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Kodak MATERIALS FOR
Istry Library
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS
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2nd Edition
SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
The spectrograph has been applied in industry to
qualitative and quantitative analysis where the han-
dling of large numbers of samples at high speed is im-
portant. Spectrographic analysis is particularly adapted
to measuring extremely small quantities of materials,
and it permits this to be done much more rapidly
than the conventional methods of analysis. It is thus
very economical of time and money. In qualitative
analysis, the spectrograph can be used for the identifi-
cation of solids, liquids, and gases. The information
obtained can frequently be used to explain undesirable
physical or chemical behavior of materials, to identify
the components of alloys, to check the degree of purity
of chemical compounds, etc. In quantitative analysis,
the spectrograph is very valuable for determining the
percentages of elements present in very small quanti-
ties of an order which might be missed entirely or
determined very inaccurately by the normal chemical
methods.
Good spectrographic equipment in the hands of a
properly trained operator with a knowledge of the
basic characteristics of photographic materials is a
valuable asset to the modern analytical laboratory.
ANOTOLARY
نند
Kodak Materials for Spectrum Analysis
PLATES AND FILMS
;
THE PROPERTIES OF PLATES AND FILMS
The Characteristic Curve..
Speed..
Contrast.
·
Fog...
Spectral Sensitivity. .
Variation of Contrast with Wavelength.
Reciprocity Effect.
Intermittency Effect.
Temperature and Moisture Content.
Nonuniformity of Effective Sensitivity
Resolving Power, Sharpness, and Granularity.
The Adjacency Effects. . .
PRECAUTIONS IN PHOTOGRAPHIC PHOTOMETRY
•
→
•
Copyright 1954 (also 1945, 1947 and 1950)
Eastman Kodak Company
SECOND EDITION, 1954
·
Ultraviolet-Sensitive Plates and Films.
Kodak SWR Plates and Films. .
Violet and Blue-Sensitive Plates
Violet and Blue-Sensitive Films
Green and Red-Sensitive Plates
Green and Red-Sensitive Films
Infrared-Sensitive Plates.
Infrared-Sensitive Films..
•
•
CHOICE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIAL.
PROCESSING
PROCESSING FORMULAS.
PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING PHOTOGRAPHic Plates and Films
STORAGE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS.
DATA SHEETS.
Kodak Spectroscopic Plates and Films.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR ORDERING .
MANUFACTURERs of SpectrogrAPHIC EQUIPMENT.
REFERENCES.
•
Chemistry Library
•
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THUMB INDEX
DATA SHEETS
Photographic
Properties
Precautions
in Photometry
Processing
and Formulas
Handling
Plates and Films
Storing
Plates and Films
UV Sensitive
Plates and Films
SWR
Plates and Films
Violet and Blue
Sens. Plates
Violet and Blue
Sens. Films
Green and Red
Sens. Plates
Green and Red
Sens. Films
Infrared
Sens. Plates
Infrared
Sens. Films
Spectroscopic
Plates

Ordering
Instructions
References
Kodak Materials for
Spectrum Analysis
IN SPECTROGRAPHIC analysis, photographs of spectra are used to detect
the presence of elements and to obtain an estimate of the proportions in
which they are present. The analyses are based upon measurements of
the positions and the relative intensities of the spectral lines. There are
two chief aspects of the subject. One of these is the production of the
spectrum, which involves the choice and operation of the source of the
spectrum and the spectrograph. The other concerns the selection of
the most suitable photographic plate or film and its proper processing.
The greatest prospect of success in spectrum analysis, as indeed in all
other technical procedures, will be obtained by a thorough knowledge
of the basic principles. It is the purpose of this publication to describe
the basic general properties of photographic films and plates, and the
specific characteristics of Kodak products, to the end that they may be
most appropriately selected for any particular analysis.
It is outside the scope of this publication to deal with the other aspects
of the subject, such as the general principles of spectrographic analysis,
the source, the spectrograph, and the interpretation of the spectrograms.
This information can be obtained from the manufacturers of spectro-
graphic equipment and from the appropriate books, pamphlets, and
articles in scientific and technical journals. A list of a few of these
sources is given on pages 39 and 40.
2
The Properties of Plates and Films
PHOTOGRAPHIC materials consist of a light-sensitive emulsion coated on a
support. This emulsion contains light-sensitive crystals of silver bromide
and other halides suspended in gelatin. When the material is exposed
in a camera, spectrograph, or other apparatus, it shows no visible effect,
but an invisible change occurs-a “latent image" is produced. Treat-
ment of the material in a developer solution converts the exposed silver
halide grains into metallic silver, which forms a visible and usable image.
After development, the emulsion still contains the sensitive silver halides.
which were not utilized in producing the image, and on exposure to
light these would eventually darken and obscure the image. Therefore,
in order to make the image permanent, the material is "fixed" in a
solution which dissolves the undeveloped silver halides but does not
affect the silver image. After fixing, the material must be washed
thoroughly to remove the chemicals used in developing and fixing.
The measurement of the response of the materials to exposure and
development is the science of sensitometry. The most important sensito-
metric properties of plates and films which distinguish one type from
another are speed, contrast, and color sensitivity. There are, in addition,
other properties which are of importance to the spectrographer, for
they may indirectly affect the exposure or the ease of recognition and
measurement of lines. These characteristics are briefly described here.
For a full consideration, consult the book, "The Theory of the Photo-
graphic Process," by Dr. C. E. K. Mees (see page 40).
THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
THE AMOUNT of exposure which a film or plate receives is equal to the
product of the intensity of the incident light and the time of exposure.
The effect is not entirely independent of the components of this product,
as will be explained later. The degree of blackening of the developed
Io
image can be measured in terms of optical density defined as D=log10-
where Io and I are the incident and emergent intensities.
I
The relationship between exposure and density for a stated level and
quality of illumination, etc., is obtained in the following manner:
Under standardized conditions, a photographic plate or film is sub-
jected to a uniformly graded series of exposures. It is developed under
carefully controlled conditions, after which the density (D) of each
exposure step is read on a densitometer and plotted against the logarithm
of the exposure (log E) which produced it. The result is the characteristic
curve (see Figure 1a).
3


D
LOG i
Ꮎ
2 = Tan e
LOG E
Figure la-Characteristic Curve of a
Photographic Plate.
GAMMA
TIME OF DEVELOPMENT
Figure 1b-Curve of Gamma-Time of
Development.
The characteristic curve has roughly the shape of the letter “S." At
the bottom, known as the "toe," it is concave upwards; then there is an
approximately straight line, and in the upper part, called the “shoulder,”
it is concave downwards.
Speed
If the straight line is extended to cut the exposure axis, the exposure
corresponding to this point is called the "inertia" (i). In some sys-
tems of designation of the response of films and plates to exposure,
i.e., speed, the inertia is the value from which the speed is derived. In
general, speed is best defined in terms of the least exposure to a particu-
lar quality of light which will produce a desired result. In some systems
of speed evaluation, the exposure corresponding to a particular low
density is used, while in others, the exposure is selected which corresponds
to a definite slope or gradient of the curve.
Exposures in spectrographic analysis are normally of such a level
that a portion of the toe of the curve is used. Further, exposure to a
spectrum is made to a multitude of spectrally homogeneous components
of the source. A single speed number, although of value for general
photography, is of relatively little significance in the case of spectrum
photography. As an approximation, however, it is possible to use single
speed values based on exposure to the same type of light source that
would be used in ordinary photography, for instance, an incandescent
tungsten filament lamp operated at a color temperature of 3000°K.
Convenient speed numbers which are sufficiently precise for a rough
guide to exposures in spectrography can be obtained by dividing ten by
the inertia (i.e., 10/i speeds).
4
Contrast
THE SLOPE of the straight line part of the characteristic curve, or the
tangent of the angle (0) which it forms with the exposure axis is known
as "gamma" (7), as shown in Figure 1a. Dy (log E-log i). Gamma is
frequently used as a measure of the extent of development or develop-
ment contrast of the film or plate since it increases as the development
time increases. If, as is frequently the case in spectrographic analysis,
exposures are on the toe of the curve, development contrast can be
expressed as the slope of the curve at a particular point or as the average
slope over a certain density interval and is referred to as gradient. In the
straight-line portion, gamma is a measure of gradient.
As the extent of development increases, the gamma increases, but
eventually further development produces no further increase in gamma.
The value known as gamma infinity is thus attained (see Figure 1b)
and represents the highest available contrast.
The rate of development, or the time required to reach a particular
value of gamma, depends primarily on the activity of the developer
solution and the characteristics of the photographic material, but it is
also affected by the temperature of the solution and to a lesser extent
by the degree of agitation of the solution.
Fog
WHEN a film or plate is developed without deliberate exposure, a low
uniform density may be produced. This is known as "fog." It may be
due to an inherent property of the film or plate, to unwanted exposure
(such as a poor safelight in the darkroom), to development, to the way
in which the material is handled, or to a number of other causes. It
should be noted that background density produced by stray light in the
spectrograph is classed as unwanted exposure and should not be con-
fused with development fog or inherent plate fog. The density of fog
usually increases slowly with the development time. The actual density
obtained in the photograph of a spectrum thus may be the result of the
density due to the desired exposure plus the density of the fog. If a plate
or film appears to have high fog, it is recommended that an unexposed
plate or film be processed in complete darkness. If the material still
shows fog, it can be assumed that it is inherent in the plate or film.
In general, unwanted exposure before the main exposure to the spec-
trum will not produce the same final density as the same unwanted
exposure after the main exposure. It is a necessary precaution that both
calibration and unknown exposures should receive exactly similar
treatment as regards fog if the presence of the latter cannot be avoided.
5
SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
A PHOTOGRAPHIC film or plate is sensitive only to radiation which is
absorbed by the silver salts, that is, basically, to blue, violet, and
shorter wavelength radiation. However, an emulsion can be optically
sensitized by the addition of suitably chosen dyes which absorb radia-
tion of longer wavelengths and which selectively dye the silver salts. By
this means it is possible to extend the sensitivity through the green.
(orthochromatic sensitization), through the green and red (panchro-
matic sensitization), and into the infrared.
The spectral sensitivity of a plate or film, or its response to radiation
of various wavelengths, is an important factor in determining its suit-
ability for various applications.
The spectral sensitivity curves shown in the data sheets were de-
termined by the use of an intensity-scale monochromatic sensitometer
which provided, throughout the spectrum, intensity-scale exposures to
narrow bands of wavelengths approximately 7 millimicrons wide. The
sensitivity is expressed as the reciprocal of the number of ergs per square
centimeter required to produce a density of 0.6 above fog when the
materials were developed in Kodak Developer D-19 as recommended.
Sensitivity was measured at several wavelengths, and the logarithm of
sensitivity was plotted against wavelength to obtain the spectral sensi-
tivity curve characteristic of the emulsion.*
The curves shown here should be regarded only as representative for
the type of emulsion and sensitizing from which they were determined.
They are not suitable for quantitative use. Where photometric work is
being done by photographic methods, it is necessary to calibrate the
response of the photographic material for the various wavelengths
under exposure and processing conditions which are precise duplicates.
of those which will be encountered in making the measurements.
VARIATION OF CONTRAST WITH WAVELENGTH
IN GENERAL, the contrast of a photographic material is higher in the
longer wavelength region of its sensitivity. The relationship between
contrast and wavelength varies considerably between emulsions and no
one rule has general validity. The contrast is frequently higher in
the region of optical sensitization than in the blue and violet. On
passing from the visible spectrum into the ultraviolet, contrast and
maximum density fall as the absorption of silver halide increases and
the image becomes more confined to the surface. Many emulsions have
*For other methods of expressing sensitivity in drawing the spectral sensitivity curve, see Mees,
The Theory of the Photographic Process, Chapter 21, page 851, ff.
6
a relatively uniform gradient from about 320 m, to about 250 mµ,
yond which contrast falls again because of increasing absorption by
gelatin.
Over the range from 240 to 440 mμ, the gradients of Kodak Spec-
trum Analysis Plates and Films No. 2 and Kodak Spectroscopic Plates,
Type 103-0, show less variation with wavelength than the gradients
of Kodak Spectrum Analysis Plates and Films No. 1.
The gradient wavelength curves shown in this book were obtained
from sensitometric exposures made in a large quartz spectrograph. The
source was a quartz mercury lamp which illuminated the spectrograph
slit through a high-speed sector wheel. This arrangement of a spectrum
sensitometer gives an intensity scale of 7 steps varying by consecutive
powers of 1.5. All materials were developed for three minutes in Kodak
Developer D-19 at 68 F. The density log exposure curves for several
wavelengths in the ultraviolet spectrum of the mercury arc were plotted
from microdensitometer readings. The curves shown in the Data Sheets
are plotted with gradient versus wavelength. The gradient at different
wavelengths is defined as the slope of a straight line drawn between two
points of the characteristic curve where density is 0.3 plus fog and 1.0.
plus fog. These curves should be regarded only as representative for the
type of emulsion from which they were determined; they are not suit-
able for quantitative use. Where photometric work is being done by
photographic methods, it is necessary to calibrate the response of the
photographic material under conditions which are precise duplicates
of those which are used in making the exposure.
RECIPROCITY EFFECT
IT MIGHT be inferred that the effect of exposure is independent of the
values of the intensity and of the time which determine the exposure.
For instance, it might be assumed that one hundred seconds' exposure
to one unit of intensity might give the same result as one second's expo-
sure to one hundred units of intensity. This, however, is not usually the
case. The effect is commonly referred to as the failure of the reciprocity
law, or reciprocity effect. In practice, allowance must be made for this,
and a proper technique should be followed.
The characteristic curve which is to be used in establishing the rela-
tionship between the intensity of the spectrum lines and the density of
their photographic images should be based on an exposure scale which
is variable in intensity and not time. The time itself should be the same for
all points on the curve and for all subsequent exposures of spectral lines
for which the curve is used as a calibration. Intensity scale exposures can
7
be produced in numerous ways. One method which has been used in
connection with spectrographic analysis involves the use of closely
grouped spectrum lines of known but different intensities. Another
utilizes the inverse square relationship between the distance of the light
source and the illumination on the exposure plane. A third method of
modifying intensity is by the use of calibrated filters. Another frequently
used method effectively produces intensity modulation by means of a
rapidly rotating stepped sector wheel at the slit of the spectrograph. It
must be used with care and due regard to considerations imposed by
limitations of the reciprocity law.
The spectral quality of the exposing radiation need not be considered,
because it has been shown that the reciprocity characteristic is nearly
independent of this factor when points of the same density and exposure
time are compared.
Intermittency Effect
ANOTHER aspect of the reciprocity effect is the intermittency effect,
originally discovered by Abney. A continuous exposure does not, in
general, produce the same density as another exposure in which the
same total energy is applied to the material in a number of separate
installments. Since intermittent exposures are often used in absorption
spectrophotometry, the intermittency effect is of considerable impor-
tance. Fortunately, however, it has been shown that a continuous and
an intermittent exposure of the same average intensity and the same
total exposure time become equal in their effects when the frequency of
interruption is above a certain critical level. This critical level of fre-
quency varies with the intensity, but a good practical rule to follow is
that the total exposure should be divided into at least 100 installments,
regardless of the over-all exposure time, in order that the intermittent
exposure should produce the same effect as a continuous exposure of
the same average intensity.
TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE CONTENT
THE MAGNITUDE of the response of a photographic material depends to
some extent on the temperature of the material and its moisture con-
tent at the time the exposure is made. It is reported that an increase
in temperature is accompanied by an increase in sensitivity. There are,
however, many exceptions. The extent is dependent on the intensity
level of the exposure. In general, there is less increase in effective sensi-
tivity when the temperature is above normal than there is decrease in
sensitivity when the temperature is decreased.
8
With increasing relative humidity, the moisture content of the
emulsion increases, and this effect may in certain emulsions cause a
loss in sensitivity.
It is not yet possible to formulate any general relations between
magnitude of response, temperature, and humidity for all photo-
graphic materials. It is possible to eliminate errors by exposing the
material to the unknown and to the calibrating exposures at identical
temperatures and relative humidities. If this condition cannot be
attained, steps should be taken to prove that differences in temperature
and moisture content on the two occasions are not sufficient to cause
significant errors.
For accurate and reliable work there is no substitute for controlled
temperatures and relative humidity in the spectroscopic laboratory
and standardized techniques in the handling and processing of the
photographic materials.
NONUNIFORMITY OF EFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY
THE MOST carefully made photographic materials may show measurable
differences in effective sensitivity from point to point even when the area
used is relatively small. This is not of importance in ordinary work, but
it is of great importance when these materials are used for precise
quantitative measurement, and may be of sufficient magnitude to
introduce serious errors. It is difficult to develop two separate samples
of photographic plate or film to exactly the same extent, and it is also
difficult to obtain uniform development over a large area. If the rate of
movement of the developer varies from one point to another on the
plate or film surface, the degree of development will vary correspond-
ingly, and nonuniformity will result in the photographs.
In order to minimize errors arising from nonuniformity of sensi-
tivity or of development, it is advisable to place the calibrating or
comparison exposure and the exposure to be measured on areas which
lie immediately adjacent to each other on the same sample of photo-
graphic material, and to use an efficient means of insuring good and
uniform agitation.
The relationship between an exposure and the resultant density
depends on a multitude of factors. It is possible, however, to plan a
technique of photographic radiometry so that practically all of these
disturbing variables can be eliminated or controlled. The trend in
spectrographic analysis is toward closer control of the photographic
materials and the handling procedures in order to obtain more con-
sistent and more accurate results.
9
RESOLVING POWER, SHARPNESS, AND GRANULARITY
IN ADDITION to their sensitometric characteristics, photographic ma-
terials differ in three physical properties that are important to the
scientific and technical user: namely, resolving power, sharpness, and
granularity.
The granularity of an emulsion, which in pictorial photography gives
rise to the sensation of graininess when a negative is excessively en-
larged, is manifested in spectroscopic and astronomical applications by
irregularities in a microphotometer trace. For this reason, it has been
suggested that granularity be estimated by comparing traces of regions
uniformly blackened to a density of 0.3. These are shown in the Data
Sheets, the slit of the microphotometer being 0.5 mm long and 5
microns wide, a customary setting in astronomical work. Granularity
can be reduced somewhat by using certain special developers, but the
energetic developers that are ordinarily required for the sake of a
reasonable contrast and exposure time are not in this class. For the
granularity and resolving power tests described herein, the Kodak
Developer D-19 was used.
The resolving power and sharpness of a photographic material are con-
ditioned primarily by two factors-the turbidity and the inherent
contrast of the emulsion.
The turbidity is dependent also upon two factors-the light-scatter-
ing power and the light absorption of the emulsion. The spread of an
image with an increase in exposure is a direct measure of turbidity. It
is well known that, if the image of a point or an extremely narrow line
upon a photographic plate is given an increasing series of exposures,
the diameter of the photographic image will not have its true geo-
metrical size, but will have a size represented very closely by the equa-
tion:
d=a+b log E
Here a and b are constants, the latter giving a measure of the tur-
bidity of the emulsion.
The inherent contrast of the emulsion depends upon such charac-
teristics as the range of grain sizes, and, like turbidity, is fixed by the
method of manufacture. It is true that the contrast of a particular
image can be altered by varying the development conditions, but this
has only a minor influence upon resolving power. The density of the
image is of great importance, however, since the resolving power rises.
to a maximum and then falls as the density increases from zero to a
high value. This effect is most marked with emulsions of high resolving
power. Indeed, such an emulsion frequently has its maximum at a
10
density above the range that is ordinarily used.
The contrast of the test object is also of signal importance: At low
test object contrasts, the rise of resolving power with contrast is rapid,
but the rate of increase soon diminishes and, above about 100:1, there
is little further change.
The quality of the light has some effect, although it is not pro-
nounced for ordinary heterogeneous radiation. This effect follows no
known law, although resolving power is usually higher at the short.
wavelength end of the visible spectrum and is always higher in the far
violet and ultraviolet. The spectral sensitivity of the emulsion has no
significant effect when ordinary heterogeneous sources are used, even
when the materials are as diverse as blue-sensitive and panchromatic.
In practice, resolving power is commonly measured by a series of
photographs of parallel line test objects, the numerical value of resolving
power being the number of equal-width, black and white lines per milli-
meter that are just resolvable visually under adequate magnification. The
table below gives typical values for the materials described in the data
sheets. These values apply to an optical image contrast of 20:1 in the
test object and to the density for which resolving power is the maximum,
the developer being Kodak Developer D-19. Since these values are
intended to be merely a guide to the selection of material, heterogeneous
radiation was used to determine them, and differences in spectral sensi-
tivity were not considered. The increase in these values over the ones
given in the early editions of this booklet arises largely from an im-
provement in the equipment used for measuring resolving power. It is
believed that the present values more nearly represent the ultimate that
can be obtained with a very highly corrected lens of ƒ/5 aperture.

Type 103
I
II
III
IV
V
RESOLVING POWER TO WHITE LIGHT
MATERIAL
Spectrum Analysis No. 1 Film
2
1 Plate
2
RESOLVING Power
(lines per millimeter)
60
60
75
95
120
160
155
55
130
55
It must be remembered that these values give no indication of the
narrowness of a single line that can be recorded. Given sufficient expo-
sure, an extremely narrow line can be recorded, but its photographic
width will have no relation to its geometric width.
11
Resolving power, measured as described above, was intended specif-
ically as a measure of the ability of a material to record fine detail, such
as images of double stars or fine parallel lines. While it has been gener-
ally assumed that resolving power values are a measure of the ability
of the material to produce sharp pictures, experience has shown that
resolving power does not correlate well with sharpness judgments and
in some cases may even be misleading. Sharpness refers to the ability of
the material to give a sharp line of demarcation between areas receiving
low and high exposures. It has been shown that sharpness is related to
the mean of the square of the density gradients, AD/▲x, across an
abrupt boundary between a light and dark area in the developed
image. This theory is described by G. C. Higgins and L. A. Jones in
their paper "Evaluation of Image Sharpness" J. Soc. Mot. Pict. and
Television Eng., 58:277-290, April, 1952.
Sharpness is an important property of the material when it is de-
sirable to find the edge of resolved detail, such as the determination of
stellar magnitudes by a measure of the diameter of star images. While,
in general, the sharpness of photographic plates is related to the resolv-
ing power values as given in Table II, there are notable exceptions to
this rule and, in all instances where sharpness is of importance, it should
be noted that the resolving power values may be misleading.
THE ADJACENCY EFFECTS
IN ADDITION to the effects that are characteristic of the photographic
material itself, other effects may arise during development. The ex-
haustion of the developer with use and the accumulation of reaction
Fig. 2: Microdensitometer tracing showing border and fringe effects at edge of a dark image.

DENSITY
2.0
1.0
1.0
DISTANCE ON IMAGE IN MILLIMETERS
0
12

DENSITY
1.0
0.0
1.0
IMAGE SIZE IN MILLIMETERS
Fig. 3: Microdensitometer tracings showing Eberhard effect on densities of narrow images.
2.0
products result in inhibiting the development process. Under certain
situations of image configuration and development conditions, small
localized changes in density occur that may jeopardize the accuracy
of the results.
At the boundary of a dark image with a light background, the reac-
tion products diffuse from the dark image into the region of light
density and restrain development in this region near the dark image.
Likewise, fresh developer from the light region diffuses into the dark
image and, after it has penetrated a short distance, loses its original
activity so that the image density is lower inside the image than at the
extreme edge, where the density is higher. The resulting density pat-
tern across such an image edge gives a curve similar to that in Figure 2.
The image density becomes stabilized about 0.3 mm inside the edge,
and images with a width greater than this consist of an area of uniform
density surrounded by a rim of higher density. The high-density rim ist
known as the "border effect," and the low-density halo outside a dense
image is called the "fringe effect." These effects have been known his-
torically as "Mackie lines.”
When two small areas of unequal size are given equal exposure and
development, the density of the smaller area will, in general, be higher
than that of the larger area, as a result of the border effect. This phe-
13

DENSITY AT
IMAGE CENTER
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
2
3
IMAGE WIDTH IN MILLIMETERS
4
Fig. 4: Relation between density and width of narrow images.
5
nomenon is known as the "Eberhard effect," and is shown graphically
in Figure 3 by microdensitometer traces across a series of slit images of
decreasing width, and in Figure 4 which shows density at the center of
the image as a function of image width. For this particular emulsion-
developer combination, the maximum density is reached for slit images
about 0.1 mm in width. Narrower images show a reduced density that
could be explained as a loss of exposure for very small images, caused
by the scattering of light away from the image with no compensating
scattering of light within the image, as is the case for large images.
When two small images, such as those formed by double stars or
double emission lines, lie close together, another form of developer
inhibition, known as the "Kostinsky effect," takes place. In the region
between the two images, the developer is exhausted and the reaction
products accumulate to a much greater extent than at other points
around the image. As a result, development is inhibited where the
images nearly touch, but proceeds normally elsewhere. The result of
this asymmetrical inhibition is a warped shape that gives incorrectly
large values for the separation of the two images.
It has been noted that during development certain developers,
notably pyro, have a tanning action on gelatin that causes a slight
shrinkage of images in drying. This is termed the "gelatin effect."
An exposure phenomenon called the "turbidity effect" also affects
two small, close-lying images. During exposure, the latent image
gradient surrounding an image may overlap that of a nearby image
and combine with it to yield a developable image. Thus, the two
images seem to be pulled towards each other, and measurements of
the distance between them will usually be smaller than the geometric
distance.
The above effects, plus several minor ones of specialized nature,
involve the interaction of adjacent photographic images and have
been collectively termed "adjacency effects."
14
It is not yet possible to predict which emulsions and developers will
give large adjacency effects, and individual tests using one's own proc-
essing technique are required to find which conditions give minimum
adjacency effects. Vigorous agitation will always reduce the magnitude
of the effects, but even continuous brush stroking will not eliminate the
effects encountered with some emulsion-developer combinations. Under
most conditions, the density changes will seldom exceed a few percent,
and the image movements or apparent movements will rarely exceed
10 microns.
PRECAUTIONS IN PHOTOGRAPHIC PHOTOMETRY
QUANTITATIVE spectrographic analysis is a form of photographic pho-
tometry, for it is concerned with the measurement of the intensity of
spectral lines on photographic plates and films. For precise work, there
are many precautions which must be observed, and most of them are
dependent on the various characteristics of materials which have been
described in this booklet. It is important at the outset to realize that
individual plates and films having the same name, of the same batch,
or even in the same box, may differ in their properties. This means that
for accurate quantitative analysis, each individual plate or film must
carry a standard calibrating exposure. For precise work it cannot be
assumed that the calibration of one plate or film of a batch will suffice
for the whole batch.
Ideally, the following precautions must be observed for the highest
precision: Both calibrating and unknown exposures should preferably
be nonintermittent. The exposures should be made simultaneously, or
as nearly at the same time as possible. The size of the calibrating area
should be the same as that of the area to be measured, in order to
minimize errors caused by the Eberhard Effect. Where densities are to
be matched, the corresponding exposure times should be equal in order
to avoid error due to failure of the reciprocity law. The spectral com-
position of the two exposures should be identical, i.e., the calibrating
curve should be made at a wavelength equal to or as near as possible to
that of the lines concerned. It is desirable to use areas on the plate or
film lying immediately adjacent to each other in order to minimize
errors arising from nonuniformity of response over the surface and non-
uniformity of development. Development should be as uniform as
possible over the surface of the material.
The spectrographer who is concerned with accurate analysis, and
who has not had much experience in photographic photometry, is
advised to read the article by L. A. Jones listed in the bibliography.
15
CHOICE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIAL
FOR PRELIMINARY surveys, a plate or film with low gamma and wide
latitude is desired. Referring to Figure 1, page 4, the lower the gamma
the greater the change in Log E for a small change in density, and
therefore the wider the range of intensities that can be recorded, but
the lower the precision of measurement. A plate and processing pro-
cedure giving high gamma and fine grain is desirable in making pho-
tometric measurements.
The plates and films on the following pages have been selected from
the available Kodak materials as the most suitable for spectrographic
analysis. They cover wavelengths from the ultraviolet to nearly 900 mµ
in the infrared.
Processing
THE MOST generally useful developer for plates and films for spectro-
graphic analysis is Kodak Developer D-19 which gives the best contrast
for a given effective speed. Recommended developing times and tem-
peratures are given in the Data Sheets. Kodak Developer D-19 is avail-
able in the convenient and economical prepared packages.
Some method of agitation must be followed which permits uniform
development and freedom from flow marks. Many types of automatic
processing machines are in use in spectrographic work. Some of these
produce excellent results, but it is recommended that periodic checks
be made to make sure that difficulties are not encountered. The best
method for processing plates to produce uniform results is to brush the
plate slowly during development with a soft brush of greater width
than the plate. Although this method is not practical for routine work,
it is recommended where highest precision is required.
After development, the plates or films should be immersed for at least
30 seconds in a stop bath, such as Kodak Stop Bath SB-5, before they
are placed in the fixing solution. They should be fixed about 3 to 5
minutes at 65 to 70 F (in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer with Hardener)
or 10 to 20 minutes in a suitable acid hardening fixing bath such as
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5.
Processing is completed by washing for 20 to 30 minutes in running
water and then drying in a dust-free place. Any tendency for the forma-
tion of drying marks can be minimized by treating the films or plates
in diluted Kodak Photo-Flo Solution after washing, or by wiping the
surfaces carefully with a damp Kodak Photo Chamois or soft viscose
sponge.
16
Processing Formulas
Kodak Developer D-19
Water, about 125 F (50 C)
Kodak Elon Developing Agent
Kodak Sodium Sulfite, desiccated
Kodak Hydroquinone
Kodak Sodium Carbonate,
monohydrated
Kodak Potassium Bromide
Cold water to make
Dissolve chemicals in the order given.
Water
*Kodak Acetic Acid, 28%
**Kodak Sodium Sulfate, desiccated
Water to make
Kodak Stop Bath SB-5
Avoirdupois
U. S. Liquid
16 ounces
30 grains
3 ounces
115 grains
1 oz. 380 grains
75 grains
32 ounces
Water, about 125 F (50 C)
Kodak Sodium Thiosulfate (Hypo)
Kodak Sodium Sulfite, desiccated
*Kodak Acetic Acid, 28%
**Kodak Boric Acid, crystals
Kodak Potassium Alum
Cold water to make
Avoirdupois
U. S. Liquid
16 ounces
1 ounce
1½ ounces
32 ounces
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5
Avoirdupois
U. S. Liquid
20 ounces
8
•
•
*To make approximately 28% acetic acid from glacial acetic acid, dilute three parts of glacial
acetic with eight parts of water.
Metric
**If crystalline Sodium Sulfate is preferred instead of the desiccated sulfate, use 3½ ounces per
32 ounces of solution (105 grams per liter) in the above formula.
500
2.0 grams
90.0 grams
8.0 grams
Immerse the developed film or plate at least 30 seconds with agitation at 68 F
(20 C).
ounces
CC
1/2 ounce
1½ ounces
1/4 ounce
1/2 ounce
32
ounces
52.5 grams
5.0 grams
1.0 liter
Metric
CC
500
32.0 cc
45.0 grams
1.0 liter
Metric
600 CC
240.0 grams
15.0 grams
48.0 cc
7.5 grams
15.0 grams
1.0 liter
*To make approximately 28% acetic from glacial acetic acid, dilute three parts of glacial acetic
with eight parts of water.
**Crystalline boric acid should be used as specified. Powdered boric acid dissolves only with great
difficulty, and its use should be avoided.
17
Precautions in Handling Photographic Plates and Films
THE PROPER handling of the photographic materials is an important.
factor in the successful use of photographic methods. Photographic
materials are perhaps one of the most sensitive products of modern
industry and are affected by many agents besides light. All materials are
very sensitive to pressure and abrasion. If emulsions are scratched or hit
by falling objects, or if films are bent sharply, a dark or light (desensi-
tized) mark will appear when the material is developed. Grease on the
surface, even the small amount left by a fingerprint, may prevent de-
velopment locally. When negative materials are being developed and
before they are dried, they are particularly soft, and the slightest scratch
usually goes through the emulsion.
One of the common causes of light fog is stray white light or improper
safelights in the darkroom. Fast panchromatic materials should be
handled and developed in total darkness or by the very faint green
light of a Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 3, with a lamp of low
wattage. Fast orthochromatic materials can be handled under a deep
red safelight, Wratten Series 2. Slow orthochromatic materials can be
developed under the lighter red Series 1, and slow blue-sensitive ma-
terials under the bright yellow-green Wratten Series OA. The safelight
recommendations are given in the Data Sheets.
A test can be made for the presence of stray light or other unsafe
lighting by placing the film or plate concerned face up on the bench and
covering part of it with black paper. The film or plate is left for a typical
working time, then developed. If the shadow of the black paper can be
seen, the lighting is not safe. The results of the test on one type of plate
will not of course apply to another with different sensitizing.
Another frequent cause of fog is the use of improper materials for
processing equipment. In particular, tin, copper, brass, and galvanized.
iron are to be avoided. Tanks, funnels, and other processing equipment
made from these metals can cause serious fog troubles. The recommend-
ed materials for processing tanks and developer storage are glass, hard
rubber, stainless steel, Inconel, porcelain, enameled steel, or glazed
earthenware.
Improper condition of chemical solutions is also a frequent source of
trouble. Contaminated or exhausted developer or hypo can produce
serious stains.
Clear spots and spots of increased density can be caused by air-borne
chemical dust, grease spots, or certain medicated ointments, especially
those containing mercury.
18
Storage of Photographic Materials
THE CHANGES Which may occur in photographic materials with age are
of a chemical nature and in general have high temperature coefficients.
Therefore, it is strongly recommended that materials intended for
scientific work be kept in a refrigerator at a temperature not above 40
to 50 F to reduce the magnitude of these changes. An electric refriger-
ator in which the atmosphere is dry is recommended. Some materials,
however, require even lower temperatures for safe storage.
Kodak SWR Plates and Films, and the infrared-sensitive materials,
must not be stored at room temperature. Deep freeze storage (0 to -10
F) is recommended strongly, particularly for long-term storage. If a
deep freeze unit is not available, refrigerator storage (40 to 50 F) can
be used for shorter periods of time. Also, the conditions encountered
during shipment can seriously affect the characteristics, and special
precautions are necessary to insure that they reach the user in good
condition. Where practical, the shipment should be made by air ex-
press to reduce as much as possible the time required in transit, and in
warm weather the materials should be packed in dry ice to keep the
temperature low.
To avoid condensation of moisture on the cold surfaces, packages
which have been removed from cold storage should be allowed to reach
approximate room temperature before they are opened for use. Pack-
ages of plates should be allowed at least four hours for warming up.
Certain gases and vapors, such as turpentine fumes, coal gas, and
hydrogen sulfide, formaldehyde, industrial gases, and exhaust from
motors, may produce fog. Exposure to x-rays and gamma rays will also
cause fog. Mercury vapor may fog or desensitize, although under cer-
tain conditions it often gives temporary hypersensitization.
Packages should not be opened until the materials are to be used.
Exposed films or plates must not be resealed unless they are first dried
out by means of a desiccating agent.
In general, the oldest materials, according to the expiration date on
each package, should be used first.
19
Data-ULTRAVIOLET-SENSITIVE PLATES AND FILMS
IN PHOTOGRAPHIC work in the far ultraviolet region of the spectrum, the increasing
absorption of gelatin and silver halide at wavelengths shorter than 250 mu restricts
the exposure more and more to the surface layer of the emulsion. At very short
wavelengths this reduces the photographic response to a useless value. This limita-
tion can be avoided either by coating the emulsion surface with a fluorescent ma-
terial to transform the ultraviolet radiation to longer wavelengths, which can pene-
trate the gelatin and expose the emulsion, or by making use of emulsions with ex-
tremely low gelatin content.

22
1904
20
28
Figure 5
As a result of an investigation in the Kodak Research Laboratories on the fluor-
escence of a large number of organic substances, a material has been found which
is particularly satisfactory for this application. When coated in a very thin layer on
the plate surface, it fluoresces strongly under ultraviolet radiation and gives very
good photographic images in the ultraviolet region.
Any of the Kodak Spectroscopic Plates can be obtained coated with this material.
Such plates are indicated by the term, "UV Sensitive," added after the usual
number and letter designation for the emulsion type and sensitizing class, e.g.,
Type 103-F, UV Sensitive. It should be noted that, while the Types V, 548, and 649
emulsions can be supplied with this sensitizing, they then show no gain in resolving
power over the much faster Type IV emulsion. (See page 36.)
It is essential to remove the fluorescent material, before development, by washing
the plate with either ethylene chloride or cyclohexane.
When a spectrograph with a long quartz optical path is used, it should be borne in
mind that much of the shorter ultraviolet light is absorbed in the system. The
diminished intensity of the light which falls on the photographic plate then produces
an image of decreased density. This effect is sometimes incorrectly thought to be
the result of lack of sensitivity of the photographic plate.
In making Figure 5, a Kodak Spectroscopic Plate, Type 103-0, U.V. Sensitive
was used. It was exposed to the iron arc in a series of increasing steps to give the
spectrograms second, fourth, sixth, etc., from the top. The ultraviolet sensitizer was
then washed off the plate with ethylene chloride, and a further series of equal ex-
posures made in the intermediate positions, giving the first, third, fifth, etc., spectra
from the top. Each pair of spectra thus represents equal exposures on a nonsensitized
and an ultraviolet sensitized plate.
General Properties: The ultraviolet sensitizing coated on these plates gives higher
sensitivity to the region of the spectrum below 250 mμ.
Spectroscopic 103-0 U.V. A high speed plate with fine granularity and medium
contrast.
Kodak Spectrum Analysis No. 1 U.V.: A plate for use especially in the metal-
lurgical industries, with contrast higher than the usual process plate, low back-
ground density, adequate sensitivity, and suitable for rapid processing.
Kodak Spectrum Analysis No. 2 U.V.: A plate with higher speed, lower con-
trast and coarser granularity than Spectrum Analysis No. 1 but with more uni-
form contrast.
Specific Application: Especially useful in the region of the spectrum below 250 mμ.
Recommended Development: The ultraviolet sensitizer must be removed before
development by washing the plate for one minute with agitation in either cyclo-
hexane or ethylene chloride.
Develop in Kodak Developer D-19, with continuous agitation at 68 F (20 C),
as follows:
Spectrum Analysis No. 1 UV Sensitive
Spectrum Analysis No. 2 UV Sensitive.
Spectroscopic, Type 103-0 UV Sensitive.
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix
in Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 68 F (20 C).
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 1 (red).
Sizes Available:
5 minutes
3 minutes
4 minutes
Spectrum Analysis No. 1 UV Sensitive).
Spectrum Analysis No. 2 UV Sensitive
Spectroscopic, Type 103-0 UV Sensitive-see page 29
2 x 10, 4 x 10, and 4 x 111½ inches
2
21
KODAK SWR PLATES AND FILM
(Short Wave Radiation)
VICTOR SCHUMann described in 1893 the preparation of plates with extremely low
gelatin content. Recently the Kodak Research Laboratories found methods of
manufacturing emulsions with a ratio of speed to graininess more favorable than
any previously achieved with the Schumann type of emulsion. These can be sup-
plied as Kodak SWR (Short Wave Radiation) Plates.
Lines down to 7.5 mµ have been recorded on Kodak SWR Plates and Film and it
is believed that there is good sensitivity at even shorter wavelengths.
A comparison of the characteristics of the Kodak SWR Film with those of the
Kodak Spectroscopic Plate, Type 103-0, UV-Sensitive, is shown in the charts. It is
seen that Kodak SWR emulsions offer marked advantages in speed and contrast in
the region below about 150 mu. Also, the grain size of these emulsions is smaller.
These emulsions have very low background density (about 0.1 or less) but, like
all emulsions of low gelatin content, are highly sensitive to abrasion. Since the gel-
atin content in these emulsions is very low, chemical contamination of the silver
halide grains is a greater hazard than with other photographic materials. Thus it is
essential that all SWR materials be stored at a low temperature (40 F) and that
processing solutions be completely free from contaminants. Particular care should
be taken to avoid traces of hypo in the developer solution.
Specific Application: Especially useful in the region of the spectrum below 250 mu.
Recommended Development: 4 minutes in Kodak Developer D-19 (1:1) at 68 F.
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse 2 or 3 minutes in running water. Fix for twice the time
to clear in Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 at 68 F.
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 1.
Sizes Available:
Kodak SWR Plates-114 x 10, 2 x 7, and 2 x 10 inches
Kodak SWR Film-35mm x 251½ feet, unperforated, darkroom loading
DENSITY
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
SWR FILM
D
0.2
103-0, U.V. PLATES
λ = 75.8 mμ
Development:
Kodak Developer D-19,
diluted 1:1
4 minutes, 68°F
2.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 10 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
LOG RELATIVE EXPOSURE
Density vs. Log Exposure at a single wave length.
22

AVERAGE GRADIENT
0.7
log relative exposure to produce densities 0.3 and 1.0/
RELATIVE SPEED
energy to produce given density on 103-0, U.V. Plates
energy to produce same density on SWR Film
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
50
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
50
DENSITY = 1.0
DENSITY = 0.3
100
103-0, U.V. Plates
SWR FILM
100
Development:
WAVE LENGTH (mμ)
Average Gradient vs. Wave Length
Kodak Developer D-19,
diluted 1:1
4 minutes, 68°F
103-0, U.V. PLATES

150
150
WAVE LENGTH (mµ)
Relative Speed vs. Wave Length
200

200
23
Data-VIOLET AND BLUE-SENSITIVE PLATES
General Properties
Spectroscopic 103-0: A high-speed plate with fine granularity and medium
contrast.
Kodak Spectrum Analysis No. 1: A plate for use especially in the metallurgical
industries, with contrast higher than the usual process plate, low background
density, adequate sensitivity, and suitable for rapid processing.
GAMMA
Kodak Spectrum Analysis No. 2: A plate with higher speed, lower contrast and
coarser granularity than Spectrum Analysis No. 1 but with more uniform contrast
from 240 to 440mμ.
Spectral Sensitivity: Spectrum Analysis No. 1-240 to 440 mu. Spectrum analysis
No. 2 and Type 103-0-240 to 500 mµ.
7.0
6.0
5.0
40
3.0
2.0
1.0
TIME-GAMMA CURVES
No 1 Plate
No 2 Plate
103-O Film
LOG SENSITIVITY
2 4 6
10
8
DEVELOPMENT TIME (minutes)
2.0
1.0
0.0
Io
12
2.0
Exposed to Tungsten Light
Developed in Kodak D.19 with
Continuous Agitation at 68F
200
103-O Plate
No 1 Plate
No 2 Plate
300
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

2.0
400
103-O Plate
500
WAVELENGTH
Sensitometric Curves: These data, applying to average product and average
processing, are presented to show the general speed and contrast relations. For
quantitative work the materials should be calibrated, observing the precautions
described on page 15.
4
600
min
T.0
LOG EXPOSURE
(mμ)
5 min
Nol Plate
700
3
No 2 Plate
0.0
GED
min
800
GED
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
DENSITY

24
Resolving Power: For an optical image contrast of 20:1 and the density for which
the resolving power is a maximum.

GRADIENT
103-0
Spectrum Analysis No. 1
Spectrum Analysis No. 2
Granularity: Microdensitometer tracings of region of density of 0.3.
corpionshipitypine
wwwww
103-0
3.6
Komandorum thainig frammans
Spectrum Analysis No. 1
Spectrum Analysis No. 2
Gradient Wavelength†: The curves shown here should be regarded only as repre-
sentative of the particular emulsion from which they were determined, and are not
suitable for quantitative use. The material should be calibrated under the actual
working conditions.
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
PLATES
.8
4
220
260
300
Spectrum Analysis
No. 1 Plate
340
380
WAVE LENGTH (mu)
Spectrum Analysis No. 1.
Spectrum Analysis No. 2.
Spectroscopic, Type 103-0.
RESOLVING POWER
4
60 lines/mm
130 lines/mm
55 lines/mm

Spectroscopic
103-O Plate
Spectrum Analysis
No. 2 Plate
Spectrum Analysis No. 1)
Spectrum Analysis No. 2)
Spectroscopic, Type 103-0-see page 29
†See page 6.
Recommended Development: Develop in Kodak Developer D-19, with contin-
uous agitation at 68 F (20 C), as follows:
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight:Kodak Safelight Filter. Wratten Series 1 (red).
Sizes Available:
420
DDE
460
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix in
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 65 to 70 F (18 to 21 C).
5 minutes
3 minutes
4 minutes
2 x 10, 4 x 10, and 4 x 1112 inches
25
Data-VIOLET AND BLUE-SENSITIVE FILMS
General Properties
Spectroscopic 103-0: A high speed film with fine granularity and medium
contrast.
Kodak Spectrum Analysis No. 1: A film for use especially in the metallurgical
industries, with contrast higher than the usual process film, low background
density, adequate sensitivity, and suitable for very rapid processing.
Kodak Spectrum Analysis No. 2: A film with higher speed, lower contrast and
coarser granularity than Spectrum Analysis No. 1 but with more uniform contrast
from 240 to 440 mμ.
Spectral Sensitivity: 240-500 mµ.
2.0

GAMMA
7.0
6.0
5.0
40
3.0
500
WAVELENGTH (mp)
Sensitometric Curves: These data, applying to average product and average
processing, are presented to show the general speed and contrast relations. For
quantitative work the materials should be calibrated, observing the precautions
described on page 15.
2.0
LOG SENSITIVITY
1.0
1.0
T.O
2.0
200
103-O Film
TIME-GAMMA CURVES
No 1 Film
No 2 Film
キ
​103-O Film
2 4 6 8 10 12
DEVELOPMENT TIME
300
No Film
(minutes)
400
Exposed to Tungsten Light
Developed in Kodak D-19 with
Continuous Agitation at 68F
No 2 Film
103-O Film
2.0
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
600
4 min
700
5 min
5
T.O
LOG EXPOSURE
min
GEO
0.0
800

No 2 Film
No 1 Film
GED
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
DENSITY
26
Resolving Power: For an optical image contrast of 20:1 and the density for which
the resolving power is a maximum.

103-0
103-0
Spectrum Analysis No. 1
Spectrum Analysis No. 2
60 lines/mm
155 lines/mm
55 lines/mm
Granularity: Microdensitometer tracings of region of density of 0.3.
Mayorlige
GRADIENT
3.6
Spectrum Analysis No. 2
Gradient Wavelength: The curves shown here should be regarded only as repre-
sentative of the particular emulsion from which they were determined, and are not
suitable for quantitative use. The material should be calibrated under the actual
working conditions.
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
.8
FILM
4
220
showjuny
Spectrum Analysis No. 1
260
Spectrum Analysis
No. 1 Film
300
RESOLVING Power

340
380
WAVE LENGTH (mμ)
Spectrum Analysis No. 1 Film.
Spectrum Analysis No. 2 Film.
Spectroscopic Film, Type 103-0.
Spectroscopic
103-O Film
Spectrum Analysis
No. 2 Film
420
DOE
460
Recommended Development: Develop in Kodak Developer D-19, with con-
tinuous agitation at 68 F (20 C), as follows:
5 minutes
5 minutes
4 minutes
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix in
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 65 to 70 F (18 to 21 C).
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 1 (red).
Sizes Available:
Spectrum Analysis No. 1 and No. 2-35mm x 100 feet, perforated, darkroom
loading or daylight loading.
Spectroscopic Film, Type 103-0, see page 31
†See page 6.
27
Data-GREEN AND RED-SENSITIVE PLATES
General Properties
Spectroscopic 103-F: A high-speed plate with fine granularity and medium
contrast.
Spectroscopic III-F: A slow plate with high contrast and fine granularity.
Spectral Sensitivity: 240-680 mµ.

GAMMA
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
LOG SENSITIVITY
1.0
2.0
1.0
Το
2.0
400
TIME-GAMMA CURVES
I-F Plate
Sensitometric Curves: These data, applying to average product and average
processing, are presented to show the general speed and contrast relations. For
quantitative work the materials should be calibrated, observing the precautions
described on page 15.
103-F Plate
2 4 6 8 10 12
450
DEVELOPMENT TIME
500
(minules)
I-F
550
WAVELENGTH
2.0
103-F
103-F
Exposed to Tungsten Light
Developed in Kodak D-19 with
Continuous Agitation at 6BF
600
(mµ)
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
103-F Plate
4 min
3
650
min
III-F Plate
T.O
LOG EXPOSURE
GEO
0.0
700

GEO
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
DENSITY
28
Resolving Power: For an optical image contrast of 20:1 and the density for which
the resolving power is a maximum.

PLATE
103-F
III-F
Granularity: Microdensitometer tracings of region of density of 0.3.
RESOLVING Power
60 lines/mm
95 lines/mm
103-F
III-F
Recommended Development: Develop in Kodak Developer D-19 with contin-
uous agitation at 68 F (20 C), as follows:
Type 103-F.
Type III-F..
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: 103-F-Total darkness required.
4 minutes
3 minutes
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix
in Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 65 to 70 F (18 to 21 C).
III-F-Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 3 (green)
Sizes Available:
Kodak Spectroscopic Plates, Types 103-F and III-F (also Type 103-O and Kodak
High Resolution Plate), 1 x 3, 2 x 10, 314 x 414, 4 x 5, 4 x 10, 5 x 7, 8 x 10
inches, and 9 x 12 cm.
29
Data-GREEN AND RED-SENSITIVE FILMS
General Properties
Spectroscopic 103-F: A high-speed film with fine granularity and medium
contrast.
Spectroscopic III-F: A slow film with high contrast and fine granularity.
Spectral Sensitivity: 240-680 mµ.

GAMMA
7.0
6.0
50
4.0
3.0
2.0
LOG SENSITIVITY
10
2.0
1.0
0.0
Το
2.0
400
TIME-GAMMA CURVES
Sensitometric Curves: These data, applying to average product and average
processing, are presented to show the general speed and contrast relations. For
quantitative work the materials should be calibrated, observing the precautions
described on page 15.
I-F Film.
450
103-F Film
500
2 4 6 8 10 12
(minutes)
DEVELOPMENT TIME
III-F
550
103-F
WAVELENGTH
103-F
20
600
(τιμ)
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
3
Exposed to Tungsten Light
Developed in Kodak D-19 with
Continuous Agitation at 68F
f
III-F Film
103-F Film
T.O
LOG EXPOSURE
min
650
min
GED
0.0
700

GED
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
DENSITY
30
Resolving Power: For an optical image contrast of 20:1 and the density for which
the resolving power is a maximum.

FILM
103-F
III-F
Granularity: Microdensitometer tracings of region of density of 0.3.
INVATAMANTAN
миым
III-F
Type 103-F
Type III-F.
RESOLVING Power
103-F
Recommended Development: Develop in Kodak Developer D-19, with contin-
uous agitation at 68 F (20 C), as follows:
+
60 lines/mm
95 lines/mm
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: 103-F-Total darkness required.
4 minutes
3 minutes
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix in
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 65 to 70 F (18 to 21 C).
III-F-Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 3 (green)
Sizes Available:
Kodak Spectroscopic Films, Types 103-O, 103-F, III-F, I-L, and IV-L
Rolls-16mm x 100 ft, camera spool, perforated, (minimum order 2 rolls)
35mm x 100 ft, darkroom loading, perforated
35mm x 100 ft, daylight loading, perforated
Sheets-Information as to available sizes and minimum ordering quantities will
be supplied on request.
31
Data-INFRARED-SENSITIVE PLATES
General Properties
Spectroscopic I-L: A high-speed plate with medium contrast and a reasonable
amount of granularity.
Spectroscopic IV-L: A slow plate with high contrast and fine granularity.
Spectral Sensitivity: 240-860 mµ.

GAMMA
70
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
LOG SENSITIVITY
1.0
2.0
1.0
IV-L
0.0
ΤΟ
2.0
400
Sensitometric Curves: These data, applying to average product and average
processing, are presented to show the general speed and contrast relations. For
quantitative work the materials should be calibrated, observing the precautions
described on page 15.
TIME-GAMMA CURVES
Plate
I-L Plate
500
2 4 6 8 10 12
DEVELOPMENT TIME
600
(minutes)
700
WAVELENGTH
I-L
I-L
2.0
Exposed to Tungsten Light
Developed in Kodak D-19 with
Continuous Agitation at 68F
4
V-L
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
I-L Plate
min
800
(mµ)
900
GED
IV.L
Plate
20
A
1.0
0.0
2 min
1000

1.0
LOG EXPOSURE
3.0
GEO
1.0
DENSITY
32
Resolving Power: For an optical image contrast of 20:1 and the density for which
the resolving power is a maximum.

PLATE
I-L
IV-L
60 lines/mm
120 lines/mm
Granularity: Microdensitometer tracings of region of density of 0.3.
germakham/mu
Her poetr
RESOLVING Power

I-L
IV-L
Recommended Development: Develop in Kodak Developer D-19, with contin-
uous agitation at 68 F (20 C), as follows:
Type I-L
Type IV-L.
4 minutes
2 minutes
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix in
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 65 to 70 F (18 to 21 C).
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: I-L-Total darkness required.
IV-L-Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 7
Sizes Available:
Kodak Spectroscopic Plates, Types I-L and IV-L, 2 x 10, 314 x 414, 4 x 5, 4 x 10,
5 x 7, 8 x 10 inches, and 9 x 12 cm.
33
Data-INFRARED-SENSITIVE FILMS
General Properties
Spectroscopic I-L: A high-speed film with medium contrast and a reasonable
amount of granularity.
Spectroscopic IV-L: A slow film with high contrast and fine granularity.
Spectral Sensitivity: 240-860 mµ.

GAMMA
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
LOG SENSITIVITY
1.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
I-L Film
T.O
2.0
400
Sensitometric Curves: These data, applying to average product and average
processing, are presented to show the general speed and contrast relations. For
quantitative work the materials should be calibrated, observing the precautions
described on page 15.
TIME-GAMMA CURVES
IV-L Film
2 4 6 8 10
DEVELOPMENT TIME
500
12
600
(minutes)
I-L
700
WAVELENGTH
I-L
2.0
IV.L
Exposed to Tungsten Light
Developed in Kodak D-19 with
Continuous Agitation at 68F
800
(τιμ)
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
900
I-L Film
4 min
2 min
GED
T.O
LOG EXPOSURE
1000

IV-L Film
0.0
GED
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
DENSITY
34
Resolving Power: For an optical image contrast of 20:1 and the density for which
the resolving power is a maximum.

FILM
I-L
IV-L
RESOLVING POWER
60 lines/mm
120 lines/mm
Granularity: Microdensitometer tracings of region of density of 0.3.
You are per
Type I-L.
Type IV-L.
www.ht/kv.m
I-L
IV-L
Recommended Development: Develop in Kodak Developer D-19, with contin-
uous agitation at 68 F (20 C), as follows:
4 minutes
2 minutes
Rinsing and Fixing: Rinse for at least 30 seconds in Kodak Stop Bath SB-5. Fix in
Kodak Fixing Bath F-5 10 to 20 minutes or in Kodak Rapid Liquid Fixer (with
Hardener) 3 to 5 minutes at 65 to 70 F (18 to 20 C).
Wash: Wash about 30 minutes in running water.
Safelight: I-L-Total darkness required.
IV-L Kodak Safelight Filter, Wratten Series 7.
Sizes Available: See page 31.
35
KODAK SPECTROSCOPIC PLATES AND FILMS
For use in scientific and technical research, the Eastman Kodak Company makes
available a wide range of combinations of emulsion types and sensitizing classes as
summarized below. * To avoid confusion, each of the various possible combinations
is identified by a combination of a number and a letter. The number indicates the
basic emulsion type and the properties related to it, such as relative sensitivity,
contrast, and graininess, while the letter indicates the spectral sensitization. For
example, the designation "Type I-G" indicates a Type I emulsion (high sensitivity,
high contrast, coarse grain) sensitized to the green.
Not all of the emulsion types can be supplied with all of the sensitizings. A sum-
mary of the combinations available is given in the table.
Emulsion types:
Five emulsion types were introduced in 1933 under the numbers I, II, III, IV, and
V. Since that date, Types 103, 103a, IIa, 548, and 649 have been added, and all the
original types except III have been modified to some extent. At present, their gen-
eral characteristics are as follows:
Type I (visual). An emulsion of high sensitivity and high contrast.
Type I (infrared). An emulsion of high sensitivity, high contrast, and slightly finer
granularity than Type I (visual).
Type 103. An emulsion with sensitivity approaching that of Type I emulsion, med-
ium contrast, and granularity similar to that of Type II emulsion.
Type 103a. An emulsion of slightly lower sensitivity than Type 103 to light of high
intensity, but considerably more sensitive to light of low intensity than Type 103.
Type 103a is recommended for exposure times longer than 2 to 5 minutes.
Type II. An emulsion of high sensitivity and high contrast, with finer granularity
than Type I (visual).
Type IIa. An emulsion having considerably higher sensitivity than Type II for
long exposures to light of low intensity. Granularity is similar to that of Type II
emulsion. Available only with the O and J sensitizings.
Type III. An emulsion of moderate sensitivity, high contrast, and low granularity.
Type IV. An emulsion of lower sensitivity than Type III, high contrast, and low
granularity.
Type V. An emulsion of lower sensitivity than Type IV, very high contrast, and
very low granularity.
Type 548. An emulsion for use where very high resolving power and extremely low
granularity are desired.
This plate is normally supplied in Types O, G, GH, C, and F sensitization. The
GH sensitization, which is now commercially available as the Kodak High Resolu-
tion Plate, is recommended for general use since it has higher gradient and lower
stain than the other sensitizations.
Type 649. An emulsion with a resolving power higher than any known lens system
can fully utilize. Available in Types O and GH sensitization. The Type GH is
preferable because of the very low sensitivity of the Type O.
*Complete information can be found in the booklet "Photographic Plates for Scientific and Tech-
nical Use" on sale through Kodak Industrial Dealers.
36
Sensitizing Classes: The spectral regions covered by the various sensitizing classes
are summarized in the following chart. The cross-hatched areas show the total
spectral region over which there is useful sensitivity, while the black areas show
the spectral region for which each class is especially valuable.

CLASS
SENSITIZING
NO
Z
Q
M
L
R
K
Z
U
F
E
C
D
T
G
H
GH
J
о
300
O
J
400
50 000 LIVES ON
500
600
103 a 103
103 a 103
WA
103a
103
103a 103
103a
103
103 a
103
103 a
103
103a
103
103a 103
103a
103
103
• •
Emulsion and Sensitizing Combinations Available:
Sensitizing Class
Emulsion Types
lla
lla
*Supplied as Kodak High Resolution Plate
UNI
lady
700
WAVELENGTH (mμ)
I
||
||
800
11
11
11
11
||
900
•
III
|||
|||
|||
• •
Spectral region
for which class is
especially valuable
Total sensitivity
1000
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
1100
V 548
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
•
1200
•
548
548
•
548
•
•
649
649
37
Instructions for Ordering Kodak Spectroscopic
and Kodak Spectrum Analysis Plates and Films
ORDERS for special plates and films for scientific work should be placed
through the nearest Kodak Industrial Dealer. The order should state
the quantity, size, and type of plates or films required, preferably in the
nomenclature used in this booklet, e.g., “6 dozen 4 x 10-inch Kodak
Spectroscopic Plates, Type III-F." If unusual circumstances should
require that orders be sent to Rochester, the orders should be marked
for the attention of the Industrial Photographic Sales Division. Delays
will be avoided by indicating the dealer through whom the plates or
films are to be shipped, since direct shipments are made only to Kodak
dealers.
When plates coated with the ultraviolet sensitizer are desired, the
type of plate should be specified, followed by "UV Sensitive," e.g.,
"Type I-F, UV Sensitive.”
Some emulsions can be treated specially for use in vacuum spectro-
graphs and are labelled "VS"; for example, "Type 548-O VS” would
signify such special treatment.
All types of plates can be made specially to withstand the high proc-
essing temperatures often encountered in tropical regions. Such plates
are labelled "Trop." For example, "Type I-O Trop."
Spectroscopic plates are normally supplied unbacked. However, with
the exception of the 103-O and 103-F plates, they can be supplied with
antihalation backing for a slight additional charge. Types 103-O and
103-F can be supplied backed on orders for a minimum of five cases.
38
Manufacturers of Spectrographic Equipment
INFORMATION Concerning spectrographs and spectrographic analysis can
usually be obtained from the manufacturers of the equipment such as:
BAIRD ASSOCIATES
33 University Road
Cambridge 38, Massachusetts
RAY CONTROL COMPANY
975 East Green Street
Pasadena 1, California
THE GAERTNER SCIENTIFIC
CORPORATION
1201 Wrightwood Avenue
Chicago, Illinois
BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL COMPANY
Rochester, New York
NATIONAL SPECTROGRAPHIC
LABORATORIES, INC.
6300 Euclid Avenue
Cleveland, Ohio
JARRELL-ASH COMPANY
26 Farwell St.
Newtonville 60, Massachusetts
(Also distributors for Adam Hilger, Ltd., Lon-
don, England)
CENTRAL SCIENTIFIC COMPANY
1700 Irving Park Road
Chicago 13, Illinois.
APPLIED RESEARCH LABORATORIES
4336 San Fernando Road
Glendale, California
LEEDS & NORTHRUP COMPANY
4907 Stenton Avenue
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
FRED C. HENSON CO.
3311 East Colorado Street
Pasadena, California
GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
Schenectady, New York
39
References
Eastman Kodak Company. Kodak Photographic Plates for Scientific and
Technical Use. 7th ed. Eastman Kodak Company, 1953.
Jones, L. A. Measurements of Radiant Energy with Photographic Materials.
Forsythe, W. E. Measurement of Radiant Energy. Chapter VIII, pp.
246-282. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1937.
Mees, C. E. Kenneth. The Theory of the Photographic Process. 2nd ed.
Macmillan, 1954.
James, T. H., and Higgins, G. C. Fundamentals of Photographic Theory.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1948.
Meggers, William F., and Scribner, Bourdon F. Index to the Literature
of Spectrochemical Analysis 1920-1939. 2nd ed. American Society for
Testing Materials, 1941.
Brode, Wallace B. Chemical Spectroscopy. 2nd ed. Wiley, 1943.
Harrison, Lord, and Loofbourow, Practical Spectroscopy. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., New York, 1948.
Sawyer, Ralph A. Experimental Spectroscopy. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1944.
Twyman, F. The Spectrochemical Analysis of Metals and Alloys. Chemical
Publishing Co., Inc., 1941.
Harrison, G. R. Wavelength Tables. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1939.
Barnes, R. B., and others. Infrared Spectroscopy-Industrial Applications
and Bibliography. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1944.
Pearse, R. W. B., and Gaydon, A. G. The Identification of Molecular
Spectra. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1941.
40
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3 9015 06565 5097
Kodak Handbooks and Photographic Notebook
THERE are six main reference books on Kodak products, processes, and tech-
niques: the Kodak Reference Handbook (in two volumes), the Kodak Color
Handbook, the Kodak Professional Handbook, the Kodak Graphic Arts
Handbook, and the Kodak Industrial Handbook. Each contains a wealth of
photographic information arranged for quick reference.
These handbooks can be supplemented by one or more Kodak Photographic
Notebooks, units designed for filing conveniently one's personal collection of
photographic notes and literature (see below). Collectively, the five handbooks
plus your notebooks form the basis for a reference library of elementary, ad-
vanced, or professional information suited to your needs.
The handbook-notebook format consists of a Mult-O Ring binder which
accommodates publications 534 by 8½ inches. All Kodak publications intended
for insertion in one of these binders are supplied already punched.
Each handbook and notebook contains a registration card. Those who fill out
and forward one of these cards are placed on a mailing list to receive periodic
notification of appropriate new or revised Kodak Data Books and other Kodak
publications. The handbooks can thus be kept up to date.
Kodak Reference Handbooks: Practical information on black-and-white photog-
raphy in Data Book form bound in a deluxe two-volume set. Volume 1 covers:
Flash Technique; Kodak Lenses, Shutters and Portra Lenses; Kodak Films;
and Filters. Volume 2 covers: Enlarging; Kodak Papers; Processing, Chemicals
and Formulas; and Copying.
Kodak Color Handbook: Devoted to color photography of professional caliber.
Consists of four Kodak Color Data Books which provide complete, authorita-
tive information on taking still pictures in color with Kodak materials. Four
unmarked separators allow for the inclusion of other booklets, pamphlets, or
notes. 248 pp. Over 100 full-color illustrations.
Kodak Professional Handbook: A manual of the professional's craft. Includes four
Kodak Professional Data Books. In addition, there are 20 selected sample prints
on Kodak papers, together with information on how the subjects wer hted.
ets,
I
imarked separators allow for the inclusion of other booklets, p.
cs. 272 pp. Illustrated.
C
Kodak Industrial Handbook: Designed to fill the urgent need for practical infor-
mat:
(.
about Kodak materials, processes, and techniques as tools in . 'ustry.
.. of four Kodak Industrial Data Books, plus four unmarked sepa Fors to
or the inclusion of other booklets. 216 pp.
¿
otnt
par
เ
Kudak Graphic Arts Handbook: Devoted exclusively to the photographic aspects
of t¹
aphic arts. This handbook, including three Kodak Graphic Arts Data
us four extra separators, was designed to furnish up-to-date in
raphic arts craftsman so that he might translate technical d
results. About 224 pp. Illustrated.
B
tion
to
nto
I
K
(

otographic Notebook: A Mult-O Ring binder to aid in keepin
otographic notes, Kodak equipment manuals, special Data B ·
pplementary literature. Each notebook contains a supply of 1
nd tabbed separator pages for index purposes.
der
ind
ok

• The Eastman Kodak Company manufactures a great variety of ma-
terials for applications of photography in science, business and industry.
KODAK PRODUCTS FOR SCIENTIFIC
AND TECHNICAL USES
Reproduction Materials-the Kodagraph family of sensitized
materials for the reproduction of all types of drawings, documents,
and records. - Autopositive, Contact, and Projection Papers, and
Autopositive Film.
Microfilming the Kodagraph Micro-File equipment-film units,
enlarger, and readers-for recording, enlarging, and reading
documents and records on either 16mm or 35mm Micro-File
Film.
On-the-Spot Copies-the Verifax printer, operating in full room
light, copies letters, charts, data-three copies from one matrix in
a minute cost less than four cents per copy.
Photorecording-the Linagraph family of special sensitized
papers and films for oscillograph and other trace recordings.
Spectrographic Analysis-special plates and films for industrial
qualitative and quantitative analysis made on all types of spec-
trographs.
Photomicrography-special films and plates designed to meet the
needs of industry for the photomicrographic investigation of the
structure of metals and other materials.
High-Speed Photography-the Kodak High Speed Camera-
used throughout industry for trouble shooting and design guid-
ance by slowing down mechanical motion or fluid flow for study.
Simple in operation, it makes up to 3200 pictures a second for
viewing with an ordinary 16mm projector.
Scientific and Technical Research-Kodak Spectroscopic Plates
and Films are available in a wide variety of emulsion types
and spectral sensitivities. They are used in astronomy, nuclear
physics, autoradiography, mass spectrometry, electron diffraction
and many other applications.
We invite inquiries about these products
INDUSTRIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC DIVISION
EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY
KODAK PUBLICATION NO. P-10
• ROCHESTER 4, N. Y.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
10-54T-CH