness
Penmanship 3 Reliability
Neatness 2 Knowledge of Prin-
Character 2 ciples of Bookkeep-
Intelligence I IIlg
Dependability I
Industry I
Concentration I
Reliability I
High School
Education I
Money Counter Accuracy 4 Accuracy
Speed 3 Speed
Integrity 3 Patience
Concentration 2 Trustworthiness
Patience I
Vigilance I
Neatness I
Industry I
Appearance I
Health I
Experience I
Typist Accuracy 5 Accuracy
Speed 4 Speed
Neatness 3 Neatness
Experience 3 Good Memory
Character 2 *
Intelligence I
Dexterity I
Education I
Appearance I
Industry I
3.
TABLE
XXIV
AN ANALYSIS OF CLERICAL AND OFFICE POSITIONS
accounting or statistics, (b)
supervision of junior clerks,
(c) expert Stenography
tion plus one year||
of business educa-
tion or equivalent
Generº: of the Education Required Experience Required Personal Qualities Intelligence Age Examples
Executive Graduation from a rec-|Four or more years' |Executive ability, in-| Superior 26-45 Sub-division managers
ognized college or uni-| experience in the gen- itiative, originality, - and up
versity. Lack of edu-| eral line in which he is co-operativeness, abil- -
cation may in some to be employed or in a ity to develop men,
cases be compensated closely allied line reliability
for by high intelli-
gence or skill as shown
in previous experience
Minor executive clerical—A |a) Graduation from ala) Three or more|Executive ability, in- High 35-40 Section heads, admin-
position involving executive recognized college years’ experience in itiative, reliability, average istrative ... assistants,
Supervision of a non-routine or university the general line in co-operativeness, abil- * assistant division and
section where employee |b) Two years collegeſ which he is to be ity to develop men sub-division managers
must in addition to having or equivalent employed or in a
executive ability be experi- closely allied line
enced in the work of his b) Four or more years'
section and position as ad- experience
ministrative assistant to
higher officers
Special and supervisory—A |a) Graduation from ala) One or more years’ Reliability, accuracy, High 24-35 Heads of sections
position involving (a) super- recognized college experience initiative, co-opera- average where work is purely
vision of routine or clerical or university b) Three or more tiveness clerical and routine,
work where work is exten-b) High school educa-| years’ experience confidential clerks,
sive enough so that super- tion clerks of special as:
vision is the main feature of signments, first class
the position, (b) work on Secretaries, accoun-
special assignments of a tants
varied nature, (c) work re-
quiring training or experi-
ence of an unusual nature,
(d) work involving unusual
responsibility
Senior clerical—A clerical |a) Graduation from a}a) Little or no experi-|Reliability, accuracy, Average 2I-3o Bookkeepers, ledger
position of trust and re- recognized college ence neatness, speed, in- clerks, statistician,
sponsibility involving (a) or university b) One or more years’ itiative pricing and summary
knowledge of bookkeeping, b) High school educa- experience clerks, cost clerks,
expert Stenographers
and secretaries

-
TABLE XXIV—Continued
General.º of the Education Required Experience Required Personal Qualities Intelligence Age Examples
Junior clerk (A grade)—An|Four years high school Six months or more ex-|Reliability, accuracy, Low 18–24 Experienced stenog-
office position requiring a or two years high perience in the same neatness, speed average raphers, Ediphone
skilled operator or an ex-| school and six months general line Operators, stencil cut-
perienced clerk business school or ters, posting clerks
equivalent
Junior clerk, (B grade)—An Two years high school |Enough experience to Reliability, accuracy, Low 18–22 Inexperienced stenog-
office position of a semi- and three months insure familiarity with neatness, speed average raphers, experienced
skilled nature requiring that] business school or the work done and typists, general clerks,
the Gºmployee have mastered equivalent rapid learning, except subject classification
either through experience or in the case of business
special training the opera- Course graduates spe-
tion he is to perform cifically prepared for
the positions they are
to Occupy -
Novice clerical (A grade)—|Grammar school plus|None if trained in Reliability, accuracy, Low I8–2I Comptometrist, inex-
An office position of a simple] comptometry school comptometry school neatness average perienced typist, ex-
routine nature which can be or typist school or typist school— perienced machine op-
learned very readily by ouherwise same ex- erators, first and
those who have passed perience in the grade second rater, clerk,
through the grade below or below proofreaders
have had some experience or
schooling in machine opera-
tion and typing
Novice clerical (B grade)—|Grammar school None Reliability, accuracy Low I6–19 Sorting clerks, inex-
An office position of a simple average perienced adding
routine nature that can be machine operators,
satisfactorily learned by a deduction entry clerk,
minor in one or two weeks— clock card checker,
position consisting mainly inexperienced file
of one or more of the follow- clerk
ing: (a) alphabetical or
numerical filing, (b) simple
machine operation (adding,
hectograph, mimeograph,
addressograph, etc.), (c)
simple checking, inspecting
or sorting
Messenger and office boys Sixth grade None Reliability Low I6 Messengers, office boys
I5 with age
and school
certificate
3.

I70 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
B. JoB ANALYSIS OF JUNIOR COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE
FEDERAL BOARD FOR WOCATIONAL EDUCATION:
In the job analysis charts which follow an attempt has been
made to describe briefly the duties of each position and to indi-
cate the training, both Commercial and general, which junior
commercial workers should receive. Promotion is more a
matter of the quality of work done than it is of the kind of posi-
tion in which the work is done. Promotional lines are not
very well marked for junior commercial workers. There are,
however, certain general directions in which boys and girls
with special aptitudes may be expected to advance. Since these
promotional lines are not very well defined for workers under
eighteen years of age, the suggestions concerning advance-
ment and promotional training are given in a separate part of
each chart, under the heading “More remote objectives and
training.” This indicates that such promotional training as is
suggested should be given to commercial workers over eighteen
years of age in the evening School and other types of extension
COUISéS.
It is not claimed that the charts which follow are complete,
nor do they represent an intensive piece of research work. They
are intended to be suggestive to those who are concerned with
the continuation-school problem and to stimulate continuation-
school commercial teachers to such further investigation as
may be required to develop necessary instruction material.
It should be emphasized again at this point that these charts
are all based upon the data furnished in connection with com-
mercial workers between the ages of fourteen and seventeen
inclusive. Positions under the same name held by older com-
mercial workers will show greater variety of duties and the need
for more advanced training.
* Adapted by permission from A Survey of Junior Commercial Occupa-
tions in Sixteen States, pp. 42–52. The Federal Board for Vocational
Education, June, 1920. This survey was made under the direction of
F. G. Nichols.
º
• TABLE XXV
JUNIOR COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS—OPEN To Boys AND GIRLS UNDER EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE
GROUP I—CLERICAL TYPE
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES *
Commercial Related Promotional Line latºonal
I General clerk (a) Answering tele- (a) Office practice (a) English (a) Supervisor of a (a) Business COrre-
phone (b) Business writing (b) Physical education #.P spondence
(b) Sorting and ar- (c) Business arithme- (c) Citizenship (b) Head file clerk (b) Filing and sys-
ranging vouchers tic (c) Office manager tematizing
(c) Prepare deposits (d) Typewriting (d) Correspondent (c) Employment man-
and make them (e) Elementary busi- agement
(d) Copy contracts ness organization (d) Office management
(e) Filing
(f) Typewrite from
Copy -
(g) º way-bills
(h) Handle mail—in
and out
(i) Open and arrange
mail
(j) Meet callers and
learn wants
(k) Make notes and
memoranda
(l) Check orders
(m) Make out bills
2 Shipping clerk (a) Prepare goods for (a) Business writing,|(a) English (a) Superintendent of (a) Transportation;
shipping
(b) Checking
against
and
ceipts
Check goods to see
that all goods
called for are in
the shipment
orders'
1In VOICeS
)
(c
shipping re- (
including marking
alphabet
(b) Wrapping, boxing,
and crating
c) Shipping practice
(b) Physical education
(c) Geography—com-
mercial
shipping depart-
ment
(b) Salesman
(c) Buyer
rail, truck, and
water
(b) Commercial law
(c) Packing for ship-
ment (for export)
(d) Salesmanship
(e) Foreman training
(f) Employment man-
agement

§
TABLE XXV-Continued
JOB
DUTIES
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
Commercial
Related
Promotional Line
Later Promotional
Training
2–Cont.
Shipping clerk—Cont.
(d) Marking goods for
shipment
(e) Weighing ship-
(f)
ments
Preparing freight
bills
(g) Looking up routes
(h) Recording ship-
ments made
(i) Mailing shipment
papers
Receiving clerk
)
(a
(b)
Unpack goods re-
ceived
Check merchandise
received againstin-
voice
Note condition of
shipment when re-
ceived
Checking up re-
turned goods and
notifying proper
department
Be responsible for
goods until re-
moved from re-
ceiving room to
storeroom or de-
partments
Receipt for freight
and express re-
ceived
(c
)
(d
)
)
(e
(a) Business writing
(b) Business organiza-
tion &
(c) Transportation
(d) Merchandise
(a) English
(b) Physical education
(c) Geography — com-
mercial
(d) Citizenship
(a) Superintendent of
receiving depart-
ment
(b) Salesman
(c) Buyer
Textiles and other
merchandise
(b) Commercial law
Salesmanship
Foreman training
Employment man-
agement
:
TABLE XXV-Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
JoB DUTIES L P -
& * & ater Promotional
Commercial Related Promotional Line Training
Stock clerk (a) Receiving mer- (a) Business writing (a) English See “Stock clericals”|See “Stock clericals”
chandise and stor-|(b) Business organiza-|(b) Physical education
ing it until requir– tlon' & (c) Citizenship
d (c) Merchandise
e
(b) Checking it with |(d) Business practice
buyer's order and
invoices
(c) Keeping stock rec-
OTCIS
(d) Delivering new
stock to depart-
ments as needed
upon requisitions
of department
heads
Marking soods for
identification
Filling orders for
shipment direct
from stock
Issue sample mer-
chandise to sales-
man upon requisi-
tion and keep rec-
ord of such items
for the bookkeep-
ing department
(h) Keep record of re-
turned goods when
restored to stock
Prepare inventory
from stock records
and check with
merchandise as re-
quired
)
(e
(f
)
(g
(i.
)
:

TABLE XXV-Continued
JOB
/
DUTIES
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
Commercial
Related
Promotional Line
Later Promotional
Training
Stock clerk—Cont.
(j) Keep stock room
files
(k) Notify buyers or
department heads
when stock needs
replenishing
File clerk
(a) Filing letters,
vouchers, reports,
etc., for future
reference
Preparing folders
for special use
Planning filing sys-
tems for special
purposes
Getting from files
material required
Classifying all
material to be
filed for easy ref-
erence
Keeping index card
file and cross ref-
erence files
Transferring old
material to “dead
files”
(b)
(c
)
(d
(e
)
(f
)
(g
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Filing systems
Card systems
Business organiza-
tion
Lettering
Typewriting
(a)
(c)
(d
English
Physical education
Citizenship
Business
spondence
COrre-
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d
Chief file clerk
Superintendent of
eS
Correspondent
Office manager
Advanced
COUlrSeS
b) Efficiency course
Advanced business
correspondence
Office management
Commercial law
filing
Mail clerk
(a) Sorting incoming
mail
(b) Distributing it
(c) Collecting
going mail
(d) Preparing it for
mailing
Out-
(a)
(b)
(c)
Office
COUlrSe
Office practice
Postoffice regula-
tions
machine
(a)
(b
(c)
(d)
)
English
Physical education
Citizenship
Geography
)
(a
(b)
c)
(d)
File clerk
Chief file clerk
Office assistant
Office manager
(a) Qffice management
(b) Advanced filing
systems
(c) Business
spondence
COI re-
| (d) Economics
§


TABLE XXV--Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES L P
g wº tº ater Promotional
Commercial Related Promotional Line Training
6-Comt. Mail clerk—Cont. (e) Handling special
delivery mail in
and out º
(f) Handlingregistered
mail in and out
(g) Dispatching out-
going mail
(h) Delivering carbons
and originals to
file department
GROUP II—OFFICE MACHINE OPERATING
TRAINING REQUIRED MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JOB DUTIES - L
* tº & ater Promotional
Commercial Related Promotional Line Training
7 Typist (a) Copying form let-(a) Typewriting (a) English (a) Dictaphone opera- (a) Typewriting speed
e to sº
ters
(b) Typing circulars,
advertisements,
and other material
for printer’s copy
(c) Typewriting card
records
(d) Typing bills and
statements
(e) Cutting stencils
(f) Typing specifica-
tions, etc.
(g) Typing contracts
(h) Addressing enve-
lopes
(i) Typing order forms
(b) Business forms
(c) Office practice
(b) Physical education
(c) Citizenship
r
(b) Stenographer
(c) Secretary
(d) Office manager
practice
(b) Shorthand
(c) Secretarial prac-
tice
(d) Office management
(e) Business organiza-
tion

3.
-
No. JOB DUTIES ional
Commercial Related Promotional Line Late ºne
8 Billing clerk (a) Billing on the type- | (a) Business forms (a) English (a) Typist (a) Advanced type:
writer or special (b) Commercial arith-|(b) Physical educationſ(b) Dictaphone opera- writing, speed
billing machine metic (c) Citizenship tor practice
(b) Verifying invoices (c) Typewriting (c) Stenographer (b) Dictaphone prac-
prepared (d) Bookkeeper tice
(c) Routing bills for (c) Shorthand
mailing or entry (d) Bookkeeping
9 Duplicating machine|(a) Operate the mim- | (a) Office duplicator|(a) English Difficult to suggest di-
operator and ad- eograph - practice (b) Physical education rect and natural lines.
dressograph . ma- (b) Operate the multi-|(b) Office practice (c) Citizenship Promotion will de-
chine operator graph (c) Address ograph pend upon quality of
(c) Operate other dup- practice work done and natu-
licators according (d) Practice on sealing ral abilities which are
to local require- and stamping ma- revealed
Inents chine
(d) Keep record of
material run, file
stencils and copies
of all material dup-
licated
(e) Operate addresso-
graph, seal and
stamp envelopes
IO Calculating machine|(a) Figuringandcheck- (a) Machine ... theory|(a) English (a) Retail store (a) Bookkeeping
TABLE XXV-Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
Operator
ing invoices, out-
going and incom-
1ng
(b) Figuring and check-
ing payrolls
(c) Figuring and check-
ing inventories
(d) Figuring and check-
ing books in the
auditing depart-
ment
and practice
(b) Typewriting
(c) Elementary book-
keeping
(b) Physical education
(c) Citizenship
I. Special operator
2. Head calculat-
ing machine de-
partment
(b) Manufacturing of-
Ce
I. Head of depart-
ment
2. Assistant book-
keeper
3. Bookkeeper
(b) Accounting
(c) Economics * -
(d) Business adminis-
tration
(e) Commercial law

§
TABLE XXV—Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JOB DUTIES *
Commercial Related Promotional Line Later. Promotional
ralning
Io—Cont. Calculating machine (e) Figuring profits 4. Auditor
- operator—Cont. and losses
(f) Figuring discounts
and interest
(g) Income tax re-
ports
GROU, III–MISCELLANEOUS
TRAINING REQUIRED MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES L P l
* - * ater Promotiona
Commercial Related Promotional Line raining
II Messenger or office Deliver messages (a) Business English (a) Physical education (a) General clerk To be determined by
boy
(c
(a)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f
)
Run errands o'
various kinds
Fill ink wells and
look after other de-
tails around the
office
Answer telephone
Run office ma-
chines
Make himself gen-
erally useful in
assisting other
members of the
office staff
(b) Business writing
(c) Office practice
(d) Business arithme-
tic
(e) Local geography
(b) Citizenship
(b) Bookkeeper
(c) Stenographer
(d) Salesman
(e) Office manager
NOTE.-The Office
boy or messenger has
an opportunity to gain
useful knowledge about
all the above lines,
He may choose the one
for which he seems best
adapted and make
special preparation ac-
cordingly.
promotional lines se-
lected

$,

TABLE XXV–Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES L P ional
g º e alter Promotiona.
Commercial Related Promotional Line Training
I 2 Collector (a) Call on customers (a) Business arithme- (a) English (a) Cashier (a) Practical auditing
to collect accounts tic b) Physical education (b) Auditor (b) Credits and collec-
(b) Receive cash and |(b) Business writing |(c) Citizenship (c) Head collections tions e
deliver receipted (c) Business practice department (c) Advanced business
bills (d) Credit man correspondence
(c) Report collections (d) Commercial law
to the office
(d) Report on those
who fail to pay
GROUP IV—RECORDING
TRAINING REQUIRED MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES L P ional
º & * alter Promotional
Commercial Related Promotional Line Training
I3 Assistant bookkeeper (a) Make routine rec- (a) Business arithme- (a) English (a) Bookkeeper (a) Advanced book-
ords in connec- t1C (b) Physical education; (b) Head bookkeeper keeping e
tion with a com- |(b) Elementary book- (c) Auditor (b) Advanced business
plete set of books keeping (d) Junior accountant mathematics
under direction (c) Business forms (e) Accountant (c) Accounting
(b) Keep a simple set |(d) Business writing (f) Certified public ac-1(d) Auditing
of office records for COuntant (e) Economics
a small business (f) Commercial law
(c) Record work in re-
tail store such as
% grocery or market
(d) Recording and

posting sales


§

TABLE XXV-Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
NO. JOB DUTIES L P I
º e s ater Promotiona
Commercial Related Promotional Line raining
I4 Entry clerk (a) Enter orders on| (a) Business writing (a) English (a) Assistant book-(a) Bookkeeping
bill heads (b) Business arithme- (b) Physical education keeper (b) Advanced business
(b) Prepare credit tic (b) Bookkeeper mathematics
In 6111C ra.In Cla. (c) Head bookkeeper (c) Accounting
(c) Enter and check (d) Accountant (d) Banking and fi-
car numbers (e) Teller (bank) nance (bank) .
(d) Make entries in (f) Cashier (bank) (e) Economics
bank books (f) Commercial law
(e) Enter charges in º
day book
I5 Ledger clerk i. entries in the Same as 13 Same as I3 Same as 13 Same as 13
edger
I6 Cost clerk Make production Same as I3 Same as I3 (a) Assistant book- (a) Bookkeeping
records and assist keeper (b) Accounting
in figuring costs * (b) Bookkeeper (c) Cost accounting
(c) Cost accountant (d) Advanced business
mathematics
(e) Economics
17 Bookkeeping machine|(a) Bank work (a) Bookkeeping (a) English a) In a bank
operator I. Check teller (b) Machine practice (b) Physical education I. Ledger clerk
work (c) Typewriting (c) Citizenship 2. Bookkeeper
2. Statement work 3. Head book-
(b) Commercial office keeper
I. Posting sales to
ledger 4. Auditor
2. Posting pur- OT
chase ledger 5. Receiving teller
é. Paying teller
7. Assistant cash-
ier
8. Cashier
3.

TABLE XXV—Continated
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JOB DUTIES
Commercial Related Promotional Line late:ºnal
I7—Cont. | Bookkeeping machine (b) In a commercial
operator—Cont. office
I. Bookkeeper
2. Head book-
keeper 3.
3. De p a r trn ent
head
to
4. Assistant man-
ager
5. Manager g
Or
6. Assistant audi-
tor
7. Auditor *
I8 Timekeeper (a) Keep time record Same as 13 Same as I3 Same as I3 Same as I3
of employees
(b) Make out payroll
(c) Check absences of
employees
IQ Statement clerk Prepare and mail Same as 13 Same as I3 Same as I3 Same as I3

statements of per-
Sonal accounts
3.
TABLE XXV-Continued
GROUP V–STENOGRAPHIC
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES L P |
& s * ater Promotiona
Commercial Related Promotional Line raining
2O Stenographer (a) Take dictation (a) Shorthand (a) Physical education|(a) Head stenographer|(a) Advanced dicta-
(b) Transcribe it (b) Typewriting (b) Citizenship (b) Correspondent tion
(c) M a ke car b on |(c) Business COrre- c) Reporter (b) Advanced business
copies spondence correspondence
(d) File correspond- | (d) Business English (c) Business organiza-
ence or prepare for |(e) Office practice tion and manage-
€S ment
(e) Look after all de- (d) Economics
tails connected (e) Commercial law
with getting out
the daily mail
2I Dictating machine | (a) Transcribe from (a) Typewriting (a) Physical education (a) Correspondent (a) Advanced business
operator the dictaphone or (b) Business corre-|(b) Citizenship (b) Supervisor of sten- correspondence
ediphone spondence ographic depart-|(b) Office management
(b) Handle details con-|(c) Business English ment (c) Economics
nected with get-
ting out the daily
mail
(d)
Office practice
(d) Commercial law


3.
TABLE XXV–Continued
GROUP VI—RETAIL STORE SERVICE
TRAINING REQUIRED
*-*
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES ional
Commercial Related Promotional Line Lateº
22 Salesperson (a) Sell merchandise | (a) English (a) Citizenship (a) Head of stock (a) Care of stock
(Junior) of various kinds— |(b) Spelling (b) Industrial history (b) Assistant buyer (b) Stock arrangement
novelties, dry (c) Arithmetic as related to man- |(c) Buyer —showcases, Win-
goods, groceries, (d) Use of cash register ufacture of mer-' (d) Merchandise man- dow display wº
drugs, 5 and Io (e) Use of O.K. tele- chandise ager (c) Advertising writ-
cent articles, etc. phone (c) Color and design Or ing and sketching
(b) Arrange and dis- (f) Use of tube system|(d) Recreation and use Sales manager (d) Supervised trips to
play stock (g) System of leisure time Or factories and mar-
(c) Keep stock in sal- |(h) Salesmanship (e) Books and reading I. Head of stock kets
able condition (i) Service (f) Writing 2. Divisional su-|(e) Arithmetic
(d) Make out sales |(}) Store policy and (g) Hygiene perintendent I. Mark up
checks and other rules 3. Floor manager 2. Mark down
store forms, etc. (k) Store directory and 4. Superintendent 3. Inventory
(e) Use cash register, merchandise loca- of floor 4. Stock plans
also O.K. tele- tion 5. Assistant su-|(f) Sales promotion
phone (l) Store organization perintendent (g) Merchandise study
(f) Take orders by |(m) Personal hygiene 6. Superintendent (h) How to deal with
telephone and (n) Merchandise Or people
through mail (o) Advertising Employment|(i) Business forms
(g) Give information |(p) Legible handwrit- manager (j) Store rules and
and direct cus- ing OT policies
tomers Personnel man-l(k) Floor manager’s
(h) Occasionally mark ager rules
goods—take inven- Or (l) Service e
tory, figure dis- General man-|(m) Sales promotion.
COunts ager (n) Expense reduction
(i) Wrap packages (o) Store organization
(j) Give service to (p) Employment and
Customers management
&
TABLE XXV—Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
DUTIES
NO. JoB º
Commercial Related Promotional Line L *†ional
23 Messengers, including | (a) Run errands (a) Department loca-|(a) English (a) Inspector wrapper|(a) Wrapping bundles
minor office boys) (b) Collect time cards tion (b) Personal and pub-|(b) Head of floor boys (b) Tying knots
and girls, mail (c) Distribute mail|(b) Store directory lic hygiene or girls (c) Supplies — their
clerks, special de- and interdepart-|(c) Local geography—|(c) Citizenship , (c) Cashier care and requisi-
liveries, etc., mil- mental messages streets, public|(d) E c on o m i c s —|(d) Office positions tion
linery mſg., altera-j (d) Deliver telegrams buildings, railroad wages, spending, (e) General clerical (d) Responsibilities, of
tion room, shoppers and special de- station thrift Stock use of rubber
liveries (d) Store rules (e) Commercial geog-| NoTE.—Any of the Stamp
(e) Buy railroad tick-|(e) System raphy above may lead to sell-j(e) A r it h m e tic—
etS (f) Store organization ing or to other semi- counting back
(f) Carry cash, bun-j(g) Accuracy * executive positions. change, etc.
dles, transfers, etc. (h) Arithmetic (g) Salesperson (f) Use of cash register
(g) Trace orders or (i) English and spell- (g) Care of stock
packages ing (h) Stock clerical du-
(h) Take advertising|(3) Personal appear- ties
to departments an Ce
(i) Errands for service|(k) Promotional pos-
desks where re- sibilities
funds and ex-|(l) Thoughtfulness
changes are cared and service
Or (m) Legible writing, in-
(j) Collect sales checks cluding figure mak-
vouchers, tissue ing
books, etc.
(k) Distribute supplies
24. General clerical (a) Merchandise and Same as Course I -
service clerical| (general clerical) plus
work for buyers; additional work to
and floor man-l suit needs of special
agers group or individual.
(b) Help on payroll,
time records, etc.
g
(j) C.O.D. and other
delivery records
Example: Floor man-
ager’s clerical assist-
ant—Assists floor
managers in duties of
lighting, ventilation,
elevators, inspectors’
desks, O.K. tele-
phone, telephones, ap-
pearance of sections,
signs, supplies, emer-
gencies, time records,
lunch periods, attend-
ance records, pay
TABLE XXV–Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES *
Commercial Related Promotional Line latºona
24–Cont. General clerical— (c) Write letters, make (a) Store organization (a) Citizenship (a) Merchandise cleri-|(a) Principles of mer-
Cont. out rate cards, file (b) Public hygiene (b) English cal chandising
records, some copy-|(c) Service .. (c) Commercial geog- (b) Salesperson (b) Salesmanship
ing and typing (d) Merchandise loca- raphy (c) Assistant buyer (c) Trips to markets
(d) Help manager care tion (d) Textiles (d) Buyer (d) Arithmetic
for new employees |(e) Knowledge of mer- (e) Merchandise man-|(e) English
(e) Address envelopes, chandise ager Expense and con-
distribute bulle-|(f) Attention to detail Or tro
tins, advertising (g) Secretarial duties Assistant floor](g) Employment man-
copy, superintend-|(h) Use of Cash register manager agement
ent’s orders, etc.
(f) Answer telephone
(g) Look up charges,
etc.
(h) Sort checks, make
records of sales
(i) Check up mer-
chandise in receiv-
ing and stock
TOOIſlS
(i) Arithmetic
(7) Spelling
(k) Local geography
(l) English
(m) Personal
3.IMCC
appear-
(f) Aisle supervisor
) Store manager
) Service manager
(h) Sales promotion
3.
TABLE XXV-Continued
*-
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES L P I
& g * , Later Promotiona
Commercial Related Promotional Line Training
24—Cont. General clerical— envelopes, employ-
0%t. ment requisitions,
after hour permits,
shopping permits,
store System, shipping
instructions, Cash
register, delivery
schedules, etc., ad-
justments, meetings,
notices and services.
25 Bundle wrappers, (a) Examination of (a) Store rules (a) Commercial law (a) Salesperson (a) Salesmanship
cashiers, examiners sales checks for |(b) Knowledge and use|(b) Bookkeeping (b) Head cashier b) Merchandise loca-
- form, items, legi- of supplies, grades|(c) Auditing (c) Head of tube room tion
bility, agreement of paper, twine, (d) English (d) Head inspector (c) Knowledge of mer-
as to kind, number, etc. - - - -- * (e) Commercial geog-|(e) Junior . . . auditor chandise
price and total, (c) Writing raphy work (d) Employment
correct address, (d) Store rules, policies|(f) Hygiene NOTE. —- Experience, (e) How to deal with
floor manager’s (e) Arithmetic (g) Citizenship as an inspector or cash- people
O.K. (f) Personal hygiene, ier is best background (f) Auditing
(b) Stamping of checks dress, and appear- to insure promotion to (g) Financial records
with rubber stamp, 3.D.C6. selling or any other and operations

folding check to
insure care of mer-
chandise
Care of wrapping,
desk dusting, or-
dering supplies,
paste, paper, twine,
etc.
(d) Wrapping bundles
(e) Receiving money,
counting back
change
(c
)
)
(g
(h).
(i)
(j)
(
§
)
(l
Accuracy, respon-
sibility, and alert-
neSS
Error system . .
Store system
Accounting (cross
balance)
Store organization|
Promotional pos-
sibilities
position.

3.
TABLE XXV-Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB DUTIES e
Commercial Related Promotional Line ºnal
25—Cont. Bundle wrappers, (f) Checking up errors,
etc., 07tt. etc.
(g) Work on tubes in
desk or in tube
IOOIn
(h) File orders on
which part pay-
ment has been *
made
26 Stock, including stock| (a) Care of stock i(a) Arithmetic (a) Citizenship (a) Head of stock (a) Arithmetic
clericals (varies in different (b) Writing (b) Commercial geog- Or (b) Simple policies of
departments and (c) Use of ticketing raphy Merchandise cleri- mark up, mark
types of stores) machine (c) English cal (assistant to down, inventory,
(b) Putting on tags— (d) Tag and marking; (d) Hygiene the assistant buy- Stock turnover
marking merchandise -(e) Spelling er (c) Stock plans
(c) Keeping stock (e) Accuracy (b) Assistant buyer (d) Merchandising
records (f) Order (c) Buyer, etc., (e) Market location
(d) Assist salespeople, (g) Color and design or . and buying
head of stock, as- related and display Position in mer-|(f) Resources
sistant buyer and (h) Sewing (buttons, chandise office, (g) English
buyer hooks and eyes, Or (h) Foreign language,
(e) Care of returned etc.) Salesperson interested in
merchandise, ex- | (i) Hand work, in- foreign buying
changes, etc. cluding bead work, (i) Salesmanship
(f) Occasionally sell typing ribbons, etc.
merchandise (j) Personal appear-
(g) Arrange show cases ance
and department
display
(h) Assist in taking
inventory
(i) Write letters and
orders

&

TABLE XXV–Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED
MORE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
|
NO. JOB | DUTIES Later P l
i * º e ater Promotiona
Commercial Related Promotional Line raining
26—Cont. | Stock, etc.—Cont. (j) Answer telephone,
make appoint-
ments, etc.
(k) Disburse merchan-
dise and supplies
27 Miscellaneous (a) Delivery room as- |(a) Store organization, (a) English (a) Head of delivery (a) Postal regulations
sistant. Making promotional pos-1(b) Citizenship (b) Hea. O ling|(b) Traffic regulations
route sheets and sibilities (c) Hygiene TOOII] (c) Filing
sorting packages (b) System (d) Recreation (c) Head biller d) Billing machine
(b) File clerk—filing, (c) Store directory - (d) Head bookkeeper operating; also
looking up papers (d) Store policies (e) Chief operator on principles of super-
when called for, (e) English telephone board vision
etc. (f) Use of telephone (f) Elevator starter in (e) Employment sup-
(c) Office workers—on (g) Spelling charge of operators ervision — uni-
billing machines, (h) Writing (g) Machinist forms, dress, and
calculating ma- (i) Personal appear- (h) Timekeeper or as- conduct
chine, duplicating 2.In Ce sistant in superin-|(f) Store mechanics
machines, typists,
check sorters in
auditing room
(d) Switchboard op-
erator caring for
all incoming and
outgoing calls, re-
ceiving telegrams,
etc., operating
signal system for
executives and
protective officers
Elevator operator,
call floors, mer-
chandise location,
answer customers’
questions
(e
)
(j) Service . .
(k) Salesmanship
Special or individ-
ual work to suit
needs of each
worker, such as
color and design
for window trim-
mers' assistant
tendent’s office
(i) Window trimmer
(j) Head of mail order
section
(k) Salesperson
NOTE. — Promotion
from the miscellaneous
group may lead in a
variety of directions.
(g) Store system and
Service
(h) Display, advertis-
Ing
(i) Knowledge of mer-
chandise
(j) Salesmanship
(k) Service
(l) Store policy
(m) Store directory
)
g
TABLE XXV-Continued
TRAINING REQUIRED MoRE REMOTE OBJECTIVES AND TRAINING
No. JoB IDUTIES
Later Promotional
Commercial Related Promotional Line raining
27—Cont. | Miscellaneous—Cont. (f) Machinist’s assist-
ant—helping chief
engineer or electri-
gian
(g) Timekeeper's as-
sistant — collects
time cards, makes
out reports, etc.
(h) Window trimmer’s
assistant—gets out
m er ch a n d is e,
forms, fixtures,
cleans, polishes,
etc.
Mail order shop-
per—fills orders,
sends out pack-
ages, etc.
All positions. which
are not in first five
groups
)
(i.
)
(j
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 189
C. AN ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF CERTAIN COMMERCIAL PEOPLE'
A. THE STENOGRAPHER
The Survey census report shows twenty-six men and eighty-
seven women stenographers. This occupation was especially
analyzed in those establishments where type studies were made.
Of the twenty retail stores, only four employ stenographers, of
whom one is also a bookkeeper. One of the three factory offices
especially studied and the telephone company office had no
Stenographer and the two factory offices each employed two,
What the worker does: regular duties.—The stenographer,
by means of abbreviations, letters and word symbols, records
verbal statements, after which she transcribes them on the
typewriter. To master the work involves the knowledge of an
alphabet of characters used to express words phonetically. In
addition to phonetic spelling, short cuts are made by the use
of “word signs,” which may represent whole phrases. Some
systems of shorthand also vary the position of the symbol in
relation to the line, and shade the pencil stroke, while others
use neither position nor shading. Technique involves rapid
writing of symbols and accurate transcription, of notes.
In addition to writing letters, which usually requires the
greater portion of the time of the stenographer, the work of
nine stenographers studied, two of whom are men, involves
answering the telephone, receiving visitors, and assisting the
bookkeeper and cashier.
Special knowledge required.—The special knowledge required
involves thorough mastery of a system of shorthand, the ability
to transcribe notes rapidly and accurately; the fundamentals of
bookkeeping; and general office procedure, including receiv-
ing visitors, answering the telephone, weighing packages, and
correctly stamping them, and correctly using filing devices and
card catalog systems.
What the worker does: special duties.—One of the stenog-
raphers, in addition to the duties already described, is also a
* Adapted from the Report of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey for Voca-
tional Education. Bulletin of the Indiana State Board of Education,
Indiana Survey Series No. 3, 1916, pp. 388–98.
190 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
bookkeeper keeping summaries of receipts and expenditures,
records of charge accounts with a tickler system, and all mail-
ing lists. Another stenographer, employed in a retail store,
keeps the cost book, makes out on the typewriter the monthly
bills of all customers, takes charge of the c.o.d. money returned
on delivered packages and keeps the daily ledger. Another
attends to mail order business and helps typewrite customer's
monthly bills. In two of the factories the stenographer was
required to do billing and filing and in the other, to accurately
copy and record all Specifications and contracts.
Special skill required.—In stenography, skill consists of mak-
ing clear outlines in taking notes, and of using the typewriter
with accuracy and speed. The latter is analogous to the
mechanics of playing the piano and requires the same dexterity
of each finger acting separately and the proper position of the
hand above the keyboard. The stenographer should also
understand the mechanics of her tool, the typewriter, so that
she may quickly change ribbons and make minor adjustments.
Considering the wide range of the stenographer's work in Rich-
mond, she should be able to operate adding and posting
machines.
General education required.—The relation between educa-
tion and success in Stenography is positive. The Richmond
High School course is so organized that none can be considered
a commercial graduate who is not also a high School graduate.
The school considers this a selective occupation which only
mature and well-educated boys and girls should enter. There
are many gradations in Stenographic work from tabulating or
typing envelopes to the intricate technique of stenography in
banks and railroads. Success in the former type of position
does not demand high School training, but for promotion to
more responsible work and for a high degree of success in such
work, a high school education is essential.
Promotion.--The most significant aspect of promotion is the
differentiation between opportunities for boys and girls. In
Richmond no comparative figures are available, but from the
table, heading this chapter, it may be seen that 157 men as
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 191
compared to eleven women are employed in positions of ship-
ping, cost, bill and ledger clerks, which are positions of respon-
sibility and well paid. All the six male stenographers, whose
work was studied in detail, have opportunity to advance
to more responsible positions, such as cost clerk, traffic man
and rate clerk. For the one woman, whose position was
studied, no promotion was possible save increase in salary.
It may be safely said that women usually continue to be
stenographers and promotion consists of increased wages
usually obtained by changing positions. For young men, the
stenographic position may be a stepping Stone, leading to con-
tinuous advancement, the exact character of which depends
upon the type of establishment.
B. THE BOOKKEEPER
According to the census returns of the Survey, there were
on March 1, 1916, forty-seven male and thirty-seven female
bookkeepers in Richmond, in addition to seven males and thir-
teen females who were cashiers and bookkeepers. This study
is based upon a careful analysis of ten bookkeepers, Seven of
whom were employed in six store offices and three in three
factories. These ten bookkeepers, unlike the Stenographers,
have no general office duties aside from answering the telephone.
What the worker does.—The bookkeeper keeps a systematic
record of business transactions in order to show their relation
to each other, and the state of the business in which they
occur. In its simple aspects, bookkeeping involves the use of
the day book, the cash book and ledger. In its more highly
developed aspects, it involves the use of specialized types of
all sorts of record books and forms. Naturally, the work varies
with the size and system of the company. Even within the
limited scope of this study it was found to range from a simple
journal of entries to a highly organized system of accounts for
every department of a complicated business. The simpler
methods are largely used by the proprietors themselves in the
retail stores, where no office worker is employed. The more
complex systems are used in large factories and in large stores.
I92 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
A typical schedule of the bookkeeper's work in a retail store
involves keeping the store ledger, journal, day book for charge
Sales, general cash book, ledger and ledger auxiliaries, and synco-
pated journal. The syncopated journal groups numerical facts
which would otherwise have to be recorded in several different
journals and involves nine groups: Merchandise, cash, expense,
interest and discount, freight and express, stock accounts, and
bills payable and receivable. In addition, the bookkeeper
makes out statements to customers each month, and directs
the collection of unpaid bills; makes monthly summaries of
receipts by departments, pays firm bills (manager signs all
checks), takes charge of letters and filing, considers questions
of Credit, if the manager and assistant are absent; receives
payment of bills at cash window and makes change; receives
and adjusts complaints about charges, banks cash and checks,
and keeps the bank books.
A schedule of bookkeeping work in a factory includes
keeping ledger, synoptic ledger and cash book; entering all
shipments; and Summarizing statements from pay-roll. The
work requires the adding machine in obtaining totals. The
detailed work of factory accounting is described in the discussion
of the cost clerk.
Special knowledge required.—Aside from a thorough working
knowledge of all types of bookkeeping, the bookkeeper must
know the commodities of the company which are sold or manu-
factured, as well as the business details of office procedure in
municipal and institutional offices. A knowledge of transpor-
tation and how to obtain accurate information about mercan-
tile rates should be a part of the equipment of every book-
keeper who pays bills on freight and express. How to bank,
how to Compute interest and discount, and all the multi-
tudinous details of office technique must be known by the .
bookkeeper. .* -
Special skill required.—Success in bookkeeping and account-
ing depends upon mental rather than manual skill, but the
mental equipment is worthless without skill in penmanship and
in operating an adding machine.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 193
General education required.—What has been written con-
cerning the general education needed by the stenographer,
applies to the bookkeeper with the reservation that the stenog-
rapher, in order to advance to highly paid positions, must have
an accurate knowledge of English and general information. The
bookkeeper is more of a specialist, having less general contact
with the public than the stenographer, and if highly expert in
accounting, can fill a position whether a high School graduate or
not. On the other hand, difficult problems in bookkeeping
require a trained mind which higher education develops.
Such advanced positions as treasurer, purchasing agent, or
Secretary could not be filled by an average person without more
than eighth grade education. -
Mental and physical requirements.-Practically no attempt
has been made to discover the qualifications for success in this
work. Ability to analyze a problem and invent solutions for
new problems are certainly essential for success. The steadi-
ness and reliability of character needed by this worker, who
handles large sums of money often with very little Supervision,
cannot be overestimated. They are distinguishing features of
this position.
Promotion.—The position of bookkeeper is sometimes filled
by promoting the assistant bookkeeper or cashier. “Once a
bookkeeper, always a bookkeeper,” is a slogan whose truth is
attested by the fact that all the ten bookkeepers found in these
type studies have held their positions for many years and do not
expect to change them. The position of treasurer or secretary
of the company is sometimes filled by promoting the bookkeeper
and there is more possibility of such advancement for men than
for women.
Source and selection of workers.-The responsible post of
bookkeeper is seldom filled in any establishment by taking a
* new worker from a school. The subordinate positions of
ledger clerk or assistant bookkeepers may be filled by inex-
perienced graduates of business courses but advanced positions
or general bookkeepers require experience as well as special
training. g
IQ4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
C. THE CASHIER
According to the Survey census returns, there were twenty-
Seven male and fifteen female cashiers in Richmond in March,
I916. Type studies were made of seven cashiers, two of whom
had bookkeeping duties, also.
Type of work.-The term “cashier” applies to two entirely
different kinds of work: taking in money direct on sales, mak-
ing change and keeping a simple record of the transactions;
and the issuing of money for the pay-roll, and paying company
bills. The cashier in the retail store often has some general
duties to perform, such as helping the bookkeeper in the dry-
goods store and making sales in the grocery store. The cashier
of the large establishment may be responsible for seeing that the
books are correctly kept. &
What the worker does.—As the work of each of the seven
cashiers is distinctive in some respect, the detailed schedule of
the day's work of each will be reported.
I. The worker collects the money from the cash register,
totals it and checks it against the amount of sales which are
cashed up on the register during the day. She does the banking,
makes out invoices, and keeps a record of incoming merchandise.
2. The cashier checks Sales slips, foots extensions and totals,
and makes change, which is sent back by the carrier to the
sales girl. Every morning she receives money from the book-
keeper, for which she accounts. Every evening she totals the
cash and checks it with cash sales slips and the original sum
received. She also keeps a cash book.
3. The cashier sits at a desk on the first floor and makes
change for the salesmen, ringing up the cash in the register
according to the number of each salesman. By this means she
keeps a record of individual sales. She receives the charge
sales slips from the clerks on the floor, which she enters to the
customer's account, adding the total of the sale on the face of
the envelope within which is placed the sales slip. At the end
of each week or month, according to the custom of the cus-
tomer's payments, on charge accounts she obtains totals by
the adding machine, with the bill and the sale slip. She type-
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT ExPRESSIONS 105
writes invoices for individual customer's bills; fills out the
regular form for cash sales at the end of the day, which, in turn,
are collected for statement at the end of the week; answers
telephones and if not engaged, and all salespersons are busy,
she waits on customers. She also does the banking.
4. The cashier is the head of the tube system, making
change for all sales. This tube system is also used for shoot-
ing messages to any part of the building or the warehouse.
All the messages go to the cashier, who re-routes them when
necessary. She keeps the index file of individual customers and
records bill payments; and keeps the cash book and records
amounts of sales by departments. For “fill in work” at odd
moments, she does typing.
5 and 6. They inspect Sales slips and make change in the
cash balcony; record charge Sales, entering them in cash book
according to departments; file sales slips by the clerk’s number,
total each clerk's cash and charge sales, and enter them in
record books by clerks and departments. The assistant cashier
does odd jobs in the office and assists in writing letters.
7. The head bookkeeper or cashier has full charge of general
ledgers and all cash. He banks, pays bills of the house, and
makes out all checks. He also makes out order cards for
machines and sends “manifest” to the repair man.
General education required.—Some high school training is
required for cashiers. Of these studied the majority of workers
had more than eighth grade education. Knowledge of arith-
metic and banking is needed, and in the higher positions which
bring the worker in contact with the public, advanced general
education is essential.
How special knowledge and skill are obtained.—Employers
interviewed for this study stated that most cashiers of the less
expert type can get what special knowledge they need on the
job, provided they have a thorough knowledge of commercial
arithmetic and bookkeeping. The necessary training in these
two fields must be obtained in school.
Mental and physical requirements.--Accuracy and rapidity
in counting and computing change is necessary for success as a
I96 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
cashier. The qualifications of the expert cashier are practically
the same as for the bookkeeper.
Promotion.—The cashier may become bookkeeper, since
part of the required duties are to prepare statements for the
bookkeeper. -
Source and selection of workers.-Workers are taken from
the outside or from the sales force. In the latter case they are
chosen because of their alertness and knowledge of the business.
Seasonableness and overtime.—The cashier in the retail store
has the same hours as the salesperson. In order to get the day's
balance, some overtime is occasionally required. Their work
is not seasonable.
Hazards and inherent character of work.-The work is con-
fining and responsible in character, involving all the mental
and physical strains of a confining, sedentary life.
Wages.—Of three schedules received for retail cashiers, two
quoted wages at six and one thirty dollars per week.
D. THE CLERE
The term clerk has been used to designate a group of workers
which could not be classified elsewhere. The range includes
clerical workers, bill clerks, stock, shipping, and receiving clerks,
file clerks, timekeepers, and cost and statistical clerks. Clerical
work, except in the railroad office, usually is the most sub-
ordinate form of office work. Statistical and cost clerks, at
the other end of the scale, are the most expert positions requiring
specialists who are well remunerated.
Number employed.—In Richmond there were 217 males and
36 females designated as clerks working in various offices. It
will be noted in the opening of this chapter, that the majority
of clerks were employed in railroad and express offices, and the
offices of shops and factories.
Definitions of various types of clerks.—The clerical worker
keeps records, opens and distributes mail, writes tags and slips
and does checking and posting. In the railroad office, however,
the term is more loosely used and includes such experts as the
rate clerk and the chief clerk, whose work is not only highly
specialized but executive.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 197
The bill clerk prepares invoices, usually on a typewriter or
billing machine. There are very few bill clerks in Richmond,
except in railroad offices. This work sometimes involves
rechecking figures.
Stock clerks keep records of all materials in the stock room
and records of all materials issued. Stock is usually issued in
accordance with signed requisitions which are checked against
the department. -
The shipping clerk works in the office and warehouse, check-
ing and supervising outgoing material. The receiving clerk is
in charge of incoming material, checking it against the invoice
for quality, quantity and Condition.
The file clerk is employed to correctly file away all corre-
spondence, orders, contracts and papers of the firm. The order
is generally alphabetical, with folders for correspondence and
cards for reference tabulation. It is the file clerk’s duty to keep
the orders correctly filed and find such material as is needed
for reference by the other clerks.
The timekeeper summarizes the time for all departments,
computing the wage for each worker. In one factory the cost
clerk is also timekeeper. Frequently the foreman of the depart-
ment keeps the time of the employees under him. If the work
is on a piece basis, the time put in by the men is important only
as a record of efficiency. One employer stated that the wage
received by this clerk was about seventy-five dollars a month.
Statistical and cost clerks are experts engaged in analyzing
the production costs of all departments in order to determine
the parts of the business which are most and least profitable,
the proportionate cost of labor, raw materials and overhead
expense. It is on the basis of these computations that prices
are fixed, that charges on output are made, that wages are cut
or raised, and that sales are directed.
D. A JoB ANALYSIS OF RETAIL SELLING!
The girl who sells handkerchiefs must have a knowledge of
linen, lawn, cotton, mercerized cotton, shamrock, and light
* Adapted from Minneapolis Vocational Education Survey, pp. 408--17.
Bulletin of United States Bureau of Labor, No. 199, IQI6. -
198 EDUCATION TOR BUSINESS
silks. She should know the combination of fibers used and be
able to tell from the appearance and feeling just what is the
combination in a particular handkerchief. For example, she
should know that in certain high-priced handkerchiefs the
thread running one way is linen and that running the other
shamrock. She should know that this makes a more sheer and
a softer-looking handkerchief than pure linen, but is not so
durable, she should know that French linens, because of their
greater brilliancy, are more desirable than Irish linens. She
should know the difference between domestic and foreign
goods, between hand and machine embroidering, between
punched and pulled hems, between real and Armenian lace, and
between either of these and imitations. She should know
which colors are fast and which are likely to fade so that she
can tell the customer about the care needed in laundering.
Most persons are not in a hurry when buying handker-
chiefs, so the girl must have the skill to give many points as
to value in beauty and wearing qualities, and to show goods in
detail. She should like details and be perfectly familiar with
the workmanship on handkerchiefs. The work does not require
measuring or estimating fractional parts, so computations are
easy.
The sales person who sells hosiery may sell knitted under-
wear. Though usually sold in different departments, these
goods have many points in common. The same methods of
manufacture and the same materials are used to a great extent.
The sales person should know sizes, full-fashion, Seamless, and
outsize hosiery; pure dye silks, thread silk, loaded or plated
silk; the various grades of cotton, lisle, mercerized, and wool
mixtures, and weights used; and be able to use this knowledge
in selling the various kinds of stock. It is desirable that the
different kinds of knitting used should be understood. She is
frequently called upon to estimate the size the customer needs,
especially in children's wear; so should be able to judge from
the size of the shoe or the age of the child.
The sales person who sells gloves should know the leathers
and fabrics used, care of gloves, and how to fit all kinds. The
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS, INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 199
knowledge of fabrics should cover silk, cotton, lisle, and chamoi-
settes, that of leathers should cover lamb leathers such as
Capeskins, mochas, chamois, and dogskins, and kid leathers
such as Suede.
A saleswoman's interest in her work should be increased by
knowing that the softness and durability of glove leather
depends on the age of the animal and the place where it was
raised; that leather from skins taken from the young of hardy,
mountain-climbing sheep is stronger than that from the young
of animals which browse in lowlands and on plains, and that the
best gloves are made from skins of kids found in the south-
eastern part of France.
She should know enough about gloves to make the customer
understand that care must be exercised in washing a doeskin
glove because it is the process of manufacture and not the
leather itself which has made it washable. She should know
the various parts of a glove; the different stitchings—spear,
plain, filet, and three-row; and the different methods of seam-
ing, such as Prix Seam, pique, and round seam, and the cus-
tomary usages and peculiar merits of each. If she understands
the manufacture of gloves she can explain the difference in
durability, softness, and purpose of each style of glove and can
give the customer much acceptable information about their
proper Care.
A saleswoman must know how to use the stretcher and
powder. She must be able to fit gloves and to judge by look-
ing at a woman's hand what size glove to try. She should
know the best position for the customer to assume while being
fitted and how to stand so as to avoid unnecessary strain of the
muscles of the back.
The reshaping of the glove after fitting demands skill.
A machine has been invented for this purpose, but it is not
used so extensively as to eliminate the hand reshaping of the
glove. This must be so skillfully done that the glove will not
show that it has been fitted. Mending of gloves is important.
A sales person may be trained to look after mending as part of
her work, or it may be done in a special department.
2OO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The sales person who sells jewelry should have a knowledge
of silver, because much jewelry is made of silver. She must
know what is meant by gold-filled, gold-rolled, and gold-front
jewelry. She should be able to show interesting things about
different pieces of jewelry, as, for example, the desirability of a
chain composed of soldered links as compared with one having
unsoldered links. She should have accurate knowledge of the
materials used in buckles, pins, bracelets, hair ornaments,
fancy purses, and beads. Jewelry is a part of dress and so is
affected by style, to which the sales person should give attention.
E. A JoB ANALYSIS FOR SELLING!
VARIABLE FACTORS IN BUSINESS WORK-SALESMANSHIP AS
AN EXAMPLE
Inherent differences in qualifications of salespersons.—This
study of salesmanship in the retail stores of Richmond, has
indicated the whole range of work required of men and women
of widely varying mental and physical endowments, and
educational qualifications. A few examples cited from this
report will but serve to illustrate this point. The hardware
Salesman must possess mechanical ability in order to set up
and adjust machines and implements. The dexterous hands of
the jewelry salesman are not needed for success in the grocery
store, nor is the girl selling notions required to have the keen
Color discrimination and the artistic taste of the salesperson at
the silk counter. Good looks are of more importance to the
girls at the neckwear counter than to the one who sells hosiery.
Artistic taste is not so essential to the man who sells leather
goods as to the clerk in a florist's shop.
Inherent differences in commodities sold.—For salespersons
in book stores, a college education is an asset; for furniture
Salesmen, a general education rich in historical content about
manners and customs of various people and periods and their
homes and furnishings is valuable; and the demonstrator of a
complicated agricultural implement is greatly profited by a
* Adapted from Report of the Richmond, Indiana, Survey for Vocational
Education, pp. 388–97. Bulletin of Indiana State Board of Education,
Indiana Survey Series No. 3, 1916.
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 201
technical education. On the other hand, it can scarcely be
honestly contended that a general education beyond the sixth
grade is needed for selling in the five and ten cent store, or that
an education beyond the ninth grade is a marketable asset for
the grocery clerk.
CONSTANT FACTORS IN SALESMANSHIP
Fundamentals underlying study of merchandise.—While
actual differences in stock knowledge required of salespersons
handling various commodities are vital and oftentimes great,
there are certain fundamental basic elements underlying the
study of merchandise; knowledge of the industries of the
United States and Europe; centers of production of commodities
of various types; source and composition of raw materials into
finished products, including study of color, pattern and design.
Economics of mercantile trade.—The content, of the eco-
nomics of mercantile trade about which all salespersons should
be informed regardless of the commodity sold, includes the
following: The world’s producing, buying and selling markets;
rudiments about traffic and transportation; basic reasons for
variations in market prices; the relation between wholesale
and retail trade; the basis of fixing selling prices; and methods
of displaying and advertising goods.
Technique of meeting customers.-The types of customers
with whom salespersons have to deal are constant, regardless
of the purchase the customer seeks to make. The classification
reported in the Minneapolis Survey is suggestive: “The cus-
tomer looking for a definite thing; the one not knowing just
what to buy; the customer who is just curious about what is
for sale. The first type of customer must be convinced that
the salesperson can show either the very object desired or some-
thing better; the second type is open to persuasion; and the
third must be attracted and won.”
\
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TRAINING FOR SALESMANSHIP
Salesmanship, a splendid field for men.—The widespread
public attention focused upon schemes for training young
girls for department store positions, has had a tendency to
2O2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Create the impression in the minds of young men that the field
of Selling is of most worth and promise to young women. The
Richmond Survey shows that men predominate in the field, at
the ratio of three to one, and that in only two types of stores,
the dry goods and five and ten cent stores, are women in the
majority. Practically all positions of major responsibility in
the Richmond stores are held by men. Probably this condition
will continue to exist. Nor is Richmond peculiar in this respect.
According to the report of 1910 census of occupations of resi-
dents of Indiana, there were about 90,000 salespersons in the
State, 70 per cent of whom were males. The following census
figures about numbers employed in this field in the State are
illuminative:
TABLE XXVI
Males Females
Salespersons in stores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,639 Io,647
Retail dealers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, O93 I, 237
Brokers and agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,338 I, 2IO
Commercial travelers and demonstrators. . . . . . . . . 6,854 361
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73; 924 I3,455
Schemes for training for salesmen must be broad enough to
adequately throw open the possibilities of Selling to promising
young men, and teach, in So far as possible, the basic aspects of
merchandising necessary for entrance, proficiency and promotion.
The schools’ responsibility.—Classes in salesmanship for
youths who have not yet entered the field as wage-earners and
for those who are salespersons but who seek organized instruc-
tion, must be organized on an entirely different basis. Classes
for the former must include the fundamental common elements
of mercantile salesmanship, and, for the latter, the distinctive
problem peculiar to commodities sold and store organization.
There is no question but that the public schools have a direct
responsibility in offering preparatory courses for those who seek
this type of employment. Although this Survey has revealed
Some of the constant as well as variable factors involved, the
study was neither broad nor intensive enough to submit a
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 203
complete bill of particulars which might be accepted without
challenge. A detailed and intensive study to determine the
solid, common ground underlying all sales work, should be
made at once, since the field is so promising and public interest
is so great. No texts are yet available which touch the real
problem, since practically all works on salesmanship discuss
only such common requisites as reliability of character, ambi-
tion, patience and tact, all of which underlie a salesman's success
no more than that of a doctor, a mechanic or a nurse. A reliable
text cannot be written until the intensive study suggested is
made.
The course of the future for those preparing for salesmanship.–
To understand the composition and manufacturing of stuffs,
textiles, silverware, rugs, etc., a salesman must have a knowl-
edge of applied chemistry; to appreciate and explain patterns
in textiles and jewelry, fashion of hats and costumes as well as
to arrange displays on Counters and in windows, a Salesman must
have training in design, Color and harmony of line and space.
English, penmanship and arithmetic are necessary for sales
records, and practical economics.
A study of applied economics, including mercantile traffic
and transportation, is necessary in marking goods and setting
prices. Commercial geography and industrial studies are
necessary in obtaining a knowledge of the world’s producing,
buying and selling markets and manufacturing processes. The
course of the future must contain at least all these basic
elements.
These suggestions constitute an hypothesis, that there might
be worked out for Salesmanship a course in a way analogous to
a general Course in pedagogy, psychology, Sociology, and history,
now required of all who enter the teacher's profession. No
such courses at present are available for Salesmanship. The
vague and vaporous books on personality, conduct and advertis-
ing, which are current in Schools of Salesmanship and corre-
spondence courses, at present offer a mere starting point for the
salesmanship course of the future, which will take such generali-
ties for granted and begin with Specific studies.
2O4
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
IO.
II.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
. The persons making the Minneapolis Survey concluded that even
where “ample technical knowledge” existed, certain qualities were
often lacking. What were these qualities? Does it seem probable
that high skill in bookkeeping, for example, could leave one
devoid of these qualities?
. How could large employers, as in Des Moines, justify the belief
that office work should not be undertaken by anyone who does
not have a high-school education ?
. From an examination of the survey of Rochester, New York,
what conclusions do you reach on the following matters:
(a) specialization in office work, (b) the value of general book-
keeping courses, (c) the value of special clerical courses, such as
machine operation, (d) the value of attempting to train in adver-
tising and selling, (e) the weaknesses and strength of the high
School or business College commercial curriculum as you are
familiar with it.
. Examine the survey in Milwaukee and make conclusions con-
Cerning all of the issues raised in the preceding question, so
far as the data are applicable.
. Follow the same procedure for the evidence presented in the
Cleveland survey.
. Follow the same procedure for the evidence presented in the sur-
vey of occupations in New York.
. Would data such as those given in the statements of Type I be
valuable for purposes of vocational guidance if presented to
Freshmen in high-school commercial courses?
. Does an examination of the demands in specific types of business
bear out in general the conclusions which you reached from the
study of the surveys made in various cities?
. Do studies of specific businesses indicate a greater or less use of
the conventional bookkeeping, Stenography, and typewriting
than was found in the city surveys?
To what extent, if at all, are your conclusions of what business
says it wants modified by A, B, and C of evidence of Type 3 P
Under evidence of Type 3, Section B shows that 36 per cent of
the reporting schools state that over 50 per cent of their com-
mercial students find initial employment in stenography. She
Cleveland Survey indicates that only 22 per cent of the clerical
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 205
I 2.
I3.
I4.
I 5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
I9.
2O.
2I.
workers in Cleveland are stenographers. How do you account for
this difference?
Examine evidence of Type 3, C and D. Are the conclusions
which are there reached concerning the type of work done by com-
mercial workers and the training which they receive a criticism
of the commercial course in high Schools as you know it?
Does the evidence indicate that stenography, typewriting,
and bookkeeping are worth while as stepping-stones and should,
therefore, be taught? If this is true, is it likely that a
greatly disproportionate amount of time is given them in the
secondary schools? Is it conceivable that they might with
propriety be dropped entirely from the secondary Schools?
From your study of the evidence of what business wants,
are we justified in the tentative conclusion reached earlier that
there must be training for specialized technique?
If the quantity of typewriting, stenography, and bookkeeping in
the secondary commercial courses were greatly reduced, what
could be substituted “to fill up the time P”
Why has there not been differentiation in the commercial
training given boys and girls? Does the evidence justify the
belief that the demands are different for the sexes?
What explanations can be given for the different occupations
in which boys and girls take their initial positions? What
explanation can be given for the different occupations in which
boys and girls are found after a period of years? Are the reasons
which you give reasons which are likely to continue to be true?
What do you understand to be the meaning of the term job
analysis?
Of what value is job analysis for one who is interested in business
education ? tº
Was our study of what business is, part of a job analysis? Is
our whole undertaking to reach conclusions concerning the objec-
tives of business education merely a job analysis? If so, a job
analysis of what job P
Work through the junior commercial-occupations job analyses
made by the Federal Board. Concerning it, what would be your
answer to these questions: (a) Would such an analysis be valuable
to boys and girls beginning the high-school commercial course?
(b) What value has it for teachers of commercial work? (c)
Are you led to the belief that the way to train for commercia;
2O6
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
3O.
3I.
32.
occupations is to give courses in each of these jobs, training in
each instance for the particular requirements as the job analysis
indicates them to exist? .
What is wrong with Conventional commercial courses if the con-
clusions of the Junior Commercial Survey are sound?
Since stenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping are the courses
given high-School commercial students, why did the Federal
Board find it necessary to make so many items in their classifica-
tion of positions?
What is a “general clerk”? What training is proposed for him
in the Board's report? Should the high School train for this
position ?
What is the Board's criticism of existing bookkeeping texts?
Does the criticism seem justified ? What, if anything, should
be substituted P
Attempt to work out a brief outline of the courses proposed by
the Board in Section E of evidence of Type 3.
In what ways do the conclusions on stenography agree and dis-
agree with the conclusions of the “Junior Survey”?
On the basis of the Board’s report what do you believe the
Secondary School should do regarding machine-operating courses?
Regarding retail-selling courses?
What are the “supervisory and executive positions” mentioned
in “the Senior Survey”? Who will obtain these positions? Try to
put content into the courses Suggested for training for these
positions.
Does the job analysis made in the Richmond, Indiana, survey
bear out the conclusions reached by the Federal Board P
The Minneapolis Survey puts Special emphasis upon job analysis
of retail selling. What were the conclusions reached as to the
requirements for such work? Judging from the requirements
for retail selling as indicated by Sections D and E of Evidence of
Type 5, how much to the point has been the typical “course” in
salesmanship P -
Various surveys bring out the fact that a large number of high-
school commercial graduates find their way into retail selling.
Studies such as the Minneapolis and Richmond surveys indicate
that the most important training for retail selling is a detailed
knowledge of the goods sold. Since the high-school student can
never be sure of the type of goods which he will eventually be
WHAT BUSINESS WANTS: INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS 207
selling, it follows, does it not, that courses should be given which
would make commercial students intimately familiar with all
goods?
33. If we do not follow the Suggestion given in the preceding question,
what shall we do about this matter of training for retail
salesmanship P ſº
34. Formulate a series of statements which Summarize the Suggestions
for business education obtained from Chapter VIII.
CHAPTER IX
THE FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY
All education given by the public schools must be in sym-
pathy with the best-known ends of public education. This
Statement holds true regardless of the course to which it may
be applied. No course of study in the American public school,
however vocational its character, can, if it omits education of
the kind needed in a democracy, be anything but a misappro-
priation of public funds. In seeking the ends or objectives
of business, therefore, so far as we are thinking in terms of
the secondary school, we shall need to give consideration to
the needs and purposes of all education in a democracy Such
as ours. In doing this, as in the two preceding chapters,
the best method seems to be to submit such evidence as is
available. A consideration of the evidence, rather than a
consideration of an interpretation, is the useful procedure.
There are, then, presented here a series of statements, for the
most part statements of persons whose opinion is well recognized
as of value, regarding objectives of public education. It is
necessary to draw from such evidence a conclusion and to Com-
bine that with our conclusions drawn from the study of what
business is and what business says it wants, in arriving at a
tentative working statement of the objectives of education for
business."
STATEMENT 1. THE MEANING AND AIM OF EDUCATION
A. SOME OBJECTIVES OF PUBLIC EDUCATION”
The administrative awakening to the need of determining
with definiteness the goals of public education is coming Sur-
* Although the classic statement of Herbert Spencer has been omitted
to give place to more modern views, chap. i, at least, of Education might
well be read.
* Adapted by permission from Franklin Bobbitt, “The Objectives of
Secondary Education,” School Review, XXVIII, December, 1920, 738-48.
208
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 200
prisingly late. In the world of economic production it is
axiomatic that nothing can be done until it is decided what
products are to be turned out; but in the field of public educa-
tion we have in large measure been building and organizing our
huge plants and operating them full blast without having
definitely predetermined the kinds of products which we are
going to turn out. Exceptions, of course, must be made in
the case of a few things, such as the ability to read, to write,
to spell, to compute, to read maps, to express one's self in clear
and correct English, and a few others. . These matters are
mainly taken care of upon the elementary level. The high
Schools for the most part have not particularized their objec-
tives in terms of human activities or human well-being. The
situation is well stated by Dr. Snedden:
The great problems of secondary education today are, of course,
problems of aim. The concrete, immediate aims which control the
large majority of our administrative and pedagogic procedures in
the American high school (and how very concrete and definite and
exacting many of them are) are of quite unknown value. We have
not defined them in terms of human good; we seem unable to esti-
mate the value of the results achieved in our efforts to realize them.
We teach our prescribed algebra strenuously and with some very
definite objectives, but we flounder pitfully when we try to prove
that these objectives are really worth while. We have refined and
standardized our immediate objectives in teaching physics and
chemistry, but what we actually attain by it all in terms of human
well-being remains concealed in the obscurity of vague phrase and
inadequate generalization. We drive our boys and girls hard up the
steeps of Latin, French, and German, but we are forced to fall back
on mystical and uncertain faiths in the endeavor to justify our driv-
ing of particular youths up these particular steeps.
We have in reserve, of course, large, splendid aims which are
alleged, finally, to guide the evolution and destinies of our secondary
schools. Do we not freely use such terms as “character formation,”
“mental discipline,” “self-realization,” “social efficiency,” “cul-
ture,” “citizenship,” “leadership,” “intellectual power,” and a
score of other unanalyzed general phrases, as expressive of our
ultimate goals? And in these are there not summed up most of the
purposes that really count in this life? It must be admitted that we
2TO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
do still live largely in a maze of faith (and fable) as regards education.
. . . . For, after all, our great fine aims in secondary education, ex-
pressed in tenuous even though aspiring phrase, are in reality only
faith aims; in practice they rarely actually guide us in choice of ways
and means; and we seldom stop to measure the tangible results of
our teaching against the shadowy and ever-varying interpretations of
these aims as set forth in books and journal articles.
During the five years since Dr. Snedden's statement
appeared, much, very much, has been done. The National
Education Association Commission on the Reorganization of
Secondary Education in its “Cardinal Principles of Secondary
Education” has presented seven groups of educational objec-
tives. Such an official pronouncement, even though tentative
and merely a basis of further effort, is now greatly needed.
The present writer would suggest consideration of a somewhat
more inclusive series, as follows:
I. Education for general physical efficiency. Play-level
and work-level.
2. Education for general mental efficiency. Play-level and
work-level.
3. Education for unspecialized activities of production,
distribution, Conservation, and consumption. Play-level and
work-level.
4. Education for one's specialized calling.
5. Education for citizenship.
6. Education for general Social relationships and contacts.
Play-level and work-level.
7. Education for Social intercommunication. (Languages
and other modes of intercommunication.) Play-level and
work-level.
8. Education for religious attitudes and activities.
9. Education for parental responsibilities.
B. ARE THERE EDUCATIONAL AIMS Pi
There is nothing peculiar about educational aims. They
are just like aims in any directed occupation. The educator,
' Adapted by permission from John Dewey, Democracy and Eduction,
pp. 124–26, Macmillan Co., 1916.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 211
like the farmer, has certain things to do, certain resources with
which to do, and certain obstacles with which to contend. The
conditions with which the farmer deals, whether as obstacles or
resources, have their own structure and operation independently
of any purpose of his. Seeds sprout, rain falls, the Sun shines,
insects devour, blight comes, the seasons change. His aim is
simply to utilize these various conditions; to make his activi-
ties and their energies work together, instead of against one
another. It would be absurd if the farmer set up a purpose of
farming, without any reference to these conditions of soil,
climate, characteristic of plant growth, etc. His purpose is
simply a foresight of the consequences of his energies connected
with those of the things about him, a foresight used to direct
his movements from day to day. Foresight of possible Con-
sequences leads to more careful and extensive observation of
the nature and performances of the things he has to do with,
and to laying out a plan—that is, of a certain order in the acts
to be performed. And it is well to remind ourselves that
education as such has no aims. Only persons, parents, and
teachers, etc., have aims, not an abstract idea like education.
And consequently their purposes are indefinitely varied, differ-
ing with different children, changing as children grow and
with the growth of experience on the part of the one who teaches.
Even the most valid aims which can be put in words will, as
words, do more harm than good unless one recognizes that they
are not aims, but rather Suggestions to educators as to how to
observe, how to look ahead, and how to choose in liberating
and directing the energies of the concrete situations in which
they find themselves. As a recent writer has said: “To lead
this boy to read Scott's novels instead of old Sleuth's stories;
to teach this girl to sew; to root out the habit of bullying from
John's make up; to prepare this class to study medicine,—
these are samples of the millions of aims we have actually before
us in the concrete work of education.”
2 I 2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
C. THE SOCIAL AIM OF EDUCATION:
The problem of education is, therefore, reduced to this:
whether the members of Society shall continue to pass through
life surrounded only by the natural and unorganized influences
which everywhere exist, by which they are indeed constantly
acquiring knowledge, Such as it is, and many conceptions which
are not knowledge because they consist of erroneous inferences;
whether they shall thus be left to form all kinds of undigested
and unsystematized ideas, half of which are objectively unreal,
and most of the remainder too narrow to be of any value, yet
to which their conduct will rigidly correspond, producing its
legitimate effect upon themselves and upon society; or, -
whether they shall be required to pass a portion of their early
lives under a system of artificial circumstances, so regulated
that the bulk of the influences which appeal to the senses and
produce ideas will be both reliable and important, and from
which, under no other than the normal operations of the mind,
reliable and valuable knowledge must necessarily result, Solid
character be formed, and the highest ethical and dynamic
actions be induced, exerting rigidly corresponding effects upon
themselves and upon Society. It is, in short, the question
whether the Social system shall always be left to nature, always
be genetic and spontaneous, and be allowed to drift listlessly
on, intrusted to the by no means always progressive influences
which have developed it and brought it to its present condition,
or whether it shall be regarded as a proper subject of art, treated
as other natural products have been treated by human intelli-
gence, and made as much Superior to nature, in this only proper
sense of the word, as other artificial productions are superior
to natural ones.
As the ultimate end which every feeling organism, every
individual man, and society collectively, both morally should
and physically must directly or indirectly pursue, is the increase
of happiness, so the highest achievement of the developed
* Adapted by permission from Lester F. Ward, Dynamic Sociology, II,
632–33, 54I. D. Appleton & Co., 1897.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 213
intellect and social consciousness of man is the substitution
for the unsuccessful or partially successful and costly direct
efforts to attain that end, of a systematic, predetermined, and
Successful Scheme for the organization of happiness. Such a
Scheme must have for its primary object the equal distribution
of the extant knowledge of the world.
D. EDUCATION As AN AGENCY OF SOCIAL CONTROL.
The art of education like the art of agriculture deals with
growing things. Though agriculture has been practiced and
discussed for so many ages, and enlists the imperious bread-
and-butter interests, yet it is only now becoming scientific.
We have already observed that in the opinion of the agrono-
mists the yield of American corn lands could be doubled by the
application of the lessons of Science, and that it is equally within
the truth to say that the harvest of life for the people of America
could be doubled if the possibilities with which they are endowed
by nature were brought to approximate realization. For this
it is not enough to make the benefits of present methods in
education more nearly universal, as Ward so impressively
advocated, important as that is. It is essential to introduce
into our education guiding principles which have been only
dimly apprehended and applied. Heredity sets the limits
within which individual development can vary. By all means
let us do what we can by the program of eugenics, by selective
regulation of immigration, and by promotion of public health,
to improve the biological quality of population. But after all
is done we shall have the problem of making the most of the
latent possibility of each rising generation just as the farmer
has the problem of securing the largest yield and highest con-
servation of his land. And as the same land may yield little
or much and that which it yields may be corn, alfalfa, or weeds,
So the same population may yield Periclean achievement and
levels of character which we know only by rare but blessed
instances, or futility and deviltry. &
* Adapted by permission from Edward C. Hayes, Introduction to the
Study of Sociology, pp. 660-61, 665–66. D. Appleton & Co., 1915.
2I4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Within the limits set by birth, individuality is a social
product. Without education by Social contacts there would
be no such thing as individuality as we understand that term.
Social contacts begin to be educative among the higher animals.
Social relations not only determine that there shall be self-
consciousness, but even more certainly they determine what the
nature of the self-thought shall be. We inherit contrasting
instincts, instincts of competition and of Co-operation, of self-
assertion and of loyal Self-subordination. Social contacts have
power to determine whether the self-thought, to which both
spontaneously and voluntarily a man's acts conform, shali
be one of Swaggering self-assertion, of more refined self-
aggrandizement, or predominantly one of service. The self-
thought is complex; social contacts determine the nature of
the elements which it contains. And the future development of
personality is largely a reaction between the self-thought
already established and the Subsequent stream of social
Suggestion.
Education the chief agency of social control.—The direction
of ambition is socially determined. We want to be winners at
the game that is being played. The Small boy's springtime
obsession for marbles is gone long before fall, because “the boys
aren’t playing marbles any more.” The Indian who dreamed
and longed and risked his life to hang scalps at his belt, or the
Filipino who measures his success by the number of skulls over
his door, or the Kafir or Thibetan whose standard of greatness
and mainspring of endeavor is the size of his herd, or the Ameri-
can toiling to make a high Score at the dollar-piling game and
to support his wife in competitive ostentation, have not selected
these goals as an expression of their own independent individual-
ity. The operation of the same principle of the molding of
personal ambition by Social radiation caused the Spartans to
despise money. The Swift advance of Germany from the foot
to the head of great European powers has been due largely to
the fact that achievement in science has been a goal of ambi-
tion of her most gifted Sons, so that by her application of science
to industry and government she has been able to redemonstrate
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 21 5
the truth that knowledge is power. A traveler in Florence asked
one of the curly-headed, great-eyed urchins of its streets what
he would like to be when he grew up, and the boy replied,
“A sculptor.” Now, Florence has sculptors, though not all
of her sculptors are great. A street boy in an American city
would not have answered So; he might have said that he wanted
to become pitcher for the White Sox, or boss of the ward. Jane
Addams says that in a ward chiefly inhabited by workingmen
there was difficulty in replacing a corrupt boss by an honest
workingman as its aldermanic representative, because the
people wanted to vote for a man who was a success. Where
the soubrette, the boss, the money-maker, represent success,
soubrettes, bosses and money-makers will be produced. Why
did the Spartan boy let the fox gnaw his vitals without giving
a sign, and why did Spartan Soldiers Commit Suicide because
they had not perished with their comrades on the battlefield?
What was it that made Spartans out of Greeks whose name
elsewhere became a synonym for Self-indulgence? Grit was
the social ideal in Sparta. Whatever Society adequately appre-
ciates, society will get, up to the very limits of human possi-
bility, whether it be prizefighters, money kings, scientists, or
constructive statesmen. No other reform is so fundamental
as a shifting of emphasis in Social valuations. Ambition in a
given population or in a given individual may be drawn out in
any one of various directions. Its direction and its power are
not fixed by “human nature,” but are matters of education.
Society must impart to its members tastes, interests, ambi-
tions, and a set of moral detestations and moral enthusiasm
strong enough to inhibit instincts and to elicit zeals—detesta-
tions and enthusiasms that are not inborn and that embody
the lessons of race experience respecting the conduct of life.
Nature does not give us a conscience any more than it gives
us a language, but only the capacity to acquire one; Social
evolution and education must do the rest. The task of order
and progress is not only to erect the towering structure of Social
organization out of individual units, but also to make the bricks
of which alone such a structure can be built.
2I6 3- EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
E. EDUCATION SHOULD GUIDE HUMAN WANTS!
The aims of education should then be: to make men want
the right things, and to make them better able so to control
all the forces of nature and themselves that they can Satisfy
these wants. We have to make use of nature, to co-operate
with each other, and to improve ourselves.
The first great element in making human wants better is to
increase the good will—the disposition to care for others' wel-
fare as well as for one's own—the desire to see the good wants of
others satisfied. To wish the welfare of all men is one of the
best of wants, for it is a want which every satisfier of all will
satisfy.
The second great means of making human wants better is
to cultivate the impersonal pleasures. Some satisfactions, such
as the enjoyment of productive labor, health, good reading and
study, are impersonal in the sense that for one to have the
pleasure does not prevent anybody else from having it. They
are unlike the pleasure of eating or owning or wearing things,
where the pleasure of one man usually uses up a possible means
of satisfying some other man. One of the most nearly perfect
of all impulses is the impulse to advance knowledge of ourselves
and the world in which we are to live. For this impulse is
impersonal—all men may profit by the truth. It enriches
everybody else's possibilities of satisfying the same want—
the more knowledge man has, the easier it is to get more. It
predisposes men against unsatisfiable wants—to know what the
world really is prevents us from wanting what it cannot give.
It leads to the satisfaction of all good wants—-knowledge is
power.
The third great means of making human wants better is
the elimination of wants which must in the nature of things
bring about a surplus of dissatisfaction. Such, for instance,
are the wants represented by superstition. *
* Adapted by permission from Edward L, Thorndike, Psychology,
pp. II-I3. Macmillan Co., IQI2,
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 217
F. THE VIEW OF A LABOR LEADER:
Most important among the opportunities that are the rights
of children are educational opportunities. Education is vital
not only to the welfare of the individual, but to that of the whole
nation. It is the only foundation and the hope of ideals of
democracy. It enables the possessor to understand and to
measure his powers and to use his ability most effectively. . . . .
There have come ideals of an education that teaches out
of life and work: that deals with the concrete materials of
environment and the duties and activities of life. This educa-
tion seeks to put into the lives of all that understand, apprecia-
tion of the significance of service performed in all the relations
of life—an appreciation that shall illuminate all of work and
life.
G. THE MODERN VIEW OF EDUCATION”
The Meaning of Education, as conceived in the present, is
found in this harmonization of interest and effort. This is but
another attempt to solve the problem of the individual and of
society, which, as we have seen, has been the educational prob-
lem as it, has been the ethical problem, from the beginning of
human life. How is the individual to be educated so as to
secure the full development of personality and at the same time
preserve the stability of institutional life and assist in its evolu-
tion to a higher state? It is the old problem of securing both
individual liberty and social justice. Interest and effort
give in modern form Aristotle's problem of well-being and well-
doing. Interest, representing the emphasis or the factor of
individualism, is an outgrowth of the naturalistic movement of
the eighteenth century. The education of effort is the survival
in conservative circles of the old education of authority expres-
sive of the religious and social views prevalent since the Refor-
mation period. These views have survived longest in educa-
* Adapted by permission from Samuel Gompers, in American Federa-
tionist, XXIII (February, 1916), I 26.
* Adapted by permission from Paul Monroe, Brief Course in the History
of Education, pp. 405-6. Macmillan Co., IQII.
218 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
tional institutions that are controlled by religious denominations
or by certain dominant classes in Society, as in the English
public schools and universities.
The meaning of education, as at present conceived, is found
in the attempt to combine and to balance these two elements of
individual rights and social duties, or personal development and
Social Service. The meaning of education in the present finds
its whole significance in this very process of relating the indi-
vidual to society, so as to secure both development of personality
and Social welfare. It is true that for the last two decades the
tendency in thought, in reaction to the extreme emphasis on
interest and on individualism, has been to stress the social
factor. Education has been defined as preparation for citizén-
ship, as adjustment to Society, as preparation for life in institu-
tions, as the acquisition of the racial inheritance.
But definitions more acceptable to present thought seek to
combine both factors and to find a harmonization of them in
the nature of the educational process. . . . . From whatever
line of investigation the problem of education is now approached,
its meaning is given in Some terms of this harmonization of
social and individual factors. It is the process of conforming
the individual to the given Social standard or type in such a
manner that his inherent capacities are developed, his greatest
usefulness and happiness obtained, and, at the same time, the
highest welfare of Society is conserved.
STATEMENT 2. EDUCATION A NECESSITYI
Society exists through a process of transmission quite as
much as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of
communication of habits of doing, thinking and feeling from
the older to the younger. Without this communication of
ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those
members of Society who are passing out of a group life to those
who are coming into it, social life could not survive. If the
members who compose a Society lived on continuously, they
* Adapted by permission from John Dewey, Democracy and Education,
pp. I-II. Macmillan Co., 1916.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 219
might educate the newborn members, but it would be a task
directed by personal interest rather than social need. Now it
is a work of necessity.
Individuals do not even compose a social group because
they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work
with a maximum of Co-operativeness for a common result, but
they do not form a community. If, however, they were all
cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that
they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they
would form a community. But this would involve communica-
tion. Each would have to know what the other was about and
would have to have some way of keeping the other informed
as to his own purpose and progress. Consensus demands
communication.
We are thus compelled to recognize that within even the
most social group there are many relations which are not as
yet social. A large number of human relationships in any
social group are still upon the machine-like plane. Individuals
use one another so as to get desired results, without reference to
the emotional and intellectual disposition and consent of those
used. Such uses express physical superiority, or superiority of
position, skill, technical ability, and Command of tools, me-
chanical or fiscal. So far as the relations of parent and child,
teacher and pupil, employer and employee, governor and
governed, remain upon this level, they form no true social
group, no matter how closely their respective activities touch
one another. Giving and taking of orders modifies action and
results, but does not of itself effect a sharing of purposes, a
communication of interests.
The inequality of achievement between the mature and the
immature not only necessitates teaching the young, but the
necessity of this teaching gives an immense stimulus to reducing
experience to that order and form which will render it most
easily communicable and hence most usable.
We are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational
process which we have been so far considering, a more formal
kind of education—that of direct tuition or schooling. In
22O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
undeveloped Social groups we find very little formal teach-
ing and training. Savage groups mainly rely for instilling
needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of
association which keeps adults loyal to their group. They have
no special devices, material, or institutions for teaching save in
Connection with initiation ceremonies by which the youth are
inducted into full Social membership. For the most part, they
depend upon children learning the customs of the adults, acquir-
ing their emotional Set and stock of ideas, by sharing in what
the elders are doing. In part, this sharing is direct, taking
part in the occupations of adults and thus serving an apprentice-
ship; in part, it is indirect, through the dramatic plays in which
children reproduce the actions of grown-ups and thus learn to
know what they are like. To savages it would seem preposter-
ous to seek out a place where nothing but learning was going
On in order that one might learn.
But as civilization advances, the gap between the capacities
of the young and the concerns of adults widens. Learning by
direct sharing in the pursuits of grown-ups becomes increasingly
difficult except in the case of the less advanced occupations.
Much of what adults do is so remote in space and in meaning
that playful imitation is less and less adequate to reproduce its
spirit. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus
depends upon a prior training given with this end in view.
Intentional agencies—schools—and explicit material--studies—
are devised. The task of teaching certain things is delegated
to a special group of persons.
Without such formal education, it is not possible to transmit
all the resources and achievements of a complex Society. It
also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be
accessible to the young, if they were left to pick up their train-
ing in informal association with others, since books and the
Symbols of knowledge are mastered.
But there are conspicuous dangers attendant upon the
transition from indirect to formal education. Sharing in actual
pursuit, whether directly or vicariously in play, is at least per-
sonal and vital. These qualities compensate, in some measure,
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 221
for the narrowness of available opportunities. Formal instruc-
tion, on the contrary, easily becomes remote and dead—abstract
and bookish, to use the ordinary words of depreciation. What
accumulated knowledge exists in low grade Societies is at least
put into practice; it is transmuted into character; it exists
with the depth of meaning that attaches to its coming within
urgent daily interests. - -
But in an advanced culture much which has to be learned
is stored in symbols. It is far from translation into familiar
acts and objects. Such material is relatively technical and
Superficial. Taking the ordinary standard of reality as a
measure, it is artificial. For this measure is connection with
practical concerns. Such material exists in a world by itself,
unassimilated to ordinary customs of thought and expression.
There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruc-
tion will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated
from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent
Social interests are likely to be lost from view. Those which
have not been carried over into the structure of social life, but
which remain largely matters of technical information expressed
in symbols, are made conspicuous in schools. Thus we reach the
ordinary notion of education: the notion which ignores its
Social necessity and its identity with all human association
that affects conscious life, and which identifies it with imparting
information about remote matters and the conveying of learn-
ing through verbal signs: the acquisition of literacy.
Hence one of the weightiest problems with which the
philosophy of education has to cope is the method of keeping a
proper balance between the informal and the formal, the inci-
dental and the intentional, modes of education. When the
acquiring of information and of technical intellectual skill do
not influence the formation of a social disposition, ordinary
vital experience fails to gain in meaning, while schooling, in
so far, creates only “sharps” in learning--that is, egoistic
specialists. To avoid a split between what men consciously
know because they are aware of having learned it by a specific
job of learning, and what they unconsciously know because they
222 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
have absorbed it in the formation of their characters by inter-
course with others, becomes an increasingly delicate task with
every development of special Schooling.
Communication is a process of sharing experience till it
becomes a common possession.
STATEMENT 3. THE EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF
EDUCATIONI
The history of education is the history of mankind. In the
epoch of primitive civilization the manner of life was so simple
as to preclude all idea of formal knowledge. Necessity for
food and shelter taught the primitive man the means and
method of supplying his natural wants. Repetitions of his
successful attempts established habits which became to him
the ideal of life.
These ideals varied greatly in their content, with different
people in different climes. The necessities of one race were
superfluities in another, but in each and all, certain essential
factors in the struggle for material existence became the ele-
ments of an educational ideal.
In order to comprehend the development of education
among any people it is necessary to understand the process and
progress of civilization, for education and civilization are insep-
arably connected.
That education should fit the individual to be a citizen has
been a persistent motive from time immemorial. No matter
how varying the conditions, or how unlike the standards of life,
this element has been common to the educational ideals of all
countries.
As the State came to be independent of the Church, and
passed under the influence of philosophy, Science, and Sociology,
the idea of what constitutes citizenship was Constantly changing
in the minds of educators. So that in later times education has
come to mean the fitting of an individual not only to discharge
his duty to the State, but also to fulfill his obligation to society.
* Adapted by permission from Mabel lrene Emerson, The Evolution of
the Educational Ideal, pp. 1–3, 154-64. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 223
With the beginning of the twentieth century there came a
marvelous development in commerce and in the industries.
Great wealth has been amassed both by nations and by indi-
viduals, and a spirit of competition has tended to emphasize
the importance of productive power. The spirit of the age is
commercialism. A citizen, to be of value to the State, must have
the power to produce Something of value in the industrial world.
The importance of a nation now depends on its industrial
activities, and on the number of its skilled individual producers.
So great is the rivalry among nations that it has become a matter
of necessity to modify the methods of education in order to
have a greater number of productive citizens. Consequently
society has demanded that Some provision be made in the school
curriculum for instruction along eminently practical lines.
It is now seen that education for citizenship must include
something more than mere culture; that while it must not
exclude what is essential to the proper development of the
individual, it must also include that which shall be of direct and
immediate value to Society.
Germany was one of the first to recognize that industrial
development and political advancement of nations depend
entirely on the kind of education given to children. Hence
Germany has, for a long time, had industrial, trade, and tech-
nical schools. France and England have also responded to
the general demand. America, because of her great natural
resources, has been slow to realize the necessity of establishing
industrial schools. *
For certain intellectual vocations, such as law, medicine,
the ministry, and teaching, professional Schools have long
been established. But the vast majority of children, upon
leaving the elementary or secondary Schools, enter a trade or
business. For this reason wise educators are today attempting
to enlarge the horizon of Such children by giving them an intel-
lectual grasp of their chosen vocation as a whole, and a practical
experience of the work in detail. It is with the hope of making
children something more than automatic machines in a highly
specialized business that the effort is being made to fit them for
224 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
positions that require intelligence as well as manual skill. To
this end vocational and industrial Schools are now being estab-
lished in which the cultural value of education is not neglected,
but rather subordinated to the practical needs of the child's
environment. This is bringing about a new sense of values and
a Consequent readjustment in the curricula of schools.
There are practically five divisions of vocational education:
professional; agricultural; Commercial or business; industrial;
and household arts. Because of the fact that industry has
become the chief factor in determining conditions of living
and working in the world, vocational education pertaining to
the industries is, at the present time, receiving the greatest
emphasis. *
Since the latter part of the nineteenth century manual
training has been taught in over seven hundred American cities.
But this work has been academic in character and cultural in its
results. With the great changes that have taken place in the
world, America has become essentially an industrial nation.
Manual training has done good work in its place, but it has not
been able to produce that efficiency which is needed in the
industrial world.
STATEMENT 4. A PRIMARY CULTURE FOR
DEMOCRACYr
One who looks even a little beneath the surface of things
may see that there is no question more timely than that of
culture, and none which has more need of fresh and fundamental
conceptions. It is by no means a question merely of the decora-
tion of life, or of personal enjoyment; it involves the whole
matter of developing large-minded members for that strong
and good democracy which we hope we are building up. With-
out such members such a democracy can never exist, and culture
is essential to the power and efficiency, as well as to the beauty,
of the Social whole.
* Adapted by permission from Charles H. Cooley, “A Primary Culture
for Democracy,” Publications of the American Sociological Society, XIII
(1918), I-3, 8–Io.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 22 5
We may all agree, I imagine, that culture means the develop-
ment of the human and social, as distinct from the technical,
side of life. Our recent growth, so far at least as it is realized
in our institutions, has been mainly technical, the creation of
an abundant economic system and a marvelous body of natural
Science, neither of them achievements of a sort to center atten-
tion upon what is broadly human.
It is true that along with these has come a growth of humane
Sentiment and aspiration, of a spirit Christian and democratic
in the largest sense of those words; but this remains in great
part vague and ineffectual. To give it clearness and power is
one of the aims of the culture we need.
There is also, I am sure, a growing demand for culture.
In the course of the greatest struggle of history, which is also
a struggle for righteous ideals, the people everywhere have
learned that the social order needs reconstruction, and that the
popular will has power to transform it, as has actually been
seen in molding nations to efficiency in war. All this gives rise,
especially in the young, to large and radical thinking, which
permeates the armies, the press, the labor unions, and other
popular associations; and among the first results of this think-
ing is a demand for a new sort of liberal education, through
which all members of the coming order shall get a wider out-
look, a higher and clearer idealism, and so be prepared to create
that free, righteous, and joyful system of life to which they
aspire.
Indeed our democracy, in spite of its supposed materialism,
has long had at heart the ideal of culture. Culture has been
a god that we somewhat ignorantly worshiped. We are not
satisfied with beholding the multiplication of material things,
nor even with the hope of greater justice in their distribution;
we want joy, beauty, hope, higher thoughts, a larger life, a
fuller participation in the great human and divine whole in
which we find ourselves. Even those popular movements
which formulate their aims in material terms are not really
materialistic but get their strongest appeal from the belief
that these aims are the condition of a fuller spiritual life.
226 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Another reason for turning our thoughts to culture is that
the economic outlook demands it. We are apparently, entering
upon a period of cheap, standardized production upon an
enormous scale, which will multiply commodities and perhaps
increase leisure but will make little demand upon the intelligence
of the majority of producers and offer no scope for mental disci-
pline. Work is becoming less than ever competent to educate
the worker, and if we are to escape the torpor, frivolity, and
social irresponsibility engendered by this condition, we must
offset it by a social and moral culture acquired in the Schools
and in the community life.
Our culture must be a function of our situation as a whole.
Just as the arts, like literature, painting, and Sculpture, can
not be merely traditional but must spring fresh and creative
from the living spirit of the time, so also must culture, which
is likewise an expression of the general life. It may be con-
trasted with, perhaps opposed to, the apparent trend of things;
but if so it is only because it is rooted in a deeper trend. If it
does not function in the whole it is nothing.
I am in sympathy with those who cling to the great human-
istic traditions of the past. There can be no real Culture that
is altogether new; it can only be a fresh growth out of old stems;
but it must be that; it must be new in the sense that it is wholly
reanimated by the spirit of our own time. Any attempt to
impose an old culture upon us merely because the educated class
cherish it, or because it can be Supported by general arguments
having no reference to our actual needs, must fail. Through
control of institutions the classicist, or the scientist, or the reli-
gionist may for a time force the forms of an old learning upon
a new generation; but before long all that does not vigorously
function in the life of the day will slough off and be forgotten.
Certainly no culture can be real for us that is not democratic.
This does not mean, however, that it must be superficial, or
commonplace, or uniform. These are traits which the enemies
of democracy have endeavored to fix upon it, but which do not
belong to its essence. Democracy is at the bottom a more
humane, inclusive, and liberal organization of life, and cer-
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 227
tainly a democratic culture will be one based on large and kindly
conceptions, meeting the needs of the plain people as well as
of the privileged classes, and worked out largely through the
Schools and other popular institutions. Because culture has
in the past been inaccessible to the masses and still is so in
great part, we must make it our very special business to bring
it within their reach; but the idea that such a culture must
lack refinement and distinction has no basis in sound theory
and will be refuted as fast as we make democracy what it can
and should be.
The studies, the teachers, the social activities of the schools
and the community, are all expressions of an underlying current
of life which molds their character for better or worse and can
only gradually be changed. It would be fatuous not to see
that this current is largely unfavorable to the development of
any real culture, either primary or secondary. The influence
in our society which is organized and dominant is commercial-
ism; the elements of culture are for the most part scattered,
demobilized, and impotent. The very idea and spirit of it are
starved and crowded out.
If we divide the sources of culture into two parts, those that
derive from tradition and those that come to us more directly
from participation in life, we shall find that the former especially
are deficient. Perhaps the first requisite of progress is to face
the fact that we are, as a people, in a state of Semi-barbarism as
regards participation in that heritage which comes only by
familiarity with literature and arts. And since this is lacking
in the people at large, including the bulk of the educated classes,
our schools, which are nothing if not an expression of the people,
do not readily supply it. The wealthy and energetic men who
have general control of education mean well, but their whole
life-history, in most cases, has been such that words like culture,
art, and literature can be little more to them than empty Sounds,
and whatever provision they make for them can hardly fail to
be somewhat perfunctory and Superficial.
I do not mean that culture is irreconcilable with commercial
activities or with technical training in the Schools. On the
228 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Contrary, periods of commercial expansion have usually been
those when arts and literature flourished most; and technical
training, if moderate in its demands and enlarged by a constant
Sense of the Social whole to which it contributes, may itself
involve a most essential kind of Culture. But our commercial-
ism has been exorbitant and exclusive; and our technical train-
ing is rarely of a sort which makes the student feel his member-
ship in the larger whole. Both must be transformed by a
Social spirit and philosophy before they can join hands with
culture. -
These are the underlying reasons for the unsatisfactory
state of our schools and for the extreme difficulty of introducing
any culture spirit into them. American education, on the culture
side, is deadened by formalism from the first grade in the pri-
mary Schools to and including the graduate departments of our
universities. In spite of much sound theory and honest effort
on the part of teachers the stifling gases of commercialism have
passed from the general atmosphere into academic halls and
devitalized almost everything having no obvious economic
purpose. I doubt if there has on the whole been any progress
in this way, perhaps rather a retrogression, during my own time.
When I contemplate the state of culture in our colleges I
cannot wonder that it does not flourish in the elementary Schools.
Thus, to take only one indication, I have reason to think that
serious spontaneous reading is far less Common among uni-
versity students than it was forty years ago. This is my own
observation, confirmed by others and corroborated by the evi-
dence of a veteran bookseller, who told me that he sold fewer
books of general literature to, say, 5,000 students at the time
of our conservation than he did to one-fourth of that number
in the Victorian era.
I find the outlook somewhat more cheerful as regards that
sort of culture which we get as a by-product of a Co-operation
with our fellows. This is a plant which grows untended in a
free and friendly life; and I think that democracy is giving
our feelings, our manners, and our social perceptions an enlarge-
ment which is truly, in its way, a kind of culture. That Con-
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 229
sideration, helpfulness, and ready sociability which, it appears,
have endeared our soldiers to the villages of France are a part
of our civilization and may well prove to be the first fruits of a
new sort of culture. Let us cherish and diffuse this spirit in
every possible way, especially through that school and com-
munity organization of which I have spoken. It is not only a
fine thing in itself but will help us to appreciate and acquire
that transmitted culture, akin to it in essence, which we now
So Sadly lack.
On the whole, our present condition as regards a popular
Culture, though unsatisfactory, is not unpromising. We have
energy, good-will, and a sincere though vague idealism. We
may expect these to work gradually upon all departments of
life, our Schools, our communities, our economic institutions,
and the general atmosphere of the country, slowly bringing to
pass a culture which will certainly be fresh, democratic, and
human, and need not be deficient in those things that have to
be learned from the past. . . . . In the way of culture, as in
technical training, our higher schools should offer the best that
the world has achieved, and should also foster specialized
Culture groups to kindle and support the individual in his struggle
for a larger life.
STATEMENT 5. EDUCATION AND THE NATIONAL
IDEALI
Our nation has hardly yet passed out of its early adolescence.
Indeed only with the present war has there been any widespread
thought as to our national destiny nor any clear-cut attempt to
formulate a philosophy of our Social life. . . . . And yet we
have had in this country from the very beginning of our history
some fairly clear-cut ideals, and these have exerted a profound
influence on our educational system. The ideals of liberty,
equality, justice, the separation of church and state, and self-
government which, however rudimentary, found expression or
* Adapted by permission from L. M. Bristol, “Education and the
National Ideal,” Publications of the American Sociological Society, XIII
(1918), 166–76.
23O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
are implicit in the Declaration of Independence and the Con-
stitution, have been the very foundation stones of our system
of free public schools; indeed some of these ideals and their
educational Correlate go back to early Colonial days.
Not only have the ideals of liberty, equality, justice, and
Self-government, however uncritically held, been prominent in
this country from Colonial times, but since the Declaration of
Independence and the formation of our national government
there has been a more or less conscious widespread feeling that
we were working out here an experiment in democracy which
would be an example to other nations. . . . . The equality
boasted of in our Declaration of Independence is seen to be a
very vague and shadowy thing, for we know all too well now
that men are not born equal in physical, mental, or moral
capacity, and that the actual conditions of life are not such as
to bring about equality of opportunity nor at all times even
equality before the law. Indeed though our President has said
we were fighting to make the world Safe for democracy, some
have been led to ask seriously whether or not democracy as it
actually exists in this country is really worth Saving. More-
over we are led to raise the question as to what we mean by
democracy and find, upon reflection, that the democracy for
whose safety we offered our ali is not so much a form of govern-
ment as a condition of Social life.
Liberty, equality, justice! It is for us to make these ideals
factual in every department of our Social life; a liberty, however,
that is consonant with Social strength; an equality that with
normal human beings means primarily equality of opportunity
for self-development, self-expression, self-enlargement and
service, and a justice which includes a recognition of indi-
vidual limitations and imperfections, but also of Social respon-
sibility and one that is based primarily on an estimate of the
long-run well-being of the Social group and of all humanity.
And then that ideal of democracy! This, too, must be trans-
lated from the realm of the abstract and ideal to the reality
of actual, intelligent participation in associated living and in
social control whether through diffused public opinion or through
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 231
public opinion crystallized in legislative enactment. But the
one comprehensive national ideal to which all others are sub-
ordinate may well be this—and I suggest it as the next logical
step in the development of our national ideal: to work out here
in America a form of associational life, both as a national whole
and in subordinate Social groups, so manifestly good that it
shall challenge the admiration of other peoples to the degree
that they shall desire to adapt our ideals and institutions to
their own peculiar conditions and needs. This ideal, too, has
the advantage of affording an objective test of the good so
insisted upon today in Science.
To make this effective as a national ideal requires that it
be the ideal in subordinate groups. States should consciously
vie with states in the excellence of their system of government,
in their treatment of the abnormal classes, in methods of taxa-
tion, and other, matters pertaining to social welfare. Cities
should vie with cities in the development of civic consciousness,
in the effectiveness of municipal government in its various
departments and activities, and in the manifest excellence of
its Social organizations—educational, fraternal, philanthropic,
and religious. No higher compliment can be paid to a city
than that some “plan” it has devised should prove so effective
that it would spread to other cities by reflective imitation, as
the Galveston plan of government by commission, or the Cleve-
land plan of budget System for united philanthropies, or the
Gary system of Schools.
The educational system of the democracy that is worthy
of imitation must discover the mechanic and train the mechanic,
but its chief function will be to help the boy with a mechanical
bent to find himself and his place in the world and give him
every opportunity to become as efficient as possible not only as
a mechanic but as a member of Society. So, too, it must dis-
cover the chemist and train the chemist. It must discover the
doctor, the lawyer, the artist, the industrial organizer, the
political and the religious leader, and train each for effective
participation in the life of the social group and of humanity,
each doing his task Supremely well, each inspired with a pur-
232 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
pose to add something to the sum total of human achievement,
each with an enlarged Self-consciousness So that he thinks and
feels not only in terms of the empirical Self, but increasingly
in terms of family, Community, church, industry, nation,
humanity.
Three subordinate aims may well be kept in mind, yet all,
as above indicated, are included in that of rational participa-
tion: the acquirement of useful knowledge and moral judg-
ment, or critical assimilation, the development of power and
initiative, or cultivation, and the motivation of a life-purpose
with a social outlook, or inspiration. Each is to “enter into
the spiritual possessions of the race,” according to President
Butler, but chiefly to the degree necessary for effective participa-
tion in the life of the group. Each is to acquire power over
Self, over nature, and over his fellow-man, not, however, for
narrow personal ends, but for largeness of life and Social Service.
And to hold our youth steady in the task of splendid achieve-
ment there is needed the motive of a great purpose. All too
much of our school work today is a deadening routine and a
spiritless grind. The teacher who can inspire his pupils with
a purpose to be in order to do and to toil in order to serve is
rare indeed. But never did life offer such a challenge to red-
blooded youth as today. The call for the heroic will by no
means end with the signing of the treaty of peace. The work of
reorganizing American democracy and reconstructing the war-
cursed regions of Europe furnishes the basis for an all-compelling
appeal to the idealism and enthusiasm of youth which no
educator can afford to overlook.
STATEMENT 6. THE POSSIBLE CREATIVE EXPERIENCE
IN MODERN INDUSTRYI
As I have said before there is a common supposition among
people who are not employers of labor, that such features of
industry as the mechanical devices of modern technology and
the division of labor in factory organization, are in their nature
* Adapted by permission from Helen Marot, Creative Impulse in
Industry, pp. 134-45. E. P. Dutton & Co., IQI8.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 233
opposed to the expansive development of the people involved;
that these features of apparent intrinsic importance to mass
production are antagonistic to individual growth and to the
interest of workers in productive effort.
Without question, it is the business of educators to determine
whether such features of industry as machinery and the division
of labor are fundamentally opposed to growth or whether they
are opposed only in the way in which they have been put to
use and directed. We can discover whether or not these
features are opposed only as the people concerned have the
chance to master them and undertake, through their experience,
to turn them to account.
Because industry has been impersonalized and the me-
chanics of associated effort in industry worked out in such large
measure, it is today possible to conceive of spiritual as well as
physical association in productive enterprise. A difficulty in
the way of this conception, aside from the business complex,
is our habit of thinking exclusively of creative effort as an
individual expression. In describing the individual expression
we would say that a man may create a machine but that when
men jointly produce one they work. The creative act is in the
Conception of the machine in conjunction with its construction,
and the conception, after our habit of thinking, is an individual
and isolated achievement. As a matter of fact it frequently is.
A man may create a machine if he conceives it and constructs
it or if he conceives and directs its construction. Those he
directs, those who do the work of construction alone, do not
participate in the creative act, as the creative act is the con-
centrated intellectual and emotional expression and effort to
produce an article or idea. The creative impulse is concerned
with the transforming of a concept or some material into an
expanded concept or a new object. The creative impulse itself
finds its satisfaction in the process of completion and loses its
force when the concept or object is produced. The use of the
concept or object created is not a characteristic of the creative
but of the social impulse. A man who is interested in the use
or application of a product, the value it has for others, possesses
234 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the Social impulse as well as the creative. One impulse is
intensive and the other extensive.
But the creative effort is not necessarily an individual
matter. It may be possible for a group of people to associate
cordially and freely together with a single creative purpose and
endeavor. It may be possible for each worker to experience.
the joy of Creative work as he takes part with others in the
planning of the work along with the labor of fabrication. It is
a creative experience or dull labor as his association with others
in the Solution of the problem is freely pursued and genuine,
or as it is forced and perfunctory. *
Industry offers opportunities for creative experience which
is Social in its processes as well as in its destination. The
imaginative end of production does not terminate with the
possession of an article; it does not center in the product or
in the skill of this or that man, but in the development of
commerce and technological processes and the evolution of
world acquaintanceship and understanding. Modern machin-
ery, the division of labor, the banking system, methods of com-
munication, make possible real association. But they are real
and possible only as the processes are open for the common
participation, understanding and judgment of those engaged in
industrial enterprise; they are real and possible as the animus of
industry changes from exploitation to a Common and associated
desire to create; they are real and possible as the individual char-
acter of industry gives way before the evolution of social effort.
While our institutional life is an acknowledgment that
interdependence is a necessary factor in modern wealth produc-
tion, we still measure the strength of a man, or a society, or a
nation, and Say of all that they are strong or weak as they are
able apparently to stand alone. We have not yet discovered
that a desire to stand alone in an enterprise where people are
of necessity dependent is a weakness and that our ability to
Co-operate with others in Such an enterprise is a measure of
our strength. “From a Social standpoint dependence denotes
a power rather than a weakness; it involves interdependence.
There is always danger that increased personal independence
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 235
will decrease the social capacity of an individual. In making
him more self-reliant, it makes him more self-sufficient; it may
lead to aloofness and indifference. It often makes an indi-
vidual so insensitive in his relation to others as to develop an
illusion of being really able to stand and act alone, an unnamed
form of inanity which is responsible for a large part of the
remediable suffering of the world.” As industry through the
ages has changed from the isolated business of provisioning
a family to the associated work of provisioning the world, it
blazed a pathway for relationships which are Socially creative.
But art in social relationships will not be realized until a pas-
sionate desire for the unlimited expression of creative effort
overcomes inordinate desires of individuals for Self-expression.
Art in living together is possible where the intensive interest
of individuals in their personal affairs and attainments, in their
social group, in their vocation, in their political state, is deeply
tempered by a wide interest and sympathetic regard for the
life of other groups and people. Art in Social relationships is
contingent as well on ability to work for Social ends while
remaining in large measure disregardful of the personal stakes
involved. Because of our inability to lose our personal attach-
ment for our own work, because of what it may yield us in
personal ways, the world never yet has experienced the joy and
creative possibility of associated effort. And because it has
not we have still to experience art in Social contact.
STATEMENT 7. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ASPECTS OF
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION:
The rapid extension of public education to include the so-
called “vocational” interests and activities raises important
problems concerning the social aspect of such education. These
problems are well illustrated by commercial education.
There are two independent and often contradictory con-
ceptions of commercial education. We may call one the private
view, and the other the public view.
* Adapted by permission from Benjamin C. Gruenberg, “Commercial
Education,” School and Society, XII (1920), 300-330.
236 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The former of these is much the older; it had a vogue long
before any of the public Schools attempted to supply commercial
education. The fundamental postulates of this view, those
that differentiate it from the public view, are as follows:
I. As to Society, life is a competitive struggle for individual
advantage; success is for the few who attain the advantage.
2. As to commerce, business is carried on for profits; success
is measured by the amount of profit.
3. As to education, training prepares for success, and it is
therefore worth getting, even at a temporary sacrifice.
4. As to the individual, he who is prepared, wins; he who
is not, loses.
Under this view the private dispenser of education may
offer to train for success, by inculcating habits, technique,
information, power, and so on—all values that give advantage
(over those who have not these habits, powers, etc.) and thus
lead to success.
The fundamental postulates of the public view of commercial
education may be stated as follows:
I. As to Society, life is an organized enterprise to overcome
obstacles to human welfare, and to promote the common advan-
tage wherever possible. }
2. As to commerce, business is service organized for the
more effective and more economical distribution of goods and
services over an ever enlarging area of the earth, and of
human interest.
3. As to education, training prepares for better Service,
and so for more satisfactory living.
4. As to the individual, those who are prepared serve better,
in proportion to their preparation (native differences being
beyond control and accepted without prejudices). g
Under this view the public school may offer to train only for
types of service that are recognized as of public or general use, by
inculcating habits, technique, information, power and ideals that
make for proficiency, adaptability and satisfaction in Service.
Educators generally accept the situation (economic,
political, social) in which they find themselves, and assume
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 237
responsibility only for the elaboration of technique that will
most effectively accomplish the task assigned to them by others.
Or they undertake to “rationalize” what they find—perhaps
to justify themselves in evading more serious responsibility.
It is proper to inquire, however, whether educators, as “servants
of the public,” have not a still greater responsibility in the
direction of discovering and formulating forms and purposes of
education, even at the risk of coming in conflict with traditional
School purposes.
For example, we have accepted the competitive relation-
ship for the most part without question. We have organized
and conducted our schools on the assumption that this relation-
ship is basic, essential and permanent. We have not only
directed our “training” of children toward competitive ends,
we have both justified further education because of its ability
to make every child excel every other child (vide vast literature
of the last two decades purporting to evaluate higher, and
especially commercial, education in terms of dollars and cents
and in terms of relative “success”), and we have conducted our
pedagogy upon a Competitive psychology.
The welfare of the individual, no less than the welfare of
the community, requires that significant superiorities be culti-
vated and that irremediable inferiorities be disregarded. It
means that in the case of Socrates, for example, his inferiority
as a sculptor or merchant shall not stand in the way of exploit-
ing his Superiority as a propounder of impertinent and embar-
rassing questions.
To have the schools turn out the kind of boys and girls that
the business man wants means not only training for the kind of
workmanship that business experience shows to be needed or
desirable, but it means further the inculcation of certain
attitudes toward property and government, of certain theories
concerning relations between employers and workers, a certain
scheme of values—in short, it means indoctrinating the rising
generation with a whole philosophy of a special class.
The community is interested in having each individual
trained for his optimum productiveness, in terms of socially
238 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
desirable values. It is not interested either in encouraging
its least Scrupulous or in handicapping its least businesslike
children.
So long as our Commercial education remains in private
control we can at most undertake to regulate the “morals” or
“standards” of the instruction. But the moment, the public
itself takes a hand in commercial education, it becomes incum-
bent upon the agents of the public—commissioners, instructors,
educators, professors—to justify their work in terms of social
service.
STATEMENT 8. THE DEMOCRATIC CONCEPT AND
VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION:
The implications of human association.—Society is one word,
but many things. Men associate together in all kinds of ways
and for all kinds of purposes. One man is concerned in a
multitude of diverse groups, in which his associates may be
quite different. It often seems as if they had nothing in com-
mon except that they are modes of associated life. Within
every larger Social Organization there are numerous minor
groups: not only political Subdivisions, but industrial, scientific,
religious, associations. There are political parties with differ-
ing aims, Social Sets, cliques, gangs, Corporations, partnerships,
groups bound closely together by ties of blood, and so in endless
variety. -
Hence, once more, the need of a measure for the worth of
any given mode of Social life. In Seeking this measure, we have
to avoid two extremes. We cannot set up, out of our heads,
something we regard as an ideal Society. We must base our
conception upon Societies which actually exist, in order to have
any assurance that our ideal is a practicable one. But the
ideal cannot simply repeat the traits which are actually found.
The problem is to extract the desirable traits of forms of com-
munity life which actually exist, and employ them to criticize
undesirable features and suggest improvement. Now in any
* Adapted by permission from John Dewey, Democracy and Education,
pp. 94-IoI, 358–70. Macmillan Co., 1916.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 239
Social group whatever, even in a gang of thieves, we find a
certain amount of interaction and co-operative intercourse with
other groups. From these two traits we derive our standard.
How numerous and varied are the interests which are consciously
shared, how full and free is the interplay with other forms
of association P If we apply these considerations to, say, a
criminal band, we find that the ties which consciously hold the
members together are few in number, reducible almost to a
Common interest in plunder; and that they are of such a nature
as to isolate the group from other groups with respect to give
and take of the values of life. Hence, the education such a
Society gives is partial and distorted. If we take, on the other
hand, family life, we find that there are material, intellectual,
aesthetic interests in which all participate and that the progress
of one member has worth for the experience of all other
members—it is readily communicable—and that the family is
not an isolated whole, but enters intimately into relationships
with business groups, with Schools, with all the agencies of
culture, as well as with other similar groups, and that it plays
a due part in the political organization and in return receives
support from it. In short, there are many interests consciously
communicated and shared; and there are varied and free points
of contact with other modes of association.
The democratic ideal.-The two elements in our criterion
both point to democracy. The first signifies not only more
numerous and more varied points of shared common interest,
but greater reliance upon the recognition of mutual interests
as a factor in Social control. The Second means not only freer
interaction between Social groups (once isolated So far as inten-
tion could keep up a separation) but change in Social habits—
its continuous readjustment through meeting the new situations
produced by varied intercourse. And these two traits are
precisely what characterize the democratically constituted
Society. 4
Upon the educational side, we note first that the realiza-
tion of a form of social life in which interests are mutually inter-
penetrating, and where progress, or readjustment, is an impor-
24O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
tant consideration, makes a democratic Community more
interested than other communities have cause to be in deliber-
ate and systematic education. The devotion of democracy
to education is a familiar fact. The Superficial explanation is
that a government resting upon popular Suffrage cannot be
Successful unless those who elect and who obey their governors
are educated. Since a democratic Society repudiates the prin-
ciple of external authority, it must find a substitute in voluntary
disposition and interest; these can be created only by education.
But there is a deeper explanation. A democracy is more than
a form of government; it is primarily a mode of associated
living, of conjoint communicated experience. The extension
of space of the number of individuals who participate in an
interest so that each has to refer his own action to that of others,
and to consider the action of others to give point and direction
to his own, is equivalent to the breaking down of those barriers
of class, race, and national territory which kept men from
perceiving the full import of their activity.
The meaning of vocation.—At the present time the conflict
of philosophic theories focuses in discussion of the proper place
and function of vocational factors in education. The bald
statement that significant differences in fundamental philo-
sophical conceptions find their chief issue in connection with
this point may arouse incredulity: there seems to be too great a
gap between the remote and general terms in which philosophic
ideas are formulated and the practical and concrete details of
vocational education. But a mental review of the intellectual
presuppositions underlying the oppositions in education of
labor and leisure, theory and practice, body and mind, mental
states and the world, will show that they culminate in the
antithesis of vocational and cultural education. Traditionally,
liberal culture has been linked to the notions of leisure, purely
contemplative knowledge and a spiritual activity not involving
the active use of bodily organs. Culture has also tended,
latterly, to be associated with a purely private refinement, a
cultivation of certain states and attitudes of Consciousness,
separate from either social direction or service. It has been an
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 241
escape from the former, and a solace for the necessity of the
latter.
So deeply entangled are these philosophic dualisms with the
whole subject of vocational education, that it is necessary to
define the meaning of vocation with some fullness in order to
avoid the impression that an education which centers about it
is narrowly practical, if not merely pecuniary. A vocation
means nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders
them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the con-
Sequences they accomplish, and also useful to his associates.
The opposite of a career is neither leisure nor culture, but aim-
lessness, Capriciousness, the absence of cumulative achieve-
ment in experience, on the personal side, and idle display,
parasitic dependence upon the others, on the Social side. Occu-
pation is a concrete term for continuity. It includes the
development of artistic capacity of any kind, of special scientific
ability, of effective citizenship, as well as professional and
business occupations, to Say nothing of mechanical labor or
engagement in gainful pursuits.
We must avoid not only limitation of conception of vocation
to the occupations where immediately tangible commodities
are produced, but also the notion that vocations are distributed
in an exclusive way, one and only one to each person. Such
restricted specialism is impossible; nothing could be more
absurd than to try to educate individuals with an eye to only
one line of activity. In the first place, each individual has of
necessity a variety of callings, in each of which he should be
intelligently effective; and in the second place any one occupa-
tion loses its meaning and becomes a routine keeping busy at
Something in the degree in which it is isolated from other
interests.
The place of vocational aims in education.—Bearing in mind
the varied and connected content of the vocation, and the
broad background upon which a particular calling is projected,
we shall now consider education for the more distinctive activity
of an individual. An occupation is the only thing which
balances the distinctive capacity of an individual with his
242 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Social Service. To find out what one is fitted to do and to secure
an opportunity to do it is the key to happiness. Nothing is
more tragic than failure to discover one's true business in life,
or to find that one has drifted or been forced by circumstance
into an uncongenial calling. A right occupation means simply
that the aptitudes of a person are in adequate play, working
with the minimum of friction and the maximum of satisfaction.
With reference to other members of a community, this adequacy
of action signifies, of course, that they are getting the best
service the person can render.
The dominant vocation of all human beings at all times is
living—intellectual and moral growth. In childhood and youth,
with their relative freedom from economic stress, this fact is
naked and unconcealed. To predetermine Some future occupa-
tion for which education is to be a strict preparation is to injure
the possibilities of present development and thereby to reduce
the adequacy of preparation for a future right employment. To
repeat the principle we have had occasion to appeal to so often
such training may develop a machine-like skill in routine lines
(it is far from being sure to do so, since it may develop distaste,
aversion, and carelessness), but it will be at the expense of
those qualities of alert observation and coherent and ingenious
planning which make an occupation intellectually rewarding.
Moreover, the discovery of capacity and aptitude will be a
constant process as long as growth continues. It is a conven-
tional and arbitrary view which assumes that discovery of the
work to be chosen for adult life is made once for all at some
particular date. One has discovered in himself, say, an inter-
est, intellectual and social, in the things which have to do with
engineering and has decided to make that his calling. At most,
this only blocks out in outline the field in which further growth
is to be directed. It is a sort of rough sketch map for use in
direction of further activities. It is the discovery of a pro-
fession in the sense in which Columbus discovered America
when he touched its shores. Future explorations of an indefi-
nitely more detailed and extensive sort remain to be made.
When educators conceive vocational guidance as Something
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 243
which leads up to a definitive, irretrievable, and complete
choice, both education and the chosen vocation are likely to be
rigid, hampering further growth. In so far, the calling chosen
will be such as to leave the person concerned in a permanently
subordinate position, executing the intelligence of others who
have a calling which permits more flexible play and readjust-
ment. And while ordinary usages of language may not justify
terming a flexible attitude of readjustment a choice of a new
and further calling, it is such in effect. If even adults have to
be on the lookout to see that their calling does not shut down on
them and fossilize them, educators must certainly be careful
that the vocational preparation of youth is such as to engage
them in a continuous reorganization of aims and methods.
Present opportunities and dangers.-In the past, education
has been much more vocational in fact than in name. The
education of the masses was distinctly utilitarian. It was
called apprenticeship rather than education or else just learn-
ing from experience. The schools devoted themselves to the
three R's in the degree in which ability to go through the forms
of reading, writing, and figuring were common elements in all
kinds of labor. Taking part in Some special line of work, under
the direction of others, was the out-of-school phase of this
education. The two supplemented each other; the school
work in its narrow and formal character was as much a part of
apprenticeship to a calling as that explicitly so termed.
To a considerable extent, the education of the dominant
classes was essentially vocational—it only happened that their
pursuits of ruling and of enjoying were not called professions.
For only those things were named vocations or employments
which involved manual labor, laboring for a reward in keep, or
its commuted money equivalent, or the rendering of personal
services to specific persons. For a long time, for example, the
profession of the surgeon and physician ranked almost with that
of the valet or barber—-partly because it had so much to do
with the body, and partly because it involved rendering direct
service for pay to some definite person. But if we go behind
words, the business of directing Social concerns, whether
244 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
politically or economically, whether in war or peace, is as much
a calling as anything else; and where education has not been
Completely under the thumb of tradition, higher schools in the
past have been upon the whole calculated to give preparation
for this business. Moreover, display, the adornment of person,
the kinds of Social Companionship and entertainment which
give prestige, and the spending of money, have been made
into definite callings. Unconsciously to themselves the higher
institutions of learning have been made to contribute to prep-
aration for these employments. Even at present, what is
called higher education is for a certain class (much smaller than
it once was) mainly preparation for engaging effectively in
these pursuits. In other respects, it is largely, especially in
the most advanced work, training for the calling of teaching
and special research. There are, however, obvious causes for
the present Conscious emphasis upon vocational education—
for the disposition to make explicit and deliberate vocational
implications previously tacit. In the first place, there is an
increased esteem, in democratic communities, of whatever has
to do with manual labor, commercial occupations, and the
rendering of tangible services to Society. In theory, men and
women are now expected to do something in return for their
support—intellectual and economic—by Society, Labor is
extolled; service is a much-lauded moral ideal. While there is
still much admiration and envy of those who can pursue lives of
idle conspicuous display, better moral sentiment condemns such
lives. Social responsibility for the use of time and personal
capacity is more generally recognized than it used to be. -
In the second place, those vocations which are specifically
industrial have gained tremendously in inheritance in the last
century and a half. Manufacturing and commerce are no
longer domestic and local, and consequently more or less inci-
dental, but are world-wide. They engage the best energies of
an increasingly large number of persons. The manufacturer,
banker, and captain of industry have practically displaced a
hereditary landed gentry as the immediate directors of social
affairs. The problem of social readjustment is openly industrial,
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 245
having to do with the relations of capital and labor. The great
increase in the Social importance of conspicuous industrial pro-
cesses has inevitably brought to the front questions having to
do with the relationship of Schooling to industrial life. No
Such vast Social readjustment could occur without offering a
challenge to an education inherited from different social condi-
tions, and without putting up to education new problems.
In the third place, there is the fact already repeatedly
mentioned: Industry has ceased to be essentially an empirical,
rule-of-thumb procedure, handed down by custom. Its tech-
nique is now technological; that is to Say, based upon machinery
resulting from discoveries in mathematics, physics, chemistry,
bacteriology, etc. The economic revolution has stimulated
Science by Setting problems for Solution, by producing greater
intellectual respect for mechanical appliances. An industry
received back payment from science with compound interest.
As a consequence, industrial occupations have infinitely greater
intellectual content and infinitely larger cultural possibilities
than they used to possess. The demand for such education
as will acquaint workers with the scientific and social bases
and bearings of their pursuits becomes imperative, since those
who are without it inevitably sink to the rôle of appendages to
the machines they operate. Under the old régime all workers
in a craft were approximately equal in their knowledge and out-
look. Personal knowledge and ingenuity were developed within
at least a narrow range, because work was done with tools under
the direct command of the worker. Now the operator has to
adjust himself to his machine, instead of his tool to his own
purposes. While the intellectual possibilities of industry have
multiplied, industrial conditions tend to make industry, for
great masses, less of an educative resource than it was in the
days of hand production for local markets. The burden of
realizing the intellectual possibilities inhering in work is thus
thrown back on the school.
In the fourth place, the pursuit of knowledge has become,
in science, more experimental, less dependent upon literary
tradition, and less associated with dialectical methods of reason-
246 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ing, and with symbols. As a result, the subject matter of indus-
trial occupation presents not only more of the Content of Science
than it used to, but greater opportunity for familiarity with the
method by which knowledge is made. The ordinary worker in
the factory is of course under too immediate economic pressure
to have a chance to produce a knowledge like that of the worker
in the laboratory. But in schools, association with machines
and industrial processes may be had under conditions where
the chief conscious concern of the students is in sight. The
separation of shop and laboratory, where these conditions are
fulfilled, is largely conventional, the laboratory having the
advantage of permitting the following up of any intellectual
interest a problem may suggest; the shop with advantage of
emphasizing the Social bearings of the Scientific principle, as
well as, with many pupils, of stimulating a livelier interest.
Finally, the advances which have been made in the psychol-
ogy of learning in general and of childhood in particular fall
into line with the increased importance of industry in life. For
modern psychology emphasizes the radical importance of primi-
tive unlearned instincts of exploring, experimentation, and
“trying on.” It reveals that learning is not the work of some-
thing ready-made called mind, but that mind itself is an organ-
ization of original capacities into activities having significance.
Both practically and philosophically, the key to the present
educational situation lies in a gradual reconstruction of School
materials and methods So as to utilize various forms of occupa-
tion typifying Social callings, and to bring out their intellectual
and moral content. This reconstruction must relegate purely
literary methods—including textbooks—and dialectical methods
to the position of necessary auxiliary tools in the intelligent
development of consecutive and cumulative activities. But
our discussion has emphasized the fact that this educational
reorganization cannot be accomplished by merely trying to give
a technical preparation for industries and professions as they
now operate, much less by merely reproducing existing indus-
trial conditions in the school. Put in concrete terms, there is
danger that vocational education will be interpreted in theory
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 247
and practice as trade education: as a means of securing tech-
nical efficiency in specialized future pursuits.
Education would then become an instrument of perpetuat-
ing unchanged the existing industrial order of Society, instead
of operating as a means of its transformation. The desired
transformation is not difficult to define in a formal way. It
signifies a Society in which every person shall be occupied in
something which makes the lives of others better worth living,
and which accordingly makes the ties which bind persons
together more perceptible—which breaks down the barriers of
distance between them. It denotes a state of affairs in which
the interest of each in his work is uncoerced and intelligent:
based upon its congeniality to his own aptitudes. It goes
without saying that we are far from Such a Social state; in a
literal and quantitative sense, we may never arrive at it. But
in principle, the quality of Social changes already accomplished
lies in this direction. There are more ample resources for its
achievement now than ever there have been before. No
insuperable obstacles, given the intelligent will for its realization,
stand in the way.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. How may we justify a study of the purposes of public education
in general when our chief interest is the purposes of business
education ? Could it be justified if our effort was to discover
the purposes of the private commercial school alone?
2. “The aims of education should then be to make men want the
right things.” How shall we determine what the right things
are P What does Thorndike think are the right things?
3. “The purpose of education for business is to provide the largest
possible number of human beings with that genuine culture
which will enable them to understand the meaning of progress
and their contribution to it.” Comment.
4. “That democracy alone will be triumphant which has both
intelligence and character.” Could intelligence mean different
things at different times P Could character P
5. If approximately only 12 per cent of high-school students gradu-
ate, what is the duty of the secondary School in the matter of
educating for citizenship P t
248
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
6.
IO.
II.
I2.
“A Society marked off into classes need be specially attentive
only to the education of its ruling elements.” Why? Who are
the ruling elements of our Society if we are a democracy P
. “Society exists through a process of transmission quite as much
as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of com-
munication of habits of doing, thinking and feeling from the
older to the younger.” What does this mean regarding educa-
tion as a social task?
. “As civilization advances, learning by direct sharing in the
policies of the grown-ups becomes increasingly difficult.” What
do we do as a result P
. “To savages it would seem preposterous to Seek out a place
where nothing but learning was going on in order that one might
learn.” How do they do it? How was it done in the Middle
Ages? Make a list of the devices we use. What does this
point of view indicate as to the origin of schools? What as to
the responsibility of the teaching profession ? As to develop-
ment of new type of schools as American academies, business
Colleges, commercial courses, and Corporation Schools?
“There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruc-
tion will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated
from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent
social interests are likely to be lost from view.” Can you suggest
any subjects of which you think this is true? What are some
of these permanent social interests? Why should school matter
thus become isolated P
“If even adults have to be on the outlook to see that their
calling does not shut down on them and fossilize them, educators
must certainly be careful that the vocational preparation of
youth is such as to engage them in a continuous reorganization
of aims and methods.” Is this statement pertinent to business
educators? Does it suggest anything as to how this volume
should end ? If we conclude with the definite statement of the
one best commercial course, are we consistent with or opposed to
philosophy P
“The larger number of human relationships in any social group
are still upon the machine-like plan. Individuals use one another
so as to get desired results without reference to the emotional
and intellectual disposition and consent of this use.” Give
examples. What are some of the difficulties which stand in the
way of organizing a society in which all interested are shared P
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY 249
I3.
I4.
I5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
IQ.
2O.
“We might as well try to imagine a business man doing business,
buying and selling, all by himself, as to conceive it possible to
define the activities of an individual in terms of his isolated
actions.” Is our high-school commercial curriculum planned
carefully to relate the individual to his social environment?
Can we teach business ethics without an understanding of this
environment P
“For this reason wise educators are today attempting to enlarge
the horizon of children by giving them an intellectual grasp of
their chosen vocation as a whole.” For what reason do you
suppose? What types of courses would seem to you necessary
to give this grasp?
“It is today possible to conserve the spiritual as well as the
physical association in productive enterprise.” What do you
understand this to mean? Is it more difficult today than it was
when society was simpler? Can there be spiritual association
in an army corps ? What are some of the difficulties in the way
of this association in the present order of Society? Is such
association desirable? -
The author of Statement 6 used the phrase “art in social relation-
ships.” What do you understand this phrase to mean? Can
there be art in business relationships?
What are the conceptions of commercial education expressed
in Statement 7 ? Are the two compatible?
Suppose that you believed these two things to be true: (a)
Modern business is a very effective way of producing economic
goods. (b) There are many features of modern business which
are unsatisfactory. As a person responsible for business educa-
tion what do you think should be done about it?
“In many cases—too many cases—the activity of the immature
being is simply played upon to Secure habits which are useful.
He is trained like an animal rather than educated like a human
being.” Explain. Do we ever do this? If so, give instances.
How can we avoid it? Is the typical high-school business
course as you know it a course which favors the few or the
many P -
A Chicago manufacturer declares that “the thing the school
must do is to train people who can work well at such jobs as
business men have to offer and who are not too proud or too
ambitious to work in minor positions.” What agreement or
disagreement have you with this?
25o EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
21. “It is the office of the school to balance the various elements in
the Social environment, and to see to it that each individual
gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the social
group in which he was born.” Explain. -
22. “Traditionally, liberal culture has been linked to the notions of
leisure, and a spiritual activity not involving the use of bodily
organs.” Does this inspire you as an educational aim P
23. “More fundamental is the fact that the great majority of workers
have no insight into the Social aims of their pursuits, and no
direct personal interest in them. The results actually achieved
are not the ends of their actions, but only of their employers.
It is this fact that makes the action illiberal.” With this as a
basis, suggest a few of the liberal Subjects in the high-school
commercial curriculum—a few of the illiberal ones.
24. What is culture? What is liberal education ? What should
education in a democracy undertake to do?
PART III
MODERN AGENCIES OF EDUCATION FOR
- BUSINESS
A. The Outstanding Institutions
Chapters X-XV
B. Modern Extensions of the High-School Commercial Course
*- Chapters XVI-XX
CHAPTER X
SOME EARLIER FORMS OF BUSINESS EDUCA-
TION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SPECIALIZED AGENCIES
In the preceding section we have attempted to determine at
least tentatively, what the function of business education is.
We are now ready to examine those agencies or institutions
which co-operate in performing this function. In an age as
changing as ours no complete survey of such agencies can be
made. New divisions spring up with such frequency that their
Coming is unnoticed, and their growth is often undiscovered
until they become of consequence.
This chapter undertakes to give something of the story of the
development of education for business. Development is, per-
haps, the wrong word, since the chapter does not attempt to
follow a wholly logical procedure. We are interested in seeing
that education for business has always existed in some form or
other. We are interested in seeing that, while the form is simple
and unorganized under elementary conditions, it has changed
with the changing order of society into a highly differentiated
and highly organized scheme. We shall not attempt to trace
each step of the change, but rather to look at education for the
business of living in a simple society; then to examine more
closely the well-organized plan which existed at the time when
Anglo-American business may be thought of as beginning;
then to shift our view to modern business education in America
as it responded to a changing economic system.
If we look, then, at education in a primitive group, we will
find that its aims can be conceived as not dissimilar from those
which occupy us in the present time. The methods and devices
for accomplishing these ends were, however, very different."
* This statement is adapted by permission from Arthur James Todd,
The Primitive Family as an Educational Agency. G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
New York, IQ 13, pp. 147–48 and pp. 178–80.
253
254 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The curriculum of Savage education includes two general groups
of “subjects,” vocational and moral, the latter including custom,
tradition, and religion. Yet in practice the two groups are constantly
asSociated. Tradition or taboo may rigidly prescribe the technique
of industry, and religion constantly breaks over into the economic
régime, not only to determine the forms of industry, but even to
proscribe and interrupt their normal course of operation; as, for
example, where mortuary customs require the destruction of property
or Suspension of labor or the lying fallow of land. Among the lowest
nature-peoples, where the range of ideas is narrowest, the arts few
and simple, Social organization the loosest, the curriculum reduces
to its lowest terms. Yet even here learning is not an easy process;
for under such conditions each generation must go back to the begin-
ning, as there is no storing up of capital or tools or even of methods,
On the contrary, the practice of destroying the property of the dead
left to the survivors the difficult task of creating above their means of
production. Only with the rise of intelligence, the settlement in a
more or less permanent abode, the accumulation of property, the
division of labor, the formation and transmission of tradition, and
the organization of conscious education, could there be any short
cut, any recapitulation in brief of racial experience. This stage once
reached, the “course of studies” becomes immediately more varied
and more precise. The development of trade and political organiza-
tion, together with the increasing complexity of Social and religious
Concepts, brings a corresponding extension and depth to the content
of education. Ordeals, drill, initiatory rites, instruction in tribal
traditions, religious beliefs, laws, and customs, begin to occupy the
larger part of the curriculum, which still includes occasional definite
lessons in the tribal arts of self-maintenance. But, far from being
delivered en bloc by some primitive educational expert, their whole
system of instruction was developed out of the very heart of Savagery
itself, by the slow zigzag method of trial and failure in the struggle
for existence.
It remains only to mention briefly a few other elements in the
Savage course of study. Language required considerable attention.
Games, mimetic plays, and dancing had vast significance both as
Subject and method. Certain tribes, notably the Iroquois, gave
particular attention to training for political life. The Cherokees had
a regular school for magicians. Nature lore is handed down through
legends and traditions both gay and sober by the Indians of the South-
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 255
west. Especially the rabbit, coyote, bear, antelope, mouse, rattle-
Snake, magpie, woodpecker, eagle, horned toad and their kindred
form the heroes of these tales. Such primitive “nature study” was
of course closely connected with totemism in some form or other,
but at the same time furnished a real literature of wit, wisdom, and
morals. The art of story-telling was often highly cultivated. Some
Indian tribes had special raconteurs, who regaled their little audiences
around the family hearth or in the men's house. Among the Yukis
there were men who dressed and acted like women, and “devoted
themselves to the instruction of the young by the narration of legends
and moral tales. The Chippeways had regular bards. With the
Pueblos the old men are the story-tellers and cast their tales in a sort
of blank verse. Similar story-telling by shamans and elders exists
in the Andaman Islands. It is unnecessary to go into enumerative
details, for the fiction habit is universal, and scarce a tribe but has its
Homer or its Celtic Bard. With us fiction is light weight in matter
and function; but not so in Savagery; there it not only serves to
while the passing hour, but also becomes a tremendously effective
pedagogic aid.
“In the long winter evenings, while the fire burns brightly in the
centre of the lodge, and the men are gathered in to smoke, he (the
boy) hears the folklore and legends of his people from the lips of the
older men. He learns to sing the love songs and the war songs of
the generations gone by. There is no new path for him to tread,
but he follows in the old ways. He becomes a Dakota of the Dakota.”
EDüCATION IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND
If, without giving any attention to the educational scheme
of the ancients, we let our minds leap to the dawning of modern
enterprise, we find in the apprenticeship system of medieval
England a thoroughly organized educational system with well-
recognized aims and carefully worked-out methods. It is
worth our while to make a rather careful examination of that
system, partly because medieval apprenticeship has been often
misunderstood; partly because it depicts an economic organiza-
tion whose differences from and similarities to our present Society
provide valuable study; partly because it gives us a picture of
an educational scheme which can be usefully examined in com-
parison with our own,
256 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
We have done medieval apprenticeship an injustice in con-
ceiving it to be primarily a training in technical skill. Medieval
apprenticeship attempted technical training in craft skill, but
it also attempted much more. It was the institution relied
upon to give candidates for membership in the guilds the ability
to conduct a business in a difficult economic and social environ-
ment. It was even more. It was the institution relied upon
to effect a complete Social adjustment for the youths who were
to become influential in town life." -
The Coming of modern business may have brought us large-
scale production, machine technique, and the wide market, but
it certainly did not introduce a complicated problem for the
director of a business. Complexity was already old. The mas-
ter-guildsman was confronted with a large number of problems.
He had need to be versatile indeed to administer them success-
fully. Within his shop and store he dealt with his customers if
they bought wares or if they brought materials upon which he
was to work, as was frequently the case with the bakers. If
men sold him raw materials from which he was to fashion articles
for trade, as might be the case if he were one of the tapicers who
were required by their ordinances to buy “good wool of England
or Spain,” he might likewise meet them in his own shop.
The master-craftsman was the chief factor in the technical
work in his shop. He not only directed the work of his employ-
ees, the journeymen, and guided the efforts of the apprentice,
but he performed a large part of the work himself. As master,
he organized the work of the others and administered questions
of wages, discipline, and hours and conditions of work. Even
where the broad policies in these matters were laid down by
the brotherhood, their administration was in his hands.”
* This statement concerning medieval apprenticeship is adapted and
reprinted by the courtesy of the publishers from an article by the author in
the School Review, XXVIII, No. 8, October, 1920.
** “It was no uncommon thing for the wardens to distrain his workshop
and his working tools for non-payment of wages or the king’s ferme.”
Joshua Toulmin Smith, English Gilds [London: N. Trubner & Co., 1870),
IV, czzvii.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 257
To the degree necessary the guildsman was a capitalist.
He furnished the shop and the implements of production. An
inventory of the instruments of a brewer of London in 1335
showed the following: “two leaden vessels, one old chest, and
one masshfat (mash-vat), value 18d; one rarynfat (fining-vat),
value 6d; one heyr (highstand) for tuns, value 12d; three sets
of handmills, value 4s; One piece of lead, value 2d; one tun,
and one half-tun, value 8d; one yelfat (ale-vat), value 18d;
5 kemelynes (tubs for brewing), value Iod; one clensingbecche
(Qy. as to this), value 4d; also, one alegist (“gist,” or stand for
small casks), value 2d.” *
The master-Craftsman was a teacher, charged with the
tremendously important duty of teaching others to perform
the many duties which he himself faced. He was bound under
the clauses of indentures to instruct his apprentices well and
fully in all the arts of his trade and he was subject to penalties
if he should fail in his duties as an educator. He agreed that
he would keep his apprentice “as an apprentice should be, that
is to say meat and drink, hose and shoes, linen, woolen, and
his craft to be taught him and nothing hid from him thereof.”
The “internal problems” of business administration could
not be allowed to occupy the entire attention of the guildsman.
Even more numerous and perplexing were a set of matters which
may be regarded as “external problems.”
The craftsman manager directed his business unit in a
complex social environment. An analysis of this social environ-
ment indicates that there were some three spheres that need
consideration. One was the market, the “trade” of the
craftsman. The proper treatment of the problems in this field
must have taxed then, as it does now, the best thought of the
“manager.” Second was the guild itself. This brotherhood of
business men of a Common Calling, organized as it was for mutual
aid and protection and for eliminating the wastes of competition,
brought with it all the responsibilities and problems of associated
* Henry Thomas Riley, Memorials of London and London Life in the
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries. London: Longmans,
Green & Co., 1868, I, Ig4.
gº
258 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
action. Finally, the guildsman was a citizen and a public officer,
Membership in the guild was frequently coincident with citizen-
ship and the guilds were semi-public bodies. They were the
recognized devices used by municipality, or central government,
or both, for the regulation and control of industry, for “the gild
under the master and wardens became a better unit for civic
administration than the ward under the alderman.”
In considering the perplexities of the guildsman in all this, it
is well to keep in mind that the demands of the social environ-
ment of the business were then, as now, tangled and interlaced.
“In actual practice, state, borough, and gild presented
frequently the appearance of a three-fold combination of almost
equal forces working together for a common end. It is there-
fore not always easy to consider the gilds apart as distinct organs
with their own special purposes and functions.” Especially is
this obvious when we note that guildsmen themselves were
often magistrates, as in 1241 when a member of the mercers'
guild became mayor of London and later members of the vint-
ners' company frequently held that office. In the same way in
Durham “the twenty-four,” two of whom were elected from
each of the twelve “misteries” of the town, constituted, with
twelve aldermen, the common council; and in York the common
council consisted of members chosen from the crafts.”
The not easy task, then, of the master-craftsman in dealing
with external relations of his business was to harmonize the social
demands of the guild, the city, and perhaps the state with the
acquisitive possibilities of the market.
Specific illustrations of the clash of business interest with
one or more of the agencies of control will show more clearly the
difficult position of the master-craftsman and will serve to make
more vivid the difficult situation for which the guilds used
apprenticeship as a preparation.
* Charles M. Clode, The Early History of the Guild of Merchant Taylors
of the Fraternity of St. John the Baptist, London, with Notices of the Lives of
Some of Its Eminent Members (London: Harrison & Sons, 1875), I, 55.
* Stella Kramer, English Craft Gilds and the Government (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1905), I, 3.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 250
One task of the guildsman as a business man was to secure
demand for his goods. This led to a display of wares and other
simple forms of advertising. But here the craftsman met with
social regulations, and, it should be noted, social regulations for
which he himself was in part responsible. The ordinances of the
Spurriers of London ordered that “no one of the trade shall
hang his spurs out on Sunday, or any other days that are double
feasts; but only a sign indicating his business; and such spurs as
they do sell they are to show and sell within their shops, without
exposing them without or opening the doors or windows of their
shops, on the pain aforesaid.”
As to the quality of product that would be most profitably
marketed there was again place for a clash between the indi-
vidual guildsman and the agencies of control. The desire
individually to profit by adulteration and the sale of inferior
goods must have been strong, but Social agencies controlled.
For example, the ordinances of the Pelterers of London required
that “no one of the trade shall mingle bellies of calabre with
furs of puree, or of minever of bisshes” (calabre, a poor fur;
puree, a superior fur; bisshes, some part of the skin of the hind).”
And when one acted against these ordinances he forfeited his
furs to the guild in which the default was found, and, in addition,
was imprisoned and fined upon his release. The Wax-chandlers
of London forbade, on pain of Confiscation, imprisonment, and
fine, the use of cobbler’s wax, rosin, fat, “ or other manner of
refuse,” or the use of old wax and worse within and new wax
without.3 The Pepperers of Soperlane had a list of forbidden
acts that reflects a recognition more of deceitful ingenuity, and
so profit-seeking, than of pious honesty among that “worshipful
brotherhood,” and the White-tawyers demanded an amerce-
ment and a forfeit from all who falsely wrought skins.4
* Henry Thomas Riley, Memorials of London and London Life in the
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries (London: Longmans, Green
& Co., 1868), I, 321-22.
* Ibid., p. 329. r 3 Ibid., p. 3oo.
4 A. E. Bland, P. A. Brown, and R. H. Tawney, English Economic
History; Select Documents (London; G, Bell & Sons, Ltd., 1914), p. 23.
26o EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The question of working hours and the conditions of work
were likewise matters on which the craftsman must have found
himself of One opinion in his own shop and of another in the
guild hall. The exercise of self-interest, however, brought him
into conflict with Social regulation. The Spurriers of London
found that “many persons of the said trade had compassed
how to practice deception by working by night rather than by
day.” “And then they introduce false iron, and iron that has
been Cracked, for tin, and also they put gild on false copper and
Cracked.” Further than this, these night workers spent the
day in wandering about and then “having become drunk and
frantic, they take to their work.” Annoyance to the sick, and
broils with the neighbors were the inevitable results, as well as
danger to the whole city, from the Sparks “which so vigorously
issue forth in all directions from the mouths of chimneys in their
forges.”
Wages as well as hours and conditions of work were part of
the guildsman's labor problem. It would be only less erroneous
to assume that each individual Craftsman and journeyman was
habituated to and Satisfied with prevailing rates than to assume
that the modern manager is happily acquiescent with the mini-
mum-wage and child-labor laws or that trade unions are always
content with the findings of arbitration boards. The whole
organization of apprenticeship was, of course, in one sense the
setting up of machinery to administer Certain labor matters, but
we find that questions of wages of journeymen were often to be
met." Wage appeals were made and in certain towns what
we would think of as crude labor exchanges were established
to provide for the best adjustment of the Supply of labor to
the demand.3
We are sometimes inclined to assert that the craft guilds
were monopolistic and thus lead ourselves to the thought that
* York Memorandum Book (Durham: Andrews & Co., 1912), Vol. CXX
of the Publications of the Surtees Society, p. Io'7.
* Henry Thomas Riley, op. cit., p. 307.
3 See E. Lipson, An Introduction to the Economic History of England
(London: A. and C. Black, Ltd., 1915), I, 309–10, for a more extended
discussion.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 261
the craftsman escaped the problems of competition. A more
careful analysis shows this to be an error. Among the merchant
guilds the “common fund” of profits may have been sometimes
known, but such an agreement was not consistent with Craft-
guild organization. The craft guilds were examples of associa-
tion rather than amalgamation or merger. Each individual felt
the pressure of his own pecuniary interests as well as the interests
of the whole. In so far as comparisons are possible with modern
monopolistic organizations the guilds are better compared to
wholesalers’ or retailers’ trade associations than to the United
States Steel Corporation or the Northern Securities Company.
They were associations rather than combinations, and there
must have been a constant pressure by the individual to over-
ride the ruling of the association just as in the early industrial
pools the members were with difficulty kept in line.
All of the regulations regarding quality of work which were so
carefully supervised by the wardens are indications that the
market interests of one individual were at odds with those of
another in the same craft.
But not only within the guild was there a tendency to com-
pete. Ever urgent was the problem of competition between
guilds. Thus in London, in 1395, a dispute arose between the
cobblers and the cordwainers, in which the cobblers alleged
that they could no longer make a living as formerly, because of
the encroachments of the Cordwainers on their trade.
In adjusting his individual business, therefore, to its social
environment the master-Craftsman manager faced a number of
problems of peculiar difficulty and complexity. Coloring all of
them and confusing all of them was the fact that he must
consider them from several points of view at the same time.
Whether he considered his problem of wages, labor, hours and
conditions of work, advertising, the quality of goods, or the
proper nature of competition, his was not a single eye. He was
at once employer, worker, legislator, public citizen, and, perhaps,
municipal official. He made guild regulations to restrain what
he himself wished to do. He was the object of his own legisla-
tion. In a position of such difficulty and complexity he held
262 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
company with his fellow-guildsman and into that company he
admitted new members. But he admitted them only by the
road which he helped to build—the road of apprenticeship.
Such a view of the craftsman’s problems indicates something
of the real purpose of the institution of apprenticeship. It
brought the novice into real competition with his fellow-guilds-
men but it brought him also into a social partnership. It
qualified him not only to work but to vote on all the social
questions that were of business importance. Its ideal was not
unlike the ideal which we hold for education in a democracy—
an instrument qualifying for equal participation in activities of
social, business, and political life. With such an ideal it would
be strange if apprenticeship was not molded to bring Satisfac-
torily trained members into the brotherhood. And, in such a
training, right attitudes and accepted points of view were
as important results as technical skill. There was need
that the guild bring the new members to the common mind
quite as much as a primitive tribe, a trade union or a modern
nation, finds a need for training novitiates to the general atti-
tudes of the group.
There is a great deal of direct evidence indicating that
apprenticeship was purposed to adjust the apprentice to his
social environment. First of all it is worth while to wonder if a
guild membership bought by many years of service would not
go farther toward giving the new guildsman the desired point of
view concerning the admission of new members than any amount
of direct propaganda could have done. Moreover, this long
training made the guildsman competent to teach the technical
work which was necessary to continue the circle of guild life.
That the pedagogical duties of the master were taken seriously
by the guild becomes evident when it is noted that the guilds,
in certain towns, did not allow everyone to assume the duties of
instruction. Thus at Chester it was forbidden by the goldsmiths
that the graduate apprentice should be allowed to take appren-
tices of his own, until he had served three years as a journeyman.”
* Rupert H. Morris, Chester in the Plantagenet and Tudor Reigns
(Chester: Printed for the author, 1893), p. 443. Regulations having the
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 263
But there were in the organization of apprenticeship other
elements which were definitely planned to guide the conduct of
the apprentice, to regulate his morals, and to form his character
in such a way that he would be fitted for his complicated task.
The apprentice, apparently, was as strictly bound by regulations
pertaining to his behavior as he was by those pertaining to his
work. If the guilds admitted undesirable characters to the
brotherhood, it was not due to failure to attempt to exclude
them. The apprentice was “bound” to behave. The master
exercised a superintendence over his moral well-being, and this
superintendence could be enforced with proper discipline.
Even the apparel of the apprentice was regulated in a way pur-
posed to be good for the cultivation of a spirit proper to his
position. He was forbidden to gamble and even to enter
gambling houses or other places of moral danger. In some cases
an examination or a proof of moral qualities was required of the
apprentice before admission to the guild was permitted. The
apprentice was frequently forbidden to marry until he had
become one of the craft, or if allowed to marry the permission
of the master was necessary."
The master also who contracted to teach his trade to an
apprentice was required by the guild regulations to pay strict
attention to his moral and social education. The Ordinances of
the Cappers of Coventry are perhaps typical in their provision
that the wardens might admonish a master of whose treatment
an apprentice Complained and could remove the apprentice for
better instruction to a different master. They tested the effi-
ciency of instruction by yearly examinations of apprentices.
same effect were in vogue at Leicester where the journeyman was required
to work for wages for three years before setting up shop (Records of Leicester,
III, 28). Similar rules prevailed for the carpenters and paviors of London.
* Instances of close supervision of conduct are shown in Joshua Toulmin
Smith’s “English Gilds, CXXIX,” in The Records of the City of Norwich
(Norwich: Jarrold & Sons, Ltd., 1906–10), II, 28; in Mary Dormer Harris,
Life in an Old English Town (London: Sonnenschein & Co., Ltd., 1898)
p. 274; and in extracts from the Records of the Merchant Adventurers of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne (Durham: Andrews & Co., 1895–99), Vol. XCIII of
the Publications of the Surtees Society, II, 20.
264 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Finally, there was, as the most important element in the
Social education of the apprentice, his close, personal, and con-
tinuous relation to the master-craftsman. From the standpoint
of training in the management of business, both in internal and
external relations, the effect of this was all-important. The
apprentice was associated with the master every day in the shop.
He met those who came to sell and those who came to buy.
Every attack upon the problems of internal administration was
under his observation, and no contact with the social environ-
ment was so far removed that he was unaware of it. Daily he
must have heard the master discuss the social situation with
fellow-Craftsmen of the same interests, and doubtlessly the
apprentice, as he grew in skill and the confidence of the master,
must have entered into the discussion of business problems.
The relationship of master and apprentice outside of the shop
was of such a character as to effect the most desirable education
for the apprentice, both in business and in all those important
social contacts which have been described. The master was
bound to feed, clothe, and house the apprentice. The younger
man ate at his master’s table, slept under his roof, aided the
wife and family of the guildsman in their home, and was in a
very full sense “one of the family.” Social differences were
small, and the future of the apprentice of such certainty, if he
took advantage of circumstances, as to give no reason for a
feeling of caste.
With such features, it is evident that the institution of
apprenticeship was well planned to train for business in that
broad sense which involves an adaptation to the social environ-
ment by which a business is limited and conditioned quite as
much as in the technical processes of craft skill. -
As such a training it might have lasted indefinitely had the
economic conditions remained unchanged. But the discoveries
and explorations of the fifteenth century opened the world to
the possibility of exchange. The rapid growth of banking,
transportation, and communication devices aided this possibility.
Political changes too were important in giving England a new
centralized national strength. These changes undermined the
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 265
strength of the locally organized town and guild. Finally there
Came the application of steam to industry. The machine
became more important than the artisan. For both guild and
Craftsman the curtain was drawn.
AMERCANTILIST'S VIEW OF EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Thus the firmly knit medieval organization for manufacture
did not endure. Even by the seventeenth century it had given
place to a vastly different form of organization and one in which
the Scheme of apprenticeship could not operate effectively.
In the meantime the attention of enterprising Englishmen was
Centering more and more on foreign trade, in the development of
which England had begun to see her future greatness. No
Scheme of education for business comparable to that thor-
Oughgoing training through apprenticeship developed in this
period, but it is interesting to notice in passing the state-
ment of a famous mercantilist of the period regarding “the
qualities which are required in a perfect merchant of foreign
trade.”
My Son, in a former discourse I have endeavoured after my
manner briefly to teach thee two things: The first is Piety, how to
fear God aright, according to his Works and Word: The second is
Policy, how to love and serve thy Country, by instructing thee in
the duties and proceedings of sundry Vocations, which either order,
or else act the affairs of the Common-wealth; In which as some things
do eSpecially tend to preserve and others are more apt to enlarge the
same: So am I to speak of Money, which doth indifferently serve to
both those happy ends. Wherein I will observe this order, First,
to show the general means whereby a Kingdom may be enriched;
and then proceed to those particular courses by which Princes are
accustomed to be supplied with Treasure. But first of all I will say
"Something of the Merchant, because he must be a Principal Agent
in this great business.
The love and service of our Country consisteth not so much in
the knowledge of those duties which are to be performed by others,
as in the skilful practice of that which is done by ourselves; and there-
*This statement is adapted from Thomas Mun, “Early Tracts on
Commerce.”
266 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
fore, my Son, it is now fit that I say something of the Merchant, which
I hope in due time shall be thy Vocation; Yet herein are my thoughts
free from all Ambition, although I rank thee in a place of So high
estimation; for the Merchant is worthily called The Steward of the
Kingdoms Stock, by way of Commerce with other nations; a work
of no less reputation than trust, which ought to be performed with
great skill and Conscience, that the private gain may ever accompany
the publique good. And because the nobleness of this Profession
may the better still up thy desires and endeavors to obtain those
abilities which may effect it worthily, I will briefly set down the
excellent qualities which are required in a perfect Merchant.
I. He ought to be a good penman, a good arithmetician, and a
good accomptant, by that nobler order of Debtor and Creditor,
which is used onely amongst Merchants; also to be expert in the
order and form of Charter-parties, Bills of Lading, Invoices, Con-
tracts, Bills of Exchange, and Policies of Ensurance.
2. He ought to know the measures, weights, and monies of all
foreign countries especially where we have trade, and the monies
not only by their several denominations, but also by their intrinsique
values in weight and fineness, compared with the Standard of this
Kingdom, without which he cannot well direct his affairs.
3. He ought to know the Customs, Tolls, Taxes, Impositions,
Conducts and other charges upon all manner of Merchandize exported
or imported to and from the said foreign countries.
4. He ought to know in what several commodities each Countrey
abounds, and what be the wares which they want, and bow and from
whence they are furnished with the same.
5. He ought to understand, and to be a diligent observer of the
rates of Exchanges by Bills, from one State to another, whereby he
may the better direct his affairs, and remit over and receive home
his Monies to the most advantage possible.
6. He ought to know what goods are prohibited to be exported
or imported in the said foreign countreys, lest otherwise he should
incur great danger and loss in the ordering of his affairs. *
7. He ought to know upon what rates and conditions to fraight
his Ships, and ensure his adventures from one Countrey to another,
and to be well acquainted with the laws, orders and customes of the
Ensurance office bothe here and beyond the Seas, in the many acci-
dents which may happen upon the damage or loss of Ships or goods,
or both these.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 267
8. He ought to have knowledge in the goodness and in the
prices of all the several materials which are required for the building
and repairing of Ships, and the divers workmanships of the same,
as also for the Masts, Tackling, Cordage, Ordnance, Victuals, Muni-
tion, and Provisions of many kinds; together with the ordinary
wages of Commanders, Officers and Mariners, all which concern the
Merchant as he is an Owner of Ships. -
9. He ought (by the divers occasions which happen sometime
in the buying and selling of one commodity and sometimes in another)
to have indifferent if not perfect knowledge in all manner of Merchan-
dize or Wares, which is to be as it were a man of all occupations and
trades. -
Io. He ought by his voyaging on the Seas to become skilful in
the art of Navigation. -
II. He ought, as he is a Traveller, and sometimes abiding in
Foreign Countreys to attain to the speaking of divers languages, and
to be a diligent observer of the ordinary Revenues and expenses of
foreign princes, together with their strength both by Sea and Land,
their laws, customes, policies, manners, religions, arts, and the like;
to be able to give account thereof in all occasions for the good of his
Countrey.
I2. Lastly, although there be no necessity that such a Merchant
should be a great Scholar; yet is it (at least) required that in his
youth he learn the Latin tongue, which will the better enable him in
all the rest of his endeavours.
BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
With these snapshots of education for business in mind we
may turn to the development of education for business in
America. The earliest form was apprenticeship, Surviving to
some extent, but by no means extensive or highly organized.
The public elementary schools, too, must be kept in mind, since
reading and writing are clearly enough vocational subjects.
We are more concerned, however, in following the growth of
those institutions which may be thought of as technical agencies
in the field of business training. The development of these
institutions depends for its explanation upon the development
of American industry.
The original territory of the Colonies was doubled by the
Louisiana Purchase. By 1853, Florida, Texas, the Oregon
268 - EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Claim, the Mexican Cession, and the Gadsden Purchase had
again doubled the area of the United States. Into this newly
acquired territory poured population from the East. Between
1820 and 1850 the population of nine new western states in the
Mississippi Valley had increased more than 300 per cent and
continued to increase. The westward movement of population
created for eastern manufacturers a market possibility which
had been undreamed of before. The institutional devices for
reaching this lucrative western market came on apace. Primi-
tive river traffic in flatboats was Supplemented by the steam-
boats. River freight-traffic charges fell from $140 to $20 a ton.
By 1856 more than a thousand steamboats plied the Mississippi
and its tributaries. Lake Commerce was also being developed,
and by 1840, 500 miles of canals had been completed, connect-
ing the lakes with the Ohio River. In 1860 there was already
a network of railroad systems as far west as the Missouri.
Supplementing these facilities had come the telegraph in 1844.
Gradually there developed in various lines of trade the increas-
ing use of the sales agent and the wholesaler-retailer type of
market distribution by means of which the needs of the West for
manufactured goods might be supplied. Concomitant with
these there came a growth of Commercial agencies, of market
news reports, of newspapers and other media for carrying
information. In Summarizing this development Clark says:
By 1825 American manufacturers had facilities for placing their
products conveniently in all parts of the country. Domestic goods
were quoted regularly in prices current from Boston to New Orleans
and were standardized sufficiently to be ordered by conventional
descriptions. Thereafter, the development of home markets was
extensive rather than intensive. Its course was controlled by
improved communication and growth or settlement rather than by
fundamental changes of organization. A single generation had
witnessed this advance from a dispersed and unorganized national
market to systematic methods of distribution, controlled by adequate
commercial machinery.
* Victor S. Clark: History of Manufactures in the United States, 1607–
1806, p. 358–59,
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 269
Factory production, a wide market, and the large volume
of business transacted with distant customers, gave rise to a
demand for a vast amount of what A. W. Shaw has called the
facilitating processes of business. Transactions must be re-
corded, letters must be written, reports of business too large for
personal observation must be given as a means of control to
the business organizer, calculations of diverse sorts and varieties
must be made, estimates and proposals computed and pre-
sented for the judgment of the director of the large business.
In other words, the increased size of business, coupled with a
distant impersonal market and the variety of specialized func-
tionaries who aided in the distribution of goods, called upon
accounting and communication to function as they had not
functioned before. The work which was called for did not need
a great amount of intelligence, enterprise or initiative; it
required accuracy, exactness, and painstaking care in the
performance of specialized clerical tasks. For such training
apprenticeship was at best a clumsy and extravagant instru-
ment. To replace it there now appeared, at first in primitive
form and later in a highly organized way, the institution which
we know as the American business college.
Students of the early history of the private commercial
schools in America agree as to the pioneers in the movement
but disagree as to the individual who is to be classed as first.
R. M. Bartlett, first of Philadelphia, then of Pittsburgh, and
finally of Cincinnati, is claimed by some writers to be the first
in the business-college field. His position is disputed respec-
tively by the champions of Peter Duff, of Pittsburgh, of G. N.
Comer, of Boston, and Jonathan Jones, of St. Louis, all of whom
offered private commercial education in the early days of the
movement. Dolbear, who opened a school in New York in
1835, is also named by some as the leader in the field. Unques-
tionably among the first of the private Schools was that of
James Gordon Bennett, who is said to have started a school in
New York in 1824 which he heralded with the following
announcement:
27O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The subscriber, encouraged by several gentlemen, intends open-
ing in Ann, near Nassau Street, an English classical and mathe-
matical School for the instruction of young gentlemen intended for
merchantile pursuits. Instruction will be given in the following
branches:—
Reading, elocution, penmanship, and arithmetic; algebra, as-
tronomy, history, and geography; moral philosophy, commercial
law, and political economy; English grammar and composition; and
also if required, the French and Spanish languages by natives of
these countries.
Bookkeeping and merchants’ accounts will be taught in the most
approved and Scientific forms.
The school will be conducted, in all the principal branches,
according to the inductive method of instruction, and particularly
So in arithmetic, geography, and English grammar.
It will commence about the first of November.
References: J. S. Bartlett, M.D., Albion Office; Messrs. Smith
and Hyslop, Pearl Street; Mr. Henry T. Margarey, Broadway;
Mr. P. Whitin, Jr., Maiden Lane.
J. GORDON BENNETT
N.B.-Application may be made to J. G. B. at 148 Fulton Street."
Bartlett's statement of his experience in seeking employ-
ment illustrates at once the failure of the old apprenticeship
system to train for the new commercial demands and the
demand which was growing up for workers in the clerical side
of business. -
He says that when he became of age he wished to know more of
bookkeeping, but could find no instruction. He offered to ente:
business houses and learn, but was told that proprietors did not
want to be bothered. The predicament in which he was placed was
of not being taken into an office unless he knew bookkeeping, and
yet having no place to go and learn.”
The early business colleges and the early efforts toward
education by penmen were for the most part the individual
* This announcement is from a paper read by Mr. E. M. Barber before
the Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association in 1903.
* Herrick, Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education, p. 180.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 271
efforts of men who saw a need and attempted personally to
fill it. The year 1853 marks a new epoch in the history of the
type of business training which we are here considering. In
that year H. B. Bryant and H. D. Stratton, both of whom had
been students in a Cleveland business college, formed a partner-
ship with James W. Lusk and established the first Bryant and
Stratton School. The entrance of Bryant and Stratton into
the field mark" the institutionalizing of the ideal of Bartlett,
Packard, and others. Bryant and Stratton set about to make
their business college a national institution which should give
training for business to the population of every part of the
country. They proposed to establish one of their schools in
every city of over Io,000 population. Each of these schools
was to use uniform textbooks. Instruction was to be given in
penmanship, bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, and Com-
mercial law. They devised a system of interchangeable scholar-
ships which enabled students to transfer to schools in various
cities at will, and to obtain the work offered at such periods
throughout their lives as were most convenient. Their usual
scheme of organization in a new city was to establish a “local
partner” who took charge of the School and received a com-
mission ranging from 30 to 50 per cent of the income.
The early development of the business college was in
response to the developing economic organization. The second
stage, in which it became nation wide in scope and carefully
organized, shows a similar relationship. The following quota-
tions, one dealing with industrial development after 1850, and
one with the development of the business college after 1850,
indicate how closely the educational institution was following
economic changes.
In England the big factory came in late in the eighteenth century,
beginning in the cotton industry; but its rise was retarded in America.
Although one must be extremely careful not to imagine that any
establishments just like the average are actually to be found, and .
not to forget the great variety of sizes and kinds of businesses that
exist, still it is of some significance to note the change in the size of
the average manufacturing establishment. . . . .
272 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
One may form a rough picture of the average manufacturing
establishment of 1850 having a capital of $4300, employing 7 wage
earners, and turning out products valued at $8200. Over against
this may be put the establishment of 1910 with its capital of $64,800,
its labor force of 25 men, and its output valued at over $76,000.
In contrast with Hamilton's characterization one may put the words
of a living economist:
“The typical unit of production is no longer a single family or a
Small group of persons working with a few cheap, simple tools upon
Small quantities of material, but a compact and closely organized
mass of labor composed of hundreds of individuals co-operating with
large quantities of expensive and intricate machinery, through which
passes a continuous and mighty volume of raw material on its journey
to the hands of the consuming public.”
Against this view of changing industry place this statement
concerning the growth of the business college:
About the middle of the fifties there were not more than a dozen
commercial schools scattered in the large cities from Boston and
Philadelphia to Chicago and St. Louis. They had arisen with the
idea of facilitating the entrance of young men into minor positions as
clerks and bookkeepers. The instruction offered was very meagre, --
some so-called commercial arithmetic, a little practice in keeping
accounts and a certain amount of ornamental penmanship made up
the total. A school of this kind did not require a targe force of
teachers, in many cases the entire instruction was given by one
In those days there were no text books for the “commercial
colleges”; and arithmetic and bookkeeping were taught by manu-
scripts prepared by actual accountants engaged in business. As
with the text-book authors, or rather manuscript authors, so with
the students. These came primarily from the ranks of those already
employed at the time in business houses, a fact which necessitated
the institution of evening classes. The average time spent in a
business college was not more than three months, so that equipment,
instruction, fees, time and grade of work were all pretty much on a
par. Poor as such education must have been, it evidently filled a
need, for commercial colleges throve and multiplied and with success
became still more successful. Increased popularity led to higher
* Haney, Business Organization and Combination, p. 18.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 273
fees, longer courses, to the preparation of printed texts; life and
interchangeable scholarships were abolished; the teaching force was
increased; students were no longer adults wearied by daily labor;
the commercial school began to draw young men and boys looking
forward to employment; day classes largely took the place of eve-
ning instruction; School equipment improved and gradually these
institutions grew into the apparently permanent place in public
favor which they enjoy today. Official statistics of the bureau of
education report 34I of these schools with 1,764 instructors and
77,746 students, 82 per cent being in day classes. Contrast this with
the record of forty years ago, when there were fewer than a dozen
Schools of this kind, with say thirty teachers and a thousand pupils,
and the figures become sufficiently impressive."
Whatever may have been the limitations of the business
college, it must be credited with giving rise to a supplementary
institution which has developed into importance; this is the
convention of commercial teachers. Bryant and Stratton in
1863–64 called the first convention of “local partners.” It is
alleged that this first convention served chiefly as a rendezvous
at which the local partners discussed their grievances against
the organization for which they worked, and that as a result
this and later meetings were fatal to the continuance of the
Bryant-Stratton system. Be that as it may, the convention
held in Cleveland in 1866 was considered of enough educational
importance to receive publicity in Harper's Weekly and to be
attended by such a personage as James A. Garfield. Harper's
Weekly for October 13, 1866, in commenting on the meeting,
makes the statement that “through individual institutions and
admirable textbooks the sphere and limit of business education
have been as clearly defined as those of law, medical, and
theological schools.”
* James, Monograph on Commercial Education in the United States.
James was writing about 1899. The Bureau of Education Report for 1916
states that there are at least 1,300 independent commercial schools in
the United States. Of these, 843 schools reported 183,286 students. In
1918, 890 schools reported 289,579 students.
2 For the names and dates and specific facts in business-college history,
the writer has drawn freely upon Herrick's Meaning and Practice of Com-
274 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
About the same time there was formed the National Union
of Business Colleges, an organization opposed to the Bryant-
Stratton chain. The chain eventually fell victim to the forces
opposed to it, and the various local partnerships were sold out
to individuals or to Smaller local chains of schools. Conven-
tions of Commercial-school directors continued to be held almost
every year, until in 1890 agitation was begun for connection
with the National Education Association. In 1893 the Business
Education Section was first recognized by the National Associa-
tion, and the report of the National Education Association for
that year contains the first pages devoted exclusively to business
training. The Commercial Section in the National Education
ASSociation appears, from reports of its proceedings, to have
passed more and more under the influences of secondary com-
mercial teachers, normal schools, and high schools of Commerce.
Two institutions, the Commercial Teachers' Federation and
the Eastern Commercial Teachers' Association, are still
influenced largely by private commercial-college interests.
It is not strange that the rapidly developing secondary
Schools, tax supported, should be called upon, once the possi-
bility was seen, to perform the work which was being done by
the private business colleges. Nor is it more strange that there
should be a demand for modifications of the classical education
with which the high school began, and that the demand should
be for such “practical training” as the business college was
Supposed to offer. It is said that commercial education in
public schools was first considered in Boston in the fifties, and
that it had its beginning in New York Free Academy in that
decade. In 1863 shorthand (and perhaps bookkeeping) was
made a part of the course of study in Central High School,
Philadelphia, and the St. Louis High School. The introduction
of this work is supposed to be the origin of clearly defined com-
mercial education at public expense in the United States.
mercial Education, James's Monograph on Commercial Education in the
United States, reports of the Business Education Section of the National
Education Association, and reports of the National Commercial Teachers’
Federation.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 275
In 1875 came the typewriter. Patents for “typographers”
and similar machines were taken out in considerable numbers
between 1829 and 1870, but in 1875 C. L. Sholes and C. Glidden,
having effected various improvements in previous mechanisms,
placed the manufacture of their typewriter in the hands of
E. Remington & Sons. The significance of the typewriter as a
technical instrument aiding business communication needs no
discussion. Shorthand, the handmaiden of typewriting, was
already developed when the typewriter appeared. Since the
time of the Greeks various systems of stenography had been in
use and in England, and even in America, shorthand had gained a
considerable prevalence in legal, court, and literary work before
the coming of the typewriter. The Isaac Pitman system,
appearing in different forms in 1830 and 1840 in England and
said to have been widely copied and disseminated in America
by Ben Pitman, Graham, and Munson, was supplemented in
1888 by the method of Gregg, another Englishman, who intro-
duced his work in America in 1893. These developments, like
that of the steel pen, were stimulated by the communication
necessities of wide market exchange. Training in the use of
stenography and the typewriter were and are phases of training
in business Communication.
The early courses in commercial work in high schools were
modeled closely after those of private business colleges.
Teachers were for the most part drawn from business-college
faculties or from business-College graduates. During recent
years there is evidence of some change, however.
OTHER INSTITUTIONS MUITIPLIED
In the meantime there have been growing, as we have seen in
Chapter I, a number of other institutions. The business colleges,
later supplemented by the secondary Schools, were not allowed
to monopolize the field of business education. Correspondence
schools and other private colleges of a more advanced character
than the business college did not overlook this lucrative market
for their wares. The developing western market, which at
first offered a great opportunity to eastern manufacturers,
276 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
began in time to furnish a less easy field for profitable exchange."
This fact made it necessary for manufacturers to utilize sales-
manship and advertising in a fashion undreamed of in the days
of easier distribution. To some extent courses dealing with
such subjects appeared in the secondary schools. But their
development in these schools was slow and fragmentary. The
secondary School was bound by its tradition of technical train-
ing, and had, furthermore, pupils of too young an age for proper
work of the sort needed. The collegiate school of business,
therefore, with an initial interest chiefly in marketing problems,
came into existence. (The production side of the matter had
been well taken care of by engineering schools.) Here courses
in Salesmanship, advertising, marketing, as well as in accounting
and related subjects, were developed. These schools broadened
their field of operations and furnished places for developing and
gathering the knowledge needed to make organized courses of
study possible.
The high school also began to extend in a number of ways.
Experiments of various forms were tried, the high school of
commerce, the co-operative school, the evening school, the post-
graduate course being among them. Corporations also, either
dissatisfied with the work of the public or private schools, or
feeling that such work should be supplemented, established a
great variety of training courses of their own. The corporation
school has thus become one of the important educational
agencies. In the meantime a demand arose for an opportunity
to continue public education after the regular course of instruc-
tion had been completed or dropped. This was supplemented
by a demand that the years of required School attendance
should be extended. These forces brought into existence and
nurtured the continuation school.
Thus we find ourselves in a vastly different situation from
that of an earlier age. No more is vocation merely the simple
and direct, even though difficult task, of taking from nature
immediate subsistence. No longer is the group with which one
* A somewhat more extended discussion of this matter is given in the
chapter dealing with collegiate schools of business.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALIZED AGENCIES 277
Co-operates in this activity small and of comparative simplicity
in organization, and no longer are such simple devices as imita-
tion and association adequate for training. The task of making
a modern citizen is more difficult than making “a Dakota of
the Dakota.” For our more complicated tasks we make use of
many specialized educational institutions. As in all special-
ization, a Central problem is to secure a proper division of the
labor to be done and to maintain an organization of our special-
ization which gives it a maximum of productivity. Since there
is no central authority to assign duty, nothing can be of more
aid to those who must define the task of an institution than an
understanding of the agencies involved. It is with helping to
Such an understanding that the following chapters are concerned.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. Has business in some form or other always existed P. Has educa-
tion for business in some form always existed P. In answering
this question, in what sense are you using the term business?
2. What were the chief methods of education in a primitive group P
Why would these same methods be unsatisfactory today?
3. Young people no longer absorb ideas from those about them.
The family has lost its influence; changes in the economic system
which made imitation futile. It is the large scale of industry
which makes formal education necessary. It is specialization
which made necessary the building of a schoolhouse. Examine
these statements. How much truth do you think there is in
each one P f
4. What was medieval apprenticeship P
5. In what ways can the medieval guildsman be compared to the
manager of a business today?
6. “The guildsman was worker, citizen, public officer, teacher,
Capitalist, and manager, all in one.” Explain.
. What were the internal business problems of the guildsman P
. What were some of the important external business problems of
the guildsman P
9. “In actual practice, state, borough, and guild presented, fre-
quently, the appearance of a threefold combination of almost
equal forces working together for a common end.” Show how
each of these forces was operating in guild life.
:
278
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
IO.
II.
I 2.
I3.
I6.
I7.
I8.
Work out a statement showing how apprenticeship trained for
each of these various aspects of guild life.
Give a list of reasons showing why other educational agencies
came to supplement apprenticeship.
What were the qualities which Thomas Mun believed a “perfect
merchant” should have P Should a perfect exporter of today
have all of these qualities?
“The extensive development of business teaching in America
depends for its explanation upon the westward movement of
American industry.” Put as much meaning into this statement
as you Can.
What do you understand by the “facilitating processes of
business”?
. Prior to 1850 the development of the business college was
retarded. What economic conditions were the cause of its slow
growth up to this time P. After 1850 the business college
expanded rapidly. What were the economic conditions upon
which this growth was based ?
The increasing size of business put a premium on communica-
tion and control. The development of certain techniques made
possible an increased amount of training in these fields. Explain.
What are some of the important facts in the development of
accounting, stenography, and the typewriter?
What are some of the economic facts lying behind the growth of
interest in advertising and salesmanship P Is there a relation
between this interest and the collegiate school of business?
CHAPTER XI
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE
In the opening chapter we have noticed certain statistics
relating to the private Commercial School or business college.
In the chapter immediately preceding this one the growth of
the business college was pictured in relation to the changing
economic situation. Something may be gained by a glance at
those chapters if the perspective suggested is not in mind. We
are now to make a more careful examination of the business
college, chiefly as a contemporary institution, with a view to
determining its proper rôle on the stage of educational activity.
There are three main matters to be considered. First, a
concept of the business College in quantitative terms should be
gained. What is the modern business college merely in numbers
and enrolment? How important a thing is it physically P
Second, qualitative features of the business college should
be examined. What is the modern business college? What
types of work does it offer P What is the distribution of students
among courses? What kinds of business colleges are there?
What administrative methods are typical? These considera-
tions are clearly of great importance in guiding us toward a
conclusion as to the work it can best do.
In examining these features of the business college it will
be worth while to note some earlier appraisals of its character.
Such a view will aid in determining whether the business dol-
lege has been a flexible and changing institution or whether
it has tended and still tends to run true to its earlier forms.
Finally there is the assignment of a place or task. What
work can the business college best do? This assignment should
be made with possible devices for improvement in mind. A
consideration of such devices is therefore pertinent.
THE EXTENT OF BUSINESS-COLLEGE EDUCATION
What, then, of the present-day business college in physical
terms? Figure 17 presents a graphic answer so far as numbers
27Q
28O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
are concerned. In observing this figure, however, it must
be borne in mind that the figures used are those of “schools
reporting.” The Bureau of Education maintains a mailing
list of 1,329 private commercial schools which is believed to
contain a large percentage of such schools in the United States.
The figure above shows only 890 schools. This is about 67 per
3.
NUMBER
OF *
SCHOOLS *
§
§
§
§
º
:
§
§
500
400
300
200
-4 (N. rº, sº \tº\ \O tº do CN C ~4 rº) \ ^ NC tº.
§ 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
rº r rº r rº r rº r + º-1 rº r * ~ *-* ~ * ~ *t →
FIG. 17–Number of private commercial schools reporting to Bureau
of Education for indicated years.”
* Adapted by permission from Private Commercial and Business Schools, 1917–18, p. 4.
U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 47, 1919. gº
cent of the actual number in the country. Similar considera-
tions should be kept in mind in viewing other points in the
chart.
The number of students in private commercial schools is
indicated in Figure 18. The figure shows the number of men
and of women as well as totals.
It will be observed that a decided increase in enrollment has taken
place since 1916. This increase of 97,191 students, or over 50 per
cent, has not been due to an increase in the number of Schools report-

THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 281
ing, since it has been shown above that there was an actual decrease
of twenty-two Schools reporting. Assuming that there are 1,329
private commercial Schools in the United States, one can readily
see that the 912 Schools reporting in 1916 and the 890 reporting in
I918 constitute fair Samples of the total number. It is unlikely, also,
300000
280000
260000
240000
22OOOO
200000
180
000
l60
QQQ
.
OO
-
lſ)0000
O
3 3 S $ 3, § 3 S 3 3 S 3 & 2 × 3 × S 3
§ 3 & 3 & # 3 & 3 & # 3 & # 3 à 5 § 3;
- Tofal. * * * MEN. • * ~ * = WOME}.
FIG. 18–Number of students in private commercial schools reporting
for indicated years.”
* Adapted from Private Commercial and Business Schools, 1917–18, p. 9. Bureau of
Education Bulletin, No. 47, 1919.
that larger Schools reported in 1918 than did in 1916. The increase
of 50 per cent in enrollment within the past two years (before 1918)
has undoubtedly been due to war demands. The call for clerks,
Stenographers, bookkeepers, and telegraph operators has caused many
students to enter private commercial schools where the necessary
training could be secured in the shortest time,

282 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
This conclusion is further warranted by the fact that the large
increment in enrollment is due wholly to the increase in the number
of women students. It will be noted that there has been a decrease
of 2,685, or 27 per cent, in the number of men students enrolled and
an increase of 99,876, or Io'ſ per cent, in the number of women
students enrolled. In other words, the enrollment of women students
has more than doubled within the past two years. From the figure
it will be observed that there has been a more rapid increase since
1900 in the number of women than in the number of men."
EARLIER APPRAISALS OF THE BUSINESS COLLEGE
As early as 1890 we have an evaluation of the business Col-
lege by Dr. James, perhaps the best observer of business educa-
tion of the time.”
As to the so-called commercial or business colleges, I would not
willingly do them an injustice. I believe that they are a great and
permanent constituent of our educational system. They have done
and are doing and are destined to continue doing, a great and useful
work. But the training which they, with few exceptions, furnish
can scarcely be called a higher training at all. It has to do with
“facilities”—indeed chiefly with manual facilities—writing, reckon-
ing, etc., those things that go to make up a good clerk, things of
great value in themselves, things which every business man would
be the better for having, and yet things which after all are only facili-
ties; they do not touch the essence of Successful business manage-
ment or tend to develop the higher sides of business activity; they
bear little or no relation to those broader views characteristic of the
business manager as distinct from the business clerk and are of course
next to useless as a means of liberal education. The knowledge which
they impart, however valuable in itself, “does not suffice to fit a young
man for the struggle of commercial life, for wise management of a
private estate or for efficient public service.”
In 1904 Dr. James carried the picture of the business
college into the present century, and gives a basis for judgment as
* Adapted by permission from Private Commercial and Business Schools,
1917–18, pp. 9-10. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1919.
* From an address by Edmund J. James, “Schools of Finance and
Economy,” before the American Bankers’ Association at Saratoga, Sep-
tember 3, 1890.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 283
to the progress, or lack of progress, being made by these institu-
tions, as well as a basis for considering their essential utility:
3.
Before leaving this subject of the “Commercial College,” i.e.,
the private, elementary, unendowed, unassisted and uninspected
educational undertaking, it is desired to emphasize again how impor-
tant a function it has performed in our American educational system.
It set out to give the girl or boy, man or woman, who desired to secure
a position as clerk or bookkeeper just such assistance as was needed
to prepare for such work. No matter how young or how old, how
educated or how ignorant the candidate, the commercial college
undertakes to give him an immediate and definite training in book-
keeping, commercial arithmetic, penmanship, stenography and type-
writing, or such portion thereof as is desired. It made of each student
a special case; did not hold him back to work along with a class,
gave him every assistance in its power, made entrance to the school
as easy as possible, rarely requiring any other condition than paying
the fee; facilitated the leaving and helped the pupil in finding work.
That it did this work well, at least to the satisfaction of its pupils,
is sufficiently attested by the hundreds of thousands of people who
have attended the schools in the last fifty years. Pupils were required
to pay fees and in many cases high fees for instruction. The annual
tuition fee varies in the better schools from $50 to $150 and even
$200 for a school year of ten months. The payment of such fees
by men and women who have to earn their own living at compara-
tively low salaries testifies eloquently to the value which they them-
selves set upon the instruction which they receive.
It is perfectly safe to say that in the quality of the work which
they do, and in the equipment for this particular work, the American
commercial colleges have no rivals. They are as much superior to
anything of the sort to be found elsewhere in the world as are the
American schools of dentistry to their counterparts—and for very
much the same reason, viz., that they are engaged largely, one may
say chiefly, in the mechanical work in which Americans excel the rest
of the world. They are not educational institutions in any broad
sense of the term at all. They are trade schools pure and simple,
and that in a very narrow sense. They train for facilities. Of
course all training has intellectual results, even that of the prize
* Adapted by permission from Edmund J. James, Commercial Education,
pp. 16–18. Louisiana Purchase Exposition Co., St. Louis, 1904.
284 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
fighter. But the commercial college aims not to train the best
bookkeepers, or stenographers, for, to such, a high degree of educa-
tion is necessary, but to take the boy or man as he is, with or without
education, stupid or bright, and make as good a bookkeeper or
Stenographer out of him as is possible by simply superadding a brief
technical training. The limitations of such a school are perfectly
evident to every educationist. It trains the clerk, the routinist, the
amanuensis, not the manager or director of business enterprises.
That hundreds of the students of the colleges have become successful
business men of initiative and independent enterprise simply proves
that they had native ability for that sort of thing; not that this sort
of training was especially helpful, though it is only fair to say that
many of these men trace their start in business to the technical skill
in bookkeeping, etc., which they acquired in the schools.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE IN 1912
In 1912 the City Club of Chicago made an extensive study
of vocational training in its city and included a thorough investi-
gation of the business college of that date and place. The
evidence which they submitted is important in showing the
further development of these private agencies for business
education. The facts found as well as the conclusions drawn
are worth examination:
Some general facts.—The forty or more commercial colleges, on
the other hand, offer apparently exactly what the students desire, a
commercial education only. The average commercial college pre-
sents an air of business; the equipment is quite adequate and the
plan of work, especially on the technical side, seems at first desirable.
The students are offered a course in business theory and practice,
which seems suited to fit them for the ends desired.
Criticisms may, however, be made upon the work of the private
business college. Only a few of them are really efficient, and in
every case the course is too short. The whole attempt is to drive
the student through in as short a time as possible, this being, of Course,
an attractive feature in the case of the student who must be a wage-
earner immediately after he graduates; from his point of view the
* Adapted by permission from A Report on Vocational Training in
Chicago and in Other Cities, pp. 240–42 and 252–56. By a committee of
the City Club of Chicago, 1912.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 285
sooner he graduates the better. The business colleges will take
students ordinarily without regard to age, though several maintain
they take no one under fifteen years. They pay little attention to
previous training and do not take into account the natural adapta-
bility or ability on the part of the student, i.e., no attempt is made to
inquire whether the prospective student is fitted to become a business
man either in a directive or directed position. All is grist that comes
to the business college mill.
A further criticism is that business colleges feel that they are
under the necessity of keeping their attendance, to pay dividends
on their capital, and therefore conduct a vigorous campaign of solicita-
tion which extends even to the pupils in the grammar schools. It is
estimated that 25 per cent to 35 per cent of their gross receipts are
paid out to Solicitors. It is, perhaps, pertinent to inquire if this
money could not be more profitably expended by the business
colleges themselves in equipment or teaching staff.
They also need public supervision. They are not open to inspec-
tion by the public officers and are not regulated by the school board
or other School authorities.
The typical commercial course in commercial colleges includes
bookkeeping, Commercial arithmetic, commercial law, penmanship,
business correspondence, shorthand and typewriting, and what is
called English, including reading, writing, spelling, grammar and,
in Some cases, history, geography, arithmetic, etc. The average
time for such a course is about eight months, and the average tuition
is about $1.1 per month.
The commercial colleges themselves insist that their methods
are the correct ones, that their course is arranged to give the maximum
of practical work in the minimum of time, that the course is conducted
by teachers especially trained for business work who make it a practice
to keep in touch with the latest business methods, and that, there-
fore, their courses are much more efficient than can be given in the
public high Schools at present. It is true, however, that the greater
number of students turned out by the commercial colleges, as well
as by the high Schools, are inefficient, except possibly in a mechanical
way; and they still require detailed instruction in that which they
are supposed to have learned in School. The business training of
the public schools and of the commercial colleges does not fit their
graduates to take up business work with the expectation of working
themselves into positions of responsibility.
286 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
What the solicitors were doing in Chicago in 1912–Most of
the solicitors for these schools are working on a commission basis and
tend, therefore, to be more interested in securing the students than
they are in telling the truth; in the amount of business they secure
than in the maturity or fitness of the pupils they solicit. In very
many cases the pupils, even from the fifth grade and up, are induced
to leave the public Schools for the purpose of taking a course in Some
business college. Pupils are solicited who have no adaptability for
commercial training.
Many students are secured by means of what must be regarded
as misrepresentation on the part of the solicitor. They promise the
prospective student a job at the end of his short term of study. They
draw attention to the fact that certain students have completed
courses of study in a short period of time and are now holding good
positions. Some of them who enroll have sufficient native ability
or have received such previous training that they are enabled to Com-
plete the work in the promised time and hold a job when secured.
The solicitor uses these examples as a bait to catch others who have
not these qualifications. No guarantee is given that the student will
be able to hold a position, and many take places only to lose them
because they are incompetent.
When the standard of those who seek clerical and office work is
as low as that to which our business men testify, it is not difficult to
promise some sort of a place to the graduate of a six months' course.
This superficial training, especially when it has been added to an
incomplete elementary schooling, does not lead to later. Success, but
condemns the boy or girl to the low wages and drudgery which are the
necessary lot of the inefficient.
Thus the guarantee of a position after a short term of study in a
business college becomes a source of positive injury to the children
whom it attracts, and is at the same time ruining excellent materiai.
For the same children might, after the completion of the elementary
period with adequate business training, become efficient clerks and
Stenographers, able to gain a higher wage and take higher positions.
That such children are being solicited and enticed from the public
schools in all parts of our city is a fact that is affirmed by every public-
school principal whose opinion was sought in the investigation of this
problem. &
A high-school teacher states: “As the most evident reason why
pupils from the grammar Schools go to the private business Schools
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 287
rather than to the public high school, may be given the work done
among grammar-school pupils of the upper grades and their parents
by the solicitors of the business schools.”
A high-school teacher of stenography says: “The business
colleges are indefatigable in their efforts to secure the pupils as low
down as the fourth grade.”
In ten high schools located in various sections of the city, 862
pupils in the first year of the high school were asked to write a theme
on “Why do not more pupils enter the high schools of our city ?”
The number of reasons in these themes varies from two or three to a
dozen. But it is an interesting fact that 565 of these pupils give, as .
a leading reason, the work of the business College agents.
One proprietor says: “Business-College training in Chicago is
in large measure a failure, because of Soliciting children, and employ-
ing teachers who lack training. Poor foundation, poor teachers and
text-books which produce the largest cash dividend are not con-
ducive to efficient office help.
“Many of the proprietors care more for the dollars received as
tuition than the kind of training they are giving; because of Solicita-
tion, we are getting our pupils too young and immature; the high
cost of solicitation renders it impossible to provide high-class
instructors.”
Still another says: “We will get just as much business if we let
the students alone until they are two or three years older. We would
have more students if we would abolish Soliciting and apply that
large drain to the building up of our Schools, making our rooms more
attractive, securing more efficient instruction. I would abolish
soliciting tomorrow if I could.”
THE MOST RECENT STUDY OF THE BUSINESS
COLLEGE
In 1918, a study of private commercial schools in New York
City was undertaken by the Public Education Committee of
that city. It brings our examination of the qualitative features
of these schools approximately down to date:
* Adapted by permission from Bertha Stevens, Private Commércial
Schools in New York City, pp. 18–21, 33–41, 82, 92, 96. Report of the
Committee to Investigate Private Commercial Schools, Public Education
Association, of the City of New York, 1918.
288 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ſ
TYPES OF SCHOOLS
From the sixty-seven private commercial schools of Manhattan
and the Bronx, we have selected thirty-one for special investigation.
Group I, made up of Schools Superior in their equipment and in the
Calibre of their teaching force and students; Group 2, representing
Competent Schools which have good equipment and good teachers
but students of varied types, less discriminatingly selected than in
the case of the foregoing group; Group 3, Schools cheap in equipment,
personnel and methods of advertising, and caring more for speed and
numbers than for individual excellence; Group 4, made up of schools
of low standard, whose meagre equipment and dirty, neglected class-
rooms cannot expect to do more than prepare students to enter low
grade positions; Grade 5, representing schools which are unscrupulous
in their dealings with their students or the public. In educational
facilities the Schools of Group 5 are similar to the schools of Group 3
Or 4. -
An example of Group 1.-This school is as impressive in its
dignity and beauty as many private academic schools are. . . . .
One has a feeling that educational purpose and high business ideals
are as important to the school as the success of its commercial enter-
prise. It gives the impression of being, if not keenly alive to chan-
ging demands in business, at least well deserving of its established
reputation for thoroughness and quality. ſ
The distinction of this school seems to be its careful training of
pupils, its high minimum wage and the confident assurance of success
which lifts it above the level of unscrupulous or undignified competi-
tion. It impressed the visitor as a good, wide-awake business school
wherein students could find efficient, specialized training; but there
was no discernible atmosphere of idealism or general educational
interest.
An example of Group 2.-The chief asset of the school is the
personality of the principal and the shorthand teacher. This was
shown in their wholesome, dignified appearance, their earnestness
in dealing with the pupils, and their direct and intelligent discussion
of school matters with the visitor. The place was clean and honest,
and one would not be afraid to recommend it to a poor young person
in Search of specific training.
The proprietor, a scholarly looking man, said he had heard of
this investigation and proceeded to ask a few direct and very reason-
able questions regarding its method and purpose. He is a man of
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 289
intelligence and culture, and well informed in matters relating to
education generally. The admirable organization and equipment of
his own school are evidence of his standards. One wondered why,
with all this, so few students of maturity or more than elementary
education were attracted to it.
An example of Group 3.−This is a small makeshift sort of a school
crowded into a few rooms on the second floor of a store building. Two
distinct impressions came to the visitor at once: the cheap character
of the school and the plausible, intelligent discussion of the principal,
who is quick-minded and very alert to the investigator's point of view.
If the principal practised his ideas, the school ought to be a fine
thing—which it does not appear to be. The whole enterprise
seemed shoddy, as if undercapitalized. -*.
The school in general gives the impression of living by its wits
and of being “up to the minute” in new methods and new ideas in
commercial education and in its policy of adaptability to Conditions;
TABLE XXVII
THE REQUIREMENTS AND OFFERINGS OF 31 SELECTED SCHOOLS
IN NEW YORK CITY

e - Cost Range |No. of Schools
Age of Academic Prepara-| Range of Usual g
Group Majority of tion of Majority Period of 3. cºil.
Pupils of Pupils Instruction Instruction | Posi º
I . . . . . . 16–20 years. Some H. S. ed. |6–Io mos. $60–$180 None
2 . . . . . ... [15–17 years 8th grade 3- 8 mos. 55- 65 None
3 . . . . . . 15–17 years 8th grade 3- 7 mos. 45- 65 5
4 . . . . . . I5–16 years 8th grade 6–Indefinite 48– 55 2
5 . . . . . . (Information included by Groups 3 and 4)
Courses Offered
No. of Schools
Stenography, bookkeeping, “Secretarial” course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . IQ
Stenography, bookkeeping, typing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Stenography, bookkeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.
Stenography, bookkeeping, typing, accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Stenography, “Secretarial” course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Stenography, telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Shorthand, typing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Shorthand, advanced shorthand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Secretarial course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Filing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
§

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS IN 31 SCHOOLS OF MANHATTAN AND THE BRONx
TABLE XXVIII
Type of Building
Appearance of Classroom
Light
Ventilation
Cleanliness
Group I (6 schools)
Remodelled clubhouse.
Specially constructed
building. Modern
brick building. Bank
building
All schools of this group have
ample space and give an impres-
sion of dignity, suitability and
general attractiveness. Ine
school achieves beauty as well as
practicability
Good. One school sol Good
planned in all rooms
that light comes from
back and left
Good
Group 2 (9 schools)
Remodelled residence.
Office building. Bank
building. Newspaper
building. Over store.
Over moving picture
theater
For the most part, well kept and
well furnished in a plain, sensible
way. Several have fine, large
rooms with high ceilings. One
school is particularly well adapted
and equipped
Good in every school Adequate
except one and this
school has adequate
daylight in some of its
IOOInS
every
school except one
All schools clean One
school somewhat un-
tidy
Group 3 (8 schools)
Modern office building.
Old office building.
Newspaper building.
Over store
Two schools are spacious. One
school is crowded and one has
objectionably narrow stairs and
hall. Most are simple, inexpen-
sive, business-like, and modern,
and have a minimum amount of
equipment
ranged in one school
five
Insufficient
in two schools
Good in four schools. Excellent in one school.
Insufficient in two Adequate
schools and poorly ar- schools.
Six schools clean. Two
schools fairly clean
Group 4 (4 schools)
Remodelled clubhouse.
Remodelled residence.
Over moving picture
theater
Classrooms are dingy and neglect-
ed looking although the reception
office may be presentable. Stair-
ways dirty in all and in two
schools too narrow
Two schools
Light good in one
school and fair in the
other
Group 5 (4 schools)
Remodelled residence.
office building.
Modern office building
in small
Others have adequate
One school crowded
TOOInS.
Space.
Adequate in three Adequate
schools. Fair in one
school.
dark. Insufficient in all. Two
schools are practically
unventilated in some
of their rooms
No schools of this
group are clean. Class
rooms and stairs es-
pecially dirty
--e.-- - - - - ----- ****
Adequate
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 29I
but it seemed to spread itself too thin. We did think, however, that
the purpose of the school is to be frankly honest in all its repre-
sentations. -
An example of Group 4.—The first reaction was that nothing
good could be said of the school. It seemed to be making its money
by fitting low grade pupils for low grade positions, and to be doing
this in the kindly guise of working for the good of the young and
for the promotion of efficiency. The manager had an air of fatherly
kindness and showed a certain subtlety in giving all the right answers.
But, before the visit was over, the investigator was impressed with
the relation of good will existing between teachers and pupils; and
also, she felt that the degree of attention the teachers secured was a
thing to be commended.
The emphasis of the school’s advertising and the remarks of the
principal lead one to suppose that this school considers itself a sort
of social center or settlement for its foreign neighbors. In conversa-
tion the principal seemed intelligent, very much in earnest and alert to
general questions of commercial education; but the dark, dingy
classrooms and the untidy children who filled them seemed to tell a
different story.
MODERN COMMERCIAL COLLEGE SOLICITATION
Private commercial school solicitation of eighth grade pupils
about to be graduated from public Schools is general. Of I,952 Such
children, in twenty-four school districts, 1,288 were reached by agents
or through the mails. This soliciting was done by forty-six different
private commercial Schools.
As many as twelve private commercial Schools have operated at
the same time in a single school district. There is more solicitation
of girls than of boys.
Names and addresses of pupils about to be graduated are secured
from school children, from name brokers, or by disguised adver-
tising.
Most solicitors work on commission and have no other connec-
tion with the school which employs them. They can make verbal
contracts which the school later may not uphold.
Arguments used most effectively by agents are the shortness of
the course, the futility of high school education or training, the
undesirability of doing factory work, and the guarantee of a position.
292 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Some business schools have sent directly to the principal's office
Supplies of blotters, rulers and other useful trifles carrying the
advertising of the school, and have asked to have these distributed.
So far as we know, such permission is not given. In other cases,
representatives have placed these things in piles on a teacher’s desk
in the classroom at noon without permission, hoping that they will
be distributed during the afternoon session. A few elementary
School papers have carried a commercial school's advertisement.
Various forms of advertisements were left at homes by agents,
or Sent to the children by mail. Among these forms were rulers,
blotters, buttons, “dope” capsules, picture postals, graduation con-
gratulations, invitations to dances, application forms on postal
cards addressed to the school, illustrated booklets, lists and pictures,
of graduates. Two schools gave dances to the children of elemen-
tary graduation classes. A little girl of fourteen gave this report
of the dance: “Many kids were there, all 8-B girls, I think, except
a few of them that go to that school already. There were many
more girls than boys. It was very hot and crowded and they were
screaming from the tops of their voices but it was nice decorated.
Nine o'clock I went home, but I heard they had later refreshments.
I knew girls who went to the dances and did not come home until
two o'clock in the morning, alone. They said they had a good time.”
In its statement of purpose, the character of its claims, its use of
English, and in the quality of taste shown in the material and make-up
of the printing, a school reveals itself; and it does this with special
effectiveness if its publications are considered in contrast with those
of other schools. But reliable judgment of schools on this basis is
possible only for persons of some education and maturity. The
children for whom this propaganda is designed are not capable of
rating it. Extravagant claims, cartoons picturing high Success by
way of the business School, or even irrelevant Color prints of Sunsets,
are the means which we have found most likely to win their approval
and choice. Z -
It would be unfair to close a discussion of the advertising in New
York’s private commercial schools without some recognition of the
honest, intelligent and attractive propaganda of the better Schools.
A number of such schools put emphasis upon the qualifications of
their teachers and show, with dates, the educational institutions
attended and the experience of the teachers prior to employment at
the school.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 203
The spirit of rivalry.—Competition is a matter of serious concern
to most private commercial schools. It is a kind of competition that
is not so likely to be the life of the commercial education trade as it
is to be its death or disabling. It is very hard for new or small schools
to keep from “going to the wall”; and especially among schools of
Group 4 the effect of competition is too often to concentrate all the
energy and ingenuity upon methods of outwitting a rival, instead of
using this energy and ingenuity in building up a better school and
thus winning fairly by offering to students a better thing for their
money. The hottest rivalry is to be found in the relations of the
private schools with each other. This is to be expected because it
is the private Schools, only, which offer similar subjects within a
somewhat similar time range. The public school curriculum is widely
different from that of the private school and the time required is much
longer. School A, Group 3, is the active rival of School B of Group 2
and vice versa. School C, Group 4, concentrates its energies largely
upon School D of the same group; but School C is so much the
smaller institution that D does not reciprocate actively. Rivals are
fought with all disregard of truth and fairness. Tales of rivals’ mis-
doings were recounted to us enthusiastically in the course of the
investigation. An incident which occasioned some unpleasant pub-
licity for a New York private commercial school a number of years
ago is talked of as if it had happened yesterday; and yet the thing
which occurred was an accident which might, with equal chance, have
befallen almost any school in the city. To illustrate methods used
in competition, we cite the case of a school which obtained the names
of its rival's enrolled students and sent them communications offer-
ing to secure positions for them. We have seen evidence, which to
us is conclusive, that last Summer this same School sent, to the stu-
dents of its rival, postcards which read, “Do not come to school.
Infantile paralysis,” and signed them with the typewritten name of
the rival's school-manager. -
Sudden closing.—“Going out of business” is common enough, in
the case of New York’s schools of commercial training, to warrant
careful watching whether the closing be the result of competition,
under-capitalization or deliberate unscrupulousness. The investiga-
tion has learned of three schools which closed suddenly during the
last year:
The “E” school. “It was always Mr. E.'s custom,” students
said, “to keep everyone paid up right to the very minute. If you
294 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
hadn’t paid you couldn’t come in class. When the school closed
there were about one hundred girls there and some were cheated out
of months of schooling and a good deal of money. The day before
the school failed Mr. E. went around to the pupils and collected
money.”
Another girl in school “H,” who said she had paid $30 and had
received only one month's instruction when the school closed, cor-
roborated in detail the events noted in the foregoing record. She
said she did not get any of her money back and thought about fifteen
students suffered a loss similar to hers.
INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION
“Individual instruction” is the only method adaptable to a
group of students uneven in their attainments and capacity. It is
true that the greater number of New York City schools show homo-
geneity in the general character of their students, the age being
fifteen or sixteen and the preparation, as a rule, eighth grade; but
these students, do not enter or leave together. With the exception
of the best schools, registration, dropping out and graduation go on
all through the year. There are, as a rule, no set dates for beginning
and ending. Under Such conditions strict grading is impossible and
students must have their lessons assigned and explained individually
or in very Small groups. Class work, which is So rarely possible, has
the advantage of general discussion; it gives to students the chance
to profit by each other's mistakes and to teachers an opportunity to
find out what the students do not know or understand. In the
poorer schools, where individual instruction is the only kind given,
students may drift along in a vague, unintelligent way. They have
little or no home work; and the written work done in class does not,
students say, receive a teacher's careful Correction.
THE SIZE OF BUSINESS COLLEGES*
The Chicago study in 1912, and the New York study in
1918, although of interest and value as intensive investigations,
may well be supplemented by the examination of some of the
qualitative features stated as a result of broader service. The
Bureau of Education, in certain recent publications, presents
# Adapted by permission from Private Commercial and Business Schools,
pp. 6–8. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1919.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 295
some worth-while data concerning the variation in size of
business colleges:
By reference to Figure 19 it will be noted that many schools are
very small, 248 having an enrollment of less than Ioo for the year,
and 227 having an enrollment of from Ioo to 199, inclusive. Only
three schools have an enrollment exceeding 2,500. The median
enrollment of the 890 schools falls between 186 and 187. This means
schools. , ; ; ; ; ; ; # 3 *4 <3 ur, O © tº ºv -
250
200
50
;
#
i
;
i
&
&
#
§
TOTAL ENROLIMENT FOR THE YEAR
*TBESR THREE SCHOOLS ENROLL 2558, 5966, AND 6700 STUDENTS RESPECTIVELY
i
i
g-4
FIG. Ig.—Number of schools with indicated enrollment
that 445 schools have an enrollment of 187 or over and 445 schools
have an enrollment of 186 or less. The median, therefore, falls in
the second bar in Figure IQ in the group having an enrollment of
between Ioo and 199, inclusive. If the enrollment in all schools is
arranged in order of magnitude, and the array is divided into four
nearly equal groups of 222, 223, 222, and 223 schools, respectively,
it is found that the first group contains schools having an enroll-
ment of 90 students or fewer; the second an enrollment of from 90

296 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
to 186; the third an enrollment of between 187 and 4oo; and the
highest group, an enrollment of 400 and over. In other words, half
the commercial schools have an enrollment of between 90 and 400,
inclusive. The average enrollment is 325 students.
The curve in Figure 20 enables the reader to determine readily
the percentage of students in any desired percentage of Schools, or
Q 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PRR CENT oy schools
CURVE OF ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION - - - LINE OF BOUAL DISTRIBUTIOR.
FIG. 20.—Proportion of students to proportionate number of Schools
vice versa. Reading from the vertical scale, one will observe that
60 per cent of the students are enrolled in about 22 per cent of the
schools, and 90 per cent of the students in about 59 per cent of the
schools. Reading from the base line, one may see that 50 per cent
of the schools enroll 85.5 per cent of the students, and 30 per cent of
the schools enroll 70.4 per cent of the students. If the enrollment

THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 297
were equally distributed in all schools, the curve would follow the
“line of equal distribution” in such a way that 50 per cent of the
Schools would enroll 50 per cent of the students, and 70 per cent of
the students would be enrolled in 70 per cent of the schools. The
“bowing” of the curve away from the line of equal distribution indi-
Cates the dispersion in the distribution. The further the curve recedes
from the line of equal distribution the greater the dispersion. The
nearer the curve comes to the vertical and horizontal axes of the
graph, the nearer the maximum dispersion is reached. For a large
group of measures the two axes represent for all practical purposes
the greatest inequality possible between the largest and the smallest
Schools.
TYPES OF WORK IN BUSINESS COLLEGES
Not all students in private commercial schools take the
same course. There is a considerable amount of specialization
even within the rather limited offering of these schools. The
telegraphic course, for example, has in recent years attracted
students in considerable numbers, while the bookkeeping and
Stenographic courses, as individual subjects of study, have
each at one time or another held the lead. Night-school work
is also an important phase of the private commercial school's
offerings, and this appears to have been particularly significant
in recent years. The investigation of the Bureau of Education
follows:
Enrollment in day and night courses.—This year 716 private
commercial schools reported night courses. This means that over
80 per cent of such schools maintained night courses. It is of inter-
est to note the very rapid rise in enrollment in night courses. The
increase has been very pronounced since 1912, and especially so within
the past two years. In the day courses there has been a correspond-
ing increase for the same periods, but the rate of increase has not
been so great. This is very apparent in Figure 21, in which the
enrollment for each year has been reduced to index numbers. By
means of these index numbers the two curves are brought nearer
each other in such a way that comparisons showing the rates of
increase may be made. The relative steepness of the slopes of the
* Adapted by permission from Private Commercial and Business Schools,
1917-18, pp. II-16. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1919.
298 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
two curves between any two consecutive points indicates the rate
of change. Thus between 1916 and 1918 the curve for the night
school enrollment shows a steeper slope than the curve for the day
Schools. Consequently a more rapid change in night School enroll-
ment within this period has taken place.
The moving average of index numbers.-In both curves certain
irregularities will be observed. Undoubtedly these low points are
100
50
*4
Crº. Orº Cº.
*4 rº wº- ºr r-, zºº ºr ré ºr r- ºr rºd -1 - “4 - rº
- ENROLL.MENT - DAY COURSE = • * MOVING AWFRAGE DAY coursº."
* - - ENROLLMENT - NIGHT COURSE. - - - - - - Moving AVERAGE - NIGHT COURSE,
FIG. 21.-Rate of change in enrollment in day and night courses for
indicated years.
due more to the failure of commercial schools to submit reports than
to any other factor. If all schools had reported each year presum-
ably a more gradual rise would have appeared in the curves. To
eliminate these fluctuations in the index curves, moving averages
have been applied. The enrollment in night Schools since Igoo has
increased 560 per cent, while the enrollment in day Schools has
increased only 157 per cent. Without doubt these percentages would


THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 299
not have been so large had not the war demands for commercial
school graduates been So great. -
Enrollment by course of study.—It will be observed in Figure 22
that a decided increase in the number of students enrolled in Steno-
graphic courses is shown in 1918. The number increased from 70,554
in 1916 to 152,402 in 1918, or II.6 per cent. This abnormal increase
has presumably been caused by the demand for Stenographers on
cº tº- r-l g- *4 gº
§ 3 ; ; ; ; ; 8. § 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
dº ſº tº HO DATA PRIOR
asºme BOOKKºpli NG COURSE. COMOBINED COURSE. TO 1908
------ stEsogRAPHIC COURSE. •- - - TRIEGRAPHIO COURSE. (WIRB)
Fig. 22–Number of students enrolled in indicated courses of study
for indicated years.
account of the war. The enrollment in the combined course which
includes a study of shorthand also shows a gradual rise since IQIo,
but no very pronounced increase is evident in 1918. Evidently the
demand for stenographers in 1918 was So insistent that few students
would resist it long enough to complete both a stenographic and a
bookkeeping course. The bookkeeping or Commercial Course shows
in general a decrease from 1902 to 1912, and a gradual increase
since that time. This course evidently did not receive a very great

3OO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
impetus on account of war conditions. The bookkeeping course in
I900 apparently was more popular than the other courses offered in
private commercial schools. It continued to lead until 1911. Since
1911 the stenographic course has been decidedly the most popular.
Since the curves in Figure 22 are so far apart, it is difficult to
compare the increases in enrollment in the various courses offered.
250
200
.
l
5
O
100
50
O grº (\! tº q \r, \O tº CO ON P-4 \r, \O tº
§ 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; # 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
>, >4 + · · + -i >, >4 - > * > -º- º – º – rº
8TRNOGRAPHIO COURSE. * = = COMBINED COURSE
tº ºp º ºs º ºsº BOOKKREPING COURSE. - - - TELEGRAPHIC courSE (WIRE).
FIG. 23.-Rate of change in enrollment in principal courses of study
for indicated years.
For example, was the increase in enrollment in the course in teleg-
raphy (wire), from 1916 to 1918, proportionally as great as the
corresponding increase in the combined or in the bookkeeping Course 2
To answer such questions the enrollments given in Figure 22 have
been reduced to index numbers which are plotted in Figure 23. From
this graph it will be noted that the slope of the curve for the course

THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 3OI
in telegraphy (wire) is steeper between 1916 and 1918 than either of
the curves for the bookkeeping or the combined course. The relative
rate of increase has, therefore, been greater. However, for the same
interval the curve for the stenographic course is steeper even than
that for the course in the telegraphy wire. In the rate of increase
in enrollment, therefore, between 1916 and 1918, the stenographic
ranks first; the telegraphic, second; the combined, third; and the
bookkeeping, fourth. Similar comparisons might be made between
any other two consecutive intervals. It must be borne in mind that
the relative positions of the curves do not indicate rates of increase.
For example, between 1916 and 1913 the curve for the combined
Course stands above the “telegraphic” curve, but the latter shows
the greater increase during this period.
TUITION RATES IN PRIVATE COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS
The tuition rates in private commercial schools were made
a subject of study by the Bureau of Education. They show
considerable variation: •e
Altogether, 454 schools reported the tuition rate charged for the
commercial or bookkeeping course. Of this number, 217 schools,
or 48 per cent, offer a course extending from 3% to 6 months; and 85
of these, or 39 per cent, charge a fee ranging from $60 to $69. Again,
175 schools, or 39 per cent of the total number reporting, maintain a
6% to 9 months’ course; and 48 of these, or 27 per cent, charge a
fee of $70 to $79. Only 44 schools, or less than Io per cent of the
total number, offer a 9% to 12 months’ course, and the charge for
tuition in most instances is over $100.
Figure 25 contains two very symmetrical distributions similar to
the corresponding ones in Figure 24. In other words, groups 2 and
3 in this graph have almost the same number of schools charging
lower or higher tuition fees than the rate indicated by the longest bar
in the group. In the 3% to 6 months' group the most common rate
is $60 to $69, 88 schools charging this fee. In all, 64 schools charge a
lower and 70 schools a higher rate than this. In the 6% to 9 months’
group 49 schools charge a tuition fee of from $70 to $79. Altogether,
in this group 53 Schools charge a lower and 95 a higher rate than this.
Greater variation from the central tendency is shown in this group
* Adapted by permission from Private Commercial and Business Schools,
I917–18, pp. 25–28. U.S., Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1919.
3O2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
than in Group 2. In other words, the distribution is slightly skewed
in the direction of higher tuition rates. Any school falling in this
group and charging $11o or more for the course should be able to
justify its action. The single-hatched bars representing Group 4
in this graph show the same irregularity as the corresponding bars
did in the next preceding graph. Likewise, groups I and 5 are Small
and consequently show no marked Central tendency.
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 loo-109 110-119 120-129 13c-ovº
TUI?IOS WER (DOLLARB).
O-3 MONTHS - ll SCHOOLS. 9 1/2 lz MONTHS 44 BCHOOLS.
tº 3 1/2- 6 Months-217 schoolsCl 12 1/2- 15 worris 7 schools
& 6 1/2- 9 Months-175 schools.
Tºg'ſ H OF COURSE:
FIG. 24.—Tuition fee for the entire commercial or bookkeeping day
COUlrSé.
Altogether the tuition rates for the Stenographic course in 463
schools are represented in this figure. Of this total, 222 schools, or
48 per cent, offer courses requiring from 3% to 6 months for Completion;
and 197 schools, or 43 per cent, offer courses requiring from 6% to 9
months for completion. In other words, 91 per cent of the Schools
represented in this graph fall in these two groups. This tendency to
centralize around a 6 months’ course further Supports the statement
made above that the “average” graduate from a private commercial
school has had only six months of training.


THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 3O3
Tuition rates for the entire combined day course.—As it takes about
twice as long to complete the combined course as either the bookkeep-
ing or the Stenographic course, a higher scholarship fee is necessarily
charged. In Figure 26 it will be observed that no schools undertake
to give this course in three months or less, consequently Group I
is not represented. There are relatively fewer schools in groups 2
and 3 than in the two graphs next preceding. The majority of the
NUMBER
g- ** * -
OF futy 6J ºr, 3 uº ovº
90
80
70
60
50
40
30’
20
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 loo-leg 110-119 120-129 150-ovº.R
TUITION FRE (DOLLAR8)
*śj 0-3 MONTHS - ll schools. Ø 9 1/2 - 12 soºths - 51 schools
Bºº. 3 1/2 - 6 months - 222 scFools.C. 12 1/2 - 15 worris - 2 schools
£3 6 1/2 - 9 MONTHS - 197 BCHOOL8.
LºGTH OF COURSE:
FIG. 25.-Tuition fee for entire stenographic day course
Schools are found in Group 4; that is they require from 9% to 12
months for the completion of the course. Altogether, 321 schools
reported the scholarship fee charged for the combined course. Of
this number, 172 Schools, or 54 per cent, fall in Group 4. The cus-
tomary fee charged students in schools of this type for this course
is from $100 to $139, inclusive. Only 30 schools charge a higher
rate, while 33 charge a lower rate. In the schools in Group 5, that is
in Schools offering a course requiring from 12% to 15 months for com-
pletion, the largest group of schools charge from $140 to $149. Two
other groups almost as large, consisting of 12 schools each, charge


3O4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
$100 to $119 and $120 to $139, respectively. It will be noticed that
remarkable symmetry is evident for the single-hatched, double-
hatched, and black bars. A tendency for a few schools to charge an
unusually high ſee is shown in the isolated bars at the right.
In addition to the Schools listed in Figure 26, 12 schools offer a
combined course extending from 16 to 42 months and charge tuition
08 .4 •4 twº do o os ºr or uryo
tº vo rºl ºf in *4 on wry tº q. * *4
w futu Sºğ ura * * try º g- rº
9 240-259
TUITION FRE (DOLLARO)
LENGTH OF COURSE: ZZ 3 1/2 - 6 MONTH8 - 25 8CHOOLS Tº 9 1/2 tº Months - 172 schools.
£& 6 W2 -9 Months - 68 BGHools Cl 12 1/2 15 MONTHS - 56 schools
FIG. 26.-Tuition fee for entire day course
fees varying from $60 in one school to $270 in another. Only 3
schools have a course longer than 18 months, and 5 offer an 18 months'
course. The usual charge for the course ranges from $110 to $180.
CONTROL OF THE BUSINESS COLLEGE NEEDED
Most careful observers of the business college have been
inclined to agree that it has performed for American business
and for the community at large, a useful piece of work. Most
of the observers are also inclined to agree that the business
college, speaking now generically, has been guilty of a very
large amount of bad practice. It is an institution whose
activities often furnish a striking example of the lack of incidence
between private gain and social welfare. The urge for a rectify-


THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 305
ing of business-college practice, with the retention of its useful
function, has been frequent.
The state of New York makes a rather unavailing effort to
control the business college through its State Department of
Education:
At the present time the State Department of Education has no
legal authority to inspect the private business schools in operation
in this state. Under the Regents' regulations private business schools
may be registered by the State Department of Education. When a
School of this type makes application for registration a very care-
ful inspection is made of the institution to determine its fitness to
offer commercial courses. This inspection includes a careful study
of the qualifications of teachers, courses of study, housing facilities
and equipment. No School is approved unless it meets the best of
the standards in the field of commercial education.,
While such approval and registration make it possible for
the school to make an added appeal for patronage, this seems
to be an insufficient if not a feeble control method. Stronger
methods are needed.
|Miss Bertha Stevens, who compiled the report of the New
York Committee to Investigate Private Commercial Schools,
says:*
To make private schools safe, in New York City, there is need for:
The issuing of a State license, without which it should be illegal
to open or maintain any sort of private educational institution.
Annual registration of all private educational institutions with
the State Department of Education. Registration should be com-
pulsory upon these institutions. x
State censorship of advertising material. It should be required
of the schools to file with the State Department of Education, samples
of all forms used. -
* The quotation is a statement by L. A. Wilson, director of the Division
of Vocational and Extension Education of New York state, April, 1922.
* Adapted by permission from Bertha Stevens, Private Commercial
Schools, Manhattan and the Bronx, pp. 133–34. Report of the Committee
to Investigate Private Commercial Schools, the Public Education Associa-
tion of the City of New York, 1918.
306 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Official standardization of course of study, entrance requirements,
preparation of teachers, and equipment. Also, Schools should fur-
nish to the State evidence of solvency and sufficient capitalization.
Regular official inspection and Supervision, with power to revoke
licenses.
A published official list of schools which are legally entitled to
exist.
To keep unfit pupils from entering private commercial schools,
there is need for:
Enforcement of the compulsory education law. Schools enroll-
ing pupils who are under the law, should be required to report the
names of such pupils to the Bureau of Attendance. The Bureau of
Attendance would then determine whether the pupils are being
instructed in conformity to law; and if necessary, could compel their
return to the public schools.
Popular propaganda, directed to parents and public School
children, which will inform them convincingly that the average
eighth-grade pupil is not ready to study Stenography; that success
in any kind of office position is likely to depend upon good academic
preparation; and that the alternative of factory work need not be
shunned, since such work may be both dignified and profitable.
Public school competition, whereby the public schools offer, like
the private schools, a brief vocational extension course for office
training. Such a course, however, should not include stenography
and it should be refused to unsuitable candidates. Parents of chil-
dren thus refused should be informed of the fact and the reason.
Publicity with regard to the proportionate number of pupils who
leave private commercial Schools before graduation. Schools should
be required to send to the State Department of Education, lists of
names of persons entered and graduated within the year.
The better type of business college manager, although
slow, perhaps, to recognize the necessity for regulation and im-
provement, has not been entirely lacking in such thinking. An
organization which has in it the possibility of great good in this
connection, if it conscientiously carries out a program of im-
provement, is the National Association of Accredited Commer-
cial Schools.
This Association was formed December 12, 1912, in Chicago
with a charter list of twenty-one schools. Regular meetings
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 307
have been held annually since, and a number of special meetings
have been called to consider matters of immediate importance.
Early in 1920 its membership numbered over two hundred
private business schools in the United States and Canada:
The fundamental purpose of the National Association of
Accredited Commercial Schools is the development and maintenance
of better educational standards, first, among its own membership,
and Second, in commercial schools of every class. Better educa-
tional standards will mean greater efficiency on the part of our
graduates, and a stronger demand for their services, an increased
attendance in commercial schools, and more satisfactory standing
among educational institutions of all classes. Incidentally, every
School in the Association will be benefited in a financial way and will
thus be able to offer more to its patrons.
This ASSociation is seeking to educate the general public, and
especially the business community, to an understanding of the fact
that a business education means a definite amount of training along
definite lines for definite purposes. This is being accomplished
through the standardization of courses of study.
The fixing of definite standards for graduation means the length-
ening of the average term of enrollment on account of the premium
that will be placed upon graduation, and further means the better
preparation of the student for the duties that he will assume after
leaving the schoolroom.
The Education Committee offers a list of Accredited texts, to
which list have been admitted only those books that are modern,
practical, teachable, Scholarly and fully in keeping with the spirit of
progress.
Tuition is made transferable upon an equitable basis which will
be explained to anyone interested.
The Association conducts every summer a training school for
Commercial teachers. Special attention is paid to the psychology
and pedagogy of the commercial subjects. Teachers in this training
school are available first to members of the Association and after-
wards to anyone who may wish to employ them.
A Universal Employment Department is maintained in which a
graduate of any Accredited School is entitled to membership. That
* The statements here quoted are from pamphlets issued by the au-
thority of the Board of Governors of the National Association of Accredited
Commercial Schools.
308 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
is to say, the graduate of a school in Denver would receive free the
best services of the employment department of a school in New York,
should he desire it. -
The members of the Association are required to maintain the
highest possible business standards in their relation with the general
public, and with their students, and every school is required to sub-
Scribe definitely to the standards of practice herein set forth.
Each member of the Association is entitled to use the Associa-
tion emblem upon his advertising matter, stationery, diplomas, etc.
This Association is definitely pledged to use its best efforts to
eliminate from the school field irresponsible institutions that have
neither educational ideals nor moral standards, and are organized
merely to prey upon the credulity of the people. This Association
Condemns the indiscriminate guaranteeing of positions, inadequate
tuition rates, short, incomplete courses, and misleading representa-
tions, whether in direct Solicitation or in general advertising.
This Association will actively prosecute whenever possible under
the Fraudulent Advertising Act, schools that can be shown to be
using fraudulent, misleading advertising, or advertising methods that
are condemned by the Fraudulent Advertising Act. -
The National Association of Accredited Commercial Schools
extends to every school in the United States that is willing to assist
in the consummation of the purposes herein set out, and will measure
up to the requirements for membership, a cordial invitation to ally
itself with this movement for better conditions in the field of business
education. -
“STANDARDS OF PRACTICE"
The following “Standards of Practice” were adapted at the
1914 annual meeting of the National Association of Accredited
Commercial Schools, and is submitted as the creed to which
every applicant for membership in the organization must
definitely subscribe before the institution can be favorably con-
sidered for membership:
The members of this association are definitely committed to the
general policy of effecting an immediate betterment of the individual
Schools of the Association, to the end that the whole system of private
commercial education in the United States may be improved, and
may be placed in a more favorable light as a necessary part of the
educational machinery of our country.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 3O9
For the purpose of accomplishing the objects herein set out,
each member of this organization will:
1. Maintain in his own institution such policies and practices
as will in his community and elsewhere reflect credit upon the cause
of business education.
2. Pay his legitimate debts promptly and in a business-like
Iſlá.I]IléI’. * -
3. Follow in his business relations with his students and with
the general public those standards of business procedure and honor
that prevail in the best business houses.
4. Provide the very best quarters and equipment for his school
that his income will allow, or that the Fducation Committee of this
ASSociation may recommend. - -
5. Install and Support the standard courses of study as pro-
mulgated by this Association. . .
6. Select and teach texts that are included in the accredited list
of the Association. -
7. Avoid exaggeration of every kind in every form of advertising.
8. Make no misleading statements or misrepresentations of any
kind, either in person or through any agency. -
9. Deal fairly and in a dignified manner with all classes of
competition.
Io. Cultivate within the school itself and in its community the
highest possible moral standards.
II. Refuse either directly or indirectly to guarantee positions
to prospective students and to make no statements regarding prospec-
tive employment that are not fully corroborated by the experience
of the school.
12. Report promptly to the proper officer of the Association any
violation of the ethics of the profession, as understood by this Associa-
tion, whether these violations occur within or without the membership
of the Association. !
13. Each member agrees to submit to a board of arbitrators to
be appointed by the president any difficulty or disagreement that
may arise as between himself and any other member of the Associa-
tion, and further agrees to abide by such decision and to carry into
effect such provisions or requirements as may by Said board be
prescribed.
14. Each member of this Association shall be one whose char-
acter and reputation are above reproach, and who shall so order his
31O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
general conduct as to entitle him to be regarded as a suitable person
to direct the education and moral development of the young people
in his institution.
THE MERITS OF THE MODERN BUSINESS COLLEGE
The values to be found in private commercial schools of
better grade and the advantages which they offer for certain
forms of work are thus set forth by the proprietor of a pro-
gressive school:
Many factors have contributed to the changes which have taken
place or are now occurring in private business Schools. A most
important factor is the breakdown of the social prejudice which for
so long kept the better-educated, better-bred women from the business
office. The war dealt a smashing blow at this prejudice, but there had
been a steady, if gradual, change in sentiment in this regard for a long
time previous to that. Also the demands of business men have
become more and more exacting, and with the advent of competition
in the form of free public-school commercial courses, the private
school proprietor has had to raise his requirements and improve
the quality of his output.
It is, then, this modern type of business school whose existence
I am justifying. For the inefficient school I hold no brief; the sooner
such Schools fail and disappear (as they will fail and disappear) the
better for everyone.
In the first place, the private business school has real value as a
stimulus to the work of the public school. Just as much of the
inefficiency of the old time business college can be traced to the lack
of public school competition, so would the public school commercial
course lose much of its efficiency if private School competition were
entirely removed.
In the next place, I believe that there is a keener personal interest
in the student in the private business school. That this may be from
a selfish motive does not lessen the value to the student, particularly
the somewhat backward student, of this keener interest. The private
business college cannot afford to have failures; its success depends
upon the success of its students, because it could not exist and make a
profit if it did not get the majority of its students through voluntary
recommendations of its graduates. This means that there cannot be
* This statement was prepared by Paul Moser, of the Moser Shorthand
College of Chicago.
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 3II
a certain percentage of failures as in the public school, but that each
student whose tuition has been accepted and retained must be made
capable of holding a position, and that the teacher must devote the
time to each student that will make this possible.
The private business school is more responsive to the demands
of the business man and is more closely in touch with the actual
requirements of business. This contact comes through the place-
ment bureau of the business college. Even though the reputable
business college will not “guarantee a position,” the fact remains that
the graduate looks to the school for a position and that the well-
placed graduate is the school's most loyal advertiser. The business
college manager soon hears either from the business man himself
or from the graduate who has failed to make good in what respect
the student was deficient and can take effective measures to bolster
up the weak spots in his curriculum. In the public school, on the
other hand, even where placement work is done, there is no obliga-
tion to place the student. It is simply something extra that may or
may not be done, and in many cases the placement work is done in a
central office which may never have been in contact with the student
and knows nothing of his fitness for a particular position.
The well-run business college has more of the practical atmosphere
of the office than the high school, and this has a marked influence to
give the student a businesslike viewpoint and poise.
There are minor practical advantages that the business college
has over the public schools. Its work is more individually planned,
permitting enrolment at frequent intervals, whereas the public.
school curriculum is on the semester basis. The brighter, more
ambitious student has more opportunity to forge ahead in the business
college because classes are not as rigidly kept together as in public-
school courses.
Personally I believe that it is worthy of consideration as to
whether high-school commercial courses have not been growing too
rapidly. There is a grave danger that such work will be started too
Soon in the student’s high-school course; that the foundation and
cultural courses will be neglected, and that in consequence the
student’s educational background will be insufficient.
THE RóIE OF THE BUSINESS COLLEGE
The private commercial school remains largely as it began, an
institution concerned with doing the immediate thing. The
3I2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
interests of business-college managers do not, and probably can-
not ever, lie in education of a fundamental sort. This is no criti-
cism of the business college. The business college should not
undertake training of a fundamental sort. The relation between
the student's gain and his expenditure is remote when he buys
fundamental education. Therefore the private school with a
Commercial-College tradition cannot supply such education suc-
cessfully. That task must be undertaken by other institutions.
The business College, however, has an important and useful
part to play in the general Scheme of education.
As a training-School in the technique of office practice, where
its pupils have had a proper educational basis, it is doubtful if
the business college has ever been surpassed or even equaled.
If these institutions could be so regulated that they did not
draw to themselves a great number of persons at an age when
there is no justification for their being trained in technique, and
if the general features of building and equipment could be pub-
licly supervised, it seems that they might safely be trusted with
a very large part of the technical office-work trafning which is
now done in other institutions. -
The proper rôle of these schools may vary somewhat with
the size of the community. They have a real place as special-
ists in the offering of technical training, and they have there a
large place.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. Trace the growth in number of business colleges over the eight-
een years indicated in the charts. Try to account for sharp
changes in number of schools. Do the same for the numbers of
students in business colleges.
2. How would you account for the sharp rise in the number of women
taking business-college training between 1916 and 1918 and the
falling off of men?
3. Even since 1900 the number of women in business colleges has
increased more rapidly than the number of men. How would
you account for this fact? -
4. What was President James's appraisal of the business college in
1890 ° How much had President James's opinion changed by
I904?
THE BUSINESS COLLEGE 3I3
IO.
II.
I2.
I3.
I4.
I5.
I6.
. List the characteristics of the business college which were pointed
out by the Chicago City Club. How far do these fit in with
your experience with business colleges? List under the headings
“Favorable,” “Adverse,” the characteristics of the business col-
lege as given by the Chicago City Club. - .
. Why should the Chicago City Club object to business-college -
solicitation of pupils? Isn't this merely “going after business”?
. List under two headings, “Favorable” and “Adverse,” the
characteristics of the business college brought out in the New
York survey.
. What is the median enrolment of the 890 private commercial
schools discussed by the Bureau of Education in the report
quoted? What is the average enrolment?
. What types of work are offered in the modern business college?
How do numbers in evening courses compare with numbers in
day courses in the modern business college? -
What courses are offered in the modern business college? How
does the enrolment compare in each P What ones show the
most growth in recent years? +
From a study of the charges made by business colleges, what
would you say is the principle that underlies their rates? Are
the charges fairly uniform P. How would you account for the
variations? How do charges vary for different types of courses?
What is your judgment of the fairness of these charges?
How might registration by the State Board of Education of
certain business colleges as “approved” tend to raise the stand-
ards of this type of education ? What is the weakness of this form
of control? What are Miss Stevens’ ideas of what is needed
“to make private schools Safe” P Comment on each of them.
What is the National Association of Accredited Commercial
Schools? What advantages might accrue to a School from joining
this Association ? What steps has this organization apparently
taken to improve the standards of the private commercial School?
Will the forces which Moser believes have brought about “the
modern business college” destroy the undesirable ones and com-
pel high standards from those that survive? i.
Would you favor a law forbidding business Colleges to register
students who were not eighth-grade graduates? High-school
graduates? -
What seems to you the rôle or place of the business college in a
planned scheme of education for business?
CHAPTER XII
PRIVATE COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE
AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
In general, private business Schools other than the business
college are of two classes: the correspondence school and the
private School which offers business training of a more or less
advanced character. The Second of these has been, perhaps
entirely, an outgrowth of the collegiate school of business
movement. Individuals have set up schools to imitate the work
done by collegiate schools of business and have offered in many
cases a semblance and, in Some instances probably, a reality of
collegiate business training.
Semi-charitable organizations such as the Y.M.C.A. have
reached into this field. They have not limited their activities
to college type of training, but have offered business training
of almost every grade and kind. In many ways these schools
are quite comparable to the better type of private school, and
one example, Y.M.C.A. schools, therefore, will be given some
attention here as an illustration of this form of School in general.
The correspondence school is an older institution and had
developed in one or two cases a fairly advanced form of training
for business before the collegiate school of business movement
came into full flower. On the other hand, once the Collegiate
school of business did develop, the growth of correspondence
schools was stimulated by the opening of this new field of
education and the organization of new material through the
energy of the universities.
Although no attempt will be made in this chapter to make
an exhaustive treatment either of private business schools or
of correspondence Schools, enough data will be presented to
give the reader a picture of these institutions and a basis for
judgment in attempting to place them in a specialized scheme
of education.
31.4
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 315
ORIGIN OF Y.M.C.A. EDUCATION
As recently as 1909 the United States Bureau of Education
made an investigation of the work of the Y.M.C.A. in the educa-
tional field:
At the time when the first Young Men's Christian Associations
in North America were organized in 1851, at Montreal and Boston,
there appears to have been little thought of including a definite.
educational program in the work of these associations.
In 1889, the International Convention, for the first time, indorsed
educational work as a function of the association. The subject had
also been discussed for several years previously at state conventions.
In 1893, the International Committee established a department of
education with George B. Hodge as senior secretary. This depart-
ment was made responsible for the studying of the fundamental
principles of the work and for gathering data from the various associ-
ations on which suggestions for development could be made.
In 1900 there began a period of expansion and extension. In-
stead of the class work being limited to the winter time, such instruc-
tion was continued throughout the spring. Day work was also intro-
duced, and summer schools for boys were organized to Supplement
the work of the public schools. Special schools, such as automobile,
Salesmanship, advertising, insurance, real estate, textile designing,
plumbing, fruit culture, and many others were established. The
educational program of the association was also extended into fields
outside the building.
There was a steady increase in the number of associations employ-
ing educational secretaries. To some extent, supervision from State
committees was inaugurated. Higher standards of instruction were
established. The years from 1900 to 1915 witnessed a remarkable
growth of the association educational work, as exhibited by the
statistical data shown on page 316. -
Since 1916, the educational work of the associations has continued
along lines that have become recognized as standard.
The particular function of the association, through its educational
service, has been to furnish and to make easily accessible to men and
boys, mainly those in industry, such courses of instruction as would
* Adapted by permission from William Orr, senior educational Secretary
of the International Committee, Educational Work of the Young Men's
Christian Associations, 1916–1918, pp. 3–6. U.S. Bureau of Education,
Bulletin No. 53, 1919.
316 - EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
enable them to become better citizens and workmen. It is significant
that even at the very outset of the educational work, this purpose
appears in the courses in ancient languages intended to aid men pre-
paring for the ministry. While such subjects as these no longer
appear in the programs of instruction, the vocational aim has con-
tinued to dominate.
TABLE XXIX

IQOI I915
Number of lectures and talks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, O4. I I4,819
Educational club members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,618 26,700
Number of associations with educational secretaries 2I 84
Number of paid teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90I 2,592
Total different students, day and evening. . . . . . . . . 26,906 83, 77 I
Number of international certificates won. . . . . . . . . I, 532 2, 24O
Students in association day courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 8, O31
Students outside building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35o 22,653
Expense of advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $12,607 || $81,772
Tuition receipts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $48, Ooo || $814, O24
In business education, especially, has the Y.M.C.A. de-
veloped of recent years, and in the larger cities it now offers
a course quite comparable to that of many collegiate schools of
business. The work of such a school in the business educational
Scheme is thus described by the Chicago director."
The national headquarters of the United Y.M.C.A. Schools,
representing a federation of the local Y.M.C.A. Schools, announced a
total enrollment for the school year 1920–21 of over 120,000 students
in day and evening classes and over 20,000 students in extension
or home study courses. Of this number it is estimated that 50 per
cent of these students were enrolled in business courses of various kinds.
. . . In the development of the program of strictly business education
most of the Y.M.C.A. Schools have followed the usual classification
of secondary and collegiate grade courses. In the Secondary field
an attempt has been made to design courses especially to fit the needs
of boys and young men which is in contrast with the business Courses
in most of our high schools and business colleges which have been
adapted to a considerable degree to the needs of young women.
In the field of collegiate business education the trend has been
toward the development of standard Schools of Commerce of recog-
* A statement prepared by H. C. Daines, director, Central Y.M.C.A.
Schools, Chicago, May, 1922. & 8
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 317
\
nized standing. The courses which have been offered have been
announced to meet the general and specialized needs of the employed
man. While the courses have been designed on the assumption
that a man has had at least a high School education, registration has
been open to mature business men, not high School graduates, who
show evidence of being able to profitably pursue the course. This is
in accordance with the precedent of well established universities.
A program of business education approved by the Board of
Governors of the United Y.M.C.A. Schools provides for the develop-
ment of five four-year standard curricula in Production, Accountancy,
Banking and Finance, Marketing, and Business Administration.
Special commissions have been working on each of these curricula
and many of the Schools of Commerce in our larger cities have very
elaborate courses of study set up paralleling that of the well estab-
lished evening university schools of commerce. Two year certificate
courses are offered in Real Estate, Credit Management, Foreign
Trade, Employment Management, Insurance, Traffic Management,
and Purchasing.
These various curricula are made up of one semester and two
semester unit courses which may be entered by men who are unable
to take the more complete courses. Many of our Schools of Com-
merce are granting the degrees of Bachelor of Commercial Science
and Master of Commercial Science. Some of these schools have
distinctive university and collegiate names. The aim in all of these
schools is to offer exceptionally practical training adapted to the need
of the employed man. Many of the instructors in these schools are
prominent business men who are willing to teach one or two evenings
a week but who could not be induced to accept a regular full time
teaching position in a university.
Through the headquarters of the United Y.M.C.A. Schools in
New York City a number of texts have been published especially
adapted to the needs of the mature student and to night school meth-
ods of instruction.
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
The beginnings of correspondence schools, and something of
the relation between the correspondence-school movement and
the universities, are well stated in the following paragraphs:
* Adapted by permission from Frank H. Palmer, “Correspondence
Schools,” Education, XXXI (September, 1910), 47–48. The Palmer Com-
pany, Publishers.
318 EDLJCATION FOR BUSINESS
Instruction by correspondence is an outgrowth of the university
extension movement which originated in England in 1868. Societies
were formed in that Country for the encouragement of home study,
and plans or outlines were prepared to guide the reading of those who
became interested. In 1873 the idea crossed the water and a similar
Society was formed in Boston which added correspondence with its
members as an integral part of its plan. Ten years later a “Corre-
spondence University” was formed in New York state with head-
quarters at Ithaca, with a board of instructors from different colleges
and universities. It offered at low cost helpful instruction by corre-
spondence to Such persons as could not leave their homes for attendance
at established institutions of learning. The Chautauqua movement
Soon followed and became very popular throughout the country.
The late Dr. William R. Harper, on assuming the presidency of the
University of Chicago at its establishment in 1892, endorsed the
method and made it a part of the work of the University as a Cor-
respondence Division of the University Extension' Department.
From the first the movement has had the co-operation and support
of the colleges and universities, many of the professors in which have
been the instructors in the various courses offered by the correspond-
ence schools. There are said to be now over two hundred such
Schools in the United States. One of the largest of these, the Inter-
national Correspondence Schools of Scranton, Penn., claims to have
enrolled in the twenty years of its existence 1,281,800 names. It has
about five hundred instructors and furnishes instruction in 203
subjects.
The modern correspondence school.—The modern corre-
spondence School is a thing of almost infinite variety. A de-
scription of its varied forms, as well as an attempt to classify
the various forms, has thus been made:
The courses [of modern correspondence schools] cover nearly
every known human activity ranging from raising poultry to training
engineers. They include instruction in accounting, law, electrical
engineering, meter engineering, signal engineering, wireless operating,
automobile driving and repairing, lettering and designing, drawing
and cartooning, drafting, advertising and selling, public-speaking,
* Adapted by permission from Lee Galloway, “Correspondence School
Instruction by Non-Academic Institutions,” Annals of the American Acad-
emy, LXVII (September, 1916, New Possibilities in Education), pp. 202-9.
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 3I9
watch repairing, executive management, English and even ventrilo-
quism. A person may be made into a traffic inspector, a detective
or a musician—all by mail.
EXTENT OF INFLUENCE
The best measure of the influence of these schools is the number
of students enrolled and the amount of money spent in preparing
the courses of instruction as well as in advertising them. One school
offering four main courses—accounting, law, traffic management and
business administration—has enrolled 90,000 students. A cor-
respondence law school has put 40,000 enrollments upon its records
within the last five years, while another school offering a general
business course for executives has enrolled over 40,000 within
approximately the same time. Even those schools which appeal
to the narrower fields of highly specialized activities such as music,
credits and collections and so on, show a wide influence. Over
260,000 persons have received instruction from one school teaching
music by mail since its establishment twenty years ago, while the
active list that follows the weekly lessons never falls below 10,000
students.
In the same length of time, a school of design and lettering has
enrolled 9,455 students, and a correspondence collection school has
enrolled 7,236 in about ten years. Even a highly specialized field,
that of investments, has enabled one school to keep up an average
yearly enrollment of I2O. Within the first five years of its history
the Alexander Hamilton Institute enrolled over 40,000 men whose
average age is thirty-two years and whose average income is over
$2,700 a year.
VARIETIES OF CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
Classified according to the nature of instruction offered, corre-
spondence schools fall into three groups:
I. Schools offering general training in fundamental subjects such
as the Home Correspondence School.
2. Schools offering specialized technical training, such as the
Blackstone Institute for law, Pace and Pace for accounting and the
American Collection Service. -
3. Schools offering general commercial training, such as the
Alexander Hamilton Institute, the American School of Correspond-
ence and the La Salle Institute,
32O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Perhaps a more significant classification is one based on the
character of the ownership and control. Here again we find three
types as follows:
I. Public correspondence schools—those connected with uni-
versities (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Chicago).
2. Private—such as described above.
3. Quasi-public—such as the National Commercial Gas Associ-
ation and the American Institute of Banking,
The text and lesson material varies from school to school. The
larger and more prominent ones put out texts of real educational
merit. They differ from the regular school or college texts in that
the diction is extremely simple, explanations are very elaborate and
truisms are never omitted. -
Can an institution which is in the field for profit be relied upon
to give proper attention to those phases of education which do not
yield a profit in dollars and cents?
Good business policy demands that the interests of the consumer
stand first. In the case of the correspondence Schools a violation of
this principle has brought about more than one recent failure just
as it did in the case of many large merchandizing establishments of
recent memory. It is not a question of inherent differences between
the commercial and educational elements in the composition of a
correspondence school, but the universal problem which faces every
enterprise—the problem of deciding between the long run and the
short run policies of a business. There is plenty of internal evidence
both in the material of instruction and in the organization of the
better schools to prove that the commercial character of the work
does not necessarily interfere with a broad and liberal treatment of
the subjects.
However, one phase of correspondence school activities shows a
tardy development. This is an element which creeps into the adver-
tising of even the best schools. An examination of the advertisements
and circular letters reveals many objectionable features. They
bristle with special scholarships, reduced prices for limited periods,
free offers and the like. It is not that the schools play up their best
and strongest features but the fact that they use the quack's methods
of appealing to men’s weaknesses rather than to their strength and
that their innumerable special offers of scholarships, reduced prices,
etc., are as a matter of fact practically perpetual in one form or
another,
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 32 I
A correspondence school need not be tied to an academic institu-
tion in order to be endowed with high ideals, pure motives and pro-
fessional methods, but there is still a strong prejudice against these
institutions which is based on the practices of the weak and fraudu-
lent Schools which deliberately cater to the delusions of the simple-
minded and by misleading advertisements exploit the gullible public.
Correspondence Schools like the common public schools will grow in
number and influence as the demand, not only for popular education,
increases, but also for a continuous education which lasts far beyond
the “school days” of the active man whether he be mechanic, profes-
sional or business man.
Appraisals of the correspondence school.—The correspondence
School, at least the privately managed one, has its friends and
its foes. There are, as well, those persons who believe that
many of the correspondence Schools are doing a useful work,
believing at the same time that many are guilty of every type
of malpractice and bad advertising conceivable. The more pes-
simistic attitude toward the performance of the private cor-
respondence School is thus expressed."
Though a great deal of incidental good is done in furnishing
‘instruction to ambitious young men, the private correspondence
schools constitute, in the main, a vicious and inefficient system of
education for the following reasons:
(1) Many of them are fraudulent. It is difficult for the post-
office authorities to detect whether or not a concern is doing a legiti-
mate business. By liberal advertising, it is possible for a Company
to reap a harvest before a fraud order can be issued. It is possible,
moreover, for a concern to stay within the letter of the law and yet
exploit its patrons.
(2) The degree of efficiency, even among the technically honest
firms, is not high. A staff of ill-paid clerks is generally employed at
answering letters and replying to questions. Even though the work
is standardized, these people cannot furnish complete and accurate
information or high-grade instruction. -
(3) The charges for tuition are too high. The fees per course
vary from $20 upwards, the average charge by the International
* Adapted by permission fromaPaul H. Douglas, American Apprentice-
ship and Industrial Education, pp. 24ro. New York: I.ongmans, Green
& Co., 1921. * .
322 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Correspondence Schools being $75. This constitutes a severe drain
upon a poor man's resources, and their collection is only possible be-
cause they are paid in installments rather than in a lump sum. Were
the tuition fees actually invested in the educational side of the
business, no complaint could of course be made, but such is not the
Cà.S62.
(4) An enormous amount is wasted in competitive advertising
and canvassing. Most of the expenses of a modern Correspondence
school are indeed in the sales and not in the educational department.
One large school claiming an enrollment of 350,000 pupils had twenty
branch offices each with its quota of salesmen and employed in all
over 2,500 people. Only 370 of these were, however, connected with
the educational work! Fifteen per cent of the force was devoted to
the actual instruction itself, while 85 was employed in the administra-
tion and sales side of the business. This indicates a shocking dispro-
portion of energy and resources, and is one that would not exist
under a publicly operated system with the wastes of competition
eliminated.
(5) A further criticism of private correspondence schools is that
only a small percentage ever finish the courses that they begin.
Veiled in secrecy as the records are, only estimates are possible.
The Minnesota Department of Labor Statistics found that less than
one-third of those who began courses in Minneapolis, finished them.
The percentage, for the country, as a whole, of those who complete
their course is probably even less. The Canadian Commission on
'?'echnical Education declared it to be as low as 5 or Io per cent.
(6) Finally, correspondence school courses, even at their best,
are a decidedly unsatisfactory means of education and should be used
only as a last resort. The instruction lacks personal touch, there is
an inevitable delay in replying to questions which is generally at least
as long as a week, and sometimes a fortnight or a month. This robs
the study of much of its interest and the student soon loses heart
and generally drops out. These Schools cannot be called a Solution,
in any real sense, of the problem of industrial education.
The huge numbers who have sought further technical education
at their hands is, however, adequate proof of the fact that the present
educational system of the country has failed to meet the need of the
times. Because of the lack of a better system, men have turned to
privately managed schools both at long and short range to Secure
the training that they have needed.
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 323
A more optimistic view of the performance, as well as the
possibilities of the correspondence school, is the following state-
ment of Mr. A. M. Simons."
The most prominent characteristic of correspondence school
work, to the outsider at least and especially to the person who has
been accustomed to the atmosphere of the conventional school, is its
frank, commercial outlook.
A correspondence school teaches to make money. This fact
carries with it a large number of handicaps, as its managers are
continuously reminded. It has some advantages, however. Its
appeal speaks a language that is understood in every field of industry.
The person who has had a long experience in business grows suspicious
of anyone who wishes to do anything for him for nothing. He always
fears that before they have finished, they are not only going to “do
him good,” but also “plenty.” When the correspondence school
makes its appeal on the ground that it can make money by teaching
someone else how to increase his income, it is speaking the most
familiar language in the business world today.
It gets its students by familiar business methods. The fact that
it spends a large percentage of the money received from a student
in advertising, is urged as proof that its methods are wasteful. The
defenders of advertising have long ago furnished with it a reply which
it seems is more justifiable as applying to the correspondence School
than to almost any other field.
The sums spent in advertising education are, in part at least,
spent in educating people to the need of education. Selling education
to the general public is not an easy task. Teaching a person that he
needs a certain line of training may be as essential a part of his
education as the training which he purchases, and there is certainly
Some justice in making the student pay for his education all along
the line.
When the correspondence school enters the field of business, it
has certain peculiar advantages in competing for the favor of those
seeking education. Whether these advantages are all desirable or
not, I shall not argue, because I am not either defending, indicting,
or praising correspondence schools, but only describing the reasons
why, in a nation filled with free educational institutions, they are able
* A statement prepared by A. M. Simons, director of Foremanship
Training, American School, April, 1922.
324. EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
to find a place and Secure the patronage of hundreds of thousands
of the brightest young people in industry. . . .
The correspondence school has few or no traditions. There are
some who would say it has no standards. But many times it will
be found that the same thing is meant in both cases, and the indict-
ment is not so strong as it sounds. -
The residence school, especially if supported by public money,
by endowments, or through public Solicitation of funds, must main-
tain scholastic traditions often running back through centuries. It
cannot afford to experiment. It must always think of its traditions,
Now business, and especially mechanical industry, is a field in
which the greatest rewards frequently go to those most willing and
able to break traditions. Industry grows by discovery, invention,
and the hunting out of new ways to do things. t
The correspondence school can keep pace with this. If a new
occupation, like employment management, wireless operation, or
automobile construction appears, it can at Once adjust its curriculum
to meet the emergency. For, while it is constantly trying to sell
education to new customers, it is equally diligent to find out what
those customers want. It can move into a new field instantly. Its
test of whether the new field is educationally desirable (it must be
frankly admitted) is the business test: “does it pay?” Are there
enough persons who desire training in the new field to Support the
educational facilities? It can expand instantly to meet a new demand
and contract its forces almost as quickly.
The correspondence school is always in session. It is ready to
offer facilities whenever a period of idleness, a sudden impulse and de-
sire for change, a hope of promotion, or any of the other multitude of
motives that impel people in the industrial world to seek an education,
chance to arise in the individual. It fits into odd spells, into vacant
places in educational equipment, into all ordinary relations of life,
without seriously disturbing any of them. It is especially suitable
to the industrial worker, in that it adjusts itself to his existing knowl-
edge and methods of education. He has learned something by
experience on the job. He is learning more as he works. He has,
perhaps, developed trade skills to a high degree, but he is still lacking
in the intellectual background and wider relations which are coming
more and more to be considered as essential to promotion. The -
correspondence school comes forward supplementing all of his existing
knowledge and duplicating none of it, since he is perfectly at liberty
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 325
to move as swiftly as he wishes over that which he already knows and
to dally as long as he pleases over the portions which suit his purposes.
A further reason of great importance, which is seldom realized, is
the privacy furnished. Most of the students of correspondence
Schools are adults, or approaching that stage. They are usually
seeking to fill in a gap in their knowledge which they have only dis-
covered when confronted with its need. Frequently the discovery of
this gap by Someone else might cost them financial loss and personal
discomfort. To attend a residence school is to confess their ignorance
and to advertise it, perhaps, to the very people from whom they wish
to conceal it. -
A great many preachers and grade School principals are taking
a high school course with a school with which I am familiar. The
preacher naturally feels that if his congregation knew that he were
taking such a course, their respect for him would fall. He may be mis-
taken, and if right the congregation may be blamed, but he prefers
to acquire the knowledge quietly rather than test their opinion.
The teacher who is keeping ahead of his class by correspondence
work has the same feeling in an even more intensive degree.
In industry perhaps the most frequent reason for taking a corre-
spondence course is to be in line for promotion to some position already
fixed upon. It requires very little knowledge of office politics to
know that there are plenty of instances in which, if a superior knew
that a subordinate had picked upon the very job held by the said
superior, there would be trouble.
Of course, these things may all be wrong, but I think no one will
deny that they exist and are a part of the things that must be con-
sidered in planning a practical educational program.
It is indeed difficult to assign a place to the correspondence
school alongside of a group of other specialized institutions, each
striving to do its part in a program. If all of the other institu-
tions now in existence did their job thoroughly, the correspond-
ence schoolwould probably have little place. Its success is rather
the outgrowth of the defects and limitations of the public
and private educational system. Its greatest usefulness is to
fit into those chinks left in the building done by other institu-
tions. Add to the fact that its infinite variety of offerings make
possible some filling for almost any chink, the fact that the filling
can be done at almost any time, and there is much to be said
326 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
for the usefulness of the honest and well-managed correspond.
ence school.
On the other hand, there is in the correspondence-school
situation every possibility for exploitation which is to be found
in the position of the private business college. It has in it all
of those possibilities, aggravated by the fact that it deals
impersonally and at long range, and with many who are less
informed even than the youthful clients of the business college.
There seems no doubt that the sale of education is as proper
field for an increased amount of public regulation. Unregulated
exchange is based on the assumption that the parties deal on
something approximating equality. In the Sale of education,
however, there is, in the very essence of the situation, a frank
admission that there is no such parity. One is informed, the
other is uninformed, and few situations can give a greater oppor-
tunity for exploitation than this. In the circumstances it is
quite in keeping with the legal theory of fiduciary relationships
to throw upon correspondence Schools and other private educa-
tional institutions a degree of responsibility which does not now
exist and to surround them with an amount of legal regulation
which will smother, those taking advantage of an innocent
patronage.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. The business college has its counterpart in the field of collegiate
business work. Give a number of examples of private schools
which illustrate this statement.
2. The correspondence Schools are much older than the private coi-
legiate school of business. How would you explain this fact?
3. In very few instances, perhaps in none, have business colleges
grown into private business schools of collegiate grade. How
would you explain this fact? -
4. The Y.M.C.A. School of commerce may be studied as an example
of the private school of business of collegiate grade. In what ways
is this illustration satisfactory P. In what ways unsatisfactory P
5. Private business schools of collegiate grade have reason to keep
their courses of a more practical and a more immediately useful
nature than do university schools of business. Why is this true?
COMMERCE AND CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS 327
. Private collegiate business schools have the double problem of
developing an organized curriculum extending over a period of
years, and also of planning short unit courses. What object have
they in each of these types of courses? Give an example of each
type of work.
. Trace briefly the history of correspondence work. What criticisms
or comments can you make on the classification of the correspond-
ence schools given in the text? Make an appraisal of each of the
appraisals of the correspondence Schools given in the text.
. Is there a justifiable place for such schools as that illustrated by
the Y.M.C.A. school of commerce? If so, make out a statement
or series of statements indicating what you believe that place to be.
. Is there a place in business education for the correspondence
school P. If so, work out a statement or series of statements of
what you believe to be the place of Such Schools.
CHAPTER XIII
THE CORPORATION SCHOOLI
A corporation school is a school operated by a business
enterprise (usually by a corporation) to train people for its own
uses and as a part of its business operations. There is little
to be gained by attempting to relate the corporation school
to medieval apprenticeship or even to the industrial technical
School movement. The corporation school is the offspring of
large-scale industry and concentrated control rather than of
educational forbears. -
It appears to be generally believed that the earliest corpora-
tion school in America was that founded by the R. Hoe Printing
Press Company of New York in the early seventies.” Not
before 1905 did the movement attain any swing, but since that
time it has been rapid and of an increasingly substantial charac-
ter.” The corporation school movement was so well developed
and So clearly recognized by 1913 that on January 24 of that
year the representatives of forty-eight establishments maintain-
ing Corporation schools met in New York City and organized
the National Association of Corporation Schools. By vote of
the Executive Committee, August 17, 1920, the name of the
Organization was changed to the National Association of Cor-
poration Training." The latest Proceedings available (June,
* This chapter is for the most part adapted from an article by the
author, “The Corporation School and Its Place in a Scheme of Business
Education,” Journal of Political Economy, November, 1921. The chief
Sources of the data are the Proceedings of the Annual Conventions and the
Bulletins of the National Association of Corporation Training.
* The opinion that the first apprenticeship school maintained by a
business corporation was that established by the Chaix Printing Company
of Paris, in 1863, is expressed by A. J. Beatty in his Corporation Schools
(Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill., 1918), pp. 42-43.
3 No doubt some of the impetus given by the war will prove unlasting.
4 Bulletin of the National Association of Corporation Training, September,
1920, p. 391. The National Association of Corporation Schools has recently
been succeeded by the National Personnel Association.
328
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 320
1921) reports 131 Class A members. The year preceding there
were 147 such members. Since that first meeting this organiza-
tion has held conventions annually. At these meetings the
various problems connected with corporation schools have been
discussed at length.
The purposes of this association are set forth in each report
of the annual conventions to be the following: (1) to develop the
efficiency of the individual employee; (2) to increase efficiency
in industry; (3) to influence courses of established educational
institutions more favorably toward industry.
The National Association of Corporation Training has
grown in size with Succeeding years, has organized committees
dealing with the various phases of Corporation school work, and
has made the varied and Scattered facts concerning corporation
schools of the United States fairly available. Monthly bulletins
are issued by the association and the proceedings of its annual
conventions are published.
TYPES OF CORPORATION SCHOOLS
While corporation schools differ infinitely in detail there are
six definite and distinct types which are recognized by the litera-
ture of the National Association of Corporation. Training.
These are: (1) special training schools, (2) trade apprenticeship
schools; (3) office-work Schools; (4) advertising, selling, and
distribution Schools; (5) retail Salesmanship Schools; (6) schools
for unskilled labor; some of these types have important sub-
divisions. Concerning the Special training Schools, for instance,
the National Association’s committee, which undertook a clas-
sification, reported:
Each school has an individuality which reflects the individuality
of the business and the officials controlling it. By overlooking minor
details of organization and retaining only the most general character-
* The classification and illustrations of special training schools which
follow are collected and adapted from the Proceedings of the Fourth Annual
Convention of the National Association of Corporation Schools, pp. 88–128.
In many cases, as in the quotation, the exact phrasing of the report is used.
The names of firms listed as using one or another of the types of training
courses are taken from the same sources.
33O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
istics as the basis of classification we are able to crowd all the various
Special training Schools into five fairly well defined groups or types
of schools.
There is probably no single school which can be said to fit
perfectly into the group to which it is assigned. Broadly
Speaking, the various types of special training schools may be
fairly well characterized as follows:
TYPE I. Company Business---Study Courses (non-productive)
Plan No. 1.--For new employees
Plan No. 2 –For old employees
TYPE II. Company Business---Study and Practice Courses (partly
productive)
Plan No. 3—For new employees
Plan No. 4—For old employees
TYPE III. Company Business—Work Courses (productive)
Plan No. 5—For new employees
Plan No. 6—For old employees
TYPE IV. Company Continuation Schools
Plan No. 7–Day continuation courses (partly produc-
tive, partly general study classes; on company time;
for new or old employees)
Plan No. 8–Evening continuation courses (general and
Special study classes; on student’s time; any employee)
Plan No. 9---Correspondence continuation courses
(general and specific subjects; on student’s time)
TYPE V. Public or Private Continuation Schools—-Co-operative
Plan No. 10–Co-operative plan (part work and part
School course)
A. TYPE I. COMPANY BUSINESS-STUDY COURSES
The distinguishing feature is the fact that the student em-
ployee spends all of his time in studying, not being expected to
do any productive work during the period of training. It is
designed to get definite results and get them quickly.
PLAN NO. I. FOR NEW EMPI.OYEES
Purpose.—(a) to teach specific duties; or (b) to give a broad
knowledge of the business—that is, its organization, policies, products,
methods, plant, and personnel.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 33 I
Characteristic features.—Student’s time entirely non-productive;
students are selected by the company; attendance is Compulsory;
attendance is on company time; students receive pay while taking
the course; length of course comparatively short, usually a few weeks;
students are grouped at or sent to the most convenient place for
instruction; small groups, intensive instruction.
Students.-Plan is adaptable to students whose previous educa-
tion varies from uncompleted grammar school to high school, technical
school, or college, or their equivalent.
Educational methods.—Definite plan and outline for entire course
COII liſłOI).
3. PLAN NO. 2. FOR OLD EMPLOYEES
Purpose.—Usually to broaden knowledge of a business as a whole.
(Methods similar to Plan I.) Among other companies which have
sometime reported using this type of special training school are:
the Addressograph Company, the American Steel and Wire Com-
pany, the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad and the United Cigar Stores.
B. TYPE II. COMPANY BUSINESS——STUDY AND PRACTICE
COURSES
In this type of training there is less emphasis on study and
more on experience in working departments. The proportion
varies a great deal. In some the time on study-work is but a
small percentage of the total time, while in others as much as
half is spent on the study and instruction work. The student
is expected to do some productive work, which is a factor in keep-
ing down the cost of giving the training. In general, these
courses are longer than those of the first type. The ultimate
purpose is properly to prepare students of marked ability for
responsible positions on the executive or technical staff of the
Company.
PLAN NO. 3. STUDY AND PRACTICE COURSE—FOR NEW EMPLOYEES
Purpose.—To give an insight into a business as a whole.
Students.-Under this plan most of the new employees are college-
trained men, or men of equivalent maturity and training, Selected
because of their capacity for accepting responsibility after they have
gotten well established in the business.
332 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Educational methods.-Definite plans for entire course; training
department shifts men to give a variety of experience; work assign-
ments chosen on account of their value as experience; talks and
conferences with instructors and company officials; specially pre-
pared work scheduled with notes relating work experience with study
material. - - g *
PLAN NO. 4. STUDY AND PRACTICE COURSES-FOR OLD
EMPLOYEES
[This plan varies from Plan No. 3 primarily in the fact that the
employee’s fitness for certain work is discovered before he is assigned
to the training course, which is intended as an aid in developing the
employee for more responsible work. No emphasis is placed on
previous education—rather on previous success in the company's
work.] Among other companies which have sometime reported using
this type of special training school are: the American Locomotive
Company, the Burroughs Adding Machine Company, the Common-
wealth Edison Company, the Carnegie Steel Company, the General
Electric Company, and the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company.
C. TYPE III. COMPANY BUSINESS—work Cours Es
This type of course omits practically all of the study features
of Type I and emphasizes the varied work feature of Type II.
In general, the training covers a longer time. The demands of
the productive work are the controlling factors.
PLAN No. 5. WORK COURSES FOR NEW EMPLOVEES
Purposes.—Opportunity for practical experience; to maintain a
group of trained men from which some may be selected for more
responsible work; to train employees for more versatility in the
Company’s business. -
Characteristic features.--—Employees’ time is expected to be
entirely productive; no time is given at company’s expense for related
instruction; students are selected by the company; students’ work
entirely similar to other employees; students are assigned to several
departments; no special Supervision is given; student may continue
indefinitely in a department if the production needs demand it.
Students.-New employees; previous education varied.
Educational methods,---Variety of experience; observation of
related work.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 333
PLAN NO. 6. WORK COURSES-FOR OLD EMPLOYEES
[Essentially the same as Plan No. 5, except for modifications to
fit the needs of employees who have already had some experience.
The employee may return to the work which he was doing at the time
of entering the course, or be used as an aid in preparing an old em-
ployee for a new position.j Companies which have sometime reported
using this type of special training include: the American Optical
Company, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, the Cadillac
Motor Company, the Consolidated Gas and Electric Light and Power
Company of Baltimore, R. R. Donnelley & Sons, the Fore River Ship-
building Company, and the Norton & Norton Grinding Company.
D. TYPE IV. COMPANY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS--DAY,
EVENING, AND CORRESPONDENCE
This type of School is marked by a somewhat broader
educational outlook than are Some of the other types, providing
that a very considerable share of the student's time be given to
general education instead of confining him to such work as
promises greater immediate efficiency in a particular position.
Accordingly, we find classes in English, mathematics, his-
tory, civics, geography, Spelling, hygiene, typewriting, short-
hand, sewing, and dressmaking. These are all in addition to a
multitude of subjects directly connected with or related to
specific occupations, such as engineering, drafting, machine
operation, printing, office work, telephone operation, and Sales-
manship. *
PLAN NO. 7. COMPANY DAY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
Purposes.--To aid employees to fit themselves for advancement;
to continue their general education; to increase interest or efficiency
in present work; to discover employees for various lines of work.
Characteristic features.----Students are not selected by company;
attendance is voluntary.
Students.--Any employee who meets the educational require-
ments for the particular subject or grade of work.
Educational methods.--Day classes on company time; or day
classes part on company and part on employee's time; Supervised by
Company educational department or by employees’ organization of
committee; classes meet from one to four times a week; courses vary
334 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
from a few weeks to progressive assignments covering several years;
usually held on company premises; company usually furnishes all
necessary facilities.
PLAN NO. 8. COMPANY EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOL
[Similar to Plan No. 7, except the classes are generally held on
employee’s time with no pay for time so spent. Courses partly self-
supporting; enrolment fee required as guarantee of good faith.
, PLAN No. 9. COMPANY CORRESPONDENCE CONTINUATION
SCHOOL
|Similar to plans No. 7 and No. 8, except that it is designed
primarily to reach by correspondence employees who for one reason
or another cannot be reached through plans No. 7 and No. 8. A new
departure in this field is the organization of courses by associations of
employers and employees.] A list of companies which have sometime
reported using special training course, Type IV, would include:
the American Bridge Company, the American Tobacco Company
the Curtis Publishing Company, the International Harvester Com-
pany, and the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company.
E. TYPE. V. PUBLIC OR PRIVATE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS-
CO-OPERATIVE PLAN
PLAN No. 10. PART work—PART SCHOOL COURSE
[This type is similar to Type II (Study and Practice plans), except
that the study work is done and the administration of the plan is
carried on under the direction of public-school authorities instead of
within the company. -> -
As these features put this class of school in the realm of public
education, it is not taken up here, except to point out that the plan is
depended upon by Some companies to take care of the special educa-
tional work which other companies are doing within their own
organizations.
The expense of instructors is borne by the public while the com-
pany pays the employee for the time spent on productive work and in
Some instances, as at the plant of Swift & Company, in Chicago,
furnishes a schoolroom and equipment.
This type of School is not a corporation school in the strict
sense.]
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 335
The table on page 336 fairly well summarizes the general
features described on page 334.
It may be worth while to illustrate the foregoing general
statements with specific cases. Such illustrations follow.”
TYPE I. COMPANY’s BUSINESS—STUDY COURSES
(NON-PRODUCTIVE)
ADDRESSOGRAPH COMPANY
The training work of the Addressograph Company is confined to
the training of salesmen. There are three classes of this service, sales
Correspondents, advertising men, and branch manager.
Average number of College men employed each year: thirty (not
exclusively college men).
Nature of work after finishing company training: salesmanship.
Training courses given at: home office in Chicago.
Total length of training course: six weeks.
Salary during training: no salary, but expenses may be advanced
upon request up to $15 to $20 per week.
Principal features of training course: first, a thorough mastery
of the Addressograph: Second, a Scientific course in Salesmanship; and
third, introduction into actual selling under the guidance of an expert
Salesman.
Previous education preferred: business administration from
recognized colleges.
TYPE II. STUDY AND PRACTICE COURSE (PARTLY PRODUCTIVE)
MONTGOMERY WARD AND COMPANY
Average number of college men employed each year: fifteen.
Nature of work after finishing company training: executive, or
managerial positions, or accounting, according to ability.
Training Courses given at: Chicago and Kansas City.
Total length of training course: six months.
* Op. cit. Types I, II, III train directly only for the company’s own
business, teaching either the business as a whole or specific duties; Types
IV and V give also general education. A variety of methods for allocating
expense for corporation Schools is also suggested but is too varied for
reproduction here.
* The illustrations of Types I, II, and III are taken from Proceedings of
the Fifth Annual Convention of the National Association of Corporation
Schools, pp. 480–85.
3.

TABLE XXX
TYPES OF SPECIAL TRAINING SCHOOLs”
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
METHOD of INSTRUCTION
; t | | | | | | | |4
Type PLAN | 83 .5 Do .3 |~ : P. | 3 |5 .8
š 3. Day or 3 |For lºw Or Entrance Students whose Time #3 # * : § # 5 # , | }.
Tº 5 Evening e Empl | Requirements Receive 3|E|3| 8 § § § # 3. . . .
O .#4 § Employees Pay P -ºš # 5 || 5 || 3 || 5 || 3 | #f 3
#C 5:5 y É3 |##| | | | | 3 | # ##| 3
- - ºr; B: à |& ºf j : & 1 C |d 2.
I { I Yes Day No New Varies Yes Company X X | X X | . . . . . . . . . X I2
• eNe e = * * * * * 2 Yes Day No Old Satisfactory Service Yes Company X X X | X i. . . . . . . . . . X 6
II { 3 Yes Day Part New - Varies | Yes ; Company X X | X | X | X | X | X 8
.* @ e º & e º 'º e s - * 4 Yes Day Part Qld Satisfactory Service Yes | Company X | X | X | X | X | . . . . X II
III { 5 Yes Day Yes New Varies . | Yes Company . . . . . . . . . X |. . . . . ] I 5
is tº e º 'º - - - - - \ 6 Yes Day Yes Old Efficient Service Yes Company | . . . . . . . . . X i. . . . . . ICP
7 No Day No Varies None | Yes Company X | . . . . . . X | X | . X || 14
IV 8 No Evening No Any None | No | Student's or X | X - - - - - - - e º a X IQ
is e s e º 'º - w - a Employee Half and Half
Q No 1. . . . . . . . . . No I. . . . . . . . . . None No Student’s * * * . . . . . . . . . . X 5
V. . . . . . . . . . f C. No i Day and Part Any None Half time Half and Halfl X. X | X . . . . I8
- Evening Employee
* Member companies maintaining special training schools, 62.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 337
... Salary during training: initial, $15 to $18 per week, depending
upon ability. . - - • * ,
Principal feature of training course: a thorough textbook study
of scientific business management, and practical experience in the
various branches of the business following orders “through” the house
from receipt of the order to the shipment of goods.
Previous education preferred: university graduation or equiva-
lent training; evidence of leadership is highly valued.
TYPE III. COMPANY BUSINESS—work COURSE (PRODUCTIVE)
AMERICAN BRIDGE COMPANY
This company, which engages in bridge building, barge, and other
steel construction, operates plants in New York City and Elmira,
New York; Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Ambridge, Pennsylvania;
Trenton, New Jersey; Edgemoore, Delaware; Canton and Toledo,
Ohio; Gary, Indiana; Chicago, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; Minne-
apolis, Minnesota; and St. Louis, Missouri. -
Average number of college men employed each year: sixty.
Nature of work after finishing Company training: operating,
mechanical engineering, erecting, or construction department work.
Training courses given at: Ambridge and Gary.
Total length of training course: one to two years.
Salary during training: initial, $60 per month; $70 per month
after three to six months.
Principal features of training course: It is preferred that the
graduate students enter the operating department. This shop
experience gives an acquaintance with materials essential for any
employee in any department.
Previous education preferred: civil, mechanical, electrical, or
chemical engineering.
TYPE IV: PLAN No. 7. COMPANY CONTINUATION DAY SCHOOL
R. H. MACY AND COMPANY
. The primary school of R. H. Macy and Company is its continua-
tion school where a rather fundamental knowledge of arithmetic,
spelling, reading, local geography, and hygiene is given. These
subjects are presented in a manner which shows their applicability to
business.
. . From the National Association of Corporation Schools Bulletin, October,
I918, pp. 460-62.
338 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
This school is located one-half block from the store. Here
students of both sexes from fifteen to twenty years of age spend two
hours each morning, from nine to eleven o’clock, except on Mondays.
The duration of the course is three and one-half months, giving each
student about 150 hours of instruction. Two hours each morning are
allowed for study on store time and at store expense.
This course includes several bus trips about town to give the
students a working idea of the city; also it includes talks by store
executives and instructors on current political and business subjects.
Graduation exercises are held at the completion of the course
at which time diplomas, class pins, and prizes for exceptional standing
are awarded by members of the Board of Education and store officials.
After graduation these students are urged to join the Alumni Associa-
tion of the Continuation School which holds monthly meetings for
business and recreational activities.
TYPE IV: PLAN NO. 8. CORPORATION EVENING CONTINUATION
SCHOOLS*
THE BROOKLYN EDISON COMPANY
This Brooklyn Edison Company has had in vogue for about
seven years now the practice of giving the students the choice of any
night school in greater New York which he may desire to attend.
The student pays the tuition fee. If he finishes the course with a
grading of two-thirds, the Brooklyn Edison Company refunds his fee.
About five years ago the Company started their own classes, giving
lectures on electricity and system practice. Now we have five
different courses in electricity to which any member or employee of
the company is admitted on the payment of $10; and if he passes,
this money is refunded. To make sure that any man can get his
money back, we give him 25 per cent for attendance, 25 per cent for
his notebook, and graduate him if he gets 67 per cent. He cannot
fail to get his money back if he keeps on the job. In addition to our
classes there is another feature. We have Pratt Institute, Columbia
University, and any number of classes in private Schools which our
employees can enter if they believe that a course in those schools
will help them with their work. If there are those desiring to enter
these classes, the matter is referred to our educational committee
composed of five department heads, and this committee receives
* Proceedings of the National Association of Corporation Schools, Fifth
Annual Convention, pp. 203-4.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 339
recommendations from the man’s immediate bureau head as to
whether such course of instruction will help him in his work or not.
The work has been carried on for three years now and we are
finishing the students in the public schools; and in our own work, 71
per cent of the people who apply, men and women, get their money
back. The money is taken out weekly, 50 cents to $1 a week, or
higher. I remember that last year we had one man who applied
for $170 worth of tuition. He took some fixed courses, requiring him
to give five nights a week, besides his eight hours a day in the drafting-
room, and he got away with it.
THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF BANKING”
[The American Institute of Banking, described here, is of special
interest as an elaborate plan, one undertaken by an association and
centrally directed, and one which has been in successful operation
since 1900. The A. I. B. is a section of the American Bankers’
Association.]” -
The most successful part of Institute work thus far has been done
in city chapters. Classwork in the Institute study courses should
be conducted during the same period under the direction of a suitable
instructor employed by the chapter and approved by the Institute.
Each class member is supplied with textbooks and instructors are
expected to conduct examinations prescribed in connection with each
textbook. . . . . The following articles of association are recom-
mended for any new city chapters that may be organized.
I. Knowledge City Chapter is hereby organized for the purpose of
Co-operating with the American Institute of Banking section of the
American Bankers’ Association in (a) the education of bankers in
banking and such principles of law and economics as pertain to the
banking business; (b) the establishment and maintenance of a
recognized standard of education by means of official examinations
and the issuance of certificates of graduation.
* Adapted from George E. Allen, History of the American Institute of
Banking, a pamphlet published by the A. I. B.
“An excellent example of a similar organization is the Chicago Central
Station Institute which was founded in 1912 as the Bureau of Education
for the following companies: Commonwealth Edison Company, Federal
Sign System (Electric), Illinois Northern Utilities Company, Middle West
Utilities Company, Public Service Company of Northern Illinois. It was
founded for the purpose of organizing and conducting special educational
courses for present and prospective employees of the supporting companies.
34O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
2. Any employee, or officer, or director of a bank or other financial
institution in Knowledge City or vicinity may be an active member of
this chapter upon election and payment of annual dues of $4 in
quarterly instalments in advance. Such dues include individual
Subscription to the Bulletin of the American Institule of Banking at
the rate of 50 cents a year, payable in quarterly instalments in
advance, etc.
Outside of study classes in city chapters, equally effective instruc-
tion is provided by the Correspondence Chapter. In correspondence
instruction each student is supplied with the serial textbooks including
exercises. The exercises in connection with each textbook are to
be submitted to instructors whenever done. The work of students
thus produced is corrected and returned with such criticisms and
Suggestions as may be helpful in each case. . . . .
The membership of the Correspondence Chapter, in addition to
its incorporators, shall be limited to bank officers and other employees
who reside outside of the jurisdiction of city chapters and state chap-
ters and are not members of any city chapteror any state chapter. . . . . *
In suitable states students of banking are organized in State
chapters for the purpose of pursuing the Institute courses of study
in classes or by correspondence according to circumstances. State
chapters thus far organized are affiliated with respective state bankers’
associations. The idea of a state chapter is simply to localize and
popularize Institute instruction. Correspondence instruction in
state chapters is identical in character with the work of the Corre-
spondence Chapter. Classwork in state chapters is identical in
character with classwork in city chapters.
TYPE IV: PLAN No. 9. A CORPORATION CORRESPONDENCE
CONTINUATION SCHOOL
We have had a salesman’s correspondence course for Some time.
That does not say that we have not used the material which is
available from textbooks, and from courses which have been prepared
in various ways by educational institutions on Salesmanship. We
have used the bulk of that material, but we have used it by applying
it to our own business. We have avoided general terms, scientific
terms, technical terms in connection with the work. We have
* Adapted from statements by “a delegate” in the Proceedings of the
Third Annual Convention of the National Association of Corporation Schools,
pp. 581-84.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 341
changed these courses and applied illustrations that the salesman
can pick up--that he runs up against in his daily talks with customers;
actual illustrations that he has experienced—that his fellow salesman
has experienced in the same district There are certain courses that
are established for general use, but with these courses we have a great
deal less interest displayed.
We have used most of the scientific information that has been
produced in textbooks of other courses, but the salesman did not see
the application of that scientific principle to his own business until
we applied it to his own daily work. -
We do not have to require it—-the salesman likes it--for without
it he himself feels that he has not definitely gotten over the ground.
We do require written replies to examinations that we send to
our agents, and we have been well satisfied and pleased with the results
we have been getting.
We send out a paper with ten questions that require originality
in the answers. There, of course, we give full play to the man,
and the replies are really instructive; they show the value of the
COUITS6.
We likewise have been deeply impressed by the treatment of the
ethics of the profession. It opens up a new field which a man started
for but which he has overlooked. The correspondence courses show
a man that what he has been doing as a matter of daily habit is really
amenable to Scientific principles.
But the written replies are very good and we have a staff of
examiners who examine these papers and show the agent his weak
points.
CORPORATION SCHOOLS OTHER THAN SPECIAL
TRAINING SCHOOLS
Thus far we have given a rather detailed consideration to
“special training schools.” There remain to be considered the
five other distinctive forms of corporation Schools outlined on
page 329.
THE TRADE APPRF, NTTCESHIP SCHOOL
One of the best illustrations of a well-organized trade
apprenticeship School (although there are many others) is that
of the Lakeside Press. The school for apprentices of the
Lakeside Press was established in July, 1908. The School is
342 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
organized to meet the demands both of the employer and of
the apprentice.”
A special room is provided for the School, one part being equipped
as a modern Schoolroom and the other part as a model composing-
room. In the school the boys are under the direction of instructors
who devote their entire time to the school. They are the supervisor,
who teaches a part of the academic work and has general oversight
of the boys in the factory; the instructor, who has direct charge of the
academic work and assists the supervisor; the instructor in printing,
who has charge of the trade instruction in the school; and the instructor
in presswork, who has charge of the apprentices in the pressrooms.
The course of apprenticeship is divided into two periods: first,
that of pre-apprenticeship, for the first two years, during which time
the boys spend half time in the school and half time in the factory,
and second, that of apprenticeship, when the boys spend full time
in the factory, with the exception of several hours each week when
they attend the school. t -
The students are in school three and one-half hours daily, during
the pre-apprenticeship course, and are divided into two classes
graded according to their standings. They also work four and one-
half hours daily in the shop, or at work connected with the factory
or the counting-room. t
The boys are paid for the time actually spent in the factory during
the two years. In the school the instruction and all materials used
are furnished free.
3. The amounts actually earned by the boys are shown in the follow-
ing table: -
TABLE XXXI
Rate Per r Bonus for
Week | Total Efficiency
First year, 52 weeks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2.40 | $124.8o $25. Oo
Second year, 52 weeks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. OO I56. Oo 25. Oo
First half third year, 26 weeks. . . . . . . . 5. Oo | 1 3O.OO . . . . . . . . . . .
Second half third year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.oo . I56,oo l. . . . . . . . . •
Arithmetic is reviewed from the factory side. An applied
arithmetic has been prepared to be used in connection with the review
. . The Lakeside Press is the printing establishment of R. R. Donnelley &
Sons Company of Chicago. The statement here given is adapted from the
Bulletin of the National Association of Corporation Schools, November, 1916,
PP. 33–37.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 343
work. Elementary bookkeeping is taught by means of lessons especi-
ally arranged for the printing office. The elements of algebra and
geometry are taught, and whenever possible the problems are applied
to the trade. Every apprentice is required to read and review at
least six books of standard literature each year.
The pre-apprentices spend one and three-quarters hours daily
doing academic work. This time is divided into two periods, and
the lessons given are in design, English, and mathematics, alternating
with history and elementary science. The lessons in design are
applied in the written as well as the printed work, in all the different
subjects. Every exercise is a lesson in English. The rules laid down
for good book-work are followed in all written work. Proof marks
are used in correcting all exercises, and the marks are definite and
easily understood. i t 4.
When the pre-apprenticeship course is completed, at the end of
two years, the boys, then sixteen years of age, enter the factory as
regular apprentices to learn some one of the trades in the different
branches of the printing business. During their pre-apprenticeship
course they become acquainted with the various departments, and
with this knowledge are able to select the line of work for which they
are best fitted. The boys are under supervision during the apprentice
period, and are scheduled for a definite time to each of the different
lines of work in the trade selected, and are given every opportunity
to learn the trade as a whole. +
The academic training, begun during the pre-apprenticeship
course, is continued during the apprenticeship; the boys attend school
for several hours each week during the entire course and receive
regular pay. The courses of instruction advance, and new subjects
are added as the apprentices mäster the work. Much attention is
given to designing; layouts for jobs are made, and when carried out
in type are carefully criticized. Mechanics, industrial history,
English, hygiene, and economics are given.
THE OFFICE-WORK SCHOOL
The corporation school to train for “office work” has become
important. What it is and what it can do has been expressed
as follows:
It is of some importance to know exactly what is meant by the
term “office-work school.” Any definite, systematic method of
* This is a condensation of a statement made by W. William Schulze
of the Alexander Hamilton Institute, Proceedings of the Second Annual
344 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
training employees so that they will perform their assigned office
duties correctly and intelligently is an office-work school.
The office-work School, if properly conducted, will: (1) insure
the proper instruction of each individual employee; (2) enable you to
train your office employee much more cheaply than by the old hap-
hazard method; (3) enable you to eliminate useless motion; (4)
Serve as a distinct aid in standardizing office methods; (5) help you
train understudies; (6) be of valuable assistance in preparing and
issuing office instruction manuals; (7) stimulate loyalty to the con-
cern; (8) help you build good will by training office employees to be
more attentive and courteous in their dealings with outsiders; (9)
enable you to standardize output and establish Salaries upon a more
scientific basis; (Io) enable you to select applicants for positions
more effectively.
The significance and pertinence of the office-work school,
even for persons well prepared generally, is indicated by J. W.
Dietz, who as educational director of the Western Electric
Company has had a long and Successful experience."
In the manufacture of our product we have a great deal of detail
to contend with, and the terms that are used are extremely special.
We have a lot of stenographers who, when they come to us and hear
the terms “dish wheel,” “cup wheel,” and different mechanical
terms, do not know what they mean. We found that our corre-
spondence and office work suffered materially from lack of that
knowledge. To bring about a better understanding, we divide the
clerks from the correspondence, bookkeeping, and other departments
into Small groups, and periodically guide them through the shops,
not so that they are required to observe all the operations in a com-
paratively short time, but to show them enough to enable them to
understand the operation of each department. When that is com-
plete, having had ocular evidence of what they saw on paper, we
bring them into the lecture-room and explain by means of lantern
Convention of the National Association of Corporation Schools, pp. 5oo,
515–16. Among the companies conducting office-work schools are the
Western Electric Co., the Burroughs Adding Machine Co., and the National
Cloak and Suit Co.
* The statement in Proceedings of the First Annual Convention of the
National Association of Corporation Schools, pp. 219–20,
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 345
slides the operations they have actually witnessed, and explain to
them why certain operations must take place, and why a certain prod-
uct is called a certain thing. We found the intelligence in handling
the office work materially improved. We are getting up a special
dictionary of a Series of terms as applied to our particular business,
and a very complete definition of each term is given. We use words
that are ordinarily used in English, but they have a quite different
meaning, and we find it improves matters very materially to give
special instruction as to their use.
In the Summertime, usually in July, the various agents through-
out the country send in their salesmen who, have directly to do with
our product, and they are for the time-being guests at the shop. The
sessions begin in the morning and last until evening, including a
certain amount of shopwork. In this the office employees take part.
To be sure that nothing goes out that is not perfect in the way of
diction and grammatical Construction, we have all our correspondence
censored by people well educated and specially trained along the lines
of English construction, and in that way the censor of the correspond-
ence has an opportunity to select and watch those who appear to be
weakest in that direction. Those are taken aside for special instruc.
tion and told the method they should adopt for study to produce the
most desirable results.
ADVERTISJNG, SELLING, AND DISTRIBUTION SCHOOLS
To a considerable extent selling and distribution schools
have been illustrated above in our discussion of special training
schools. The Addressograph Company, the American Steel
and Wire Company, the Atlantic Refining Company, and the
Carnegie Steel Company have all reported to the National
Association of Corporation Schools that they use Type I of
the special training schools for training salesmen. The Yale
& Towne Manufacturing Company makes use of Type II;
Graton & Knight and the Norton & Norton Grinding Company
use Type III for developing salesmen’s ability.
|Devices which can be hardly classified as Corporation schools,
but which are used extensively by many firms, are the brief, but
intensive, courses given in Connection with Salesmen’s Conven-
tions and the sales manuals which are at times elaborate in their
instructions to Salesmen,
346 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Selling schools have in some instances been developed to
such an extent that specific illustrations will be well worth
while. A manufacturer’s school for salesmen is well illustrated
in the following description of the plan used by the Ford Motor
Company:
THE COURSE IN DISTRIBUTION OF THE FORD MOTOR COMPANY"
The producer should always consider the problem of distribution .
as that of distribution to the ultimate consumer.
The study of distribution is the study of placing what you have
where it is wanted, but also the study of what is wanted and of
where and when wants can be created So as to place what you will
have—often not so much to find as to make or wake a market.
Distribution
Making the market Meeting the market
(getting orders) (filling orders)
I. Planning I. Packing
a) What amounts of orders are
desired and when
b) How to get them there
2. Representing by advertise- 2. Routing
ments and Salesmen
3. Closing sales by Salesmen 3. Following through to arrival by
traffic men t
4. After-service (to insure per-
manent satisfaction)
Four factors in distribution:
I. What is to be moved
2. Whither it is to be moved
3. How it is to be moved
4. Guarantee of future
I. Goods
a) Quality
b) Bulk
c) Perishability (by marring or spoiling)
2. Demand
a) Existing and to be increased or regulated
Advertising (paid, or publicity, or premiums)
Salesmen (orderseekers, visiting salesmen)
* Taken from the Proceedings of the National Association of Corpora-
tion Schools, Fifth Annual Convention, pp. 649-51,
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 347
b) To be created
Where can need of it best be roused ?
Advertising and salesmen of type to create the special demand.
desired due to plan of production and to need product can fill
c) By what kind of people?
Where and in what numbers do they live? .
What classes and territories shall be selected as most profitable?
(those in big cities or small or in country?)
d) Affected by competition, how
By service given, or attention to delivery
e) Seasonal
Frequency (single or repeated orders)
How elastic (can be built up—sensitive to trade conditions)
3. Methods of moving these goods to meet this demand
a) Sell to whom
(1) Direct to consumer—Mail orders
Canvassers
Salesmen
(2) Through middlemen—Wholesaler
Broker or brokerage association
Jobber
Retailer
Producers’ association
Chain stores
Subsidiary companies
Agents
(3) Combination of (1) and (2)
b) Deliver by means of
(1) Existing methods—as to quality and speed and cost
Carriers Routes Handling
Horses | Paved roads Number of times handled
Trucks Country roads Handlers in whose employ
Freight—railroad Railroads
Freight—boat Lakes
Express Rivers
Parcel post Canals
Messenger boys
Merchants’ del.
348 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
(2) Individual methods to be evolved
(a) Special devices, as Standard Oil Co.'s pipe lines or
Ford Motor Co.'s assembly plants
(b) Private carriers’—chain of traffic men along railroad
lines—boats owned by company—own delivery sys-
tem rather than merchants’ delivery
(c) By leasing right to use product—as shoe machinery or
victrola or slot machine -
By paying for license and power to operate, as Pullman
Co. with its sleepers
4. Guarantee of future, namely, service, during and after the sale,
|Definition: Service is everything, outside of the product itself,
which the distributor does to increase the purchaser's satisfaction
in obtaining and in using the product, such as special accommoda-
tion, reliability and courtesy in all dealings with purchaser, clear
instruction as to how to derive greatest use, handy depots for
obtaining replenishment, or repair parts and service, for middle men,
assistance toward disposal of product
The School for Salesmen of a concern making a great variety
of technical products and selling them to dealers is described
as follows by one of its representatives:
THE SALESMEN'S SCHOOL COURSE OF THE EII-LILLY CO."
The Lilly organization.—Before outlining the work of the Lilly
Salesmen’s School, I feel that it would be in order to give you a few
hints regarding the business of this concern.
In the first place, we have no direct accounts with retail drug-
gists, physicians or anyone excepting manufacturers and wholesale
druggists. Our total number of charge accounts, therefore, amounts
to less than 3oo. We believe that it is the province of the manufac-
turer to make, the jobber to job, the retailer to dispense, the
physician to prescribe and the public to consume. That, in a nut-
shell, is the business policy of Eli-Lilly Co.
We feel that all parties connected with the marketing of phar-
maceutical and biological products are entitled to their fair and just
* Adapted from the National Association of Corporation Schools, Fifth
Annual Convention, pp. 657–66. Copyright, 1917, by the National Associa-
tion of Corporation Schools.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 349
Compensation for handling or dealing in these products, and in view
of this Lilly policy was adopted in 1894.
Fundamental qualifications of prospective salesmen.—A man to
become a member of our sales or retail staff must have a technical
education, must be either a graduate or registered pharmacist or a
graduate physician, must be high grade, of splendid moral character,
a man who stands well in his community, bears a good reputation for
past record and is able to take several rather strong tests for intellect,
decision and ability.
OUTLINE SHOWING CHARACTER OF INSTRUCTION
Section I
Introductory. Policy by President, General Manager, et al.
Ordering Supplies
Preliminary Talk on Price List
Botanical Inspection Crude Drug Materials
Chemical Control of Materials and Manufacturing Processes
View of the Indianapolis Laboratories and System Study
Pharmaceutical Development and Certain Lilly Products
The Older Lilly Specialties
Section 2
Special Formulas
Labeling and Packaging Finished Products
Stockkeeping and Shipping
Advertising
Credits and Expenses
Physiological Testing and Experimental Medicine
Lilly Quality
Orders, Communications and Reports
Section 3
New Items and Future Specialties
The Newer Lilly Specialties
Complaints and Returned Goods
Lilly Policy
I)emonstration Sale: Selling a Nice Lilly Order to a 40 per cent and
To per cent Preferred Retail Customer of Our Competitors (time
limit 20 minutes)
Demonstration. Detail Interview on Lilly Biologicals (time limit 20
minutes)
35O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Why It Pays to Call on Every Drug Store, Large and Small
What I Am Doing to Educate My Customers on the Wisdom of
Buying through the Jobber * º
What I Have Accomplished with Jobbing Salesmen
How 1 Persuaded a Large 40 per cent and Io per cent Direct-Buying
Retailer to Buy Lilly Products through the Jobber at 40 per cent
Discount
A List of Large Retailers Who Were Buying from Direct-Selling
Competitors at 40 per cent and Io per cent Discount Whom I
Changed to Buying Lilly Products at 40 per cent through the
Jobber; Arguments I Used to Switch Them.
How the Advertising Department Co-operates with Salesmen in
Detail Work.
How I Detail Alcresta Tablets of Ipecac to Physicians
How I Detail Liquid Blaud
How I Detail Ampoules
How I Detail Dental Lotion
Talking Points on Dental Line
Section 4
Laboratory Organization and Efficiency
New Packages
Dental Line
Prices
Selling Points on Dental Line
Section 5
General Inspection Smallpox Vaccine Building
Manufacturing Smallpox Vaccine—Demonstration
Inspection of Animal Building
Harvesting Ripe Vaccine—Demonstration
General Inspection of Antitoxin Building
Preparation of Horses
Inoculation of Diphtheria and Tetanus Horses—Demonstration
Inspection of Tuberculin and Testing Laboratories -
Bleeding Horses—Demonstration
Concentration and Purification of Antitoxins
Drug Plant Cultivation
Section 6
Selling Points on Antitoxins and Serums
Detail Talking Points on Antitoxins and Serums
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 35I
Section 7
Preparation of Bacterial Vaccine
Preparation of Rabies Virus, Lilly
Inspection of Laboratories Demonstrating the Filling and Packaging
of Bacterial Vaccines, Serums and Antitoxins
Our Biological Line–Advantageous Talking Points for Jobber,
Retailer and Physician during Epidemics
Vaccines-—How I Detail Them—How I Sell Druggists
Issuing Equipment
It will be noted that the crude product is followed from the
beginning, taking it through each process of manufacture down to
the finished product. The course then takes up the business policy
of the concern and devotes considerable time to that. The demon-
stration sale and the demonstration detail interview immediately
following the demonstration sale should be especially noted.
Purpose of school.—One of the fundamentals of the school is to
give every Lilly salesman and detail representative all the information
there is to be had about the products of this house. It tries to
thoroughly familiarize the men with every product that the firm
makes. The salesman is expected to know his products simply inside
out, and to be able to weave a wonderful story about their source and
follow each step of their manufacture right down through to the
finished product. This, as I see it, is one of the greatest aids to effi-
cient salesmanship—know your line and this will beget enthusiasm.
An example of an extensive, successful, and in some of its
features, unique sales School is that of the Curtis Publishing
Company. It is thus described by M. E. Douglas, Sales manager
of the company." -
Today our sales division is conducting what we believe to be the
world’s greatest school in Salesmanship for boys. This school, con-
sisting in the beginning of one instructor, now includes forty highly
trained correspondents, fifty roadmen, two thousand district agents,
and fifty thousand to fifty-five thousand parents who, upon sugges-
tions from us, are co-operating in training the boys. The pay-roll
of our sales division, which is maintained solely to handle the business
promoted by our Sales agents, approaches $400,000 a year.
* From the Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention of the National
Association of Corporation Schools, pp. 177-81.
352 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
At the time of their appointment, boy agents and their parents
are given personal instructions by the roadmen. Three or four times
a year the roadmen revisit each district agent and give additional
instructions, according to our changing plans and methods.
Our district agents and our branch managers personally instruct
the boy agents whom they supply.
Conferences of our branch managers, conventions of our roadmen,
conventions of our district agents by states and by sections are
frequently held.
Our expert correspondents, whose helpful letters to the boys have
been the means of developing this highly trained force, in rotation
spend a part of their time with agents in the field each year.
For the training of the boys, personal instruction is supplemented
by printed matter Suited to the age and experience of the boys and
of their parents. Some of this printed matter is sent out from the
home office, some from the branch offices, some from the offices of the
district agents.
This printed matter includes both manuals of an educational
nature and booklets intended to have an inspirational effect.
Our manual for the boys themselves is a Ioo-page booklet entitled
How to Sell Ioo Copies Weekly. When a boy’s first paid order is
received at the home office, at the branch, or at the district agency,
this manual is given to the beginner. In language adapted to the
boy's age and experience, the manual tells him how to get his first
list of steady customers among his friends and neighbors, and by
easy stages leads him, if he has it in him, up to rank among our
champion boys. We have printed and distributed Ioo,000 copies
of this manual.
For parents we have the 56-page manual entitled What Shall I
Do with My Boy? After reading this manual the interested parent
helps the boy to master the selling plans described in the booklet
How to Sell roo Copies Weekly. -
For district agents we have the manual entitled The District
Agent as a Sales Promoter, 291 pages. This booklet contains a full
discussion of such subjects as the relation between promotion and
distribution, the relation of the Curtis boy to promotion and distribu-
tion, how to get boys, how to train green boys for salesmanship, how
to hold boys that have made good, etc.
Our sales division publishes each month the house organ called
Our Boys, one copy of which is mailed to each boy regular agent,
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 353
sub-agent and special agent throughout the Country. Announce-
ments of interest to our boys, new selling plans, stories of the selling
achievements of various boys—all this is given entirely without cost
to the boys. The “Parents’ Personal Page” is a special feature.
We have a second house organ called Our District Agents, printed
monthly and mailed to district agents only. Inspirational and educa-
tional matter with reference to promoting sales through boys appears
in each issue.
Constant effort is made to train the boys to sell the article rather
than the publication. This involves arousing the boy’s interest in
the article, helping him to understand it, so that he can talk about its
good points. Interested parents are helping their boys to identify
the feature articles and to learn what to say about them to their
prospects. Among other plans for training the boys to sell the article
or story of special local interest are these two:
Each week we send to a selected large list of boys printed fore-
casts of the contents of Coming issues. These forecasts tell the boys
what to say about the special features of the issue.
Another and a most potent factor in the training of our boys is
the personal letter. The correspondents in the home office and at
the branch offices participate in the boys' hopes, in the boys’ imagin-
ings, in the boys’ desires; they give of themselves to the boys; they
interest themselves in the boys’ undertakings, so they know how to
write letters that reach beneath the vests of the boys, are able to
direct the boys’ desires, to help the boys to substitute real selling
methods in place of the personal or sympathetic appeal for trade.
RETAIL SALESMANSHIP SCHOOLS
Retail salesmanship Schools are, in So many instances,
conducted by corporations in Co-operation with the public-school
systems," that one is likely to Confuse such undertakings with
the strictly corporation School. Many of the larger department
stores furnish examples of the latter, however. The work of the
retail selling school of one of the largest of the “chains” is thus
described by one of those responsible for its conduct.”
* As in Boston and Cincinnati.
* Adapted from a statement by H. G. Petermann of the United Cigar
Stores Co., Proceedings of the Third Annual Convention of the National
Association of Corporation Schools, pp. 557-58.
354 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
All new salesmen are required to pass through this training course,
which covers a period of fourteen to twenty-one days. Our method
of buying and selling, also our rules relative to the handling of cus-
tomers are made plain to the new man.
All departments of our business are covered in talks and text-
books. Lectures are given on the culture and manufacture of tobacco
grown in different Countries. Talking points are taught them on
Amber, Meerschaum, Briar, Calabash. Good service talks, sales-
manship, customs duties, internal revenue, etc., etc. In fact, the
history of tobacco from the time the seed is planted in the ground
until the internal revenue stamp is placed on the box that contains
the finished product is explained—we get right down to the how and
why, so that even a child may be able to understand it.
Written examinations are given to make men think and work to
determine their progress. A quiz upon the sales manual. Written
notes on previous days’ work, etc., etc. All of the men sent by the
employment department to our training department do not reach a
store. While in school they are on probation. Those who show a
lack of interest in our proposition, or after a fair trial, do not measure
up to the required “United” standards, are weeded out.
SCHOOLS FOR UNSKILLED LABOR
Corporation schools for unskilled labor are for the most part
concerned with the teaching of English, the prevention of acci-
dents, and “Americanization.” Such schools present unusual
difficulties of organization and the persons who are directing
such schools speak as often in terms of these difficulties as in
terms of accomplishment. More detailed discussion of them
may be omitted at this place.
THE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF
CORPORATION SCHOOLS
One of the most interesting things about the corporation-
school movement is the thoroughly professional attitude which
is taken, by its best representatives at least, toward the technical
phases of their work. Proper means of organization and admin-
istration have been given a great deal of attention and the
relation of the corporation school to certain other forms of
training has been made the Subject of a special investigation.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 355
The statements which follow are largely drawn from the
reports, suggestions, and recommendations made by special
Committees and individuals in corporation school work."
The superintendent of the corporation school performs duties
somewhat similar to those performed by the same official for the Board
of Education, although they are likely to be much more specific in
character since the corporation school is usually restricted in its pur-
pose to a few well-defined lines of procedure.
In corporation schools there cannot be the same close adherence
to types that is found in public-school systems. As a rule, each
corporation school is distinctive in its organization and administration
even when intended for the same general purpose as some other
similar school.
Perhaps no other feature of corporation school organization
presents more difficulties than the finding of properly qualified
teachers. The ideal teacher for a corporation school is one who has
a thorough knowledge of his subject with a practical experience in it
and the ability to impart instruction intelligently. He is one who
can work well in the thing he teaches and who can teach well the
thing in which he has worked. He must be of commanding and
forceful personality because with few exceptions the conditions he
has to contend with in the training of young people in industry are not
the normal conditions that are suited to secure the best results from
the student. The student who has spent part of his day in physical
labor is apt to be sluggish in his studies and indifferent in his mental
efforts. Such teachers are difficult to find and they command salaries
much above the average.
The selection of good textbooks is of first importance and is
of unusual difficulty for a corporation school owing to the great
diversity in the subject-matter of instruction desired and the
somewhat limited supply of texts that are prepared to meet the
peculiar requirements of the corporation school.
* The Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Convention of the National Associa-
tion of Corporation Schools contains a discussion of “Organization and
Administration.” The Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Convention, pp.
97–127, contains a section on the same subject. Ibid., pp. 57–82, contains
an excellent plan for viewing the same problems. An appraisal of corpora-
tion school pedagogy is attempted by A. J. Beatty in Corporation Schools.
356 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
In a type of education to which general systems are so ill
adapted, the importance of the educational director is obvious.
A number of university and college teachers have been drawn
into this form of work. The duties of this executive have been
described by a corporation-school committee to be:
(a) To organize the various curriculums and courses of study;
(b) To select the instructors for the various departments; (c) To
Supervise and criticize the methods of instruction; (d) To aid the
instructors in developing text books and lesson-sheets; (e) To adopt
a suitable system of records for students’ work which should show
their industry, their progress, and attainment; (f) To select the
students for the various courses and keep in touch with the sources of
Supply; (g) To keep the higher officials of the company informed as
to the needs, the efficiency, the results, and the expense of the work;
(h) To supervise the records of the department in such a manner as
to show the costs of the various courses, and the various items of
increased efficiency in the concern which may be attributed to the
work of the department.
The report continues:
Such a program as this demands a man of no small caliber and
his selection is a task which demands the most careful consideration.
Unfortunately the Supply of such high-grade men is not equal to the
demand and many corporations have been compelled to place their
educational work in charge of men who have not had sufficient
technical training in School administration to guarantee the highest
efficiency.
Most of the men who are in charge of educational departments are
graduates of technical schools and in the majority of cases they are
men who have been exceptionally efficient in some executive capacity.
These qualifications are highly essential and no one who has not had
such technical training and such shop experience should be placed in
charge of an expensive educational plant, but technical and theoretical
training in school administration as viewed from the standpoint of
professional educators is an invaluable asset in Such a position.
The importance of the educational director and the need of
granting him real power is repeatedly expressed as the basis
* Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Convention of the National Association
of Corporation Schools, pp. Ioo-Ioz.
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 357
of Solid success in corporation-school administration. An
official of the Norton Grinding Company, for example, states
that their educational department “consists of a supervisor
directly responsible to the general manager, an assistant, and an
advisory board Consisting of nine men from the management of
the two companies.”
Mr. F. H. Yoder, of the Pennsylvania Railroad, expresses
the same view, declaring:
The first step is to establish responsibility in a higher official; a
man with vision and foresight; a man who would not have to con-
sider the question of dollars and cents and immediate return for all
money invested. Minor officials must of necessity keep down ex-
penses in their departments, and naturally educational work under
them cannot be expanded. If a business depression arises, all work.
not bringing immediate returns will have to be curtailed in order to
reduce expenses. For this reason, it is necessary to resort to a higher
official who can look to the future and see the future benefits of the
educational work to the company, irrespective of the immediate
conditions. It therefore seems that the first step in the matter of
administration and Supervision is to establish your responsibility in a
higher official.
The chart on page 358 shows one possible integration of
training in the organization of a large business.
THE ROLE OF THE CORPORATION SCHOOL
What then is the rôle of this modern form of education by
business? What is the proper specialized task of the corpora-
tion school in a coherent program of education for business?
The corporation school is chiefly concerned and may be
expected to continue to be concerned with those forms of
instruction which are calculated to bring a profit to the company
involved. Although many corporation-School directors have
been actuated by broader motives, the Corporation school is by
nature part of a business enterprise and in so far as the school
cannot indicate a financial gain it involves a highly questionable
use of stockholders’ assets. As W. L. Chandler, of the Dodge
Manufacturing Company, says: “Expense incurred in this way
can only be justified on the grounds that more profit can be made
§

CHART III
THE ORGANIZATION OF AN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS DEPARTMENT
|BOARD OF DIRECTORs)
| INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS COMMITTEE
|
|
EMPLOYES
.CONSULTING AND GENERAL - R
SUPERINTENDENTS, MANAGERS EPRESENTATIVE ,
AND PLANT SUPERINTENDENTS | INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS DEPT. COMMITTEES
| DIVISIONS | -
EMPLOYMENT | MEDICAL TRAINING CONDITIONS SOCIAL
1. File of Desirables. 1. Examination 1. General s icania e
2. Demand List a) New Employes ene !. i. ti } f. tion
.3. Hiring on b) Old Employes 2. Individual IłStrLICºlorls . Housing . . . .
a) Interview (Periodically) 3. Continuation Schools 2. Safety Measures .sº . Activities.
sº & * & & :- t In Ce
§ fºup 2 ºr 4. Studies for Executives 3. Rest Rooms ; ºn
d) Medical UIrSeS 5. Training Understudies 4. Dressing Rooms 6. Community Clearing
4. Placement 3. Dental 6. Advising Assignments Sanitati House
5. Oualification 4. Eve . . . . . . 5. Sanitation 7. Social
ecorcis y e 7. Standardizing Training e º e . Social . . &
Bonding 5. Home Service 8. Use of Production 6. Condition of Equipment º for i.
6. Transfers 6. Treatment Records - 7. Transportation Con- Relief, Pensions, an
Promotions Emergency ditions Accident
Dismissals 7. Placing Defectives 9. Progress Records of 8. Donation
7. Job Descriptions 8. Health Talks Students 8. Plant Organ Inquiries .
8. Wage Scales 9. E.B.A. Examining |10. Recommending Promo- 9. Plant Publicity * : **,dd
9. Turnover Analysis 10. Industrial tions w & 2 & . Articles an reSSC3
10. Information Service Medicine Progress 11. Advising on Permanent 10. Special Investigation 11. Boy Scouts
ll. General Instructions 11. Records and Statistics Placements 11. Restaurant Conditions 12. Special Social Survey
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 359
with the school than without it.” Charles P. Steinmetz, the
“Wizard” of the General Electric Company, expressed the
same view in his presidential address at the Third Annual
Convention of Corporation Schools. He said: “The limitation
of the corporation activities in the educational and similar fields
is that given by the limitation of the corporation purpose to
earn dividends for its stockholders.”
The profit motive as the spirit of the corporation school gives
the cue to its possibilities and to its limitations. *
I. The corporation school is, in its most organized form,
more or less limited to large-scale industries. The overhead
cost of the well-conducted school must be widely distributed to
justify the undertaking. Indeed most of the members of the
National Association of Corporation Schools have hundreds of
employees. On the other hand there is large room for the
development of corporation training by Small-scale concerns
through trade associations or similar arrangements. The
American Institute of Banking referred to above is one excellent
illustration of a very effective organization of this sort.
Moreover, the most important use of the corporation school
lies in large-scale industries. It is there that the “general
knowledge” of the employee most needs special “pointing.”
It is there that special guidance may mean most for advance-
ment. . . . .
An additional reason for the affiliation of the corporation
school and large-scale industry is that in such industries the
investment in training is more likely to become a permanent
asset of the company. Men are obviously less likely to leave
when there is no place to go, and this is virtually the situation
when the industry which has trained them is monopolistic or
holds a dominating position in the field. Large industries, too,
even where vigorous competition exists, are able to instil a
loyalty and esprit de Corps, a plant tradition, which holds men.
2. The corporation school, because of the profit motive,
cannot be counted on to give “general education” or unbiased
instruction regarding Social institutions such as trade unions,
governmental regulation, and tariffs; nor can it, because of the
360 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
uncertain loyalty of employees, be expected to make even its
Special training any broader than necessary.
The knowledge obtained from a general course in marketing
is far more salable elsewhere than a course in “Our Sales
Methods”; “Commercial Correspondence” is a more risky
investment for Company A to make in an office-worker than
instruction in “The Correspondence Forms of Company A.”
This failure to give general training is no ground for criticiz-
ing the corporation school. It may be worth while to criticize
the whole system of private enterprise but hardly to pick at
such a detail.
3. Conversely to the above, the corporation school finds its
chief rôle in teaching the detailed technique of particular busi-
nesses. “The corporation school,” says the educational director
of the Western Electric Company, “has come into existence
because of the necessity for training young men and young
women to know the details of how to perform the tasks peculiar
to a particular business.” In this rôle the Corporation School
can function to social advantage. It is a task which must be
done; no other agency can do it with a comparable amount of
social resources, in fact no other agency can, in Some cases, do it
at all.
4. Finally, and perhaps most significant of all, is the fact
that, in broad ranges of industry, the corporation School can be
counted on to give instruction in technique. This is gratifying
not only because it will be done at less social cost than otherwise
but because it rids other institutions of a burden in many cases
too long assumed. It makes possible a much greater extension
than has been common heretofore, either in the Secondary
school commercial course or in the collegiate School of business
into the larger and more general phases of business and especially
into the Social aspects of enterprise, concerning which the Cor-
poration School cannot be trusted to give instruction even if it
wishes to do so.
Mr.J. W. Dietz, whose remarks on corporation training are
usually worth consideration, has placed the Corporation School
rather aptly in his statement:
THE CORPORATION SCHOOL 361
IO.
Industry’s point of view:
Train citizens. Let the public school do it.
Buy trained help. Let the other fellow do it.
Educate in business. It’s our own job.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
. What is a corporation school? What is the National Association
of Corporation Training?
. What chief types of corporation schools may be distinguished P
Try to have a working notion of what each of these types is.
ſº Why should a company give an employee Some days, weeks,
months, or years of training while on pay P
. The period of training given by the corporation and at the com-
pany’s expense appears to increase as the preliminary education
has been greater. Does this seem to be borne out by a study of
the specific cases offered P Should not the reverse be true?
. Corporations seem to have gone to great effort to make their
Schools successful. They have co-operated with public-school
agencies, they have given evening courses, they have joined
with one another into associations for education, they have even
Conducted correspondence courses for their employees. Give
examples of the employment of each of these methods.
. The trade-apprenticeship school reminds one of the old medieval
apprenticeship. Examine the description of the school of the
Lakeside Press. What similarities to medieval apprenticeship
do you see in this school? What dissimilarities?
. Is printing a trade that lends itself more readily to the appren-
ticeship type of training than some other occupations? Give
examples.
. What is the office-work school of a corporation P. Could an office-
work School be of any service to the graduate of a two-year high-
School commercial course 2 of a four-year high-school commer-
cial course?
. What is Dietz’s idea of the way in which a corporation school can
train its correspondents? Would the same training be possible
in a school P
Examine the description of the distribution course of the Ford
Motor Company. What are the chief divisions of this course?
Could not such a course be given in the secondary school P in a
362
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
II.
I 2.
I3.
I4.
I5.
College? Should such a course be given in the secondary school?
in a college?
Apply the same queries asked above to the course outlined for
the Eli-Lilly Company. If courses such as these should be given
in schools, why not give courses that would have a specific applica-
tion to every business establishment?
What are the unique features of the Curtis Publishing Company’s
sales school P
What is the retail sales school? Does it seem to you that retail
selling is the proper subject to be taught in the high School, in
the college, in the private business school, in the corporation
school, or in all of them P -
What are the chief duties of the education director of a corpora-
tion? -
Draw up a statement that seems to you adequately to express the
place of a corporation School in an organized scheme of education.
CHAPTER XIV
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS
Collegiate schools of business in the United States have
taken two forms. Although it is with only one of these forms
that we are to concern ourselves to any extent, a word in
passing should be said concerning the other. One type of
collegiate school of business is the technical school, or institute
of technology; the other may appropriately be called the
collegiate school of commerce. Each of these types of school
sprang more or less from the economic condition of the time
which saw its beginning.
The capacity of the market to absorb goods has generally
exceeded the ability of manufacturers to produce them. This at
least was true from the introduction of power-driven machinery into
English industry until the closing decades of the nineteenth century.
Pressure of demand made it unnecessary for the business man to
devote his time to searching out unformulated needs."
Such pressure of demand, however, did put an emphasis on
production. This emphasis upon production of manufactured
goods furnished a proper atmosphere for the study of science,
pure and applied, and Consequently upon the growth of institutes
of technology. In 1824 the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
was founded, followed in 1847 by the Sheffield Scientific School
at Yale, and in 1848 by the Lawrence Scientific School at
Harvard. The really rapid growth of schools of applied science
and engineering, however, came following the Civil War, when
between 1870 and 1890 Some twenty Schools of first rank were
established either as departments of universities or as separate
institutions. In 1862 the Morrill Act brought the aid of public
land grants to state colleges, giving special support to the teach-
ing of agriculture and the mechanic arts. This act supple-
A. W. Shaw, An Approach to Business Problems, p. 104. Harvard
University Press, 1916. -
363
364 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
mented by the so-called Second Morrill Act of 1890 is said to
have been responsible for the establishment, by 1915, of sixty-
Seven institutions giving instruction to 69,000 students.
Leaving the institutes of technology with this brief state-
ment, we find that a change in economic conditions may be
thought of as responsible for the new interest in education of
Collegiate grade dealing with selling, advertising, traffic, and
other social adjustments, rather than with the technique of
production.
Only in recent years, when the development of production has
potentially outstripped the available market and shifted the emphasis
to distribution, has the manufacturer-merchant become a pioneer
on the frontier of human desires and needs.
Today the progressive business man makes careful, intensive
studies not merely of the consumer's recognized wants but of his
tastes, his habits, his tendencies in all the common activities and
relations of life. This he does in order to track down unconscious
needs, to manufacture goods to satisfy them, to bring these products
to the attention of the consumer in the most appealing ways, and
finally to complete the cycle by transporting the goods to him in
response to an expressed demand. His problem is chiefly one of
adjustment. He must bend the materials and forces of nature to
the end of human service. And, most difficult task of all, he must
shape his making and selling policies alike to satisfy contradictory
conditions and methods and to employ without waste the divergent
and overlapping agencies through which present-day distribution is
carried on."
It is, then, the schools which have been founded to train men
for working in these fields of “adjustment” in “making and
shaping policies” that have come to be called collegiate schools
of business, and it is with such schools that this chapter is
concerned.
THE FIRST COLLEGIATE SCHOOL OF COMMERCE
The first institution in the United States to offer a profes-
sional training in business of Collegiate grade was the Wharton
School of Finance and Economy of the University of Penn-
* A. W. Shaw, op. cit., p. Ioa.
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 365
sylvania. This school was founded in 1881 by Mr. Joseph
Wharton, a wealthy citizen of Philadelphia. It was his desire
that the school should provide facilities for “education in the
principles underlying successful civil government” as well as
“training suitable for those who intend to engage in business
or to undertake the management of property.”
At the time of its inception, the course was two years in
length, requiring as prerequisite training two years in the general
arts college course. Its curriculum consisted largely of political
economy, political science, accounting, mercantile law, and
practice. The student completing the course received a Bache-
lor's degree. Below is given the course of study offered by the
Wharton School in the academic year 1881–82:
COURSE OF STUDY
SUB-JUNIOR YEAR
Social Science.—E. Peshine Smith's Political Economy. Thomp-
son's National Economy. Johnston's History of American Politics.
Mercantile Practice.—Oral instruction in business procedure, in
the management of trusts, and in the routine of banking.
English.-Chaucer (The Canterbury Tales). Spencer. Shak-
spere (Several Plays Illustrating the Growth of the Dramatist's
Mind and Art.) Compositions and Declamations.
German.--Lessing’s Nathan der Weise. Der Mensch und die Natur.
French.-- Racine or Corneille.
Physics.--Mechanics, including Hydrostatics, Pneumatics and
Sound.
Mineralogy.—General description of Minerals and Crystallog-
raphy.
Latin (Elective with Drawing).--Smith's Principia Latina,
Part I. Caesar (De Bello Gallico).
JDrawing (Elective with Latin).--Free-Hand Drawing, and Draw-
ing from the Flat.
JUNIOR YEAR
Social Science.—History and Functions of Money. International
Balance of Trade. Theory and Practice of Banking. The Credit Sys-
tem. Monetary Crises and Panics. The Stock and Bond Market.
* From a statement furnished by Emory R. Johnson, dean of the
Wharton School.
306 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Social Science. Municipal State and National Taxation. The
Management of Revenue. Sinking Funds. Methods of Taxation,
and Their Moral and Social Influence. (Direct and Indirect Taxes,
Land Taxes, Taxes on Corporations, Internal Revenue, Taxes, and
Duties on Imports.) The Relation of Wars and Military Systems,
through Taxation, to National Industry. The Handling of Public
Debts.
Industry, Commerce and Transportation. The Na-
tional Necessity for a Balance of the Great Industries. National
Self-Defence in the Development of the Industries.
Wage Questions. The Relations of Capital and Labor.
Strikes and Lock Outs. Harmony and Discord.
Mental and Moral Science.—Atwater's Logic. Whewell's Ele-
ments of Morality. *
English.-Compositions and Declamations.
Geology.—Elements of Geology. Descriptive and Determinative
Mineralogy. Metallurgy.
Physics.-Heat and Light.
Latin.—Cicero's Epistolae, De Senectute, etc. (Long's edition).
Virgil's Georgics. '.
German.-Schiller's Wilhelm Tell. Goethe's Hermann and Doro-
thea. Translations into German. Whitney's German Grammar.
French.--Molière.
SENIOR YEAR
Law.—Elementary Law. Mercantile Law (Law of Partnership.
Law of Common Carrier. License Laws. Land Laws, etc., etc.).
Constitutional Law of the United States and of the Commonwealth
of Pennsylvania. The Rules of Order in Public and Corporation
Meetings. -
Social Science.—Lectures on Living Issues (Land, Labor, Mone-
tary Questions in Their Popular Aspects, Socialism and Communism,
Free Trade and Protections, Charity Organization, Popular and
Industrial Education).
Mulford’s Nation.
Original Research in the Theory and History of Eco-
nomical Questions, under direction of the Professor.
History.—Lectures on Modern and Mediaeval History. Guizot's
History of Civilization in Europe.
English.-Compositions and Declamations.
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 367
Physics.-Electricity. Practical and Astronomical Physics.
Astronomy.—Mathematical Astronomy.
NOTE.-Candidates who have passed through the Freshman and
Sophomore Classes in either the Department of Arts or the Towne
Scientific School, will be admitted as full students without
examinations.
In the early days of the Wharton School there was the
difficulty which might be expected from the assignment to the
teaching of technical subjects of men who had been trained for
academic work and who had neither interest nor experience in
the specialized fields. In 1894 the program of the school was
broadened, a more specialized faculty was introduced, and the
number of years in the course was increased from two to four."
The bulletin for 1922 shows the following for the general course
which is of interest by way of comparison with the earlier one:
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
FRESHMAN YEAR
(The following courses are required of all Freshmen.)
Hours per
Wee
Physical Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
English Language (first term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History of English Literature (second term). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . } 2
Elementary Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - 3
Business Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . }
Or - 3
General Inorganic Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 3
Resources and Industries of the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 3
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ADDITIONAL REQUIRED WORK
Before the end of the Junior year:
Two additional units of Political Science, or Economics, or two
units of Sociology. -
Three units of History.
One additional unit of Physical Education.
* Roswell McCrea, “The Work of the Wharton School of Finance and
Commerce,” Journal of Political Economy, XXI (1913), III.
368 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Before graduation:
Six units of foreign language (not elementary courses)
OT
Three units of foreign language (not elementary courses) and
three units of Science or Mathematics.
Two additional units of History.
One additional unit of Physical Education.
Two units of Senior Research work.
The satisfactory completion of a total of seventy units of work,
in addition to Physical Education, is required for the degree. (A
“unit” of work is the amount involved in attendance upon lectures
or recitations one hour a week for one year, or upon laboratory work
two hours a week for one year.)
These seventy units are distributed as follows:
Wharton School subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
College subjects required. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7
Free electives in either Wharton School or College subjects. . . . . Q
CourSE GROUPINGS
Prior to registration for the Sophomore year each student is
required to elect one of the following groups of courses:
THE GENERAL COURSE
SOPHOMORE YEAR
Hours
a Week
Physical Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Composition (one term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . } 2
Nineteenth Century Novelists (one term). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History or Foreign Language (see note). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Political Science, Economics, or Sociology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Money and Credit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Three of the following:
Accounting 2 or 7. Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.&T. 5. Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Q
Insurance I or 3. Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G.&I. 7. Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
Electives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–3
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 369
JUNIOR YEAR
Hours
a Week
Physical Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Foreign Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
English–An advanced course (not included in Wharton units)
(one term). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.
Nine units chosen from three of the following:
Commerce and Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
Finance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Insurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! Q
Geography and Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merchandising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Business Law 2 or 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
Electives, maximum 5 hours. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SENIOR YEAR
Physical Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
History or Foreign Language, according to the Uncompleted
History or Language requirement at the end of Junior
year (see note). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Public Finance (first term required; second term elective). .. 2
Three units chosen from the following:
Commerce and Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geography and Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - tº e º tº tº & © 3
Finance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merchandising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electives (minimum 3 hours). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
NOTE.-Six units of advanced Foreign Language are required
before graduation. Students are advised to take these in the Sopho-
more and Junior years, if possible. After completing three advanced
units of Such language the students may substitute a three-unit course
in Science or Mathematics for the remaining three units of Language.
In January, 1898, the Regents of the University of California
determined to establish a College of Commerce in that institu-
tion. Formal opening occurred in the fall term of that year.
The four years' course consisted of about one-half of the type
of the studies given in general college courses and of about
370 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
one-half of courses in the fields of philosophy, law, politics,
economics, geography, technology, mathematics. It was stated
that “this college is intended to afford an opportunity for the
scientific study of commerce in all its relations and for the
higher education of business men and of the higher officers of
the civil service.” In addition to the underlying courses a
number of special ones in narrower fields were offered.
On October I of the same year, President Harper, of the
University of Chicago, in his twenty-fifth quarterly statement
said, “It is with a feeling of great satisfaction that I may
announce the inauguration during the past quarter of the College
of Commerce and Politics.” President Harper stated further
that the inauguration of the College of Commerce at the Uni-
versity of Chicago was distinguished from similar undertakings
elsewhere by the fact that the work “should be organized as a
college and administered as such.” -
In 1900 Dartmouth College, New York University, and the
University of Wisconsin opened schools of business. The next
year such a school was organized at the University of Michigan.
No other school gave what would now be considered collegi-
ate business work until 1908. A number of state universities
earlier than this put in “commercial courses.” The cata-
logue of the University of the State of Missouri for 1897–98
states that instruction is given in correspondence, writing
receipts, checks, notes, and drafts, and that a full course in
stenography is provided for those students who wish to carry
on this study. The University of South Dakota early offered
courses in penmanship, commercial law, shorthand, type-
writing, and office practice. Similar courses were common in
western universities before 1900. *
Schools of business in colleges and universities were founded
most rapidly following 1910, there being scarcely a year since
that time when one or more higher institutions of standing
did not announce the inauguration of such a school. Between
* U.S. Bureau of Education, Report of Commissioner, II (1897–98),
2443. -
* Ibid., p. 2444. -
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 37I
1900 and 1918 a number of “conferences” were held by delegates
of universities having schools of business. On November 13,
1919, at Harvard University, there was held the first program
meeting of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Business."
Prior to this meeting the schools of fifteen of the leading uni-
versities had associated themselves as charter members. The
membership now numbers twenty-three schools (May 1, 1922).
25

2O –4 \, Z
IO
§4
:[.
:
;
3.
\O
O ‘E
CN CN
H H
3.
3.
FIG. 27.-Increase in number of Collegiate schools of business* from
1881 to 1921.
*Yale University, which discontinued its course in Business Administration in 1920–21,
is not included.
The number of schools of business founded in various years
is shown in Figure 4, on page I5, and need not be repeated here.
The increase in numbers of Schools and of students and the
relation which the number of students bears to the total col-
* The organization meeting was held at the University Club of Chicago,
June 16 and 17, 1916.
372 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
legiate undergraduates are presented, however. A period of
twenty-five years includes the life of all of the collegiate schools
of business excepting the Wharton School.
Figure 27 shows the increase in number of collegiate schools
of business and makes clear the impetus which came in the
development of such schools after 1910. |
I95OO —l

18ooo Y .* † |
I65oo º º |
I5OOO t |
I35OO y |
I2OOO
IoSoo * |t —t
9900 t | |
75oo § *-i-
6ooo
45OO | w /
3OOO y
§
#
FIG. 28.-Increase in number of undergraduate students (men and
women) in day courses of collegiate schools of business from 1896 to 1921.
In the data on which the diagrams are based, only institu-
tions which are members of the National Association of Col-
legiate Schools of Business are included. There are other
collegiate Schools of business which, on a basis of quality,
have equal right to inclusion, but an excluding line drawn
t
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 373
on anything but an arbitrary basis would be difficult and
irritating.
Figure 28 shows the increase in number of undergraduate
students in day Courses of Collegiate schools of business for the .
years indicated. In making this diagram pre-Commerce stu-
dents were included in those schools where such control was
Ioo!/6
75%
50%
25%
o%
5
#
\O
ON
CO
H
FIG. 29.-Ratio for the indicated years between undergraduate stu-
dents in collegiate schools of business and other undergraduates in the
institutions maintaining such Schools.
exercised over them as to make them, to all practical purposes,
members of the collegiate School. Government students are
not included. In this diagram again only members of the
National Association of Collegiate Schools of Business are

374 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
30%
25%
20% º
15%
Io9%
o!/,
VO }*.
H CN
CN CN
H H
. .
\O H
O H
ON ON
H H
s
.
FIG. 29A.—Variations for the indicated years in the relation between
business students and other undergraduates in universities maintaining
Such Schools.


COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 375
considered. New York University, Harvard, and Yale are
not included. The first because it proved impossible to secure
figures differentiating day from evening schools except at the
present time, the second because its strictly graduate quality
seemed to make the figures incomparable, and the last because
Yale has abandoned its so-called school of business administra-
tion.
Figure 29 shows for the indicated years the relation between
the number of students in collegiate Schools of business and the
number of all other undergraduate students in the same uni-
versities. The same exceptions made concerning Figure 28
apply to Figures 29 and 29A. Figure 29A is constructed to
emphasize the variations in the relation between business
students and other undergraduates in the universities con-
sidered. By limiting the chart to the lower 30 per cent, the
variations are more obvious than in Figure 29.
IDEALS UNDERLYING COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS
Those responsible for directing the leading schools of com-
merce have, ever since the movement gathered momentum,
conceived the functions of these schools in broad terms. There
prevails the idea that it is the duty of such schools to liberalize
as well as to train. More than this, there is the persistent
notion that there must come from collegiate business schools a
better culture and an extension of culture into realms of life
where it is now too little known. “All who are concerned,
through investigation or instruction, with the present movement
for placing new departments of industrial activity upon a scien-
tific basis, in the interest of greater efficiency, and of more just
and liberal ideals, should appreciate the high calling whereunto
they are called.” This statement made in 1913 was but an
echo of that made nearly twenty years ago when at a conference
of educators and business men called at the University of
* Edward D. Jones, “Some Propositions Concerning University Instruc-
tion in Business Administration,” Journal of Political Economy, XXI
(1913), 194.
376 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Michigan to consider the purposes of higher commercial edu-
cation, Professor William A. Scott said:
There is another aspect of this question which must not be over-
looked. How can a university best impress its ideals upon society P
By cutting itself off from the most active departments of social life,
by Surrounding the young people placed in its charge with an atmos-
phere entirely different from that of the world in which they must
live, or by opening wide its doors to all classes of students who are
fitted to enter, and by striving to give them every possible assistance
in the preparation of themselves for the specific careers they expect
to follow P This latter course compels university professors to make
a careful study of the actual life about them, to classify the phenom-
ena of the actual world, and to reduce them to a scientific form. It
gives them an opportunity to discover how high social, moral and
religious ideals can be introduced into the life of society, and to
impress upon the young people placed under their charge the impor-
tance of those ideals, and the dangers to which they will be exposed
in the careers they propose to enter. For my part, I cannot under-
stand how an unprejudiced student of the relations between civiliza-
tion and education can possibly desire the universities to hold them-
selves aloof from the pulsing life of the present day. It seems to me
that the movement which has resulted in the establishment of tech-
nical schools of all grades in connection with our universities is one
of the most hopeful and encouraging of our time. To me it means
that the power of our universities is increasing, that they are strength-
ening rather than loosening their grip upon the people and the
country, that the cause of culture is safe, and that the highest educa-
tional ideals have a better chance of survival than ever before in
our history. The refusal of our universities to establish schools of
commerce and other technical schools, which belong to the college
grade of development, I should deprecate as a great misfortune.
It would mean a relative increase in the power and influence of
institutions established for private gain and permeated by a narrow,
selfish spirit, and a rapid diminution in the interest which young men
and the most active and influential elements of society now feel in
our colleges and universities. I believe that the highest interests of
- * Adapted from William A. Scott, “The Place of Commercial Studies
in the College or University Curriculum,” Publications of the Michigan
Science Association, V (1902-4), 53-54.
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 377
society can be trusted with safety to the faculties and governing
boards of our college and universities.
Such liberal sentiments still find favor with those persons
concerned with determining the policies of collegiate schools of
business. In attempting to outline the function of a school of
business in a university in 1920, Dean Hotchkiss expressed these
views: -
A collegiate school of business is assumed in this discussion to
be a school that has its setting in a college or university. The fact
of such a setting carries certain implications which necessarily must
influence our discussion. . . . . These ideas may be indicated by the
words “public responsibility,” “educational sequence,” “scientific
content,” “professional aim,” “vision.”
Public responsibility.—Collegiate education, whether general or
professional, and whether supported by the state, or by private
endowment, is a public function, and it owes its first duty to the public.
Schools of business are in no different situation in this regard from
schools of law, medicine, or engineering. Their first duty is a func-
tion of the national life.
Educational sequence.—Relationship to an educational system
means that education for business is not a thing by itself; it is Some-
thing to be articulated with the framework of higher education; it
must begin somewhere and end somewhere; it must be a part of a
system. Doubtless the business curriculum will have some influence,
possibly a large influence, on the system; and we need to use this
influence to make the system more nearly what we think it should be;
at any given time, however, we shall have to fit our curriculum into
the system as we find it.
Scientific content.— . . . . In order to have proper scientific
content a business curriculum must be so organized as to carry the
student through basic analytical processes in which the fundamental
principles of business organization and management will be set
forth. On the other hand it is clear that the task of developing
analytical power cannot proceed with great efficiency unless our
efforts are put forth on really live material. It is not then a question
of discipline rather than information, but a question of discipline
# Adapted from Willard E. Hotchkiss, “The Basic Elements and Their
Proper Balance in the Curriculum of a Collegiate Business School,” Journal
of Political Economy, XXVIII (1920), 89–91.
378 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
through information. This means, I think, that our curriculum
should be so organized that the basic facts of business will be intro-
duced in an orderly and systematic way as subject-matter for analysis
and not as matters of pure informational interest. . . . .
Professional aim.—Analysis of business data may have a purely
research aim. Professional training is directed toward activity.
Before there can be orderly and well-considered business activity
the results of analysis must be brought together into working plans
for dispatching business, for exercising control, and for achieving
definite business results. . . . . Roughly stated, the professional
purpose of the Collegiate business School is to give the foundation
training for managers, business experts, and all those whose function
it is to develop and execute working plans in business.
Vision.—The subject-matter of education is drawn from the
past, but education itself must look to the future. This is peculiarly
true of education for business. . . . . Obviously the effort to build
a curriculum on prophecy involves Some danger. If we project our-
selves so far into the future that we lose contact with the present
we are likely to substitute speculation for fact and leave our course
floating in air. But a greater danger than this is the danger of stand-
ing still or looking backward. The presence of experimental courses,
courses which carry the curriculum beyond the present established
frontiers, is perhaps the most tangible indication of vision and the
surest guaranty of preventing a course of study from getting behind
the times.
A somewhat more concrete conception of the social utility
of a collegiate school of business may be made. Such schools
can train for management. That is, they can provide men able
to correlate the work of the innumerable specialists of our soci-
ety. As long as we make use of Specialization this is vital, and
the usefulness of institutions which can produce such Correlators
will be unquestioned.
CLASSES OF SCHOOLS
Not every collegiate school of business has been able to put
into practical form such broad and general ideals as have been
recited above. Some have not been in a position to apply
them. The curricula of the latter schools is often largely a
collection of business subjects adapted to the immediate prac-
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 379
tical needs of the students. One should hesitate, however, to
criticize such schools unduly. In large cities, especially in
evening courses, such curricula render a unique and valuable
service. Almost every phase of the curriculum problem of these
schools is different from that of the school offering a full-time
course to undergraduates who expect to work forward to a
degree.
Even among the full-time day schools, however, there is
still much to be done in the way of curriculum organization.
It is not difficult to point out instances where “courses dealing
with business” rather than “balanced curriculum” are offered.
On the other hand some outstanding instances of a philosophy
for building a curriculum are to be found. One statement of
such a philosophy is that made by H. S. Person as follows:
During the more than fifteen years of our efforts at the Tuck
School we have been searching for the elements of a curriculum
which are basic in the Sense that they relate to elements in business
which are universal in all business. We have come to believe that
the differences between businesses which are ordinarily noted—that
one manufactures or distributes shoes and another sugar; that one
fashions or deals in tangible commodities and another offers services—.
are superficial from the educational point of view. Attention to
these differences is essential but too much should not be made of
them. A curriculum, the elements of which are determined by a
consideration of these superficial differences, is likely to develop
limitations in the graduate rather than give him professional freedom
and power. Have you ever considered the fact that it is an excep-
tional student who knows until the time of graduation what business
he is going to enter, and that the businesses most students enter are
determined largely by the opportunities presented at the last moment;
also that five years after graduation the majority of graduates are no
longer in the businesses they entered at graduation? These are
significant facts. The inevitable conclusion is that the object of
training for business should be the development in the individual of
* Adapted from discussion by H. S. Person of Willard E. Hotchkiss,
“The Basic Elements and Their Proper Balance in the Curriculum of a
Collegiate Business School,” Journal of Political Economy, XXVIII (1920),
IOQ-I2.
&
A CHART OF BUSINESS ACTIVITIES
Personnel
Sales
ZONE I gº Stockholders
Determination of larger business .5
olicies - cº &
p #. Directors
.#
F. sº
3 President
GENERAL MANAGER
ZONE II <!-> Executive Staff
Determination of operating policies § e
and plans D g D 5 Requirements Control Progress
Specific requirements §
Progress C e ©
g : Finance Design Works Management
and Accts.
Planning Room
ZONE III 5
Administrative and shop and other º Foremen
routine operations 5 -
Q-
O Clerks Workers Clerks

COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 381
universal and transferable professional business ability. That alone
will give him freedom and power and make him master of his
Career.
If we can find the elements which are common to all business,
we have made a start toward determining what the profession de-
mands as the basic elements in our curricula. I shall take the liberty
of suggesting diagrammatically a method of approach to the determina-
tion of the common elements. Let us draw in skeleton form a typical
functional organization chart (p. 381). It may apply in principle to a
manufacturing plant, a department store, a railroad, a firm of lawyers,
a hospital—any organization for purposive collective activity. Upon
this skeleton organization chart we superimpose horizontal lines which
divide the activities of the organization into broad functional zones.
These zones also hold for any business. Now we have a start, for
we observe that every business demands in the large three kinds of
professional skill: the ability to determine large governing policy
(administrative or entrepreneur policy); the ability to determine
operating policy and to control operations (management); the ability
to carry out operating policy (routine operations). While the am-
bition of the individual is to become, through education, training, and
experience, a master successively in Zones I, II, and III, there is no pre-
sumption that the elements of our curricula should be determined by
giving equal weight to the requirements of these zones. It seems to
me that general education, experience, and the professional training
of the school of business have respectively a definite relation to
the development of skill in some one of these zones more than in
another.
With Zone I (the zone of routine operations), in which the gradu-
ates of our schools begin their careers, I believe “experience” is most
concerned. Speaking broadly, and not without some reservation,
(e.g., accounting, technique of foreign trade, etc.), I do not believe
our schools should attempt to teach the routine of any particular
business.
Another example of an underlying idea and one upon which
an extended experiment in curriculum-building is being carried
on, is that to be found in the School of Commerce and Adminis-
tration of the University of Chicago." -
* This statementis adapted from the Preface to L. C. Marshall, Business
Administration, pp. vii-ix. University of Chicago Press, 1921. A some-
382 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
. . . . The business executive administers his business under
conditions imposed by his environment, both physical and Social.
The student should accordingly have an understanding of the physical
environment. This justifies attention to the earth Sciences. He
should also have an understanding of the Social environment and
must accordingly give attention to civics, law, economics, social
psychology, and other branches of the Social sciences. His knowledge
of environment should not be too abstract in character. It should
be given practical content, and should be closely related to his knowl-
edge of the internal problems of management. This may be accom-
plished through a range of courses dealing with business administra-
tion wherein the student may become acquainted with such matters
as the measuring aids of Control, the Communicating aids of Control,
organization policies and methods; the manager's relation to produc-
tion, to labor, to finance, to technology, to risk-bearing, to the market,
to social control, etc. Business is, after all, a pecuniarily organized
Scheme of gratifying human wants, and, properly understood, falls
little short of being as broad, as inclusive, as life itself in its motives,
aspirations, and social obligations. It falls little short of being as
broad as all science in its technique. Training for the task of the
business administrator must have breadth and depth comparable
with those of the task.
Stating the matter in another way, the modern business adminis-
trator is essentially a solver of business problems. --problems of busi-
ness policy, of Organization, and of operation. These problems,
great in number and broad in Scope, divide themselves into certain
type groups, and in each type group there are Certain classes of
obstacles to be overcome, as well as certain aids, or materials of
Solution.
If these problems are arranged (I) to show the significance of the
organizing and administrative, or control, activities of the modern
responsible manager, and (2) to indicate appropriate fields of train-
ing, the diagram on opposite page (which disregards much overlapping
and interacting) results. {
what extended discussion of this matter is to be found in L. C. Marshall,
“A Balanced Curriculum in Business Education,” Journal of Political
Economy, XXV (January, 1917), 84.
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS
383
BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CONTROL
I.
3
Communicating aids of
control, for example
a) English
b) Foreign languages
. Measuring aids of Control,
for example
a) Mathematics
b) Statistics and account-
ing
. Standards and practices of
control
a) Psychology
b) Organization
and methods
policies
º
THE BUSINESS CURRICULUM
(Of problems of adjustment to physical
environment
a) The earth sciences
b) The manager's relationship to
these
Of problems of technology
a) Physics through mechanics,
basic, and other sciences as
appropriate
b) The manager's administration
of production .
Of problems of finance
a) The financial organization of
society
b) The manager's administration
of finance
Of problems connected with the market
a) Market functions and market
Structure
b) The manager's administration of
marketing (including purchas-
ing and traffic)
Of problems of risk and risk-bearing
a) The risk aspects of modern in
dustrial Society
b) The manager's administration of
risk-bearing
Of problems of personnel *
a) The position of the worker in
modern industrial society
b) The manager's administration
of personnel
Of problems of adjustment to Social
environment
a) The historical background
b) The socio-economic institutional
life *
c) Business law and government
\
384 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
LENGTH OF COURSES
Collegiate schools of business have made three fairly clearly
distinguishable arrangements in terms of length and School
years. First may be mentioned the two-year collegiate school
of business. This type in turn falls into two classes. Wisconsin
and Minnesota are good examples of one class. They each give
a two-year professional course in business during the Junior and
Senior years of College. Although the business course proper does
not begin until the Junior year, those students who are planning
to take the business Course follow a pre-business course during
their Freshmen and Sophomore years. To a considerable degree
the School of business indicates the subjects which shall be taken
in these pre-Commerce years. It is therefore a two-year course
with a considerable influence over the two preceding years.
The University of Pittsburgh, on the other hand, has a two-
year course given also for Juniors and Seniors which recognizes
no such term as pre-commerce students. The previous train-
ing of the students is a matter of no concern at Pittsburgh and
the present administration stands definitely for this two-year
course as distinguished from the course based on two years of
“guidance.”
The case for a rather sharp dividing line between the general
training and the professional training has thus been put:
It seems to us that technical commercial courses and liberal
academic courses must be so related in a curriculum as to
best develop two capacities in every physical man,—the man, in
the loftiest sense of the word, and the business man in the special
sense of the word; or to express it differently, to develop a man who
looked at on one side, is a broad minded man interested in business,
and looked at on the other side, is a businessman who is broad minded.
We believe that the training of the man should precede the
training of the business man and that the result can be best accom-
plished by having a period of education organized primarily for the
first and followed by a period organized primarily to accomplish the
other result.
* Adapted from H. S. Person, “Remarks Concerning the Amos Tuck
School of Dartmouth College,” Publications of the Michigan Science Associa-
tion, V (1902-4), 60.
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 385
A second arrangement is the four-year course. The present
program at the Wharton School outlines such a four-year under-
graduate course. The School of Commerce and Administration
of the University of Chicago is another example of a definite
four-year course which is declared to offer undergraduate pro-
fessional training. In both of these schools, as in other typical
four-year courses, the student can find a desirable amount of
work beyond his four years, although such work is not requisite
to his degree. The advantages of this type of organization are
presented in the following statement."
The undergraduate-graduate School of business administration
exercises control of the student’s curriculum for a period of from four
to seven years. The minimum four years carry the student to the
bachelor's degree, the maximum seven years should carry him to
the doctorate.
The advantages of this type of organization may be stated thus:
I. The control of the entire undergraduate curriculum makes it
possible to arrange an orderly course of study which will (a) correct
deficiencies of secondary education, (b) give the student an awareness
of the great fields of human activity, and (c) systematically develop a
knowledge of business in terms of its great functions. The plain
truth is that the Arts college has largely broken down in the American
educational system, and the college of business administration needs
to control the entire four years of its students in order to guarantee
an education that is really liberal, and not merely loose. That the
college of business administration may abuse this trust, if it conceives
its task narrowly, only serves to emphasize its opportunity.
2. Business education is so new and has before it so many prob-
lems, that it seems likely to gain by having the student under its own
faculty for as long a period as is reasonably possible. Experimenta-
tion and comparative study will thus be facilitated. Among these
problems may be cited the necessity of securing a proper background
(discussed above), field or contact work, the development of instruc-
tional material in terms of basic functions, and the technique of
instruction. These problems are all so large that a strong case may
be made for having control of the student’s course a sufficient time
to make comparative studies.
*This statement was prepared by L. C. Marshall, Dean of the School
of Commerce and Administration, The University of Chicago.
386 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
3. Control of the entering Freshman gives a much needed point
of contact with secondary education. There is no question that the
junior high School movement is working a revolution in that field and
that it is entirely possible that the final outcome will force a complete
overhauling of the college work. Students are already presenting
for college admission, credits for work taken in the eighth and even
in the Seventh grade. It is quite possible that matters may proceed
to the stage where college graduation requirements will be stated in
terms of achievements from the time of the seventh grade. The
School of Commerce and Administration of the University of Chicago
has, indeed, already adopted such a curriculum as an alternative
curriculum. It can readily be seen that a college of business adminis-
tration which sincerely believes in broad education may well covet
contact with secondary education, and may save one or two years of
educational waste if it makes this contact wisely.
4. Precisely the same kind of argument may be made for contact
with graduate work. If it be true, as I think it is, that careful
planning of a liberal business education from the seventh grade on
through college will, with incidental gains in liberal education, carry
the Bachelor in business administration as far as a second-year
graduate student is now carried, it is clear that our graduate work
can be made to assume a new dignity and importance. Too many
of our courses today are courses for graduate students rather than
graduate courses. The school which has control of the whole
undergraduate-graduate curriculum is in a strategic position for
fruitful work in remedying this situation. The doctorate (presumably
taken by those intending to teach in this field) can in such an institu-
tion involve very mature work.
A third period of possible training is represented in the
graduate school of business. The Graduate School of Business
at Harvard University is the outstanding example of such a
school. The course at Harvard is two years in length. The
Graduate School of the University of Pennsylvania includes a
special course in business administration for graduates of
accredited colleges and universities. Graduates of the Wharton
School who in the opinion of the authorities have had under-
graduate courses equivalent to the first year of this special
graduate course are admitted to the second year of the course
and are eligible to the degree of Master of Business Administra-
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS . 387
tion after one, instead of two, years of satisfactory resident work.
Dean Wallace Donham, of the Graduate School of Harvard
University, thus states what appears to him to be the function
of a graduate school of commerce."
My idea of the functions of a graduate school of business are
based, of course, upon the problem as I have seen it in my three
years in the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration.
The aim of a graduate school of business should be to train men
for future executive positions and train teachers of business, particu-
larly for the undergraduate collegiate Schools. I am firmly convinced
from my business experience that it is necessary in training men for
executive positions to give them a broad background, and I still
more firmly believe this since coming in contact with the men in the
school.
I do not feel that a graduate school of business should attempt
to train specialists, in fact a School cannot give the technique of a
particular job necessary to prepare specialists nearly as well as the
industry itself can give it.
A graduate school should assume the responsibility to help the
individual choose the type of business for which he is best suited.
From our experience a majority of the men who come to the business
school know only that they want to enter business, with little or no
knowledge of the demands of different industries within business.
To do this the Harvard Business School gives, first, a series of dis-
cussions for the first-year men in the school under the general heading,
“Business School Methods and the Choice of the Study Group.”
The second group is given toward the end of the year for second-
year men under the general heading, “Individual's Introduction to
Business.”
The first of these groups of lectures considers the relation of the
individual to the business School and also includes a group of lectures
on the general organization of business and Specialized business
careers, intended to help in the understanding of particular courses
and to assist the individual in choosing the study group in which he
shall concentrate his work in the school. The second group of lectures,
given toward the end of the second year, is intended to bring to the
attention of the beginner in business some of the more important
phases in his relation to the organization into which he may go when
*A statement prepared by Dean Wallace Donham.
388 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
he leaves school. Particular emphasis is placed on the problems
arising out of the personal attitude of the individual to his job and
to the man or the institution which employs him.
In the actual instruction it seems to us that we have three definite
things to give. The first of these is content of the particular courses
of study and study groups in the school. This content is more and
more resolving itself down to definite principles of instruction. It
is necessary in a graduate curriculum to give the content of all of the
basic subjects of business, that is, production, distribution, finance,
and control. In many ways more important than content, however,
is the method by which this content is given. Toward this end we
are developing the case system of instruction by which means we are
training the men to analyze business situations and to solve the type
of problem than an executive in business has to solve. A third item
of instruction is to give to the individual an understanding of the
economic background of business. This phase of the instruction I
believe is becoming very important. When a man undertakes a job
after completing the courses in the graduate school, he should be
able to interpret to his firm and to his particular job not only the
basic facts or economic principles, but also should be able to apply
the information which the economists and economic services are
preparing for his use.
THE STAGE OF BUSINESS-EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT
The attempt to undertake graduate work in a collegiate
school of business raises pointedly the question of how far
business education has developed. One aspect which graduate
work has taken up to the present time is to emphasize the study
of certain specialities. Courses can be given in particular fields
such as transportation, brokerage, insurance, or the administra-
tion of trust estates. Such a list of occupational courses could be
multiplied almost endlessly, and it would be far from the truth to
say that such courses are valueless. In regard to basic material,
however, there is at least a fair doubt if there is any material of
graduate grade which is of distinctly business character. It is
perhaps a fair doubt if the first year, even of the Harvard
Graduate School, has anything particularly new in content or
viewpoint to offer the graduate of the four-year course of any
of the better collegiate schools of business. Such a school can
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 389
offer a useful opportunity for problem study on a somewhat
more elaborate scale than is usual in undergraduate work.
Obviously, too, the mere continuation of problem work is
an extremely valuable undertaking even for the student
who has had a thoroughgoing undergraduate business Course.
Most of all, however, such courses are useful to the liberal-arts
or technical graduate who has not specialized in business.
The lack of thoroughly advanced material for schools of
business is a fact of which leading business-school administrators
are well aware. This lack is part and parcel of the development
of the movement. When one realizes that the collegiate school
of business began only a few years ago, almost without organized
material, the amount which has been accomplished is more re-
markable than the fact that much remains yet to be done.
The men interested in collegiate schools of business have been
too busy in laying the foundations for their work, to go far in
the preparation of advanced material.
Now that much of the preliminary material has been organ-
ized, there is growing the feeling that a great deal of it is after all
frankly elementary in character. This belief suggests an opportu-
nity to the collegiate schools of business. If a considerable part of
this elementary work could, with wisdom, be unloaded upon
the secondary schools, the time for more advanced work would
be made available in the undergraduate course, and the energies
of the men now engaged in these more elementary courses could
be freed and centered upon the preparation and organization of
an advanced type of material. -
Stimulating a movement in this direction is the thought that
the secondary-school curriculum would be greatly enriched by
an infusion of more social-science material and especially of
material dealing with those social relations found in business
activities. A definite step in the direction of such a program
as that just suggested is the report of a commission appointed
by the Association of Collegiate Schools of Business." -
*Journal of Political Economy, XXX (1922), T-55. Published also
under the title, Social Studies in Secondary Schools. University of Chicago
Press, Ig22.
390 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
This Commission was authorized to undertake a study of the
correlation of secondary and collegiate education. Interestingly
enough, this report presented a review of the social studies in
Secondary Schools and proposed a program of social studies for
the junior high school, stating the belief that the junior high
School was the “strategic point” for an attack at the present
time.
The Commission then proceeded to outline a proposed
reorganization of Social studies in the secondary schools which
it believes will open a way to weld the whole structure of business
education into a coherent whole.
There remains, therefore, a great deal of work to be done
before the Collegiate school of business will have found itself
and will be offering to students work of a strictly collegiate
character and Courses upon which study of really graduate
quality can be built.
There will no doubt be eventually, also, a considerable
broadening of the present viewpoint of collegiate business
education. At present, even where clearly planned curricula
are to be found, they center largely around the technique of
business administration and claim their justification in the
attempt to train organizers and correlators in a régime of
specialization. At best, however, one has the feeling that there
is an appearance of business statesmanship in but few of the
courses of the Collegiate Schools of business. Perhaps this is a
matter of no Concern. Perhaps it is meaningless language.
Perhaps it is harking back to the Canons of political economy.
The collegiate school of business has justified itself if it has
improved production and organization, and perhaps it cannot
do more. The field of the colleciate school of business may be
limited to improvement in technique and in organization. If
this is the limit, however, it is unfortunate. It will be regret-
table if the collegiate School of business cannot develop a corps
of business men capable of guiding Society. It will be regret-
table if the collegiate school of business cannot place clearly
before its students the underlying assumptions of a busin-SS
world; if it cannot bring its students to see that captains of
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS 39T
industry are as much needed properly to place business and to
limit it, as they are to employ it and exercise it. Only with
some such objective can the study of business in any sense
apply to itself the notion of a profession. Law, which we think
of as formerly a profession of this sort, has in large measure
become a business. To make a profession of business, starting
as we do with a heritage of individual attitudes and a tradition
of free enterprise, will require of the directors of business educa-
tion vision as well as courage and ability. But such is the
challenge which we in collegiate schools of business face. It is
that challenge which we must accept or drop all claims that
business education can be liberal.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Forms of education may be said to spring from the economic
situation. In what way is the collegiate technical or engineer-
ing school an example of this? In what way is the collegiate
school of business an example?
2. Although institutions may arise to fill needs, accident and person-
alities are important in determining the exact times when institu-
tions begin and the forms which they take. Does the early
history of collegiate schools of business illustrate this fact?
3. How would you account for the fact that a number of state schools
and other Schools of collegiate grade organized courses of the
business-college type in the period before Igoo?
4. How would you account for the growth in collegiate schools of
business from 1906 to 1921 P
5. Does it appear that the great increase of students in collegiate
schools of business from 1910 on is due to a new interest in busi-
ness training, or to a new interest in Collegiate training in general,
or both P
6. “The functions of collegiate schools of business have been thought
of from the beginning in broad and liberal terms.” Is there
evidence of this? If it is true, how would you account for it?
7. What was the belief expressed by Dean Scott concerning the
cultural possibilities of schools of commerce P What were Dean
Hotchkiss' views of specific duties of a collegiate school of
business?
392 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
8. What do you understand to be meant by the statement that
IO.
II.
I2.
I3.
T4.
I5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
I9.
Collegiate Schools of business can provide men able to correlate
the work of the innumerable specialists of our society P
. Examine carefully Person's chart of business activities. Apply
this analysis to some manufacturing business with which you
are familiar, giving specific illustrations of certain tasks that
would be done in each zone. Do the same for a mercantile
business. Can you do the same for an educational institution P
“The business executive administers his business under the condi-
tions imposed by his environment, both physical and social.”
Give examples which illustrate this statement.
Work through the “basic elements of the business curriculum.”
outlined by Marshall. Give an illustration of each of the types
of problems mentioned.
What do you understand by the phrases, communicating aids of
Control, measuring aids of control, standards and practices of
control?
Would a survey of the fields outlined in the list of the “basic
elements” give a student a comprehensive view of the tasks of
management? Do you believe that detailed study of each of
these fields would give him some ability in the tasks of
management?
Is there any value in the effort to make outlines or analyses such
as those suggested by Person and Marshall P What value, if
any P & -
No fundamental conclusion has yet been reached as to the proper
length of a collegiate School of business course. Such courses
vary with the beliefs of the organizers as to the amount of time
which should be given for general training. Does this seem to
you true? If so, illustrate.
Would it be possible to have a graduate school of business which
gave elementary business work?
What would seem to you should be the ultimate tasks which
Schools of business of collegiate grade should attempt to
accomplish P
What is meant by the statement, “Training is needed to teach
where to place business”?
Can education for business be liberal education ?
CHAPTER XV
THE TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE
In considering high-school commercial courses it will be
useful to break up our study into several parts. First, we shall
examine the typical high-school commerce course, the underly-
ing institution, as it exists generally throughout the country.
This first view will give us a useful general picture, but it will not
give us a complete picture of high-school commerical courses.
There are continual and important disturbances on the surface
of this underlying mass. In some instances experiments are
being proposed, in other cases experiments are on trial, and in
still others they have been carried far enough to justify approval
or rejection.
We shall, therefore, consider in later chapters what may be
called certain modern extensions of the high-school commercial
course. Some of these extensions are the more or less direct
outgrowth of the commercial course in high schools. In other
cases they are merely the adaptation to a new use of older
institutions. These modern extensions include the high school
of commerce, postgraduate commercial courses, evening com-
mercial courses, and co-operative commercial courses.
In this chapter, however, we shall concern ourselves only
with the general and typical high-school commercial course.
It should be said, also, that in this chapter we shall make
chiefly a descriptive study. This may serve as a basis of fact
for Chapter XXI, in which we consider high-school commercial
curriculum reform.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE
Enough has been said in Chapter X concerning the begin-
nings of commercial work in secondary schools to make unneces-
sary any historical statement in this place. So also the opening
chapter of this volume in depicting the growth and position of
business education gave in considerable detail the statistics
393
394 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
relating to high-school students in commercial courses. It may
be well to remind ourselves, however, that the number of high-
school commercial students increased from slightly over 15,000
to over 278,000, an increase of more than 1,700 per cent, in the
twenty-five years between 1893 and 1918. Many of the large
city high schools have between 30 and 40 per cent of their
students in commercial courses. A considerable percentage of
schools have between 40 and 50 per cent in this work. Further-
more, it is well to remember that some twenty cities have large
high schools of commerce in which all of the students are taking
commercial Courses. Once one sees clearly the implications of
these statistics and recalls the fact that it is to the secondary
school that we are at present looking for a somewhat liberal
training for large numbers, the significant position of the com-
mercial Course in Secondary Schools becomes apparent.
To gather the data upon which this chapter is based a
questionnaire was sent to each high School, excepting high
schools of commerce, which was listed in the report of the
Commissioner of Education as having over 200 pupils in com- .
mercial courses.” There were 192 such schools. In addition
to these, thirty-three questionnaires were sent to high schools
having between 150 and 200 students in Commercial work.
One hundred and thirty-six questionnaires, received from
twenty-six of the thirty-six states included in the Commissioner's
report, were returned in time to be included in the tabulations
which were made.
THE LENGTH OF COMMERCIAL COURSES
One hundred and twenty-six schools reported that a four-year
commercial course is offered. This is 90 per cent of the 136 that
reported. Forty-five schools, 32.3 per cent, reported that a
* The latest date for which accurate figures are available.
* This questionnaire was the basis of a monograph by the author
entitled A Survey of Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of
the United States. “Supplementary Educational Monographs,” Vol. II,
No. 5. Published by the University of Chicago, 1919. This chapter, due
to the courtesy of the publisher, the School of Education of the University
of Chicago, is in considerable measure an adaptation of certain parts of that
publication.
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 395
four-year course and a short course were given, and eleven
schools, 8 per cent, reported a short course only. Fifty-six
schools, 41.19 per cent, reported short courses. The term
“short course” is used here to indicate any commercial course
of less than four years, but it should be observed that there have
developed in secondary commercial work short courses of two
very distinct types. The first, which is by far the more common,
is the course of one, two, or three years which usually, though
not always, terminates in securing for the student some
definite diploma or certificate, and which is designed purely to
meet the demands of those students who wish to be rapidly
qualified for clerical positions.
The second type of short course is commonly called the post-
graduate short course. It is, as the term implies, a course that
is offered essentially to students who have completed their
high-school work. The Dorchester High School of Boston,
Massachusetts, the East Orange High School of East Orange,
New Jersey, the Madison High School of Madison, Wisconsin,
all reported a short course of this type. Since the question-
naires were returned the city of Chicago has established several
postgraduate short commercial courses in different sections of
the city. Chicago's experience as well as that of others of
these schools is discussed in Chapter XX. -
LENGTH OF THE SHORT COURSE
Fifty-six schools, 41.1 per cent of those reporting, indicated
that a short course was offered. The length of these short
TABLE XXXII
LENGTHS OF SHORT COURSES IN COMMERCIAL WORK IN 56 SCHOOLS*
LENGTH OF COURSEs
SCHOOLS REPORTING
3 Years 2# Years 2 Years I Year
No. of schools reporting ... I6 I 35 8
Percentage of total. . . . . . . 28.5 I .8 62.5 I4 .2
* Some schools report several short courses of different lengths.
courses varies from one to three years. The two-year course is
the most popular of the short courses. Thirty-five, 62.5 per
396 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS -
cent of the fifty-six Schools reporting short courses, reported
two-year courses. Table XXXII shows the variation in length
of the short courses.
REQUIREMENTS OF COMMERCIAL TECHNICAL SUBJECTS
The questionnaire asked for a list of subjects required of
students in the commercial course. In the tabulations the
subjects were grouped according to a classification which will be
explained as each group is discussed. The first classification
considered included the technical subjects. This term is used
to include the courses which train primarily in technical skill.
The tabulations here presented refer only to the four-year course.
No effort is made to summarize the technical subjects required
in short courses. Stenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping
predominate in the short course. These studies are usually
arranged in the way that will best fit the length of the course,
and they generally occupy all the time that is available. Under
such circumstances it is obvious that a tabulation showing the
variation in organization would indicate chiefly the varying
length of the courses themselves. English—sometimes business
English—penmanship, commercial arithmetic, and an elemen-
tary science are not infrequently included. Usually, however,
the curricula are prima facie clerk schools, masquerading under
the deluding name of business courses. -
The technical requirements of the four-year course are set
forth in Table XXXIII.” Inasmuch as commercial education in
American public schools had its beginning in bookkeeping, which
was shortly followed by typewriting and stenography, it might
seem reasonable to believe that all matters relating to these sub-
jects would be fairly well standardized. As a matter of fact, the
table shows that there is considerable lack of uniformity regard-
ing all of them. In the teaching of bookkeeping, for instance,
the reports show that the courses range from one-half year to
four years. Two years is clearly the most common period to
* See Table XVI for non-technical subjects in short courses.
* In considering the variations in length of courses it should be re-
membered that the number of hours a week is a variable. The degree of
variability was not brought out,
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 397
devote to bookkeeping. Nearly one-half of the 12I schools
reporting, 49.5 per cent, have fixed upon two years as the requi-
site time. The remaining 50 per cent vary widely. Fourteen
schools, or II.5 per cent, reported that one year is given to
bookkeeping. Nearly as many, Io.8 per cent of the schools
reporting, have one and one-half-year courses, while a surpris-
ingly large number, 14 per cent, utilize three years in the
TABLE XXXIII
LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED FOR TECHNICAL SUBJECTS IN Four-YEAR
COMMERCIAL COURSES IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS

r CoMMERCIAL
BOOKKEEPING TYPEWRITING STENOGRAPHY ARITHMETIC
º tº: º º
d equiring equiring equiring equiring
YEARS REQUIRED (of 121 Report- | (of 112 Report- (of II6 Report- | (of 114 Report-
ing) ing ing) ing)
Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent-
Number age Number age Number age Number age
#. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T o.8
#. . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 3.3 I O. 9 I o. 8 || 35 | 3o. 7
#. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . o.8
I . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 II. 5 I5 I3.4 9 7.7 | 72 63. I
13. . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Io. 8 6 5.4 5 4.3 3 2.6
Ił. . . . . . . . . . . . I o,83]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . Óo 49.5 54 || 48.2 8o 68.9 2 I. 7
2}. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5. 7 9 8. o 7 6.o 1. . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 I4. O 22 I9.6 II 9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3}. . . . . . . . . . . . I o.83| I O. 9 I o.8 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 3.3 4. 3.6 2 I. 7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . .

teaching of bookkeeping. Four Schools, or 3.3 per cent, spread
their course over four years, and an equal number require only
one-half year.
In typewriting, the lack of uniformity is not quite so pro-
nounced. Of the II2 reporting schools, 48.2 per cent have
fixed upon two years for their typewriting course. In this
work, however, as in bookkeeping, courses vary from one-half
year to four years. Of the schools reporting, 13.4 per cent
require a one-year course, 5.4 per cent require one and one-half
398 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
years, 8 per cent do the work in two and one-half years, 19.6
per cent have a three-year Course, and 3.6 per cent have a four-
year Course.
In Stenography more emphasis has been put upon the two-
year period than in bookkeeping, although the two-year course
has apparently not been so generally adopted as in typewriting.
Of II6 schools reporting, 68.9 per cent give two years to stenog-
raphy, 7.7 per cent give their work in one year, 6 per cent in two
and one-half years, 9.4 per cent require three years, and 1.7 per
cent require four years of training. -
A total of II4 schools reported concerning the length of time
required in commercial arithmetic. Of these, seventy-two, 63.I
per cent, give a one-year course. The half-year course is also
popular and is used in 30.7 per cent of the reporting Schools.
Only two schools reported courses in commercial arithmetic
extending over a two-year period. Three schools reported a
requirement of one and one-half years.
The lack of uniformity which exists in the length of courses
in these technical subjects, where one naturally expects a con-
siderable degree of standardization, is indicative of the uncer-
tainty that seems to pervade commercial education in high
schools. There is some reason, however, to believe that the
two-year Courses in bookkeeping, Stenography, and type-
writing have been emphasized for administrative reasons.
Our study has shown that business Colleges throughout the
country give much more intensive Courses in these technical
subjects, and, so far as the technical training is concerned, these
colleges appear to turn out a product quite equal to that which
the public high school produces. There is nothing to indicate
that the same work could not be accomplished in the same
manner in high Schools. Furthermore, and perhaps more to
the point, there is nothing to indicate that a careful study has
been made to determine the length of time necessary for the
acquirement of proficiency in these technical subjects. It is
common conversation among school people that technical
courses fit well into a two-year plan, yet the reports indicate
that many schools believe that they can be fitted into other
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 399
plans. Noticeably lacking is a standard time for technical
courses, based on careful experiment in teaching the subjects
referred to.
NON-TECHNICAL SUBJECTS IN THE SHORT COURSE
In a consideration of non-technical subjects, it appears
advisable to discuss English separately. One hesitates to
classify it as a technical subject, and yet it can hardly be grouped
with the distinctly non-technical work. Of the fifty-six schools
reporting short courses, forty-five gave data on the English
requirements in these courses. These data are given in Table
XXXIV. This report indicates that English is a subject which
has secured a place even in Courses so largely given to narrow
utilitarian uses as the short commercial Courses. A comparison
of this table with Table XXXII reveals some interesting facts.
Table XXXII indicates that 28.5 per cent of the schools giving
short courses have three-year courses. Table XXXIV shows
TABLE XXXIV
ENGLISH REQUIREMENTS OF THE SHORT CourSE
(45 Schools Reporting)

3 YEARS 2 YEARS I YEAR
Number Schools | Percentage §: Percentage Nº. Percentage
II 24.4 33 73.3 I 2. 2
that almost the same percentage, 24.4 per cent, require three
years of English. Of the schools reporting short Courses, 62.5
per cent give two-year courses. Of the short courses reported,
73.3 per cent require two years of English. Evidently English
is usually a required subject throughout the short course.
OTHER NON-TECHNICAL SUBJECTS IN THE SHORT COURSE
A consideration of the non-technical subjects other than
English in the short course brings out the lamentable paucity of
general training which is given in these short business courses
4OO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
and the very limited vision of the world with which their gradu-
ates enter business. In Table XXXV the non-technical subjects
have for convenience been thrown into three groups. Subjects
Commonly classified as Science are grouped together. A second
class is arbitrarily called “Social-Business Subjects.” These
Subjects are grouped separately because they include those
general subjects which deal with the social forces which surround
the business man and which are sometimes taught under the
direction of commercial departments. The third group is
termed the “General Academic Subjects,” and into it are put
all subjects not enumerated in the first two groups.
An examination of Table XXXV shows clearly that the short
courses are not planned to do much else than train along tech-
nical lines. Of the fifty-six schools reporting short courses,
approximately 75 per cent require something in the way of
Science, but only twenty-four, 42 per cent, require at least one
Social-business subject, and only thirteen, 22.7 per cent, require.
at least one general academic subject. A closer examination of
Table XXXV, however, reveals the infrequency with which any
comprehensive demands are made in the fields of general train-
ing. Science has apparently made some small claim. Commer-
cial geography, which in this discussion is classed as Science, is
required more universally than any other subject, and yet it is
required in the commercial short courses in but twenty-three
cases, 40 per cent of those reporting. Hygiene or physiology,
doubtless owing to state law in many cases, is required in twelve
of the short courses, 21 per cent of those reporting. Four Schools,
7.1 per cent of those reporting, require physiography. A single
School requires general science; one other requires physics or
Chemistry, and two schools require biology. This represents
the meager claim which science has been able to make in the
short courses, and yet its hold is more substantial than that of
any other group of subjects. If we refer to the social-business
subjects grouped in Table XXXV, we find that courses of such
decidedly business flavor as economics, industrial history, and
history of commerce have won almost no recognition. The
last two of these are required in two instances, slightly less than
*-
TABLE XXXV
NoN-TECHNICAL SUBJECTS REQUIRED IN THE SHORT CourSES, ENGLISH EXCEPTED (56 Schools Reporting)
*
SCIENCE
Commercial
Total Schools
Hygiene or - e - - - -
Geography.” Physiology Physiography General Science Biology Physics or Chemistry Requiring Science
No. of - No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
Schools P ºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Šćhoºls | * ºntº Number Percent-
Requiring g Requiring g Requiring g Requiring g Requiring àg Requiring g age
23 4O I 2 2I 4. 7. I I ‘ I .7 2 4. I I. 7 43 76
SoCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJEC
TS
Total Schools
Industrial History” |History of Commerce Economicsi Civicsi Commercial Law Local Industry Requiring
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of - No. of - -
Schools Pºnt- Schools P ºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Number Percent
Requiring g Requiring g Requiring § Requiring ag Requiring g Requiring g age
2 4 2 4. I I. 7 7 I 2 IO I8 2 4. 24 42
GENERAL ACADEMIC
United States - Medieval and - - C- - * ore ºf Total Schools
History Modern History English History Algebra Geometry Modern Ianguage: Requiring
No. of No. of --- No. of No. of - No. of - No. of
Schools Pºnt- Schools P ºntº Schools P ºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt- Schools Pºnt. Number Percent-
Requiring g Requiring g Requiring g Requiring g Requiring ty Requiring ag age
4 7. I I I. 7 1. I. 7 l I . 7 U I. 7 5 8.5 I3 22.7
* :n five other cases commercial geography and industrial history were made optional.
f In one other case civics and economics were optional.
# In one other case optional with algebra or history.
s





4O2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
4 per cent of the Schools reporting. Economics is reported as
required by only one School, 1.7 per cent of those reporting.
Commercial law has a Somewhat stronger position, inasmuch as
ten Schools, 18 per cent, require this subject. Civics is made a
requirement in the short course by 7 schools, 12 per cent, and
“local industry” is a requirement in two schools, 4 per cent of
those reporting.
The general academic subjects are hardly noticed by the
formulators of short commercial courses. Four of these schools,
7.1 per cent, require United States history, and five, 8.5 per
cent, make some modern-language requirement. Modern and
medieval history, English history, algebra, and geometry have,
respectively, established places as required subjects in only one
school.
THE ENGLISH REQUIREMENTS OF THE FOUR-YEAR COURSE
An examination of the English requirements in the four-
year course leads to conclusions similar to those at which one
arrives from the study of English in the short courses. What-
ever objection against other academic subjects may be advanced
TABLE XXXVI
NUMBER OF YEARS OF ENGLISH REQUIRED IN THE FOUR-YEAR
COMMERCIAL COURSE
(115 Schools Reporting)

4 YEARS 3% YEARS 3 YEARS 2 YEARS I YEAR
Number |Percent-|Number|Percent-|Number|Percent- Number Percent- Number|Percent-
Schools age Schools age | Schools age | Schools age | Schools age
86 74.7 6 5.2 18 I5.6 4. 3.4 I o.8
by the utilitarian organizers of commercial curricula, it is clear
that the need of English is admitted. A total of II5 schools
reported on the English requirements in the four-year commer-
cial course, and these reports are summarized in Table XXXVI.
An examination of this table shows that approximately three-
fourths of these schools have a requirement of four years of
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 4C3
English. Slightly over 15 per cent require three years of
English. But a single school, o.8 per cent, limits the require-
ments in English to one year, and only four of the II5 schools
reporting 3.4 per cent, limit their English requirements to two
years. The table shows that 94.5 per cent of the II5 schools
require three years or more of English in the four-year com-
mercial course. *
OTHER NON-TECHNICAL SUBJECTS IN THE FOUR-YEAR COURSE
Table XXXVII, which presents data gathered concerning
the non-technical subjects in the four-year course (English ex-
cepted), needs a word or two of introductory explanation. It
will be noted that subjects have been classified in three groups:
(a) “Subjects Dealing with Physical Environment”; (b) “Sub-
jects Dealing Directly with Social Environment of Business”;
(c) “Other Subjects.”
Speaking broadly, these three divisions are intended to
represent science, social-business subjects (such as those con-
sidered in Table XXXV), and the general academic subjects,
typically mathematics, language, and history. These headings
are used because the first two signify a business point of view
from which these non-technical subjects may be regarded. In
our study of what business is we have seen that an individual
business enterprise must make an adjustment to the complex
social relationship of which it is a part. Such social institutions
as the market, finanical structures, laws, and business associations
combine with a multitude of other mechanisms to make an
intricate social environment for a business undertaking. Cer-
tain subjects in the curriculum, such as economics, commercial
law, civics, and industrial history, are an aid in making the
student aware of this social environment and in enabling him
to adjust himself to it more effectively.
In the same way the individual business enterprise deals with
the facts of physical science and utilizes them constantly in the
conduct of its affairs. Some knowledge of this physical environ-
ment to which the individual business enterprise must make an
adjustment is gained through the study of various sciences.
4O4. EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Students in science and geography have an opportunity to gain
something which may be useful in making an adjustment to
physical environment.
Nothing need be said in explanation of the column labeled
“Other Subjects.” They are, as has been suggested, typically
mathematics, language, and history.
TABLE XXXVII
SCHOOLS OFFERING AND REQUIRING NON-TECHNICAL SUBJECTS IN THE
FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE, ENGLISH ExCEPTED
(136 Schools Reporting)


SUBJECTS DEALING DI-
RECTLY WITH SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT OF
SUBJECTS DEALING
WITH PHYSICAL OTHER SUBJECTS
OF TOTAL NUMBER ENVIRONMENT BUSINESS (GENERAL ACADEMIC)
OF SCHOOLS (SCIENCE)
REPORTING (SOCIAL BUSINESS)
Number | Percentage || Number | Percentage Number | Percentage
Schools offering to
four-year com-
mercial students
(136 reporting). . II4 83.o I25 QI. I IO5 77.2
Schools requiring in
first and second
years (136 report-
ing). . . . . . . . . . . . 93* 61.7 3of 22, O 8o 59. O
third and fourth
years (123 report- -
ing). . . . . . . . . . . . IO 8.o Ioé 86. I 62t 50.4
* In 63 instances this was commercial geography only.
f The distribution in the first and second years among the subjects considered in this
group was as follows:
Industrial history. . . . . . . . . Io schools Commercial law. . . . . . . . . . 9 schools
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Schools History of commerce. . . . . . 4 Schools
Civics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Io schools Local industries. . . . . . . . . . 3 Schools
† In 29 cases United States history, or United States history and civics, was the Sole
requirement.
An examination of Table XXXVII is, at first view, quite
heartening to those who hope to see a broader type of education
pervading commercial courses. The first column indicates that
II.4, 83 per Cent, of the Schools replying to the questionnaire,
offer to commercial students courses dealing with physical
environment; I25, 91.1 per cent, offer courses dealing with the
Social environment; while IoS, 77.2 per cent, offer some general
academic studies. A more careful analysis, however, shows that
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 405
there is no certainty that these subjects will be taken by com-
mercial students. The requirements in these lines of work are
noticeably less than the offerings. The requirements have been
divided into those which fall in the first and second years and
those which fall in the third and fourth years. In the first and
Second years ninety-three schools, 61 per cent, make some
science requirement of commercial students. This is more
gratifying before one realizes that in more than two-thirds of the
cases reporting science requirements, commercial geography is
the only science required. In the first and second years only
thirty schools, 22 per cent, require commercial students to take
courses dealing with the social environment in which business
is conducted. These requirements, as the footnote indicates,
are scattered and varied. The significance of these meager
requirements in the first and second years is emphasized when
one's attention is called to the large number of students in the
four-year courses who do not remain in School beyond the second
year. The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1916
regarding the number and percentage of students in each year
of high-school courses shows that the condition obtained which
is set forth in Table XXXVIII."
TABLE XXXVIII
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS IN EACH YEAR OF PUBLIC
HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES IN SCHOOLS REPORTING, Ig|A-15

FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR THIRD YEAR FOURTH YEAR
Percent-
Number age
Number | Percentage. Number |Percentage. Number |Percentage
543, 206 | 40.86 |354,705 || 26.69 || 245,380 | 18.46 | 185,873 || I3.99
There are many reasons for believing that in commercial
courses the percentage of students who leave during the first
and second years is somewhat higher than the averages quoted
in Table XXXVIII, yet this table indicates that more than 67
* Report of the Commissioner of Education, for the Year Ended June 30,
I916, II, 448.
400 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
per cent of the high-school students leave without beginning
their third year's work.
In the third and fourth years, as indicated in Table XXXVII,
Science is required in ten schools, 8 per cent of those reporting.
The studies in the social-business group, however, obtain a
noticeable prominence in the third and fourth years. Of the
schools reporting, Ioff, 86.1 per cent, require one or more of the
social-business group of studies. In few cases is there much
plan or organization shown in these requirements, but it is at
least satisfactory to notice that there is a keen realization of the
need of this type of work for business students. Apparently
the tendency is to crowd this work into the last two years at
the expense of science in this period and at the expense of the
first and second years. Science, on the other hand, has its
strongest—almost its only—hold in the first two years.
An examination of the general subjects required in the four-
year commercial course shows that commercial work and aca-
demic training have not established intimate relations. In
the first two years 59 per cent of the reporting schools make
some requirements, and in the last two years 50 per cent require
commercial students to take some general subject or subjects.
Usually, however, these requirements are limited, as is shown
in the case of the third and the fourth years, in which United
States history or United States history and civics is the sole
general academic requirement in twenty-nine of the sixty-two
schools that require Some general academic work.
SOME CONCLUSIONS FROM THE PRECEDING DATA
Three conclusions are inevitable from a review of the data
which we have been considering. The first of these conclusions
is that the high-school commercial course is still dominated by
heredity. It is still in the grip of its inheritance from the busi-
ness colleges from which it so largely sprang. Brought into the
secondary-School world to compete with private commercial
education, fathered in its beginnings almost entirely by the
graduates of business Colleges, finding its ideals largely in an
imitation of its competitors, the high-school commercial course
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 407
has in great measure remained as it began—a technical training
course, giving instruction in mechanical routine. In performing
this function it has been encouraged by business men and busi-
ness conditions. We have surveyed some of the characteristics
of business growth and change which during the past fifty years
have been conducive to the persistence of this type of training.
The developing aspects of modern business have kept in the
minds of business managers the need of clerical performance at
the same time that increasing size, risk, and complexity have
made industrial and commercial undertakings increasingly
forbidding, if not impossible, to a great number of persons.
These conditions have increased the inherent tendency of the
high-school commercial course to imitate the business college.
The second conclusion derived from these data, and one
that is akin to the first, is that the commercial course has never
clearly allied itself with the traditional purposes of American
high schools. There has been an attachment, but not a coales-
cence. The traditional courses of the high school have been
organized into various groups under various heads, but always--
poor as the accomplishment may have been—the high-school
function has been conceived as one of socialization. In this
aim the high-school commercial course has not liberally partici-
pated. Bound by its traditions and encouraged by circum-
stances, it has adhered to its narrow utilitarian ends.
The third conclusion follows from the second. The possibili-
ties of the high-school commercial course, either as a utilitarian,
or as a social course, have not been perceived, or, if they have
been perceived, that perception has not been expressed by an
adequate organization of work.
THE SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS IN THE CONTEMPORARY
HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE
As has been stated in Chapter X, late years have seen
appearing in the high School certain new subjects dealing with
social relations. Business has not formulated its feeling of
its social relations. Producers talk broadly of the market,
the financial situation, the administration’s attitude, bad times,
408 EDUCATION, FOR BUSINESS
labor conditions, booms, business risks, and the public without
always distinguishing between these factors or analyzing them
in relation to one another. Neither has the secondary educator
yet analyzed the Social complex of which each business is a part,
but has met this vague and general demand of business with
general courses in economics, industrial history, histories of
Commerce, Commercial geography, business writing, commercial
law, and sometimes commercial Organization.
These subjects that have more recently come into the high
school have not all found place in the commercial department."
One inquiry of the questionnaire dealt with a number of these
social-business subjects without regard to the claims of various
departments. The effort was made to determine how far they
are made effective in presenting to the student a reasonably
comprehensive view of the social significance of business and
the social implications of the technical work in any business
enterprise.
The selected group of social-business subjects considered
Were:
Industrial history Commercial law
History of commerce Salesmanship
Economics Advertising
Commercial geography Commercial organization
Business English
The questions asked concerning these subjects were designed
to learn: (a) the number and percentage of schools teaching
these subjects; (b) the lengths of courses offered; (c) to what
extent courses are required and in what years; (d) in what year
courses are elective or required; (e) by what department courses
are directed; (f) by teachers of what other subjects the
courses are taught; (g) difficulties and problems in the work;
(h) texts used; (i) purposes and methods employed. This last
question was asked only concerning salesmanship, advertising,
business English, and commercial organization.
* An argument, not uncommonly violent, rages in the high schools as
to whether commercial English belongs to the English department or to
the commercial department.
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 4O9
Not particularly related to the general purpose of this ques-
tion, but intended to bring out the extent to which certain new
Courses are taught, a tenth subdivision was included in this
question. This asked merely whether any work in office appli-
ances, banking, and Commercial designing was given.
To summarèze the replies to these questions required that at
least eight answers be noted and tabulated for each of nine
questions for the 136 schools that replied. The summaries are
set forth in the tables that follow. *
REQUIREMENTS AND ELECTIVES IN SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS
Table XXXIX presents the requirements and electives in
this group of studies as they were reported by the schools to
which the questionnaires were sent. A moment’s study of this
TABLE XXXIX
REQUIREMENTS AND ELECTIVES IN A SELECTED GROUP OF SOCIAL-
BUSINESS SUBJECTS

P REQUIRING ELECTIVE
JERCENT-
SUBJECT ; AGE OF THE
ING REPORTING Percentage Percentage
SCHOOLS | Number of Those | Number of Those
Offering Offering
Industrial history. . . . . . . . 43 3I.6 3I 72 I 2 28
History of commerce. . . . . 3I 22 25 8o. 6 6 I9.3
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 6I 49 59.7 33 4O .. 2
Commercial geography. . . IIQ 87.3 94. 78.9 25 2I
Commercial law. . . . . . . . II.8 86.8 go 76.2 28 23.7
Business English. . . . . . . . . 73 53.6 64 87.6 Q I2.3
Salesmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . 4O 29.4 I5 37.5 25 62.5
Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24. I8.3 8 33.3 I6 66.6
Commercial organization.. II 8.o8 4. 36.3 7 63.7
table reveals the fact that some of these subjects are much more
widely taught than are others. Commercial geography and
commercial law are far in the lead. Of the reporting schools,
87.3 per cent and 86.8 per cent, respectively, indicated that these
Courses were given. Economics ranks next in popularity.
Sixty-one per cent of the reporting schools indicated that this
subject is given. Business English is reported in slightly over
50 per cent of the reporting schools. Industrial history and
salesmanship are each taught in about 30 per cent of the high
4IO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
schools reporting, history of commerce in 22 per cent, advertising
in 18 per cent, commercial organization in 8 per cent.
Schools which offer these selected subjects by no means
universally require them, although in those studies which are
more commonly offered the percentage of requirement is high.
The history of commerce, commercial geography, commercial
law, and business English are all required in more than three-
quarters of the schools where they are offered. Industrial
history is required in 72 per cent of the schools which offer it.
Next is economics, which is required in 59 per cent of the
schools reporting it. Commercial Organization, advertising,
and salesmanship are, respectively, demanded of the pupil in
slightly more than one-third of the schools which offer these
subjects.”
VARIETY IN LENGTH OF COURSES
That the content of these social-business subjects is far from
standardized and varies greatly in the various high Schools is
indicated by a study of the lengths of courses reported. The
variations in some of the subjects are almost bewildering.
Advertising, for example, is taught in courses of the following
lengths: two years, one year, one-half year, one-third year, one-
quarter year, and one-tenth year. The half-year course has
apparently found more favor than any other length of course.
In 54 per cent of the schools reporting, this is the preferred
length of course. The other courses vary from ió per cent of
the reporting schools to 4 per cent of them. An examination of
Table XL, in which the variation in lengths of courses is indi-
cated, shows that advertising is no exception.
Business English, for instance, in 9 per cent of the cases
reported, is taught for four years; in 6 per cent of the cases
reported, for three years; and in 23 per cent of the cases, for
two years. Twenty-seven per cent of the schools, which
reported teach the subject in a one-year Course, while 31 per
cent give a half-year’s work.
The length of salesmanship courses is almost as varied.
Two schools reported a course two years in length. From this
*The availability of good text is no doubt an important factor in de-
termining the extent of these courses. They are also more difficult to give
in small Schools.
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE
4II
extreme the courses are reported shorter by gradations to
quarter-year courses which are offered by four schools, Io per
cent of those giving work in salesmanship.
TABLE XL
LENGTHS OF COURSES OF A SELECTED GROUP OF SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS

SCHOOLS OFFERING
COURSES OF EACH
LENGTH OF LENGTH
SUBJECT CourSE
IN YEARS Percentage
Number of Those
Reporting
2 T 2. 2
tº * * e & I# I 2. 2
Industrial history (44 schools reporting). . . . . I 2I 47.7
# 2I 47. /
I# I 3, 2
History of commerce (31 schools reporting). . I 9 29
- # 2I 67.7
I 22 26. I
Economics (84 schools reporting). . . . . . . . . . . # 6I 73.8
- H', I I . I
2 I o. 8
Commercial geography (119 schools reporting) I 56 47
# 62 52. I
º tº I 29 25
Commercial law (II6 schools reporting). . . . . . 1. 87 75
2
4 7 9.2
3 5 6.5
Business English (76 schools reporting). . . . . . : 1. * *: º
2 º
I 2I 27.5
# 24 3I. 5
2 2 5
I IO 25
Salesmanship (40 schools reporting). . . . . . . . . # 23 57.5
# I 2.5
# 4. IO
2 2 8.3
I 4 I6.6
tº º e 1. I3 54. I
Advertising (24 schools reporting)... . . . . . . . . # 3 } 2. S
4. • Y
# I 4. I
| Hº I 4. I
I 3 3O
Commercial organization (Io schools reporting) # 6 6o
I.
3. I IO
4I2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
In subjects where textbooks are available there is a less
noticeable variation in the lengths of the courses which are
given. Industrial history was reported once as a two-year
Course; it was reported once as a year-and-a-half course, while
twenty-one Schools require it as one-year and half-year courses,
respectively. The history of commerce is reported in one
instance as given for a year and a half, though it has quite
generally settled into a year's or a half-year’s work.
Commercial law, economics, and commercial geography
have apparently reached a stage of quite uniform practice. In
75 per cent of the reporting Schools commercial law is a half-year
Course, and in 25 per cent it is a one-year course. In 73.8 per
cent of the reported cases economics is given for a half-year.
In one instance, I. I per cent of the reported cases, economics is
reported as one-tenth of a year's work. In 26.1 per cent of the
Schools giving it economics is a one-year subject. Commercial
organization, a very recent addition to high-school work, is
reported by only ten schools. In these ten schools, however,
the course has been organized as a half-year or a one-year study
with only a single exception, in which it is reported as a course
lasting one-third of a year.
As has been suggested in a preceding Section, it is unjustifi-
able to conclude from the fact that the length of a course has
become standardized that the proper length of time for giving
that work has been ascertained by any clearly thought-out or
Scientific means. All too frequently convenience of organiza-
tion with other work proves to be the final factor in determining
the length of a course.
HOW SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS ARE DIRECTED
It is said that an oriental who has been given a fortune will
produce a palace and a harem, while an Englishman or a
Yankee will turn the same material into a factory or a railroad.
A child with a box of wet clay will make a mud pie, but with
the same substance a sculptor produces a work of art. The
principle holds good in teaching. The interests of pedagogues
determine in no small degree the results which are produced
with courses.
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 413
It is pertinent, therefore, to ask who directs the social-
business subjects in the high school. Table XLI presents the
data collected on this matter. It shows quite clearly that there
is disagreement as to the departments to which these various
subjects should belong.
Commercial law is directed by the commercial department
in 92.3 per cent of the reported cases. Salesmanship is given to
the commercial department in 91 per cent of the reporting
Schools.
TABLE XLI
METHODS OF DIRECTING SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTs

NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS REPORTING
THESE SUBJECTS DIRECTED BY:
§ OF
CHOOLS tº 3 &
Combination of
SUBJECT Rºr Commercial 8. Commercial and
METHOD Department Department D Other
OF DIREC- epartments
TION
Percent- Percent- Percent-
Number age Number age Number age
Industrial history.... 33 I 2 36.3 I8 54.5 3 Q
History of commerce. 23 I5 62.2 7 3O .4 I 4.3
Economics. . . . . . . . . . 66 24 36.3 39 59 3 4.5
Commercial geogra- -
phy...; * * * * * * * * * * 89 76 85.3 II I2.3 3 3.3
Commercial law. . . . . QI 84 92.3 5 5.4 2 2 . I
Business English. . . . 57 32 56. I 22 38.5 3 5.8
Salesmanship . . . . . . . 34 3I QI . I 2 + 5.8 1. 2. Q
Advertising. . . . . . . . . 22 I8 8I .8 4 18.1 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial organiza-
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . Q 8 88.8 I II . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advertising, commercial organization, and commercial
geography are each directed by the commercial department in
more than 80 but less than 90 per cent of the cases where these
subjects are given.
Industrial history which is thought of by many as a subject
very intimately related to business is directed by some depart-
ment other than the commercial in more than 54 per cent of
the schools where it is taught. In only 36 per cent of such
schools does the commercial department direct this work. The
history of commerce (is it because the term “commerce” is in
the subject?) fares somewhat better from the point of view of
4I4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the commercial department. More than 62 per cent of the
schools which reported this subject allow the commercial
department to direct it. It is directed by other departments
in slightly over 30 per cent of the cases reported.
One may well wonder how closely economics is related to
practical matters in secondary schools when he observes that in
59 per cent of the schools where it is offered, it is taught by Some
department other than the commercial. In only slightly over a
third of the instances where this subject appears does the Com-
mercial department direct its destiny. There is reason to
believe, although there is no evidence in these statistics to
support the theory, that economics and industrial history are
both largely in the hands of history departments. These sub-
jects, especially economics, were in the high-School curriculum
before commercial work made its appearance. Because they
were associated with the history department in those early
days, disassociation has not taken place.
It is interesting to notice that in a considerable number of
instances the social-business subjects are directed by a combina-
tion of the commercial department and other departments.
Industrial history is thus treated in 9 per cent of the schools
which reported it. Advertising and commercial organization
are in no cases thus handled, but the history of commerce,
economics, business English, Salesmanship, commercial geog-
raphy, and even commercial law have a dual direction occasion-
ally indicated.
WHO TEACHES SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS P
Of perhaps greater significance than the departments which
direct courses is the teacher who teaches them. As the teachers’
interests are bent, so will the course be inclined. Something
regarding the teachers’ interests can be gleaned from the group
of subjects which they are teaching. What other subjects, then,
are being taught by the teachers of social-business subjects?
Table XLII gives in tabulated form a classification of teachers
who present these subjects to students. In this table teachers
have been grouped in three classes: teachers of commercial
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 4I5
Subjects only, teachers of other subjects only, and teachers of
both commercial and other subjects. This table shows a
situation quite similar to that indicated in Table XLI. Fifty
per cent of the industrial history courses are taught by teachers
of some department other than the commercial department. In
25 per cent of the instances named the teachers of the commercial
department give this work. The history of commerce is taught
by teachers of Commercial subjects only, in 45 per cent of the
schools which reported; by teachers of other subjects only, in the
TARLE XLII
NUMBER OF TEACHERS GIVING SELECTED GROUPS OF SOCIAL-
BUSINESS SUBJECTS
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS REPORTING
N THESE SUBJECTS TAUGHT BY TEACHERS of:
O. OF
SCHOOLS
SUBJECT REPORT- Commercial Other Subjects | Both Commercial
ING CLASS | Subjects Only nly and Other Subjects
OF
TEACHERS
Number Fººt Number Fººt Number Pºt.
Industrial history.... 28 7 25 I4. So 7 25
History of commerce. 2O Q 45 Q 45 2 IO
Economics. . . . . . . . . . 66 2I 31.8 34 51.6 II 16.6
Commercial geogra- -
phy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94. 58 61.7 22 23.4 I4. I4 - 9
Commercial law. . . . . 9I 65 7I.4 I 2 I3 . I I4 I5.3
Business English. . . . 52 27 5.I.Q 2I 4O.3 4. 7.6
Salesmanship . . . . . . . 25 IQ 76 5 2O I 4.
Advertising. . . . . . . . . IQ I2 63. I 7 36.8 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial organiza-
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6 85.7 l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I4 - 2

same percentage of cases; and in Io per cent of the reported
cases by teachers of Commercial subjects and other subjects as
well. In the teaching of economics, as might be expected from
our previous observations, teachers of other subjects than
commercial predominate, having the course in their hands in
51 per cent of the instances given. Teachers of commercial
subjects only, teach economics in 31 per cent of the schools where
this work is taught. In 16 per cent of the cases an instructor
with varied teaching interests handles the class. Commercial
geography and commercial law are quite thoroughly in the hands
4I6 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
of Commercial teachers, these subjects being thus taught in 61
per cent and 71 per cent, respectively, of the reporting schools.
In approximately 15 per cent of the reporting schools each sub-
ject is taught by teachers of both commercial and other subjects,
leaving 23.4 per cent of the geography and 40 per cent of the
commercial-law classes with teachers of other subjects only.
The teaching staff of business English is rather evenly divided.
Slightly over half the teachers of this subject are of the strictly
commercial type. Forty per cent teach other subjects only,
presumably English in most cases. Commercial organization is
in no case reported as being entirely out of the hands of com-
mercial teachers. In one instance the reply was made that a
teacher who taught some other subjects as well as commercial
Subjects was giving the work. In all other instances com-
mercial organization is in the hands of Commercial teachers.
Salesmanship and advertising are not so generally taught by
Commercial teachers as is commercial organization. In only
three-quarters of the schools giving the work is salesmanship
guided by strictly commercial teachers, while advertising is in
the hands of such teachers in less than two-thirds of the schools
which teach the subjects.
CORRELATION OF SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS
WITH OTHER SUBJECTS
Anyone who has taught economics, commercial law, indus-
trial history, commercial organization, salesmanship, history of
industry, or commercial geography, or who has studied more
than one of these subjects, knows the intimacy with which the
subject-matter is interrelated. Universities in some instances
make rather careful efforts to have these subjects taught in such
a way that the interrelations may be as apparent as possible.
Teachers of these courses are often asked to visit, if not to take,
allied work. The Doctor's degree is not given until a sufficient
sequence has been taken to insure a somewhat comprehensive
point of view. Such measures, whether or not the teacher is
aware of it, result in aiding the student to fuse into a unified
intelligence the various separate courses,
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 4I7
How far is an effort made to correlate these social-business
Courses in the high School? A query attempting to gain
information on this matter was included in the questionnaire.
The tabulated results are shown in Table XLIII. Before that
table is examined, however, attention should be called to the fact
that the query regarding Correlation was not answered in as
many cases as might be hoped for. The returns seemed to
indicate that the idea of correlating courses was unthought-of
in a great many Schools. Even in Schools where a great variety
TABLE XI,III
SCHOOLS NOT REPORTING CORRELATION COMPARED WITH SCHOOLS
WHICH MIGHT HAVE REPORTED CORRELATION

*ś" Tº
SUBJECT CORRELATION WHICH MIGHT
HAVE REPORTED
Number Percentage CORRELATION
Industrial history. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O 45.5 44
History of commerce. . . . . . . . . . I 2 4O 3O
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 57. I 84
Commercial geography. . . . . . . . 69 57 I2 I
Commercial law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 63.3 I2O
Business English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. I 52.5 78
Salesmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 53.6 4.I
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2O. 4. 24
Commercial organization. . . . . . . . 7 63.4 II
h |
of social-business subjects were offered, the question regarding
correlation of any of these subjects was sometimes passed by
with no comment, either affirmative or negative. One would
be almost justified in concluding that in a considerable number
of the cases where no report was made regarding correlation,
correlation was absent.
Table XLIII may be used in conjunction with Table XLIV.
It indicates the number and percentage of schools which did not
report correlation as contrasted with the total number which
might have reported correlation of subjects. This table needs
little interpretation. The more recent additions to the com-
mercial curriculum, such as advertising, seem to have more
418 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
frequent correlation than longer-established subjects, such as
commercial law and economics. Advertising was reported to
be correlated with other subjects in all but 20 per cent of the
schools giving it. No report of correlation was made for Com-
mercial law in 63 per cent of the schools reporting on the ques-
tion, No correlation was reported for economics in 57 per
cent of the schools giving the work. It is unsafe to generalize
from this, however, for commercial organization, which is still
too new an addition to the curriculum to be taught in many
TABLE XLIV
CoRRELATION OF A SELECTED GROUP OF SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS
WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS REPORTING
N CoRRELATION OF COMMERCIAL SUBJECTs witH:
O. OF f
SCHOOLS
SUBJECT REPORT- || Commercial Sub- || Other Subjects | Commercial and
C ING jects Only nly Other Subjects
ORRE-
LATION P P Perce
ercent- ercent- erCent-
Number age Number age Number age
Industrial history.... 24. I3 54. I 7 29. I 4 16.6
History of commerce. I8 I6 88.8 I 5.5 I 5.5
Economics. . . . . . . . . . 36 I4 38.8 IO 27.7 I 2 33.3
Commercial geogra-
phy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 28 53.8 I3 25 II 2I . I
Commercial law..... 44 32 72.7 5 II .3 7 I5.9
Business English. . . . 37 25 67.5 5 I3.5 7 18.9
Salesmanship. . . . . . . I9 I4 73.6 3 I5.7 2 Io. 5
Advertising. . . . . . . . . IQ I 2 63. I 5 26.3 2 Io. 5
Commercial organiza- f *
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 4 100 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
schools, is as isolated, apparently, as is commercial law. As in
the case of the latter study, commercial organization is not
reported as correlated in 63 per cent of the schools teaching it.
Three possible types of correlation were indicated in the ques-
tionnaire: correlation with commercial subjects only; correla-
tion with other subjects only; correlation with commercial and
other subjects. In those schools where correlation is attempted
there is a considerable variation of this sort of effort. In
every instance reported there is more correlation with tech-
nical commercial subjects than with other subjects. Com-
mercial organization was reported to be taught in Correla-
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 419
tion with commercial subjects only, in Ioo per cent of the
cases where correlation is tried. Commercial law was re-
ported taught in correlation with commercial subjects only,
in 72 per cent of the correlation instances, as compared with II
per cent of cases in which it is correlated with other subjects
only, and 15.9 per cent of the instances of reported correlation
in which it is related both to commercial and to other subjects.
History of commerce is correlated with technical commercial
subjects in 88 per cent, with other subjects only, in 5.5 per cent,
and with other subjects and commercial subjects in 5.5 per
cent of the instances where any correlation is made. Salesman-
ship was reported correlated with commercial subjects only, in
73 per cent of the cases of correlation, with other subjects only,
in 15.7 per cent, and with both classes of subjects in Io.5 per
cent. Advertising, in 63.1 per cent of the cases, was reported
correlated with commercial subjects only, in 26.3 per cent with
other subjects only, and in Io.5 per cent with both commercial
and other subjects. Business English is correlated with business
subjects only, in 67.5 per cent of the schools that correlate it
with other work. It is correlated in 13.5 per cent with other
subjects only, and in 18.9 per cent with both classes of subjects.
Commercial geography, in 53.8 per cent of the instances
given, is correlated with commercial work only, with other
subjects only in 25 per cent of the cases reporting, and with
commercial and other subjects in 21 per cent of the given
instances. Correlation in economics, as might be expected from
the fact that it is so frequently taught by non-commercial
teachers, is even more varied in correlations than commercial
geography. In 38 per cent of the cases given it is correlated
with commercial subjects alone, in 27 per cent of the cases
with other subjects only, and in exactly one-third of the given
instances it is correlated with commercial and other subjects.
The correlation attempted with industrial history is likewise
varied. Fifty-four per cent of the reporting schools correlate
this with nothing but commercial subjects; 29 per cent relate
it to other subjects only, and 16 per cent combine it with com-
mercial and other subjects.
42O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Many of the high schools in reporting the correlation which
they attempted gave specific instances of courses taught in com-
bination. Several such reports of combinations are given below:
ſ Shorthand Bookkeeping
Typewriting Business arithmetic
Spelling Penmanship
Office procedure
Business English Economics
e {:
Economics
t º law ſPhysical geography
Commercial organization \Commercial geography
Salesmanship ſCommercial law
6. \Oral English
Shorthand dictation Business forms
tº law º
THREE SPECIAL SUBJECTS
As was indicated at the beginning of this section, a question
was asked to determine merely the extent to which office appli-
ances, banking, and Commercial designing are given in the
Secondary-school courses. Table XLV shows in tabulated
TABLE XLV
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS GIVING WoRK IN
THREE SPECIAL SUBJECTS
(133 Schools made a report on the questions, among
which this was included)
Subject Number Percentage
Office appliances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 89 66.9
Banking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 33.8
Commercial design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2I.8
form the replies received. As it easily observable in Table
XXVI, a considerable number of secondary schools have intro-
duced courses in these subjects. Especially is the subject of
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 42I
office appliances widely taught. It is perhaps surprising to find
work in banking given in a third of the secondary-school com-
mercial courses, and perhaps as much so to see the position of
commercial design.
SOME CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FOREGOING DATA
A number of general conclusions are justified from a review
of the statistical material which has been presented thus far.
First is the fact that the social-business subjects have found
their way into the secondary schools to a very considerable
degree. Nearly every subject which would be considered as
important in a modern university school of commerce has found
some place in a secondary-school curriculum. The subjects of
this group which are most commonly offered are those which
have longest been substantial parts of college and university
COUISCS.
A second general conclusion is that the requirements in this
group of subjects are not as extensive as the offerings. Require-
ments are most extensive in those subjects which are most
commonly given. There seems to be almost a direct ratio
between the percentage of schools offering and the percentage
of schools requiring these subjects. One may see this by
contrasting commercial law, which is offered in 86 per cent of
the reporting schools and required in 76 per cent of the schools
where it is offered, with commercial organization, which is
offered in Only 9 per cent of the reporting schools and is required
in only 36 per cent of the schools offering it. From these two
conclusions one might draw the inference that although the
social-business subjects are widely taught, the definite work
accomplished by each of them is not well enough defined or
understood to justify the organizers of curricula to build up
and require a definite standardized group of studies which shall
acquaint the pupil with his social-business world. *
Another conclusion, and one which supports the preceding,
is that the courses in the subjects here under review are not well
enough defined to permit conclusions regarding the length of
time which they should be taught. The variation in length of
422 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
d
courses as they now exist in secondary Schools, especially in the
more recently introduced subjects, is evidence of this.
Social-business subjects, directed and taught as they are,
sometimes by strictly commercially minded individuals and
sometimes by persons of purely classical training, cannot be
relied upon to present any definite body of knowledge or con-
sistent point of view. The evidence would seem to show that
no definite point of view has been determined and that the
results which are obtained with these courses must be varied in
the extreme.
The lack of clearly determined purposes and methods is
further indicated by the limitations which are reported in cor-
relation. All too many schools report no effort to correlate
subjects having Such intimate Connection as salesmanship,
commercial organization, and economics, or accounting, com-
mercial law, and business organization.
The lack of correlation also suggests a great waste of time
and effort from overlapping and duplication. The student
who studies accounting with no knowledge of business organiza-
tion must gain a meager view, indeed, of the function of that
great science. If the function of accounting is presented in
the class specifically devoted to that work, waste of time is
certain unless it is closely related to the work done in business
organization and commercial law. The same situation is true of
commercial law, industrial history, economics, and civics. In
each of these, as the texts commonly present the matter, the
student comes in contact with Such institutions as the Inter-
state Commerce Commission. Each book gives certain facts.
Unless there is careful correlation, perhaps more careful than is
conceivably possible with the present textbooks, there is much
duplication. Unfortunately the duplication is not usually from
such different points of view that the student’s knowledge is
greatly widened. Few, indeed, are the high-school graduates
who think of the Interstate Commerce Commission or similar
institutions in terms of function, or who could show the relation
between such an organization and overhead costs of which they
have learned only in accounting.
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 423
Some considerable correlation of work, however, exists, and
the instances which are reported augur well for what may be
expected in the future. Handicapped as he is by textbooks of
narrow view, public demand of still more limited vision, utilita-
rian traditions, and more work than any person can do well, it is
small wonder that the high-school teacher of social-business sub-
jects has not effected the correlation and organization of work
which might be desired.
Finally, the situation shows a need for aid. Aid is needed
in the preparation of texts which, dealing with this complex
material of the social-business world, shall so organize it that
duplication can be largely eliminated. The material must also
be organized to bring out the subtle interrelations of the elements
involved so far as that is possible. The subject-matter must be
of such a character that predetermined purposes can, in general,
be reached. - - t
Aid is also needed, and from the outside, for teachers. The
insistent and too numerous duties of the high-school teacher will
not allow him at first hand to effect the reorganization which is
desirable. A point of view, a body of material, and even
methods may, through the proper machinery, be conveyed to
the high-school teaching force. It is only from those who are
removed from the details, who “can go outside of the house to
look at it,” that such aid can best come.
POLICIES AND METHODS IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL
COMMERCIAL WORK
Inquiries were made to gather data on certain policies and
methods now employed in high-school commercial work. Table
XLVI presents a tabulation of the answers concerning election
of courses, requirements for boys and girls and general aims of
the course.
A very general election of studies other than commercial
requirements seems to prevail in the business courses of second-
ary schools. In only 18.5 per cent of the reporting schools are
commercial students restricted in their electives, once their
424
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
commercial requirements are satisfactorily met.
|
In the other
81.5 per cent a free election of studies is allowed. These per-
centages are on the basis of 119 schools which reported on this
particular question.
PURPOSES AND POLICIES IN COMMERCIAL COURSES
TABLE XLVI

NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF | NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE | NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE
II9 REPORTING SCHOOLS OF II 2 REPORTING SCHOOLS | OF II6 REPORTING SCHOOLS
WHICH: WHICH: WHICH:
e - Make Make No Attempt to
*...* Rºjº, * Different Different Attempt to Fit for Office
Studies Other TOIn Require- Require- Prepare Only Work and
than Commerciall Commercial º . º ; º º Aït
ge * Oys an Oys an ork’ miniStra-
Requirements | Requirements Girls Girls tion
Per- Per- Per- Per- Per- Per-
Number cent- Nº. Cent- Nº. Cent- Nº. Cent- Nº. Cent- Nº. cent-
age age age age age agc
97 81.5 22 18.5 3 2.7 IOQ 97.3 71 61.2 45 38.8
REQUIREMENTS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
One hundred twelve schools reported on the question relating
to the different requirements for boys and girls. One hundred
nine of this number, 97.3 per cent, reported no different require-
ments for boys and girls. Two and seven-tenths per cent make
some difference in requirements for the sexes. The significance
of the situation is apparent when one Compares the demands in
business for boys with the demands made upon girls. The dif-
ference has been presented at some length in the chapters dealing
with “What Business Says It Wants.”
CERTAIN METHODS USED IN COMMERCIAL TEACHING
Table XLVII presents a tabulation of the replies received
to queries concerning certain methods employed in teaching
commercial subjects. As this table shows, nearly three-quarters
of the reporting schools use lecturers from business life as a
means of aiding in commercial work. Approximately two-
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 425
thirds of the schools which replied to this query indicate the use
of business publications.
TABLE XLVII
CERTAIN METHODS USED IN COMMERCIAL WORK

TESTS IN TYPEwriting AND
LECTURERS FROM BUSINESS LIFE | BUSINESS PUBLICATIONS | STENOGRAPHY OTHER THAN
(Iro REPORTING) (IOA REPORTING) TEACHER's JUDGMENT
(II.7 SCHOOLS REPORTING)
Number Schools Perº of Number Perº of Number. º: of
Using Repºrting Schools Using Repºrting Schools º Reporting
l -
8I 73.6 68 65.3 ſo so.8
TESTS
The question of standardized measurements in all educa-
tional work is one of increasing importance. In response to the
question concerning the use of tests other than the teacher's
judgments, 59.8 per cent of the schools replying reported the
use of tests. These replies gave indications that the tests
employed are usually those furnished by textbook and machine
Companies, such as the Gregg shorthand tests and the Under-
wood tests in typewriting. So far as can be ascertained,
Scientific tests to measure progress in skill under standardized
conditions have not been worked out and are not applied. As
has been already intimated, no one has yet proved what the
proper length of the typewriting and stenographic Courses
should be. Neither has the skill which should be acquired
with definite hours of work been ascertained.
TEXTBOOKS IN THE SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS
Evidence in plenty was given in the returned questionnaires
to show that many of the textbooks now available for use in
teaching social-business subjects in the secondary schools are
not satisfactory. The authors of textbooks are frequently
more mindful of their academic reputation with their colleagues
than of the limited ability of high-school students and the
limited opportunities and occupied energies of high-school
426 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
teachers. The result is often a type of text which is likely to be
Somewhat authoritative upon the subject but unserviceable in
its supposed mission.
The lack of proper texts is well appreciated as among the
difficulties of high-school teachers and principals. In the reports
received on “difficulties or problems in the work” such com-
ments as the following are to be found:
“It is difficult to find a good text that is not too difficult for the
second-year students.” *
“Lack of reference books.”
“No suitable textbook exists.”
It is interesting to observe that no school reported a difficulty
with its commercial-law books. No great amount of criticism
of existing texts was reported in connection with the difficulties
in teaching advertising and business writing. In all other fields
specific criticisms were frequent."
OTHER REPORTED DIFFICULTIES IN SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTs
Better textbooks are not the only need in a reorganized pro-
gram for teaching social-business subjects in the secondary
schools. The crowded curriculum, the limited ability of young
students, the lack of required prerequisites for certain courses,
the attitude of the universities in the matter of admission
requirements, as well as the limitations in library, laboratory,
and museum equipment, are mentioned among the handicaps
of teachers.
CONCLUSIONS
Electives for commercial students are, aside from the
requirements of the commercial course, usually quite open and
free. Is this to the advantage or disadvantage of the student?
It may well be contended that the commercial student complet-
ing the technical work required of him may through the use of
his free electives acquire a fairly broad training. There is no
* For a more elaborate discussion of this matter the reader is referred
to the author's monograph, A Survey of Commercial Education in the United
States, chap. iv. The business-English situation was given special atten-
tion in an article in the English Journal, November, 1918.
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 427
doubt that the opportunity of choosing subjects outside of his
own field of work is often an advantage to the commercial
student. But it is quite as likely that the free election so widely
given works to the student’s disadvantage. The miscellaneous
and assorted fragments from which the student is permitted to
choose offer no certainty of a well-balanced intellectual meal.
There is reason to believe that much more satisfactory results
could be obtained from a wisely directed scheme of requirements,
having a predetermined object, and controlling in considerable
measure the intellectual environment which surrounds the
student. Free election of studies in the commercial course, as
elsewhere, is quite consistent with our somewhat overworked
policy of laissez faire. Under the influence of thinking in
evolutionary terms laissez faire is, however, giving place to
regulation, and under the influence of prescience in thought it
is giving place to planning. More prescient elements are needed
in training for business. But the real function of such elements
can be accomplished only by definite requirements.
There is a need for different work for boys and girls. Almost
no schools differentiate the courses for boys and girls or offer
specialized training to meet the demands made upon boys. Yet
a large number of Schools agree, and their belief is borne out by
other studies, that boys eventually perform quite a different
function in business than falls to the lot of women.
A vision of the social significance of business has not been
put before the high-school teaching staff. But little material
to teach of business as a Social activity has been prepared in
form suitable for high-school use. -
Finally, no secondary institution has organized really thor-
oughgoing courses clearly designed to train for business adminis-
tration. The example has not been set, and in education, as
elsewhere, progress is made through imitation quite as rapidly
as it is induced by homilies.
The fact that a great many secondary commercial teachers
use literature and speakers from the business world shows an
interest in improvement even though such methods may have
little value. In the use, or rather the lack of use, of standard-
428 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ized tests the directors of secondary business courses are not
necessarily at fault. Real tests with a scientific basis are
lacking, and it is a matter for some commendation that such
tests as are available are used by more than half of the secondary
schools. It is unfortunate, however, that satisfactory tests
are not available and are not in use. There is little in the com-
mercial course as at present organized to lead a child toward the
fields of higher education. In addition, commercial graduates
are, very commonly, not prepared for college. Universities will
not accept, in many instances, the technical Courses for college-
entrance requirements. This last matter is only another of
the ways in which the commercial student is given a faulty
training. Lured frequently into a narrow technical course by
the false caption “Training for Business,” the student, youthful
and impressionable, is given no view of the tremendous social
significance of his work, and is turned out lacking the desire for
more education or, having it, unqualified to proceed.
In the chapters immediately following we shall examine a
series of plans that are in operation tending to extend or improve
the typical high-school commercial course. In the final chapter
curriculum reform in the high-school Commercial course is
considered.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. What advantage can you see in studying the high-school commer-
cial course under two phases: (a) typical course; (b) modern
extensions P
2. What types of short courses were reported P Distinguish between
these.
3. What variations in length exist in the short courses? How
would you account for such variations?
4. What conclusions are justified from a study of the length of time
required for technical subjects in four-year commercial courses?
5. How do you account for the fact that English is almost univer-
sally required through the commercial courses?
6. What conclusions do you reach from a study of the non-technical
subjects in the short courses?
7. Explain what is meant by the heading used in classifying the non-
technical subjects in the four-year course,
TYPICAL HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE 429
IO.
II.
I 2.
I3.
I4.
IS.
I6.
I7.
I8.
IQ.
2O.
2I.
22.
23.
. What conclusions do you reach from a study of the non-technical
subjects in the four-year course?
. Does it make any difference whether or not students are given
any of the non-technical subjects in their commercial course?
Does it make any difference whether non-technical subjects
come early or late in the commercial course?
What is your reaction toward the “conclusions” given on page
406?
Of the group of social-business subjects discussed, what ones
have taken the most important hold in high-school courses?
What facts were brought out by the inquiry concerning the rela-
tion of requirements and offerings of social-business subjects?
Does the data givenindicate that courses in Social-business subjects
have reached a point where they can be said to be a part of a
well-considered and balanced program P
Is it pertinent to inquire what department and what type of
teacher teaches the various social-business subjects? Is this
inquiry given any pertinence by the unorganized condition of the
material and the limitations of existing textbooks?
What do you understand to be the meaning of correlation of two
subjects? Give an example of how a correlation at some one or
more points might be effected in two subjects with which you are
familiar.
What is your reaction toward the conclusions given on pages
421 and 422. W
Is it your feeling that requirements as contrasted with election of
studies in the commercial course should be increased or lessened?
How do you account for the fact that so few schools make any
different requirements for boys and girls?
List the difficulties which stand in the way of thoroughgoing
study of social-business subjects in the secondary-school com-
mercial course.
What facts do you observe that seem to you to point toward
improvement in secondary business education ?
What would you think of a proposal to teach no technical sub-
jects such as stenography and typewriting in the Commercial
course of the secondary school P
What would you think of a proposal to teach technical subjects
only in the last year of the high-school commercial course 2
CHAPTER XVI
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE
The rapid development of Commercial courses in secondary
schools led naturally enough to interest in high schools definitely
devoted to business work. -
The first high School of commerce connected with a system
of Schools and wholly supported by public funds was the Busi-
ness High School of Washington, D.C. This school was estab-
lished in 1890. The report of the Business High School for
1890–91 showed that 310 students were enrolled the first year,
I60 boys and 150 girls. From 1892 throughout the decade,
the superintendent of public schools of Philadelphia stood out
for his advocation of the establishment of a commercial high
school in that city. Brooklyn and New York, however, were
the next cities to establish commercial high schools. High
schools of commerce in these two cities were authorized at the
same time. The Brooklyn High School was opened in 1899.
The High School of Commerce of the City of New York was
under construction from 1900 to IQoI and in 1902 reported
410 pupils. -
Philadelphia was next, establishing the Commercial High
School in 1897. In 1906 the Boston School Committee “under-
took the realization of such a school," and in the same year
the Boston High School of Commerce was established.” Inter-
est in specialized schools of commerce spread until there are now
in the United States about twenty such schools. Nearly half of
these have come into existence within the last five or six years.
PURPOSES UNDERLYING HIGH SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE
In attempting to arrive at the purpose and rôle of high
schools of commerce, it is useful to look at some of the state-
* This school has since become known as the William Penn High School.
* These data were collected from reports of the superintendents of
education of the cities concerned and from correspondence,
439
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 43I
ments made by persons responsible for their organization and
direction. The statements given below have been compiled
from courses of study and other literature of business high
Schools in 1922. -
City A
The distinctive purpose of the business high school is to give
business training leading directly to self-support. Emphasis is
laid upon the business arts: penmanship, spelling, commercial draw-
ing, arithmetic, bookkeeping, accounting, shorthand, typewriting, and
office methods. In the four-year course these are supplemented by
studies leading to an understanding of modern industrial activities
and relations.
City B
The object of the high school of commerce is to give boys and
girls a sound preparation for commercial life. To accomplish this
purpose the course provides instruction of two kinds: first, in general
high-school subjects; second, instruction in high-school grade in the
special subject, commercé. It is to be noted, however, that the
general subjects are all taught with the constant view of preparing
the student to use them in business life. In like manner all instruc-
tion in the school is made to serve the special vocational purpose for
which the school exists. -
City C
The high school of commerce is a training-school for those boys
and girls who are desirous of fitting themselves for positions in the
business world. The school prepares for Stenographic, bookkeeping,
and general office and store positions, giving the thorough and Com-
plete training which is demanded today of the beginning office
worker. -
One of the features of the school is its equipment of modern
office machines and appliances, such as adding and calculating
machines, bookkeeping machines, duplicators, dictating machines,
filing equipment, etc. It is unusual nowadays to find an office without
one or more of these special machines. Consequently it is essential
to have acquaintance with and training on these modern devices if
one wishes to be thoroughly prepared for office work.
The complete course is four years in length and fits the pupil
for the best type of office positions. It is possible, however, to take
a shorter course of three, or even two, years and receive valuable
432 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
preparation. Particularly is this true in the case of pupils who are
more mature than the average eighth-grade graduate.
City D
The high School offers a four years' course as a preparation for
business. A general high-school education is combined with thorough
training in penmanship, bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting.
The work in commercial lines is begun in the first year with special
attention to business English, penmanship, and elementary bookkeep-
ing. Bookkeeping may be continued throughout the four years,
typewriting is begun the second year, shorthand the third. Other
work, commercial and academic, is pursued at the same time.
Students who graduate are qualified as bookkeepers, salesmen,
and Stenographers and typists. The school aims, however, not only
to train office and store workers, but also to fit for the manufacturing,
mercantile, and general business life of the community.
City E
This pamphlet is designed to assist pupils and parents in making
a choice of the courses of study as offered by the commercial high
school.
There are two courses of study provided for pupils who expect
to remain four years in the high school. These are listed as four-
year diploma courses. For students who can remain two years there
is provided the commercial certificate course. This course offers
preparation for stenographic or bookkeeping work, also for Steno-
bookkeeping positions.
To obtain any adequate knowledge of the work done in
high Schools of commerce in the United States, a personal
investigation is necessary. No report concerning the high
schools of commerce is provided by the United States Bureau of
Faucation, or any other general agency. In an effort to Secure
information relating to the courses given in these institutions,
therefore, a questionnaire was used by the writer. The ques-
tionnaire was sent out at about the same time that the data
presented in Chapter XV were gathered. Information was
secured from all but two or three high schools of commerce in
existence at that time. A number of new high schools of Com-
merce have come into existence since, and some of the high
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 433
schools of commerce have made rather radical changes in their
programs. A careful effort has been made, however, to compare
the courses of most of the newer high schools of commerce with
the generalizations reached as a result of the survey, and also
to compare the recent statements of courses of study with the
ones submitted about four years ago. While there is an occa-
sional sharp divergence, the comparison of the original material
with the most recent information shows few important changes.
It may be believed, therefore, that the statements made are
reasonably valid. º gº
LENGTH OF COURSES IN COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOLS
An examination of Table XLVIII shows that there is a con-
siderable lack of uniformity in the length of time required in
different commercial high schools for teaching technical Sub-
jects. The variation in the length of courses is not so great as
TABLE XLVIII
LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED FOR TECHNICAL SUBJECTS IN
COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOLS
(To Schools Reporting)

BOOK- TYPE- sº COMMERCIAL PEN-
KEEPING WRITING FEPORTING ARITHMETIC MANSHIP
YEARS t
REQUIRED
- - - - } --
Num- * |Num- Peº |Num-i Peº |Num-| Peº |Num-| Pe.
ber Cent- ber Cent- ber Cent- ber Cent- ber Cent-
age age age age age
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3O | . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 40 | . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tº . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2O ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2O . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2, tº s g º ſº tº º sº e º e º e 4 4O 3 3O 5 55.5 l TO | . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2? . . . . . . . . . . . . . I IQ | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3, . . . . . . . . . . . . . I IO 4. 4O 3 . I 33 - 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3? . . . . . . . . . . . . . I IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | e - ſº º ſº º & s tº º º ºs ! • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . I IO I IO I II . T | . . . . . . is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº $ $ tº ºr tº º żº º e & © & © º 'º & & | 8 8o
that found in the commercial courses in general high Schools,
but it is sufficiently noticeable to indicate that matters of
organization, habit, and imitation have been as important as
well-considered judgment or sound standards in determining
the length of courses.
434 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Four of the ten schools reporting on this question give a
two-year course in bookkeeping. Two of the ten limit the
course to one year. Every conceivable variation between two
and four years is to be found represented. One School gives a
course of two and a half years in bookkeeping, one a course of
three years, one of three and a half years, and one a course
four years in length. g
The distribution in length of courses is almost as great in
typewriting. Not a single school reports teaching typewriting
in less than one and one-half years. Two schools use that
length of time; three, or 30 per cent of the total, require two
years; four institutions spread typewriting over three years;
while one of them requires four years of work in typewriting.
Stenography in high schools of commerce is likewise treated
as a course which requires an extended period for its study.
Nine schools only reported on stenography, and over 55 per
cent of these required two years' work in this subject. Three
schools, a third of those reporting, require that stenography
be studied for three years, while one makes it a four-year
subject. *
Commercial arithmetic is not given as extended treatment
in high schools of Commerce as bookkeeping and Stenography.
One school gives two years of this work, two a year and one-
half, four schools have a one-year course, and three schools
cover the ground in one-half year.
Penmanship as a highly organized undertaking does not
appear to enter the curricula of commercial high schools. Eight
of the ten reporting schools stated that “some time” was given
to this subject. -
NON-TFCHNICAL SUBJECTS IN COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOLS
#
|
As has been stated in connection with the commercial course
in high schools, it seems advisable to discuss English as a non-
technical subject in spite of the fact that it has certain technical
aspects. Table XLIX shows that English has a value well
recognized in high schools of commerce. Seventy per cent of
the reporting schools require four years of this subject, one
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE
435
school requires three and one-half years, one other three years;
a single school finds two years of English to be enough.
TABLE XLIX
NUMBER OF YEARS OF ENGLISH REQUIRED IN COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOLS
(To Schools Reporting)

4 YEARS 3% YEARS 3 YEARS 2 YEARS
Number | Percent- || Number | Percent- || Number | Percent- || Number | Percent.
Schools age Schools age Schools age Schools age
-
7 7o T IO I IO I IO
CONSIDERATION OF SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS
Certain subjects dealing with a combination of social and
business factors have been selected for treatment in this dis-
cussion of Commercial high Schools in much the same manner
TABLE L
REQUIREMENTS AND ELECTIVES IN A SELECTED GROUP OF
SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS

REQUIRED ELECTIVE
SUBJECT §: Percentage Percentage
Number of Those Number of Those
Offering Offering
Industrial history. . . . . . . . 5 5 IOO O O
History of commerce. . . . . 6 6 IOO O O
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5 62.5 3 37.5
Commercial geography. . . IO 8 8o 2 2O
Commercial law. . . . . . . . . 9 7 77.7 2 22 - 2
Salesmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2 33 .3 4 66.6
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 5O I 5O
Commercial organization. . 4. 4. IOO O O
Business English. . . . . . . . . 7 7 IOO O O
as they were treated in the discussion of the business course in
The requirements and electives in this selected
group of subjects, as they were reported by the high schools of
commerce, are set forth in Table L.
high Schools.
436 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
An examination of this table will indicate that not a single
one of this list of subjects has so well established itself as ne-
Cessary for proper business training as to be required in all of
the high Schools of commerce replying to the questionnaire.
Commercial geography is offered in all of the schools and com-
mercial law in 90 per cent of them, but in two instances each of
these subjects are made elective. Commercial organization,
business English, industrial history, and history of commerce
are the Subjects which are required in every instance where
they are reported as being offered; but, in the first case, only
four schools offer the Subject, while business English is offered
in only Seven Schools, and industrial history and history of
Commerce are given in five and six schools respectively.
Eight Schools reported that economics is offered, and five
of these require that the subject be taken. Salesmanship
is required in one-third of the instances in which it is
offered, and advertising in one out of the two instances
reported. -
The length of courses given in these subjects shows almost
as little standardization as was noticed in the study of the
technical courses. Industrial history extends over two years
in One instance, in two cases is taught for a year, and in two
cases for a year and a half. History of commerce is taught
for a year in five out of the six schools reporting the subject.
Economics is a three-year course in One school, a one-year course
in four schools, and a half-year course in three schools. Five
of the high Schools of commerce require commercial geography
for a year, in three instances it is a half-year course, in One
instance a two-and-a-half-year course, and in One School it is
reported as being three-fifths of a year in length. Commercial
law has established itself as a one-semester course in more than
half of the schools where it is given, five schools giving courses of
that length. Three schools give the subject for a year, and one
for two fifths of a year. Salesmanship is a one-year course in five
out of the six cases, and a half-year course in the other instance.
Advertising divides evenly between one-year and half-year
courses. Commercial-organization courses vary from one-half
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 437
year to two years, while courses in business English range from
one-half year to four years.
TABLE LI
LENGTHS OF COURSES OF A SELECTED GROUP OF SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTs

; º
Ot.JRSES OF EACH
- Lºgº LENGTH
SUBJECT COURSE
IN Percentage
YEARS Number of Those
Reporting
2 I 2O
Industrial history (5 schools reporting). . . . . . . . I 2 4O
# 2 4o'
History of commerce (6 schools reporting).... ſ º, 5 83.3
l 2. I I6.6
3 I I2.5
FConomics (8 schools reporting). . . . . . . . . . . . T 4 5o
1.
2 3 37.5
2% I TO
Commercial geography (Io schools reporting). I 3 : :
5
# 3 3O
e e +, 3 33.3
Commercial law (9 schools reporting). . . . . . . . # 5 55.5
5 I II . I
Salesmanship (6 schools reporting). . . . . . . . . . I, 5 83.3
* Ž I I6.6
Advertising (2 schools reporting). . . . . . . . . . . . { ‘. ; :
- 2
2 I 25
Commercial organization (4 schools reporting) I I 25
# 2 | So
4 3 37.5
Business English (8 schools reporting). . . . . . . : : ; :
# I I2.5
If anything, this variation in length of courses in these
subjects is more marked and striking in the high schools of
commerce than it is in commercial courses in high schools. If
438 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
not actually more varied, it is striking that there should be so
much variation in what is supposed to be the leading type of
institution in the field of Secondary education, and especially.
that such variety should be found when the total number of
instances examined is so small.
CORRELATION OF COURSES
The same consideration is given correlation here as was
given to it in the preceding chapter. The data are perhaps
less significant because the number of Schools considered is so
much smaller. Roughly, half of the schools which might have
reported correlation of the social-business subjects with other
social subjects or with technical or academic subjects did not
so report. Table LII presents the percentage of Schools not
TABLE LII
SCHOOLS NOT REPORTING CORRELATION COMPARED witH SCHOOLS WHICH
MIGHT HAVE REPORTED CORRELATION
SCHOOLS NOT REPORTING Tºgº.
CORRELATION WHICH
SUBJECT **** **mºº-º-º-º-º-º- — . . . . — — — — ..] MiGHT HAVE
REPORTED
Number Percentage CORRELATION
Industrial history. . . . . . . . . . . . . T 2O 5
History of commerce. . . . . . . . . . 4 66.6 6
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 37.5 8
Commercial geography. . . . . . . . 5 5O IO
Commercial law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 44. 4 9
Salesmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ./. 3 5O 6
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 5O 2
Commercial organization....... 2 5o 4
Business English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. SO 8
reporting correlation compared with the schools which might
have reported correlation in these subjects.
Table LIII presents in somewhat detailed form the number
of schools reporting correlation of each of the Selected Social-
business subjects with commercial subjects only, other subjects
only, and with commercial and other subjects. The amount
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 439
of data is somewhat too small to make general observations
of great value. It is interesting, however, to observe what
a variety of attempts are made. In so far as this may rep-
resent the different interests of different instructors, it should
probably be considered as a hopeful sign. In so far as it is an
indication of a lack of clear planning and a lack of definite
TABLE LIII
CORRELATION OF A SELECTED GROUP OF SOCIAL-BUSINESS SUBJECTS witH
OTHER SUBJECTS

NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS REPORTING
CORRELATION OF COMMERCIAL SUBJECTs
NUMBER
*...* ... with, With, With
SUBJECT ING Commercial Other Subjects | Commercial and
CORRELA- Subjects Only Only Other Subjects
TION
Percent- Percent- Percent-
Number age Number age Number age
Industrial history. . . . 4. 2 5O O O 2 5O
History of commerce. 2 I SO I 50 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economics... . . . . . . . . 5 I 2O 2 4O 2 4O
Commercial geogra-
s º º s a s = e < * * * * * 5 3 6o I 2O I 2O
Commercial law. . . . . 5 4. 8o • * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * l 2O
Salesmanship . . . . . . . 3 I 33.3 2 66.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advertising. . . . . . . . . I I IOO | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial organiza-
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 IOO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Business English . . . 4 . 2 5O | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5O
standards it is a less satisfactory showing. The specific types
of correlation reported are not greatly different from those
already shown in the discussion of the commercial course in the
high school (p. 416).
SOME CURRENT COURSES
Three courses as now given in the high schools of commerce
are presented as illustrative of the present work in such schools.
The first is the 1922 program of the High School of Commerce
of Washington, D.C. This, it will be remembered, is the oldest
of the high schools of commerce of the Country, and indicates
the point at which this school has arrived since 1890. This
outline is taken from a printed course of study of the School,
44C) EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C.
Course OF STUDY, 1922
FIRST YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
Recs. Credits Recs. Credits
per per per per
- Week Sem. Week Sem.
*Bookkeeping or Bookkeeping or Short-
fShorthand 5 I hand 5 I
Business Arithmetic 5 I Physical Geography 5 I
English 5 I English 5 I
Typewriting 5 § Typewriting 5 #
Drawing 5 % Penmanship 5 #
Physical Training I # Physical Training I }
Physical Training 3 # Physical Training 3 *
Military Drill 3 # Military Drill 3 #
SECOND YEAR
Third Semester Fourth Semester
Recs. Credits Recs. Credits
per per per per
Week Sem. Week Sem.
*Bookkeeping or Bookkeeping or
Shorthand S I Shorthand 5 I
fBookkeeping or Busi- Bookkeeping or Busi-
ness Arithmetic 5 I ness Arithmetic 5 I
Commercial Geog- Commercial Law 5 I
raphy 5 I English 5 I
English 5 I Typewriting 5 #
Typewriting 5 % Physical Training I #
Physical Training I # Physical Training 3 +
Physical Training 3 # Military Drill 3 #
Military Drill 3 #
* Pupils who elect Bookkeeping in the first year must continue
it in the second.
fPupils who elect Shorthand in the first year must take Book-
keeping instead of Arithmetic in the second. -
Pupils who obtain seventeen credits in the first year will be
awarded the school certificate.
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 44I
*
THIRD YEAR FOURTH YEAR
Fifth and Sixth Semesters Seventh and Eighth Semesters
Recs. Credits - Recs. Credits
per per per per
Week Sem. Week Sem
English 5 I English 5 I
Biology or Physics 5 I American History and
Accounting and Commercial Problems 5 I
Finance 5 I Business Organization 5 I
Algebra 5 I Geometry 5 I
General and Com- Office Training and
mercial History 5 I Shorthand 5 I
Spanish 5 I Typewriting 5 #
Shorthand 5 I Spanish 5 I
Typewriting 5 % Chemistry 5 I
Physical Training I # Physical Training .1 #
Physical Training 3 # Physical Training 3 #
Military Drill 3 # Military Drill 3 #
Pupils who obtain thirty-four credits will be awarded the school
diploma.
Subjects italicized are prescribed.
Spanish, Algebra, and Geometry should be elected by pupils who
intend to pursue a College Course. • *
Pupils must take either Accounting and Finance in the third
year or Business Organization in the fourth year. -
A second course of study here shown is given to illustrate
the work offered in a fairly new school of commerce and one in
which the two-year, three-year, and four-year business courses
are all given.
WILKINS HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, DETROIT, MICHIGAN
COURSE OF STUDY -
Two YEAR SHORTHAND COURSE
First Year - 3.
First Semester Second Semester
Recitations Recitations
- per Week ºper Week
Arithmetic I. . . . . . . . . . 5 Arithmetic II. . . . . . . . . 5
English I. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Bookkeeping II. . . . . . . 3.
Commercial Geography 5 English II. . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Penmanship and Book- Penmanship II. . . . . . . . 5
keeping . . . . . . . . . . . IG) Shorthand I. . . . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting I. . . . . . . . 5 Typewriting II. . . . . . . . 5
442 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Second Year
First Semester
Recitaions
per Week
General Science. . . . . . . 5
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . 5
English III. . . . . . . . . . . 5
Shorthand II. . . . . . . . . 5
Salesmanship . . . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting III. . . . . . . 5
Second Semester
Recitations
- per Week
Applied English. . . . . . . 5
English IV . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Shorthand III . . . . . . . . 5
Shorthand l\ . . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting IV, V . . . . Io
THREE YEAR BOOKKEEPING AND SHORTHAND COURSE
The first year will be the same as in the two year shorthand
COUITS6.
Second Year
First Semester Second Semester
Recitations Recitations
per Week per Week
Bookkeeping III. . . . . . IO Bookkeeping IV . . . . . . . IO
English III. . . . . . . . . . . 5 English IV . . . . . . . . . . . 5
General Science. . . . . . . 5 Mathematics I. . . . . . . . 5
Shorthand II. . . . . . . . . 5 Shorthand III. . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting III. . . . . . . 5 Typewriting IV. . . . . . . 5
Third Year
First Semester Second Semester
Recitations Recitations
o per Week o e per Week
Mathematics II. . . . . . . 5 American History. . . . . 5
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . 5 Applied English . . . . . . . 5
English V . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Commercial Law. . . . . . 5
Salesmanship . . . . . . . . . 5 Shorthand V. . . . . . . . . . 5
Shorthand IV. . . . . . . . . 5 Typewriting VI. . . . . . . 5
Typewriting V. . . . . . . . 5
FOUR YEAR BUSINESS COURSE
The first two years will be the same as in the three year course
except that the student enrolling for a regular four year business
course will not begin shorthand until the second year.
An elective
subject may be taken in place of shorthand the second semester.
Third Year
First Semester Second Semester
Recitations Recitations
per Week per Week
Mathematics II. . . . . . . 5 American History . . . . . 5
English V . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Commercial Law. . . . . . 5
Salesmanship . . . . . . . . . 5 English VI. . . . . . . . . . . 5
Shorthand III. . . . . . . . 5 Shorthand IV. . . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting V. . . . . . . . 5 , Typewriting VI. . . . . . . 5
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE
443
First Semester
Recitations
per Week
Chemistry or Physics I Io
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . 5
English VII. . . . . . © tº e ºs 5
Shorthand V. . . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting VII. . . . . . 5
Fourth Year
Applied English
Second Semester
Recitations
per Week
Chemistry or Physics II Io
Industrial History. . . . . 5
Shorthand VI. . . . . . e - © 5
Typewriting VIII. . . . . 5
THE HAAREN HIGH SCHOOL OF NEW YORK
One of the most recently established high schools of com-
merce is the Haaren High School of Manhattan, New York.

TABLE LIV
HAAREN HIGH SCHOOL FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE—ACCOUNTING
Term. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 3 4 || 5 6 7 8
Required. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3o 25 | I4 I4 || 13 || 23 23 || 13 I5 units required
Elective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 units elective
Total. . . . . . . . . e s a s e º e º 'º e 18 units to graduate
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 || 5 S 5 : 5 5 S 5
Music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drawing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical training. . . . . . . . . 3 || 3 3 3 || 3 3 3 3
Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 || 4 i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Civics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | . . . . º * * * - I - - is e
New York industries. . . . . . . . . 5* - (One-half unit of New
York industries or
economic fºre
phy required)
Economic geography. . . . . - . 5* 5* . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | . . . . . . . . .
Business procedure. . . . . . . - © º ºr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . .
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - * * : * - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 i. . . .
Current economic problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 : 5 5 5 5 5 5% 5%
General science or house-
hold arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 : 5 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American history. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 S
Commercial mathematics. |. . . . . 5* | 5* | 5* | 5* . . . . . . . . . (One unit of com-
mercial mathemat-
ics required)
Modern languages. . . . . . . . - - 5% 5% 5% 5% 5* | 5% 5%
Modern European history.|... . . . . . . . . . . 5* | 5* . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* | 5* . . . .
Physics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* | 5* . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial art. . . . . . . . . . ....i....| 5* | 5* | 5* | 5* 5* 5*
Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* | 5* . . . . . . . .
Mathematics of investment]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* 5*
Materials of commerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* | 5* . . . . . . . .
Salesmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* 5*
Household arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5* 5* . . . . - * * * * * * -
NotE.—If a modern language is offered for credit toward graduation, not less than
two units will be accepted.
* Elective.
444 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
(Some industrial courses are also offered.) This school was
opened in September, 1920. “The work at the Haaren High
* - TABLE LV
HAAREN HIGH SCHOOL FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE—SUMMARY
ACCOUNT-
ING
SECRE-
TARIAL
SALESMAN-
SHTP
FOREIGN
TRADE
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American history..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Civics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical training... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drawing and music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economics and economic geography. . . . . . .
Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , - ... • * * * * , - - - - -
Stenography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• . . . . .
Law and business procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Science or household arts. . . . . . . . .
Chemistry or physics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merchandising and salesmanship, . . . . . . . . .
Office practice and management..........".
Secretarial studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foreign exchange and foreign transaction
procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total required. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modern language. ........ ... tº t e º 'º is e < * * * * *
Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stenography... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modern European history. . . . . ... e - e. e. t e º s º e
Economic geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Household arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * *
Merchandising and salesmanship. . . . . . . . . .
Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Materials of commerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial law and business procedure....
Required Units

• - - - - - - - - -
;
|
O
• * * * * * * * * *
}
;
• * * * * * * * * *
O
tº e s = e - - - - -
}
I
T
5
I5
Elective Units
#
i
#
O
}
I}
%
O
I
i
:
I
*
O
:
Ž3.
OO
II
:
:
%
I
}
O
}#
O
i::
%§
18 units required for graduation
School will differ from that in other high schools only in the
fact that we are allowed to send our students out for practical
experience in the business world on the alternate week plan.”
* A statement by R. Wesley Burnham, principal of Haaren High School,
April, 1922.
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE 445
The students in the Haaren High School are either elementary-
School graduates, junior high school graduates, or transfers.
from different grades in the high schools. Commercial work is
offered in Secretarial and accounting fields, in salesmanship,
and in foreign trade. The registration in February, 1922, in
these courses was 900.
To illustrate the courses in the Haaren High School, the
outline of the four-year commercial course is given in a sum-
marized form. The four-year commercial course in accounting
is also given as a detailed illustration of one of these courses.
AN EVALUATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE
As an educational institution the high school of commerce
has been something of a disappointment to observers and per-
haps to its own administrators as well. From the statements
which preceded the establishment of the earlier high schools
of commerce, there is every reason to believe that there was
hope that through such schools there might come into being a
broader and deeper type of business education than had grown
up in the secondary schools or business colleges. This view
was expressed at the time of the construction of the High
School of Commerce of the City of New York by G. W.
Wharton:
Its purpose is to be, not a business college, as that term is com-
monly understood, but an institution which will fit young men for
managerial and other higher positions requiring expert knowledge
in the world of trade, and to prepare them as far as possible for the
consular service. The course insists strongly upon broad general
training, with special emphasis on languages, beginning with English.
In addition to this it will offer thorough courses in business methods,
including accountancy as well as routine bookkeeping, special courses
in foreign trade and exchange, insurance, brokerage, and other opera-
tions of a similar character." -
Again, if one examines the statements which precede the
printed courses of study in modern high schools of commerce
* G. W. Wharton, School Review, XI (1903), 478.
446 - EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
(see p. 430), he findsadvance notices of a rather strong character.
But excepting in possibly a few instances the courses do not
live up to these advance notices or to such optimistic expressions
as that quoted above. The people who have been responsible
for organizing high Schools of commerce seem almost without
exception to have been desirous of giving the students as much
of the managerial viewpoint as possible and as much training
of a managerial kind as they were able to supply. That they
have failed for the most part has probably been due less to
their wishes or efforts than to the lack of broadly trained teachers
and the paucity of proper text material.
There are those who argue, however, that the high school
of commerce is handicapped by its very nature. The conten-
tion is made that we have there a group of students, all of whose
interests are Centered upon a single objective and that as a
result it is less easy for the broad Socializing process which occurs
in the general high School to take place. While the atmosphere
of such a school, the argument runs, cannot be called profes-
sional, it is commercial and narrow. It is contended that the
students in the high-school commercial course, in spite of the
iimitations of their subject-matter, the somewhat restricted
viewpoint of textbooks, and their own special interests, do,
through the mere general association and contact with a variety
of students of varied interests, receive influences which are of
great value to them in later years.
The high school of commerce, however, is an administrative
unit which is more flexible for purposes of experiment than the
commercial course in the secondary School. In Some small
degree it has met its responsibility as an educational laboratory.
But it has not seized its opportunity or developed it fully.
Unhampered by classical traditions, admittedly organized for
the purpose of developing business education, the high School
of commerce has the chance to play an important rôle in Setting
the pace for all secondary business education. Touched with the
newer ideas concerning the meaning of education for business,
and equipped with the texts which are appearing as a result of
those ideas, the high school of commerce is likely yet to become
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE . 447
an important influence in the improvement of business education
and to fulfil the hopes of those who saw in it an educational
agency of usefulness and progress.
5
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
. Is it sensible to speak of the high School of commerce as an
extension of the high-school commercial course?
. Work over the statements of purposes and aims and make a
list of the objectives stated for high schools of commerce. Indi-
cate how many times each of these objectives is mentioned. On
the basis of these data, what seem to be the outstanding aims of
high schools of commerce P
. From the data gathered as suggested above, do you conclude
that the objectives of high schools of commerce are materially
broader than the objectives of high-school commercial courses?
. How do you account for the fact that there is such a diversity
in the number of years required in high schools of commerce,
for Such courses as bookkeeping, typewriting, Stenography, and
commercial arithmetic?
. Does the examination of the data concerning social business
subjects in the high School of commerce lead to the belief that
the high School of commerce has progressed far beyond the high-
school commercial course in the development and presentation
of such subjects?
. It is sometimes stated that the high School of commerce is the
collegiate school of business of the people. Does it appear to
you that this statement is justified ? Is it any more true than
to say that the high-school commercial course is the collegiate
school of business of the people P
. “The high school of commerce has been busy merely in taking
care of its students. It has done little in experimenting with
how best to take care of them.” Do you feel that this statement
is justified ?
. Everyone would agree that, where the number of cases concerned
is few, conclusions drawn from the căses are likely to be inaccu-
rate. Nevertheless in examining the courses of a selected group
of social subjects, we find great variety shown among few schools
concerned. Should you expect more variety or less, if the number
of schools were larger ?
148
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
9.
IO,
I I.
I 2.
I3.
f4.
Should you expect to find a more carefully worked-out correla-
tion of subjects in high Schools of commerce than in high-school
commercial courses; do you feel that this is the case from examin-
ing the data presented P
Work over the courses offered by the high school of commerce
of Washington, D.C.; of Detroit, Michigan. What features, if
any, do you find which are strikingly different from those of the
high-school commercial courses with which you are familiar P
Examine the course of Haaren High School of New York; in
what way, if any, does this course differ from the high-school
commercial courses with which you are familiar P
“The whole atmosphere of the high School of commerce is opposed
to broadening and liberalizing commercial studies.” What is
the basis for this contention? Comment upon it.
“The high school of commerce has a more flexible unit than the
high school course.” Does this statement seem sound? If it
is true, what ought the high School of Commerce undertake to
do for secondary business education?
Draw up a statement or series of statements which express your
view of the place or rôle of the high School of commerce in an
organized scheme of education for business.
CHAPTER XVII
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS
EDUCATION
Our interest in the continuation School centers in what it
does in education for business. To secure a clear notion of
what it does in that more limited field, however, it is necessary
to see something of the continuation school in general. It may
be well, therefore, to begin the study of the continuation school
by getting clearly in mind the type of institution which it is,
the kind of work which it undertakes to do, and the chief
characteristics which it possesses. One definition is the
following:
Under the terms of the New York State Education Law a part-
time or continuation School or class is a school or class for boys and
girls between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years who are not
high school graduates and who have discontinued attendance upon
the regular full-time schools. Such a school or class provides instruc-
tion for not less than four and not more than eight hours a week for
thirty-six weeks each year on regular school days between eight
o'clock A.M. and five o’clock P.M. in subjects which are designed to
increase the civic and vocational intelligence of the pupils.
A more clear notion of the continuation school, however, is
to be found in the following catechism used by the Chicago
Board of Education:”
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL DEFINED
Q. What is a continuation school?
A. A part-time School for boys and girls between fourteen and sixteen
years of age, who have left the full-time school to go to work.
From Bulletin No. 697 (November 1, 1919), p. 6. University of
State of New York.
* From pamphlet on Public Continuation Schools, Board of Education,
city of Chicago, January, Ig22.
449
450 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
:
:
%
º
º
. By what authority are continuation schools established P
. By a law of the Illinois Legislature passed in 1919.
. What is the most important provision of this law P
. That all School districts, in which there are at least twenty minors
eligible to continuation School, shall establish part-time classes.
Between what ages do working boys and girls now go to continua-
tion schools?
. Between the ages of fourteen and sixteen."
Must all working boys and girls attend these schools?
. Yes. Wherever such schools are open, working boys and girls
between the ages of fourteen and sixteen must attend.
What boys and girls need not go to continuation schools?
. Those who go to full-time schools, and those who are graduates
of a four-year high-school course.
Must working boys and girls who are graduates of eighth grade
go to continuation School P
. Yes.
. Are working boys and girls who go to evening Schools excused
from attendance at continuation schools?
. No.
. When are continuation schools in session ?
. The Chicago continuation schools are in session fifty weeks a
year, being closed the two weeks immediately preceding Labor
Day.
. What vacation is given to continuation school pupils?
. Pupils are given their school vacation at the time they have their
vacation from work.
. How many hours a week are pupils required to attend continua-
tion school?
. Eight hours a week. Employers may select any one of the follow-
ing schedules:
Morning Afternoon
Mon. 8:oo to 12:oo and Wed. I :oo to 5:oo
Tues. 8:oo to 12:oo and Thurs. I : oo to 5:oo
Wed. 8:oo to I2: oo and Fri. I : oo to 5:oo
Thurs. 8:oo to 12:oo and Mon. I: oo to 5:oo
Fri. 8:oo to 12:oo and Tues. I : oo to 5:00
* During the spring of 1921 the Illinois Legislature raised the age limit
to seventeen, effective 1923, and to eighteen, effective 1925.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 451
º
º
%
. If boys or girls lose or quit their jobs, must they go to School?
. Yes. They must go either to full-time school or to continuation
school.
. What is required of continuation-school pupils who stay out of
School P
. They must make up all lost time, except time lost on account of
illness.
What will happen if the boys and girls do not attend regularly P
. Their employment certificates will be taken away.
PURPOSE
What is the purpose of the continuation schools?
. To give working boys and girls, as nearly as possible, the oppor-
tunities enjoyed by their more fortunate brothers who remain in
the full-time school.
How is this attempted P
. By providing day instruction and training that will promote their
physical health, their general intelligence and their interest in
the life of the community. -
Why is day instruction only provided ?
. Children cannot work all day and attend school at night without
hazarding their physical health and their moral safety. They
need their evenings for recreation, for rest and for general
improvement.
What is the nature of the instruction given P
. We attempt to teach boys and girls how to use their working
hours as well as their leisure time, laying special emphasis on
outdoor exercise, wholesome recreation, hygienic, civic and voca-
tional instruction.
. How is vocational instruction provided ?
. By improving the general intelligence of these young people, by
giving them training in such vocational work as they need in
their jobs, and by offering them opportunities to learn something
of the theory and practice of some of the commoner trades and
occupations. *
Do the continuation schools teach trades?
. No. They are not trade schools. They aim to acquaint the
children with the rudiments of several trades or occupations,
helping the children to decide upon the kind of work for which
they are best suited.
452 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
(). Wherein do the purpose and methods of the continuation school
differ from those of the full-time school?
A. The continuation School gives constant thought to both the pres-
ent job and the possible future job of the boy and girl. The
present job is the starting point for the vocational instruction.
The possible future job serves as a goal.
. Why is the present job taken into consideration ?
. The present job is one of the vital interests of the working boy
or girl. The job enables him to earn money. The training of
the School must, therefore, lay some stress on the present job,
while offering opportunities for exchanging it for a better one.
(). Is vocational training regarded as the principal problem of the
continuation school?
A. No. The greatest value of the continuation school is the oppor-
tunity afforded the working boy or girl to secure that general
education and training that will fit them to fill their place in the
community in which they live. The vocation is one of the
elements to be taken into consideration.
º
THE NEED FOR CONTINUED EDUCATION
Everyone is somewhat familiar with the fact that pupils, boys
especially, drop out of School in large numbers during their teens.
Recently in New York the Military Training Commission had an
opportunity to study the School histories of a very large number
of boys. Their findings are so impressive concerning School
mortality that they are quoted here:
The returns from 150,000 of these boys have been studied, in
all sorts of groupings such as Greater New York, other large cities,
Small cities, large villages, Small villages, rural Sections, by nationali-
ties, boys with fathers, boys without fathers, with mothers, with-
out mothers, American boys, foreign boys, oldest boys, Second
oldest, third oldest, fourth oldest, fifth oldest and sixth oldest of
both American and foreign birth, and it has been found that regard-
less of birth, family conditions and environments approximately
73,000, or 30 per cent, of these 245,000 boys leave School before
fifteen, 172,000, or 70 per cent, before sixteen, and by the end of the
sixteenth year less than Io per cent, or 20,000, are still in School.
* Adapted by permission from Howard G. Burdge, A Study of Employed
Boys, pp. 6–7. State of New York Military Training Commission, Bureau
of Vocational Training, 1921.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 453
About 61,000, or 25 per cent, drop out on or before completing
the Seventh grade, I32,ooo, or 50 per cent, on or before completing
the eighth grade, and 220,000, or 90 per cent, before completing the
first year of the high school. Investigations made by the Inter-
Church World Movement show that boys desert the Sunday schools
at these same ages and the leaders in the Boy Scouts of America
report that most boys drop out of the Scout troops before reaching
sixteen. +
This study shows that these boys are thoroughly averse to further
Schooling and that compulsory part-time continuation-school and
night-school work will be practically valueless unless we can awaken
in these boys an interest in further education. They must be con-
vinced that by completing certain definite and practical short courses
they can increase their earning capacity and secure promotion. To
accomplish this is the task of boy welfare organizations as well as
of the schools. The major part of the future training and education
of these boys will be secured through business and social contacts,
but this must be supplemented by carefully selected and well planned
short continuation-school courses which are attractive to boys because
of their practical value.
Clearly it is not the belief of this commission that the
Continuation school is a tool ready made to take care of this
appalling School mortality. It is rather to be thought of as
one agency which by proper development may function use-
fully. The need for continued education of some sort suggested
in this quotation should, however, be kept in mind in consider-
ing the evening School as well as here.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
The continuation school as a definite, clearly defined institu-
tion seems to have had its beginning in Germany. It appeared
not as a vocational School, but as a School giving Supplementary
education of a general, religious, or moral character. Although
beginning somewhat earlier, continuation schools became
important after 1800, when certain of the German states began
to give them financial Support and to make them to a degree
compulsory. In these early schools the time for continuation
was usually evenings and Sundays and the instruction given
was limited.
4.54 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The introduction of the factory system into Germany was
accompanied by an increase in the number of continuation
Schools and the growth of an additional amount of vocational
work. Later when Some degree of Suffrage was introduced in
the German Empire, the continuation schools were looked to
for more training in civic and economic matters. In the time
during which these changes were taking place compulsory
attendance became more common. Equipment and buildings
were improved, and the hours of instruction were increased
and were placed on week days and in daytime more commonly
than before."
The development of continuation schools in the United
States is a comparatively recent movement. In 1910 Ohio
passed the first of the state laws definitely concerned with con-
tinuation schools, the enactment of which is often referred to
as the beginning of Continuation Schools in the United States.
About the same time the founder of the Munich continuation-
school system, Dr. George Kirchensteiner, toured the country
in the interests of the continuation-school movement. Dr.
Kirchensteiner's influence was increased by the prestige then
popularly attached to Germany’s “efficiency” methods.”
As a result of Dr. Kirchensteiner's visit, the leaders of the move-
ment for industrial education in this country came to understand
the real nature of the continuation school and many of them became
enthusiastic advocates of it. From this time on, the continuation
school movement gained ground with every year. Prior to the
passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, Seven states (Ohio,
Wisconsin, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Indiana and
* For a further discussion of the continuation School in Germany see
Edwin G. Cooley, “The Part Time School—Its Genesis and Permanent
Place,” School and Home Education, Vol. XXXV (October, 1915), No. 2, p. 41.
* This statement is adapted by permission from Paul H. Douglas,
American Apprenticeship and Industrial Education, pp. 252–55, 261–62.
“Columbia University Studies.” Longmans, Green & Co., 1921.
3 In 1921, the Wisconsin Legislature made an extension of the con-
tinuation-school requirements, making the law perhaps the most advanced
of any in the United States. The law requires that “whenever any day
vocational School shall be established in any town, village or city in this
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 45 s
Pennsylvania) had made some form of legislative provision for con-
tinuation schools and various systems were being put into effect.
State legislation prior to the Smith-Hughes Act was based upon con-
flicting attitudes on the following two questions: (1) Whether or
not the state should require attendance at the continuation schools.
Wisconsin and Pennsylvania were the only states where the legislature
made attendance compulsory for all. Massachusetts, New York,
Ohio and Indiana had permissive mandatory laws by which the
legislature empowered the local boards of education to require attend-
ance. Experience was clearly showing, however, that the latter
type of law was very ineffective in meeting the situation because of
the reluctance of the local boards to impose any additional tax burden.
Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, on the other hand, were demonstrating
that state-wide Compulsory continuation Schools backed up by a
system of state aid were the only effective means of educating the
juvenile worker. (2) Whether or not the curriculum of the continua-
tion schools should be narrowly vocational. The Indiana law per-
mitted education only for the job at which the juvenile worker was
employed and did not allow the trade preparation training or social
subjects in the curriculum. Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, on
the other hand, permitted a more diversified form of education and
included civic and social subjects as well as the more strictly
vocational.
state for minors, working under permit as now provided by law, every such
child residing or employed within any town, village or city in which any
such school is established, who has not completed four years of work above
the eight elementary grades, and who is not in attendance at some other
public, private or parochial School at least half time shall attend such school
not less than half time in the daytime until the end of the school term
quarter, semester or other division of the school year in which he is sixteen
years of age, and after that eight hours a week until the end of the term,
quarter, semester or other division of the school year in which he is eighteen
years of age, for at least eight months in each year, and for such additional
months or parts thereof as the other public schools in such city, town or
village are in session in excess of eight during the regular school year, or the
equivalent as may be determined by the local board of industrial education,
and every employer shall allow all minor employees a reduction in hours of
work of not less than the number of hours the minor is by law required to
attend school. Whenever the working time and the class time coincide,
such reduction in hours of work shall be allowed at the time when the
classes which the minor is by law required to attend are held.”—Author.
456 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
THE SMITH-HUGHES LAW
The Second stage of continuation-school development in
the United States occurred with the passage of the Smith-
Hughes Act, approved Feburary 23, 1917. It was: “an act to
provide for the promotion of vocational education; to provide
for Co-operation with the States in the promotion of such educa-
tion in agriculture and the trades and industries; to provide
for Co-operation with the States in the preparation of teachers
of vocational Subjects; and to appropriate money and regulate
its expenditure.” Certain paragraphs of the law are worth
quoting:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby
annually appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not other-
wise appropriated, the sums provided in sections two, three, and four
of this Act, to be paid to the respective States for the purpose of
Co-operating with the States in paying the salaries of teachers,
Supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, and teachers of
trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and in the prepara-
tion of teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home economics
Subjects.
That a Federal Board for Vocational Education is hereby created,
to consist of the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce,
the Secretary of Labor, the United States Commissioner of Education,
and three citizens of the United States to be appointed by the Presi-
dent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. One of
Said three citizens shall be a representative of the manufacturing and
commercial interests, one a representative of the agricultural inter-
ests and one a representative of labor.
The Smith-Hughes Act provided for co-operation between
the federal government and the several states only through the
acceptance of the federal act by the state legislature. It
happened that the federal law was passed at a time when most
of the state legislatures were in session. No less than thirty-
* Adapted by permission from Federal Board for Vocational Education,
Bulletin No. 1, pp. 49, 51, 52. Washington: Government Printing Office,
IQIZ.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 457
nine of the states passed formal acts of acceptance in 1917, and
either through such acceptance or through the governor's action
every state in the union was qualified to participate in the distri-
bution of federal money for the year ending June 30, 1918. By
the close of the fiscal year 1918–19, every state had through a
formal act of the legislature accepted the provisions of the Smith-
Hughes Law. Three points had to be specifically covered by the
state legislation under the provisions of the federal law. These
are (1) the acceptance of the provisions of the federal act, (2)
the Creation or designation of a state board to administer the
act, and (3) the appointment of the state treasurer as custodian
of federal funds."
In a few of the states the laws state specifically the condi-
tions under which the vocational work is to be administered.
In more, the actual administrative power is left to the state
board for vocational education. In every state either the state
board for vocational education or the state board of education
is charged with the duty of formulating rules and regulations
Concerning the establishment of the compulsory part-time
School.
The more essential provisions of the laws in the nineteen
states which have enacted what may be called part-time
compulsory-education laws is shown in the table on page 458.”
Practically every state requires that the schools or classes shall
be held during the usual working hours of the minor; usually the
laws state specifically that such classes shall be held between the
hours of eight A.M. and five or six P.M. Some of the state directors
favor the elimination of Saturday part-time classes, others believe
that Saturday can be used advantageously for part-time work,
especially in the larger cities.
It is certain that the attendance should be required during the
working hours of the pupils. For example, when the state law allows
a minor to work for forty-eight hours and the required part-time
School attendance is eight hours, the number of hours in which a
* Third Annual Report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, I,
I3-2I.
*This table is taken from Bulletin 55, pp. 8–9, 26–27. “Trade and
Industrial Series,” No. 14, Federal Board for Vocational Education.
458 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
minor may be legally employed should be automatically reduced
to forty, the eight hours of attendance upon a part-time school
being considered as a part of the time of the total forty-eight hours.
In this connection, it may be well to state that there is a prac-
tical unanimity of opinion that evening-school attendance should
not be allowed as a Substitute for attendance upon a day part-time
TABLE LVI
PROVISIONS OF PART-TIME COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS

Miº H f
UIIY106.T OUITS O
of Minors Rºa Required
State Law in | Required . d Attend- | Length of School Year
Effect to Estab- * ance per
lish a. Il Ce Week
Classes -
Arizona. . . . . . . . . IQIQ I5 I4–16 5 I5o hours
California. . . . . . . I92O I 2% I4–18 4
Illinois. . . . . . . . . . I921 2O 14–18 8
Iowa. . . . . . . . . . . . IQIQ I5 I4–I6 8
Massachusetts... . I92O 200f I4–16 4. Same as public schools
Michigan. . . . . . . . I92O 5.of 14–18 8
Missouri. . . . . . . . . IQIQ 25 I4–16 4.
Montana. . . . . . . . . IQT 9 I5 I4–18 4
Nebraska. . . . . . . . IQI9 T5 I4–16 8 I44 hours
Nevada . . . . . . . . . IQIQ I5 I4–18 4. Same as public schools
New Jersey. . . . . . I92O 2O I4–16 6 36 weeks
New Mexico . . . . . I9I9 I5 I4–16 5 I5o hours
New York. . . . . . . I92O 20š I4–18 4–8 Same as public schools
3. * & ºr g º tº s IQIQ † tº: * * * * * * * * * * I44 hours
TegOn . . . . . . . . . . IQI9 I5 I4-I 5 : 2.
Pennsylvania . . . . IQ15 2O I4–16 § Same as public schools
Utah. . . . . . . . . . . . I919 I5 14–18 4. I44 hours
Washington. . . . . . IQ2O I5'ſ I4–18 4. Same as public schools
Wisconsin. . . . . . . IQIT (§) I4-17 8 8 months
* High-school districts having 50 or more pupils must establish part-time classes.
f Referendum law adopted by all towns affected except one.
† Establishment of schools is compulsory only in school districts having a population
of 5,000 or more.
§ Establishment required only in cities of over 5,000 population.
iſ Attendance upon evening school may be substituted.
T Districts may organize schools upon written request of twenty-five residents.
school. Only one state of the Union requires attendance of fourteen
to sixteen-year minors upon evening Schools.
Several states, it may be noted, including Indiana, Kentucky,
Ohio, Michigan, New York, and Massachusetts, have enacted
permissive mandatory laws authorizing local districts to establish
such schools, but relatively few communities in these states, Boston
being notably one of these few, have taken advantage of the state
laws. It may fairly be said, therefore, that legislation which has
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 459
simply granted authority to local districts to establish part-time
schools and to require attendance on them has not been very generally
effective as a means of stimulating the establishment of such schools.
The importance of the Smith-Hughes Act to continuation
schools grew out of the fact that the law particularly recognized
the value of such Schools. Section II of the law required:
That at least one-third of the sum appropriated to any State for
the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial
subjects shall, if expended, be applied to part-time Schools or classes
for workers over fourteen years of age who have entered upon employ-
ment, and such subjects in a part-time School or class may mean
any subject given to enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence of
such workers over fourteen years of age who have entered upon
employment, and such subjects in a part-time school or class may
mean any subject given to enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence
of such workers over fourteen and less than eighteen years of age;
that such part-time Schools or classes shall provide for not less than
I44 hours of classroom instruction per year.
COMMERCIAL WORK UNDER THE SMITH-HUGHES LAW
The recommendations of the Commission on National Aid
to Vocational Education, which led to the enactment of the
Smith-Hughes Act, did not include a proposal for a subsidy for
commercial education, and accordingly no such direct subsidy
was given. The Commission did suggest, however, that the
national government should give “substantial encouragement
to commercial education.” This suggestion was followed, and
in Section 6 of the act the following is to be found:
It shall be the duty of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa-
tion to make, or cause to have made, studies, investigations, and
reports, with particular reference to their use in aiding the States in
the establishment of vocational Schools and classes and giving
instruction in . . . . commerce and commercial pursuits. Such
studies, investigations, and reports shall include . . . . commerce
and commercial pursuits and requirements upon commercial
workers. . . . .
When the Board deems it advisable such studies, investigations,
and reports concerning commerce and commercial pursuits, for the
460 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
purpose of commercial education, may be made in co-operation with
or through the Department of Commerce.
The Federal Board created a Commercial Education Service
at the same time that the other services of the Board were
organized. It was the duty of this service to make the studies,
investigations, and reports which were deemed necessary:
Within a year after the Board was organized it ruled that Federal
money could be used in part-time schools and classes for the salaries
of instructors in trade, home economics, industrial, commercial and
general educational subjects. This resolution was to carry into effect
the provision of Sec. II of the Act which specified that the subjects
“in the part-time schools may mean any subject given to enlarge
the civic and vocational intelligence,” and obviously the commercial
work could be regarded as enlarging either the civic or vocational
intelligence. t -
The Board further ruled that part-time classes must be classes
which divide the working day or school time between instruction and
practical work in shop, factory, home, office, etc. As a result of
these rulings the work of the Commercial Education Service has two
phases: first, that of making studies, investigations and reports for
the purpose of improving the quality of commercial education in
every type of public school below college grade; second, that of
administering and Supervising the commercial work in the part-time
Schools.
The Board in defining the part-time school ruled that the defini-
tion means here not to separate the working day and School time
into two equal parts but to apportion or distribute the total working
day so that a portion of it is given to School instruction, or to appor-
tion or distribute the total school time so that a portion of it is given
to employment in shop, factory, home, or office, etc. Under this
ruling what are known as co-operative high School classes in both
retail selling and office practice were subsidized from Federal funds;
that is part of the teacher's pay may be paid from Federal funds.
The state boards for vocational education submit to the Federal
Board each year a state plan which outlines the work in vocational
education which the state board proposes to carry on during the
ensuing fiscal year. The decision as to whether the high school
• Co-operative classes in commercial subjects will be subsidized or not,
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 461
therefore, rests entirely with the state board. The Federal Board
has ruled that the states may subsidize these classes but this does not
mean that the states have to, and therefore the question of whether
or not the high school co-operative classes in office work and retail
selling in a particular state will be subsidized, rests entirely with the
state board. It has not been the policy of the Commercial Education
Service to press this matter in any state as it has not been considered
advisable to have the state boards feel that they are under compulsion
in any phase of vocational education which is optional under the
rulings of the Board. In all the states which have compulsory part-
time school laws, classes have been provided to meet the needs of
children employed in stores and offices.
SOME EXAMPLES OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
The continuation School does not exist to give training in
Commercial work alone. Examples therefore must necessarily
include a description of the organization for other work as well
as for instruction in commercial subjects. Such descriptions
may be useful to those who are interested in the organization or
direction of continuation Schools; they are in any case more
faithful portrayals of the facts than if the data concerning
business teaching in continuation schools were isolated. The
business training must usually be seen more or less as a setting
of other studies. It may be well to begin with the descrip-
tion of a continuation School of general character. One such
example can be found in Detroit.
In Detroit there has been a considerable re-working of
educational work during the past year or two. One feature
of the plan in this city is to keep the work for boys and girls
entirely separate and to throw the students into groups around
which separate courses can be built. Below is a statement of
Courses of study offered in the boys’ continuation department of
the Cass Technical High School of Detroit:”
* From materials distributed by the Commercial Service of the Federal
Board for Vocational Education, March, 1922.
* From statement of courses of study submitted by Assistant Principal
E. G. Allen.
462 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Auto Mechanics I:
Chassis—Study and assembly of front and rear axles and trans-
missions. Three 45 minute periods.
Ignition—Study of fundamental principles of electricity, the study
and assembly of generators and starting motors, distributors and
batteries. Three 45 minute periods.
Auto Mechanics II:
Study of engines—different types of gas engines, carburetors, and
Vacuum forced Speed gasoline Systems, practical work in wiring
up the electrical equipment.
Garage work—Actual repairing of all makes of cars.
Electrical Construction I:
Splicing, Soldering, insulation, and bell wiring, work on different
types of Switches, open and receptacle work, and garage wiring.
Electrical Construction II:
Use of wood molding, rosette and drop cord work, snap switches
for different circuits, metal molding, baseboard plugs, wiring of
ordinary houses, Safety switches, knife switches, and radio work.
Wood. Shop:
Pattern making—Joinery, wood turning, coping down, split
pattern, green Sand Core, and dry sand core, dry sand core
box, vertical and horizontal types, balanced core, stop-off core,
loose piece pattern, three-part pattern, built-up or segmen
pattern, and a master pattern. -
Cabinet making—Typical types of joinery work; boys repair
furniture and make new furniture.
Commercial:
Typewriting, office practice, business English, business arithmetic,
economics.
Reservoir:
Into this group are placed all incoming students who have no
definite aim or type of work they wish to follow, and boys who
are subnormal and whom we are unable to place in the more
advanced shop Courses.
Mechanical Drawing: -
The work in this course is divided into two sections: Students,
upon entering, are placed in a sketching class and taught to
letter and make sketches. As soon as one shows himself proficient
in this class, he is put into a course which is the same as the
Mechanical Drawing course in Cass High School.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 463
Machine Shop: m
Grinding and hardening of tools, chucking, centering—regular
and irregular—facing, straight turning, shouldering, knurling,
chuck wood, taper turning, taper boring, hand reaming, bevelling,
and threading.
Freehand Sketching:
This is a special course offered on Saturday afternoons for boys
who, we find, are talented in Freehand Sketching, and are
desirous of doing Some art work. As this is a very small group,
we have to combine it with a small Mechanical Drawing class.
. The work done here is at the present time practically an
experiment.
Printing:
The printing course consists of composition or type setting by
hand, of press work and book binding. The boys here have
practical experience in taking a job and carrying it through to
completion. This work at the present time is offered only on
Saturday, due to the crowded condition in this Department
throughout the week.
Academic:
The academic subjects are carried on in connection with the differ-
ent shop courses and the boys move throughout the eleven
45 minute periods a day as a group, and the work is so arranged
as to bring as much bearing upon the shop work they are taking
up as possible. The subjects offered are Mathematics, English,
History, and Economics.
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS IN DETROIT
In planning vocational education of all types too little con-
sideration has been given to Special needs of girls. The immedi-
ate and temporary occupations which she shares in common
with boys have been considered, but the more permanent
vocation in which most women are employed has not been
planned for with Care. Some real thought appears to be given
to this question in Detroit."
* The following statement is adapted by permission from George F.
Buxton, Part-Time Education, pp. 33–37. “Monographs on Vocational
Education,” 1921 Series, No. 2. Published by the Vocational Association
of the Middle West.
464 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The part-time continuation school for girls in Detroit has been,
from its beginning, distinct from the same type of School for boys.
The problems which it has presented have not been obscured or
overshadowed by the easily solved problems of industrial education
which continuation work for boys presents, as may be the case when
the two types of work come under the same administration. Educa-
tion of the young wage-earning girl is a twofold problem. Her
initial wage-earning career is short and within a period of from three
to ten years she enters upon her career of home-making. She must,
therefore, be equipped for two vocations neither of which may be
regarded as sufficiently permanent to warrant training for one to
the exclusion of the other. . . . .
It is the girl of the adolescent age who comes to the part-time
School when she is entering upon a new stage of her life. A new sense
of her power is awakening, exhibited often by an attempt to throw
off traditional control of home and school. She looks out upon a
new world—Spiritual, moral and mental, no less than practical and
material. Her mind is most sensitive and most receptive at this
age, and new capacities lie dormant but just ready for the awakening
touch. She has left school to take her place in the world of produc-
tion and trade because of conditions within the school which have
not been adjustable to her individual desires or needs; or she is help-
ing to bear the financial support of a large family; or she is endeavor-
ing to meet her yearning for well-being expressing itself outwardly in
a more elaborate wardrobe. Therefore, it becomes the purpose of
the school to bring the girl to a realization of herself, to interpret
to her the new world of life she is entering, to present her with oppor-
tunities for self knowledge, self appraisal, self expression, and self
development.
The girl problem is inseparably bound up with the teacher
problem. The right kind of a teacher is the most vital consideration
in the success of a part-time school for girls. Her paramount in-
terest must be in the individual. This must never be forgotten in her
desire to perpetuate school traditions, or to teach a set lesson. She
will study to understand the part-time school movement. She must
believe in the school, its aims and its opportunities for young employed
girls, and she must have faith in girls.
In the Detroit School, an average of about fifty girls each day form
what is known as the “Mixed Group.” They are the girls of lowest
school attainment. The majority have finished the sixth grade,
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 465
many were in the seventh at time of leaving school, and a few have
left School at the termination of the compulsory school age while in
grades below the sixth. The latter are subnormals—a class with
which the school has not had to deal before this year.
The mixed group is divided into two classes, averaging twenty-
five girls each. These girls seem to need, especially, civic and domestic
intelligence, knowledge of health laws, and a general toning up of per-
sonal appearance and habits. Fifty per cent of their school day is
occupied with home-making Subjects—cooking, sewing, elementary
home economics—and the remainder in English, arithmetic, spelling,
civics, gymnasium and hygienic classes. The lessons in all academic
Subjects relate to the girl’s life in her occupation and home, and
every effort is made to have each lesson so practical that the girl may
carry it directly into living. These fifteen and sixteen year old girls
of seventh grade and below are very much retarded and, belong to
that large group of the youth of our country who rarely finish elemen-
tary School. Individually a few move out of this group to classes
of higher grade girls from time to time during the school year. Those
are the more promising ones who have been awakened probably by
the close touch of a sympathetic and intelligent teacher. In the
full-time school they were lost in the crowd.
This arrangement has revealed the value of one teacher over the
many for this type of girl. They are her sole interest. She has
visited their homes, and is devoted to their welfare. They are most
difficult to keep in school regularly, yet the attendance of this group
has shown a marked improvement.
Above this mixed group still less attention is paid to school
grade, and greater effort is made to group girls according to occupa-
tions. There is the office group, the store group, the telephone group,
and the home group. A girl from any one of these groups may be tak-
ing commercial studies as her desired vocational subject, but remains
with her group for the classes that relate especially to her own job.
The ungraded condition of these classes has been found quite satis-
factory. An eighth grade girl will often do as well as a ninth when
the class problems are vital and related to living. She will at least
be following along the line of a real interest and gaining all she is
capable of in the subject studied.
The problem presented by girls who are in employments that
demand no special skill or training, and offer them no training for
any permanent occupation has not been fully solved in the Detroit
466 . EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
part-time School for girls. A vocational information class has been
attempted for these girls. It includes girls from factories, laundries,
and home girls. It offers an opportunity to emphasize the ethical
principle of making good in any job, and at the same time endeavors
to point the way to a more permanent vocation suited to individual
capacities. These girls, from the simple automatic occupations, fit
well into the home-making classes where manual skill is also required.
To offset the dulling influence of automatic work for five days a week,
there is the nature and folk dancing and recreational games in the
gymnasium, the chorus work in the assembly, and the introduction
to the world of good books in the English classes. Thus the young
worker who stands all day taking marking pins out of clothes in
family washes at the laundry, or turning men's hose right side out in
the knitting mill, is directed into some wholesome self improving
activities. The school needs especially to “tone up the minds, the
bodies and the feelings” of this industrial group. But instruction
that bears directly upon the work the girl is doing is quite beyond
the ability of the school to provide because too many varieties of
manual work are represented. Most of the jobs are learned in a day
and skill and speed are acquired through the Constant practice.
Advancement comes to those who are fitted to do some manipulative
task which requires a little more judgment or responsibility, or a little
more physical strength, or willingness to perform disagreeable work.
COMMERCIAL CONTINUATION WORK IN TRENTON, NEW JERSEY
In Trenton, New Jersey, a good deal of effort has been
spent to work out a sound plan of instruction in commercial
subjects in the continuation school. The present System is
thus described:
I. The compulsory New Jersey continuation school law.—This
law became effective July 1, 1920. Under the provisions of the
law a continuation school must be established and maintained in
every school district in which there are employed twenty or more
children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen to whom age and
schooling certificates have been granted in accordance with the child
labor and compulsory attendance laws. Attendance of all these
children (physically and mentally fit) is required for at least six
* This statement was prepared in May, 1922, by Paul S. Lomax, di-
rector of business education in Trenton.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 467
hours a week for thirty-six weeks a year, or, if temporarily employed,
for twenty hours a week during the period of unemployment. The
time of attendance is on regular school days between eight o'clock
in the morning and five o’clock in the afternoon.
2. Maintenance and support.—State aid is given continuation
schools in the several districts to the amount of $400 to each teacher
employed for a term of thirty-six weeks or more, or a proportionate
amount based upon the ratio that the actual number of hours'
service bears to Io&o hours. In addition, federal aid is granted when
the requirements of the Federal Board for Vocational Education
relative to class organization, equipment, purpose of instruction and
qualifications of teachers are fulfilled. *
3. Organization of the Trenton continuation school.—There are
850 pupils enrolled in the school in which ten teachers are employed.
Of these students 125 are registered in commercial subjects, 4oo in
home economics and 325 in practical arts. In all three lines of work
one-half of the day's session or three hours is given to the vocational
subjects and the remaining three hours to work in related subjects,
as English, physical training, arithmetic, hygiene and civics. The
work in home economics consists of cooking, sewing and other home
arts; in practical arts of wood-work, sheet metal work and electricity;
and in commercial education of introductory business, penmanship
and typewriting. -
4. Commercial subjects.--The key subject of the commercial
work is Introductory Business. The nature of the course is:
a) To study the organization and functions of local business
enterprises, manufacturing, wholesaling, retailing, financial, com-
mission, public utilities, etc., as viewed from the standpoint of
junior workers who are employed in such businesses.
b) Within these organizations to study types of work which are
performed by junior workers such as those who are enrolled in the
continuation school classes. With reference to the junior occupa-
tions a study is made of the duties, essential personal qualifications
required, general and special education needed, salaries paid, number
employed, opportunities for advancement, promotional lines and
educational opportunities available to facilitate promotion.
c) In connection with these types of junior employment to study
the nature and use of the business papers which are involved.
d) To study and develop personal qualifications which make
for success. Throughout all the work an effort is made to inculcate
such virtues as industry, punctuality, initiative, courtesy and thrift.
468 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The Work is organized on the unit basis, by which is meant that
from week to week particular junior business employments are
Studied. For example, the work for one week may be that of a
stock record clerk in which there is included (a) such considerations
as the importance of the clerkship to a business organization as a
whole, the lines of promotion, the nature of the work performed; and
(b) a study of the business papers which are used. Following the
vocational work in the morning, this class in its related work in the
afternoon makes a study of that arithmetic which is needed in con-
nection with the stock records. In the morning the pupils have
learned the nature and use of these records, and have gained a certain
degree of skill in handling them. In the afternoon they are given
problems in which are emphasized the arithmetic and other related
Subject matter which may be concerned. This procedure means that
at the end of the day the pupil should have accomplished a definite
unit of School work, and with that accomplishment there should go
with the pupil to his employment a feeling of enthusiasm and progress
which is ultimately shared by the business men themselves.
It will be observed that this work has both pre-vocational and
vocational values in that in the one instance it enables the student to
discover and gauge his interests, abilities and possibilities in his
present or desired employment and in the other instance to acquire
some degree of preparation which leads to improvement in his present
employment, particularly if that happens to be commercial."
Along with Introductory Business, courses are given in penman-
ship and typewriting. The penmanship I regard as essential in
connection with the business practice work.
In typewriting we have two kinds of pupils enrolled: (a) that
class of pupils who have had no knowledge of typewriting prior to
enrollment in the continuation school and to whom, therefore, the
work is preparatory, and (b) that class of pupils who have had type-
writing before enrolling and to whom, therefore, the work is extension.
For the first group I question very much if typewriting has sufficient.
value to warrant the time given to its study. The work can be given
only once a week, and once a week over a period of thirty-six weeks
is not sufficient in which to develop worth-while typewriting tech-
nique and skill. For the second group of pupils I believe that type-
The two chief sources of material which are used in this course are
Junior Business Training by F. G. Nichols and Clerical Practice by Ander-
son, Ross, and Staples.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 469
writing is of real value if such pupils before enrolling have acquired
a fair mastery of the typewriter keyboard. For such pupils there
can be offered a very excellent course in typewriting technique and
office practice, the latter to involve a maximum amount of type-
writing in the handling of business correspondence and forms. The
number in the second class of pupils is very Small as compared with
that in the first. Consequently, typewriting, with the one exception,
is a subject, I believe, which has a very doubtful value in continuation
school work. The course in Introductory Business, for example,
will prove of far greater value both to junior workers and employers.
On a basis of three hours, as we have in Trenton, I would recom-
mend the following commercial courses of study:
|Minutes
Elementary Business Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Study of Junior Business Employments. . . . . . . . . . . 45
Penmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O
Junior Business Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6o
COMMERCIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN CHICAGO
Commercial work in continuation schools in Chicago has
been carried on both in centrally located classes and in the
plants of large businesses. Its aims and methods are described
as follows:
In, Chicago before there was a Compulsory Continuation School
Law, Commercial Continuation Schools were established by the
Board of Education in the offices of Swift & Co., Wilson & Co.,
Morris & Co., Chicago Telephone Co., and a general Commercial
Continuation School for employed young people in the central busi-
ness district was opened in the McClurg Building. $
Since the passing of the Compulsory Continuation School Law,
whereby boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen must
enroll in continuation schools for eight hours a week if not in the regu-
lar day schools, the enrollment has considerably increased and the
entire Jones School building in the Central District has been turned
over to the Commercial Continuation School.
Commercial classes have been opened in the Winchell Continua-
tion School for girls, the South Division Continuation School for
* This statement of commercial work in Chicago continuation schools
was prepared by Mr. William Bachrach, supervisor of commercial work in
the high schools of Chicago.
47O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
boys and girls, and a class is soon to be begun in the Washburne
Continuation School for boys. -
From the beginning two viewpoints were kept in mind: to con-
tinue the general education of the student by offering courses in
English, mathematics, civics, etc., and also to correlate the work with
the present employment of the student to as great an extent as pos-
sible. This could be done very easily in the schools located at the
packing houses. The actual problems arising in the accounting and
correspondence departments are studied by the teacher and trans-
ferred to the school room, thereby adding great interest to what
would ordinarily be dry routine work. §
A new movement which was begun last year and which seems
to be a very sensible one is to permit each student in the continua-
tion school to try himself out in a ten weeks cycle of business train-
ing, shop work, household arts and Science work, etc. In other
words, we are coming to the point of view that it is not fair to the
child to force him to crystallize his efforts in one line of endeavor until
he has had some opportunity of trying himself out under the super-
vision of his teacher and principal. After the try-out cycle he is
advised to specialize during the remainder of his continuation
school course. The present thought also is to give shorter units of
instruction, rather than Small parts of large units, such as shorthand
if the student has not had any instruction in it previously.
An effort has been made to break away as much as possible from
the text and methods used in the regular high schools, and in some
cases the teachers have compiled material more suitable to the condi-
tions of the continuation Schools.
A COMMERCIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN A BUSINESS PLANT
Both the public-school system of Chicago and the concerns
where the commercial continuation schools are in operation
feel that there is much to be said for the location of a continua-
tion School on the property of a business institution. The fol-
lowing material gives an impression of the commercial continu-
ation School in the plant of Swift & Company, Chicago. It is
to be remembered that although Swift & Company furnish the
room and to Some extent the equipment for this school, the public-
School authorities furnish the teacher and direct the course of
study. Incidentally, the pay for instruction comes in part
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 471
from the federal government under the provisions of the Smith-
Hughes Law."
A. Aims:
I. To enable the boy or girl who has not completed the eighth
grade to obtain the minimum essentials of the work given in
the public grammar Schools.
2. To enable the boy or girl who has an eighth-grade education
to obtain an education equivalent to the Chicago two-year
commercial high-school course. -
3. To train the boy or girl for lines to which he or she is mentally
and physically best adapted.
4. To recommend capable boys or girls for transfer or promotion
when requested by department heads.
5. To train the boy or girl in that which is directly applicable to
his or her future activities.
B. Selection of Subject–Matter:
I. Penmanship:
Special attention is given to the development of a rapid,
legible hand. A definite effort is made to train the student in
writing small legible figures, tabulating in ink, and filling in
forms.
2. Arithmetic:
Footing, cross footing, balancing, check eleven, short cuts
in multiplying, averaging, figuring per cents, prorating, dis-
tributing of overhead expenses, keeping bank accounts, pay-
rolls, extending invoices, rendering statements of account,
simple accounting, etc., are presented daily in both advanced
and elementary sections.
3. English: -
Much attention to spelling lists of words evolved from the
company’s correspondence; elementary word study. The
business letter is not only studied in detail but original letters
are composed in answer to practical business situations.
Errors in both written and oral English are corrected
systematically.
* This statement is adapted from circulars published by Swift & Com-
pany. There are several such schools in Chicago. They exist, of course,
elsewhere as well.
472
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Advertising, year books, and other literature of the com-
pany are used consistently as material for spelling, reading,
dictation exercises, and discussions. -
Oral and written compositions receive regular attention.
The subject-matter is based largely on the industry, but
includes material from the daily newspaper; and such inci-
dental material from commercial geography, civics, hygiene,
and office practice as seems advisable.
. Business organization:
Frequent lectures are given, by experts in their line, on
departmental activities. These are followed by class work and
reading assignments in our well equipped company library.
C. Methods of Teaching:
Textbooks are practically done away with, and definite,
concrete lessons based on the office system and organization
of the packing industry, worked out in mimeographed form,
are the basis of most of the instruction. The office and pack-
ing industry are a laboratory; the three R's, as used in and
useful to the packing industry, are the curriculum. The
company furnishes rooms, equipment, supplies and pupils'
time. This last element alone costs the company thousands
of dollars yearly. Thus is the proper duty of the state to
educate its young citizens maintained and carried into indus-
try; at the same time, co-operation on the part of the particular
industry furnishes the teachers with a vast mine of material
which is most immediately useful to those pupils going into
the industry in question and which, in all probability, never
would find its way into any textbook.
This collaboration, in addition to the advantages named,
is a good insurance against purely “vestibule school” instruc-
tion, which is liable to be found in private corporation
Schools.
Definite instruction in packing-house problems and
methods is given by means of talks by the department heads
and other executives supplemented by trips to the part of the
plant concerned, and followed up later by oral and written
composition exercises and arithmetic problems based on the
particular department studied. It may be seen that this
school has an advisory faculty which the most richly endowed
university might be proud of.
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 473
D. Special Classes: -
Girls under eighteen years of age are given instruction in
typewriting and Comptometer operation; another small group
of girls trained in stenography in high School, but without
business experience, are given a five months’ finishing course
in office practice and English. At the same time they do the
regular work of a stenographer, though light volume only is
expected of them. &
E. Summary:
Our aim is not to make a mere machine out of the student,
or to fit him for a blind-alley job. On the other hand we aim
to fit him technically and give him a broader view of what
business really is. &
THE RóLE OF THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL
If growth and interest during the past few years are indica-
tions, the continuation School is to play a great part in the voca-
tional education of the future. What part it can best play
needs careful thought. Undoubtedly it will for some time to
come play a multiple rôle. The work which it can perform may
be thought of as having three degrees of breadth: (1) the
broadest possible cultural education, (2) the interpretation of
the student’s job so that its implications become more apparent
and more full of meaning, and (3) a training in the performance of
the job itself or in the technique of other jobs to which a transfer
may be desired. It must be borne in mind, however, that one
reason why the continuation School must give some notion of
Social relations and of the duties of a citizen to its present pupils
is because instruction in such matters has been crowded out of
the regular school courses by the pressure of technical training,
or because the students have dropped school at an early age.
Let us assume, however, a rearrangement of work. In a
state where a compulsory continuation-school law is operative,
the student will necessarily, if the law is enforced, be under the
direction of the school authorities until he is sixteen, seventeen,
or eighteen years of age. Under these circumstances it seems
likely that the number of students who drop out of the regular
school work will be lessened. The two-year high-school com-
474 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
mercial Courses, for example, should prove less popular than
they are at present, since the graduates of such courses, being
too young to evade the continuation-school law, will find that
their escape from School is but partial and their opportunity
to earn very limited. The demand, therefore, for short cuts
and ready-made education should lessen. Even if the demand
does not lessen, the public-school authorities, having in mind
their long period of control over the student, will do well to
rearrange their objectives in most of the periods of school life.
Since the student is to stay in school longer, the need for
early technical preparation disappears. In the grade school,
and especially in the early years of the high school, we can no
longer avoid doing our real educational duty of attempting to
interpret the “Business of Living” for the student. The
excuse that the student will be in school only a brief time, or
that he must have a quick technical education to enable him to
earn money, has little validity in a state where a compulsory
part-time law is in force. When the early years of the second-
ary school are thus used for broad, general work, the part-
time and continuation school will find, for pupils so trained, its
own proper place is in dealing with certain techniques. On the
basis of a broad foundation, a student may be related to this job,
perhaps introduced to it, certainly improved in its performance,
by the continuation School. But such introduction should come
to require less of an interpretation of a job in its relation to
social living. The meaning of our Social life should have come
earlier and the application of that knowledge to a specific task,
once that task is comprehended, should follow naturally.
There should thus come to be left for the continuation school
a narrower and more applied field of operations. This field,
though narrow, will be varied. The work in such schools must
be practical and will demand for its proper performance quite
as careful planning, organization, and teaching, as are needed
in any other type of school. There seems to be no doubt that
the idea of short unit courses will persist. Materials for such
courses must be prepared. There seems, too, good reason to
believe that the continuation School and the corporation School
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 475
will, to a considerable extent, join hands. In fact, there are
instances already established where such schools are in part
co-operative, in part Continuation, and in part corporation
institutions. g
On the basis of a properly organized grade and secondary
education, the continuation School can be an agency of great
value. Its threat in the past has been in receiving pupils at
too early an age, while they were without any proper basis
of choice of vocation and without any notion of the Social
implications of various types of work. With a proper reorgan-
ization of the work in the grades and Secondary school, however,
this difficulty should be avoided, and the continuation school
can play a rôle of increasing value in adjusting students to
industry and in the improvement of specific vocational skills.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. What is a continuation School?
2. May continuation Schools be compulsory 2 not compulsory P
3. Taking the Chicago Continuation School as an example, when are
the schools in session ? What are the requirements for pupils
who go to continuation Schools? Must eighth-grade gradu-
ates attend ? Who need not go to continuation Schools? Do
continuation-school pupils have a vacation ?
4. A continuation School is Sometimes Said to be a School for young
people who have gone to work. Does this mean that an unem-
ployed person of the designated ages is not required to attend
continuation School?
5. The Illinois law provides that employment certificates will be
withdrawn from those pupils whose attendance is irregular.
Does this seem an adequate penalty P What weakness or
strength do you discern in it 2
6. Would it be as well to plan evening Schools to do all the work
now attempted by continuation Schools?
7. From some source secure figures dealing with the same ideas as
those presented by the survey of the New York Military Train-
ing Commission. On the basis of the data which you find, is it
your conclusion that the New York figures overstate or under-
state the case?
476
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
IO.
II.
I 2.
I3.
I4.
I 5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
I9.
2O.
. The tradition of the continuation School is not that of a Voca-
tional School. Explain. -
. “State legislation, prior to the Smith-Hughes Law, was based
upon conflicting attitudes.” What were the matters of conflict?
What would you understand by the phrases “a mandatory
continuation school law,” “permissive continuation school law,”
and “permissive-mandatory continuation School law” P
What was the Smith-Hughes Act P What were the conditions
under which the Smith-Hughes Law made federal money avail-
able for state aid in education ? •
What are the chief matters for which provision must be made in
enacting a part-time compulsory-education law.
Just what was the significance of the Smith-Hughes Act to Con-
tinuation schools?
How would you account for the fact that commercial education
was less generously provided for under the Smith-Hughes La
than was industrial education P {
It was only by liberal interpretation of the phrase “subjects given
to enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence of workers” that
commercial education was given attention under the Smith-
Hughes Law. Explain.
“The Commercial Education Service has two phases.” What
are these two phases? What ruling was necessary to make it
legal that co-operative high-school classes in retail-selling and
office practice could be subsidized with federal funds?
Commercial work in continuation schools is incidental. Ex-
amples of such work must, therefore, be studied in a setting of gen-
eral continuation-school organization. Is this statement true? Is
it a natural outgrowth of the development of continuation Schools?
Explain the course as outlined for the boys at Cass Technical
High School of Detroit. Is this course essentially concerned with
vocational activities or with the general broadening of the
student’s intelligence?
What are the features of the Detroit continuation school for
girls? Why differentiate the schools for boys and girls? What
are the chief vocations for girls? Is the problem of a girls’
continuation School a more difficult one than the boys' continua-
tion school? -
What is the purpose of the “mixed group” in the girls' continua-
tion school of Detroit P
CONTINUATION SCHOOL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION 477
2 I.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
the plant of Swift & Company, making a list of comments on the
27.
What special problem is presented to continuation schools by
pupils in employments that demand no special skill or training?
Examine the basis of commercial work in the Detroit continua-
tion school. Prepare a list of comments on this work. These
comments may be favorable or adverse, or they may elaborate
on some of the ways in which this work can be done.
In Trenton the work is organized on a unit basis. What are
Lomax’ comments on the Trenton experience in teaching
typewriting P Would you be inclined to extend the comment to
any other subjects?
The directors of commercial continuation schools in Chicago
think rather highly of the continuation schools which have been
placed in business plants. What advantages are to be found
in Schools so located P Do Such schools gain any advantage in
teaching matters of general information or only in teaching those
of immediate vocational concern ? Do Such schools appear to
give a financial advantage to the public-school system P Do they
give a financial advantage to the corporation as compared with
the organization of a corporation school?
The statement is made concerning one continuation school in a
business plant that the pupils' time alone “costs the company
thousands of dollars annually.” Is this a valid claim P
Work over the material describing the continuation school in
various divisions of the material presented.
Draw up a statement or series of statements which present what
Seems to you to be the proper place or rôle of the continuation
School in the planned scheme of business education.
CHAPTER XVIII
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES
It is easy to confuse the co-operative plans of training which
we are to discuss in this chapter with continuation schools or
part-time Schools as they are often called. The terms are used
more or less interchangeably by many persons. Indeed in
Some instances there is official treatment of the two as practically
identical. For example, under the rulings of the Federal Board
for Vocational Education, “the decision as to whether the high-
School Co-operative classes in commercial subjects shall be sub-
sidized or not” rests entirely with the state board. In case they
are so subsidized, many would think they could properly be
spoken of only as continuation Schools. In many instances,
however, no such subsidy is arranged, and, in fact, co-operative
schools were in successful operation before the passage of the
Smith-Hughes Law. In the case of co-operative schools, the
School is the agency which operates and controls the scheme of
education. The work is for regular students, while a continua-
tion school is essentially for those persons who are no longer
classified as regular students and whose interest in education
is secondary rather than primary. The co-operative school
course, then, is a device for aiding and improving the regular
school instruction, while the continuation School is a means of
continuing or supplementing an education which has been
formally completed.
The co-operative idea, in American education at least,
appears to have been begun in the work of Dean Herman L.
Schneider, of the University of Cincinnati.
In the College of Engineering of the University of Cincin-
nati he first applied his much-imitated plan:
* Adapted from the University of Cincinnati Record, Series I, Vol.
XVII, No. 1, January, 1921. “Co-operative Courses, College of Engineer-
ing and Commerce, IQ2 I-I922,” pp. IO-I3.
478
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 479
The College of Engineering of the University of Cincinnati origi-
nated in a professorship of civil engineering, which was established
in 1874. In this year a complete four-year course was offered, leading
to the degree of Civil Engineer. By 1905, instruction had been
extended to include mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineering,
and the enrollment in the several departments totaled 120 students.
In September, 1906, instruction on the co-operative plan was
begun, and the first class of 27 co-operative students was admitted.
The regular full-time theoretical courses were continued, with an
enrollment of Io'7 students, but the co-operative course was offered
as an alternative to those students of mechanical, chemical, and
electrical engineering who wished to combine practical experience
with their study of technical theory. Under time co-operative plan,
a carefully co-ordinated Schedule was arranged, whereby the student
spent six years in alternate weeks of classroom instruction at the
University and of practical work in the industries of Cincinnati.
The co-operative class was divided into two sections, one of which was
at the University while the other was at work in the shops, and vice
versa. Unless by Special arrangement, each student had an alternate,
so that both the school and the shop were always full-manned.
During the first year, the University co-operated with fifteen firms,
including chiefly manufacturers of machine tools and of electrical
equipment.
In September, 1909, a co-operative course in civil engineering was
added to those in mechanical, electrical, and chemical engineering.
The years from 1909–1910 to IQI6–1917 witnessed a steady growth of
the co-operative course in the four departments.
More significant than the number of firms are the variety of
industries and the increased radius of operation. Typical of the firms
added were rolling mills, structural iron works, a gas and electric
company, and manufacturers of automobiles, elevators, engines,
bicycles and motorcycles, cash registers, fire engines, printing machin-
ery, paper-making machinery, adding machines, roofing, ink, and
soap. The area covered by these industries included not only the
city and suburbs of Cincinnati, but also Hamilton, Middletown,
Dayton, Piqua, and Springfield, Ohio, and Richmond and Indianap-
olis, Indiana. During this period the time of the co-operative course
was changed from six years of nine months each to five years of
eleven months each, and the period of alternation was changed from
one week to two.
480 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
In April, 1919, the College of Commerce was merged with the
College of Engineering, and a reorganization of both courses was
begun by committees of the two faculties. In the Department of
Commerce, as in the engineering departments, the instruction is
given on the co-operative plan. Under this arrangement, the student
spends alternate two- or four-week periods at work in various business
establishments in and near Cincinnati. During the first two years of
the course, emphasis is placed on production, and the student obtains
experience in one of the electrical, chemical, or mechanical manufac-
turing plants.
The last three years of the course are devoted to a study of the
problems of financing and marketing. These terms must be inter-
preted broadly as including all the relationships involved in the
conduct of business aside from the purely internal technical processes
of production.
The city of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, furnishes an out-
standing example of a public-school system which took over
Dean Schneider's plan and made extensive use of it in connection
with industrial education."
The idea was not so rapidly absorbed in commercial work,
although there are now numerous instances of its employment
in public-school commercial courses. It has been applied per-
haps most frequently in Courses in retail selling, although it has
been used often and extensively in office-work courses.
TYPES OF CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES
Three clearly distinguishable plans are used in co-operative
business Courses. In one plan the pupils are allowed to go into
commercial establishments on Saturdays and other holidays and
after the regular School hours. A second plan may be called the
“alternate-half-day” plan. Under this arrangement two pupils
work in one establishment, one taking care of the duties of a
position in the forenoon and the other in the afternoon. The
Second pupil attends School in the morning, the first in the after-
noon. A third plan is the “alternate-week” plan. In this
*An interesting description of co-operation applied through an entire
course is Arthur E. Morgan’s “What Is College For?” in the Atlantic
Monthly (May, 1922), pp. 642-50. t
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 481
plan the School work is repeated alternate weeks for the two sets
of pupils, the two groups alternating on the job.
CO-OPERATIVE COURSES IN RETAIL SELLING
The effort to carry on Some form of co-operative high-school
work in retail selling seems to have begun when Mrs. Lucinda
W. Prince, now head of the Prince School of Education for Store
Service of Boston, introduced courses in retail selling into the
Boston high Schools. Pupils were placed in stores on Saturday
to get their store experience, or after school hours and on Satur-
days. The Courses proved popular, and the number of pupils
increased rapidly, though it is claimed that there was a good
deal of dissatisfaction because a great many of the girls who
graduated left the field of retail selling. This caused merchants
to complain that after they had put time and money into the
work of training, the young people did not stay with them.
This plan of Saturday and holiday work which gained some
publicity as the “Boston plan” appears now to have been in
part abandoned or at least Supplemented by the alternate-week
plan. This change is interesting in view of Boston’s historic
position in this movement and certain possible reasons for the
loss of interest in Salesmanship under the older scheme. These
have been suggested."
I. Pupils in a Commercial course are devoting a large part of
their time to preparing for office work. Upon graduation they are
better prepared for this work and more interested in it than in the
Salesmanship. -
2. The courses in salesmanship and merchandise, being new
and somewhat experimental, were less rich in educational content
than other courses and So did not command the respect of the
pupils.
3. The store experience given in the rush of Saturday was both
less valuable and less interesting, and more trying than when given
under normal conditions.
* These reasons are adapted from Bulletin of High Points, IV, No. 2
(February, 1922), p. 4. Published by the Board of Education of the City
of New York. -
482 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
4. Saturday work for two years does not give a pupil enough
experience to assure her a good position upon graduation, such a posi-
tion, for instance, as that of a regular sales clerk in a good department,
although for a pupil gifted with a desirable personality it may prove a
sufficient apprenticeship.
5. If one adds to all this, the prejudice against store work among
many of the parents and teachers, the opposition which any new
movement has to overcome and the difficulty of obtaining Satisfactory
teachers for new subjects, it is not hard to see why salesmanship
courses conducted on the Boston plan have made but little progress.
ESSENTIALS IN CO-OPERATIVE CLASSES
Four things seem to be essential for satisfactory co-operative
commercial work. These are a well-planned course, trained
teachers, proper agreements with business houses, and a capable
co-ordinator. In considering the possibility of well-planned
courses we can perhaps do no better than to examine Several
courses which are in operation in high Schools.
The co-operative course at present in operation in Boston
may be examined first."
THE CO-OPERATIVE COURSE
The week-in and week-out plan of retail selling revolves around
salesmanship, but it adds several other subjects. In this course,
pupils are employed by the large stores. If they fail of employment,
they must report to the high school for full time instruction. The
stores keep a record of attendance and report the quality of the work
done by the pupils who are routed through the stores according to
the following schedule:
Marking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 weeks
Examining. . . . * & E & 4 º $ tº g 4 weeks
Stock work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 weeks
Cashiering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 weeks
Selling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 weeks
Total 20 weeks in store
* This statement is adapted from Louis J. Fish, “Retail Selling in the
Boston High Schools,” Current Affairs, December 12, 1921.
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 483
RETAIL SELLING COURSE AS AUTHORIZED BY THE SCHOOL COMMITTEE.
ALTERNATE WEEKS IN STORES AND IN SCHOOL
TWO-YEAR COURSES!
Third Wear
Periods
Physical Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
English III (business). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
History of Commerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º e º 9 s tº 6 & 8 5
Physics or Chemistry (household). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Salesmanship (including store mathematics)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 5
Drawing III (applied). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •' is º 0 & s tº $ $ tº ſº tº gº tº tº $ tº e & 4
Co-operative Store Practice (or in school)
Fourth Year
Physical Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
English IV (business). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 * tº dº tº gº tº is g º & © & g 5
American History and Citizenship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.
Salesmanship (with store mathematics). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Textiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Commercial Law or Drawing IV (applied). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Or 4
Co-operative Store Practice (or in school) -
ONE-YEAR COURSE”
Fourth Year
Periods
Physical Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
English IV (business) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
American History and Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Salesmanship (with store mathematics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Textiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a t < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5
Drawing IV (applied). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Co-operative Store Practice (or in school)
Pupils taking this course are divided into two groups, one group
to be in the store while the other group is in school—each group
changing places alternate weeks, and the School work repeated alter-
nate weeks. -
* This course is authorized for the third and fourth years of a pupil’s
four-year course.
* This course is authorized for the fourth year only of the four-year
COURTSC. -
484 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Two objects have been kept clearly in view in preparing these
courses. First, the pupil must be thoroughly trained to do the tasks
which fall to her lot as stock girl, examiner, marker, inspector, or
salesperson. Most important of all, she must be trained in habits of
promptness, neatness, and accuracy. Absolute honesty must be
held up to her as a sine qua non. Second, the pupil must be given
the foundation on which to build if she rises to an executive position
in the store. Such a pupil may fairly be expected to rise out of the
ranks in the course of a few years, and any training offered by the
high School should take this into account.
The Co-operative Course in retail selling is given at the High
School of Practical Arts to which any pupil in the Boston high schools
mav transfer.
CO-OPERATIVE COURSES IN NEW YORK
The Haaren High School of New York furnishes another
very interesting example of Co-operative work. The Haaren
High School, it should be noted, is the co-operative high school
for the city of New York. Co-operative courses are conducted
only there, and pupils who wish to take co-operative courses
go to Haaren rather than to other New York high schools. This
Concentration has obviously Some administrative advantages.
This notion of concentrating one type of work is similar to the
idea of concentrating commercial work in specialized high
schools. Certain facts concerning the work at Haaren follow."
WHO MAY BE ADMITTED
I. A graduate of elementary School.
2. A graduate of an intermediate School.
3. Any student desiring to transfer from another high School.
Diploma given
Either school gives a regular high School diploma.
The four year commercial diploma is recognized by Colleges offer.
ing advanced business courses.
The industrial diploma admits to certain technical Schools such
as the University of Cincinnati, Lowell School of Design, etc.
The courses do not prepare for an academic college.
Regents’ examinations are not given.
* The data given is adapted from literature of the Haaren High School
in March, 1922.
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 485
Courses offered
A secretarial course for pupils desiring training as stenographers
and typists, including actual experience as such with business firms.
An accounting course training for business positions in this line
of work or as preparatory work or university training. Actual
practice with business firms is given.
A course in Salesmanship including instruction in raw materials,
processes of manufacture, and marketing of goods. During the
course employment and adequate training in the actual selling of goods
is furnished in the largest stores.
Industrial courses, where boys may enter technical, chemical or
electrical occupations.
Employment work
Before pupils are sent out to work, a position is carefully investi-
gated by a co-ordinator and must meet the requirements of the school
in regard to surroundings, type of work, hours and compensation.
Every effort is made to fit the pupil to the job. Misfits are changed
from one position to another until the work for which they are best
suited is found.
Although all outside work is under the supervision of the school,
the pupil is subject to the same conditions of employment that he will
have to face at graduation.
In the description of the co-operative courses in salesman-
ship, textiles, color, design, and advertising at the Haaren High
School, the outlines are here very much abbreviated, and
Samples from the outline rather than the outline as a whole are
introduced:
The outlines in Salesmanship, Textiles, Non-Textiles, Color and
Design, and Advertising which follow have been developed to meet
the needs of the classes in these subjects at the Haaren High School.
In order to grasp the full significance of these outlines one must under-
stand that this school offers a four-year high-school course intended
to fit boys and girls for selling, especially in the retail field. After
the first year, pupils are placed on the week-in-week-out plan in vari-
ous stores of the city. By this means practical experience under
* From an unsigned statement in Bulletin of High Points, III, No. 8
(October, 1921), pp. 9-19. Published by the Board of Education of the
City of New York.
486 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
normal conditions goes hand in hand with School training. In the
store, they are doing messenger work, packing, and stock work in
the second year. In School, they are learning the importance of good
stock-keeping and the best methods of caring for such merchandise
as is commonly found in the stores of the city. By the third year of
the School course most of the pupils are selling. In this year much
training is given in selling, as the outline indicates.
Two objects have been kept clearly in view in preparing these
outlines. First, the pupil must be thoroughly trained to do the tasks
which fall to his lot as stock boy, packer, or Salesman, with accuracy
and intelligence. Second, the pupil must be given the foundation
on which to build if he is to rise to an executive position in the store.
Our intelligence tests indicate that the pupil who is able and willing
to finish a four-year high-school course is above the average in mental
ability. Such a person may fairly be expected to rise out of the ranks
in the course of a few years and any training offered by the School
should take this into account.
Second Termſ
I. Stock keeping
A. What is meant by a well-kept stock P
B. Dead stock caused by:
II. Salesmanship
III. Salesmanship of merchandise
A. Customer
B. Sales clerk
C. Talking points of merchandise
D. The Sale
E. Much practice in selling by demonstration Sales
IV. Use of telephone *
V. Practice in writing and figuring Sales checks
Third Term
I. Functions of the department store
A. Buying goods
B. Buying problems
C. Selling
D. Service to customers
* The first term deals with personality and to some extent with the
relation of the individual to the organization.
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 487
II.
III.
IV.
II.
III.
Sales training
. Types of customers
A
B. Answering objections
C
. Vocabulary work
D. Sales dialogues prepared
E. Practice in store mathematics discount
Fourth Term
. History of retail selling
II.
Different types of retail establishments
A. Characteristics and special advantages and limitations of
each of the following:
Wholesale selling
A. Manufacturer and sales agents’ expositions
B. Manufacturers’ selling department
C. Manufacturers’ agents
D. Jobbers
E. Traders and speculators
Cost of production
A. Manufacture
. Factors determining the market price
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Cost of retailing
Store mathematics. Problems based on the above
Training in selling for these different types of organizations
Fifth and Sixth Terms
. Types of business organizations
A. Retail
B. Wholesale
Employment problems
A. Employment blank. Content and purpose
B. Interview. Analysis of the job
C. Physical and mental tests
Welfare work in mercantile establishments
A. Need for it
B. Divisions
I. Outside activities, recreational work
2. Lunch room
3. Health
4. Mutual Benefit Association.
488
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
IV. Educational departments
. Place of the educational department
. Content of courses
. Error systems
. Rating system
. Methods of paying Sales people: Salary, bonus Salary, and
commission
. Manuals in mail-order houses, banks and stores
. Theory and practice of teaching
:
.
. Merchandising
. Store advertising
. Mail-order department
. Adjustment department
. Correspondence department
. Comparison department
Buying—department budget
. Selling—demonstration sales
i
Textiles
I. Acquaintance with materials in general. Samples of common
II.
III.
IV.
materials, with which the students are familiar, are placed in
their hands to be examined and unravelled. With the unravel-
ling of the material an idea of warp and filling is introduced,
and the consequent strength of finished materials
A. Definition of textiles, woof or filling, picks, ends, selvedge,
fiber, thread (yarn)
B. Weaves.
C. Staple fabrics. (Students are taught to use the pick glass
to examine materials for weave, number of picks and ends
and kind of material)
Acquaintance with woolen materials
A. General characteristics
B. Characteristics of wool fiber
C. Causes of peculiarities in wool fiber
Carpets
A. Kinds
B. Uses for each
C. Where manufactured
D. History of carpet-making
Acquaintance with silk
A. Tests for silk
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS (SOURSES 489
V. Acquaintance with cotton
VI. Acquaintance with linen
VII. Laces
A. Real hand-made lace
B. Imitation or machine-made
In addition to this study, the salesmanship course includes
a similar study of books, stationery, leather goods, rubber goods,
jewelry, cosmetics, toilet articles, notions, furniture, china,
glass, and silverware. -
THE ROCHESTER EXPERIENCE
Another example worth viewing is the experiment in
Rochester, New York:
The part-time commercial classes were actually started in
Rochester in September, 1917, through co-operation with the Com-
mittee on Education at the Chamber of Commerce. In August the
Chamber of Commerce sent out a circular letter to a large number
of business offices. This letter described the proposed plan and
Suggested that the reader fill in and return an enclosed blank form for
an interview with a representative of the Board of Education. The
replies to these letters were very encouraging and the interviews which
followed were even more gratifying. By September there had been
listed all the positions for which there were students available.
A canvass in the Schools had been made in June, so the approxi-
mate number of part-time students were known. Because there were
only thirteen students registered for the work in East High and the
same number registered in West High it was decided that one teacher .
going from one school to the other alternating weeks should handle
both classes.
As the business man had been told the plan the position of the
School was at this point much like that of an employment bureau.
Here were the specifications and requirements of an existing job for
which the school attempted to pick two students who seemed best
suited both from the standpoint of education and personal qualifica-
tions to handle the work. Geographical conditions also had to be
considered, as the students came from two high Schools. The student
* Adapted from a statement received in March, 1922, from S. B.
Carkin, director of business education, Rochester, N.Y.
490 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
had to do his own bargaining and finally make secure his own position.
The school simply told him where to apply. g
Before the student takes up his duties at the office he is given a
sheet, “Suggestions to Students,” which pictures the seriousness of
business, as well as giving certain detailed suggestions. Each student
on his return to school is required to have ready for the teacher a
detailed weekly account of his business experience. This form shows
the kind of work performed each day and the amount of time spent on.
each kind. It also shows the total hours spent on each type of work
for the week. This weekly work report is transferred to a permanent
record card which is kept on file to determine whether or not the
student is receiving the proper variety of practice training. Since
school credit is given for business experience it is desirable to know
the progress of the student from the employer’s viewpoint. The
employer is asked to fill out monthly, or just before school reports are
issued, a blank report form which is considered in making up the
monthly grades of the student. The report of the employer is of a
general nature and tends to show whether or not the student is mak-
ing progress with the business man. Such qualifications as industry,
punctuality, initiative, courtesy, and neatness appear on the report.
A blank space is left after each qualification, where the employer
may make suggestions. Some very interesting and helpful Sugges-
tions have been made by the business man.
One feature of the plan which is entirely different from that of
most other cities is that the teacher of the class (that is the commercial
teacher who has the regular part-time subjects) does the work of
the so-called co-ordinator. The work of the co-ordinator is very
important, but in some cities where it has been made a special work,
separate from the teaching, much criticism has arisen Concerning the
cost. One argument in favor of the part-time teacher as the co-ordi-
nator is that the work is done first hand. The teacher knows the
student and after becoming acquainted with the co-operating firms
is the natural medium, or go-between.
Up to the present only Seniors in the commercial course have
been eligible for the part-time work. An attempt has been made to
keep this plan before the other students in other departments as a
goal toward which to work. This does not mean that students in other
departments are barred from part-time work; it simply means that
the Senior commercial students are trained for such office positions as
this plan offers and they are therefore chosen. The subjects for this
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 491
course are not necessarily exactly the same for every student. The
required subjects are commercial English and correspondence,
advertising, salesmanship and business organization, commercial law,
one semester and economics the other and American history with
civics. The electives are reporting principles, advanced bookkeeping,
elocution and public Speaking.
The school allows thirty credits for one school year for this busi-
ness experience. This is equivalent to one full school subject and
one-half. Only one-half the credits allowed full-time subjects are
granted part-time subjects. While the actual school attendance is
cut in half, it is felt that because of the quickened conception and
interest of the student much more than half of the regular subject-
matter is generally covered.
OFFICE WORK CO-OPERATION IN THE CINCINNATI HIGH SCHOOLS
A final example to be noticed is furnished by the Cincinnati
high schools:
This course is designed to give a thorough preparation for com-
mercial work, and a broad general training in academic studies. It
prepares directly for the occupations of stenographer and typist,
bookkeeper, or any clerical office position, as well as for retail selling
and commercial advertising.
The subjects required are English (four years), a foreign language
(two years), mathematics (two years), history (one year), civics
(two years), and the technical commercial subjects (four years),
including bookkeeping, penmanship and applied art, Stenography
and typewriting and business practice, Salesmanship and commercial
advertising.
During the second half of the fourth year students may be
employed during the afternoon in selected business houses.
The plan as carried out, in the main, is as follows: The program
of studies for these pupils is So arranged that the technical studies,
bookkeeping, shorthand and Salesmanship, come in the afternoon
and the academic studies in the morning. The pupils taking part in
the plan are permitted to leave School at noon and report at the place
of assignment for work. The pupil thus continues for a two week
period, then another pupil is assigned to take his place. These two
* From statements of I. R. Garbutt and literature of the Cincinnati
Schools.
492 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
alternate then two weeks full time in school and two weeks part time
in an office. By this plan the pupils can do the full amount of aca-
demic work required and at the same time gain valuable office experi-
€11Ce.
At the end of each two week period a report is required from the
employer of each pupil as to the efficiency of the work performed
during that period. The pupil is given credit for this report on the
class room teacher's record, rating Excellent 90 to Too, Very Good
80 to Qo, Good 70 to 80. The employer is also given an opportunity
On the report, to offer any suggestions that would better prepare
the pupil for the work that he is undertaking. The pupil is paid
for this work at the rate of seventy-five cents per each half day's
service.
The plan has worked out fairly satisfactorily, the greatest diffi-
culty being to place the pupils where they will get the kind of office
practice that will be most beneficial to them.
Graduates of this course are admitted to the University of Cin-
cinnati, provided applicants for admission to the College of Liberal
Arts offer Mathematics I (Algebra) and Mathematics II (Plane
Geometry) and three years of foreign language (two of which must
be in one language), and applicants for admission to the College of
Engineering and Commerce offer Solid Geometry.
A two-year Salesmanship course, co-operative during both years,
is offered for students who have completed the second year of any of
the other courses. This course is intended especially to prepare for
retail mercantile selling, and will also be a valuable preparation for
other lines of salesmanship. The leading stores of the city have
offered their assistance in this course, and students will be assigned
to work in these stores during the afternoons and on Saturdays. For
this work they will be paid the usual wages of the stores. This course
does not prepare for college.
OTHER NECESSITIES IN SUCCESSFUL CO-OPERATION
The lack of properly trained teachers has apparently been
a handicap to co-operative courses especially in retail Selling.
The Prince School of Salesmanship was for Some time practically
the only source from which such trained teachers could be drawn.
In 1919, however, New York University opened a School to
carry on this work. This School was, at least in its inception,
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 493
in part Supported by contributions of merchants who were
interested in co-operative education.
Proper agreements with Co-operating business houses have
already been stated to be a requisite to good co-operative work.
Forms used for agreements and reports are given below. The
first is the agreement between stores and school department
used in Boston. The second set of forms are the agreements
and reports suggested by the Federal Board for Vocational
Education. -
AGREEMENT RELATIVE TO SALESMANSHIP COURSES"
In order that there may be a definite and understood policy
governing the relations between the School Department of the City
of Boston and various Boston retail stores, interested in securing as
employees students enrolled in the salesmanship courses of the high
Schools, during their period of training and after graduation, the
following agreement is entered into between the interested stores and
the School Department:
(1) An advisory committee, representing the schools, the stores
and the employees, to act upon any question arising in the course of
administration of this plan, shall be immediately appointed upon the
approval of this agreement. The representatives of the stores shall
be nominated by the Governing Board of the Retail Trade Board,
those of the schools by the School Department, and those of the
employees by the members of the committee representing the stores
and the schools. This committee will recommend from time to time
such changes in the plan of operation as may appear advisable. No
change shall be made in the plan of operation as affecting the stores
until the advisory committee has notified the co-operating stores,
and has called a meeting of these stores to discuss the proposed
change if three or more stores believe that such a meeting is
necessary.
(2) It is agreed that the stores approving this plan be given
preference by the School Department in the assignment of services of
students in training.
(3) So far as is practical students, upon entering the Salesmanship
courses, shall be definitely selected and engaged by the co-operating
* From Louis J. Fish, “Retail Selling in the Boston High Schools,”
Current Affairs, Boston High School, 1921.
494 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
stores, the student to be on the payroll of the store throughout the
training course, Subject to the store regulation, during days of employ-
ment, and subject to other conditions as may be specified in the
agreement. Each student shall be sent to one or more of the stores
with a card of introduction from the principal of the school, or
from the School Department. The applicant will be interviewed
personally by the Superintendent or head of the employment depart-
ment.
(4) The store shall furnish the School Department with regular
reports as to the attendance and quality of work of students in training
while in their employ. The students shall be subject to the same
discipline as any other employee, and to discharge for cause on the
same basis as any other employee, but it is understood that the
School Department will be notified in the case of discipline or suspen-
sion, and prior to discharge, and that Such actions may be considered
by the advisory committee if it appears that they violate the spirit or
intention of this approved plan.
(5) During the present year, so far as possible, students in train-
ing will be released for work in the stores on Saturdays and on
Mondays from I2:oo o'clock noon. During the Christmas season
students with an “A” grade will be released for three weeks prior to
Christmas; those with a “B” grade for two weeks prior to Christmas;
those with a “C” grade for one week prior to Christmas for the present
year.
(6) The rate of compensation for students who are employed in
the store shall be $10 per week during their first year of employment
and $12 per week during their second year of employment.
(7) The stores agree that students in training in their employ
shall be routed through the store, having training in the various lines
of store work, including examining and cashiering, marking stock and
selling work, in order that the student may have broad training and
experience. Each co-operating store will Submit a plan for this rout-
ing for the approval of the advisory committee.
(8) At the end of the course the student in training shall be given
special consideration for regular employment, shall be credited for
purposes of pay and promotion in the employing store with one year’s
experience, and in no case where the student is retained as a regular
employee by the store that has employed the student during the
training period shall the pay be less than the last rate paid during
training.
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 495
(9) It is understood that the committee representing the stores
and the School Department shall consider immediately the problem
of undertaking publicity and other measures necessary to interest in
the salesmanship courses the best available students.
Name of Firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º & # e. e.
Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº $ tº gº tº t tº g tº º
FEDERAL BOARD FORMS
The following agreement and report forms are suggested by
the Federal Board:
CONTRACT FOR CO-OPERATIVE WORK
This Agreement, entered into this. . . . . . day of . . . . . . , 19..., between . . . . . . , party of the
first part, and . . . . . . , party of the second part, Provided as follows:
I. Party of the first part agrees to employ
(a) Two or more students of the . . . . . . high School on a co-operative basis beginning
º e º ſº º & , I9 . . .
(b) To arrange for such students to work alternate weeks.
(c) To pay a salary of $. . . . . . to each worker for the weeks actually spent in the office
of such co-operating firm.
(d) To rotate these workers in the various occupations of the office or store so as to
insure an all-around experience.
(e
To see that such workers are given the usual instruction given to beginners in such
work. -
(f) To make a report on each such worker at least once a month on blanks furnished for
the purpose.
To refrain from offering full-time employment to such workers before the expiration
of the period covered by this agreement without the consent of the party of the
second part.
(h) To retain on a full-time basis one or both of such workers at the expiration of the
period covered by this agreement, providing mutually satisfactory arrangemenits can
be made by the parties concerned.
(i) To attend occasional conferences as required for the discussion of important matters
connected with co-operative educational work.
)
)
(g
2. Party of the second part agrees
(a) To consider the needs of the party of the first part in making assignments of students
under this contract,
{b} To co-operate in every way with the party of the first part to make this co-operative
plan mutually advantageous.
(c) To plan the courses pursued by such workers so as to aid them in the performance
of their tasks from week to week.
{d) To replace such workers, with others when it, seems best for all parties concerned
providing additional student workers are available.
(e) To attend conferences as required. ' -
* (Signed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Signed). . . . . . . . * @ e e g tº $ 4 & 6 tº 6 & e º & # * * * * * * * * *
Co-ordinator or Instructor
* Adapted from Federal Board for vocational Education, Bulletin
No. 34, pp. 65-66, Commercial Series No. 3.
496
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
EMPLOYER'S REPORT ON CO-OPERATION OF STUDENTS

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e is a s a ºn s e e º is g g g º e º sº º e s is a e e s a e e º e º e s - e º a s a
“Excellent.”
trouble, if possible.
Industry........
Punctuality.....
Initiative.......
. If the student is above the average in any of the follow-
ing, kindly note by using such terms as, “Good” or
. If the student is deficient, make a corresponding nota-
tion, in order that steps may be taken to remedy the
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º e
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is s tº º e g s g g g g g g g g g º a
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * s a e s = e s e s e e s a e º e º a e
* * * * * * * * s e º e s a s e º e a s a s a g a s a s e e s s a
* * * * ſº tº e º e s tº $ is ºn tº º e º a s e e º a s g g g g g g g :
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is e e < * g a e s e e g e s =
Students:
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º ºs e e s a
Courtesy . . . . . . .
Honesty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is a m = ± 8 g c e º 'º e s e º g a
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Suggestions for benefit of

Days absent from work (give dates and cause):
Kind of work and amount of time devoted to each.
Kinds of work
# * > * > e º & © º º s e º & © e º ºr 4
$ ſº tº º tº a tº * * * * * * * * * * * *
* tº $ tº it tº 9 º' tº s e º e º $ tº gº & e &
& © tº º e g a º e a s e a $ tº tº e º 'º as
& e s tº º # 8 º' & 6 s e º is is e is 4 & 4
* * * * * * * g.
* e º e º ºs º ºs
tº e º e º 'º º is
tº g tº e s g º e
ºf s = & tº dº º º
* & 6 s ºr e s sº
a º ºs s s s tº e
# * * * * * * *
* E & sº ſº º & s
tº $ e g = tº g &
tº º e s tº º tº º
s & s e º e s &
Remarks on back.
PROGRESS AND EXPERIENCE RECORD

Name of student
Summary of work—Co-operative plant
* * * * * * * is e s e s is e g º e º g g g e s is is e s tº s e s sº s
Employed by. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s g g tº tº e º & 4 tº $ $ tº s tº a tº º
* tº e º ſº tº º º e º ºr e º & &
Kind of work
* * * * * * g º e º s 2 e < * * * *
* * * * * e º ºr * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * s º a e º is a s e
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * > * * * $ e º 'º tº a º e
sº tº gº º ſº º e s e a
* * * * * * * * * *
& º º e º 'º ºf a s a
• * * * * * * *
tº & sº tº g g º &
s & © tº s º º º
e & e º & e º s
tº e º is $ e º 'º
tº g g º g º e g
& G & e e g º º
* * * * s = e e
* * * * * g º º
tº a s = & 6 s &
s & s : * * * *
tº e g º e s ∈ e
sº e º s sº * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
(The student’s school record should be given on the reverse side of this card.)
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 497
NOTICE OF ASSIGNMENT TO CO-OPERATIVE POSITION
is tº e g g º tº £ tº e e º g º e º e y Ig—
To... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
You have been assigned to
for part-time work, in lieu of school work, alternate weeks, for the term beginning . . . . . . . . . . .
Please report to. . . . . . . . . . . . . at the above address on Monday morning. . . . . . . . IQIQ,
at — o'clock.
The salary agreed upon is $...... a week for the weeks you are actually employed.
The undersigned will co-operate with you to the end that your new work may be both
pleasant and profitable.
Co-ordinator or Instructor
Perhaps more important than any other matter in successful
Co-operative undertakings is the work of the co-ordinator. It is
the co-ordinator, as the term implies, who is finally responsible
for what a course in co-operative education accomplishes. The
first burden of making the courses, as well as the constant
administration of the many difficult situations which arise, is
likely to fall upon the co-ordinator. Miss Ellen L. Osgood, of
the Haaren High School, who has met this difficult task with
exceptional success, outlines the duties of the co-ordinator in
the following way:
I. Collect and organize teaching material necessary in new fields
of education.
2. Bring to the school criticisms which come to us in connection
with the performance of our pupils in business houses.
3. Interest business men in our proposition, make arrangements
for the employment of our young people, select the boys and girls and
Send them out (this includes looking after working papers, keeping
records, etc.), and after the young people are placed, following them
up by observing them at work where possible, interviewing them in
School and obtaining reports, both formal and informal, on their work.
Out of these reports grows material for classroom work and subjects
for personal interview. -
4. Each co-ordinator teaches one class a day.
* From a statement prepared by Miss Osgood in April, 1922.
498 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
5. Co-ordinators should obtain much informative and valuable
experience in fitting pupils with jobs which would enable them to do
valuable vocational guidance work. It should also be possible for a
Co-ordinator to render his school a great service by collecting voca-
tional guidance material and putting it at the service of the entire
School.
The Co-operative plan appears to be one of the most interest-
ing of the newer developments in education for business. It
offers an obvious opportunity for making an application of school
theory and for learning in an actual commercial laboratory. It
Seems that where persons have fairly clearly settled upon their
vocations, or at least upon the vocations with which they intend
to ally themselves for some time after leaving school, the co-
operative plan is invaluable. Imagine, for example, a student
who is interested in selling. Careful students of salesmanship
are increasingly inclined to the belief, which was so well brought
out in the Surveys (pages 198 to 201), that the most sub-
stantial factor in Salesmanship is knowledge of the goods.
Since an intimate knowledge of the goods especially in their
commercial aspects and varieties can most economically be
obtained by using a store as a laboratory, the co-operative
scheme of training furnishes an economical method of procedure.
On the other hand it seems quite possible that the co-operative
idea may very easily be overdone. There may well be some
doubt if students should be put into co-operative courses
which train for so technical an undertaking as retail selling until
the last six months or last year of their high-school course.
(This statement of course need not apply to students who are
certain they will not be in school beyond the first or second
year.) It will be answered that it is impossible to teach young
people all they should know about retail selling in one year. It
seems quite likely, however, that if the first three years of a
student’s course have been properly used to give an understand-
ing of business relationships and general business organization,
with a proper study of accounting as an agency of Control, that
the specific application of this knowledge to retail Selling or any
other business will not be a matter requiring a great amount of
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 400
time. It will also be asserted that the student who is interested
in retail selling cannot learn enough of all products in one year.
This is true, and it is one of the reasons why the course should
be short. A student should not take time in school to learn
enough of all products to be a salesman of all products. The
most the high School should undertake should be to give him a
background on which he can build more specific knowledge as
he needs it, with perhaps specific knowledge enough of certain
products, say furniture, or textiles, or books, or jewelry, to secure
a position. The waste of giving a large group of people enough
knowledge of all products to sell all of them well seems almost
axiomatic.
A similar viewpoint is sound for co-operative office-work
Courses. An office is not a place to teach principles. It is a
place to teach the application of principles to a particular office
practice. The co-operative method, therefore, in office work
should come late when the pupil is almost ready to take a job
and should be used to make easy the connection between his
underlying training and this job.
The proposal to place co-operative work late in the course
neglects co-operation as a means of financing an education.
But that consideration is outside this discussion. We are con-
cerned here with educational plans only. The extent to which
individuals should be publicly aided in securing education
is no doubt an important matter. The extent to which the
regular School should be organized to permit students to earn
a living while in School, or the age at which pupils should
be permitted to drop school in whole or in part (as is the case
where the co-operative method is used to give the pupils a
chance to earn) are important matters. But all of these matters
are distinct from how best to arrange courses for educational
purposes. They lie in the field of political science and legislation
as related to education, not in the field of curriculum making.
The proper place of a high-school commercial co-operative
course appears to be as an extension of a broad, basic, general
course in business administration. It’s only other proper rôle
can perhaps be played as a special one- or two-year course for
5OO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
students who know definitely that they will be in school only for
a short period of time. And in such an instance it is after all
Only a Superstructure of technical work built on an assumption
of general training and built unfortunately soon.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. The terms continuation School and part-time school are, in most
literature, used practically synonymously. How would you dis-
tinguish the co-operative course from the continuation school?
What is the general philosophy behind such a plan as the co-opera.
tive course?
2. “Three clearly distinguishable plans are used in co-operative
business courses.” Distinguish carefully between these three.
What advantage and disadvantage do you see in each of these ?
What matters of organization are essential for satisfactory
co-operative commercial work?
3. Examine the co-operative course in retail selling as given in the
Boston high schools. Consider whether this course covers the
proper material for the technique of retail-Sales work. Should a
retail-sales person be taught subjects which are not included in
this course? Should such a co-operative retail-sales course cover
the last year, last two years, or more of the students’ four years
in high school?
4. What matters concerning salesmanship can be taught best
through the actual selling process? What ones can better be
taught without direct relation to the selling process?
5. Examine the co-operative selling courses of the Haaren High
School. In connection with the outline of these courses consider
the questions asked concerning the Boston course.
6. In Haaren considerable effort is made to specialize the courses.
Is “Textiles” too broad a subject for a specialized course?
7. Contrast and compare the Boston, Haaren, and Rochester courses.
What differences and similarities do you observe? What are
the important matters in the organization of such a course?
8. Examine the plan of the co-operative office-work course in the
Cincinnati high School. Does such a course raise issues not
involved in the planning of a co-operative retail-selling course?
9. Go over the forms presented for use in co-operative work. Indi-
cate where changes, if any, would need to be made in such forms
if they were to be used in any school with which you are familiar.
CO-OPERATIVE BUSINESS COURSES 501
IO.
I [.
I 2.
I3.
What is the co-ordinator? What duties should the co-ordinator
assume 2 º
“The co-operative idea may easily be overdone.” How, for
example?
“Practice not principle can be taught in the office or shop. The
co-operative course, therefore, is of value only when a large part
of the training should be in practice.” Would you agree or
disagree?
Draw up a statement or series of statements that seem to you to
express the proper place or rôle of co-operative courses in the plan
scheme of business education.
CHAPTER XIX
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES
While our chief interest in this study centers in the high-
school evening courses in business work, it is necessary to an
appreciation of that work to see Something of the growth and
significance of the evening-School movement, especially as it
has been taken over by the public Schools. The evening school
in the United States is an old institution. The free public
evening school is a much more recent undertaking. Still more
recent is the extensive use of evening Schools in business training.
The history of evening schools seems to fall roughly into
three periods: The earliest schools were private Schools kept
in the evening for pay. These early Schools did not have a very
large number of students, and they must not be compared with
the private evening school of today which is ordinarily concerned
with the presentation of technical courses. (Some considera-
tion of these has been given in Chapters XII and XIV.) These
early evening schools did, however, furnish an opportunity, to
persons not otherwise provided for, to Secure an elementary edu-
cation. They familiarized people with the idea of evening study
and attracted attention to the fact that many who were at work
needed and desired more education.
A second phase of evening school work was that developed
by benevolent societies for the benefit of the poor. From 1820
to 1840 or 1850 such schools were not uncommon. Some exam-
ples were schools for slaves.
The third phase of evening-School work and the one in
which we are most interested is represented by the free public
evening schools established by the School authorities. Such
schools were opened as early as 1681, when one was established in
# An extended study of the history of evening schools is to be found in
Arthur J. Jones, The Continuation School in the United States, pp. 83-94.
U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 1, 1907, whole No. 367.
SO2
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 503
New York state. Numerous cities, however, are claimants for
the distinction of having established the first night school in
the United States. Most of these present the early half of the
nineteenth century as the time of origin Louisville, Kentucky,
appears to have organized such a School in 1834 and Cincinnati
in 1840. In 1856 in Cincinnati there was opened what is
probably the first free evening high School supported entirely
by public funds. In 1866 Such a free publicly supported high
school was opened in New York City. This was the first
public high school of any kind in New York City, the day high
schools not being established until some years later. W
Although the development of free public education offered
in evening courses was much more tardy than was general
public education, nevertheless, with the coming of the twentieth
century, its extension was very rapid. The following comment
of an educational journal in 1914 gives some impression of the
rapidity in growth of this movement:
The press is filled with announcements of the tremendous sweep
over the whole country of the night-school idea. The figures of
attendance are almost incredible. Richmond, Virginia, enrols 4,000
students in II Schools; Chicago has 35 Schools with more than 25,000
attendance; St. Louis has 20,000 pupils in 22 schools; Milwaukee,
6,ooo in 13 Schools; Grand Rapids, Michigan, 4,000 students; Kansas
City, 3,000; Minneapolis, 7,ooo; and hundreds of smaller cities
report that their night-school facilities are taxed to the utmost.
Every city reports a rapid increase in attendance, the figures from
St. Louis being typical of the general 50 per cent increase: in 1912
there were 9,700 students in St. Louis night schools; in 1914, 20,000.
Chicago has 8,000 more at the opening of the year than the total
enrolment for last year. Three years ago, Richmond began with
43 pupils and two teachers; in six months there were 800 pupils and
18 teachers. The school grew only about Ioo the second year, but
during the third year a system of co-operation between school and
employers increased the attendance to 4,000.
The students who are thus attracted range in age from fourteen
to sixty-five. There is no upper limit. By far the largest percentage
* Adapted by permission from Editorial Comment in School Review,
XXII (December, 1914), 700–701.
5O4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
are comparatively young men and women, roughly classified in three
great groups: those who feel that they are handicapped by inadequate
general education; foreigners who desire a command of English;
and workers who wish to become more skilled in their occupations.
The following data, collected from ten cities in Wisconsin, exclusive
of Milwaukee, indicate pretty fairly the general distribution of night-
School students:
Men, 6,887; women, 7,389; total number enrolled, I4,276;
those leaving, 3,030; withdrawals, 443; returned to regular school,
I7; enrolment at close of School, 6,791; average weekly attendance,
6,712. Enrolment by employment: bookkeepers, 336; stenog-
raphers, 379; laborers, 637; students, 208; housekeepers, 769;
store clerks, 940; at home, 518; clerical work, 275; machinists,
469; Carpenters, I24; factory workers, 1,796; electricians, 79;
printers, 63; laundry workers, 33; helpers, 49; dressmakers, 127;
telephone operators, 200; tailors, 17; milliners, 54; teamsters, 17;
messengers, I4; plumbers and steam fitters, II; candy-factory
workers, Io; draftsmen, I.21; molders, 49; painters, 35; blackSmiths,
27; cabinet-makers, 16; plasterers, I; teachers, 290; pattern-makers,
I8; waitresses, 426; librarians, 5; Salesmen and women, 51; railroad
employees, 29; delivery boys, 13; tinsmiths, 9; erectors, 13; type-
Setters, 3; storekeepers and business men, 197; domestics, 273;
wood workers, 45; bakers, 9; rubber workers, 20; tanners, 41;
farmers, II; lumbermen, 31; nurses, Io; mechanics, 722; miscel-
laneous, 3,365; number of teachers, 328.
Perhaps in no better way than in the compilation of statistics
can the present extent of public evening-school work be given.
Table LVII, on page 505, though not all-inclusive, gives a fairly
Satisfactory presentation of the present enrolment and personnel
in public night Schools.
Just what evening-School enrolment means in one state is
made clear in the quotation which follows. It is worth while to
notice Mr. Fitzpatrick's statement that the evening school is
almost the Sole educational device for training the adult. In
this respect evening schools differ from any other type of school
considered, and this fact has an important bearing on the forms
of work which they should offer.
The School is now Serving the adult population largely through
its evening classes. Adjustments are made in the day School for
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 5OS
certain adults but this is largely an incidental service and affects
comparatively few people. The extent and character of the service
now rendered in the evening classes of the continuation school is
shown in detail in the table on page 506.
An examination of this table indicates that the work of the
evening School is largely given over to trade extension and trade
preparatory work. The academic work given is apparently largely
TABLE LVIII
CURRENT ENROLMENT AND PERSONNEL IN PUBLIC NIGHT SCHOOLS


Group I | Group II | Group III || Group IV Group V
Cities of Cities of Cities of Cities of | Cities of | Preceding
IOO,OOO 3O,OOO to Io,ooo to 5,Ooo to 2,500 to Groups
Popula- Ioo,000 3O,OOO IO,OOO 5,000 Combined
tion and | Popula- | Popula- Popula- Popula- -
Over tion tion tion tion
Number of school
systems report-
in g night
Schools. . . . . . . 49 Io8 I8I II.8 62 518
Teachers
Elementary -
Schools. . . . . . . 4, 232 I, 65I 835 3I5 IOO 7, I.33
Secondary schools|| 4, 288 I, o&2 633 I7I 46 6, 220
Vocationalschools I, o& 508 543 I 7I 43 2,348
Other schools. ... I42 Io'7 89 25 I3 376
Not distributed. . 495 7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5O2
Total men. . . . . . . 4. , Q57 I,469 926 284 85 7, 721
Total women . . . . 5, 283 I,886 I , I 74. 398 II 7 8,858
Enrolment:
Elementary g
Schools. . . . . . . I46,379 44, o&# I9, 974 5,585 1,883 217,908
Secondary schools| 201,717 36,919 I9,663 4, O53 I, O3.I 263,383
Vocationalschools|| 41,276 I6,726 I2, 527 2,893 672 74. OQ4
Other schools. . . . 3,892 3, 265 2, O29 5OO 237 9,923
Not distributed. . . 19,892 213 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O, IO 5
Total boys. . . . . . 227,681 54, IOS 27, 702 6,824 I, 922 318, 234
Total girls. . . . . . . I85,475 47, IOS 26,491 6, 207 I, QoI 267, I79
intended for foreigners and for persons with very rudimentary educa-
tional training. These courses do not reveal any satisfaction of the
general intellectual interests which must exist in the community.
The civic interests are, also, not met. In a period when the women
have been completely enfranchised it would seem that there should
be in the vocational school evening classes immediate response to
this opportunity for service.”
* Adapted by permission from Statistics of City School Systems, p. 9.
U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 24, 1919.
* The statement is adapted by permission from Edward A. Fitzpatrick,
“Adult Education,” Wisconsin’s Educational Horizon, Vol. IV, No. 2, Part
2, pp. 9–Io. State Board of Education, Madison, Wis., December, 1921.
506 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
TABLE LVIII
SCOPE OF WORK IN WISCONSIN EVENING SCHOOLS
Subject śi. Men Women | Total
Academic
General—common branches course,
reading, spelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO I58 IOI . 259
Citizenship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 723 90 857
Civil service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 2G) 55 I75
Income tax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.7 2 49
Language
English
General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8 844 32I I, I65
Factory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 28 28 56
Foreigners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5 798 25o I, o&I
French. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , - - - - - - - - IO 45 I 24 I69
Spanish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 78 8I I59
Mathematics (does not specify). . . . . . . 6 77 26 II.3
Algebra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 22 | . . . . . . . 22
Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 IO3 4 I I44
Business arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4O 8 48
Shop mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO I6I | . . . . . . . I61
Trigonometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 8 . . . . . . . . 8
Penmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 69 84 I77
Physiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I | . . . . . . . 27 27
Spelling and penmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Science
Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 38 7 45
See also under Trade and Technical:
Paper chemistry and pharmacy
Social law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 32 33
Commercial
General (not described). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Io'7 381 488
Accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 II 2 71 2O3
Bookkeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I 566 675 | I,356
Business English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 I 2 I I 26 247
Commercial law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3I 7 5o
Shorthand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I. 274 || I, 948 2,418°
Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 527 2, O9.I 2,700
Art -
Applied art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I | . . . . . . . 68 68
Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I37 I I38
Arts and Crafts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I 68 76
China painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . 38 38
Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 I36 I 8 I54
House decoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 I 2 I 27 184
Interior decoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I II . . . . . . . II
Needle art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . I O2 IO2
Home Economics
Cooking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3 Q32 Q35
Dietetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . 62. 62
Drafting patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . IO IO
Home nursing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . 87 87
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 507
TABLE LVIII—Continued
Subi No. of 7
ject Schools Men Women | Total
Home Economics
House decoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. I3 94 Io'7
Knitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T | . . . . . . . 74 74
Lace making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I l . . . . . . . 47 47
Sewing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 | . . . . . . . 3, [79 || 3, 179
Related Trade
Blue print reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 79 . . . . . . . 79
Mechanical drawing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 990 I 99.I
Slide rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T I6 I 17
Trade and Technical
Auto mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 I, I2O 48 I, I68
Cabinet making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 258 34 3I5
Carding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I l . . . . . . . 3 3
Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I7 | . . . . . . . I7
Drafting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Ióo I I61
Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 32O | . . . . . . . 32O
Engineering principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 6I | . . . . . . . 61
Estimating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2I . . . . . . . 2I
Forging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 II6 . . . . . . II6
Freight traffic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 93 4. 97
Gas engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 294 2 296
Heat treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 33 | . . . . . . . 33
Heating and ventilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I5 | . . . . . . . IS
Machine shop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I7 679 |. . . . . . . 679
Massage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 26
Millinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I9 | . . . . . . . 936 936
Paper chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I7 I I8
Pattern making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 48 |. . . . . . . 48
Pharmacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 29 4 33
Printing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 28 I 29
Salesmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 36 7 43
Sheet metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 25 | . . . . . . . 25
Shop (does not specify what) . . . . . . . . . l 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Show card writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 41 5 46
Steam engine. . . . . . . . '• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * I 92 | . . . . . . . 92
Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q 82 I24 218
Trade analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2O ! . . . . . . . 2O
Woodwork
General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 68 T. 9I
Carpentry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T I8 |. . . . . . . I8
Cedar chests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 I 2 I4
Manual training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , - - - 3 78 . . . . . . . Ioë
Roof framing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I2 . . . . . . . I 2
Miscellaneous
First aid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J . . . . . . . 23 23
Gymnasium and physical education. . . . 9 II6 7o I99
Music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 37 T II I73


508 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
A study of general figures, however, is likely to be very mis-
leading. We are apt to gain the impression that the night
school is a far more extensively used tool than is the Case. It
TABLE LIX
ESTIMATED NUMBERS NOT ATTENDING SCHOOL
ESTIMATED NUMBERS WHO HAVE NOT
ATTENDED SCHOOL IN 1917–18
AGE
Total Male Female
I4 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37O, OOO I90, OOO 18o, Ooo
I5 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62O, OOO | 32O, OOO 3OO, OOO
10 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, O4O, OOO 53O, OOO 5IO, OOO
I7 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I,360, OOO | 690, Ooo 670, OOO
18 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, 630, odo | 82O, OOO 81o, Ooo
I9 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I,8oo, Ooo 890, OOO 9IO, OOO
20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, 92O, OOO 95o, OOO Q7O, OOO
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,740, Ooo |4,390, Ooo |4,350,000

TABLE LX
A COMPARISON OF THOSE NOT IN SCHOOL AND THOSE GAINFULLY
EMPLOYED
ESTIMATED NUMBER IN IQI8
AGE AND SEx
Gainfully Employed Not in School
Both sexes
I4 to 20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, I3O, OOO 8,740, Ooo
I4 and 15 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, 2IO, OOO 990, OOO
I6 to 20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, Q2O, OOO 7, 750, OOO
Boys
I4 to 20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,640, Ooo 4, 390, OOO
I4 and 15 years. . . . . . . . . . * : * * * * * s 820, Ooo 5 IO, OOO
I6 to 20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,82O, OOO 3,880, OOO
Girls
I4 to 20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,490, OOC 4, 350, OOO
I4 and I5 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30O, OOO 480, OOO
I6 to 20 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, IOO, OOO 3,870, Ooo

has grown with rapidity, but the number of persons, even young
persons to whom it could be usefully applied, is so vast that
certainly not more than a tenth are reached. Dr. John Cum-
mings has made the estimates shown above concerning the
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 5OQ
possible opportunity for evening schools and continuation
Schools." He shows that between “eight and nine million boys
and girls in the ages fourteen to twenty years have not attended
any Sort of School, public or private, day or evening,” during the
School year 1917–18.
Even more definite evidence on the limited reach of the
evening school was furnished by the study of the New York
Military Training Commission: -
The night-school enrolment of boys of these ages [sixteen, seven-
teen, and eighteen years] varies from Io per cent in Greater New
York to less than 5 per cent in the smaller cities and villages. Night
TABLE LXI
NIGHT SCHOOL SUMMARY FOR NEW YORK STATE
(Sixteen-, Seventeen-, and Eighteen-Year-Old
Employed Boys)

ATTENDANCE IN PERCENTAGE T
OTAL
GROUPS would would Nol”
OUI Ould Not AG E
Attends | Atj || "...nº
Greater New York. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO ... O 3o. 6 59.4 IOO ... O
Cities over 25,ooo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO .. 2 2I. 5 68.3 IOO ... O
Cities under 25,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 23.5 72. I IOO . C.
Villages over 5,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. C. 37.5 59.5 IOO ... O
Places under 5,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T ... O 53.5 f 45.5 IOO ... O

schools, however, are not maintained in all the smaller cities and
villages, which lowers the record for these groups. Where night
schools are maintained between 20 and 30 per cent of the boys
expressed a desire to attend. These desires were probably not very
strong in most cases and it is quite likely were expressed in some
instances to make a favorable impression on the teacher recording
the answers. In general night Schools are attended largely by men
and older boys. Over 60 per cent do not wish to attend night school.
* Adapted from an article in the Vocational Education Summary of
September, 1918.
*Adapted by permission from Howard G. Burdge, A Study of Employed
Boys, pp. 181–83. State of New York Military Training Commission,
Bureau of Vocational Training, 1921.
5IO EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Although these answers were recorded by teachers to whom boys
might be expected to give as favorable an answer as possible to this
question, yet the majority of these boys were frank to state that they
had no desire to attend night school. Personal interviews with some
ten thousand of these boys made by the inspectors of the bureau
making this Survey disclosed this same attitude on the part of these
boys toward any form of schooling which calls them back to school-
houses, school books and school shops. Boys of these ages seem to
have a feeling that schools are for “kids” while they are “men” and
too old for such things. Until they experience a desire for further
schooling, which a wise counselor might awaken, additional Schooling
will have to be compulsory and can well be likened to “forced
feeding.” . . . . t
That there is a definite need for short unit courses was brought to
light by the personal interviews with thousands of these boys made
by the inspectors of this bureau in the course of the survey. Long,
indefinite courses in arithmetic, mechanical drawing, auto mechanics
and kindred subjects do not appeal to boys or for that matter to many
men. A short course successfully covered is a great incentive to
further effort, which cannot be said of long-drawn-out, indefinite
courses in night Schools or part-time Schools.
The outstanding fact in regard to night-school attendance of
boys of these ages is that the majority of them have no desire, for
further schooling. It is possible to create a desire for further school-
ing through proper guidance and counsel and the offering of popular
short Courses. . . . . * ,
EXAMPLES OF EVENING SCHOOLS
The general plan of organization for public evening schools
to secure the best possible results is not a wholly easy thing to
devise. There are many difficulties in the way of successful
night-school administration, and there are probably few fields
in which public money can more easily be spent wastefully.
There follow here a number of illustrations of evening schools
in cities which have been working with the problem for Some
time. The results of their experience should be useful to any-
one who is interested in a knowledge of how such schools
are operated, or who may desire to organize or improve the
organization of some school with which he is connected.
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 5II
ST. LOUIS EVENING SCHOOLS"
Organization.—Evening school and extension courses are offered.
to persons whose employment prevents their attendance upon the
regular day-School classes. The organization of such classes seeks
to provide opportunity for school instruction at hours other than
those of actual employment. The name “evening school” is used
as a generic term, descriptive of the kind of school rather than
the time of day when the classes are in session. Persons working
in night shifts may be taught in classes held in the morning or after-
11OOI).
The evening-school year is divided into three terms as follows:
First term: Registration nights, September 13, 14, 15, and 16
at all public high Schools.
Registration: September 13 and I5 at elementary schools, continu-
ing for thirteen weeks, closing December 15.
Second term: Beginning Monday, January 2, 1922, continuing
for twelve weeks to and including March 23.
Third term: Beginning March 27 and continuing for eleven
weeks to June 8, inclusive.
School sessions.—Each class group shall be taught two evenings
per week only, as follows: Some groups taught on Monday and
Wednesday evenings; other groups taught on Tuesday and Thursday
evenings. Where necessary other groups may be organized for
instruction on Friday and Saturday evenings.
The evening session in the elementary and high School shall begin
at 7:20 and terminate at 9:30, the period from 7:20 to 7:30 to be
devoted by the teachers to preparation, consultation with students,
or individual help. The time from 7:30 to 9:30 shall be divided into
two class periods of sixty minutes each, except for classes in cooking,
auto-mechanics, and machine shop, which shall occupy the full two-
hour session each night.
Public evening high schools are conducted on Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday, and Thursday evenings at all of the six high-school
buildings.
Public evening elementary Schools are conducted in these same
high-school centers on the same evenings with length of term and
nightly sessions as provided for the high Schools. Evening
elementary-School classes are conducted at Some of the elementary-
school centers also. Classes may be organized in other School build-
*Adapted from literature of the St. Louis Board of Education.
5I2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ings in connection with Social-center activities when authorized by
the Board of Education.
Students of all ages over fourteen, who are not attending the
day Schools, may attend the evening Schools.
Students attending day schools are not eligible to attend either
the high or elementary schools, except those students attending only
four hours a week in part-time classes, or such students as may
obtain permission from the Instruction Department.
Tuition for non-resident students: Non-resident students may
be admitted to evening-school classes on payment of the tuition fee
of $5.00 per term.
No charge for tuition or books: the public evening Schools are
free to all those who reside in St. Louis. This includes the use of
all books and supplies without charge, except a deposit fee for the
use of books.
When classes may be formed.—Twenty registrants shall be neces-
sary for the formation of classes in both the elementary and high
schools, except for classes in special subjects or for immigrants or
illiterates. Such classes may be organized with a smaller registra
tion subject to the approval of the superintendent of instruction.
Classes may be divided if the average weekly attendance is thirty
or more students. -
When classes shall be discontinued.—Classes whose average
monthly attendance falls below ten shall be combined with other
classes or discontinued unless special permission to continue them is
granted by superintendent.
Subjects taught in all evening high schools.-The high schools offer
a wide selection in the choice of subjects. To those who are employed
during the day they offer an excellent opportunity to broaden their
education along lines required in their daily employment and fit
them for greater responsibilities. To the earnest and ambitious
worker they offer many opportunities to take up the study of those
subjects in which he is interested.
Vocational classes: Short unit courses in Joinery, Pattern-
Making, Foundry Practice, Machine Shop-Practice, Auto-Mechanics,
Applied Electricity, Architectural and Mechanical Drawing, Com-
mercial Art, Industrial Design, Trade Millinery and Trade Dress-
making, Interior Decoration. -
Academic courses: Courses in Social Science, American History
and Civics, Commercial Law, Social Economy, English and Liter-
ature, General Science. -
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 5.I.3
Commercial classes: Practical courses in Bookkeeping, Short-
hand, Typewriting, Office Practice, Salesmanship and Advertising,
and Accounting.
Vocational home-making courses: Vocational home-making
courses have for their aim the training of girls and women for the
vocation of home-making as practiced by the wife and mother in the
home. The following are suggested unit courses in home-making
for this training: *
A. Foods. Lessons in Cookery.
B. Hygiene and Home Nursing.
C. Making and Repairing Clothing.
D. Millinery
E. Home Planning and Home Furnishing.
Civics: All men and women should have a good general knowl-
edge of the duties, rights, and privileges of American citizenship.
Instruction in our form of government, city, state, and national, is
fully covered in this course. This study is especially useful for men
and women arriving at the voting age.
Modern languages: Spanish, French.
Gymnasium classes, chorus singing, orchestra, open forum, and
debating clubs.
English and Civics for foreigners.
EVENING HIGH SCHOOLS IN BOSTON
The example given below, of the Boston evening high schools,
may be studied as a rather complete statement of the administra-
tion of an extensive system of evening Schools, and one in which
the details of administration are presented. Certain features of
the commercial work offered, with an outline of a sample course
in advertising, are given:
The evening high schools, which numbered five in 1910-II, are
now nine in number. The growth of the evening high schools in
number and influence has been accompanied by a distinct change in
character. In 1910 the evening high Schools, with the exception of
the Central Evening High School, were changed from general high
schools to commercial high schools. The Central Evening High
# Adapted from Annual Report of the Superintendent, Boston Public
Schools, and from A Provisional Course of Study for the Evening High
Schools, Boston Public Schools, pp. 6-12. (This material was submitted in
April, 1922, as current.)
5I4 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
School offers both academic and commercial subjects. The number
of pupils pursuing So-called Cultural Subjects is comparatively small,
only 286 this year out of a total of 5,016, and questioning of these
pupils on various occasions has disclosed the fact that most of them
are taking academic subjects with a strictly vocational end in view.
In other words, our evening high Schools are today vocational schools,
with the emphasis on commercial subjects. In 1916 the commercial
character of these schools was further intensified and specialized
commercial courses with definite requirements for graduation were
authorized. In consequence of the changed character of the evening
high schools the course of study was revised through the efforts of
principals and teachers and was ready for distribution in printed
form in September, 1917. The revised course of study offers pupils
an opportunity to attempt specialized commercial courses with a
view to receiving intensive training for particular types of commercial
work. Among the Specialized courses offered are the secretarial
course, which emphasizes a mastery of phonography and typewriting;
the accountancy course, which includes the principles and practices
of advanced bookkeeping; the merchandising course, which includes
principles of business organization, selling and service to customers;
and the office practice course, which includes the principles and
methods of adjusting one's self to modern business office conditions,
and familiarity with the principles of filing systems and labor-saving
machines and devices. Commercial Spanish was authorized as a
subject in all evening high Schools in 1917, and last year the subject
of American government was likewise authorized.
SESSIONS
Sessions are held on Monday, Tuesday and Thursday evenings.
They begin at half-past seven o'clock and close at half-past nine
o'clock. The school rooms are opened and the teachers are present
fifteen minutes before the time for the session to begin.
ADMISSION
Pupils are admitted to the evening high schools as follows:
(a) Residents of Boston who are graduates of Boston elementary
day or evening Schools, are over sixteen years of age and are not
attending a public day school in the City of Boston.
(b) Residents of Boston who are graduates of schools of equal
or higher grade than those mentioned in (a), are over sixteen
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 5I 5
years of age and are not attending a public day School in the
City of Boston.
(c) Residents of Boston who have attended day high schools,
are over sixteen years of age and are not attending a public day school
in the City of Boston.
(d) Residents of Boston who are over sixteen years of age and
who pass the entrance examinations. -
* (e) Non-residents of Boston who meet the admission require-
ments and pay the necessary tuition, one-half in advance and the
remainder before January I.
(f) No pupil will be admitted to an evening high school who is
unable to attend at least two hours on two evenings each week except
by permission of the director.
NOTE I. Those included under (a), (b) and (c) are admitted
without examination. Those included under (d) are required to
pass an examination in reading, writing, English composition, and
arithmetic. Admission examinations are held in the different high
schools during the opening week of the term and at such other times
as the principal of the School may determine.
NotE 2. Pupils over fourteen years of age attending a public
day school in the City of Boston are admitted to the evening high
schools only by written permission on a form provided for the purpose
and obtainable at the several schools.
ADVANCE PAYMENT
Each pupil who enters an evening high school is required to
make an advance payment of one dollar ($1) at the time of his applica-
tion for admission, for which he is given a receipt on a form provided
for the purpose.
If at the end of the evening School term the pupil has complied
with the regulations of the School Committee the amount of the
advance payment will be refunded upon the surrender of his receipt.
This receipt is not transferable and must be presented for the refund
during the last week of the evening School term by the pupil named
upon it.
ATTENDANCE
Any pupil who is absent from school for three consecutive eve-
nings on which his attendance is due shall not be readmitted to his
classes until his absence shall have been Satisfactorily explained to
the principal. -
5I6 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
DIPLOMAS
Diplomas are granted for quality and quantity of work reported
as follows:
(a) A diploma is awarded to pupils who have won twenty-four
diploma points, which usually requires attendance at School on three
evenings a week for four years.
(b) Diploma points cannot be granted more than once in the
same subject.
(c) Not more than six diploma points can be earned in the Same
year. ſ
(d) The twenty-four diploma points must include at least three
points in English II.
(e) Pupils shall receive no credit unless they have been present
at least two-thirds of all sessions held during the term, or at least
three-fourths of all sessions held after January first.
(f) Pupils who have attended at least two-thirds of all sessions
held during the term, or at least three-fourths of all sessions held
after January first, may be granted advanced standing in subjects
offered by the school under the following conditions:
I. A pupil may receive advanced standing in any subject author-
ized in the particular school at which he attends provided he presents
satisfactory evidence that he has completed that subject in a school
recognized and accredited as equivalent in rank. This evidence shall,
in general, consist of duly signed certificates and may in the discre-
tion of the principal be supplemented by examination.
2. A pupil may receive advanced standing in the work of the
first or second year of a progressive subject authorized in the par-
ticular school at which he attends provided he presents satisfactory
evidence of having studied the subject one year or more in School or
in employment and provided he enters and satisfactorily completes a
higher grade of the same subject and receives credit therefor. At the
discretion of the principal pupils of sufficient maturity may be
admitted to a higher grade and receive advanced standing under the
above conditions.
3. Not more than eighteeſ, points in advanced standing may be
granted in any case, and not more than twelve points in advanced
standing may be granted except in the case of a pupil who has
satisfactorily completed three years in a Boston day high school
of the same character as that of the particular school at which he
attends.
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 5I? .
4. Graduates of day high Schools shall not receive advanced
standing in subjects which have been credited towards day high
School diplomas. *
(g) Diplomas are granted in each of the following courses:
Accountancy Course, Merchandising Course, Office Practice Course,
Secretarial Course, General Commercial Course, General Academic
Course. -
A diploma in the Accountancy Course is awarded to pupils who
have won three diploma points in Bookkeeping III and twenty-one
diploma points in the following subjects: Bookkeeping I, II; Civil
Service; Commerce and Industry; Commercial Arithmetic; Com-
mercial Law; English I, II, III; Penmanship; Spanish I, II.
A diploma in the Merchandising Course is awarded to pupils who
have won three diploma points in Merchandising and twenty-one
diploma points in the following subjects: Advertising; Civil Service.
Commerce and Industry; Commercial Arithmetic; Commercial
Law; Economics; English I, II, III; Penmanship; Spanish I, II.
A diploma in the Office Practice Course is awarded to pupils who
have won three diploma points in Office Practice and twenty-one
diploma points in the following subjects: Bookkeeping I, II, II;
Civil Service; Commercial Arithmetic; Commercial Law; Eco-
nomics; English I, II, III; Penmanship; Phonography I, II, III;
Spanish I, II; Typewriting I, II.
A diploma in the Secretarial Course is awarded to pupils who
have won three diploma points in Phonography III and three diploma
points in Typewriting II and eighteen diploma points in the following
Subjects: Advertising; Civil Service; Commercial Arithmetic; Com-
mercial Law; English I, II, III; Penmanship; Phonography I, II;
Spanish I, II; Typewriting I.
A diploma in the General Commercial Course is awarded to pupils
unable to qualify for a diploma in the above-named courses who have
won twenty-four diploma points in the subjects authorized in the
evening commercial high Schools.
A diploma in the General Academic Course is awarded to pupils
unable to qualify for a diploma in the above-named courses who have
won twenty-four diploma points in the subjects authorized in the
Central Evening High School.
Not more than twelve points in the following subjects may be
counted towards a diploma from any course; Algebra I; Bookkeep-
ing I; Civil Service; Commercial Arithmetic; English I; French I;
German I; Italian I; Latin I; Penmanship; Spanish I.
518 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
The subjects offered and the number of diploma points granted
are shown in the following table:
EVENING HIGH SCHOOLS
Diploma Points
Advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3 History II (English). . . . . . . . 3
Algebra I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 History III (United States).. 3
Algebra II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Italian I (two hours). . . . . . . 6
Bookkeeping I. . . . . . . . . . . . . *3 Italian II (two hours). . . . . . . 6
Bookkeeping II. . . . . . . . . . . . *3 Latin I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Bookkeeping III. . . . . . . . . . . *3 Latin I (two hours). . . . . . . . . 6
Chemistry I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Latin II (Caesar). . . . . . . . . . 3
Chemistry II (two hours). . . 6 Latin III (Vergil) . . . . . . . . . . 3
Civil Government I. . . . . . . . 3 Literature I (American). . . . .
Civil Government II. . . . . . . . 3 Literature II (earlier English
Civil Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3 authors). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Civil Service (two hours). . . . *6 Literature III (later English
Commerce and Industry. . . . *3 authors). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Commercial Arithmetic. . . . . *3 Lowell School Mathematics
Commercial Law. . . . . . . . . . . *3 (two hours). . . . . . . . . . . . . . *6
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3 Merchandising. . . . . . . . . . . . . *3
English I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3 Office Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . *3
English II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3 Penmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3
English III. . . . . . . . . . . ... • . . . *3 Phonography I. . . . . . . . . . . . . *3
French I (two hours). . . . . . . 6 Phonography II. . . . . . . . . . . '. “3
French II (two hours)....... 6 Phonography III (speed). . . . *3
French III (two hours). . . . . 6 Physics I (two hours). . . . . . . 6
Geometry I (Plane). . . . . . . . 3 Physics II (two hours). . . . . . 6
Geometry II (solid). . . . . . . . 3 Spanish I (two hours). . . . . . . *6
German I (two hours). . . . . . 6 Spanish II (two hours). . . . . . *6
German II (two hours). . . . . 6 Typewriting I. . . . . . . . . . . . . *3
German III (two hours). . . . 6 Typewriting II. . . . . . . . . . . . . *3
History I (Ancient). . . . . . . . . 3
NOTE I. Commercial evening high Schools offer only such sub-
jects as are marked with an asterisk.
NOTE 2. In case a class meets regularly less than three times
each week or for a part of the year only, the number of diploma
points will be diminished proportionately, but fractional parts of
diploma points will be disregarded.
NOTE 3. Classes will be formed in subjects for which a reason-
able number make application, and short unit courses will be con-
ducted in subjects as are approved by the Director.
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 519
CERTIFICATES
At the end of each year pupils not receiving diplomas receive
certificates of proficiency in each subject studied as follows:
(a) Provided their year's record has been satisfactory.
(b) Provided they have been in attenda, ice upon at least two-
thirds of all sessions held during the term, or at least three-fourths
of all Sessions held after January I. -
Certificates show the number of points credited toward a diploma.
'OTTLINE OF A SAMPLE COURSE
Advertising
The aim of this course is to give pupils a practical knowledge of
the underlying principles of advertising. The work should be made
as concrete as possible, and the constant use of illustrative material
is recommended.
It is suggested that pupils be advised to take Advertising in
connection with Merchandising or with English III.
I. The place of advertising in business.
2. Purpose of advertising in business.
3. Analysis of goods.
4. Analysis of market.
5. Advertising mediums.
(a) General periodicals.
(b) Circulars, catalogues, Sales letters.
(c) House organs.
(d) Novelties.
(e) Educational lectures, demonstrations, moving pictures
(f) Display of goods.
(g) Outdoor advertising.
(h) Dealers' aids.
6. Printing tools.
(a) Type.
(b) Stereotype.
(c) Half tone.
(d) Electrotype.
(e) Two and three color process.
(f) Lithograph. -
(g) Etchings.
(h) Wood cuts.
52O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
. Planning a campaign.
. Measuring results.
9. The laws of attention applied to advertising.
(a) Absence of counter-attractions.
(b) Intensity of sensation.
(c) Contrast.
(d) Ease of comprehension.
(e) Repetition.
(f) Emotional appeal.
Io. Appeals to senses and instincts (“Talking Points”)—taste, hear-
ing, Smell, sight, touch, cleanliness, protection, luxury, health,
family love, etc.
II. Classes of advertisements.
(a) Argumentative, suggestive.
(b) Classified, display.
(c) Appeals to different classes.
(d) Conversational.
(e) Testimonial.
(ſ) “You.”
(g) Possible combinations.
s
EVENING SCHOOL WORK IN WASHINGTON, D.C.
The evening-school situation in Washington is typical of
that in a number of large cities. Courses of different types are
offered in different schools. For example, in arts in a manual-
training high School, in general subjects in general high Schools,
and in commercial subjects in the Business High School. Some
of the features of the Business High Night School are thus
described:
The winter session of the business High Night School usually
opens in late September and closes the last of June. The school is
in Session every evening from 7:30 to 9:30 o'clock, except Sundays
and legal holidays.
There are no tuition fees or other charges. Pupils supply their
own books, paper, etc. t
Owing to the large number of pupils the school is organized into
two groups. One group meets on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday
* The description is compiled from literature furnished by W. B.
Patterson.
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 52T
evenings and the other group meets on Tuesday, Thursday, and
Saturday evenings. One group offers no advantage over the other.
Pupils should select the group they prefer and arrange to attend
regularly for the three evenings each week.
There are two recitation periods each evening. Each period is
one hour in length.
It is possible for a pupil to take two courses in either group.
The School has recently received more than 250 new typewriting
machines, making a total of about 500 machines, and is now one of
the best equipped night schools in the country.
New classes are started as demand requires, usually once a month.
Full high school credits are given for courses completed in the
School.
The figures given below indicate the total number of hours in
each subject pursued by students, a few taking one hour, a few three
hours, but most of them two hours per night.
Stenography (Gregg and Pitman). . . . . . . . . . U42O
Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4OO
Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8o
Bookkeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32O
Bookkeeping machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Rapid Calculating machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7o
Accountancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I6o
Commercial law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2O
French. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O
Spanish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4O
Gymnasium... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . QO
The last enrolment called for 499 men and 1406 women. -
We give certificates of proficiency for satisfactory units of work
but are planning to give night high School diplomas for a course of
twenty-four semester hours of work, provided English and Civics
have been included. Our courses are practically free as far as tuition
is concerned.
THE ORGANIZATION OF EVENING SCHOOL WORK
The Organization of evening work, as of any course, should
be in terms of purposes. In so far, therefore, as the aims of
night-school studies vary from those of day-School studies,
522 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
there should be a variation in organization. Certain proposed
principles for the organization of evening-school commercial
courses are those given by one agency which has made a con-
siderable study of the problem."
Evening-School commercial courses should be regarded as voca-
tional in the strictest sense of the term. They should be either
extension or preparatory courses, and they should be organized with
the exact needs of commercial workers definitely in mind.
By “extension” is meant that kind of training which will improve
the worker in the performance of the tasks incident to his present
employment and fit him for promotion in the same line. By “pre-
paratory” is meant that kind of training which is designed to fit the
student for a position different from the one he is now holding.
Both types of training for commercial occupations may be included
in evening-School courses.
So far as possible, each course should be so arranged as to provide
complete training for all phases of the commercial occupation for
which the course is designed and yet the whole course should be
broken into units for the benefit of those who want specific intensive
training for only one phase of the vocation. Thus, the complete
course might extend over a period of one, two, or even three years,
while each unit might be only ten weeks in length. Even shorter
units would facilitate proper classification of those who register from
time to time.
Having set up the above basic principles the next step is to deter-
mine what commercial vocations should be included in the list for
which training is to be offered. The needs of the persons to be
trained should be kept in mind in listing these vocations. Local
conditions and requirements will be factors of prime importance.
With the occupations listed the next step will be to outline
courses designed to give the needed training for each occupation.
Careful study and research should precede the organization of such
courses. If the unit course plan is followed, the complete course,
which consists of a combination of units, would be considered as
preparatory, while each single unit might well be regarded as extension
training. For obvious reasons entirely separate courses for these
two purposes will not be required.
* Adapted by permission from Bulletin 34, p. 37. Federal Board for
Vocational Education.
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 523
There is helpful suggestion for persons interested in evening-
school organization in the following very concrete statement of
the difficulties found by one person who was concerned with
such a school: ;
We must bear in mind that the evening school of the present is
primarily for the adult, and that of the future will be even more
distinctively so. The evening school for the adult is here to stay.
It is to be noted that at present attendance for by far the greater
number is not compulsory, and this number is steadily growing
larger. This is significant in considering regularity of attendance.
For, granting the very best of motives on the part of the pupils, yet
it is a matter of individual judgment as to which will yield the
greater returns, for example, the two hours at the school or the
evening at the lodge meeting, at home resting or doing some much-
needed work.
But granting the desire on the part of the individual to be present
a given evening, what are some of the conditions tending to make
this frequently impossible? The kind of employment of the pupils
represents one of the most common difficulties in the way of regular
attendance. The following are actual cases which came within the
experience of one evening-school teacher with a small class: -
I. A plumber found it impossible to come when his work took
him to a distant part of the city.
2. A laborer found work in a brickyard too far distant to permit
him to come regularly.
3. A street-car motorman whose schedule had brought him to
“the barn” at 6:40 was put on a schedule which brought him in at
7:40. He came to school for a while even though an hour late.
4. A grocer's clerk frequently could not get through with his
work in time to come.
• 5. A pharmacist, a Hungarian trained in the Gymnasium and
university of his home country, could come only alternate weeks,
because of his working schedule. Aside from the matter in question
but illustrating the interest and Seriousness of purpose of foreigners
learning English, it may be worth while to add that this man came
alternate weeks a distance that required a car ride of over an hour for
individual instruction, and later at even greater sacrifice took up
* Adapted by permission from Paul J. Kruse, “Some Problems of the
Evening School,” School Review, XXII (November, 1914), 595-97.
524 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
work at a university in the city preparatory to Setting up as an
aSSayer. - - -
6. A waitress came when the hours of her work, frequently
changed, made it possible for her to come.
Many men temporarily out of employment come in until they
find employment again.
THE PLACE OF THE EVENING SCHOOL
Are we to conclude that the evening schools' function is
essentially vocational? Many would so assert. It seems
probable, indeed, that the evening School has a great oppor-
tunity in the giving of highly specialized short, unit, technical
courses which will aid persons in the performance of the definite
task with which they are concerned. It has an opportunity,
also, in offering such courses for persons who can improve
their situation through the acquisition of a technique. There
can be no doubt that the prevalence of such opportunity would
make it much more possible for the secondary and even the
elementary schools to devote themselves more completely to
the task for which they are best fitted. If high-school students
were always sure that they could secure training in technical
work, even if they did not get it during the two or four years
which they spend in high school, it would be much easier for
them to see why they should make the most of the high-school
years in the study of basic subjects.
On the other hand, there will always be a demand in the
evening schools for non-vocational work—work which will
merely enrich vocational activities—and for work which can
be taken largely for its recreative effect. Many persons whose
occupations are fairly well fixed will find pleasure and growth
in studies of a general nature. Whether Society should, at
&
public expense, provide for this form of consumption is, perhaps,
a debatable question, the discussion of which would lead into
fundamental issues of the purpose of Social organization. That
matter is, in any case, not a part of the more restricted question
of the place of the night schools in education for business.
EVENING-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSES 525
IO.
I [.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
. Are we justified in considering evening commercial work as a
modern extension of the high-school commercial course?
. “Evening commercial work, like commercial work in continua-
tion schools, is only an incident to a broader development; it
is the contribution of the commercial course to evening educa-
tion.” Does the foregoing seem to you a true statement? If it
is true, what does it mean regarding the study of evening-school
commercial work P
. “Evening schools began with private evening schools operated
for a profit.” Has this been pretty generally the history of
educational institutions? Can you cite instances where other
Schools have had the same origin P
. Trace briefly the stages in the development of evening-school
education.
. How do you account for the rapid spread of the night-school idea,
once it was well under way ?
. “The total number of persons in evening schools is impressive.
It is less impressive when we consider the number which might
be in such institutions.” Comment.
. The example of evening-school work in Wisconsin indicates that,
in that state at least, evening Schools are mostly concerned with
giving what sort of service?
. Examine the descriptions of evening schools in St. Louis, Boston,
and Washington. Make a list of what seem to you the significant
matters to be considered in the organization of such a school.
Under each of these as headings, note the way in which they are
handled in the evening schools of the three cities cited.
. What points of merit or what disadvantages do you see in the
evening-school commercial work in any of the three examples
given P
List the difficulties which must be met in the organization of
evening-school commercial courses. Opposite each of these
difficulties set down any suggestions which you can for avoiding
or overcoming them.
“Evening-school commercial courses should be regarded as voca-
tional in the strictest sense of the term.” What does the fore-
going statement mean by vocational 2 Would you agree? [f
not, how would you definitely express the purpose of evening-
school commercial Courses?
526
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
I 2.
I3.
I4.
I5.
The chance to do a broad educational type of business education
in the high school depends largely on the chance which the student
has to secure short, thorough technical courses in some of the
extensions of the regular course, as in evening and continuation
schools. Explain.
How can it be said to be debatable as to whether or not evening
schools should give general courses for adults?
Draw up a statement or series of statements which seem to you
to express the proper place of the evening school in all education.
Draw up a statement or series of statements expressing what
seems to be to you the place or rôle of evening-School commercial
work in an organized plan of education for business.
CHAPTER XX
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES, SUPER-
VISION AND TEACHER TRAINING
In this chapter we shall give some consideration to a number
of matters which are important in commercial education,
although none of them have developed far enough or broadly
enough to justify an extensive discussion. One of these, like
the agencies we have just been considering, is an extension of
the high-school commercial course. The others are extensions,
perhaps, but cannot accurately be called teaching agencies.
They are rather supplementary to the high-school commercial
course and to all of the extensions which we have had under
consideration.
THE POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSE
The modern extension of the high-school commercial
course to be considered in this chapter may be called the high-
school postgraduate course, or the concentrated technical course.
Although as yet not very extensively developed, such courses
seem to have much promise. These courses are plans of
operation which give the student an opportunity to secure
training in technique such as Stenography or typewriting during
the last few months of the regular four-year course, or in a
special five months’ or year's course after graduation.
Such courses have been in operation in some schools for at
least twenty years. In the Dorchester High School of Boston,
for example, such a course in postgraduate form was established
in 1902–3. The following statement Summarizes the experience
of Dorchester with this type of school."
Our postgraduate course in commercial subjects is open only to
high-school graduates who previously have not had commercial sub-
* A statement by W. L. Anderson, head of the commercial department,
Dorchester High School, Boston, Mass.
527
528 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
jects. About half of the class are graduates of our own School, while
many others come from public and private high Schools. A few
each year are college graduates. One year we had seven of these.
Since this is an intensified course for beginners, our own
commercial-course graduates who for any reason desire to return
to the school are cared for in a special fifth-year course. We probably
have two or three people each year return for our postgraduate course
after they have been in business or to other institutions. This means
two or three out of sixty.
We do not find any trouble about the ready acquirement of
skill at the average age of about twenty years for the whole class.
Uniformity of purpose is probably the most marked character-
istic of the group, and this is the most important quality in any
group in our Schools.
There has grown up on the part of the teachers in courses other
than commercial a tendency to advise able students to finish their
general education before they specialize. This means that the
average of intelligence of the class is very high, and this fact makes
the product of the class well known and in demand by the business
world. ſº *
The course began as an experiment in 1902–3 with three pupils,
and therefore has been in operation some twenty years. It has
grown steadily until now we have sixty or more persons in the class.
For the past three years it has been divided into two sections. Being
graduates, the pupils are permitted to take as many or as few subjects
as they individually desire. The majority of the class take Phonog-
raphy, Typewriting, Bookkeeping, and Commercial Law. In the
Phonography, Typewriting, and Bookkeeping they have one lesson
daily and Cover in one year at least as much as is covered in two years
in regular courses. This means that in shorthand they are beginners
in September and in June can write as a class one hundred words
per minute. Twenty-five of last year's class had good business
positions before the close of school.
In the twenty years during which the class has been in operation,
we have, simply as a side issue, trained and placed in high-school
positions as commercial teachers some seventy-five young men and
women. From this course more than 25 per cent of these have been
college graduates.
In Madison the course has been open to Seniors and has
been taken more extensively by Seniors than by graduates.
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES 529
The course was established, however, to meet the needs of
graduates who had not taken the Commercial course.
A few years ago the Chicago public schools began an
experiment with concentrated postgraduate courses. The ex-
periment proved so satisfactory that the courses are now
given in a number of high schools scattered over the city. A
description of the work in some detail is given in the following
Statement:* J
To meet a need which apparently was not being met, the Super-
visor of commercial work in the Chicago high schools introduced
what he describes as an intensive five months' course in stenography,
offered only to graduates of a four-year high-school course. This
course was added to the high-school commercial curriculum in
February, 1917, and was put into operation at that time in a single
school, the Lucy Flower Technical High School for Girls. In June,
I917, a class of seven was certificated, and in February, 1918, a class
of eleven finished the course.
So satisfactory were the results obtained that at the beginning
of the February, 1918, semester this intensive five months’ steno-
graphic course was extended to five other Chicago high Schools,
namely: Austin, Lake View, Medill, Phillips, and Schurz. These
schools represent geographical divisions of the city, and each is
central to the other high schools in its part of town. At this writing
there are 381 pupils enrolled in the six high schools offering this
course. The Flower High School has an enrolment of seventy-one
girls, all graduates of a four-year high-school course, and there is
every prospect that the full quota will be certificated as stenographers
in June.
It is common opinion that this course has been properly desig-
nated intensive. Exactly the same work in stenography and type-
writing which is required in the two-year course is covered in this
five months' course. The same standards are maintained for the
successful completion of the work. For instance, a shorthand speed
of one hundred words per minute and a typing speed of forty words
per minute are the basis of certification in the two-year course, and,
likewise, at least that standard must be attained to successfully
complete the five months’ course. The textbooks for this course
* A statement prepared by Margaret F. Babcock, in charge of the
Commercial Continuation School, Chicago. September, 1921.
53O EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
are those in use in the longer course, and the School day is the same—
eight periods. -
It is in the distribution of the daily periods, however, that the
departure is made. In the first and second semesters of the longer
Course, one period daily is given to shorthand and one to typing. In
the third and fourth Semesters, one period daily is given to shorthand
and One to typing, and a third period is variously distributed, some-
times to typing, Sometimes to revision of previously typed matter,
again to tests for Speed in either shorthand or typing. In the five
months’ Course, the entire day is given to shorthand and typing—
three periods of class work in shorthand and three to typing, with
two study periods placed to advantage. In the longer course two
Semesters are devoted to the mastery of the theory of shorthand and
the technique of typing. The excellent work done at the Flower
High school proves that this ground is covered successfully in six weeks
when the course is given intensively as postgraduate work. This
means fourteen of the twenty weeks may be devoted to practical
stenographic drill to attain the facility and skill which give commercial
value to this training. •
Supplementary to the intensive work of the school day, the pupils
report home work ranging from two to four hours daily. The
students are encouraged to give all their time and energy to the work.
It is made plain at the beginning of the course that it is not the place
for coddling and that all are expected to qualify at the end of the
semester. The Flower classes are conspicuously interested and even
a casual observer feels the enthusiasm which pervades the work.
The intensive character of the course, it appears, in no way dampens
the ardor of the pupils. -
As is usually the case where a capable progressive teacher directs
stenographic work, this intensive course at Flower is expanded some-
what to take in training and drill in the office activities which are
closely allied to stenography. Valuable training is being given in
filing. The pupils have more or less intimate knowledge of alpha-
betical, numerical, geographical, and other filing methods. They are
given Some training in transcribing from dictating machines, and are
also afforded some instruction in the use of the comptometer. Some
attention is given to mimeography. It is hardly necessary to add
that extensive training of this nature is not attempted though it is
significant that a number of the pupils have availed themselves of
the opportunity afforded in a nearby public evening school to secure
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES 53I
further practice in the use of these various office machines. It is
pointed out that practice of the kind is also available all the year
round in the Public Continuation Commercial School.
Again, the matter of spelling, so completely interwoven in the
stenographer's skill, is not neglected. Added to the spelling drill
which is inescapable in the revision work, a period a week is given to
spelling as such, even the old-fashioned but ever-effective spelldown
being brought into play.
One can scarcely conceive a product of this training failing of
immediate appreciation in the commercial world, and it is true that,
with one exception, those who have finished the course at Flower are
well placed at satisfactory beginning salaries. It is rather early to
attempt a comparison of the rate of advancement as between these
pupils and those who have taken only a two-year high-school course,
though it is altogether to be expected that the contrast will be distinct.
A more recent development in postgraduate commercial courses
in the Chicago Secondary School system is the six months' secretarial
course now offered in Commercial Continuation School. This course
is open to graduates of a four-year high-school course. In addition
to the shorthand and typewriting, short courses are given in account-
ing, letter-writing, commercial law, and filing. The aim is to equip
for secretarial work of an exacting nature.
POSSIBILITIES IN THE CONCENTRATED COURSE
The postgraduate course is one which promises a great deal
of opportunity for enriching the secondary-school commercial
course. When the student has graduated or is about to do so
he is much more likely to know the particular technique which
he will need in the job which lies before him. The postgraduate
concentrated course enables him to prepare for that kind of
technique instead of giving him a variety of techniques which
have no particular use. Moreover, it seems quite likely that a
student acquires his technique more rapidly when it is thus
given in concentrated form. Clearly there are limits to this.
No one would allege that because five months may be better than
two years in which to learn typewriting, that five days would be
better than five months. As a matter of fact no careful study
has yet been made of the learning curve in this field, and we are
somewhat at sea as to what is the period of greatest increasing
532 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
returns for the time spent. A third advantage which is not
likely to be disputed is that the student comes to his new job
with his technique freshly at hand. If he has taken stenog-
raphy and typewriting in the first two years or second and
third years, and has found his fourth year largely occupied
with other subjects, there is plenty of chance to become in-
efficient in these techniques. Finally, and most important of
all, is that the postponement of this technical work gives an
opportunity for something of great value to be done for the
Student during the first three or possibly all four of the high-
School years.
If the student is assured that he need not leave the public-
School system without some technique which he can sell
immediately, he will be much more willing to devote the early
years of his high-school course to those studies which will be
most valuable to him in the long run. The postgraduate or
Concentrated course offers such an opportunity. In addition
it enables him to understand his technical training in relation
to its uses in business, provided a proper knowledge of the mean-
ing of business and the business organization has been given in
the earlier years. When one adds to these considerations the
fact that he is now more likely to know his job and the fact that
he will go from this training directly to its practice, it seems that
a strong case is made for courses of this type. It is doubtful if
there is a single development in secondary work which tould be
used to greater advantage from the standpoint of the student
than the postgraduate technical course or a technical course
concentrated in the last semester or last year. Such work
should of course not be limited to the students or graduates of
commercial courses. In practice it has been found that the
graduates of general courses often desire this work, and that
there are many students who at the end of three years of general
work wish to finish their high-school course with some technical
subjects. . Such courses should become much more common.
The opportunities which they present should be given the most
careful thought by everyone interested in broadening and
improving secondary commercial education. -
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES 533
THE CITY SUPERVISOR OF COMMERCIAL WORK
Of the supplementary agencies to be discussed in this chapter,
the city supervisor of commercial work may be considered first.
Specialized supervisors for commercial work have not yet become
very great in numbers, but the possible utility of such officers is
attracting an increasing amount of attention. Special directors
of manual training, music, drawing, and other subjects were
numerous before commercial supervisors in the Country num-
bered more than two or three. Even now the number of such
supervisors is probably less than a dozen. An informal national
organization has, however, been organized and at least one
general meeting called to discuss the problems of city commercial
directors. The duties of such a commercial director in a city
school system have been thus described:
The director should advise with the general superintendent in
regard to the installation and supervision of commercial subjects
and equipment. If there is no employment bureau maintained in
a general employment department, he should establish and Supervise
such a bureau for graduates of the commercial department. He
should advise with the superintendent with regard to the selection
of textbooks and syllabi for commercial subjects. If he be wise, he
will consult freely with his teachers and principals before making
his recommendations. At all times, if he desires to be successful, he
should remember that his supervision is horizontal and that the direct
supervision of a school is in the hands of the principal. He should
be very careful not to issue orders directly to teachers without consult-
ing the principal who is immediately responsible for the success of
his school. It is much more satisfactory to leave directions with a
principal for the betterment of the commercial department in his
School.
STATE SUPERVISION OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
A second form of direct supervision of commercial education
which has developed within very recent years is state super-
vision by a special state officer. New York state was probably
* A statement by William Bachrach, supervisor of commercial work,
Chicago public high schools. Mr. Bachrach, with a possible exception of
Clay Slinker, of Des Moines, was the first commercial supervisor in the
United States.
534 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the first to Create such an office, doing so in 1910. Idaho and
Pennsylvania have now established similar offices. Such a
Supervisor has numerous opportunities to aid business education.
One can conduct surveys as a basis for improving the training
given students, formulate plans for state-wide programs of
education, furnish informational and inspirational material to
commercial teachers, carry on research upon which minimum
standards of curriculum, teacher requirements, and equipment
may be based. A supervisor can bring to legislative bodies the
need for help in teacher-training and for proper certification
laws for teachers of business subjects. -
THE COMMERCIAL SERVICE OF THE FEDERAL BOARD
Enough concerning its work has been said at various points
throughout this volume to make any discussion of the com-
mercial service of the Federal Board for Vocational Education
almost superfluous. It is worth while, however, to recall that
it is an agency which can exercise an extensive influence.
Several quotations in this volume are examples of the character
of work already done by the board. For the making of broad
Surveys, for the collection and dissemination of data concerning
business education experiments, and for stimulating general
interest in the field, there is no other agency so well qualified,
nor is there probably any single agency whose suggestions
or proposals will be so kindly and so widely considered.
This throws at once upon the commercial service of the Federal
Board a great opportunity and a great responsibility.
COMMERCIAL TEACHER-TRAINING
Fundamental to any general growth in business education
is proper teaching. Commercial teacher-training has in no
way kept pace with teacher education in other fields. The fol-
lowing statement indicates the present status of teacher-training
in commercial work."
* This statement was prepared by May R. Freedman. It is in part
based on data gathered by the Commercial Education Service of the Federal
Board for Vocational Education, which through its chief, E. W. Barnhart,
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES 535
Lack of clearly defined aims and widely varying standards of
teaching requirements characterize the educational policies of the
majority of states and cities. It is a testimony to the unexplored
problems of providing adequately trained teachers for commercial
courses that no study of the needs and possibilities of commercial
teacher-training has been published up to the present time. The
following conditions exist at present: (a) a policy of expediency, (b)
lack of standardization in requirements and, (c) confusion as to what
educational institution should assume the responsibility for preparing
teachers. *
Under the pressure of securing teachers, school authorities have
turned to various sources. From business schools have been secured
teachers thoroughly trained in shorthand, typewriting, sometimes
bookkeeping and penmanship Supported by a high-school education
and possibly in addition a normal-school training. This group has
served best under existing circumstances to teach the “technique”
courses. From the business world have been obtained men and
women with office or selling experience, whose knowledge of actual
business, rather than their specific educational requirements, has been
their qualification to teach commercial courses. Finally, a third source
has been teachers of other subjects, who, because of the decrease in
popularity of certain courses, as German and the classics, and the
attractiveness of higher salaries offered to commercial teachers, have
been willing to change their work. It is thus evident that the
qualifications of commercial instructors vary greatly in respect to
experience, educational training, and, as a result, outlook.
When uniformity is so utterly lacking in the methods of securing
teachers, it is not to be expected that standardization of require-
ments is to be found. As a matter of fact, certain states and cities,
where commercial education has assumed great importance, have
developed regulations to be observed in selecting commercial teachers.
But in many instances these have been set aside where their observa-
tion would prevent the procuring of a sufficient number to fill the
school needs. Other states have not found it necessary to differ-
entiate their requirements for commercial teachers from those for
other teachers, or else have included them under the group called
“Special.” Certain cities, as Milwaukee, decide each case on its
has been making a series of investigations of teacher-training by means of
questionnaires.
536 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
individual merits. The one generalization applicable to the country
as a whole is that the requirements are moderate and where existing
are often unobserved by individual cities. -
With so urgent a need for offering means of preparing teachers
for commercial work, various educational institutions have attempted
to take over the task of training. The undertaking of the work by
colleges and universities, normal Schools, and special training schools
accounts for the confusion that exists as to which of these is best
equipped to do the work, and what should be the aim of the training
offered. Universities give a more comprehensive training in the
Social Sciences than normal Schools, but they have just begun to organ-
ize teacher-training courses in this field. Normal schools are only
beginning to broaden the nature of the courses to include something
more than training in routine business procedure. A statement by
F. G. Nichols, shortly before he left the Federal Board for Vocational
Education, indicates the situation as he saw it:
“While more than thirty state normal schools profess to give
courses for the training of commercial teachers, not more than six
are really making a serious attempt to train such teachers for our
public schools. In practically all of them except this small group of
six the commercial department is run more like a business college.
The courses are open to those who desire training for office work as
well as to those who desire to prepare for commercial teaching. The
consequence is that the former group is much larger than the latter
group, and the instruction is based upon the needs of office workers
almost entirely. Furthermore, only a negligible number who com-
plete the normal-school courses in commercial subjects ever become
teachers; practically all of them accept business positions upon
graduation.” r
Special schools for training teachers of selling and merchandising
perform a limited service. The Prince School of Education for Store
Service at Boston, Massachusetts, which is affiliated with Harvard
University, is the leader of this work. The aim of these schools,
however, is so highly specialized that they cannot be considered as
an influential group of commercial-teacher-training agencies.
It may well be asked, following so unproductive an examination
of the present possibilities of commercial teacher-training, what hope
* State Normal School at Salem, Mass.; State Normal School at
Whitewater, Wis.; State Normal School at Plattsburg, New York; State
Normal College at Trenton, N.J.; State Normal College at Albany, N.Y.;
State Normal School at Willimantic, Conn.
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES 537
exists for improvement. Two movements, while of modest pro-
portions, indicate an enlightened attitude. A modification of the
high-school curriculum is likely to occur through the general interest
that has been aroused in the desirability of courses in the social
Sciences. A direct effort is being made by such groups as the National
Association of Collegiate Schools of Business, the American Economic
Association, and the committees of the National Education Asso-
ciation to improve the standards of the high-school curriculum.
These efforts may very well influence the character of training given
to secondary-school teachers. There is the possibility of shifting
the emphasis from teachers of shorthand, typewriting, and bookkeep-
ing, to teachers of industrial Society and elementary economics, if
not to socialize the entire viewpoint of instructors of commercial
courses. In this connection the interest of the commercial advisers
of high school in raising the requirements of teachers in their depart-
ment may be another note of encouragement.
What other hope for commercial teacher-training exists is to be
found in the introduction of courses on commercial education in
universities. In the past there has been little correlation between
business courses and educational courses. But there are appearing
at present definite courses in commercial education which aim to
present the development of commercial education, its relation to
business, and the problems peculiar to this type of training. Such
projects are significant particularly for the influence they may exert
in stimulating a broader interest in commercial education and the
suggestions they may give to other institutions to follow along similar
lines. By giving a taste of the newer concept of commercial educa-
tion to teachers attending summer sessions of universities, an appetite
may be whetted which will be possible of satisfying only through
the reorganization of the existing program of commercial teacher-
training institutions.
FORMS OF TEACHER TRAINING NEEDED
There are at least five phases of teacher training that need
development and that should be undertaken by Schools that
wish to work toward a well-rounded program of business-
teaching education. -
I. Commercial teachers have in the past approached their
work with almost no understanding of its social significance
and implications. They have seldom hād an opportunity to
538 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
See the type of institution in which they worked in relation to
other types. The result, frequently, has been a misconception
of objectives or no thinking at all in terms of purposes. There
is need, therefore, as the basis of teacher training, of a course
Concerned with the purposes and agencies of business education.
On Such an introductory Course specialized courses can be
soundly and intelligently built.
2. There is need of studies and courses in the technical
Subjects of business education. As has been pointed out in
earlier Sections, no one knows the best length of time in which
to give Courses in Stenography, typewriting, machine operating,
and similar techniques. No one knows with any certainty
whether One age is better than another for such work. Studies
throwing light on these matters would be valuable for whatever
agency could best give courses in the subjects concerned.
Certain agencies, for example, the high School, which have spent
too much time in such work, have more to gain than any other
institutions if it can be shown that the advantage lies with
giving these courses concentratedly.” Such a conclusion would
open a large part of the high-school course for other work.
On such a basis courses in the technique of teaching the
technical subjects would and should be developed. Even
though the high Schools were to give little of such work the
* In this connection George E. Freeland, “A Year's Study of the Daily
Learning of Six Children” is interesting. Freeland, experimenting with
pupils in the sixth grade and below, concluded that the older pupils learned
most rapidly and retained the results best. He expressed the belief that
class work below the fifth grade would be impossible but that so far as
subject-matter is concerned typewriting could begin in that grade. This
study may be found in the Pedagogical Summary, XXVIII (June, 1921),
97-II5.
* Although a scientific study has not been made, the weight of evidence
already leans well toward concentration and the late rather than the early
years of adolescence. Experience with postgraduate courses is supported
by business college history. The advantage the high-school graduate has
had over the student from the business college has never been in mere
technique. When the business college student has been a high-school
graduate first, the advantage has been the other way. The moral is apparent
that what is needed is more general training of a useful type.
POSTGRADUATE COMMERCIAL COURSES 539
normal schools could very properly train teachers who could
function in business Colleges, continuation Schools, postgraduate
courses and the like. This will be a form of practical training,
which, on broader Courses, can be usefully done by normal
schools.
3. A third type of teacher training needed is instruction
which will give candidates for commercial teaching a large
amount of Content material of the sort now available in the
better collegiate schools of business. The material is that
which makes clear the Social setting of business and depicts the
social structures in terms of which the business manager's
work is conducted. Textbooks of a character which will be
useful for high-school purposes must be developed but such
books cannot yield their greatest service without the support
of understanding teachers.
4. The material for presenting this new social science will
be at best imperfect in its first forms and studies in the methods
of teaching the ideas involved will be valuable. This will
include not only classroom devices but possibilities of correlation
with other subjects so that such courses may be made the core
and the core only of a well-correlated, broadly inclusive
curriculum.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
I. What is the postgraduate commercial course or concentrated
technical course 2
2. Outline the matters which would need to be planned in installing
such a course in any high School with which you are familiar.
3. Can Such postgraduate or concentrated courses in technical sub-
jects properly be given only to graduates of high-school commercial
courses? Can they properly be given to all high-school graduates?
Can they properly be given to all members of the Senior class in
the commercial course P Can they properly be given earlier than
the Senior year to students who could not long remain in school?
4. If all students in the commercial course were assured that they
could secure thorough training in one or two technical Subjects in
not more than a year of postgraduate work, would many of them
be interested in more general types of work while in high school P
54O
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
IO.
II.
I 2.
. If the high-school commercial course successfully gave in its Senior
year adequate training in one or two technical subjects, what would
be done with the students during the preceding three years?
What would you suggest ?
. Outline what seem to you the advantages to a city of a supervisor
of Commercial education. Would it appear to you that a super-
visor could properly undertake training of teachers P
. Outline the duties which seem to you could be performed to ad-
vantage by the state supervisor of commercial education. Could
Such a Supervisor properly be active in organizing teacher training 2
. What appear to be the general characteristics of the training
generally required of commercial teachers?
. Summarize the forces which seem to promise improved oppor-
tunity for commercial teachers’ training.
What possibilities for assistance lie in the commercial service of
the Federal Board for Vocational Education P
Examine each of the four possible phases of teacher training out-
lined at the conclusion of the chapter. Be prepared to discuss
each. f
Does it seem to you that the amount of commercial teacher
training now available should be increased ? If So, what agencies
should offer it P
PART IV
HIGH-SCHOOL COMMERCIAL-CURRICULUM
REFORM
CHAPTER XXI
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS
In this section we are concerned with what should be done
to make the best possible curriculum for the commercial course
in a secondary School. If what should be done is more than
what can be done immediately, we are also interested in know-
ing what can be done with materials existing at present.
This task breaks more or less logically into a double under-
taking. It will be worth while, first, to examine the important
proposals for improving the high-school commercial curriculum
which have been made up to the present time, and to consider
these in the light of the study which we have been making in
this volume. Second, we must draw definite conclusions from
our study and on the basis of those conclusions answer the
questions, what should and what can be done with the high-
school commercial course.
THE COMMITTEE OF NINE
We can recall from earlier chapters that the commercial
course did not make a serious entrance into secondary schools
until the latter part of the eighteen hundreds. It is natural
enough, therefore, that we do not find a definite effort by second-
ary educators to outline the commercial course until after 1900.
In July, 1901, at the Detroit meeting of the National Education
Association a resolution was moved for the appointment of a
Committee of Nine to report on commercial education in high
schools. The course outlined by this Committee of Nine was
presented in Boston, 1903. The curriculum proposed, together
with certain statements of the Committee, were as follows:
The course of study should be four years in length.
The paramount factor in shaping commercial courses in public
schools should be the welfare of the student who goes directly from
* Commercial Education in High Schools, pp. 5–7. University of the
State of New York, College Department, Bulletin 23, 1903. *
543
544 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the high school to his life work. It is expected, however, that such
courses will provide a training of such a character as will fit the student
completing them to enter the schools of commerce and industry now
being established by many colleges and universities, as well as other
modern courses in colleges and universities.
We believe that where possible separately organized commercial
schools are advisable; but we realize that in the great majority of
places the work must be given in regular public high Schools as one
of the several courses thereof.
COMMERCIAL COURSE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS
FIRST YEAR
First Half Second Half
Recitations Recitations
a Week - a Week
English 4. English 4
German, French, or Same Language Con-
Spanish 5 tinued 5
Algebra 5 Algebra 5
Bookkeeping 3 General History to 8oo
Drawing 3 A.D. 4.
Penmanship 3 Bookkeeping 3
-** Penmanship 2
Total 23 --
Total 23
SECOND YEAR
First Half a Second Half
History of English Lit- History of English Lit-
erature; Composition 3 erature, Commercial
Modern Language Con- Correspondence 3
tinued 5 Modern Language Con-
Commercial Arithmetic 5 tinued 5
Study of Commercial English and European
Products or Local History 5
History and Indus-
tries 5 e º
Bookkeeping 5 Typewriting 5
Commercial Geography 5
Total 23 Total 23
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 545
THIRD YEAR
First Half Second Half
Recitations Recitations
a Week - a Week
Rhetoric and Composi- Plane Geometry 5
tion 3 Physics or Chemistry
United States History 5 continued 5
Physics or Chemistry 5 Commercial Law 4.
Bookkeeping and Office Political Economy 4.
Practice 5 Election” of first half
Foreign Language” con- continued 5
tinued or Second &=º
Modern Language or Total 23
Shorthand and Type- -
writing - 5
Total 23
FOURTH YEAR
First Half Second Half
English Literature, English continued 5
Themes and Par- Civil Government 5
liamentary Practice 5 15 periods to be selected from:
History of Commerce 5 Same election con-
15 periods to be selected from: tinued 5
Language elected Con- Physics or Chemistry
tinued or shorthand continued 5
and typewriting Con- Accounting, Organiza-
tinued 5 tion and Auditing 5
Physics or Chemis- Advanced Commer-
try 5 cial Arithmetic and
Banking and Finance 5 Applied arithmetic 5
Solid Geometry 5 Advertising, Study of
Mechanical Drawing 5 Trade Journals,
and Commercial
English - 5
Office Work for
Stenographers 5
*Those who do not desire to continue studying a foreign language or to take up short-
hand may substitute one of the electives mentioned for the fourth year.
546 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Commercial courses will include many subjects now taught in
public high schools, though the methods of presentation in Some
cases may not be those best adapted to the needs of the business
student. We realize that in most schools it will not be possible to
organize separate classes in those subjects with methods specially
modified to meet the wants of the commercial students. . . . .
On pages 544 and 545 is shown an outline of a four-year Commercial
high-school course. It is needless to say that it does not ſollow exactly
the original plan submitted by any member of the Committee.
Neither is it expected that it will suit every commercial teacher or
public-school superintendent. It is hoped that it may be of service
to all, in that it is suggestive. Allowances must be made for local
conditions and the personal equation.
This report included an extensive supplement in which a
careful discussion was given to particular subjects proposed in
the outlined curriculum. Languages, sciences, history and Com-
merce, mathematical subjects, and technical business studies
were all the objects of detailed treatment.
The report was, as a matter of fact, an interesting document,
especially in the amount of academic and Social-science subjects
proposed. In the first half of the first year, for example, there
are fourteen recitation hours a week suggested for such subjects
as compared with nine for technical subjects. In the second
half of the first year the proportion is even greater--eighteen
hours for general subjects as compared with five for technical
work. A proportion comparable to this runs throughout the
course. In the second year only five out of twenty-three hours
are given over to technical subjects. In the third year five, or,
if a student elected, ten out of a total of twenty-three are tech-
nical subjects in the first half. In the second half of the third
year, eighteen of the twenty-three hours were necessarily to
be general subjects and the entire twenty-three might be if
the student so elected. Again in the fourth year it was made
possible for the student entirely to avoid technical subjects,
and to elect Some such general studies of business as banking
and finance, accounting, organization, and auditing, advertising,
study of trade journals and commercial English.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 547
It is worth while to compare the amount of general training
which it would be possible for a student to acquire who pursued
this course with the amount which can be obtained in the typical
commercial course at the present time. It will be interesting
also to compare it with some of the later proposals and to note
the tendency for the inclusion of an increased amount of tech-
nical subjects and a decreased amount of general subjects. It
is only when we come to view the more recent proposals for
revising the commercial curriculum that we find so large an
amount of general subject-matter suggested. The ultra-
modern appearance of this course is probably due to different
causes than those which now urge renewed emphasis on social-
science and general Subjects for business training. In 1903 the
typical high school was the cultural high school. Its curriculum
was in large part an imitation of the college curriculum. The
general subjects enumerated were probably, therefore, thought
of as similar to general subjects of the same nature given in
colleges. The technical subjects had not, in 1903, dominated
the cultural subjects simply because they were meeting with
resistance from the established régime. This ultra-modern-
looking course was, moreover, more ultra-modern in looks than
in content. The modern emphasis on general studies in the
high-school commercial course is based on something else than
imitation of the college, and general studies are now proposed
which are quite different from the general studies in the high
schools of 1903.
The report of the Committee of Nine was made the subject
of general discussion in the 1904 meeting of the National Educa-
tion Association. Some of the comments made upon it were
interesting. It was considered from the standpoint of the
independent school of commerce by James J. Sheppard, of the
New York High School of Commerce. Agreeing in general
with the conclusions of the Committee, he expressed great
interest in enriching the earlier years, especially the first year
of the course. Superintendent Bertrand Parker, of the Rock-
ford (Illinois) High School considered the course from the stand-
point of the general high school. His objections to the proposed
{
548 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
curriculum included “little faith in the plan which provides for
recitations one, two, or three times per week”; a statement
that “the study of American literature should run through the
third year”; the belief that “the time allowed for each sepa-
rate course [in history] should be doubled, and the history work
be continuous throughout the four years.” Superintendent
Parker concluded his criticism with the following outline which
he proposed as a modification of the course submitted by the
Committee of Nine:
FIRST YEAR
First Half Second Half
English English
Algebra Algebra
Modern Language Modern Language
Ancient History Ancient History
Penmanship Commercial Arithmetic
SECOND YEAR
First Half Second Half
English - English
Medieval and Modern History, Medieval and Modern History,
English trend English trend
Modern Language Modern Language
Physiography Physiography
Plane Geometry Plane Geometry
Bookkeeping (double period) Bookkeeping (double period)
Stenography and Typewriting
THIRD YEAR
First Half Second Half
American Literature and Com- American Literature and Com-
position position $.
United States History and Civics United States History and Civics
Modern Language Modern Language
Commercial Products Commercial Geography
Physics Physics
Office Practice (double period) Accounting, Auditing, etc.
Stenography and Typewriting (double period)
Stenography and Typewriting
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 549
FOURTH YEAR
First Half Second Half
English Literature and Composi- English Literature and Composi-
tion tion
History of Commerce Political Economy
Modern Language Modern Language
Commercial Law Advertising, and Study of Trade
Chemistry Journals
Stenography and Typewriting Chemistry
Free-hand Drawing (double Stenography and Typewriting
period) Free-hand Drawing (double
period)
NoTE.—The studies italicized are required.
An examination of this outline will show that while there is
an increased amount of technical study required, it would be
impossible for the student working through these courses to
escape without a fair knowledge of the physical and social
environment in which he lived, provided the subject-matter of
the courses was appropriate to the titles.
A SECOND PROPOSAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION
ASSOCIATION
It was not until 1915 that the National Education Associa-
tion made a second pronouncement upon the curriculum for
commercial work in secondary schools. A scrutiny of the course
then suggested shows at once what had been occurring in
this field of educational work. The commercial course in high
Schools had “come into its own,” and in that commercial course
the technical subjects were now understood to be the important
ones around which the course should be built.
The new proposals were presented at the National Education
Association meeting at Oakland, California, with these words:
The Committee [the names of the Committee are stated in the
original] have arranged, from the data at hand and obtained in
response to questionnaires sent out, a proposed four-year high-school
* National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings, Oak-
land, California, 1915, pp. 930–33. r
550 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
course, with two schedules. One emphasizes accounting, and the
other emphasizes stenography and typewriting, followed by a group.
ing of required subjects for several different vocational courses.
Each course consists of carrying four subjects per semester during
eight semesters of eighteen to twenty weeks, as shown in Table
IXII.
TABLE LXII

Course in Course in
Accounting | Stenography
& Units Units
Required of all students. . . . . . . . I4 I4.
Required in vocational courses. . 7 i 8
Electives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II - IO
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 32
NoTE.—A unit is a week's work of five daily forty-five-minute periods
with an equal amount of home work carried during one semester of not less
than eighteen weeks, or five daily ninety-minute periods of laboratory work
without home assignment.
The subjects are grouped first around two main vocational subjects:
(I) accounting, (2) stenography. But within each of these groups
there will be one class of students who expect to make their major
a life-work (Groups I and 4), and another class which selects it as a
stepping-stone to some other occupation (Groups 2, 3, 5, and 6).
Hence a system of grouping of the electives is recommended. It is
recommended also that apprenticeship in Stenography, Salesmanship,
or bookkeeping be encouraged and given one Semester Credit in Groups .
I and 4, providing the subject is taken under strict Supervision of the
instructor.
SUBJECTS REQUIRED IN BOTH
COURSES
Units
English
Bookkeeping
Penmanship
Commercial Arithmetic
Commercial Geography
i
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 551
ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS REQUIRED ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS REQUIRED
IN THE ACCOUNTING COURSE IN THE STENOGRAPHY COURSE
Units Units
Bookkeeping 2 Stenography 4.
Economics I Typewriting 4
Salesmanship I s
Commercial Law l
History and Civics 2
7
SUGGESTED ELECTIVE GROUPS
Units - ! Units
Group I. Office Training Group 4. Office Training
for Accountants for Stenographers
Accounting 2 Advanced Stenography
Advanced salesmanship I and Typewriting; Man-
Advanced Economics I ifolding 2
Apprenticeship in Book- Office Training 2
keeping or Salesmanship I Apprenticeship in Stenog-
Select 5 raphy T
IO Select +
6
Group 2. Mechanic Arts Group 5. Domestic Science
Algebra II 2 and Art
Manual Training 4. Domestic Science and Art 4
Mechanical Drawing 2 Drawing T
Geometry 2 Select I
IO 6
Group 3. Agriculture - Group 6. General Electives
Chemistry 4. Modern Languages 4.
Agriculture 4. History 4.
Botany and Zoëlogy 2 Science 2
o Typewriting 4
I4.
552 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION COURSE
COMMERCIAL COURSE—EMPHASIZING ACCOUNTING
FIRST YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
English 5 English S
Penmanship 5 Penmanship 5
*Elective Io *Elective: IO
2O 2O
fManual Training 5 - fManual Training 5
fDomestic Science * fL)omestic Science
and Art 5 and Art 5
Agriculture 5 Agriculture 5
Modern Language 5 Modern Language 5
Algebra 5 Algebra 5
SECOND YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
English 5 English 5
fBookkeeping 5 fºookkeeping 5
Commercial Arithmetic 5 Commercial Geography 5
*Elective: 5 *Elective: 5
2O 2O
fManual Training 5 iManual Training 5
fDomestic Science fDomestic Science
and Art 5 and Art 5
Agriculture 5 Agriculture 5
Modern Language 5 Modern Language 5
Plane Geometry 5 Plane Geometry 5
NOTE.-All general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so far
as practicable. English includes public speaking.
* See suggested elective groups.
f Double periods.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 553
THIRD YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
English 5 English 5
fBookkeeping 5 fBookkeeping 5
*Elective: IO Commercial Law 5
20 *Elective: 5
Stenography 5 20
iTypewriting 5 Stenography 5
Chemistry 5 fTypewriting 5
Physics 5 Chemistry 5
History 5 Physics 5
History 5
FOURTH YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
Business English 5 Business English 5
American History 5 Civics 5
Economics 5 Salesmanship 5
*Elective: 5 *Elective: 5
20 20
Stenography 5 Stenography 5
†Typewriting 5 iTypewriting 5
fBookkeeping 5 iBookkeeping. 5
Office Training 5 Office Training 5
COMMERCIAL COURSE—EMPHASIZING STENOGRAPHY
FIRST YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
English 5 English - 5
Penmanship 5 Penmanship 5
*Elective: Io *Elective: IO
20 w w 20
fManual Training 5 fManual Training 5
iDomestic Science fDomestic Science
and Art 5 and Art 5
Modern Language 5 Modern Language 5
Drawing 5 Drawing 4 5
NoTE.—All general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so far
as practicable. English includes public speaking.
* See suggested elective groups.
f Double periods.
554 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
SECOND YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
English 5 English 5
fBookkeeping 5 f{}ookkeeping 5
Commercial Arithmetic 5 Commercial Geography 5
*Elective: 5 *Elective: 5
26 26
fManual Training 5 fManual Training 5
fL)omestic Science tDomestic Science
and Art 5 and Art 5
Modern Language 5 Modern Language 5
Drawing 5 Drawing 5
THIRD YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
English Š English 5
Stenography 5 Stenography 5
fTypewriting 5 iTypewriting 5
*Elective: 5 *Elective: 5
26 20
fBookkeeping 5 fBookkeeping 5
fDomestic Science iDomestic Science
and Art 5 and Art 5
History 5 History 5
General Elective 5 Commercial 5
FOURTH YEAR
First Semester Second Semester
Business English 5 Business English 5
Stenography 5 Stenography 5
fTypewriting 5 iTypewriting 5
*Elective: 5 *Elective: 5
20 20
Economics 5 Salesmanship 5
Office Training 5 Office Training 5
American History 5 Civics 5
General Elective 5 Apprenticeship 5
NOTE.-All general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so far
as practicable. English includes public speaking.
* See suggested elective groups.
f Double periods.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 555
In these courses, as has already been pointed out, it is the
technical work which is emphasized, one of them being built
with its emphasis on accounting, and the other with its emphasis
on stenography. For those interested in making the commerce
course something more than a clerk mill, this proposal of the
National Education Association is more satisfactory than the
courses actually given in a great many high Schools. Its
organizers show certainly an appreciation of the desirability
of understanding as well as skill in business work. In the
first year, for example, there is no technical subject other than
penmanship required, in either the accounting or the steno-
graphic courses. In the second year a somewhat larger amount
of technical work is required, though in both this and the third
year in the accounting course these requirements are rather
limited. In the fourth year in the accounting course there is
proposed a fairly extensive range of general subjects, including
business English, American history, economics, civics, and sales-
manship. None of these subjects are required in the fourth year
of the stenographic course, although all of them are electives.
Aside from the undue amount of emphasis which is placed on
technical work in this program, its chief weakness is its lack
of definite building toward anything in particular. It is largely
a course of electives. These electives, it is true, are quite well
selected, but so far as is indicated there is no thought of build-
ing a coherent program which will do certain definite things for
the student. There does not lie behind this course any philos-
ophy of business education, and there is no definite organiza-
tion of work to give any philosophy reality.
An additional criticism of this course which will be made by
all of those who believe that a notion of the organization of
modern society should be a part of each citizen's equipment is
the limited amount of social science in the lower years of the
courses. If one believes that some idea of social structure is
desirable, and at the same time recalls the Small fraction of
the pupils of the elementary school which reaches the fourth
year, he can hardly find himself in disagreement with this
criticism.
556 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
THE REPORT OF 1919
The most recent statement definitely on the subject of com-
mercial-curriculum reform which has come from the National
Education Association is the report called Business Education
fin Secondary Schools, published by the Bureau of Education in
1919. One finds in the introductory pages of this report the
very criticism leveled at the existing courses in business educa-
tion which has been made in the discussion above: “Com-
mercial work has hitherto not generally been organized as a
curriculum devoted to a specific object. Instead, it has been
a loosely formed group of elective studies to which were added
a certain number of vague subjects, and as such it has failed to
give the unity necessary in any really effective system of
education.”
Starting from this view of the deficiency of existing curricula
and the proposals of the past, the report continues:
In a general way, commercial education up to the present has
attempted to meet four distinct business needs:
First, and most definite of these, is the training of stenographers;
and Second, is the training of bookkeepers and clerks for general
office work. These two functions have heretofore been regarded as
the full obligation of commercial education.
Third, the need that business education has recently undertaken
to meet, is the training for Secretarial work of those who have had a
broader fundamental education and who wish to take more respons-
ible positions than to be merely stenographers. Stenography and
typewriting are made elements in the training of Secretaries, but
to these are added numerous other professional studies, such as
economics, commercial correspondence, business customs, and busi-
ness law.
Fourth, the need that commercial education now seeks to supply
is the demand for salesmen. This involves not only a training in
the principles of Salesmanship, meeting the public, making a sale,
etc., but also a broader training in business, knowledge of merchan-
dise, and the cultivation of taste. t
Commercial education should have a much wider purpose than
the training of stenographers and bookkeepers. Already the broad-
ened commercial education has addressed itself to the task of train-
ing for service in the community, for participation in Social life, and
* This report was published as Bulletin, No. 55, IQ19.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 557
for knowledge of, and ability to adapt one's self to, business as a
whole. Such subjects as economics, business organization, advertis-
ing salesmanship, and store practice are relatively new, and yet in
their entirety they make a new purpose of business education compa-
rable with, if not more important than, stenography or bookkeeping.
Young people trained for the broader and more professional aspects
of commercial life have every prospect of finding for themselves highly
useful places in business as they demonstrate their fitness for more
responsible duties. In the suggested curriculum given below the
attempt is made to realize these purposes.
SEVENTH YEAR
The work in this year should be practically the same as that of
the other pupils in the school. It should include English, geogra-
phy and history, arithmetic, physiology and hygiene, penmanship,
physical education, household or industrial arts, drawing, and music.
The work of this year may well include some “try-outs” projects or
short unit courses designed to help in the choice of work for the follow-
ing years. If such try-out courses are offered they should be taken
by all students, or, at least, each student should have an opportunity
to choose from a variety of such courses. Specializing is out of
place in this year.
The try-out courses above suggested should serve two ends: first,
to determine the interests, aptitudes, and capacities of pupils, and,
second, to reveal to the pupils the major fields of academic and
vocational interests. Only by such an arrangement as is here recom-
mended can the pupil elect his curriculum intelligently. These
try-out courses should at the same time have a content of assured
educational value.
EIGHTH YEAR

PERIODS*
Unpre-
Prepared pared
English (half the time devoted to practical English with emphasis on
simple business English and letter forms). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . 5 ! . . . . . . . . . .
U.S. history. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 5 . . . . . . . . . .
Household or industrial arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.
Business arithmetic. ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Elementary industrial and commercial geography...; . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . .
First lessons in business, including short daily drills in business writing 5 : . . . . . . . . .
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * {} I8 Q

* Length of periods to be º 45 to 50 minutes. The committee would call
attention to the advantages of a longer school day, with longer periods to include supervised
study, and a reduced requirement for the preparation of lessons outside of school.
t
558 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
NINTH YEAR

PERIODS*
Unpre-
Prepared pare
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. i. . . . . . . . . .
Community civics (5 periods one-half year). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2% l. . . . . . . . . .
General sciencef . . . . . : . . . . . . . : , ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial mathematics (5 periods one-half year). . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . 2} . . . . . . . . . .
Elementary bookkeeping, business forms and business writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO
Typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5 I5
TENTH YEAR
º |
Required § i
English—Selected reading with oral and written composition....... S | . . . . . . . . . .
Bookkeeping, intermediate. . . . . . . . . . . : ' ', " ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . si" 5 i. . . . . . . . . .
Industrial and commercial geography, including local industries and
commercial products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electives (choose 1): º
Shorthand and typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . . . .
Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . : , . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | . . . . . * * * * *
History to the beginning of the eighteenth century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 : . . . . . . . . . .
Modern language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | . . . . . . . . . .
*Length of periods to be approximately 45 to 50 minutes. The committee would call
attention to the advantages of a longer school day with longer periods to include supervised
study, and a reduced requirement for the preparation of lessons out of school. +
f Conditions in some schools may warrant for some pupils the substitution of either
household arts or a modern language.
† Additional electives which are available in the school and for which the pupils have
special aptitude should be open to them. It is especially recommended that wherever well-
organized courses in commercial or applied art are offered such courses be commended to
commercial students who may have aptitude for them.
If shorthand is not elected, typewriting may be taken as an extra
unprepared subject for 5 periods.
ELEVENTH AND TWELETH YEARS
Beginning with the eleventh year the pupil’s work should be more
highly specialized in one of the three following fields: general busi-
ness and bookkeeping; Stenographic and presecretarial; or retail
selling and store service. To make the suggestions under these
heads more obvious the work for the eleventh and twelfth years is
arranged in three type curriculums. These curriculums are each
two years in length and include certain subjects which are common to
all the curriculums. Naturally the studies common to the different
curriculums will be taught jointly.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS. 559
General business and bookkeeping curriculum
ELEVENTH YEAR
Periods
per Week
Required
English—Selected reading with oral and written composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Office practice . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 3
Bookkeeping, advanced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Electives (choose at least 2) - -
Economic history since 1702. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Science with industrial applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Modern language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
TWELFTH YEAR
e t |
Required t
Business English—theme writing, oral reports, and commercial correspondence...i - 5
dvanced American history and citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 5
Commercial law (5 periods one-half year). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * i 2%
Economics (5 periods,one-half year). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 2%
Advanced commercial arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . | ". 2 . .
Business organization, advertising, and salesmanship (or foreign language if . . .
begun earlier). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 5
W
Stenographic and presecretarial curriculum
ET.EVENTH YEAR
Required
English—Selected reading with oral and written composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.
Shorthand. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Typewriting (transcripts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * 2
Office practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electives (choose 1)
Economic history since 17oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Home economics. . . . . . . . . ; ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 .
Science with industrial applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Twelfth YEAR*
Business English—theme writing, oral reports, and commercial correspondence.. 5
Advanced American history and citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.
Commercial law (5 periods one-half year). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2%
Economics (5 periods one-half year). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2%
Secretarial practice, including shorthand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * 5
Transcription and typewriting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 4.
* It is strongly urged that opportunity be found for part-time work during the twelfth
year. For pupils who spend alternate weeks, or fortnights, in positions the total time avail-
able in school will of necessity be only one-half that given. For such pupils the distribution
of their work while in school may well be as indicated for the twelfth year. t * +
560 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Retail selling and store service curriculum.”
ELEVENTH YEAR

Periods
per Week
Required
English—Selected reading with oral and written composition . . . . . . . . . . ....... 5
Salesmanship and merchandise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S
Electives (choose 2)
Economic history singe. Tog: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Science (with industrial applications). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Home economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
TWELETH YEAR
Business English—theme writing, oral reports, and commercial correspondence. 5
Advanced American history and citizenship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S
Salesmanship and retail store organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Store practice and store mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
* It is essential that pupils following this curriculum have store experience. This is
possible on the part-time arrangement suggested above, but additional opportunities will
be found to get such experience from work on Saturdays, in evenings, on holidays, and
during school vacations. **
In presenting the curriculums above outlined, the committee
cautions schools against attempting more than they can do credit-
ably. Manifestly the small high school will not be able to differ-
entiate in the threefold manner above suggested. The specialized
type of high school or the large comprehensive high school will find
the curriculums above suggested entirely feasible. The committee
feels, however, that these suggestions are of value even to those
administering commercial education in the Small high School.
The proposals of this committee show a very definite change
from what has preceded. In the first place, the amount of
required work has been increased, in accordance with the
notion that the achievement of a definite objective could only
be accomplished by well-organized requirements. Second, there
is the belief expressed that the commercial curriculum should
do something more than train for technique. On page 22 of
the report one finds this statement:
If commercial training is to secure and hold an honored place
in education, it must not only provide for the needs of those who
must enter business at an early age, but it must prepare the largest
possible number of pupils for the competitive conditions of modern
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 561
business. A conclusive argument for a commercial curriculum
extending through the full secondary-school period is found in the
fact that the necessary technical facility and a reasonable modicum
of general intelligence can not be given earlier than the end of the
twelfth school year. The committee urges that the rights of young
people themselves forbid the introduction of a short course of the kind
which attempts to fit them for service beyond the ability of the imma-
ture boy or girl, or which suggests leaving sºlool before economic
necessity, or other reasons, compel withdrawal. To give ill-prepared
and immature boys and girls a highly specialized training without a
background of intelligence and life interest, and to rush these young
people into business at an early age, appears to the committee like
exploiting children either to commercial greed of employers, or to
the selfishness and shortsighted prejudices of their families. It should
be pointed out here that the “needs of the community” can be best
met by giving full regard to the rights of young people themselves.
This realization of the need for broader courses for students
who contemplate business as an occupation is not So well
expressed in the proposed curriculum itself as in the confession
of faith of the committee. A study of the program outlined
shows that it is still largely dominated by the notion of technical
office work. No social science is required in the first three years
of the high-school course, with the exception of Community civics,
five periods, one-half year, which is proposed for the first year.
In the fourth year there is a requirement of American history,
one-half year of commercial law, and one-half year of eco-
nomics. Requirements of science are as meager. Nothing of
science is required in the first three years, excepting general
science in the Freshman year. It is hardly conceivable that
these limited requirements can seriously be supposed to qualify
one for intelligent participation in business.
One further commenf which should be made on this proposed
course is the fact that it recognizes certain new interests in
commercial work. The third and fourth years are organized
in two different ways: in one instance for a stenographic and
presecretarial curriculum, and in the second instance for retail
selling and store-service work. This is the first time that a
general proposal for retail-store selling has appeared.
562 - EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
THE PROPOSALS OF THE FEDERAL BOARD
Published almost at the same time as the reorganization
report which we have just considered was the important bulletin
On commercial education of the Federal Board for Vocational
Education. This bulletin is in many ways a supplement to the
National Education Association report. Each document refers
to the other as having such a relationship. In so far as the
report pertains to the high-school commercial course, its most
significant characteristic is its so-called unit plan. The reason-
ing which is behind this course and the unit plan were set forth
at length by Mr. F. G. Nichols, at that time the assistant
director for commercial education of the Federal Board. It will
be worth while to look at this statement in some detail:
In this paper I shall set forth the general basic principles upon
which high School commercial courses should be organized; outline
a course of study in accordance with these principles; and briefly
explain how such a course may be made to function so as to safe-
guard the best interests of all concerned.
If commercial education is to play its legitimate part in the field
of vocational training, it must be set up in terms of vocational occupa-
tions which shall include all vocations that have to do with the
administrative and distributive phases of business as distinguished
from the manual or productive ones which comprehend all industrial
Occupations.
In the light of this interpretation it is no longer possible to think
of commercial courses in terms of bookkeeping and shorthand only.
It is necessary to determine very definitely the vocational needs in
each locality and to provide a type of training that will meet these
needs most satisfactorily. Local surveys will be necessary if the
needs peculiar to each locality are to be discovered and provided for.
While in a general way commercial needs are more or less alike in
different places, it is true that commercial development in any given
community may be such as to call for specialized training that would
not be needed in other communities.
* Commercial Education, pp. 17–29. National Society for Vocational
Education, April, 1919; and Commercial Education, pp. 17–21. Federal
Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin 34, June, 1919. The courses
outlined are practically identical in both instances. The idea behind the
course is expressed more fully in the first source. -
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 563
An analysis of the commercial positions held by boys and girls
in any city will reveal the fact that 80 per cent of the commercial
workers are employed in occupations other than those most com-
monly provided for in commercial courses. Many of these positions
are of a more or less technical character and can be held successfully
only by those who have been trained for them. Such training may
be secured through proper provision for it in local schools, or it may
be obtained through experience on the job. The one essential thing
is that it shall be obtained somewhere before any large measure of
success can be achieved.
Another very important factor that must be given more weight
in the organization of Commercial work is the age factor of boys and
girls who are available for this training. It has been common
practice to provide the same kind of courses for students of varying
ages regardless of their capacities to profit by them. *
The time is ripe for a careful consideration of this whole matter.
The capacities of boys and girls must be thoroughly understood.
Those who are in the first year of the high school may be given a
type of training designed to prepare them for such positions as they
may hope to get and hold at that age. A slightly higher type of
training may be offered in each of the succeeding years, but in no case
should the training given be more advanced than is required for the
Occupations that are open to boys and girls of the ages usually found
in the year in which such training is being offered. &
For a great many years efforts have been made in one way or
another to solve the problem of high school mortality, especially in
the early years of the course. Commercial subjects have been added
in the third and fourth years in the hope that students would remain
to take them and thus complete their high school education. The
only tangible effect of this program is to drive students into the private
schools before they have reached the public school commercial course.
A few places have offered a two-year course covering the first and
second years of high school and consisting very largely of commercial
subjects, in the hope that students might be held at least two years
for high School training. This plan is offered as a sort of Competition
with the private commercial school. In a few instances a one-year
course has been set up. The only result seems to be an increased
attendance at private Schools.
It seems to me that we must recognize the fact that there will
continue to be a heavy school mortality at the end of the eighth
564 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
year, ninth year and possibly the tenth year. We must also con-
clude that, since we have been unable to remedy this condition, it
is incumbent upon us to prepare courses of study that will not only
safeguard the interests of boys and girls who continue to the end of
the usual high School program, but of those more numerous boys and
girls who, for one reason or another, insist upon leaving school at the
end of one of the earlier years. It is believed that what is referred
to above as the one-year unit plan of organization will accomplish
this result. The needs of boys and girls who complete the high School
course and of those who leave at the end of one of the earlier years
are not antagonistic to each other. In the preparation of Our Course
of study, however, we recognize that the vocational needs of high
school boys and girls differ radically as their ages and aptitudes differ.
In other words, we must discover the positions in which boys and girls
of the eighth school year age are employed; those in which students
of the ninth school year usually find employment; those that are
open to graduates of the tenth year; and the more highly Specialized
types of service for which high school graduates should be well quali-
fied. Recognition of these varying needs calls for the organization
of each year, beginning with the eighth, upon an independent unit
basis with, however, connecting links that result in a unified course
of study for those fortunate enough to complete all the units that go
to make up the whole.
It should also be emphasized at this point that in addition to the
local day school facilities for giving this kind of training, there should
be available to those who drop out at the end of any unit, continua-
tion school commercial courses for boys and girls up to the age of
eighteen, and evening school courses for those above eighteen in which
the training broken off in the day school may be resumed and
completed. **,
In setting up a suggestive Course of study the various types of
school organizations have been kept in mind. In many cities the
old eight-four plan still is used; in others, the six-six plan is being
tried out; and in still others the six-three-three, or junior high school
plan, has been established. The type of commercial course that I
am suggesting is adaptable to all three forms of organization. In
discussing this course briefly by years I shall number them consecu-
tively, beginning with the seventh and ending with the twelfth. For
convenience, the program will be divided into elementary and
advanced courses.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 565
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE
Such a course usually has its foundation in the seventh year, and
while no special provision need be made for vocational training of
boys and girls of the seventh school year age, it must be recognized.
that it is in this year that the choice of a course is made and the
foundation for that course is laid. For this reason a seventh year
outline is submitted, but it is not to be understood that highly
Specialized commercial training is necessary in this year. -
At the end of the eighth year many boys and girls find it necessary
to leave school and many others leave because of a desire to Secure
employment, or because of a dislike for school work. Therefore, it is
necessary that we understand the positions that are open to such
boys and girls. In a general way we may include the following among
the occupations in which such boys and girls are employed: check
and cash messenger; bundle clerk; shipping clerk; Stock clerk;
general clerical assistant; mail clerk; mimeograph operator, etc.
SEVENTH YEAR
Subjects Hours per Week
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Arithmetic (including rapid calculation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Business Writing (20 minutes daily). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geography (largely place geography with Commercial
applications). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History, Commercial and Industrial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physiology and Hygiene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manual Training (boys). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Household Arts (girls). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EIGHTH YEAR
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
Business Arithmetic (including rapid calculation) (20
minutes daily). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Business Writing (20 minutes daily). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial Geography (elementary character). . . . . , - e s a
History and Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typewriting... . . . . . . . . . . . . º º ºs e º e º e º e g o e e º s e s e < * * * * *
First Lessons in Business. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manual Training (boys) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Domestic Arts (girls). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
566 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
NINTH YEAR
Subjects Hours per Week
English (including simple business letter-writing) . . . . . . . 5
Commercial Mathematics (unprepared) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Commercial I (including elementary bookkeeping, busi-
ness practice, and business writing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JO
Typewriting (unprepared). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Science (including hygiene, etc.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Physical training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Those who finish the ninth year will find it possible to secure posi-
tions as assistant bookkeepers, typists and general office workers—
positions slightly in advance of those open to eighth year boys and girls.
It should be remembered that in each year's work an attempt
is made to interest the student to such an extent as to induce him
to remain in school for more advanced training. It has not been
found necessary to eliminate fundamental academic training Such as
English, arithmetic, domestic art, physical training, history, geog-
raphy and science, in order to prepare for the simple vocations for
which he should be prepared. It is, therefore, quite possible for a
student to cross over to almost any other course in the tenth year, if
it seems best to do so. This is purely incidental, however, and has
not influenced the organization of the course in any degree.
ADVANCED OR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL COMMERCIAL COURSE
Those who remain for the tenth year in high school will find the
following positions, among others, open to them: bookkeeping posi-
tions of a more advanced character than those of the routine type
referred to as being open to graduates of the ninth year; filing posi-
tions in which considerable responsibility is placed upon those who
have complete charge of the files; positions as mail clerks with full
responsibility for receiving and distributing the incoming mail and
preparing and dispatching outgoing mail; shorthand positions of a
simple character for those who have elected this subject in the tenth
year, and clerical work of a more advanced character, including
machine work of different kinds. Shorthand positions referred to
above will usually be the kind in which some other line of work is
the important part of the requirement and the ability to do a small
amount of easy shorthand work is desired.
Thus, it will be noted that up to the end of the tenth year the
courses are the same for all students and afford the best basic train-
ing for the kind of Service that can be performed by younger boys and
girls. No differentiation is necessary up to this point because of
2^T
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 567
the general character of the employment for which such students
are justified in making preparation. g
From the tenth year on, however, through the eleventh and
twelfth years, a form of Specialization ought to be made available.
Students who have shown marked ability in English, use of words,
spelling, shorthand and typewriting, and who have shown some of
the characteristics that go to make a good secretary, may well be
encouraged to specialize along this line. Such specialization will be
especially advantageous for girls who desire to enter Stenographic and
secretarial positions.
Other students may show special aptitude for salesmanship.
Such students may well be given an opportunity to specialize in an
occupation that is rapidly developing along lines that will insure its
place among the most desirable commercial occupations—retail
selling. Others, especially boys, may be trained for outside selling.
Those who show special ability along accounting lines, or in
general business administration, may be given a chance to prepare
for accountancy and general business positions, including advertising,
salesmanship and executive work.
In certain cities where foreign trade is important, those who are
interested in this field should have an opportunity to specialize in it.
Therefore, the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years are set up in
the following form with the idea of affording such specialization as
may be called for by certain well marked aptitudes:
- TENTH YEAR /
Required Subjects Hours per Week
English. . . . . , , a tº e e º tº s $ $ it e º 'º e º is # 8 s s 4 tº e g º a s a s a s s - m e º a 5 5
Commercial Geography (including physical geography,
local industries and commercial products). . . . . . . . . . . 5
Commercial II (intermediate bookkeeping and business.
practice). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Elective (choose one)
Shorthand (see note)
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * B G = & 5
Foreign Language (preferably Spanish). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • * * * * * * * * * * 5
Typewriting (must be taken if shorthand is elected.
May be taken as an extra subject without shorthand.)
(Unprepared). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
NoTE.—If the student has decided definitely to choose the General
Business or Retail Selling Course in the third year, Shorthand should not
be elected. In case of doubt or in case the stenographic course is chosen,
elect Shorthand. -
3.
ELEVENTH YEAR
GENERAL BUSINESS AND STENOGRAPHIC, SECRETARIAL, FOREIGN TRADE AND
Account ING AND REPORTING RETAIL SELLING SHIPPING
*Hours Hours Hours Hours
Subjects per Subjects per Subjects per Subjects per
- Week Week Week Week
Required Required Required Required
English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Physics or Chemistry. . . . . 7 Physics or Chemistry . . . . 7 Physics or Chemistry. . . . 7 Physics or Chemistry. . . . 7
Office Practice . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Shorthand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Salesmanship and Mer- Document Technique of
Advanced Bookkeeping... . 5 Typewriting (transcrip- chandise. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Foreign Trade . . . . . . . . 5
tion 3 periods a week)
Office Practice . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electives Electives Electives Electives
(Choose one) * (Choose one) (Choose one) (Choose one)
Foreign Language . . . . . . . . 5 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . *} 5
History... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . 5 Foreign Language. . . . . . . 5 Foreign Language . . . . . . . 5
Domestic Science. . . . . . . . 5 Domestic Science.... e 5 -
Manual Training. . . . . . . . 5

* Not less than 40 minutes each.

TWELFTH YEAR
GENERAL BUSINESS AND
STENOGRAPHIC, SECRETARIAL,
RETAIL SELLING
FOREIGN TRADE AND
SHIPPING
Office Experience—alternate
weeks is recommended.
mended.
mum 20 days and 30
Saturdays during Junior
year, and minimum 4o
school days and 3o Sat-
urdays, evenings, and
holidays Senior year with
credit as for laboratory
work. Alternate week ar-
rängement if preferred.
Experience in a business
dealing with foreign trade
either alternate weeks, or
on some other basis as
may be worked out by
educational directors and
employers.
ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING
Hours Hours Hours Hours
Subjects per Subjects per Subjects per Subjects per
Week Week Week Week
Commercial English (includ- Commercial English (in- Commercial English (in- Commercial English (in-
ing business correspond- cluding business corre- cluding sales-talk, pub- cluding foreign commer-
ence, public speaking, spondence, public Speak- lic speaking, and letter- cial correspondence). . . . 5
sales-talk, etc. . . . . . . . . . . 5 ing, etc.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Writing). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 -
Advanced American History Advanced American His-
with Civics. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Advanced American His- Advanced American His- tory with Civics. . . . . . . . 5
Commercial Law (I sem.)... |\ tory with Civics. . . . . . . . 5 tory with Civics. . . . . . . . 5 Advertising and Salesman-
Economics (2 Sem.). . . . . . . . ſ 5 Commercial Law. . . . . . . . . } Salesmanship and Retail ship; Business Organiza-
Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Store Organization. . . . . . 5 tion and Management... 5
Advertising, Salesmanship, Foreign Trade Sales Prac-
and Business Organization 5 Secretarial Practice. . . . . . . 5 Store Practice and Store tice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Principles of Accounting. . . . 5 Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . 5
Office Experience — Alter- Foreign Language (if begun
nate weeks is recom- Office Experience — Mini- earlier). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
570 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
OFFICE OR STORE WORK
It will be noted that a part-time co-operative arrangement is
Suggested in connection with the twelfth year course outlined above.
In retail Selling, contact with the occupation may be provided to a
limited extent in the eleventh year. This is desirable in view of
the fact that a certain type of store service must be thoroughly
understood before students are eligible to sell goods. The retail
selling experience will be afforded in the twelfth year, the basis for
this experience having been laid in the eleventh.
Finally, in the organization of commercial courses in any com:
munity, not only local occupational requirements should be kept in
mind, but also the limitations of teaching force and equipment.
The differentiation suggested for the eleventh and twelfth years
should not be attempted in small high schools. However, the voca-
tional principles suggested may well be given careful consideration
in connection with the establishment of commerical courses in any
high school where such training is offered. Know the needs of your
students in the light of local business opportunities and meet those
needs as fully as the financial support of the local school board will
permit.
This proposed course coming as the official pronouncement
of the Federal Board has had considerable influence on Com-
mercial work in the high schools in the United States. There
are, without doubt, some things to be said in favor of this course.
In the first place it has an objective basis. It is constructed
upon the findings of the Federal Board's Survey of Commercial
Occupations. Again, it recognizes the fact that students drop
out of school and attempts to meet that difficulty. Moreover,
it shows a realization that the training needed by boys is different
from that needed by girls, and attempts an adjustment of studies
accordingly.
There are, however, in this proposed course, certain weak-
nesses which to some appear fundamental. First, there should
be expressed the belief that no survey of business requirements
is alone an adequate basis upon which to determine a curriculum
for the secondary commercial course. What business wants is
important, but it is by no means the only matter of importance.
What business is, is of quite as much significance, and our survey
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 57I
of what business is should be convincing evidence that there
is needed in business education something much larger than is
proposed in the offerings of the Course under consideration.
Nor does it follow that everything that is needed or wanted
should be given by the high school business course. Indeed one
of the interesting points brought out by the Federal Board’s
Junior Survey was the fact “That 80 per cent of the commercial
workers are employed in occupations other than those most
commonly provided for in commercial courses.” This shows
that to the extent that this 80 per cent of the commercial workers
are succeeding in their occupations, they are doing so not
because of any high-school training they may have had but in
spite of it, thus proving that there are other agencies (chiefly
training by ndustry itself, no doubt) competent to give the
technical training satisfactorily. Furthermore, the board’s
program suggests the use of Continuation School and evening
school courses for those who drop out at the end of any unit
“in which the training broken off in the day school may be
resumed and completed.” It is unfortunate that the board saw
these institutions only as agencies for “resuming” education of
the same sort as that planned in the high School. Such institu-
, tions should be thought of essentially as distinct agencies for a
distinct specialized purpose. If a student must drop school
before he is sixteen, seventeen, or eighteen, it is time, when he
definitely decides to drop, to give him some definitely vocational
courses. But there is no reason to give him any such courses
before that time. And such courses should be definitely under-
stood to be drop-out courses. For giving these vocational
courses the public continuation School and evening schools, the
corporation School, and other private Schools must serve. But
it is nonsensical to give the same type of work to those who are
certain to go through, to those who may drop out, and to those
who have dropped out. Yet this is what the board’s proposal
appears to be. The plan lacks a view of the various educa-
tional institutions functioning as specialists for specialized tasks.
Not only is practically all recognition of the broader require-
ments of business and the use of specialized agencies for special-
572 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
ized tasks omitted in the construction of the board’s outline, but
the whole social aspect of a publicly supported School in a
democracy is likewise neglected. Vocation, immediate, is the
keynote, and practically all else has yielded to the findings
of immediate vocational requiremelits.
In consequence, if the board has its way, perhaps one-fourth of
our school children who work in the seventh grade and above will go
out to be citizens in this democracy with the following required
formal instruction in the rights, duties, and obligations of citizenship.
Seventh year: Commercial and industrial history . . . . . . . . . . 5 hours
Eighth year: History and citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 hours
Ninth year: Nothing &
Tenth year: Nothing
Eleventh year: Nothing
Twelfth year: Advanced American history, with civics. . . . . 5 hours
Economics and Commercial law . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 hours
The outlook that makes such a program possible holds forth little
hope that the situation will be saved by the technical subjects being
impregnated with Social material, or by a wise use of electives.
It is not a Sufficient answer to this criticism to say that the
important thing is for the boys and girls to be able to make a living
and that therefore everything must yield to the presentation of
technical subjects. Such an answer beclouds the whole issue. May
it not be that the technical subjects can be even better presented in
connection with a presentation of the Outstanding aspects of business
activity and of our industrial Society P If this is not possible, perhaps
American democracy might better pay the price of assistance for
longer continuance in School rather than pay the price of having
masses of citizens unaware of how our Society is put together. Even
in the range of business activity, let us remember that productive
capacity depends upon our business men having competence in Social
relationships as well as in technical matters. The program of the
board savors too much of a plan for an educational system devoted
primarily to the production of clerical help."
* L. C. Marshall, “The Relation of the Collegiate School of Business to
the Secondary School System,” Journal of Political Economy (February,
1920), pp. 158-59.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 573
A third particular in which the course outlined by the
Federal Board is open to criticism is its acceptance of the idea
that a course educating for business must be built largely
out of the traditional commercial material. Such an accept-
ance obviously limits the resulting course most seriously and
prevents it from becoming in the best sense a constructive
program.
The fourth criticism which may be expressed is of the voca-
tional unit idea itself when applied to a secondary commercial
course. There is implicit in the vocational unit-course idea the
belief that students are likely to be concluding their work with
the conclusion of the unit of study. It is true enough that the
school mortality is great at the conclusion of every year after the
fifth or sixth grade, but it seems unfortunate to lend encourage-
ment to that mortality by attempting to perfect the student
at as many periods as possible with the technique necessary
for immediate employment. With the desire to leave school
apparently inherent, with as much of vocational flavor as pos-
sible given to his work, with his course at every period of his
career pointed so that he can leave school and be equipped for
the immediate job, the setting is perfectly calculated to make the
school mortality high. The whole arrangement tends to indicate
to the student that the school is to prepare him for a job, and
that as soon as he is so prepared there is wisdom in leaving. It
would be better vocational guidance to postpone all technically
qualifying courses until the last year or two years of the high-
school course. Nothing of a highly technical nature should be
given in the regular high-school commercial course prior to the
Junior year excepting such technique as will help the student
in his work as a student. The school situation should be so
organized that everything makes it difficult rather than easy for
the student to leave school; that everything indicates the value
of remaining for those technical courses which can be obtained
toward the end of the course; that everything during the early
* Typewriting and possibly stenography might be examples. The
Federal Board's study seems to prove that they are next to useless after
leaving school, however.
S74 . EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
high-school years aids the student in securing knowledge of
the situation in which he will apply his technique after he has
acquired it. w
Of course, it will be objected to such statements as the
preceding that a course so arranged takes no account of those
students who will quit school in spite of all the arranging and
adjusting that can be done. It will be cried, “To postpone
the technical work in the high school will mean an increase of
students in the business colleges at the expense of Commercial
courses, and industry will be even more than now wearied with
a flood of undertrained applicants.” Let it be SO. Once we
recognize that the business colleges have in such work a legiti-
mate field, we should throw about them such restrictions that
they cannot sell false wares or any wares to those not qualified
to use them. Controlled by these restrictions there is no reason
why the business college should not give an immense part of
the technical training for those students who will not go beyond
the first or second year of high school. They can do it well
and, although the incidence of the cost is different, the total
cost to the community is doubtless less than when the work is
performed in the secondary school. On the other hand, any
family which can afford to keep its children in high School
for two years cannot afford to have those two years wholly
occupied with a narrow clerical training. That time is too
precious to be thus spent. If technical training is omitted
something else more valuable may be done, and the technical
work may be easily obtained elsewhere. If technical work is
given, the time is consumed and the more valuable thing Cannot
be obtained in any other institution. Nor is it sound to argue
in terms of financial necessity for clerical courses in the public
school, for any family which can afford to keep a child in the
public school for two years can afford six or nine months of
business college work.
So far as the complaints of industry concerning definite
technique are concerned, there is likewise little cause to be
disturbed. There is no reason why the secondary school should
offer to each industry students competent to perform each
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 575
detailed task. Given a sound foundation with, at most, broad
types of technical training, industry through its own training-
schools should assume the costs of special instruction. And
those persons who most thoughtfully represent industry have
Over and over again laid down this principle. Here, again, the
real costs to the community as a whole are far less than when a
great number of people are trained in special techniques, many
of which will not apply to special businesses, and when a number
of the people so trained will never make any application of
the techniques in any field. Any ordinary sense of social
economy fixes the Corporation School, Sometimes supplemented
by the public Continuation, postgraduate, and evening Schools,
and sometimes by privaté Schools as the proper agency for a
large share of the technical work which many persons are anxious
to place in the Secondary school.
A CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM NEEDED
In many ways the most serious criticism of the Federal
Board’s proposal is the failure to outline a virile program to
redeem the situation which its own survey revealed. The tragic
joke on secondary educators, and rather a monumental one,
uncovered by the Board's Survey, is the fact that after a great
many years of impregnating the high-school commercial course
with certain technical subjects, 80 per cent of the commercial
workers are found to be in occupations other than those provided
for in high-school commercial courses. The so-called vocational
studies in the high-school commercial course are thus disclosed
to be not vocational courses and not anything else. They have
been merely “motion making.”
With this situation made clear, largely as a result of the
Federal Board’s Survey, it becomes obvious that the old voca-
tional courses in the high-school commercial curriculum must
in large measure be abandoned. But this leaves a vacuum and
the necessity of filling it. Unfortunately the Federal Board did
not erect a substantial educational program with which to fill
the space. Overlooking the fact that industry was already doing
the technical training with formal or informal corporation
576 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
schools, overlooking the fact that many private and public
agencies were ready to supplement the Corporation School, over-
looking the fundamental purposes and duties of public education,
nothing better was forthcoming than the proposal to fill up each
of the precious high-school years with a juvenile study of the
petty duties with which a boy or girl leaving school would be con-
cerned for the first few months. By the board's own findings,
these duties will be pertinent but a short time, for a new line of
duties appropriate to each succeeding year of age is suggested in
each of the one-year unit courses. The training for vocations
is thus obviously directed toward the immediate vocation only
with no serious consideration of the vocation of the many years
to follow. It is vocational training for the first job, in no sense
vocational training for a life in business."
WHAT SHALL BE DONE WITH THE HIGH-
SCHOOL BUSINESS COURSE P
The answer to What shall be done with the high-school
commercial course? demands:
I. A clear recognition of certain basic facts
II. An answer to the question, What shall be the organization
of the work to give a sense of social relationship 2
III. A consideration of the technical work that must be given
Let us consider each of these matters in turn.
I. We need, first of all, a clear view of the following:
I. There are two great overlapping and interacting phases
of business education. One of these is education in the percep-
tion of relationships; the other is training in technique.
2. The high-school Commercial course is only one of a
number of specialized educational institutions. It must not
undertake to do all of the task of educating for business. To
do so is to fail. This has been its weakness in the past. Its
real task is to do as well as possible what other agencies cannot
do better.
* The criticisms expressed above apply, obviously, to the course outlined
by the board. That there is evidence at present of a somewhat changing
view, see pages I59 and Ióo.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 577
3. It is clear that there are many agencies which can give
well a large part, if not all, of the technical training required.
The corporation school, the business college, the continuation
school, evening courses, Co-operative courses, the postgraduate
technical course, and the correspondence school, all perform in
this field. These agencies are not qualified to give satisfactory
training in relationships in any case. They need co-operation
and encouragement, and in some cases they need control for
the proper performance of technical training. In technical
training, however, they each have an advantage over the
high-school commercial course in that they function when the
student is close to the job or actually employed in it. They
can be used at almost any time; they can be readily shifted
from one type of training to another. They are flexible,
adaptable, and definite for varied and definite needs.
4. If we assume that some technical work must be done in the
high school, there arises the question of proper division of time
between such training and the studies dealing with Social
relationships. No amount of time is too long for the latter
work. The proper approach to this question is therefore (a) to
determine the amount of technical work which must be done and
which cannot be turned over to agencies other than the high school;
(b) to determine the minimum time for the technical work which,
as a result, must be given in the high school; finally, (c) to
place that minimum period of time at the later part of the
high-school commercial course. There is thus allowed all of
the preceding period of high-school instruction for education in
relationships. s
II. An answer to the question, What shall be the organiza-
tion of the work to give a sense of social relationships? As a
result of the analysis made above, this becomes the second
question. Any arrangement of the social studies now existing
in general high-school courses is better than the lack of such
studies which has been typical of commercial courses. The
high schools, however, have not worked out a method of
giving social studies which offer the student a well-rounded
view of the world in which he lives. A commission, following
578 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
a rather extensive survey for the association of collegiate schools
of business, reported as follows:
A review of the pronouncements made up to the December, IQ21,
meetings by the leading organizations concerned with the presenta-
tion of social studies in our secondary Schools of the academic
type justifies the following comments:
a) The grip of history is strong. In the main, it seems to have
been assumed that the historical study should be the chief instru-
mentality for giving our younger students an understanding of the
structure of the present-day society.
b) This attitude has been challenged to some considerable extent
in recent years by the community civics movement, and by the
American Political Science Association and the American Socio-
logical Society—so effectively challenged, indeed, that the historians
themselves show signs that they appreciate that the monoply of
history in Secondary Social studies is to be broken and that the history
which remains in the curriculum is to be more definitely pointed
toward understanding the society of today.
c) The report of the Subcommittee of the National Education
Association on Social Studies in Secondary Education, more than
any other report, displays a desire to make the student acquainted
with the various aspects of the society in which he lives. But even
that report blocks out a plan which is entirely inadequate. Not-
withstanding its emphasis upon “community,” “economic,” and
“vocational "civics, Sufficient attention is not given to the economic
aspects of modern Society. The document shows the influence of
the historian, the political Scientist, and the sociologist, but not
sufficiently that of the economist. In particular there is a hap-
hazard and inadequate presentation of economic interests in the
content of community civics. There is a good selection of scattered
topics, but the student can Scarcely secure a rounded, balanced view
of our modern Society. Quite aside from the poor balance in this
program of social studies, it is inadequate in its senior high School
presentation. The senior high school curriculum should bring to
ripeness and maturity the earlier work, but this is not done.
The failure of secondary educators to organize existing social
studies in a satisfactory way has suggested the necessity of
* Adapted by permission from Association of Collegiate Schools of Busi-
ness, Social Studies in Secondary Schools, pp. 18–19. University of Chicago
Press, 1922,
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 579
\
taking an entirely new view and perfecting a new arrangement
of new material. Such undertakings have been stimulated by
current movements in School organization,
Two recent proposals will be given some consideration here.
They are both enterprising plans and both conceive the school
program as a continuous project. The first of these is the pro-
gram outlined by the Commission of the collegiate schools of
business. The work of this Commission has more significance
in view of the fact that it included a member from the Associa-
tion of Secondary School Principals, one from the American
Federation of Labor, and one who was an appointee of the
National Industrial Conference Board.”
Enough has been said to make it reasonably clear, first, that the
situation with respect to Social studies is far from satisfactory in our
educational institutions, Second, that the whole matter is now under
serious consideration and that modifications are practically certain to
occur. But it is not merely the Social studies which are in the melting-
pot. Other studies are there also. There also will be found the whole
scheme of organization of our American educational system. -
. . . . For a variety of causes that system has taken a form which
may be described as an end-to-end joining of an eight-year elementary
school, a four-year Secondary School, a four-year college course
(frequently shortened when taken in connection with a professional
course), and the professional School. For a variety of reasons this
organization is under criticism, and has indeed been under ciriticism
from the time of President Eliot's attacks upon it in the late eighties
and early nineties. The outstanding aspects of that criticism for
our purposes are these:
With the lengthening of the average period of school attendance
per year, a six-year elementary course is sufficient. Its continuation
as an eight-year program has meant an undue and ineffective inflation
of the elementary subjects in order to occupy the time available. The
result has been formalistic presentation of Subjects, wasted time in
the educational process, intellectual nausea on the part of its recip-
ients, and wholesale desertion by the students in later years over
* The following statement is adapted from the Association of Collegiate
Schools of Business, Social Studies in Secondary Schools, pp. 4I-61. Uni.
versity of Chicago Press, IQ22,
580 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
and above any amounts justified by the economic situation of the
families concerned. -
With the increasing complexity of Gur social organization, the
increasing range of our intellectual pursuits, and the increasing inten-
sity of modern life, the high schools—those colleges of the common
people—have looked with longing eyes upon the Seventh and eighth
grades which are largely wasted under our present system, and in
some cases have coveted the first two years of college work. The
pressure of the high-school curriculum upon the time available in
the ordinary four-year course is shown by the fact that the average
high school in the territory of the North Central Association offers
more than twice as many units of work as are required for graduation,
and the larger Schools offer from three to four times as many. School
administrations, laboring under such pressure, are not likely to be
patient with wasted opportunities in the earlier grades.
It is contended that an arrangement of work which terminated
the elementary School at the end of six years, and followed that by
a three-year junior high School, and then set up a three-year senior
high School, would be more in accord with the psychological develop-
ment of the child than is the present arrangement. While this is
disputed territory, the Commission on the Reorganization of Second-
ary Education, appointed by the National Education Association,
after a thorough investigation of the whole situation, definitely
recommends the reorganization of the school system on the 6–3–3
basis.
The present arrangement is particularly under fire from the
professional Schools. They contend that both from the point of view
of the welfare of the individual and from the point of view of society's
interest in the case people should begin their professional training
at least two years earlier. . . . .
European experience is also cited in criticism of our old scheme
of organization. This requires no comment. It is true that our
system stands alone.
As has been intimated, the first clear plea for a comprehensive
reorganization was voiced by President Eliot in the late eighties and
early nineties. Within the last ten years the movement has been
given great impetus. In the form of the so-called 6-3-3 or 6-6
arrangement, it has been definitely recommended by the Commission
of the National Education Association. It has been more or less
assumed by the various educational committees which have reported
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 581
<º
in recent years; it is actually occurring with considerable rapidity in
our various communities. In 1913, 13 per cent of the high Schools
of the North Central Association territory had taken on junior high
schools; today over 25 per cent have assumed this form; and com-
petent observers predict that the majority of the secondary Schools
of the country will be organized on this basis in the not far distant
future.
True, in many cases this reorganization has been a mere admin-
istrative form, but this is not of the essence of the case. Properly
understood, this so-called 6–3–3 or 6–6 arrangement or any other
comparable plan means far more than the administrative device of
taking two years away from one organization and bestowing them
upon another. It contemplates the entire reorganization of the
curriculum to the end that without loss of training (its advocates claim
there will be a gain) two years of time may be saved and students
may be carried by the end of the twelfth grade to approximately the
position now reached by the end of the Sophomore year in college."

8
9
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º
*
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sº
&=
&
*
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º
tº
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sº
we
tº
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sº
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Grades 1 to 6 7
e !-- - - -e ss as an as as as an a m = me me ºn a | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
:= * * * * * * * * gº sº sº º ºs º ºs sº *s
Elementary Junior High School * = as Tsenior High school gº tºº tº a College and Professional School
Clearly enough, the movement is on and is on vigorously. So
far as we can now See, the educational system which will result may
be crudely represented by the above diagram. A fairly coherent and
unified system of training in fundamental processes in the elementary
schools will be followed by the junior high school, in which it is at
least desirable that the basic considerations shall be training in citizen-
ship, with the beginnings of Specialization occurring only in the later
stages of that school. This will be followed by the senior high school
in which, paralleled with the college preparatory course so called,
will certainly go very considerable ranges of vocational training.
The college and the professional School will receive the graduates of
* Preliminary experiments have already been conducted in this field
with the result of saving one year of time, and experiments are well under
way to bring about the Saving of another year.
582 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
the Senior high school, who will bring an equipment comparable with
that possessed by the present Junior in college, if the reorganization
works out successfully.
The Commission proposes a program of social studies for the
junior high school which it believes to be more fundamental and
far-reaching than the other proposals which have been made.
This Commission believes that the social studies should be the
backbone of secondary education, with which all other studies and
school activities should be closely articulated according to their
contributions to the social objectives of education. Since each indi-
vidual must be a citizen and as such must participate in group action,
the social studies should be represented in each grade of education,
and every pupil should have at least one unit of Social study in every
year of the school course. +
The reorganization which is now in process in our educational
system (which opens up the seventh and eighth grades for the intro-
duction of new material) justifies a somewhat daring attempt to think
through, as a coherent whole, our presentation of Secondary Social
studies, without too much regard for traditional claims or customary
practices.
An effective program of social studies will be organized in
terms of the psychology of learning. The average child of the Seventh
grade is at least beginning to have a social consciousness, His mind
is reaching out to understand his relationships to other people and
to society as a whole. The fact that he is not aware of his developing
attitude does not interfere with making use of this interest.
A SUMMARY VIEW OF THE PROPOSED JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
PROGRAM IN SOCIAL STUDIES
tº º e º & This summary view will present, in specific terms, only
the work in social studies.
SEVENTH GRADE
I. Geographic bases of (physical environment with relation to) United
States development
2. Social science Survey (types of Social organization)
a) Simple industry and simple Society
b) The transforming effects of scientific knowledge
3. Other studies, correlated so far as may be practicable with the
Social-study material
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 583
\
EIGHTH GRADE
1. The opening of the world to the use of man
2. Vocational Survey, the individual’s place in our social organiza-
tion (presented in functional terms so that it may contribute to
an understanding of our type of Social organization)
3. Other studies, correlated so far as may be practicable with the
Social-study material
NINTH GRADE
1. The history of the United States (presented with “citizenship
material” occupying the center of attention) -
2. Principles of Social organization (economic, political, Social)
3. Other studies, correlated so far as may be practicable with the
Social-study material - t
4. A general Survey of business administration, elective
A DETAILED VIEW OF THE WORK OF THE SEVENTH GRADE
The work of this grade sets out consciously to “give our youth Society
and appreciation of what it means to live together in organized
Society, an appreciation of how we do live together, and an under-
standing of the conditions precedent to living together well.”
Its emphasis is upon the first and third of these propositions,
without at all neglecting the second. The survey of types of
social organization in simple societies emphasizes the first; the
Survey of the transforming effects of Scientific knowledge, the work
in geography, and the work in Science emphasize the third. Of
course, there is no intention of making a sharp differentiation in
treatment. *
The foregoing statement of purpose may be stated differently. The
work of this grade seeks to sweep together, into a somewhat
organic whole, the social-study work of the first six grades, and
to take a further step in generalized thinking in the field.
The work in geographic bases of (physical environment with relation
to) United States development is designed.
I. To bring into an organic whole the preceding work in history,
civics, and geography in Such a way as to
2. Show the importance of physical environment with respect to
conditions precedent to living together well, and to
3. Prepare the way, in terms of principles, for the work of the next
two grades, and to
584 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
g
4. Give the student who can go no farther a significant contribution
to his “appreciation of how we live together and understanding
of the conditions precedent to living together well.” .
The Social-science Survey of types of social organization is designed
I.
To bring into an organic whole the preceding work in history,
civics, and geography in Such a way as to prepare the way, in
terms of principles, for the work of the next two grades.
. To lay a comparative basis for the later more careful survey of
the evolutionary development of the functioning social structure.
. To give the student who can go no farther a significant contribu-
tion to his “awareness of what it means to live together in
organized Society, appreciation of how we do live together and
understanding of the conditions precedent to living together well.”
The Suggested method of presenting this social-science survey
material is as follows:
I. Present a Series of Snapshots of simple types of social organization
Such as
The life of Neolithic man
The life of the Iroquois
The life of nomads
Life in a medieval manor
Life in a medieval town
Life in a modern secluded mountain district
Life in a frontier mining camp
in which the student can see how Such matters as education,
religion, health, social control, economic activities, etc. (these are
only samples), were cared for and can begin to see wherein our
ways of caring for such matters are different, if different.
This comparative study should be directed toward bringing out
certain concepts, of which the following may be taken as examples
(they are only samples): self-sufficiency vs. interdependence;
customary vs. competitive methods; non-exchange vs. exchange
society; non-industrial vs. industrial Society; the shifting emphasis
in social control; the modern co-operation of specialists—all with
the idea of leading the student to “generalize” his knowledge and
with the further idea of preparing him for the study of “principles”
in the ninth grade.
. The latter part of the survey is to be devoted to showing the
contribution of knowledge “to our living together well” and how
that reacts upon the type of social organization. This should be
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 585
no mere threadbare account of the Industrial Revolution: it should
be an account of the transforming effects of Science on our ways
of living together. Notice that the way has been prepared by
the student’s work in science, if science is offered in this grade.
A DETAILED VIEW OF THE WORK OF THE EIGHTH GRADE
There is presumably no need for a detailed statement of the general
purpose of the work of this grade. It is obvious that, in addition
to caring properly for those who must drop out at the end of the
year, this grade must (a) begin to give many students a rational
basis for Selection of vocations and (b) continue the preparation
for the more generalized social study of the ninth grade.
The work in “The Opening of the World to the Use of Man” is
2
designed \
. To knit together and to build upon the social-science survey and
geography of the preceding grade in such a way that the student
will get as a part of his mental machinery—as tools of which he
will make conscious use—concepts of change, development, and
continuity.
. In respect to factual background, to give the students some
appreciation of the long, hard trail the human race has climbed;
to let him see the emergence of Western civilization, its spread
over the earth, and its contacts with other civilizations. --
. To give the student the “world-background” against which the
history of his own country (ninth grade) may be seen in perspec-
tive and to make him “cosmopolitan” and “international” in a
wholesome sense of those words.
The vocational survey (the individual’s place in our social organiza-
tion) is designed
To give the student an opportunity (upon which their experience
has caused so many school men to insist) to think through in
specific terms his own possible contribution to social living,
Whether this results in his actually “choosing a vocation” matters
little, if at all. Out of it, he should get a clearer notion of the
qualities making for individual success in the process of social
living.
. To give this, however, not as a set of maxims and preachments and
not as a set of “job analyses” but as a survey of the activities
(emphasizing here economic activities without neglecting political
and social considerations) which are carried on in our type of social
organization, and
586 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
3. To do this in such a way that he will glimpse an economic organ-
ization in which activities are in terms of social purposes. By way
of illustration. The student who sees the “undifferentiated”
medieval trader split up as time goes on into transporter, insurer,
financier, seller, etc., will have a different conception of the work
of railroads, insurance companies, banks, etc., from the one he
would have had after an unconnected “study of occupations.”
In other words, the vocational survey is designed to give the
student a more thorough and specific conception of our Social
organization as it actually operates in our “living together.”
A DETAILED VIEW OF THE WORK OF THE NINTH GRADE
Here, also, a detailed statement of general purpose may be omitted.
Looking back over the junior high school curriculum, this year's
work seeks to knit together the preceding work (a) in terms of
principles, and (b) in terms of their application to citizenship in
our own country. Looking forward to the work of the senior high
School, this year's work seeks to pave the way for the more special-
ized presentation of the social sciences.
The work in the history of the United States (presented with
“citizenship material” occupying the center of attention) is self-
explanatory, if it is kept in mind that the ideal is that of bringing
the Social-science work of the preceding grades, as well as that of
this ninth grade, to a focus in this account of the development Ol
our own Social living together. Such a statement indicates the
kind of history which is to be presented.
The work in principles of social organization assumes that the student
has been given sufficient factual background and has attained a
sufficient maturity to enable him to view our social living in terms
of principles rather than in terms of types or of practices. It asks
the student to do, as a conscious matter, a most fundamental
thing, namely, seek relationships on a scale which will give him
an organic view of our social living. He is asked (so far as he
may now be able) to formulate consciously the principles of social
living which should guide him in later years. It is to be noticed
in passing that no such opportunity now exists in any stage of our
School curriculum. It is conceivable that the first draft of this
will have to be in three parts: (1) economic organization, (2)
political organization, (3) Social organization not otherwise han-
dled. But it is hoped and expected that it may be done not as
three parts but as one unified whole.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 587
While it forms no part of the basic material, the elective work (for
those who plan to take the so-called commercial course) in Survey
of Business Administration deserves passing notice. It should
dovetail both with the vocational survey of the preceding grade
and with the work in Principles of Social Organization of this grade.
It should provide the sadly lacking unifying elements in the pres-
ent miscellaneous collection of “commercial courses.” It should
be of distinct vocational service for the student who can go no
farther, and it should pave the way for a higher standard of
“commercial courses” in the senior high school.
A HINT OF THE PROGRAM OF THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
The foregoing sets forth the material on which the Commission
particularly covets discussion, but it is worth while to suggest
Something of its bearing upon the Senior high School program. It
is assumed that in each year of the senior high School, some Social-
study work will be required and that the work will be presented in
more specialized (scientific?) form than it was in the earlier grades.
The following statement gives merely a suggestion of possible courses
in the field of economics and business. Perhaps it contains hints
for other fields of study. The Commission believes that our
larger high schools, at least, might in time offer considerable
choice of courses in the fields that we now designate as political
Science, history, psychology, and Sociology.
I. The financial organization of Society and the manager's adminis-
tration of finance.
2. The market organization of Society and the manager's adminis-
tration of market.
3. The position of the worker in our society and personnel
administration. -
4. The evolution of our economic society. (Note that this is
vastly more than a “History of Commerce” and vastly more
than the typical “Industrial History.”)
5. Accounting (not merely as bookkeeping but also as an instru-
ment of control in the hands of the executive).
6. Business law (as a manifestation of social control of business
activities and as a facilitating aid of business).
7. Such technical courses as may be expedient. An illustration is
shorthand and typewriting.
8. Theories of value and distribution.
9. Government and industry.
%
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THREE PROPOSALS
Seventh Grade
Eighth Grade
Ninth Grade
Tenth Grade
Eleventh Grade
Twelfth Grade
Progress toward
United States his-
Social economic and
I. Committee on The world before|The world since 1607|Community and na-
History and Edu-| 1607 and the begin- viewed in relation| tional activities or world-democracy tory during national | political principles
cation for Citizen-l nings of American] to the evolution and progress of civiliza-| since 1650 (mainly period studied in and problems
ship, American] history, including| expanding world-| tion to about 1650 | European history same spirit as that
Historical Associa-l rise of Latin-1 influence of the emphasizing politi-| indicated for tenth
tion American Republics|| United States cal aspects but seek-] grade
ing explanations in
economic changes,
inventions, discov-
eries, social re-
groupings, leader-
ship, and thought)
2. Igló Report of Geography (# yr.), American history (#|Civics, state, nation-| European history to approximately the end of the seventeenth
Subcommittee on European history yr.), Civics (# yr.), al (# yr.) century (1 yr.), including ancient, oriental, English, and
Social Studies in (# yr.), in sequence in sequence or par-|Civics, economic and American exploration
Secondary Educa- or paralle allel vocational (; yr.) | European history (including English) since end of seventeenth
tion Civics as phase of Geography taughtin-|History in connection| century (I or # yr.)
National Educa-| above, or segregated cidentally to above with above American history since the seventeenth century (I or # yr.)
tion Associationſ or both OR Problems of American Democracy (I or # yr.) -
Commission on OR Civics, economic, and
Reorganization of European history (I vocational (# yr.),
Secondary Educa-| yr.) Economic History
tion Geography taught in- (# yr.), in sequence
cidentally to history or parallel
Civics as cited above
3. Çommission of the Geographic bases of Opening of the world|The history of the The presentation of social studies in more specialized form and
Association of
Collegiate Schools
of Business and
Committee of
American Eco-
nomic Association
(physical environ-
ment in relation to)
United States de-
velopment
Social-science survey
(types of social or-
ganization)
a) Simple industry
and simple society
b) Transforming ef-
fect of knowledge
Other studies cor-
related
to the use of man
The place of the
individual in our
society (vocational
survey)
Other studies
related
COT-
|United States
Principles of social
organization
Other studies
related
COT-
sciences than was suggested for the earlier grades.
ability of material, local organization of curricula, and
vocational needs will all play a part in determining the
selection of courses.
more in accord with the traditional divisions of the social
Avail-
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 589
THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION PLAN
The second proposal, in many ways similar to the proposal
of the Collegiate Schools, is “The Junior High School Program
of Studies” outlined by a subcommittee of the National Council
of Education." -
After emphasizing the importance of the junior high school
movement and the experience which has been gained from the
experiments from the junior high school, the committee states
that the program of studies in the junior high school should be a
resultant of several forces.”
It should be made up, in part, of a continuation of the elemen-
tary school curriculum, but a re-view of these courses, i.e., a new
view through articulation of elementary and Secondary courses;
in part, a pre-view of Secondary School courses of study, but a
rearrangement of such courses in their “simpler aspects, deferring
the refinements” to later Senior high School grades; in part, a
prevocational content from the industrial and commercial fields;
and, finally, a liberal amount of Social Science materials and Social
and civic activities to the end of giving to the early adolescent a
“self-conscious social adjustment.” This transitional unit of the
public-school system must preserve its contacts and become a
composite product of the forces which precede and follow it.
At the same time the program of studies of the junior high
school is a self-contained unit. The point of view of the elementary
curriculum toward its pupils is en masse to the end that all may
receive a usable knowledge of the common branches and a sympa-
thetic understanding of the Social and civic structure of our demo-
cratic society. Differentiation of pupils into groups, so far as
program of studies is concerned, prevails in the Senior high school
to the end that individuals of each group may receive training in
the types of work for which they have aptitudes. *
Following this introductory statement the Committee gives
a more detailed view of what should be done in each of the
periods of the junior high School.
* The chairman of this sub-committee is James M. Glass, Director
of Junior High Schools in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. This
material is used with his permission.
* The following is adapted from advance sheets distributed by the
committee. -
500 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
A. Adjustment. Low Seventh
A period of adjustment for the very young and immature
adolescent of twelve years of age. He must be adjusted to a new
School organization, and to a new type of school administration.
It would seem wise, therefore, to subject him during the first
Semester to as little change as possible in his program of studies.
Such change as is advisable should be restricted to the inevitable
modification in the courses of study which are consequent to enlarged
School facilities and departmentalization. There should be no
change in the program of studies occasioned by the introduction
of electives. In fact the tabulated report of the questionnaire
shows over 50 per cent vote in favor of postponing electives to the
eighth year. Present practice gives little support to any seventh-
year elective.
B. Exploration and Pre-view (Apperceptive Basis of Secondary
Courses). High Seventh and Low Eighth
There should be a period of exploration, when there is a pre-
view of the specialized secondary school courses which distinguishes
one high-school curriculum from another, and when prevocational
tryout is provided for drop-outs. This general introductory course
offers opportunity for exploration of aptitude for the whole subject
field and for a pre-view or apperceptive basis for the cross-sections
of the subject. Properly, therefore, junior high school courses are
designated as general mathematics, general Science, world-history,
and general social science, pre-vocational courses, junior business
training, etc.
C. Provisional Choice of Electives. High Eighth
Following the period of exploration and pre-view there should
be a period of provisional choice of electives. During this period
facility of cross-over between electives should be promoted by every
administrative device possible to the end of guaranteeing that
evidence of unfitness for an elective will be followed by effecting
a change of electives. In case this period of provisional choice
does not extend beyond one semester, there would be justification
for postponing promotion requirements in electives during this
Semester.
* Questionnaire in this quotation refers to one used in the investiga-
tions of the committee.—AUTHOR.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 591
D. Stimulation. Ninth Year
Finally, in the accomplishment of the purpose of the junior
high School, to serve as a transitional stage in the public school
System, there must be a period of stimulation to facilitate transition
to the Senior high school. The ninth year of the junior high school
is primarily for the purpose of making desirable in the estimation
of each pupil advancement into the next higher type of school.
The ninth year carries on the program selected after the experiment
of the two previous grades. This stimulation is largely by the
agency of the particular electives chosen during the periods of
exploration and provisional choice. &
This program has its center of interest in an effort to keep
students in School. It is a course concerned with immediate
educational guidance rather than with immediate vocational
guidance or vocational training. The committee drawing the
report realized fully that no program is adequate to retain all
pupils. The committee states:
Yet there are several types of pupils who cannot be retained
and who must inevitably become educational losses during or at
the close of the junior high school period. These overaged, retarded,
and mentally unfortunate groups are peculiarly the responsibility
of the junior high school. The latter must therefore, unaided by
the senior high school, offer special types of training to its own
residuum of pupils for whom advancement is impossible or impractic-
able.
A. Particular Need for Training in Citizenship for Drop-Outs
Particularly for these groups should there be in the program
of studies a liberal amount of social-science materials and especially
social and civic activities so that principles of social co-operation
and citizenship may be translated into conduct in the educational
period which immediately precedes the entrance of the junior high
school drop-outs into society and active citizenship.
If their civic-mindedness is not to be undermined by the blight-
ing influence of becoming industrial misfits and consequently
social and civic cynics, the junior high school must offer to these
Overaged and backward groups occupational training sufficient in
extent to assure initial vocational placement. The junior high
school can at least serve as a school of prevocational try-out and
592 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
thereby replace, to an extent, the shifting from job to job in correct-
ing industrial misfits during employment. If the junior high school
can serve, even to a small degree with the limited facilities, in the
prevention of industrial misfits and the consequent undermining
of civic-mindedness, it will earn a degree of public confidence not
possible through any other simple service.
B. Occupational Training for Drop-Outs
Therefore, the program of studies, as the resultant of several
forces, includes a prevocational content partly for occupational
placement in the industrial and commercial fields.
Vocational curricula in the junior high school, either of a
commercial or industrial nature, should not represent a forced
growth. They must represent the actual conditions as they exist
when the final alternative of leaving school or choosing vocational
training is reached. Whenever it is definitely determined by the
guidance agencies of the School that this alternative is unavoidable,
pupils should be transferred to these occupational courses, irrespec-
tive of grade classification. Grade organization must give way to
a greater purpose, that of adaptability of program of studies to
individual need. Occupational courses are, therefore, matters
almost wholly of individual adjustment. Arbitrary administrative
regulations of promotion, classification, and organization should
never be permitted to conflict with demonstrated individual needs.
This statement does not set up an unsurmountable administrative
difficulty; it is a direct contradiction of an unwarranted administra-
tive practice which is frequently permitted to supersede individual
justice to pupils. The junior high school program of studies
must insist upon the adoption of this point of view, if it would
promote equalization of educational opportunity.
C. Coaching Opportunities for Retardates
In addition to occupational training offered by commercial
and industrial arts electives to Some exceptional types of pupils,
it is also desirable that the junior high School offer coaching oppor-
tunities to the retarded group who represent the preventable but
inevitable proportion of non-promotions. This group includes
those who, by lack of application, interest, or positive dislike for
the restricted opportunities of a single curriculum, are able, in the
light of intelligence tests, to maintain a creditable record of achieve-
ment. The fact that these preventable cases of subject failure
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 593
have been shown to amount to as high as 60 to 75 per cent of all
Conditioned or non-promoted pupils is one.evidence of the superior
reliability of intelligence tests in measuring at least potential
achievement. Study coach and opportunity classes or other type
of coaching retarded pupils have been demonstrated to be very
effective means of increasing the retentive power of the junior high
school and of stabilizing subject promotion either by remedy or
prevention of failure.
D. Acceleration and Enrichment for Super-normal
Still another special group for whom the junior high school
program of studies should make provision is the high group.
There is an affirmative vote of over 60 per cent in favor of accelera-
tion. At the same time 72 per cent of the replies favor enrichment
in the program of studies for the high group. There is, therefore,
some difference of opinion as to whether it is not preferable, as one
member of the general committee states it, “to prolong the period of
education and enrich the program of studies for those who are able
to do their work more easily, instead of putting a premium upon
shortening the time spent in school.” The writer of this report
is of the opinion that acceleration should be restricted to the
elementary school. However, another type of study coach organiza-
tion may be organized for the super-normal group to effect accelera-
tion where it has not already been achieved in the elementary
grades; at the same time, this opportunity class organization for
the high groups may be administered to provide extension course
opportunities in an enriched program of studies. In Table LXIII
(p. 594) the figures refer to hours required. The letters following
figures refer to the interpretations given by committee in the notes
which appear below. This is for a six-period day, sixty-minute period.
a) Including spelling and penmanship and one period a month
for library instruction. One or two periods of time allotted to
school activities could be used for spelling, penmanship, and library
instruction. Until the school activities are fully in operation, it
is desirable that this additional time for English be so used. -
b) See Report of National Committee on Mathematical Re-
quirements, Secondary School Circular No. 6, Bureau of Educa-
tion, Washington. In the high eighth and ninth year, there is an
option in mathematics, but no option of mathematics. Either gen-
eral mathematics or the mathematics of the commercial curriculum
are required of all groups.
594
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
c) U.S. history, or U.S. history and community civics.
d) Community civics, or U.S. history and community civics.
e) Elementary science and geography as a unit course, or science
one period and geography three periods approximately.
f) Unit course, or science two periods and geography one period
approximately.
TABLE LXIII
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAM OF STUDIES


ADJUST- | EXPLORATION AND º: STIMU-
SUBJECT MENT PRE-VIEW Cºorg | LATION
Low High Low High inth
Seventh | Seventh | Eighth | Eighth Nint
Required
English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50. 40 50. 40. 5
General Mathematics 5ö 5b 4
, , or 5b 5b
Commercial Mathematics
Social Studies... . . . . . . . . . . . 40 40 3d 3d 4h o
Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4 3 2g (Gen. Sci.)
tº tº º g 4h 3)
Junior Business Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#. Electives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 4.
6 General Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5b 5b
* | Foreign Languages.........|.........|... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4r 5S
rd
* | Commercial Mathematics } 4!
# Commercial Geography a e s e º g g º e i s m w a s & º e º I s e e = w w s e e i < * : * e < e < * * * *
$-
P+ | Commercial Mathematics 5.)
Typewriting • f | * * * * g g tº e º | a tº e º 'º º $ & © & © tº tº s º º tº € & 6 tº $ tº e tº € $
Junior Business Training
Business Writing | | ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' || ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 5 | . . . . . . . . .
Bookkeeping } 79)
Business Writing | e is tº e e s tº e e i s s e º is is a s e I tº a tº e º e º s m I & e a tº * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * 5
Industrial Arts
Agriculture k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4% | . . . . . . . . .
Home Economics
Required
wº-e Industrial Arts
§ Agricultural Home Eco-
§4 nomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 2 2
§3 || Music.................... I—I I I I I
㺠| Art: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–II I I T I
5 Guidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4% I I I I
- Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 5 5 5 5
*
g) Elementary science introductory to general science of
ninth year. g
h) All pupils, except those electing commercial courses, required
to take vocational and economic civics or general social science.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 595
Commercial pupils required to take general science—their later
commercial Courses will contain much of economic civics. A
minimum of science will be required in the academic curriculum
of the senior high school; general science, therefore, should be
postponed to the tenth year for the academic group. General
social science should be required of all groups in the ninth year
except as indicated for the commercial group.
i) Personal hygiene, gymnasium, directed games, etc.
j) General shop with progressive course of wood-working and
metal working through three years. Agriculture optional with
industrial arts for rural schools. Home economics, including
Sewing, cooking, textiles, laundry, millinery, dressmaking, dress and
home design, and home training.
k) All boys for one term given an actual trade shop experience
in a special trade type of shop equipment. The vocational side
of practical arts stressed for one term for both girls and boys.
Hence increase of time to three periods. -
l) Additional time for fine arts may be provided by electing
special work in school activities time, e.g., orchestra and chorus
clubs, design and art clubs, musical or art appreciation clubs, etc.
m) Classroom instruction in educational or curriculum guidance
—both educational and vocational information for pupils prior to
choice of electives.
n) Elementary business practices and principles common to
all life careers and a brief survey of commercial education and of
junior commercial occupations.
o) Weekly periods for (I) home room period, (2) co-operative
pupil government, (3) school assembly, (4) clubs, (5) faculty
activities for professional study—a faculty esprit de corps for the
co-operative, solution of junior high school problems of both an
administrative and instructional nature. Junior high school
teachers must be trained through service; the most favorable
conditions should be established. Until the school activities
program is in full operation, part of the daily allotment of time
for activities should be diverted to English, practical arts, fine arts,
or other curricular requirement.
p) Other electives than those listed may be provided in the
club activities, e.g., art, music, science, English, dramatic, practical
arts, or social service clubs. The groups of electives indicate
partially differentiated curricular. To facilitate cross-over between
596 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
electives during this term, it is suggested that electives be made
provisional, i.e., that promotion requirements in electives be
deferred to the middle of the ninth year.
q) Partially differentiated curricula continued with twenty
periods devoted to constants, fine and practical arts, and activities;
and with ten periods devoted to electives. There are four major
lines of Curriculum choice provided this year, viz., the academic,
the commercial, the Scientific or technical, and the vocational.
r) Optional choice of Latin or one modern language. Small
Schools should restrict choice to one foreign language. Eight-year
course introductory—vocabulary building, social life of people, etc.
Earlier choice of a foreign language for pupils of high I.Q. is a program
adjustment for each School. This earlier start of a foreign language
should be an extension course opportunity in an enriched curriculum
for special or accelerant groups.
s) First year high school course.
t) Two periods of each.
w) Ten minutes in junior business training, twenty minutes in
business writing.
w) Forty minutes daily in typewriting, twenty minutes in
commercial mathematics.
w) Forty minutes daily in bookkeeping, twenty minutes in
business writing. k
2) Four periods elective, plus the two periods required in
constants of this term, give a total of six periods; five should be in
special shops or advanced home training and One in drafting or
design. -
y) The third group of electives in the high eighth branches off
into two curriculum choices in the ninth year, viz., first, the scientific
or technical curriculum paralleling the academic in preparation for
higher institutions, and second, the vocational or trade curriculum.
In the former general science in the ninth year replaces the practical
arts elective of the high eighth; but practical arts is still Continued
for this and all other non-vocational groups to the extent of two
periods as a required subject. -
2) Smith-Hughes curriculum organized as a ninth-year elective,
but overage pupils should be transferred to this curriculum during
seventh and eighth years, when definitely determined that alterna-
tives of vocational curriculum or leaving School are unavoidable.
All such transfers are problems of individual adjustment. The
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 597
academic work should include English, social studies, and related
mathematics for a weekly total of ten periods. These pupils should
participate in school activities on an equal basis with all others.
SOME FEATURES OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL PROGRAM
There are many features of interest in this program of the
National Council. It will be seen that a first concern of the
committee drafting the program under consideration was to
make certain that “drop-outs” should receive a liberal amount
of social Science material during the junior high School period.
The committee is also interested that the junior high school
should offer to the backward groups occupational training
sufficient to insure initial vocational placement. Most impor-
tant in this connection, however, is the stress which is placed
upon the thought that occupational training should be only
for the actual drop-outs. As the Committee states it occupa-
tional training “should not represent a forced growth.” It
should be given only “whenever it is definitely determined
that this alternative dropping out of School] is unavoidable.”
The proposal of this committee is that whenever it becomes
absolutely necessary for a student to leave school, he should
be transferred to the occupational course irrespective of his
grade classification. This is identically the right thing to do.
Such a scheme really organizes a form of continuation school
in which actual drop-out students can receive vocational
work. The regular school work is permitted to go on during
its specialized job properly for those who continue, not emascu-
lating its usefulness by attempting to do all jobs at once.
Furthermore such an arrangement places further emphasis on
the advantage of staying in School. It is in sharp contrast
to the unit vocational Courses which makes as many opportu-
nities as possible for leaving school. At the same time this
plan offers full justice to those who must discontinue regular
school life.
A POSSIBLE PROGRAM WITH EXISTING STUDIES
Whatever the future may bring there is no question that
the 8–4 form of school organization is at present the dominant
598 FDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
one. The Commission placed its emphasis upon the junior
high School program, “partly because the 6–3–3 organization
seems likely to be the dominant secondary school organization
of the future, and partly because the coming in of the 6–3–3
Organization gives opportunity to work out a plan that will
not be too greatly hampered by custom and tradition.”
Such a thoroughgoing revision is the most promising road
toward a satisfactory secondary commercial curriculum. There
will be Some for whom a halfway step will be at first more practi-
Cable. As an intermediate stage which furnishes an opportunity
to experiment with the idea urged by the commission, but with
existing materials and in the regular four-year high School course,
a program, which can be considerably modified in detail to fit
individual Schools, is suggested below:
EIRST YEAR
. English
. General Mathematics
. Science—General or Physiography
. Social Science—Community life, vocations, civics, or preferably
one of the better combinations of these. This can readily be
made to include a general survey of history
5. Physical Education
.
SECOND YEAR
. English
. General Mathematics
. Science—Geography, Commercial or of North America
. Social Science—General history, if this was not attempted in the
first year, or medieval or modern or United States History or Some
combination
5. Physical Education
.
THIRD YEAR
I. English
2. Elementary Accounting, making the course as much as possible
a course in business-administration problems in which the need
for accounting and accounting as a tool of control is shown more
emphatically than the details of bookkeeping
3. Science—Physics or Chemistry (Botany, Zoëlogy or domestic
science may weli be made optional for girls)
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 599
4. Social Science—Industrial History, or History of Commerce first
semester, and Economic' Organization the second semester, or
Economic Organization with a historical introduction throughout
the year
5. Physical Education
FOURTH YEAR
I. English or Public Speaking
2. Social Science—Civics the first semester, and Commercial Law
the second -
3 and 4. Any two of the following, varying with the student’s voca-
tional interests at the time: Accounting; Stenography; Type-
writing; Co-operative Office Work (this could well include some
typewriting); Retail Selling, co-operative if possible; almost any
elective studies for which the student has the prerequisites
5. Physical Education
This program, which was used with success in one high
School Some ten or twelve years ago, was based on the idea that
living and business are processes of adjustment in a dual environ-
ment, Social and physical. There is, therefore, throughout
the four years a continuous study of existing materials which
represent these two areas of contact. There is, moreover, an
attempt to make the touch with these fields develop from the
more generalized to the more particular. It will be noticed, for
example, that the study of science moves from general science or
a general study of earth structures to more special studies; Social
Science study moves also from general history or a general study
of institutions to social science study in more specialized forms.
Industrial history was used as a background for economics.
Government was studied after economics on the assumption
that government’s chief function is to assist in Sustaining, guid-
ing, and controlling the economic process. Finally came the
brief study of law as the chief social device used by the Social
device of government. There was, as this indicates, something
of viewpoint as well as content emphasized in the course and
the Constant emphasis of viewpoint was an important factor
in the results.
The appearance of new material and definite indications of
other work in prospect make it pertinent to suggest one further
OOO sº
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
possible course. In nearly every way excepting the treatment
of the social sciences it is similar to the course just outlined.
In its treatment of the social sciences, however, there is a
definite change. This work has been specialized into certain
groups of Subjects and organized with a definite plan in mind.
.
.
FIRST YEAR
, English
. General Mathematics or History or elective
. Science—General or Physiography
. Introduction to Business Studies—A survey which shows the need
and sketches the history of social organization; business and
government as methods of organizing and the types of vocations
resulting
. Physical Education
SECOND YEAR
, English
. General Mathematics or History or elective
. Science—Geography, Commercial or of North America
. Marketing in Our Society—First Semester
Finance in Our Society—Second Semester
. Physical Education
THIRD YEAR
. English
. Production Processes—Agricultural and Manufacturing—First
Semester; Accounting as a Control—Second Semester $
. Physics or Chemistry or perhaps Psychology (Botany, Zoëlogy
or Domestic Science may well be made optional for girls)
. Political History or Economic History and Economic Organization
or Economic Organization with a historical introduction through-
out the year. Another option might be Psychology.
. Physical Education
FOURTH YEAR
. English or Business Communication or Public Speaking or a
combination of these
. Labor and Labor Problems or Civics the first semester and Com-
mercial Law the second or Business and Government or Political
History or Economic Organization might be given with options
3 and 4. Any two of the following, varying with the student’s voca-
tional interests at the time: Accounting; Stenography; Business
Correspondence; Typewriting; Co-operative Office Work (this
could well include some typewriting); Retail Selling, co-operative
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 6o I
if possible; almost any elective studies for which the student has
the prerequisites
5. Physical Education
The problem with social science in the above course as always,
is to give such a description and discussion of Social phenomena
as will interpret the life of which we are a part. This may be
attempted in various ways; indeed, the present number of books
treating social science in different ways is striking. All recognize
more and more the interdependence of phenomena.
It would in some ways be desirable to study the whole
Complex at once, having in the first year a Social Science I, in
the second year a social Science 2, and so on. But such a
scheme has great practical difficulties. One of the greatest is
to grade the material. Another is to find teachers who can
work well through the whole range of material involved. In
the plan outlined the whole complex has been broken into
certain fields. The underlying thought appears to be that
there is a large amount of data that can be intelligently organized
under certain heads such as Marketing, Finance, Production,
and Labor Problems, and which can at the same time be taught
with adequate attention to relationships. Accounting is pro-
posed as a study of the records used in effecting a general Con-
trol and co-ordination of the work of marketing, finance, and
production, studied earlier. Much of the record-keeping which
is of importance to these fields alone can be taught directly in
the courses dealing with them. -
The course as a whole offers a considerable number of
options and should be regarded as a statement of a plan to be
used with a great deal of adaptation if necessary. It is, how-
ever, a scheme planned for students who are expected to “go
through.” In it certain subjects such as accounting are deliber-
ately postponed until the time when it is believed they can be
taught best.
It should be borne in mind in appraising the course that
the work in marketing, finance, and production are thought of
as chiefly descriptive. Many of the finer points in these studies
would need to be omitted.
6O2 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
III. A consideration of the technical work that must be
given. The third question which presses for Solution in the
secondary commercial course is what to do with the technical
work. We are as yet largely uninformed as to the best methods,
the proper amount of time, the proper periods for study and
practice, in learning such subjects as Stenography, typewriting,
and machine operation. So long, then, as we think of the tech-
nical Courses in terms of existing work, such as typewriting and
Stenography, studies of the technique of teaching are the chief
need. But there is also need for studies to determine what
technical Courses should be given. It has been made fairly
certain that stenography and typewriting have little sanction
save from tradition. What should take their place or be given
in addition in the high school? There is no wholly satisfactory
answer, because such answers as we have are practically with-
out exception merely statements of jobs which exist in business.
It is hardly necessary to say again that the immediate vocº-
tional training for such jobs can better be given by industry or
some auxiliary School agency than it can by a general high-school
course. It is therefore an open question as to whether any tech-
nical courses in the narrow sense should ultimately be given in
the general high-school course. The weight of evidence is
in favor of the negative.
We can come to a satisfactory conclusion on this matter
only by making a survey of business, not only to discover what
jobs exist but to discover what ones of these jobs are not sus-
ceptible to economical training after employment. For Spe-
cialized work it is as appropriate that a business furnish its own
training as that it furnish its own light, Space, equipment, or
labor. (See also pages 311, 325, 357, 473, 498, 524, 531.)
A “LIBERAL.” COMMERCIAL COURSE
We tend, then, toward a high-school commercial course
from which the amount of technical work has been largely taken
by other institutions better adapted to the task, and in which
there has been introduced a large amount of new material.
This new material, which in a general way may be designated
as “social” and “scientific,” must not be confused with the
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 603
content of typical courses in history, civics, economics, and
sociology, or with physics, chemistry, and botany. The new
material must draw from all of these studies and from many
others, but it must be organized in a new way and with a new
view. The essence of the new view may be called functional.
The student must early be shown that Organized human living
together is a process. In this process much occurs because of
accident; much is unguided. But of certain ends, as, for
example, the necessity of Creating a certain amount of want-
gratifying goods, we may be sure. Of other objectives we hold
tentative if not final opinions. The highest human goal is to
objectify living; to make us conscious of Social process; to
enable us to control the process of Social life. To make the
economic process clear, to objectify what business is and its func-
tion, merits, and deficiencies in the whole work of social life,
becomes the principle upon which a curriculum of business edu-
cation, publicly supported, must be framed. Sciences, financial
institutions, industries, mercantile establishments, law, govern-
ment, business—these are nothing but means to aid us in
accomplishing our known or unrealized human aims. To see
these and other human institutions as tools to be used and remade
and used again is a proper goal of business education.
From such a knowledge comes at once an ability to under-
stand the implications of technique, to use the institutions for
business administrative purposes and an ability to remake them
better to serve. Incidentally from such a knowledge there comes
a view of purposes themselves which aids society in revision.
Such a course in business education, even if it were concluded
by certain technical work, would bear little, resemblance to
existing courses in any department of high schools. If there
can be organized a business course which will relate vocation
to the varied phases of individual and social living and which
will make clear the social meanings of a specialized society
there will not only be a vastly improved training for business,
but there will be created a general education more liberal and
truly cultural than is now offered in the departments devoted
to the achievement of those high goals.
604
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
IO.
II.
I3.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
. Is there anything to be gained by a review of the efforts to revise
the commercial curriculum ?
. What were the statements of principles laid down by the Com-
mittee of Nine concerning the commercial course in public
schools? Do these principles convey to you a narrow or broad
point of view concerning the course?
. How would you characterize the course proposed by the Com-
mittee of Nine?
. Indicate the amount of academic work, social-science work, and
Science work in each year of the proposed course.
. How did the course offered by Superintendent Parker differ from
the course outlined by the Committee of Nine?
. Did the high-school commercial course become more or less
technical between 1900 and 1915? How would you account
for the change which occurred P
. “Aside from the undue amount of emphasis placed on technical
work, its chief weakness is its lack of definite building toward
anything in particular.” To which ones of the courses examined
might this statement be applied ?
. To the extent that social sciences are offered in the first two
courses proposed by the National Education Association, does
it appear that they would give the student an adequate notion
of the organization of modern society P
. What were the criticisms of existing commercial work expressed
by the National Education Association report for 1919? What
were the statements of the committee reporting in 1919 concern-
ing what the commercial course should do?
Examine the course outlined by the National Education Associa-
tion committee reporting in 1919. How well do you feel that it
achieves the purposes proposed by the committee?
How would you characterize the report proposed by the National
Education Association in 1919?
. The amount of required work in the 1919 course is larger. Is
this, in your mind, an advantage or the reverse?
The Federal Board’s proposals made in 1919 conclude: “Know the
needs of your students in the light of local business opportunities
and meet those needs as fully as the financial support of the local
School board will permit.” Comment.
A REVIEW OF PROPOSALS AND SOME CONCLUSIONS 605
I4.
Why does the Federal Board begin to outline a commercial course
beginning with the seventh year? How would you character-
I5.
I6.
I7.
I8.
IQ.
2O.
2I.
22.
23.
24.
ize the Federal Board’s proposed program P
What is your reaction to the proposed differentiation and special-
ization in the last two years of the proposed course?
The course is criticized on the ground that “no survey of business
requirements is alone sufficient basis upon which to determine
the curriculum for a secondary course.” Is this a justifiable
criticism P. If you believe this criticism justified, what else
should be the basis for such a course?
“It does not follow that everything that is needed or wanted by
business should be given by the regular commercial course.”
Would you agree or should the wants of business invariably be
met by the high-school business course?
“The unit idea applied to the secondary commercial course is
open to criticism.” To what criticisms?
“Unit courses in the secondary school is the only plan which will
Save students from the business college.” Does this statement,
if true, justify unit courses?
The real costs to the community of giving technical training by
means of the corporation school may be much less than the cost
of giving such technical training in the high school. How is this
possible? If it is possible, is it a reason for taking technical
courses out of the high school? *
The greatest gain in giving institutions other than the high School
more of the required technical work lies in the fact that the high
School is made available for work which cannot be done else-
where. Explain.
“Any family which can afford to keep its children in high school
for two years cannot afford to have those two years occupied
merely with a narrow clerical training.” Explain. Do you agree?
Outline the steps taken in answering the question, What should
be done with the high-school commercial course P Why does
the collegiate school of business program begin with the seventh
grade P Contrast the proposals in this program with the pro-
posals of the Federal Board. What are the outstanding differ-
ences? How would you characterize the program proposed by
the collegiate schools of business commission ?
Does the program outlined by the collegiate school of business
commission offer a plan of courses that would enable a high-school
student to comprehend what business is P
606 * EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
3O.
3I.
32.
33.
alternative of leaving school or choosing vocational training is
34.
35.
36.
Does it seem to you that the collegiate commission has outlined
material which, if simply presented, is beyond the comprehension
of the high-school student?
Does it seem to you that the material outlined by the collegiate
Commission would, if covered, give a respectable vision of those
fields in which a business man’s problems lie?
Making decisions, exercising Sound judgment, is largely a matter
of being familiar with the facts about which judgments must be
made. Would you agree? Would the statement apply to busi-
ness judgments? If you do, consider question 26 again.
The plan of the National Council of Education, like that of the
Collegiate Schools, emphasizes the importance of the junior high
school. On what grounds?
The committee of the National Council says that the junior high
school course should be a resultant of several forces. What
forces?
Just what does the National Council Committee propose for “low
seventh,” “high seventh and low eighth,” “high eighth,” “ninth
year” P
What do you understand by the “provisional choice of electives”?
“Vocational curricula in the junior high school should not repre-
sent a forced growth.” Explain. Do you think vocational unit
courses are such a forced growth P
“Vocational courses must represent conditions when the final
reached.” Contrast this principle with the vocational unit
course idea. Is there any reason why the same principle is not
applicable through most of the senior high School?
Compare in as many respects as possible the treatment of voca-
tional studies in the proposals of (I) the Federal Board, (2) the
Collegiate School’s Commission (3) the National Council’s Com-
mittee.
Make similar comparisons for the treatment of social-business
material.
Examine the course which is suggested, making use of existing
materials. Would these courses be possible in any school with
which you are familiar P To what extent would they accomplish
the purposes proposed by the collegiate school's commission ?
. What is meant by saying that a properly organized commercial
course would be more liberal and cultural than any course now
given in any department of Secondary Schools?
CHAPTER XXII
A PLAN OF ORGANIZED SPECIALIZATION FOR
g A CITY SYSTEM -
Suppose that we attempt to make an application of the con-
clusions reached in the foregoing chapters to a more or less
idealized city situation. Two main conclusions (see pp. 576-82)
from which we may derive principles have been reached:
I. Education for business has two outstanding objectives:
a) To give an understanding of the relationships which result
from specialization of business units; particularly to give an
understanding of the adjustments to other related businesses
which must be effected by any business man (chap. iv).
b) To give a training in the specialized techniques which result from
the high degree of specialization within business units (chap. v).
2. Institutions offering training in business have developed in great
variety. Although almost all of them offer to undertake all the
job, most of them actually train largely in technique. But Some
institutions are in a position where they can be used to train well
in technique and in that alone. Examples are the Corporation
school, to a certain extent the business colleges and other private
schools, the continuation school and, very importantly, the “post-
grad” course and “drop out” courses of the high school. Other
courses are in a position where they can be used to train in technique
but where they can also be used to train in relationships.
The outstanding example of an institution which can give
either type of training is the four-year high-school commercial
course. But, since it is almost the only institution below the Col-
lege level that can be effectively used to yield training in rela-
tionships it should be deliberately used for that purpose. The
decision for such a use is further fortified by the fact that it is con-
sistent with fundamental purposes of public education (chap. ix).
This means, then, a specialization of our educational institu-
tions. The institutions are not in each case coincident with
school buildings. For example, the “short commercial course,”
the “drop out” courses, the “four year commercial course,” the
“last year intensive or postgraduate intensive technical course,”
607
608 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
may all be given under the roof of one high school, but are
distinct institutions in the sense in which the term is used here.
The required specialization of educational institutions will
demand planning and organization. The directors of educa-
tional movements, however, are no strangers to such work.
They have brought about the specialization of buildings and
teachers now common in almost every school. They will
anticipate a rearrangement of habits of thinking and will not
hesitate to put old institutions to new uses.
A general program for a city (applicable in just this way
perhaps to no specific city, but in general to all) might be charted
in the following way:
OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS

|
Skill in a Specialized
Technique
(This might be a broad
technique such as stenog-
raphy or it might be merely
Understanding of
Relationships
(The relationship of one
business unit to others and of
one task within a business the skill to do well a single
to other tasks) (See chap- Operation in a large firm’s
ters iv and v) accounting system)
This job should be assigned to This job should be assigned,
the four-year high-school Com- according to circumstances, to:
mercial course. This institution A. Super schools
should attempt to do this work I. The business colleges and
if it does nothing else. At least other private schools (for
the first three years must be rôle, see pp. 311)
devoted to it; much better all 2. The Corporation school
four. (For complete discussion (for rôle, see pp. 357)
of the high school’s rôle see chap- 3. The Continuation school
ters xv and xxi) (for rôle, see pp. 473)
4. Evening schools (for rôle
See pp. 524)
B. Technical courses for “drop
outs.” Technical courses of
appropriate type for drop outs
at every level of the high-school
course should be created. See
pp. 591–92. As a matter
of fact many such courses
already exist
SPECIALIZATION FOR A CITY SYSTEM
609
If this plan were applied to a city system, the organization
of work might be charted in this way:
FOUR-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL
COMMERCIAL COURSEI
Concerned, as far as business
training is considered, with giv-
ing an understanding of the rela-
tionships of a business.
Purposes:
I. Aid in understanding use of .
technique.
2. Aid in workers’ promotion
through knowing functions
of business.
3 Aid in possible entry into
business management at a
later date. ;
4. Aid in understanding of
one's relations in a special-
ized business and a special-
ized world.
* The same course whether in gen-
eral high schools or high Schools of
commerce. It is the course not the
building that is specialized for the
purpose. In one city where such an
arrangement as the one here pro-
posed is being considered, it has
been suggested that the commercial
high-school building shall be used to
house the drop-out students and
shall be frankly called “Technical
School for Drop Out Students,”
SUPER SCHOOLS
| These not
part of
the public
School sys-
tem—not
subject to
public
school con-
trol.
Corporation Schools
Private Schools
Evening Schools
Continuation Schools
TECHNICAL COURSES FOR
DROP OUTS
(See pp. 591–92)
Postgraduate Course—Tech-
'nical subjects appropriate for
high school graduates. (See
pp. 527–72).
Fourth-Year Technical Courses
—Technical subjects appro-
priate for students at this level.
(The above two should be co-
operative courses when they are
retail selling or it is otherwise
appropriate)
Third-Year Technical Courses.
Subjects appropriate for stu-
dents who must drop out at
this level.
One- or two-year technical
courses. Elementary tech-
nical subjects appropriate for
students who must drop out
without entering the general
courses of high school or after
one year of it. These courses
can, of course, be differentiated
for these two groups if thought
desirable. The continuation
school laws of many states,
which require school attend-
ance past this point, should
make those Courses decreas-
ingly important. x
5
Four-Year High-School Commercial Courses
Super Schools
>] Corporation Schools }
* Private Schools |
> Evening Schools |
> Continuation Schools |
These not part of the public school
system—cot subject to control <–
_* ºf
~ Ps
_f —ºr-
~ Nº.
Technical Courses for Drop-Outs
| Post Graduate: Appropriate technical subjects
‘Fourth Year: Appropriate technical subjects
Third Year: Appropriate technical subjects
First and Second Year: Appropriate technical Subjects
Occupation
s SK-1 |
& 2.
| In business— 2"
Collegiate Workſ. In technolo a' §
\General— &
Z
3 5
E. 4
§ co’ [… Gr W
3 5
..? # Fourth Year
º: ! Third Year — I T
3 .9. - º 7–
TE # Second Year H | T
§ 3
.# 3
gº Gl) First Y
.# cº IrSt Year {C
3
j
cº
C/2
274 N
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

SPECIALIZATION FOR A CITY SYSTEM 6II
The chart above shows all the training travels which, with
Such a plan, might be mapped out for students leaving the
elementary schools. They would leave the elementary schools
at point A. If they were forced for any reason to abandon
the educative process, and if they lived in a state where they
were permitted by law to do so, they might travel directly
toward occupation, committing themselves for the future, over
routes I, 2, 3, and 4 to what training they could get from Schools
in industry, business colleges, and other private schools or public
evening and continuation schools. This would be the least desir-
able procedure from an educational standpoint.
A second possible direction of travel for those who abandoned
the educative process at point A would be the right turn toward
C to a one- or two-year technical course. The evidence is
clear that such a course should not be typing and stenography
as it has usually been (see chapter viii, especially pp. 148). It
should be technical work of the sort these thirteen- to fifteen-year
old children may be hired to do. The various types of “super-
school” possibilities for further work after completing the
technical course are still at hand. Route 9 is the channel.
The third chance (from point A again), the one encouraged
by thoughtfulness and enforced by law in most states, is to the
left, to point B, toward the high-school course. From B, where
the four-year course, which is one of broad business study, begins,
other alternatives are possible. The most obvious one of all is
to go straight through the four years. From graduation, point
G, college is open or the corporation School, private School,
evening, and continuation School group are possibilities for
special training. Or the graduate, over route 5, may reach a
brief intensive course in vocational sharpening in the post-
graduate technical course. Here, he should take the kind of
technique—retail selling, stenography, or what not—appropriate
to his age and education.
But if the student enters high School and cannot go through,
the need for vocational skill is not neglected. It is provided in
as brief and intensive a course as can be used to give the voca-
tional sharpening appropriate to his age and education at the level
612 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
on which he definitely drops the educative process as such and
prepares to enter industry. This may be at the end of, or during
any year. Routes 6, 7, and 8 show the way. Once through the
technical course, he still may use some or all of the super schools
to possible advantage. Route 9 is the outlet.
It may be well to say a word here in further explanation
of the “drop-out” courses. They are really nothing but post-
graduate technical courses distributed for all. We are no
disturbed by the notion of technical courses for “drop outs”
when they are called postgraduate or two-year high-school courses.
We are in the habit of thinking of students dropping out of the
general educative process at the eighth grade and at the end of
high school. If we provide appropriate drop-out technical
courses at every level of the high school, we shall not force those
who fear they may not be able to go completely through high
school to take the short commercial course, thus really dropping
out at the end of the eighth grade. Much more important is the
fact that we shall not be guilty of the preposterous waste pro-
posed by Some of making every child take a large amount of
technical work every year as insurance against the chance that
he may have to drop out. Consider saying to every child who
enters the four-year commercial course, “You may drop out.
At present you do not expect to, but you may, therefore, take a
large amount of technical work so that if you do drop out, you
will be prepared.” At the beginning of each high-School year
a similar statement is made to him. Thus he may go through
the four years doing little but insuring himself against a possi-
bility which he did not expect would happen and which, as a
matter of fact, never did occur.
But suppose we do require a “safe” amount of technique
in each year, and suppose the student does drop out, say at the
end of the third year, as of course, many really do at the end of
each year. We have, with such a plan, taken a large section of
his time during each year to teach him technique fit only for a
level at which he did not quit school. All those who do not quit
are thus forced to take a large dose of insurance to Cover those
SPECIALIZATION FOR A CITY SYSTEM 613
who drop out. Even if we assume that a third drop at the end
of the first year, two-thirds have had their time at least partly
occupied with the technique appropriate for fourteen-year olds.
They will then, on the same principle, enter the second year learn-
ing (for protection) the technique appropriate to fifteen-year olds.
A similar action will be repeated each year. Finally, if graduat-
ing or even advancing far in high School, they will leave behind
them a good record of techniques learned but useless because
they have outgrown them. And during the period their time
will have been too much occupied to have learned much about
relationshlps.
A far more economical use of time and resources is to put
students who think they may be able to stay in school more
than one year into a four-year course devoid of technique and
protect those who find it necessary to drop out by having brief,
intensive courses in technique ready for them when they must
quit. These drop-out courses could give the technique at the
level when it would be used and then only. Concerning voca-
tional education it is doubtful if a more useful thought was ever
expressed than that of James M. Glass, director of junior high
schools in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, when he said:
Vocational curricula in the junior high school, either of a com-
mercial or industrial nature, should not represent a forced growth.
They must represent the actual conditions as they exist when the
final alternative of leaving school or choosing a vocation is reached.
Whenever it is definitely determined by the guidance agencies of the
school that this alternative is unavoidable, pupils should be trans-
ferred to these occupational courses irrespective of grade classification.
This principle is as applicable to senior high Schools as to
lower grades. It is a philosophy which must lie behind a plan
of organized specialization of institutions directed toward the
attainment of definite objectives.
INDEX
INDEX
Accountants, cost, educational needs
of, 85
Accounting course, Federal Board,
568–69; four-year, 443; N.E.A.,
550, 552-53
Adjustments in business, 49
Administration: of corporation
Schools, 354–57; of Social busi-
ness Subjects, 412-14
Administrative unit, high school of
Commerce, 446–47
Adult training, 504;
School, 523
Advertising, high-school commercial
Course in, 409
Advertising and selling, corporation
training in, 345–53
Advertising specialists, educational
needs of, 86 -
Age factor, Federal Board, 563
Agencies, specialized, 253–77
Agreements for co-operative courses:
Federal Board , forms, 495–97;
forms for retail selling in Boston,
493-95
Aims, evening-school courses, 522
Alexander Hamilton Institute, 73
Allen, L. G., 461
“Alternate half-day” plan, 480
“Alternate-week” plan, 480, 481
American Economic Association,
proposal of, 588
American educational system, 579
American Federation of Labor, Ioë
American Historical Association, 588
American Institute of Banking, 339
Analysis of junior commercial oc-
cupations, 170–88
Anderson, W. L., 527–28
Appraisal: Federal Board proposal,
570-76; National Council of
Education program, 597
in evening
Appraisals: business college, 282–84;
co-operative business courses,
498–500; correspondence Schools,
32I–22, 323-25
Appreciation value, 21
Apprenticeship: American, 267;
corporation training, 341-43;
medieval England, 255-65
Association of Collegiate Schools of
Business, 371–75; proposals, 579–
88; status of social studies, 578;
report of Commission, 390-91
Association, National, of Accredited
Commercial Schools, 306–Io
Attendance: in day schools, 452-53;
in evening schools, 508–Io
Avery, Charles P., 92-93
Babcock, Margaret F., 529-31
Bachrach, William, 469, 533
Banking course, high School, 420
Barnhart, E. W., 150-60
Barringer, L. E., 94-95
Batchelder, Miss A. L., 56–58
Bobbitt, Franklin, 18–19, 208–Io
Bookkeeper, analysis of, IgE-93
Bookkeeping course: business col-
lege, 299-301; N.E.A., third
report, 559 -
Boston evening schools, 513–20
Boston high schools, 482-84
“Boston plan” of co-operation, 481
Boston postgraduate courses, 527
Boys and girls: differences in work,
I23, 129, 161–62; Occupations
(table), 121–22; requirements in
high-school commercial course,
424
Boys and men, positions held, 58
Bristol, L. M., 229–32
Broadening Courses, 532
Bryant and Stratton, 273
617
618
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Bulletin of High Points, 481,485
Burdge, Howard, 452, 509
Burnham, R. Wesley, 444
Business: continuation, 470–73; de-
Scription (diagram), 38–39; gen-
eral course in (N.E.A., third
report), 559; its demands, Io3-4;
preparation for, 431–32; Scope of,
IO4; technological consideration
of, 67-68; what it is, 32, 39; what
it wants: direct expressions, 81–
II2, indirect expressions, II5–203
Business college: appraisals, 282–84;
beginnings, United States, 269-75;
control, 304–Io; deficiency, 84;
development, 284–87; enrolment,
280–82; investigations of, 284–87,
287–94; merits, 310-II; number
of schools (Fig. 17), 28o; number
of students (Fig. 18), 281; réle,
3II-I2; size, 295–97; Specialized
function, 574; tuition, 301-4;
type of work, 297-301
Business education: argument
against, 82; growth of, 3-16
Business Education in Secondary
Schools, 556
Business English in high-school
Commercial course, 409
Business Journal, 82–83
Business man, successful, Io2
Buxton, George P., 463
Capital goods, 34
Capital, increase in (table), 69
Carkin, S. B., 489
Cashier, analysis of, 194-96
Cass Technical High
Detroit, 461–63
Chicago City Club, report on busi-
ness college, 284–87
Chicago continuation Schools, 469–
7o
Chicago postgraduate courses, 529–
3I
Cincinnati high schools, co-operation
in, 491-92
Cincinnati, University of, co-opera-
tive idea of, 478–79
School,
Citizenship, Committee on History
and Education for, 588
Citizenship, training for, 572
City Club, Chicago (see Chicago
City Club)
City commercial students, I I, 13
City system, 607–13
City Supervisor, 533
Clark, Victor S., 268
Clerk, analysis of, 196-97
Cleveland Survey (Figs, 6–II),
I 23–28 -
College courses, questionnaire on, 83
College education, prejudice against,
84–86
Collegiate Schools of Business, As-
Sociation of, 371–75, 578, 579-88
Collegiate schools of business, 276;
beginnings, 364–70; classes, 384-
87; curriculum, 379–83; ideals,
375–78; later development (Figs.
27-29A), 370-75; length of
courses, 384–88; private, 314-17;
rôle, 389-91
Collegiate training (Figs. 4, 5), 14-15.
Commercial activity, use of science
in, 68
Commercial courses (Tables II, V,
VII, Fig. 3), 4, 7, 8, 9, Io, II, I3,
607; postgraduate, 527–32
Commercial design course,
school, 420
Commercial education: beginnings
in the United States, 266–67;
compulsory, 460-61; larger vision
of, IoS-6; professional aspects of,
557; purpose of, 556–57; Subsidy
for, 459; what it is, Iog
Commercial Education Service, 460
Commercial geography in high
Schools, 409
Commercial law in high schools,
4O9
Commercial organization in high
Schools, 409
Commercial schools, private, 3–4, 6
Commercial Service, Federal Board,
534
Commercial teacher training, 534–37
high
INDEX
619.
Commercial teachers, standardiza-
tion of requirements for, 535–36
Commercial work, laboratory for,
498
Commission, Association of Col-
legiate Schools of Business, 579,
588
Commission on Reorganization of
Secondary Education, 580; pro-
posal, 588
Committee on History and Educa-
tion for Citizenship, 588
Committee of Nine, 543–49
Communism in want gratification,
37
Community civics movement, 578
Community needs, N.E.A. report,
56I
Competition, 41–42; medieval, 260-
62
Compulsory commercial education,
460-61
Compulsory education, continuation
School, 449–52
Concentrated course, possibilities of,
53I-32
Concept of education, evolution of,
222-24
Continuation Schools, 276,606; com-
pulsory education in, 449–52;
corporation, 333–34, 337–38, 338–
39, 340–41; definition, 449–52;
development, 453–54; examples,
461–73; legal status, 449–50; in
Munich, 454; need, 452-53;
purpose, 451-52; rôle, 473–75;
Smith-Hughes Law, 456–61; unit
basis for, 468
Continuation work, try-out cycle in,
47O
Control: manuals, 73; of produc-
tion, 73-77
Cooley, Charles H., 224-29
Cooley, Edwin G., 454
Co-operation: provided by Smith-
Hughes Law, 456–57; in office
work, 491–92; in store work,
Federal Board, 570
Co-operative business courses:
agreements, 493–97; application
to commercial work, 479–80;
appraisal, 498–5oo; Boston high
Schools, 482–84; Cincinnati, 491–
92; co-ordinator, 497; courses in
retail selling, 481–91; essentials,
482; method of control, 478;
necessities for success, 492–93;
New York City, 484–89; Roch-
ester, 489–91; three plans, 480–
81; types, 480–92
Co-operative schools, 276; corpora-
tion, 334–35 -
Co-operative want gratification, 36–
38
Co-ordinator, 497
Corporation Schools, 276, 608; ad-
ministration, 354–57; advertising
and Selling, 345–53; educational
director for, 356–57; office work,
343-45; organization (Chart III),
354–57; retail Salesmanship, 353–
54; rôle, 357-61; schools for
unskilled labor, 354; special train-
ing Schools, 329-41; teachers, 355;
textbooks, 355; trade apprentice-
ship, 341–43; types, 329-54
Correspondence schools: appraisals,
321-22, 323–25; beginnings, 318;
control, 326; corporation training,
340–41; criticisms, 321-22, 323–
25; extent of , influence, 319;
modern, description of, 318-21;
regulation of, 326; rôle, 325-26;
varieties, 319-2I
Cost accountants, educational needs
of, 85
Costs of vocational education, 574

Courses: business college, 297-301;
co-operative business, 478–5oo;
Haaren High School, 443–45;
High School of Commerce, Wash-
ington, D.C., 440; postgraduate
commercial, 527–32; Wilkins High
School, Detroit, 441; Y.M.C.A.,
316–17
Craftsman, 256-65
Creative experience in modern in-
dustry, 232–35
Criticism: correspondence schools,
321-22, 323–25; high school of
commerce, 445–47; Federal Board
proposal, 570-76
62o
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Cultural course, 601
Cultural education, 473
Cultural high school, 547
Culture, education for democracy,
224-29
Cummings, Dr. John, 508
Curriculum: business college, 297–
3OI; collegiate Schools, 379–83;
co-operative course, 483; evening
high Schools, 506; four-year com-
mercial course proposed, 543;
reform of, 541; Y.M.C.A., 316–17
Curriculum-making: evaluating
studies, 19–21; imitation in,
18–26; interests theory of, 22–24;
mental discipline in, 24; organiza-
tion for, 25–26
Daines, H. C., 316–17
Dartmouth College, first commerce
work, 370
Day school, business college, 297-98
Demands: of business world, 82–83;
of modern business, Io9–4
Democracy: functions of education
in, 208–47; primary culture for,
224-29; vocational aspects of
education and, 238–47
Department store: chart of organi-
zation, 74; educational needs,
92-93
Des Moines Survey, II6–17
Detroit: continuation school for
girls, 463–66; Wilkins High School
of Commerce, 441
Development of industry in America,
267–68
Dewey, John, IQ-20, 21–22, 23-24,
2IO-II, 218–22, 238–47
Differences in occupations: boys and
girls, 564; Cleveland Survey,
123–28; New York Survey, 129–
36; private survey, 161-62
Director, educational, for corpora-
tion school, 356-57
Donham, Dean Wallace, 387–88
Dooley, C. R., 93
Dorchester High School, 527
Douglas, Paul H., 321-22, 454
Drop-outs, 591–92, 612–13
Early industry, 65
Economic organization, 36–38, 271
Economic system, 36
Economics in high-school
mercial Course, 409
Education: creative experience, 232–
35; Cultural, 473; Culture for
democracy, 224–29; democratic
Concept, 238–47; evolution and
Concept, 222-24; national ideal,
229–32; necessity, 218–22; objec-
tives, 29-250; socialism in, 212;
Social control and, 213; voca-
tional, public, and private aspects,
235–38
Education, business: earlier forms,
253–77; medieval, 255–65; primi-
com-
tive, 253–55; seventeenth-cen-
tury, 265–67; United States,
267–77
Education for exporters, subjects t
in, 90-91
Educational director for corporation
School, 356-57
Educational guidance, 591
Educational ideal, labor's, Io9
Educational levels, 2Io
Educational needs: advertising
specialists, 86; cost accountants,
85; department store, 92–93;
experts on transportation, 88;
exporter, 89–91; office assistants,
84; salesmen, 87
Educational system, America, 579
Efficiency, 42; occupational, Ioff
Eight-four plan, 579-88
Eighth year: Federal Board pro-
posal, 565; National Council of
Education plan, 590; N.E.A.
third report, 556; program of
collegiate schools, 583, 585-86
Electives, N.E.A. proposals, 551,
555
Elementary curriculum, 580, 589
Eleventh year: Federal Board pro-
posal, 568; N.E.A., third report,
559-60
Emerson, Mabel Irene, 222–24
Employment and co-operation, 485
Engineering, use of science in, 67–68
INDEX
62I
Enrolment: business college, 6,
280–82; private high schools, 6;
public high schools, 6
Evaluation: of school subjects, 96–
99; of studies, IQ-20
Evening school, 276; business col-
lege, 297-98
Evening school courses: aims, 522;
attendance, 508–Io; diplomas,
516–17: enrolment (Table
XXXV), 505; examples, 510–21;
growth, 503–4; history, 502–3;
organization of evening work,
52I-24; rôle, 524; Scope of work,
506–7; sessions, 511-12, 514;
subjects, 512, 518, 52I; voca-
tional work, 524
Evolution and concept of education,
222-24
Extensions, high-school commercial
Course, 502–24
Experience, commercial teachers,
535
Experts on transportation, educa-
tional needs of, 88 *
Exploitation in education, N.E.A.
report, 56I
Exporter, educational needs of, 89–
9I
Federal Board for Vocational Educa-
tion: Commercial Service, 534;
criticisms of proposals, 570-76;
evening school, 522; job analysis,
junior, I'70–88; proposals, 565–69;
relation to continuation school,
456–61; sex differences, junior,
I63–65; survey of junior com-
mercial occupations, I2O-23, 143–
48, 163–65; survey of senior
commercial occupations, I50–60;
unit plan, 562
financial corporation, employment
demands of, 139
Financing an education, 499
First proposal, N.E.A., 547–48
Fish, Louis, J., 482, 493
Fitchburg, Mass.,
school, 480
Fitzpatrick, Edward A., 504
Flexner, Abraham, 24
co-operative
Flower, Lucy, Technical High
School, 529–31
Foreign trade: beginnings in Eng-
land, 265; and shipping course,
Federal Board, 568–69
Foundation courses, 474
Freeland, George E., 538
Functional organization, 77
Functional view in social studies,
6ol
Functions, public education, 208–47
Fundamentals, training in, 532
Galloway, Lee, 318–21
Garbutt, I. R., 491
General business course, Federal
Board, 568–69
General courses, evening school, 524
General subjects, N.E.A., first pro-
posal, 546–47
General training, 499–500
German continuation school, 454
Girls’ continuation work, 463–66
Giº and women, positions held by,
O -
Glass, James M., 589, 613
Gompers, Samuel, Ioë, 217
Government interest in commercial
work, 459
Great Britain Special Report on
Educational Subjects, 82, Io2
Gruenberg, Benjamin C., 235–38
Guilds, 255-65
Haaren High School, 443-45; co-
operative courses in, 484–89
Haney, L. H., 272
Harvard University Graduate School
of Business, 386
Hayes, Edward C., 213–15
Hierarchy of values, 20
High school of commerce, 276:
beginnings, 430; evaluation, 445-
47; examples, 440-45; limita-
tions, 446; non-technical subjects,
434–35; purposes, 430; Social-
business subjects, 435–39; tech-
nical subjects, 433–34
622
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
High-school commercial course:
conclusions concerning, 576;
economics in, 409; four-year
course, English, 402–3; four-year
Course, non-technical subjects,
403–6; general conclusions, 426–
28; importance, 394; length of
Courses, 394–95; length of short
Course, 395–96; methods of teach-
ing, 424–25; policies and methods,
423–24; reform in, 545; salesman-
ship in, 489; short course, non-
technical subjects, 399-402;
Social-business subjects, 407–23;
technical subjects, 396-99; tests,
425; textbooks, 425–26; tradi-
tional nature, 406–7
High school, commercial, reform of
curriculum of, 541
High-school students, comparison of
public (table), 5
High schools, number of, in com-
mercial work, 4
Higher education, prejudice against,
84–86 *
History of commerce in high-school
Commercial course, 409
History in high-school curriculum,
578 +
Hotchkiss, Willard E., 377
Huxley, E. H., 89
Illinois Manufacturers’ Association,
Illinois University Conference, 83
Imitation in curriculum-making,
18–19
Immediate vocations, training for,
576, 591
Individual enterprise, 41–50
Industrial history in high-school
commercial course, 409
Industrial Revolution, 65–66
Industry: development of, in
America, 267-68; its wants from
schools, 93–94; as training School,
574–75
Initiative, 94
Institutes of technology, 363
Institutions: human, 601; teacher-
training, 536 -
Insurance company, employment
demands of, 136–38
Intensive courses, postgraduate, 528,
529-31
Interests theory, 22–24
Intermediate program, 598
Interpretation of job, 473
James, Edmund J., 272–73, 282-283
Job analysis: bookkeeper, 191–93;
cashier, 194–96; clerk, 196–97;
commercial occupations, 170–88;
purpose, example, 166-70; retail
selling, 197-200,200-203;stenogra-
pher, 189-91
Job, interpretation of, 473
Jobbers, 45
Jones, Arthur J., 502
Jones, Edward D., 375
Journal of Political Economy, 379
Junior commercial occupations:
analysis, 170–88; Junior high
school course, Federal Board,
565–66; Junior high school move-
ment, 580–81
Junior high school program: Nation-
al Council of Education, 594;
in social studies, 582–89
Kirchensteiner, Dr. George, 454
Kreuzpointner, Dr. Paul, Ioa-6
Kruse, Paul J., 523-24
Labor and education: England,
Io8–II; United States, Io?
Labor power, 34
Laboratory for commercial work, 498
Large-scale industry, implications
for education in, 77-78
Large-scale production, 70–78
Legal status, continuation School,
449-50
Length of courses: collegiate schools,
384–88; high-school commercial
course, 394-96; Social-business
subjects in high school of com-
merce, 436-37; social-business
subjects in high-school com-
mercial course, 410–12; technical
subjects in high school of Com-
merce, 433–34
INDEX
623
Liberal commercial course, 600-601
Liberal education, III
Limitations: of high School of com-
merce, 446; of teaching force and
equipment, 570
Line and staff organization (chart),
73
Lomax, Paul S., 466
Lyon, L. S.: Corporation school,
328-61; national Survey, I42–43,
I61–62; specialization, 35–38,
43–46, 47
Machine industry, 65–70; as method
of production, 53
McKinsey, J. O., 75
Mactavish, J. M., IoS
Mail order house,
demands of, I39–40
Management, scientific, 73–77
Managerial training, 42, 49-50, 446
Manufacturing plant (chart of
organization), 75
Marot, Helen, 232–35
Marshall, L. C., 36–38, 43–46, 47,
69, 382, 385, 572
Marshall, Wright, and Field, 69
Mathematics, value of, 22
Meat-packing, specialization in, 55
Medieval apprenticeship, 255–65
Men and boys, positions held by, 58
Mental discipline, 24
Mercantilist: qualifications for, 265;
view of education, 265-67
Methods of teaching, 539
Michigan Science Association, 384
Milwaukee Survey, 120–22
Minneapolis Survey, II5–16
Minneapolis Vocational Education
Survey, 197-200
Modern industry, creative experi-
ence In, 23.2-35
Monroe, Paul, 217–18
Mortality, School, 452-53
Moser, Paul, 310-II
Mun, Thomas, 265–67
Munich continuation Schools, 454
employment
National Association of Accredited
Commercial Schools, 306–Io
National Association of Corporation
Schools, 329-356: direct expres-
sions, 93, 94, 95, IoA; job analysis,
I66–70
National Association of Corporation
Training (see National Association
of Corporation Schools)
National Council of Education.
appraisal, 597; drop-outs, 591–92;
introductory statement, 589;
program, 589–97; retardates, 592;
Supernormal, 593
National Education Association:
Commission of Reorganization of
Secondary Education, 58o; Com-
mittee of Nine, 543–49; report of
1919, 556–62; Second proposal,
549–55; Subcommittee on social
studies, 578
National Personnel Association (see
National Association of Corpora-
tion Schools)
Natural resources as want-gratifying
goods, 33
Necessity of education, 218–47
Needs: in commercial teacher-
training, 537–38; in education,
Io9-II
New Jersey continuation work, 466–
69
New York City: co-operative
Courses, 484-89; questionnaire,
IoI; report on business college, .
287–94; Survey, 129-36
New York University, first com-
merce work in, 370
Nichols, F. G., II6, 120, 143–48,
I48–50, I63–65, 170–88, 562
Night school (see Evening school)
Ninth year: Federal Board pro-
posal, 566; National Council of
Education plan, 591; National
Education Association, third re-
port, 558; program of collegiate
schools, 583, 586–87
Non-attendance in evening schools,
508–Io
Non-vocational studies, 524
Normal schools, 536
624
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Objectives of business education, 26,
608
Objectives of public education: Bob-
bitt, 208; Dewey, 2Io; Gompers,
217; Hayes, 213; Monroe, 217;
Thorndike, 216; Ward, 212
Occupational efficiency, Ioč
Occupations:
Analysis of certain work: book-
keeper, 191–93; cashier, 194–
96; clerk, 196–97; retail selling,
I97-200, 200-203; Stenogra-
pher, 189-91
Classification of general: dif-
ferent demands for sexes, 161–
62; Federal Board, 163–65;
office positions, 151
Job analysis by: Federal Board,
junior survey, 170–88; Na-
tional Association of Corpora-
tion Schools, 166–70
Kinds of business: financial cor-
porations, 139; insurance, I 36-
38; mail-order houses, I39–40
Study of: Federal Board, 143–48,
I50-60; Fig. Io, I27; Fig. II,
128; Figs. I3 and I4, 145;
National surveys, I41; New
York, 129–36; private, I42–43;
Table X, 147; United States
Census, I4I
Office-appliance
School, 420
Office assistants’ educational needs,
84
Office work: corporation training in,
343-45; specialization in, 58-61;
training in postgraduate course,
53O-3 I
Office-work co-operation, 491–92
Organization of: corporation schools,
354–57; curriculum, 25–26; even-
ing work, 521-24
Organization charts, 74–75
Organization: functional, 77; plan
of, 607-13; for production, 73–77
Orr, William, 315–16
Osgood, Ellen L., 497
course in high
Palmer, Frank H., 317–18
Part-time schools (see Continuation
schools)
Penmanship, early teaching of, 270–
7I
Performance, as training for busi-
neSS, 63
Person, H. S., 73–77, 379, 384
Pinmaking, specialization in, 53–54
Pittsburgh questionnaire, IoI-2
Poetry, value of, 21
Policies and methods of high-school
Commercial course, 423–24
Positions, Commercial: analysis of,
563; men and boys, 58; women
and girls, 60
Postgraduate commercial courses,
527–32
Postgraduate course, 276; examples,
527-31; possibilities in concen-
tration, 531–32; subjects, 528,
529-31
Prejudice against higher education,
84–86 -
Preparation for business as purpose
of high School of commerce, 431–
32
Primitive society, education in, 253–
55
Prince, Mrs. Lucinda W., 481
Private collegiate schools, 314-17
Private commercial schools, 3–4, 6
Process in living, aims in, 601
Processes of business, facilitating, 269
Production: large-scale, 70–78;
machine industry as method of,
53; specialization as a method, 43
Products, teaching to sell, 498–500
Professional aspects of commercial
education, 557
Program: with existing studies, 598;
of junior high School Social studies,
582–87; of National Council of
Education, 589-97
Proposal of the Association of Col-
legiate Schools of Business, 579-88
Proposals: Federal Board, 562–76;
Federal Board junior high school
course, 565–66; review of, 543–
6oz
Public education: function of, 95-
Ioo; limitations of, 94-95; pur-
INDEX
625
poses of, 208; view for vocational
education, 235–38
Public evening schools, 505
Public school instruction, 95-Ioo
Purpose of commercial education,
556-57
Purpose of education, 25, 26
Purposes of high school of Com-
merce, 43O
Qualifications for mercantilist, 265
Questionnaire on college courses, 83
Rearrangement of school system, 580
Reform in high-school commercial
Curriculum, 54I
Regulation of correspondence School,
326
Relative value of school subjects,
96-99. ,
Reorganization of secondary educa-
tion, commission on, 580
Repetition of tasks, 43
Report of 1919, 556-59
Report of Subcommittee on Social
Studies Proposal, 588
Reporting course, Federal Board,
568–69
Requirements for commercial teach-
ers, standardization of, 535–36
Requirements and electives in Social-
business subjects in high School of
Commerce, 435
Requirements in teaching, 535
Retail salesmanship, corporation
training part of, 353–54
Retail selling: analysis of, IQ7-200,
200-203; training teachers of, 536
Retail selling courses, 481-92; Fed-
eral Board, 568–69; Third Na-
tional Association report, 560
Retardates, 592
Richmond (Second) Survey for
Vocational Education, 189-97,
2OO–2O3
Rochester: Chamber of Commerce,
II7-20; Co-operative Schools, 489–
9I; Survey, II 7–20
Rôle: of collegiate school of busi-
ness, 389–91; of continuation
school, 473–75; of corporation
school, 357–61; of correspondence
school, 325-26; of evening School,
524.
Rural commercial students (table),
I3
St. Louis evening schools, 511-13
Salesmen, educational needs of, 87
Salesmanship in high-school com-
mercial course, 489
Saturday work, 480, 481
Schneider, Herman L., 478
School mortality, 452-53, 463–64;
prevention of, 573
School subjects, relative value of,
96-99 -
School system, rearrangement of, 580
Schools: college, I4, 15; collegiate,
of business, 363–91; continuation,
449–75; Co-operative, 478-500;
corporation, 328-61; correspond-
ence, 314, 317, 326; high School of
commerce, 430–47; high School
(Tables II, III, IV, V, Figs. 1, 2),
4, 5, 7,8; part-time (see Continua-
tion); private collegiate, 314-17;
private commercial (Table I,
Fig. 1), 3–4, 6; Y.M.C.A., 314-17
Science: application to business,
66–70; teaching for business,
67-68; value as study, 2I
Scientific management, 73-77
Scope of business, IOA
Scott, William A., 376
Second proposal, National Educa-
tion Association, 549–50
Secondary education:
Aims of: Bobbitt, 208; Dewey,
2Io; Gompers, 217; Hayes,
213; Monroe, 217; Thorn-
dike, 216; Ward, 212
Favorable to, 84–86
Secondary Education, Commission
on Reorganization of, 58o
Secondary Schools, 4, 5, 7, 8; Com-
merce, 430–47; commercial course,
393-428
Secretarial course, Federal Board,
568–69
…”
626
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Secretarial training, 531
Self-support as purpose of high
School of commerce, 431
Senior Commercial Occupational
Survey, 150–61
Senior high school course, Federal
Board, 566–69
Senior high school, program of Col-
legiate schools, 587
Services, specialization in, 47
Seventh grade: National Council of
Educational plan, 590; program
of collegiate schools, 582, 583,
584
Seventh year: Federal Board pro-
posal, 565; third National Educa-
tion Association report, 557
Sex differences in occupations, 564:
Cleveland, 123–28; New York,
129–36; private survey, I61-62
Shaw, A. W., 363–64
Shelley, Mary B., 139
Shorthand, beginnings of, 275
Simons, A. M., 323–25
Six—three-three plan, 580–81
Six-six plan, 580–81
Smith, Adam, 53–54
Smith-Hughes Act, 456–61; ap-
propriations, 459; provisions,
457–58
Smith, J. Russell, 33–34
Smith and Jewett, 67
Snedden, Dr., 209-Io
Social and physical environment
program, 399-400
Social business subjects:
Conclusions for high-school course,
2I-2
In high-school commercial course,
4O7-2O
In high school of commerce:
correlation of courses, 438–39;
length of courses, 436-37; re-
quirements and electives, 435
Requirements and electives: Cor-
relation, 417-20; direction, 412-
14; length of courses, 41O-I2;
teachers of, 414-16
Social aim in education, 212
Social control and education, 213
Social relationships, training in,
572
Social resources, 33-35
Social-science studies, in training
teachers, 537
Social studies: functional view, 601;
program for junior high School,
582–89; reorganization, 390–91;
in secondary schools, 578–79
Solution of high-school course, 576
Specialization:
In development of educational
agencies, 253–77 -
Of business units, 41–50; dia-
grams, 45, 46, 47; example,
43–46; nature, 43
Within business units, 53–63;
manufacturing, 53–56; meat
packing, 55; office work, 56–62;
pinmaking, 53; shoemaking, 54
Specialized courses, Federal Board,
567
Specialized society, education for,
6or
Specialized techniques,
teach, 62–63
Spencer, Herbert, 208
Standardization of requirements for
commercial teachers, 535–36
State Supervision, 533–34
State vocational education, 456-61
Statement of purpose, National
Education Association Proposal,
543-44
Stenographic course: Federal Board,
568–69; third National Educa-
tion Association report, 559
Stenography, analysis of, 189-91
Stenography, courses in: business.
college, 299-301; National Edu-
cation Association course, 55o,
553-54
Stevens, Bertha M., 58–61; Surveys,
I23–28, 129–36, 136–38, 287-94,
305-6
Store practice (see Retail selling
courses)
Store service course, third National
Education Association report, 560
need to
INDEX
627
Store work, Federal Board, 570
Students: in commercial courses in
three kinds of schools (table), 5;
number, private commercial
(table), 3; percentage in Com-
mercial courses of private high
schools (table), 6; percentage of
commercial in rural, village, and
city communities (Table XIII),
395; percentage in commercial
courses of certain high Schools
(table), II
Studies in technical education, 538
Subcommittee of National Edu-
cation Association on Social
Studies, 578
Subcommittee on Social Studies
Proposal, Report of, 588
Subsidy for commercial education,
459
Success, meaning of, 42
Supervision, 533-34;
State, 533–34
Supplementary agencies: city Super-
visor, 533; Federal Board, 534;
state Supervisor, 533; teacher
training, 533–37
Supply of labor through education,
Io'7
Survey of business, need for, 600
Surveys, city: Cleveland, 123–28;
Des Moines, 116–17; Milwaukee,
city, 533;
120–22; Minneapolis, II5–16,
197–200; New York, 129–36;
Richmond, 189-97, 200–203;
Rochester, II 7–20
Surveys, national: Federal Board
on, 150-60, 143–48; private, 142-
43; United States Census, 141
Teacher-training, 534-37; forms
needed, 537–38; in universities,
536–37 e
Teachers: corporation schools, 355;
co-operative, 492; in girls’ Con-
tinuation work, 464
Teaching commercial methods in
high school, 424-25
Teaching, requirements in, 535
Technical courses, recognition of,549
Technical education, beginnings of,
in America, 266-77
Technical subjects: high-schoolcom-
mercial course, 396-99; length of
course, high School of commerce,
433-34
Technical training: collegiate, 363;
corporation School, 360; given in
business college, 312
Technical work, place of, in cur-
riculum, 6oo
Technique, training in, 62-63
Technological consideration of busi-
ness, 67–68
Technology, institutes of, 363
Telegraphy, courses in, business
college, 299-301
Tenth year: Federal Board pro-
posal,566–67; third National Edu-
cation ASSociation report, 558
Tests, educational, in high-school
commercial course, 425
Textbooks: corporation schools,
355; for Social-business subjects in
high School, 425-26
Textiles, course in, 485–89
Thayer, Gertrude B., 139
Third National Education Associa-
tion proposal: criticism, 561;
seventh year, 557; eighth year,
557; ninth year, 558; tenth year,
558; eleventh year, 559–60;
twelfth year, 559–60
Thompson, F. V., IoI
Thorndike, Edward L., 216
Three proposals, comparative state-
ment, 588
Todd, Arthur James, 253–55
Tradition in high-school commercial
course, 406-7
Training for business, performance
as, 63
Training, commercial teachers, 534–
37; Social-Science studies in, 537
Training in fundamentals, post-
graduate, 532
Training in job performance, 473
Training in technique, 524; post-
graduate, 531
Trenton, New Jersey, continuation
school, 466–69
628
EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS
Try-out courses, National Educa-
tional Association proposal, 557
Try-out cycle in continuation work,
47O
Twelfth year: Federal Board pro-
posal, 569; third National Educa-
tion Association report, 559-60
Typewriter, introduction, 275
Ultra-modern course, 1903 proposal,
547
Unit basis for continuation school,
468
Unit course: criticism of, 573;
National Education Association
proposal, 557
Unit plan: description of Federal
Board, 562–64; evening work, 522
United States Bureau of Education:
collegiate schools, 370; courses in
business colleges, 297-301; even-
ing schools, 504; on growth of
business education (Tables I, II,
III, IV, V, VI, VII), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
II, 13; number of private Com-
mercial schools, 280; number of
private commercial students, 281–
82; size of business colleges, 295-
97; tuition rates, 3or-4; Y.M.C.A.,
315–16
United States Bureau of Labor:
Bulletin 199—Minneapolis Voca-
tional Education Survey, II5–16,
I97–200
United States Census, 54-55; survey
of employment, I4I
Universities, teacher-training in,
536–37
University: business education, 276;
California, first commerce work,
369; Chicago, first commerce
work, 370; present Commerce
course, 385-86; Cincinnati, co-
operative idea, 478–79; Michigan,
first commerce work, 370; Min-
nesota, present commerce course,
384; Missouri, first commerce
work, 370; Pennsylvania, gradu-
ate school, 386; Pittsburgh, pres-
ent commerce work, 384; South
Dakota, first commerce work, 370;
Wisconsin, first commerce work,
370, present commerce course, 384
Utilitarian aims, IoS-6
Values of studies, 19-20
Vanderlip, F. A., Io.3
Van Hise, C. R., 70–73
Village commercial students’ table, 13
Vocational courses, status, 575
Vocational education: costs of, 574;
limitations, 94–95; public and
private aspects, 235–38; related
to democratic concept, 238–47;
Smith-Hughes Law, 456–61; state,
456–61; Summary, 509
Vocational training: evening school,
524; modern conception, 562
Vocations, study of, II5-2O3
Wage-earning girl related to con-
tinuation school, 464–65
Wages, medieval, 260
Wantgratification, communismin, 37
Want-gratifying goods, 33, 34, 35
Wants, 32–33; guide through educa-
tion, 216
Wants of business: direct expres-
sion, 81–II2; indirect expression,
II5, 203
Ward, Lester F., 212–13
Washington, D.C.: evening school,
520–21; high school of commerce
COurSe, 440
Wharton, G. W., 445
Wharton School of Commerce: first
curriculum, 364–69; graduate
school, 386; present commerce
course, 385
Wilkins High School, 441
Wilson, L. A., 305
Wisconsin evening school, 506-7
Wºmen and girls, positions held by,
O
wº Educational Association,
IO
Y.M.C.A. education, 314-17; busi-
ness education, 316–17; origin,
315–16
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